Zome System

Zome system in rational trigonometry and rational projective
trigonometry
M M Almanjumi
School of Maths UNSW
Sydney 2052 Australia
Abstract
The work is devoted to the study of The Zome System in rational trigonometry and projective rational trigonom-
etry. By using The Zome System no more the fteen triangles and nineteen tetrahedrons have been found. Major
results also include six new theorems which have been developed using rational trigonometry.
1 Introduction
Geometry continues to fascinate us over time with the patterns of sizes, angles and shapes using the universal
language of mathematics to reveal those patterns. The Zome system is an exceptional ball-and-strut system,
designed for children but also appeals to professionals in both eld of science and art. The system consists of
geometric holes in sphere-shaped connectors and each ball is linked to another by means of sticks with dierent
shapes and colours to make the construction simple.
A new theory of trigonometry, called rational trigonometry, was developed in 2005 by N. J. wildberger (UNSW)
in Divine Proportions: Rational Trigonometry to Universal Geometry, Wild Egg Books, Sydney, 2005. Rational
trigonometry is a new framework that replaces distance and angle with quadratic concepts called quadrance and
spread. The projective plane inherits a rich metrical structure which extends to higher dimensions and arbitrary
elds, a fact which has major implications for algebraic geometry, and possibly also for dierential geometry.
Thales theorem and Pythagoras theorem are particularly important here with the wide variety of classical spherical
formulas being replaced by simpler, polynomial relations.
In this project we are going to rstly look at the background of the Zome system. Secondly we will then give basic
denitions and facts of rational trigonometry covering four theorems proposed by N. J. Wildberger. We used these
to establish 6 new theorems. This is done by constructing fteen possible triangles using the Zome system derived
from a regular pentagon. Finally we give main denitions and laws of projective trigonometry covering twelve
theorems given by N. J. Wildberger. We then construct nineteen possible tetrahedrons using the fteen triangles
that we found by using the Zome system. After determining the projective quadrances for each tetrahedron, we
then used the Projective Cross Law Theorem in order to determine the projective spreads for each tetrahedron.
2 The Zome System
In structural design or construction, a Zome is a large family of geometric shapes that can be built and gives
self-supporting volumes without the need for internal support and in which one can live and enjoy all the space,
cosmetics lines, the roundness of the dome, polygonal and no right angles. The structure is like a skeleton, and the
organization of the balanced facets is of an amazing strength. As it is easy to construct, one can direct what he
wants: from the niche of a dog, a bird aviary, a workshop, shelter with tools or materials, greenhouse as extra room
and of course as a full habitat for the largest.
The mathematics set of the Zome system is a plastic construction composed of balls and sticks called respectively
nodes and struts. When assembled together they form an amazing mathematically and creatively fascinating
structures.
The Zome tool struts colours are usually red, yellow, blue, and green. They have respectively pentagon, tri-
angular, rectangle and rhombus end shapes. They come in small, medium and large sizes. However, we will not
use the green ones in this project. Green struts are those generally necessary for building regular tetrahedrons,
octahedrons and are a little harder to work with.
1
Figure 1: White node and struts
ht t p : / / w w w . g e o r g e h a r t . c o m / v i r t u a l - p o l y h e d r a / z o m e t o o l . ht m l
2.1 Possible constructions
Below are some possible constructions that be made from using the Zome system.
2.1.1 Tetrahedron
This has four faces, four vertexes and six edges.
Figure 2: Tetrahedron
2
2.1.2 Cube
This has six faces, eight vertexes and twelve edges.
Figure 3: Cube ht t p : / / w w w . g e o r g e h a r t . c o m / v i r t u a l -
p o l y h e d r a / z o m e t o o l . ht m l
2.1.3 Octahedron
This has eight faces, six vertexes and twelve edges.
Figure 4: Terahedron and Octahedron
3
2.1.4 Dodecahedron
This has twelve faces, twenty vertexes and thirty edges.
Figure 5: Dodecahedron
ht t p : / / w w w . g e o r g e h a r t . c o m / v i r t u a l -
p o l y h e d r a / z o m e t o o l . ht m l
2.1.5 Building Icosahedron
This has twenty faces, twelve vertexes and thirty edges.
This can be done by rst connecting twelve red (pentagon) struts to a white node and connecting twelve white
nodes to each of the ends of those struts. This gives the foundation for the main structure, where each of twelve
external white nodes are connected to the neighboring ve white nodes using blue (rectangle) struts. After removing
the internal white node and connected twelve struts it gives the Icosahedron.
Figure 6: Icosahedron
4
3 Rational trigonometry
It is a new framework for planar trigonometry and been proposed [N J Wildberger]). Rational trigonometry replaces
distance and angle with quadratic concepts called quadrance and spread. The usual laws are replaced by purely
algebraic analogs, with the consequence that they hold in much wider generality, allow more accurate calculations,
and are much easier to learn. The usual menagerie of transcendental circular functions and their inverses play no
role.
3.1 Basic denitions and facts of rational trigonometry
Denition 1 The quadrance Q(
1
,
2
) between the points
1
[r
1
, j
1
] and
2
[r
2
, j
2
] is the number
Q(
1
,
2
) (r
2
r
1
)
2
+ (j
2
j
1
)
2
.
Denition 2 The spread : (|
1
, |
2
) ,which is a number between 0 and 1, is the notion of angle between to lines |
1
and |
2
Theorem 3 The Triple quad formula suppose that
1
,
2
and
3
are points with Q
1
Q(
1
,
2
) , Q
2

Q(
1
,
3
) and Q
3
Q(
2
,
3
) . Then
(Q
1
+Q
2
+Q
3
)
2
= 2
_
Q
2
1
+Q
2
2
+Q
2
3
_
.
precisely when
1
,
2
and
3
are collinear.
Theorem 4 Pythagoras theorem
One of the fundamental theorems, in rational trigonometry becomes more general, extending to an arbitrary
eld, not of characteristic two.
(Pythagoras theorem) Suppose that the triangle
1
3
has qudrances Q
1
Q(
2
,
3
) , Q
2
Q(
1
,
3
) and
Q
3
Q(
1
,
2
) . Then
Q
1
+Q
2
= Q
3
precisely when
1
3
and
2
3
are perpendicular.
Theorem 5 The spread law
Suppose three points
1
,
2
and
3
form non-zero quadrances Q
1
Q(
2
,
3
) , Q
2
Q(
1
,
2
) and Q
3

Q(
1
,
3
) . Dene the spreads :
1
: (
1
2
,
1
3
) , :
2
: (
2
1
,
2
3
) and :
3
: (
3
1
,
3
2
) . Then
:
1
Q
1
=
:
2
Q
2
=
:
3
Q
3
.
Theorem 6 The cross law
Suppose three points
1
,
2
and
3
form quadrances Q
1
Q(
2
,
3
) , Q
2
Q(
1
,
3
) and Q
3
Q(
1
,
2
) ,
and dene the cross c
3
c (
3
1
,
3
2
) . Then
(Q
1
+Q
2
Q
3
)
2
= 4Q
1
Q
2
c
3
.
5
3.2 Triangles, consisting of zome system
Using the zome system we can construct many triangle, each formed by 3 3 = 9 dierent sticks: 3 blue called
1
1
, 1
2
, 1
3
( respectively small, medium and large), also 3 red called 1
1
, 1
2
, 1
3
( respectively small, medium and
large), also 3 yellow called 1
1
, 1
2
, 1
3
( respectively small, medium and large).
Figure 7: Struts
These can be used to create triangles, and we are going to study some of these triangles to determine the
quadrances of each of the sticks above, and also the spreads formed by any two sticks intersecting from a vertex (
white ball ).
Consider rst the following pentagon.
6
Figure 8: Pentagon
We will draw a line from to C which will be 1
2
.
We have a triangle 1C and we are going to study this triangle as a rst triangle.
3.2.1 The First Triangle:
Figure 10: The rst triangle
7
As you can see this triangle 1C, we take this triangle from the pentagon above.
So, we have in this triangle
:
1
= :
3
= c =
5
p
5
8
:
2
= , =
5 +
p
5
8
We assume that
Q(, 1) = Q(1, C) = 1
1
= 1
Now, we want to nd 1
2
, we can apply the spread law to nd 1
2
, the spread law is
:
1
Q
1
=
:
2
Q
2
=
:
3
Q
3
By substituting the values that we have in the spread law
:
1
1
1
=
:
2
1
2
=
:
3
1
1
Hence,
c
1
=
,
1
2
Now, we have that
1
2
=
,
c
=
5+
p
5
8
5
p
5
8
=
1
2
p
5 +
3
2
= t
we can also infer that
1
3
= t
2
3.2.2 The Second Triangle:
We can construct the second triangle from three sticks of 1
1
, and we are also going to study this triangle.
Figure 11: The second triangle
8
we know in this triangle the three quadrances
Q(, 1) = Q(, C) = Q(1, C) = 1
1
= 1.
So, we can use the cross law to nd one of the three spreads.
The cross law is
(Q
1
+Q
2
Q
3
)
2
= 4Q
1
Q
2
(1 :
3
)
By substituting the values in the cross law
(1
1
+1
1
1
1
)
2
= 41
1
1
1
(1 :
3
)
Hence,
(1 + 1 1)
2
= 4 (1) (1) (1 :
3
)
We will have that
:
3
=
3
4
Because the triangle is equilateral.
Hence,
:
2
= :
1
= :
3
=
3
4
3.2.3 The third triangle:
we can construct the third triangle from two sticks of 1
2
and one stick of 1
1
.
Figure 12: The third triangle
We know in this triangle that
9
Q(, 1) = 1
1
= 1
Q(, C) = Q(1, C) = 1
2
= t =
1
2
p
5 +
3
2
We know the three quadrances. So, we can use the cross law to nd one of the three spreads.
(Q
1
+Q
2
Q
3
)
2
= 4Q
1
Q
2
(1 :
3
)
(1
1
+1
2
1
2
)
2
= 41
1
1
2
(1 :
3
)
Hence,
(1 +t t)
2
= 4 (1) (t) (1 :
3
)
We have that
:
3
=
1
4t
(4t 1)
Thus,
:
3
=
1
4
_
3+
p
5
2
_
_
4
_
3 +
p
5
2
_
1
_
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Because the triangle is isosceles
Hence,
:
3
=
5 +
p
5
8
= , = :
1
Now, we can apply the spread law to nd :
3
.
:
3
1
s
=
:
1
1
m
Hence,
:
3
1
=
,
t
=
5+
p
5
8
3+
p
5
2
=
5
p
5
8
= c
3.2.4 The fourth triangle:
We can construct the fourth triangle from two sticks of 1
1
and one stick of 1
1
.
Figure 13: The fourth triangle
10
we have that
Q(, C) = Q(1, C) = 1
1
= , =
5 +
p
5
8
Q(, 1) = 1
1
= 1
(Q
1
+Q
2
+Q
3
)
2
= 4Q
1
Q
2
(1 :
3
)
(1
s
+1
s
1
s
)
2
= 41
s
1
s
(1 :
3
)
Hence,
(, +, 1)
2
= 4 (,) (,) (1 :
3
)
We have that
:
3
=
1
4,
2
(4, 1) =
1
4
_
5+
p
5
8
_
2
_
4
_
5 +
p
5
8
_
1
_
=
4
5
1
.
:
1
1
s
=
:
3
1
s
By substituting the values.
:
1
,
=
4
5
1
Thus,
:
1
=
4
5
,
Because the triangle is isosceles.
Hence,
:
1
= :
2
=
4
5
,
3.2.5 The fth triangle:
We can construct the fth triangle from one stick of 1
1
, one stick of 1
2
and one stick of 1
1
.
Figure 14: The fth triangle
11
we have that
1
1
= 1, 1
2
= ,t
:
3
=
4c
5
In this case we have two quadrances and one spread, so, by using the cross law we will nd the third quadrance
which is 1
1
.
(1
1
+1
2
1
1
)
2
= 41
1
1
2
(1 :
3
)
Hence
(1 +,t 1
1
)
2
= 4,t
_
t
t + 1
_
We have that
(1 +,t)
2
+1
2
1
2 (1 +,t) 1
1
= t
2
Now, we have a quadratic equation.
1
2
1
2 (1 +,t) 1
1
+ (1 +,t)
2
t
2
= 0
By solving the quadratic equation, we have that
1
1
=
3
4
From this result we infer that
1
2
=
3
4
t
1
3
=
3
4
t
2
1
.
:
1
1
1
=
:
3
1
1
By substituting the values.
:
1
1
=
4
5
3
4
Hence,
:
1
=
16
15
c
We can also apply the spread law to nd :
2
.
:
2
1
2
=
:
3
1
1
By substituting the value.
12
:
2
,t
=
4
5
3
4
Hence,
:
2
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
=
t
3
3.2.6 The sixth triangle:
We can construct the sixth triangle from one stick of 1
1
, one stick of 1
2
and one stick of 1
2
.
Figure 15: The sixth triangle
we know in this triangle (by comparing this triangle with the previous triangles which we previously solved
them)
Q(, C) = 1
2
=
3
4
t, Q(1, C) = 1
2
= ,t, Q(, 1) = 1
1
= ,
:
2
=
4
5
1
.
:
1
1
2
=
:
2
1
2
=
:
3
1
1
By substituting the values in the spread law.
:
1
1
m
=
:
2
1
m
Hence,
:
1
,t
=
4
5
3
4
t
13
We have that
:
1
=
16,
15
3
.
:
3
1
s
=
:
2
1
m
By substituting the values in the spread law.
:
3
,
=
4
5
3
4
t
Hence,
:
3
=
16,
15t
=
16
_
5+
p
5
8
_
15
_
3+
p
5
2
_ =
2
3

2
15
p
5 =
16c
15
3.2.7 The seventh triangle:
we can construct the seventh triangle from one sticks of medium blue (1
2
), one stick of medium red (1
2
) and one
stick of small yellow (1
1
).
Figure 16: The seventh triangle
In this triangle we know the spreads :
2
and the three quadrances 1
2
, 1
2
and 1
1
by comparing this triangle with
the previous triangles.
Q(1, C) = 1
2
= ,t, Q(, C) = 1
2
= t, Q(, 1) = 1
1
=
3
4
:
2
=
16,
15
14
Now, we want to nd :
2
by applying the spread law we will have:
:
1
1
2
=
:
2
1
2
Hence,
:
1
,t
=
16
15
t
we have that
:
1
=
16,
2
15
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
, t =
3 +
p
5
2
Thus,
:
1
=
16
_
5+
p
5
8
_
2
15
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
=
3 +
p
5
6
=
t
3
3
.
:
3
1
s
=
:
2
1
m
Hence,
:
3
3
4
=
16
15
t
We have that
:
3
=
48
60
t
=
4
5
,
t
Notice that
,
t
= c
Thus,
:
3
=
4
5
c
3.2.8 The eighth triangle:
We can construct the eighth triangle from two sticks of 1
2
and one stick of 1
1
.
15
Figure 17: The eighth triangle
In this triangle we have the two spreads (:
1
, :
2
) and the three quadrances by comparing this triangle with the
previous triangle.
Q(, C) = Q(1, C) = 1
2
=
3
4
t, Q(, 1) = 1
1
= 1
:
1
=
16,
2
15
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
=
t
3
= :
2
Now, by using the spread law, we can nd :
3
:
3
1
1
=
:
1
1
2
Hence,
:
3
=
16
2
15
3
4
t
We have that
:
3
=
64,
2
45t
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
, t =
3 +
p
5
2
we can substitute for , and t.
Thus,
:
3
=
64
_
5+
p
5
8
_
2
45
_
3+
p
5
2
_ =
4
9
16
3.2.9 The ninth triangle:
We can construct the ninth triangle from two stick of 1
1
and one stick of 1
1
.
Figure 18: The ninth triangle
Q(, C) = Q(1, C) = 1
1
=
3
4
, Q(, 1) = 1
1
= 1
(1
1
+1
1
+1
1
)
2
= 41
1
1
1
(1 :
1
)
Hence,
_
1 +
3
4

3
4
_
2
= 4 (1)
_
3
4
_
(1 :
1
)
We have that
:
1
=
2
3
Because the triangle is isosceles.
Thus,
:
1
= :
2
=
2
3
Now, we can use the spread law to nd :
3
:
3
1
1
=
:
2
1
1
Hence,
:
3
1
=
2
3
3
4
We have that,
:
3
=
8
9
17
3.2.10 The tenth triangle:
Figure 19: The tenth triangle
We know in this triangle the following,
Q(, 1) = 1
2
=
3
4
t, Q(1, C) = 1
1
=
3
4
, Q(, C) = 1
1
= , =
5 +
p
5
8
:
1
=
4
3t + 3
=
16c
15
:
2
=
64,
2
45t
=
4
9
In this case we know two spreads and the the three quadrances. So, we can use the spread law to nd the third
spread :
3
.
:
3
1
2
=
:
1
1
1
Thus,
:
3
3
4
t
=
4
3+3
3
4
We have that,
:
3
=
4t
3t + 3
we can substitute for
t =
3 +
p
5
2
.
Hence,
:
3
=
4
_
3+
p
5
2
_
3
_
3+
p
5
2
_
+ 3
=
2
15
p
5 +
2
3
=
16
_
5+
p
5
8
_
15
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
18
Thus,
:
3
=
16,
15
3.2.11 The eleventh triangle:
Figure 20: The eleventh triangle
Q(, C) = Q(1, C) = 1
1
=
3
4
Q(, 1) = 1
2
= t =
3 +
p
5
2
For this triangle we know the three quadrances. So, we can use the cross law to nd :
1
.
_
1
2
+
3
4

3
4
_
2
= 41
2
1
1
(1 :
1
)
Thus,
_
t +
3
4

3
4
_
2
= 4 (t)
_
3
4
_
(1 :
1
)
We have that
:
1
=
3 t
3
=
3
_
3+
p
5
2
_
3
=
3
p
5
2
3
We will call
3
p
5
2
= t
Thus,
:
1
=
t
3
Because the triangle is isosceles
Hence,
:
1
= :
2
=
t
3
Now we know the three quadrances and two spreads. So, We can use the spread law to nd the third spread :
3
.
:
3
1
m
=
:
1
1
s
19
Hence,
:
3
t
=
3
3
3
4
Notice that
t =
3 +
p
5
2
Thus,
:
3
=
4
9
.
3.2.12 The twelfth triangle:
Figure 21: The twelfth triangle
We know in this triangle the following
1
1
= ,
1
2
= t
:
1
= :
2
=
1
t + 1
=
4c
5
We know three quadrances and two spreads in this case we can apply the spread law to nd the third spread :
3
.
:
3
1
2
=
:
1
1
1
Hence,
:
3
t
=
4
5
,
We have that
:
3
=
4
5
,
=
4
5
c
,
t
Notice that
t
,
=
1
c
Thus,
:
3
=
4
5
20
3.2.13 The thirteenth triangle:
We can construct the thirteenth triangle from one stick of 1
3
, one stick of 1
1
and one stick of 1
3
.
Figure 22: The thirteenth triangle
when we compare this triangle with the previous triangles we would have the all three spreads which appear in
the previous triangles and the three quadrances as well.
Q(, C) = 1
3
=
3
4
t
2
Q(./) = 1
3
= t
2
Q(1, C) = 1
1
= ,
:
1
=
3 t
3
=
3
_
3+
p
5
2
_
3
=
1
2

1
6
p
5 =
t
3
:
2
=
4
5
,
:
3
=
16,
15
3.2.14 The fourteenth triangle:
We can construct the fourteenth triangle from one stick of 1
2
, one stick of 1
1
and one stick of 1
3
.
Figure 23: The fourteenth triangle
21
We know in this triangle the following:
Q(, C) = 1
2
= t
Q(./) = 1
3
=
3
4
t
2
Q(1, C) = 1
1
= ,
:
1
=
3 t
3
=
3
_
3+
p
5
2
_
3
=
1
2

1
6
p
5 =
t
3
:
2
=
4
3t + 3
=
4
3
_
3+
p
5
2
_
+ 3
=
2
3

2
15
p
5 =
16
_
5
p
5
8
_
15
=
16c
15
Now, we know three quadrances and two spreads. So, we can use the spread law to nd the third spread :
3
.
:
3
1
b
=
:
1
1
s
Hence,
:
3
3
4
t
2
=
1
2

1
6
p
5
,
we have that
:
3
=
1
8,
_
p
5t
2
3t
2
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
, t =
3 +
p
5
2
Thus,
:
3
=
1
8
_
5+
p
5
8
_
_
_
p
5
_
3 +
p
5
2
_
2
3
_
3 +
p
5
2
_
2
_
_
=
1
10
p
5 +
1
2
=
4
_
5+
p
5
8
_
5
We have that
:
3
=
4,
5
3.2.15 The fteenth triangle:
We can construct the fteenth triangle from one stick of 1
1
, two stick of 1
1
and one stick of 1
2
.
22
Figure 24: The fteenth triangle
when we compare this triangle with the previous triangles we would have the all three quadrances which appear
in the previous triangles and the three spreads as well instead of :
2
which is equal to 1.
The three quadrances are:
Q(, 1) = 1
2
= t
Q(.C) = ,
2
Q(1, C) = 1
1
= 1
The three spreads are:
:
1
=
4c
5
:
2
= 1
:
3
=
4
5
,
3.3 Some theorems that we can get from the triangles above.
Theorem 7 The possible spreads between two blue sticks is
,, c, 1 and
3
4
.
Theorem 8 The possible spreads between two red sticks is
4
5
.
Theorem 9 The possible spreads between two yellow sticks is
4
9
and
8
9
.
23
Theorem 10 The possible spreads between blue stick and red stick is
4,
5
and
4c
5
.
Theorem 11 The possible spreads between blue stick and yellow stick is
t
3
,
t
3
and
2
3
.
Theorem 12 The possible spreads between red stick and yellow stick is
16c
15
and
16,
15
.
In brief, this a catalog of ZOME triangles which is made by using ZOME system.
24
Figure 25: A catalog of ZOME triangles
So far we have found no more than fteen triangles by using The Zome System.
25
4 Rational projective trigonometry
As rotation of earth aects our view of sky and the objects in it. Though the longitudinal angle becomes an
important and unavoidable concept but for many spherical geometrical applications, there is no uniform motion
around a xed axis that plays such a distinguished role. For this kind of stationary spherical geometry there is a
rational version of the classical theory which again is simpler, more elegant and accurate. This theory is developed
in the more natural setting of projective trigonometry. The projective plane inherits a rich metrical structure which
extends to higher dimensions and arbitrary elds.
The sphere has equation r
2
+j
2
+.
2
= 1 and center O = [0, 0, 0] . Any two non-antipodal points and 1 lying
on it determine a unique spherical line, or great circle arc, which is the intersection of the sphere with the plane
O1. Any two such spherical lines intersect at a pair of antipodal points.
In nineteen century, an alternative of nding the antipodal points on the sphere is consider the associated line
through the origin O passing through the antipodal points. Such a line will be called a projective point. Similarly
a plane through O will be called a projective line.
Figure below shows a spherical triangle formed by three spherical points , 1 and C and three great circle arcs,
and on the right the corresponding projective triangle, consisting of three projective points a, / and c, and the three
projective lines that they form.
Figure 25: Spherical and projective triangle ht t p : / / w i l d e g g . c o m / p a p e r s / P r o j e c t i ve Tr i g . p d f
26
4.1 Main denitions and laws of Projective trigonometry
Denition 13 A projective triangle a
1
a
2
a
3
is a set of three non-collinear projective points.
Figure 27: Three views of a projective triangle http://wildegg.com/papers/ProjectiveTrig.pdf
Denition 14 The projective quadrance (a
1
, a
2
) between two projective points a
1
and a
2
is dened to be the
spread between them.
Denition 15 The projective spread o(1
1
, 1
2
) between two projective lines 1
1
and 1
2
is dened to be the spread
between them.
4.1.1 Theorem 1 (projective Thales theorem)
suppose 1
1
and 1
2
are distance projective lines intersection at the projective point a and with a projective spread
of o. Choose a projective point / 6= a on one of the lines, say 1
1
, and let c be the projective point which is the foot
of the (or a) perpendicular projective line from / to 1
2
as in gure . If q(/, c) = and (a, /) = r then
o =

r
27
Figure 28: Projective Thales theoremspherical and projective views ht t p : / / w i l d e g g . c o m / p a p e r s / P r o j e c t i ve Tr i g . p d f
4.1.2 Theorem 2 (Projective triple quad formula)
If the three projective points a
1
, a
2
and a
3
are collinear, then
(
1
+
2
+
3
)
2
= 2
_
2
1
+
2
2
+
2
3
_
+ 4
1
3
.
4.1.3 Theorem 3 (Dual projective triple quad formula)
If the three projective lines 1
1
, 1
2
and 1
3
are concurrent, then
(o
1
+o
2
+o
3
)
2
= 2
_
o
2
1
+o
2
2
+o
2
3
_
+ 4o
1
o
2
o
3
.
4.1.4 Theorem 4 (Projective Pythagoras theorem)
Suppose that a
1
a
2
a
3
is a projective triangle with projective quadrances
1
,
2
and
3
, and projective spreads o
1
, o
2
and o
3
. If o
3
= 1 then
3
=
1
+
2
2
.
28
4.1.5 Theorem 4 (Dual projective Pythagoras theorem)
Suppose that a
1
a
2
a
3
1
,
2
and
3
1
, o
2
and o
3
. If
3
= 1 then
o
3
= o
1
+o
2
o
1
o
2
.
Figure 29: Pythagoras theoremspherical view
ht t p : / / w i l d e g g . c o m / p a p e r s / P r o j e c t i ve Tr i g . p d f
4.1.6 Theorem 6 (Projective spread law)
Suppose that a
1
a
2
a
3
1
,
2
and
3
1
, o
3
and o
3
.Then
o
1
1
=
o
2
2
=
o
3
3
.
4.1.7 Theorem 7 (Projective cross law)
Suppose that a
1
a
2
a
3
1
,
2
and
3
1
, o
2
and o
3
. Then
(o
3
3
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
1
) (1
2
) (1
3
) .
4.1.8 Theorem 8 (Dual projective cross law)
Suppose that a
1
a
2
a
3
1
,
2
and
3
1
, o
2
and o
3
. Then
(o
1
o
2
3
o
1
o
2
o
3
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1 o
1
) (1 o
2
) (1 o
3
) .
4.1.9 Theorem 9
The projective quadrea = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) of the projective points a
1
= [r
1
: j
1
: .
1
] , a
2
= [r
2
: j
2
: .
2
] and a
3
=
[r
3
: j
3
: .
3
] i
=
(r
1
j
2
.
3
r
1
j
3
.
2
r
2
j
1
.
3
+r
2
.
1
j
3
+j
1
r
3
.
2
r
3
j
2
.
1
)
2
(r
2
1
+j
2
1
+.
2
1
) (r
2
2
+j
2
2
+.
2
2
) (r
2
3
+j
2
3
+.
2
3
)
29
4.1.10 Theorem 10 (Right projective triangle)
Suppose a right projective triangle has projective quadrances
1
,
2
and
3
1
, o
2
and o
3
= 1.
Then any two of the ve quantities f
1
,
2
,
3
, o
1
, o
2
g determine the other three, solely through the three basic
equation
3
=
1
+
2
2
o
1
=

1
2
o
2
=

2
3
Figure 30: Right projective triangle
4.1.11 Theorem 11 (Projective isosceles triangle)
Suppose a projective isosceles triangle has projective quadrances
1
=
2
= and
3
, and projective spreads
o
1
= o
2
= o and o
3
.Then
3
=
4 (1 o) (1 )
(1 o
q
)
2
and o
3
=
4o (1 o) (1 )
(1 o
q
)
2
30
Figure 31: Projective isosceles triangle
4.1.12 Theorem 12 (Equilateral projective triangles)
Suppose that a projective triangle is equilateral with common projective quadrance
1
=
2
=
3
= , and with
common projective spread o
1
= o
2
= o
3
= o. Then
(1 o
q
)
2
= 4 (1 o) (1 ) .
4.2 Tetrahedrons, consisting of ZOME triangles.
Using ZOME triangles we can construct many tetrahedrons based on the triangles that we have previously studied
in subsection 3.2. This is made possible to achieve by projecting a line from each angle (ball) of the triangles
previously built to a single point connected by another ball forming a tetrahedron and we are going to study some
of these tetrahedrons to determine the projective spread and the projective quadrnace.
In the following subsection 4 random tetrahedrons have been studied to determine the projective spread and
the projective quadrance.
31
4.2.1 The rst tetrahedron
Figure 32: The rst tetrahedron
Figure 33: The rst tetrahedron
32
Figure 34: The rst tetrahedron consisting of four zome triangles
4.2.2 The main results of the rst tetrahedron.
Projective spreads o
1
=
5
6
o
2
=
5
6
o
3
=
5
6
o
4
=
15
16
o
5
=
15
16
o
6
=
15
16
Vertex Projective quadrances
1

11
=
8
9
,
12
=
8
9
and
13
=
8
9
2

21
=
2
3
,
22
=
2
3
and
23
=
3
4
3

31
=
3
4
,
32
=
2
3
and
33
=
2
3
4

41
=
2
3
,
42
=
2
3
and
43
=
3
4
There are 4 vertexes and each vertex has a projective triangle.
33
a) Projective triangle at vertex
1
.
Figure 35: Projective triangle at vertex
1
Now, we know
11
,
12
and
13
.
11
=
12
=
13
=
8
9
.
So, we can use the projective cross law to nd the three face spreads (Projective spreads).
Firstly, we want to compute the projective spread o
4
by using the projective cross law.
This will lead to
(o
4
12
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
Therefore, susbtituting the values in the law we get:
_
o
4
8
9

8
9

8
9

8
9

8
9
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
8
9
__
1
8
9
__
1
8
9
_
4
6561
(32o
4
27)
2
=
4
729
The solution is:
o
4
=
15
16
or
3
4
Secondly, we want to compute the projective spread o
5
This will lead to
(o
5
11
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
5
8
9

8
9

8
9

8
9

8
9
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
8
9
__
1
8
9
__
1
8
9
_
4
6561
(32o
5
27)
2
=
4
729
34
The solution is:
o
5
=
15
16
or
3
4
Thirdly, we want to compute the projective spread o
6
This will lead to
(o
6
11
12
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
6
8
9

8
9

8
9

8
9

8
9
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
8
9
__
1
8
9
__
1
8
9
_
4
6561
(32o
6
27)
2
=
4
729
The solution is:
o
6
=
15
16
or
3
4
b) Projective triangle at vertex
2
.
2
Now, we know
21
,
22
and
23
.
21
=
2
3
22
=
2
3
23
=
3
4
So, we can use the projective cross law to nd the three face spreads (Projective spreads)
35
5
This will lead to
(o
5
21
22
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
5
2
3

2
3

2
3

2
3

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
__
1
3
4
_
1
1296
(16o
5
3)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
5
=
15
16
or
9
16
) o
5
=
15
16
3
This will lead to
(o
3
21
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
3
2
3

3
4

2
3

2
3

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
__
1
3
4
_
1
144
(6o
3
1)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
3
=
5
6
or
1
2
1
This will lead to
(o
1
22
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
1
2
3

3
4

2
3

2
3

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
__
1
3
4
_
1
144
(6o
1
1)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
1
=
5
6
or
1
2
36
c) Projective triangle at vertex
3
.
3
Now, we know
31
,
32
and
33
.
31
=
3
4
32
=
2
3
33
=
2
3
6
This will lead to
(o
6
32
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
6
2
3

2
3

3
4

2
3

2
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
_
1
1296
(16o
6
3)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
6
=
15
16
or
9
16
) o
6
=
15
16
3
37
This will lead to
(o
3
31
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
3
3
4

2
3

3
4

2
3

2
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
_
1
144
(6o
3
1)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
3
=
5
6
or
1
2
) o
3
=
5
6
Thirdly, the projective spread o
2
This will lead to
(o
2
31
32
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
2
3
4

2
3

3
4

2
3

2
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
_
1
144
(6o
2
1)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
2
=
5
6
or
1
2
d) Projective triangle at vertex
4
.
4
38
Now, we know
41
,
42
and
43
.
41
=
2
3
42
=
2
3
43
=
3
4
4
This will lead to
(o
4
41
42
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
4
2
3

2
3

2
3

2
3

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
__
1
3
4
_
1
1296
(16o
4
3)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
4
=
15
16
or
9
16
) o
4
=
15
16
1
This will lead to
(o
1
41
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
1
2
3

3
4

2
3

2
3

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
__
1
3
4
_
1
144
(6o
1
1)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
1
=
5
6
or
1
2
) o
1
=
5
6
2
This will lead to
39
(o
2
42
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
2
2
3

3
4

2
3

2
3

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
2
3
__
1
2
3
__
1
3
4
_
1
144
(6o
2
1)
2
=
1
9
The solution is:
o
2
=
5
6
or
1
2
) o
2
=
5
6
4.2.3 The second tetrahedron
Figure 39: The second tetrahedron
40
Figure 40: The second tetrahedron
41
Figure 41: The second tetrahedron consisting of four zome triangle
4.2.4 The main results of the second tetrahedron.
1
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
o
2
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
o
3
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
o
4
= , o
5
= , o
6
= ,
1

11
=
4
5
,
12
=
4
5
and
13
=
4
5
2

21
=
4
5
,
22
=
4
5
and
23
=
3
4
3

31
=
3
4
,
32
=
4
5
and
33
=
4
5
4

41
=
4
5
,
42
=
4
5
and
43
=
3
4
42
1
.
1
Now, we know
11
,
12
and
13
.
11
=
12
=
13
=
4
5
.
4
This will lead to
(o
4
12
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
4
4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
_
4
625
(8o
4
5)
2
=
4
125
The solution is:
o
4
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= , or
5
8

1
8
p
5 = c
5
This will lead to
(o
5
11
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
5
4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
_
4
625
(8o
5
5)
2
=
4
125
43
The solution is:
o
5
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= , or
5
8

1
8
p
5 = c
6
This will lead to
(o
6
11
12
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
6
4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
_
4
625
(8o
6
5)
2
=
4
125
The solution is:
o
6
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= , or
5
8

1
8
p
5 = c
2
.
2
Now, we know
21
,
22
and
23
.
21
=
4,
5
22
=
4,
5
23
=
3
4
44
5
This will lead to
(o
5
21
22
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
5
4,
5

4,
5

4,
5

4,
5

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
__
1
3
4
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
10
o
5
+
1
10
p
5o
5
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
5
=
33
8
p
5
75
8
or
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= ,
) o
5
= ,
3
This will lead to
(o
3
21
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
3
4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
__
1
3
4
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
8
o
3
+
3
40
p
5o
3
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
3
=
3
2
p
5
7
2
or
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
1
This will lead to
(o
1
22
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
1
4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5

3
4
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
__
1
3
4
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
45
Hence,
_
3
8
o
1
+
3
40
p
5o
1
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
1
=
3
2
p
5
7
2
or
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
3
.
3
Now, we know
31
,
32
and
33
.
31
=
3
4
32
=
4,
5
33
=
4,
5
6
This will lead to
(o
6
32
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
6
4,
5

4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
_
46
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
10
o
6
+
1
10
p
5o
6
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
6
=
33
8
p
5
75
8
or
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= ,
) o
6
= ,
3
This will lead to
(o
3
31
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
3
3
4

4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
8
o
3
+
3
40
p
5o
3
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
3
=
3
2
p
5
7
2
or
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
) o
3
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
2
This will lead to
(o
2
31
32
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
2
3
4

4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
8
o
2
+
3
40
p
5o
2
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
2
=
3
2
p
5
7
2
or
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
47
4
.
Figure 45: Projective triangle at vetrex
4
Now, we know
41
,
42
and
43
.
41
=
4,
5
42
=
4,
5
43
=
3
4
4
This will lead to
(o
4
41
42
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
4
3
4

4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
10
o
4
+
1
10
p
5o
4
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
4
=
33
8
p
5
75
8
or
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= ,
) o
4
= ,
48
1
This will lead to
(o
1
41
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
1
3
4

4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
8
o
1
+
3
40
p
5o
1
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
1
=
3
2
p
5
7
2
or
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
) o
1
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
2
This will lead to
(o
2
42
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
2
3
4

4,
5

3
4

4,
5

4,
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
3
4
__
1
4,
5
__
1
4,
5
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
3
8
o
2
+
3
40
p
5o
2
1
5
p
5 +
1
4
_
2
=
3
10

1
10
p
5
The solution is:
o
2
=
3
2
p
5
7
2
or
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
) o
2
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
49
4.2.5 The third tetrahedron
Figure 46: The third tetrahedron
Figure 47: The third tetrahedron
50
Figure 48: The third tetrahedron consisting of four zome triangles
4.2.6 The main results of the second tetrahedron.
1
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
o
2
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
o
3
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
o
4
= , o
5
= , o
6
= ,
1

11
=
16
15
,
12
=
8
9
and
13
=
16
15
2

21
=
4
5
,
22
=
4
5
and
23
= c
3

31
= ,,
32
=
2
3
and
33
=

3
4

41
=

3
,
42
=
2
3
and
43
= ,
51
1
.
1
Now, we know
11
,
12
and
13
.
11
=
16,
15
12
=
8
9
13
=
16,
15
4
This will lead to
(o
4
12
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
4
8
9

16,
15

16,
15

8
9

16,
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
16,
15
__
1
8
9
__
1
16,
15
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
16
27
o
4
+
16
135
p
5o
4
4
15
p
5
2
9
_
2
=
4
45

16
405
p
5
The solution is:
o
4
=
3
4
p
5
3
4
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
52
5
This will lead to
(o
5
11
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
5
16,
15

16,
15

16,
15

8
9

16,
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
16,
15
__
1
8
9
__
1
16,
15
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
8
15
o
5
+
8
45
p
5o
5
4
15
p
5
2
9
_
2
=
4
45

16
405
p
5
The solution is:
o
5
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= , or
3
2
p
5
5
2
6
This will lead to
(o
6
11
12
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
6
16,
15

8
9

16,
15

8
9

16,
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
16,
15
__
1
8
9
__
1
16,
15
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
16
27
o
6
+
16
135
p
5o
6
4
15
p
5
2
9
_
2
=
4
45

16
405
p
5
The solution is:
o
6
=
3
4
p
5
3
4
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
2
.
53
2
Now, we know
21
,
22
and
23
.
21
=
4c
5
22
=
4c
5
23
= c
5
This will lead to
(o
5
21
22
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
5
4c
5

4c
5

4c
5

4c
5
c + 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4c
5
__
1
4c
5
_
(1 c)
Notice that
c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
_
3
10
o
5
1
10
p
5o
5
+
13
40
p
5 +
3
8
_
2
=
3
10
p
5 +
7
10
The solution is:
o
5
=
55
8
p
5
115
8
or
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= ,
) o
5
= ,
3
54
This will lead to
(o
3
21
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
3
4c
5
c
4c
5

4c
5
c + 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4c
5
__
1
4c
5
_
(1 c)
Notice that
c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
_
3
8
o
3
1
8
p
5o
3
+
13
40
p
5 +
3
8
_
2
=
3
10
p
5 +
7
10
The solution is:
o
3
=
11
2
p
5
23
2
or
1
10
p
5 +
1
2
1
This will lead to
(o
1
22
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
1
4c
5
c
4c
5

4c
5
c + 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4c
5
__
1
4c
5
_
(1 c)
Notice that
c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
_
3
8
o
1
1
8
p
5o
1
+
13
40
p
5 +
3
8
_
2
=
3
10
p
5 +
7
10
The solution is:
o
1
=
1
10
p
5 +
1
2
or
11
2
p
5
23
2
55
3
.
3
Now, we know
31
,
32
and
33
.
31
= ,
32
=
2
3
33
=
t
3
6
This will lead to
(o
6
32
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
6
2
3

t
3
,
2
3

t
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4 (1 ,)
_
1
2
3
_
_
1
t
3
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
1
3
o
6
+
1
9
p
5o
6
7
24
p
5 +
5
24
_
2
=
7
18

1
6
p
5
The solution is:
o
6
=
75
16
p
5
159
16
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
56
) o
6
=
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
3
This will lead to
(o
3
31
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
3
,
t
3
,
2
3

t
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4 (1 ,)
_
1
2
3
_
_
1
t
3
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
5
12
o
3
+
1
6
p
5o
3
7
24
p
5 +
5
24
_
2
=
7
18

1
6
p
5
The solution is:
o
3
=
89
10
p
5
39
2
or
1
10
p
5 +
1
2
) o
3
=
1
10
p
5 +
1
2
2
This will lead to
(o
2
31
32
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
2
,
2
3
,
2
3

t
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4 (1 ,)
_
1
2
3
_
_
1
t
3
_
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
Hence,
_
5
12
o
2
+
1
12
p
5o
2
7
24
p
5 +
5
24
_
2
=
7
18

1
6
p
5
The solution is:
o
2
=
9
5
p
5
7
2
or
1
5
p
5 +
1
2
57
4
.
4
Now, we know
41
,
42
and
43
.
41
=
t
3
42
=
2
3
43
= ,
4
This will lead to
(o
4
41
42
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
4
t
3

2
3

t
3

2
3
, + 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
t
3
_
_
1
2
3
_
(1 ,)
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
and t =
3 +
p
5
2
Hence,
_
1
3
o
4
+
1
9
p
5o
4
7
24
p
5 +
5
24
_
2
=
7
18

1
6
p
5
The solution is:
o
4
=
75
16
p
5
159
16
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
) o
4
= ,
58
1
This will lead to
(o
1
41
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
1
t
3
,
t
3

2
3
, + 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
t
3
_
_
1
2
3
_
(1 ,)
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
and t =
3 +
p
5
2
Hence,
_
5
12
o
1
+
1
6
p
5o
1
7
24
p
5 +
5
24
_
2
=
7
18

1
6
p
5
The solution is:
o
1
=
1
10
p
5 +
1
2
or
89
10
p
5
39
2
) o
1
=
1
6
p
5 +
1
2
2
This will lead law
(o
2
42
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
2
2
3
,
t
3

2
3
, + 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
t
3
_
_
1
2
3
_
(1 ,)
Notice that
, =
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
and t =
3 +
p
5
2
Hence,
_
5
12
o
2
+
1
12
p
5o
2
7
24
p
5 +
5
24
_
2
=
7
18

1
6
p
5
The solution is:
o
2
=
1
5
p
5 +
1
2
or
9
5
p
5
7
2
) o
2
=
1
5
p
5 +
1
2
59
4.2.7 The fourth tetrahedron
Figure 53: The fourth tetrahedron
Figure 54: The fourth tetrahedron consisting of four zome triangles
4.2.8 The main results of the fourth tetrahedron.
1
=
3
p
5
16
+
9
16
o
2
= , o
3
= , o
4
=
3
p
5
16
+
9
16
o
5
=
1
2
o
6
= ,
60
1

11
=
4
5
,
12
=
16
15
and
13
=
2
3
2

21
=
4
5
,
22
=
2
3
and
23
=
16
15
3

31
=
4
5
,
32
=
4
5
and
33
=
4
5
4

41
=
8
9
,
42
=
16
15
and
43
=
16
15
There are 4 vertexes and each vertex has projective triangle.
1
.
1
Now, we know
11
,
12
and
13
.
11
=
4,
5
12
=
16c
15
13
=
2
3
So, we can use the projective cross law to nd the three face spreads (Projective spread).
Firstly, the projective spread o
4
This will lead to
(o
4
12
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
4
16c
15

2
3

4,
5

16c
15

2
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
16c
15
__
1
2
3
_
61
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
and c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
_
4
9
o
4
4
45
p
5o
4
+
1
30
p
5 +
1
6
_
2
=
2
45
p
5 +
2
15
The solution is:
o
4
=
9
16
p
5
27
16
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
Secondly, the projective spread o
5
This will lead to
(o
5
11
13
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
5
4,
5

2
3

4,
5

16c
15

2
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
16c
15
__
1
2
3
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
and c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
1
900
_
p
5 + 5
_
2
(2o
5
+ 1)
2
=
2
45
p
5 +
2
15
The solution is:
o
5
=
1
2
or
3
2
6
This will lead to
(o
6
11
12
11
12
13
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
11
) (1
12
) (1
13
)
_
o
6
4,
5

16c
15

4,
5

16c
15

2
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
16c
15
__
1
2
3
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
and c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
_
4
15
o
6
+
1
30
p
5 +
1
6
_
2
=
2
45
p
5 +
2
15
The solution is:
o
6
=
3
8
p
5
15
8
or
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= ,
62
2
.
2
Now, we know
21
,
22
and
23
.
21
=
4,
5
22
=
2
3
23
=
16c
15
So, we can use projective cross law to nd the three face spreads (Projective spread)
5
This will lead to
(o
5
21
22
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
5
4,
5

2
3

4,
5

16c
15

2
3
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
16c
15
__
1
2
3
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
and c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
1
900
_
p
5 + 5
_
2
(2o
5
+ 1)
2
=
2
45
p
5 +
2
15
The solution is:
o
5
=
1
2
or
3
2
63
3
This will lead to
(o
3
21
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
3
4,
5

16c
15

4,
5

2
3

16c
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
2
3
__
1
16c
15
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
and c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
_
4
15
o
3
+
1
30
p
5 +
1
6
_
2
=
2
45
p
5 +
2
15
The solution is:
o
3
=
3
8
p
5
15
8
or
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= ,
1
This will lead to
(o
1
22
23
21
22
23
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
21
) (1
22
) (1
23
)
_
o
1
2
3

16c
15

4,
5

2
3

16c
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4,
5
__
1
2
3
__
1
16c
15
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
and c =
5
p
5
8
Hence,
_
4
9
o
1
4
45
p
5o
1
+
1
30
p
5 +
1
6
_
2
=
2
45
p
5 +
2
15
The solution is:
o
1
=
9
16
p
5
27
16
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
64
3
.
3
Now, we know
31
,
32
and
33
.
31
=
4
5
32
=
4
5
33
=
4
5
6
This will lead to
(o
6
32
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
6
4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
_
4
625
(8o
6
5)
2
=
4
125
The solution is
o
6
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= , or
5
8

1
8
p
5 = c
) o
6
= ,
3
by using the projective the cross law.
65
This will lead to
(o
3
31
33
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
Therefore, substituting the values in the law we get:
_
o
3
4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
_
4
625
(8o
3
5)
2
=
4
125
The solution is:
o
3
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= , or
5
8

1
8
p
5 = c
) o
3
= ,
2
This will lead to
(o
2
31
32
31
32
33
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
31
) (1
32
) (1
33
)
_
o
2
4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5

4
5
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
__
1
4
5
_
4
625
(8o
2
5)
2
=
4
125
The solution is:
o
2
=
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= , or
5
8

1
8
p
5 = c
4
.
4
66
Now, we know
41
,
42
and
43
.
41
=
8
9
42
=
16,
15
43
=
16,
15
4
This will lead to
(o
4
41
42
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
4
8
9

16,
15

8
9

16,
15

16,
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
8
9
__
1
16,
15
__
1
16,
15
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
Hence,
_
16
27
o
4
+
16
135
p
5o
4
4
15
p
5
2
9
_
2
=
4
45

16
405
p
5
The solution is:
o
4
=
3
4
p
5
3
4
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
) o
4
=
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
1
This will lead to
(o
1
41
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
1
8
9

16,
15

8
9

16,
15

16,
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
8
9
__
1
16,
15
__
1
16,
15
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
Hence,
_
16
27
o
1
+
16
135
p
5o
1
4
15
p
5
2
9
_
2
=
4
45

16
405
p
5
The solution is:
67
o
1
=
3
4
p
5
3
4
or
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
) o
1
=
3
16
p
5 +
9
16
2
This will lead to
(o
2
42
43
41
42
43
+ 2)
2
= 4 (1
41
) (1
42
) (1
43
)
_
o
2
16,
15

16,
15

8
9

16,
15

16,
15
+ 2
_
2
= 4
_
1
8
9
__
1
16,
15
__
1
16,
15
_
Notice that
, =
5 +
p
5
8
Thus,
_
8
15
o
2
+
8
45
p
5o
2
4
15
p
5
2
9
_
2
=
4
45

16
405
p
5
The solution is:
o
2
=
3
2
p
5
5
2
or
1
8
p
5 +
5
8
= ,
) o
2
= ,
68
The same process leads us to nd no more than 19 tetrahedrons as shown in the following catalog.
69
Figure 59: A catalog of ninteen tetrahedrons
5 Conclusion
The Zome system remains an outstanding and sophisticated tool to express mathematical thoughts into tangible
structures. We have used this system to nd six new theorems by rational trigonometry which has proved to be very
useful for locating and determining any spreads and quadrances in triangles. A good idea for this research will be the
use of these results in the future to investigate the case of determining the solid spread in the nineteen tetrahedrons
developed in this completed work. It would be recommended for further research in rational trigonometry to explore
the possibility of still more theorems. The Egyptians and Greeks would have loved this tool!
70
6 Bibliography
[1] D.Booth. The new Zome Primer in Five Fold Symmetry. Hargittal , World Scientic Publishing Company, 1992.
[2] G.Hart, H.Picciotto, Zome Geometry: Hands-on with Zome Models, Key Curriculum Press, 2001.
[3 ] G. Hart, Zometool Polyhedra. [online] available from [1 June 2011]
< http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/zometool.html
[ 4] P .Hildebrandt.. Zome-inspired Sculpture. Colorado: Zometool .2006 Inc. online] available from<http://www.zometool.com/Resources/Papers-
and-Presentations [1 June 2011]
[5 ] J. Kappra, (2001). Connections: The Geometric Bridge Between Art and Science. Massachusetts: World
Scientic Publishing. [1 June 2011]
[ 6] D.A. Richter. Two results concerning the Zome model of the 600-cell. [Online]. Available from [1 June
2011]
<http://homepages.wmich.edu/~drichter/papersrichter/zome600cell2005.pdf
[7 ] N.J Wildberger. Projective and spherical trigonometry, School of Mathematics UNSW Sydney. (2007).
[8 ] N.J Wildberger, Divine Proportion: Rational trigonometry to Universal Geometry, Wild Egg Books, Sydney,
2005.
[ 9] N.J Wildberger, Greek Geometry, Rational Trigonometry, and the Snellius - Pothenot Surveying Problem
Chamchuri Journal of Mathematics : 2(2010).
[10 ] N.J Wildberger .The ancient Greeks present: Rational Trigonometry. School of Mathematics and Statistics
UNSW Sydney. 2008 http://web.maths.unsw.edu/~norman/.
[ 11] Zometool Inc. Educators. [online] available from
<http://www.zometool.com/Resources/Educators_2 [1 June 2011].
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