Physics

General information:
*Force = Mass X Acceleration

*Weight = Mass X Gravity

*Density =

Mass Volume

*Using a small measuring cylinder is more accurate than using a big one because of its calibrations.

Refraction and Refractive index:

*What is refraction? It is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another. 1). When a ray of light passes from a lighter medium to an optically denser medium it bends towards the normal. i r Air Glass

2). When a light ray passes from a denser medium into an optically lighter medium (or rare medium) it will bend away from the normal. i r Glass Air

*Effects of refraction: 1). The thickness of a block of glass (or the depth of the a lake) appears to be less than its thickness (or depth).

2). A stick placed in water appears to be bent upwards. *Refraction is due to the slowing down of the light rays. *Speed of light in air and vacuum is 3X10 m/s (or 300 000
8

km/s). *Speed of light in glass is 2X10 m/s (or 200 000 km/s).
8

*Refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in air (or vacuum) to the speed of light in medium. n= speed of light in air (or vacuum) speed of light in medium Or It can also be found by the formula: n= sin i (always has to be in air) sin r (always has to be in medium) *n has no unit. It is only a number. *the refractive index depends on two things: 1). The density of the materiel. 2). The color of the light. *Refractive index of glass is 1.5 (or 1.52).
(Snells law)

*Angle of incidence: this is the angle between the incident ray and the normal. *Angle of refraction: this is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal. *Apparatus used to find the refractive index: 1). Glass block 2). Optical pins 3). A4 size paper. 4). Thermo cal 5). Protractor. *Finding the refractive index of a glass: a) Draw the outline of the block on a sheet of paper under it. b) Shine a ray of light at an angle on the glass block and mark the positions of the of the rays in air and glass. c) Remove the block and draw the normals at the points where the ray enters the block and where it leaves the block. d) Determine the angles of i and r and also determine the two angles for the emergent rays. Notice that the two angles in air are equal and the two in glass are also equal. e) The refractive index of glass n = sin i/sin r.

*Precautions when finding the refractive index: 1). Place the pins about 5 to 6 cm apart. 2). Look at the pins from the bottom as the top may be tilted. 3). Put the pin in a position where it can be seen as one image with the other pins. *in refraction angle i should not be the same as angle r should not be the same because if they are there will be no refraction. *Finding the refractive index of light when passing through a semi-circular block: a) Draw the outline of the block on a sheet of paper under it and determine the center (o) of the circle. b) Shine a ray of light at an angle on to the block and mark the position of the incident ray and refracted as it emerges from the block. (Notice that the refracted ray emerges from

the block in the same direction because it makes 90 degrees with the normal to the circular surface).
c) Remove the block and draw the normal line at (o) and determine the angle of i and r. d) Determine the refractive index of the glass where n = sin i/sin r.

Reflection:
*What is reflection? Reflection is the bouncing of light waves. Reflection

Regular reflection which happens on smooth surfaces.

Irregular reflection which happens on rough surfaces.

Smooth surface *Laws of reflection:

Rough surface

1). Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane. 2). Angle of reflection (r) = angle of incidence (i). *Properties of images formed on a flat mirror: 1). Virtual 2). Upright

3). Laterally inverted. 4). Same size 5). Distance of the object from the mirror is equal to the distance of the image from the mirror.

2 cm

2 cm (Objects image)

(Object) (Mirror)

Total internal reflection:

*Critical angle of glass is 42 degrees. *Critical angle of diamonds is 24 degrees. 1). When light passes at small angles of i from a denser medium to a lighter medium there is a strong refracted ray and a weak reflected ray. 2). When angle of i increases angle r also increases. At a certain angle called the critical angle (c) the angle of refraction is 90 degrees. 3). When the angle of i is increased further than (c) all the i rays is reflected back into the denser medium. This is known as total internal reflection. *What is the critical angle?

The critical angle (c) is the angle of i in the denser medium which has an angle of refraction equal to 90 degrees. In this case n is calculated by the equation n = 1/sin c.

Waves:
Waves

Transverse waves. E.g. light waves, water waves, radio waves, micro waves, infrared waves, ultra-violet waves, X-rays and gamma rays.

Longitudinal waves. E.g. Sound waves.

Longitudinal wave: the direction of disturbance is parallel to the direction of wave travel. Transverse wave: the direction of disturbance (or oscillation) is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel. Light waves: 1). It is a form of energy. 2). It travels in a straight line.

3). It travels at a speed of 300 000km/s in air and vacuum. 4). It undergoes refraction and reflection. 5). It is a transverse wave. 6). It travels faster than sound. Objects based on light

Luminous objects which are objects that produce light of their own. E.g.: sun

Non-luminous objects which are objects that cannot produce light of their own. E.g.: moon

Amplitude

Crest

Rest Portion

Trough Transverse wave.

*Wave length: it is the distance between one point on a wave and a similar point on the successive.

*Crest: the high part of a transverse wave is called the crest. *Trough: the low part of a transverse wave is called the trough. *Amplitude: it is the height of the crest or the depth of the trough from the rest portion. *Frequency: it is the number of waves generated per second. Its unit is Hz. *Period (T): the time for one wave to pass. Its unit is seconds. The relation between period (T) and frequency (F) is T = 1 Or F =
Frequency Hz

1 T

V=F
Speed m/s

Wave length m

*Wave velocity: it is the product of frequency X wave length *The wave action is to transfer energy from one place to another. *When the wave travels in a medium, the particles of the medium vibrate, but they do not travel with the wave.

*The frequency of the wave equals frequency of the vibrating source producing it but the velocity of the wave depends on the medium in which it is travelling. *For a given medium the velocity of the wave is constant that is when F increase lambda decrease and vice versa. Representing waves: *A wave travelling in a certain direction can be represented either by: 1). Rays which are straight lines representing the direction in which the wave propagates (travel).

2). Wave fronts which are parallel lines perpendicular to the rays. The distance between two successive wave fronts is equal to the wavelength.

Rays

 Wave motion in water: The vibrations of water particles in a ripple tank represent a wave motion. The motion is produced as a succession of crest and trough. The frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the vibrator producing the wave.

Crest Ripple Tank Water

Direction of wave travel

Trough

*Refraction of water waves: When water waves travel into a shallower region they are refracted (bent) and they are slowed down (velocity

decreases) and the wave length decreases but the frequency stays the same.

Sound wave: *Properties of sound waves: 1). Reflection: When the progressive wave hits an obstacle (object) or a wall it will be reflected. *Wave length, frequency, and velocity are all the same after reflection but the direction of the wave changes. *Sound waves are reflected by flat walls and cliffs and they obey the laws of reflection. Soft materials like fume or sponge are bad reflectors of sound because they absorb it. *Echo: when the sound hits a wall and is reflected back and it can be heard after a short period of the original sound. In order to hear an echo the distance between the source producing the sound and the reflecting wall has to be greater than 17 meters (or a separation of at least 0.1 second). 2). Refraction:

When the wave travels into a different medium having a different density we notice that: a) b) c) d) Direction changes. Its speed changes. Its wave length changes. The frequency does not change because it depends on the source producing the waves. Wave going into a denser medium. Bending Velocity Frequency Towards the normal. Decreases. Wave going into a lighter medium. Away from the normal. Increases. Increases. Stays the same.

Wave length Decreases.

*Sound id produced by vibrations of objects, like the vibrations of a tuning fork. *Sound waves travel in the form of longitudinal wave. The wave consists of a series of compression c and rarefactions r.

*Compression is a reagent where the molecules of the medium are very close to each other and the pressure is higher than the normal. *Rarefaction is a reagent where the molecules of the medium are further away from each other and the pressure is lower than the normal. *Pitch of a note indicates the sharpness of sound and depends on the frequency of the sound wave. *A high frequency note has a high pitch and a low frequency note has a low pitch. *If a wave has high amplitude it is a loud note and if it has low amplitude it is said to quiet. *The velocity of sound depends on the medium in which it is passing. The speed of sound in air (0 C) is equal to 330 m/s. *In air the speed of sound increases as the temperature rises and the pressure does not affect it. * Speed of sound in water is equal to 1400 m/s. The speed of sound in solids varies between 4000 m/s 6000 m/s. *Sound is fastest in solids and has least speed in gases. *Determination of speed of sound in air: 1). The direct method: a) Two students one with a gun and the other with a stop watch stand 1 km apart as a distance d.
O

b) When one of them fires the gun, the other records the time t between seeing the flash and hearing the sound. c) Calculate the speed s using the equation s = d/t. *In this experiment the distance has to great so that recording the time is easy and accurate. Besides one should repeat the experiment several times to ensure the accuracy. 2). Echo method: a) Stand far away from a wall and clap a wooden block at a rate that each clap coincidence with an echo of the before. b) By counting and timing about 30 echoes the time taken for one echo is calculated. c) Measure the distance from your position to the wall and calculate the speed by using the equation v = 2d/t *Light can travel through vacuum but sound cant. *Sound cannot travel in vacuum. Sound needs a medium whether it is a gas, solid, or liquid to travel through it.

To battery

Electric Bell

To vacuum pump

Bell Jar Experiment

*When the air is pumped out of a glass jar containing an electric ringing bell the sound disappears gradually though the bell can be still ringing. Diffraction: It is the spreading of wave around the corners or when it passes through a narrow opening (about the same as

lambda). The emergent waves is circular in shape and spreads in all directions

If the opening is wide (much greater than lambda) the wave passes as parallel straight lines with a slight bending round the edges.

*In diffraction there is no change in velocity, wave length, or frequency. The only change that occurs is in the shape of the wave.

Optical fibers:
*They are light pipes made from thin glass of plastic threads. When light strikes the side of the tube it is totally internally reflected (because its i angle is usually greater than the critical angle of the material) several times until it emerges from the end. they are use in telephone communication lines and medical scoops.

Electromagnetic waves:
Radio waves Micro waves Infrared waves Visible light Ultra violet waves X-rays Gama rays
Micro is part of radio Lambda decreases

The only ones you can feel

*High frequency waves are very harmful. *Electromagnetic spectrum: It is made of a large family of electromagnetic waves which has some common properties: 1). They have transverse waves which transfers energy from one place to another. 2). They are combination of electric and magnetic fields. 3). They all travel with the speed of light in vacuum (300 000 km/s). 4). They all obey the equation v = f X wave length *types of electromagnetic waves: 1). Gamma rays: They are produced by radioactive isotopes. They can be detected by G.M counter or by photographic films.

2). X-rays: They are produced by X-ray tubes. They can penetrate (pass through) solid and affect a film. They are used I hospitals to photograph bones. They are detected by photographic films. 3). Ultra violet rays: They can be detected by a film or by a phlorsen paper. They can cause sun-tan. 4). Infrared rays: It is characterized by its heating effect. It is used in TV remote control and security cameras. 5). Radio waves: They are used to carry sound, audio, and video signals. *A continuous spectrum contains different colors where the wave length is continuously increasing and the frequency is continuously decreasing. A monochromatic light contains one color with a definite frequency and wave length.

Desperation of light:
*Newton discorved the colors of the light spectrum by allowing sunlight (white) to fall on a triangle glass prism. The band of colors obtained is a spectrum and the affect is called desperation.

1). Desperation of light is the sepration of white light into its compnent colors by using a preism (ROYGBIV). 2). Despertion occurs because each color has different speed (n is also different) 3). White light spectrum has the following colors (ROYGBIV) 4). Red light has the smallest refraction. Violet has the greatset refraction. 5). Red light has the smallest frequency and longest wave length. Violet light has the highest frequency and the shortest wave length. Frequency is inversnley proptional to wave length. 6). All colors travle with the same speed of light in vacuum but they have different speed in meduim. 7). There are two extra invisible rays which are detected by the effect on the photographic plates. They are infrared rays which are detected by their heating effect. Ultra violet waves which can darken photographic films.

Refraction by a prism:
*In a triangle glass preism refraction occurs at the 2 surfaces of the preism. The emergent ray is bend towards the base and the image I is displaced towards the apex of the presim.

*The devation of the ray at the first surface is added to the deveation at the second surface and gives the angle of devation. *Totally reflecting preism: 45 degrees right angled glass prism is used to reflect the light and can replace mirrors.