Let's Wiki Our Israel 2012 Trip

by Wesley and Wiki

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Contents
Articles
Israel Tel Aviv Jerusalem Caesarea Maritima Mount Carmel Tel Megiddo Armageddon Sea of Galilee Capernaum Mount of Beatitudes Sermon on the Mount Golan Heights Caesarea Philippi Mount Hermon Jordan River Beit She'an Jericho Mount of Temptation Dead Sea Qumran Dead Sea Scrolls Masada Mount of Olives Gethsemane Church of St. Ann Pool of Bethesda Convent of the Sisters of Zion Temple Mount Western Wall Mount Zion Cenacle David's Tomb Israel Museum City of David 1 43 74 119 125 131 137 143 150 156 157 164 188 193 197 203 216 230 231 244 257 296 302 310 312 314 318 320 339 363 366 370 372 377

Garden Tomb Calvary

385 388

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 398 407

Article Licenses
License 417

Israel

Israel
State of Israel
( Hebrew) ( Arabic) Mednat Yisr'el Dawlat Isrl

Anthem:Hatikvah (The Hope; )

Capital (and largest city) Official languages Ethnicgroups (2012)

Jerusalem 3147N 3513E Hebrew, Arabic 75.4% Jewish 20.6% Arab [2] 4% other Demonym Government Israeli Parliamentary democracy Shimon Peres Benjamin Netanyahu Reuven Rivlin Asher Grunis Knesset from Mandatory Palestine 14 May 1948 Area
[1] [1]

[a]

- President - Prime Minister - Knesset Speaker - Supreme Court President Legislature Independence - Declaration

- Total

20,770/22,072km2[1](153rd) 8,019/8,522sqmi 2

- Water(%)

Israel

2
Population

- 2012estimate - 2008census - Density

7,956,000[2] 7,412,200[2]

[3][2] [4]

(97th)

347/km2(35th) 925/sqmi 2011

[5]

GDP(PPP) - Total - Per capita GDP (nominal) - Total - Per capita Gini(2008) HDI(2011) Currency Time zone - Summer(DST) Date formats Drives on the Calling code ISO 3166 code Internet TLD
1. 2.

estimate

$236.994 billion(50th) $31,467(26th) 2011

[5]

estimate

$243.654 billion(41st) $32,351(27th) 39.2

[1]

(66th)

0.888(veryhigh)(17th) New shekel [3] () (ILS) IST (UTC+2) IDT(UTC+3) dd/mm/yyyy (AD) right 972 IL .il

Excluding / Including the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem; see below. Includes all permanent residents in Israel, the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem. Also includes Israeli citizens living in the West Bank. Excludes non-Israeli population in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. * Israeli new shekel is the official currency of the State of Israel since 1 January 1986, * Old Israeli shekel was the official currency of the State of Israel between 24 February 1980 and 31 December 1985, * Israeli lira was the official currency of the State of Israel between August 1948 and 23 February 1980, * Palestine pound was the official currency of the British Mandate from 1927 to 14 May 1948 and of the State of Israel between 15 May 1948 and August 1948, * before 1927 the official currency of this area was the Ottoman lira until 1923, and in between 1923 and 1927 the Ottoman lira circulated alongside the Egyptian pound.

3.

Israel, officially the State of Israel (pron.: /zril/ or pron.: /zrel/; Hebrew: , Mednat Yisr'el, IPA:[medint jisel]( listen); Arabic: , Dawlat Isrl, IPA:[dawlat israil]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, on the south-eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area.[1][6] In its Basic Laws Israel defines itself as a Jewish and Democratic State; it is the world's only Jewish-majority state.[7] On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly recommended the adoption and implementation of the United Nations partition plan of Mandatory Palestine. On 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization[8] and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel," a state independent upon the termination of the

Israel British Mandate for Palestine, 15 May 1948.[9][10][11] Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states,[12] in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula (between 1967 and 1982), Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including East Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[13][14][15][16][17] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the IsraeliPalestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace. Israel's financial centre is Tel Aviv,[18] while Jerusalem is the country's most populous city and its capital (although not recognized internationally as such). The population of Israel, as defined by the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, was estimated in 2012 to be 7,956,000people, of whom 5,995,700 are Jewish. Arabs form the country's second-largest ethnic group with 1,642,000 people (including Druze and Bedouins).[3][2] The great majority of Israeli Arabs are settled-Muslims, with smaller but significant numbers of semi-settled Negev Bedouins and Arab Christians. Other minorities include various ethnic and ethno-religious denominations such as Druze, Circassians, African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem,[19] Samaritans, Maronites and others. Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system, proportional representation and universal suffrage.[20][21] The Prime Minister serves as head of government and the Knesset serves as Israel's unicameral legislative body. Israel has one of the highest life expectancies in the world.[22] It is a developed country, an OECD member,[23] and its economy, based on the nominal gross domestic product, was the 41st-largest in the world in 2011. Israel has the highest standard of living in the Middle East.[24]

Etymology
Upon independence in 1948, the new Jewish state was formally named Medinat Yisrael, or the State of Israel, after other proposed historical and religious names including Eretz Israel ("the Land of Israel"), Zion, and Judea, were considered and rejected.[25] In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "Israeli" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett.[26] The name Israel has historically been used, in common and religious usage, to refer to the biblical Kingdom of Israel or the entire Jewish nation.[27] According to the Hebrew Bible the name "Israel" was given to the patriarch Jacob (StandardYisrael, Isrl; Septuagint Greek: Isral; "struggle with The Star of David in the Leningrad God"[28]) after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord.[29] Jacob's Codex, AD 1008 twelve sons became the ancestors of the Israelites, also known as the Twelve Tribes of Israel or Children of Israel. Jacob and his sons had lived in Canaan but were forced by famine to go into Egypt for four generations until Moses, a great-great grandson of Jacob,[30] led the Israelites back into Canaan during the "Exodus". The earliest archaeological artifact to mention the word "Israel" is the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated to the late 13th century BCE).[31] The area is also known as the Holy Land, being holy for all Abrahamic religions including Judaism, Christianity, Islam and the Bah' Faith. Prior to the Israeli Declaration of Independence of 1948, the whole region was known by various other names including Southern Syria, Syria Palestina, Kingdom of Jerusalem, Iudaea Province, Coele-Syria, Retjenu, Canaan and, particularly, Palestine.

Israel

History
Antiquity
The notion of the "Land of Israel", known in Hebrew as Eretz Yisrael (or Eretz Yisroel), has been important and sacred to the Jewish people since Biblical times. According to the Torah, God promised the land to the three Patriarchs of the Jewish people.[32][33] On the basis of scripture, the period of the three Patriarchs has been placed somewhere in the early 2nd millenniumBCE,[34] and the first Kingdom of Israel was established around the 11th century BCE. Subsequent Israelite kingdoms and states ruled intermittently over the next four hundred years, and are known from various extra-biblical sources.[35][36][37][38]
Masada, a national symbol

The northern Kingdom of Israel, as well as Philistine city-states, fell in 722 BCE, though the southern Kingdom of Judah and several Phoenician city-states continued their existence as the region came under Assyrian rule. With the emergence of Babylonians, Judah was eventually conquered as well.

Classical period
With successive Persian rule, the region, divided between Syria-Coele province and later the autonomous Yehud Medinata, was gradually developing back into urban society, largely dominated by Judeans. The Greek conquests largely skipped the region without any resistance or interest. Incorporated into Ptolemaic and finally Seleucid Empires, southern Levant was heavily hellenized, building the tensions between Judeans and Greeks. The conflict erupted in 167 BCE with the Maccabean Revolt, which succeeded in establishing an independent Hasmonean Kingdom in Judah, which later expanded over much of modern Israel, as the Seleucids gradually lost control in the region. The Roman Empire invaded the region in 63 BCE, first taking control of Syria, and then intervening in the Hasmonean civil war. The struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian factions in Judea eventually led to the installation of Herod the Great and consolidation of the Herodian Kingdom as a vassal Judean state of Rome. With the decline of Herodians, Judea, transformed into a Roman province, became the site of a violent struggle of Jews against Greco-Romans, Treasures, including the Menorah, carried in a culminating in the Jewish-Roman Wars, ending in wide-scale Roman triumph after the 70 CE Siege of destruction and genocide. Jewish presence in the region significantly Jerusalem. dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE.[39] Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence and Galilee became its religious center.[40][41] The Mishnah and part of the Talmud, central Jewish texts, were composed during the 2nd to 4th centuries CE in Tiberias and Jerusalem.[42] The region came to be populated predominantly by Greco-Romans on the coast and Samaritans in the hill-country. Christianity was gradually evolving over Roman paganism, when the area under Byzantine rule was transformed into Deocese of the East, as Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda provinces. Through the 5th and 6th centuries, dramatic events of Samaritan Revolts reshaped the land, with massive destruction to Byzantine Christian and Samaritan societies and a resulting decrease of the population. After the Persian conquest and the installation of a short-lived Jewish Commonwealth in 614 CE, the Byzantine Empire reinstalled its rule in 625 CE, resulting in further decline and destruction.

Israel

Muslim rule
In 635 CE, the region, including Jerusalem, was conquered by the Arabs and was to remain under Muslim control for the next 1300 years.[43] Control of the region transferred between the Umayyads,[43] Abbasids,[43] and Crusaders throughout the next six centuries,[43] before being conquered by the Mamluk Sultanate, in 1260.[44] In 1516, the region was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, and remained under Turkish rule until the end of the First World War when Britain defeated the Ottoman forces and set up a military administration across the former Ottoman Syria. The territory was divided under the mandate system and the area which included modern day Israel named Mandatory Palestine.[44][45][46]

Zionism and the British mandate

Since the Diaspora, some Jews have aspired to return to "Zion" and the "Land of Israel",[47] though the amount of effort that should be spent towards such an aim was a matter of dispute.[48][49] The hopes and yearnings of Jews living in exile were articulated in the Hebrew Bible,[50] and are an important theme of the Jewish belief system.[48] After the Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, some communities settled in Palestine.[51] During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in the Four Holy CitiesJerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron, and Safedand in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.[52] In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European opponents of Hasidism, known as the Perushim, settled in Palestine.[53][54][55] The first wave of modern Jewish migration to Ottoman-ruled Palestine, known as the First Aliyah, began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe.[56] Although the Zionist movement already existed in practice, Austro-Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl is credited with founding political Zionism,[57] a movement which sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, by elevating the Jewish Question to the international plane.[58] In 1896, Herzl published Der Judenstaat (The State of the Jews), offering his vision of a future Jewish state; the following year he presided over the first World Zionist Congress.[59]
Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish State, in 1901

The Second Aliyah (190414), began after the Kishinev pogrom; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half of them left at a later point in time.[56] Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews,[60] although the Second Aliyah included socialist groups who established the kibbutz movement.[61] During World War I, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour sent a letter that stated:[62] His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country."[63] The Jewish Legion, a group primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine in 1917. Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of a Jewish militia known as the Haganah (meaning "The Defense" in Hebrew), from which the Irgun and Lehi, or Stern Gang, paramilitary groups later split off.[64] In 1922, the League of Nations granted Britain a mandate over Palestine under terms similar to the Balfour Declaration.[65] The population of the area at this time was predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11% of the population.[66] The Third (19191923) and Fourth Aliyahs (19241929) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine.[56] Finally, the rise of Nazism and the increasing persecution of Jews in the 1930s led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of the Arab revolt of 19361939 and led the British to introduce restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the

Israel world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organized to bring Jews to Palestine.[56] By the end of World War II, the Jewish population of Palestine had increased to 33% of the total population.[67]

Independence and first years

After World War II, Britain found itself in fierce conflict with the Jewish community, as the Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule.[68] At the same time, hundreds of thousands of Jewish Holocaust survivors and refugees sought a new life far from their destroyed communities in Europe. The Yishuv attempted to bring these refugees to Palestine but many were turned away or rounded up and placed in detention camps in Atlit and Cyprus by the British. In 1947, the British government announced it would withdraw from Mandatory Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.

On 15 May 1947, the General Assembly of the newly formed United Nations resolved that a committee, United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP), be created "to prepare for consideration at the next regular session of the Assembly a report on the question of Palestine".[69] In the Report of the Committee dated 3 September 1947 to the UN General Assembly,[70] the majority of the Committee in Chapter VI proposed a plan to replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem..., the last to be under an International Trusteeship System".[71] On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adopted a resolution recommending the adoption and implementation of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union as Resolution 181 (II).[72] The Plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed by the majority of the Committee in the Report of 3 September 1947. The Jewish Agency, which was the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan, but the Arab League and Arab Higher Committee of Palestine rejected it.[73] On 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and Arab bands began attacking Jewish targets.[74] The Jews were initially on the defensive as civil war broke out, but gradually moved onto the offensive.[75] The Palestinian Arab economy collapsed and 250,000 Palestinian-Arabs fled or were expelled.[76] On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, declared "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel".[77][78] The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the term, Eretz-Israel.[79]

David Ben-Gurion proclaiming Israeli independence on 14 May 1948, below a portrait of Theodor Herzl in the Tel Aviv Museum of Art, now Israel's Independence Hall

The following day, the armies of four Arab countriesEgypt, Syria, Transjordan and Iraqentered what had been British Mandate Palestine, launching the 1948 ArabIsraeli War;[80][81] Saudi Arabia sent a military contingent to operate under Egyptian command; Yemen declared war but did not take military action.[82] In a cablegram of the same day from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the UN Secretary-General, the Arab states gave a justification for this "intervention". After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established.[83] Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. The United Nations estimated that more than 700,000 Palestinians were expelled or fled during the conflict from

Avraham Adan raising the Ink Flag marking the end of the 1948 ArabIsraeli War

Israel what would become Israel.[84] Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations by majority vote on 11 May 1949.[85] In the early years of the state, the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.[86][87] These years were marked by an influx of Holocaust survivors and Jews from Arab lands, many of whom faced persecution and expulsion from their original countries.[88] Consequently, the population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million between 1948 and 1958.[89] During this period, food, clothes and furniture had to be rationed in what became known as the Austerity Period. Between Israeli paratroopers dig in during the 1956 Sinai War 19481970, approximately 1,151,029 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel.[90] Some arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot; by 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in these tent cities.[91] The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.[92] In the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip,[93] leading to several Israeli counter-raids. In 1950 Egypt closed the Suez Canal to Israeli shipping and tensions mounted as armed clashes took place along Israel's borders. In 1956, Israel joined a secret alliance with Great Britain and France aimed at regaining control of the Suez Canal, which the Egyptians had nationalized (see the Suez Crisis). Israel overran the Sinai Peninsula but was pressured to withdraw by the United Nations in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in the Red Sea and the Canal.[94][95] In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Argentina and brought him to Israel for trial.[96] The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust.[97] Eichmann remains the only person ever to be executed by an Israeli court.[98]

Israel

Conflicts and peace treaties

Since 1964, Arab countries were trying to divert the headwaters of the Jordan river to deprive Israel of water resources,[99] provoking tensions with Syria and Lebanon. Arab nationalists led by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser refused to recognize Israel, and called for its destruction.[12][100][101] By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of actual battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.[102] In 1967, Egypt expelled UN peacekeepers, stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and announced a partial blockade of Israel's access to the Red Sea. In May 1967 a number of Arab states began to mobilize their forces.[103] Israel saw these actions as a casus belli. On 5 June 1967, Israel launched a pre-emptive strike against Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Iraq. In a Six-Day War, Israeli military superiority was clearly demonstrated against their more numerous Arab foes. Israel succeeded in capturing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights.[104] Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem, and the 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories.

Following the war, Israel faced much internal resistance from the Arab Palestinians and Egyptian hostilities in the Sinai. Most important among the various Palestinian and Arab groups was the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[105][106] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks[107][108] against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,[109] including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. The Israeli government responded with an assassination campaign against the organizers, a bombing and a raid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon. On 6 October 1973, as Jews were observing Yom Kippur, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights. The war ended on 26 October with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering significant losses.[110] An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign.[111] In July 1976 Israeli commandos carried out a rescue mission which succeeded in rescuing 102 hostages who were being held by Palestinian guerillas at Entebbe International Airport close to Kampala, Uganda. The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin's Likud party took control from the Labor Party.[112] Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[113] In the two years that followed, Sadat and Begin signed the Camp David Accords (1978) and the IsraelEgypt Peace Treaty (1979).[114] Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[115]

Territory held by Israel before and after the 1967 Six Day War. The Sinai Peninsula was returned to Egypt in 1982.

Israel On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to the Coastal Road Massacre, in which 38 Israeli civilians were killed and 71 injured. Israel responded by launching an invasion of southern Lebanon to destroy the PLO bases south of the Litani River. Most PLO fighters withdrew, but Israel was able to secure southern Lebanon until a UN force and the Lebanese army could take over. However, the PLO soon resumed its policy of attacks against Israel. In the next few years the PLO infiltrated back south and kept up a sporadic shelling across the border. Israel carried out numerous retaliatory attacks by air and on the ground. Meanwhile, Begin's government actively encouraged Israelis to settle in the occupied West Bank, leading to increasing friction with the Palestinians in that area.[116] The Basic Law: Jerusalem, the Capital of Israel, passed in 1980, was believed by some to reaffirm Israel's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree and reignited international controversy over the status of the city. However, there has never been an Israeli government act which defined what it considers to be the extent of the territory of Israel and no act which specifically included East Jerusalem therein.[117] The position of the majority of UN member states is reflected in numerous resolutions declaring that actions taken by Israel to settle its citizens in the West Bank, and impose its laws and administration on East Jerusalem are illegal and have no validity.[118] On 7 June 1981, the Israeli air force destroyed Iraq's sole nuclear power plant, which was under construction just outside Baghdad. Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon once again to destroy the bases from which the PLO launched attacks and missiles into northern Israel.[119] In the first six days of fighting, the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry the Kahan Commission would later hold Begin, Sharon and several Israeli generals as indirectly responsible for the Sabra and Shatila massacres. In 1985 Israel responded to a Palestinian terrorist attack in Cyprus by bombing the PLO headquarters in Tunis. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a borderland buffer zone in southern Lebanon until 2000. The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[120] broke out in 1987 with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence occurring in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the Intifada became more organised and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. More than a thousand people were killed in the violence, many of them stone-throwing youths.[121] Responding to continuing PLO guerilla raids into northern Israel, Israel launched another punitive raid into southern Lebanon in 1988. Amid rising tensions over the Kuwait crisis, Israeli border guards fired into a rioting Palestinian crowd near the Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem. 20 people were killed and some 150 injured. During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi Scud missile attacks against Israel. Despite public outrage, Israel heeded US calls to refrain from hitting back and did not participate in that war.[122][123] In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became Prime Minister following an election in which his party called for compromise with Israel's neighbors.[124][125] The following year, Shimon Peres on behalf of Israel, and Mahmoud Abbas for the PLO, signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[126] The PLO also recognized Israel's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism.[127] In 1994, the IsraelJordan Treaty of Peace was signed, making Jordan the second Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat shake hands at Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[128] Arab public the signing of the Oslo Accords, with Bill Clinton support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli behind them, 1993 settlements[129] and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions.[130] Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks.[131] Finally, while leaving a peace rally in November 1995, Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by a far-right-wing Jew who opposed the Accords.[132]

Israel At the end of the 1990s, Israel, under the leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu, withdrew from Hebron,[133] and signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority.[134] Ehud Barak, elected Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium by withdrawing forces from Southern Lebanon and conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the 2000 Camp David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state, but Yasser Arafat rejected it.[135] After the collapse of the talks and a controversial visit by Likud leader Ariel Sharon to the Temple Mount, the Second Intifada began. Sharon became prime minister in a 2001 special election. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier,[136] defeating the [137][138][139][140][141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148] Intifada. In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a cross-border abduction of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-long Second Lebanon War.[149][150] On 6 September 2007, Israeli Air Force destroyed a nuclear reactor in Syria. In May 2008, Israel confirmed it had been discussing a peace treaty with Syria for a year, with Turkey as a go-between.[151] However, at the end of the year, Israel entered another conflict as a ceasefire between Hamas and Israel collapsed. The Gaza War lasted three weeks and ended after Israel announced a unilateral ceasefire.[152][153] Hamas announced its own ceasefire, with its own conditions of complete withdrawal and opening of border crossings. Despite neither the rocket launchings nor Israeli retaliatory strikes having completely stopped, the fragile ceasefire remained in order.[154]

10

Geography and climate

Israel is at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan to the east, and Egypt to the southwest. It lies between latitudes 29 and 34 N, and longitudes 34 and 36 E. The sovereign territory of Israel, excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019sqmi) in area, of which twopercent is water.[1] However Israel is so narrow that the exclusive economic zone in the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country.[155] The total area under Israeli law, when including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522sqmi),[156] and the total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733sqmi).[157] Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the inland fertile Jezreel Valley, mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel and toward the Golan in the north. The Israeli Coastal Plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to seventy percent of the nation's population. East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which forms a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,039mi) Great Rift Valley.

The Sea of Galilee and Tiberias.

Forest around Ein Kerem, a village within Jerusalem's municipal boundaries

Israel

11

The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.[158] Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea. Unique to Israel and the Sinai Peninsula are makhteshim, or erosion cirques.[159] The largest makhtesh in the world is Ramon Crater in the Negev,[160] which measures 40 by 8 kilometers (25 by 5 mi).[161] A report on the environmental status of the Mediterranean basin states that Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of all the countries in the basin.[162]

Ramon Crater, a unique type of crater that can be found only in Israel and the Sinai peninsula

Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. The more mountainous regions can be windy, cold, and sometimes snowy; Jerusalem usually receives at least one snowfall each year.[163] Meanwhile, coastal cities, such as Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area of Beersheba and the Northern Negev has a semi-arid climate with hot summers, cool winters and fewer rainy days than the A carpet of red Anemone coronaria flowers, Mediterranean climate. The Southern Negev and the Arava areas have northern Negev (winter). desert climate with very hot and dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature in the continent of Asia (53.7C/128.7F) was recorded in 1942 at Tirat Zvi kibbutz in the northern Jordan river valley.[164] From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[165][166] With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including drip irrigation.[167] Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for solar energy, making Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita (practically every house uses solar panels for water heating).[168] Four different phytogeographic regions exist in Israel, due to the country's location between the temperate and the tropical zones, bordering the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the desert in the east. For this reason the flora and fauna of Israel is extremely diverse. There are 2,867 known species of plants found in Israel. Of these, at least 253 species are introduced and non-native.[169] There are 380 Israeli nature reserves.[170]

Politics
Israel operates under a parliamentary system as a democratic republic with universal suffrage.[1] A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes the prime ministerusually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is the head of government and head of the cabinet.[171][172] Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership of the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties,[173] with a 2% electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments.

The Knesset chamber, home to the Israeli parliament

Israel Parliamentary elections are scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or a no-confidence vote by the Knesset can dissolve a government earlier. The Basic Laws of Israel function as an uncodified constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.[1][174] The president of Israel is head of state, with limited and largely ceremonial duties.[171]

12

Legal system
Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving both as appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier is the Supreme Court, located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities.[175][176] Although Israel supports the goals of the International Criminal Court, it has not ratified the Rome Statute, citing concerns about the ability of the court to remain free

Supreme Court of Israel, Givat Ram, Jerusalem

from political impartiality.[177] Israel's legal system combines three legal traditions: English common law, civil law, and Jewish law.[1] It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system, where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges rather than juries.[175] Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. A committee of Knesset members, Supreme Court justices, and Israeli Bar members carries out the election of judges.[178] Administration of Israel's courts (both the "General" courts and the Labor Courts) is carried by the Administration of Courts, situated in Jerusalem. Both General and Labor courts are paperless courts: the storage of court files, as well as court decisions, are conducted electronically. Israel's Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties in Israel. Israel is the only country in the region ranked "Free" by Freedom House based on the level of civil liberties and political rights; the "Palestinian Authority-Administered Territories" was ranked "Not Free."[7][179] In 2012, Israel proper was ranked 92nd according to Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index the highest ranking in the region.[180]

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13

Administrative divisions
The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot ( ;singular: mahoz) Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, Southern, and Tel Aviv Districts, as well as the Judea and Samaria Area in the West Bank. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as nafot (; singular: nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[181]

Districts of Israel: Northern, Haifa, Center, TelAviv, Jerusalem, Southern

District North Haifa Center Tel Aviv Jerusalem South

Main city Nazareth Haifa Ramla Tel Aviv Jerusalem Beersheba

Sub-district Kinneret, Safed, Acre, Golan, Jezreel Valley Haifa, Hadera Rishon Lezion, Sharon (Netanya), Petah Tikva, Ramla, Rehovot Bat Yam, Bnei Brak, Giv'atayim, Holon, Ramat Gan, Tel Aviv Jerusalem Ashkelon, Beersheba West Bank

Population 1,242,100 880,000 1,770,200 1,227,000 910,300 1,053,600 [182] 2,592,555 [183] (350,143 Jewish settlers)

Judea and Samaria Modi'in Illit

For statistical purposes, the country is divided into three metropolitan areas: Tel Aviv metropolitan area (population 3,206,400), Haifa metropolitan area (population 1,021,000), and Beer Sheva metropolitan area (population 559,700).[184] Israel's largest municipality, both in population and area,[185] is Jerusalem with 773,800 residents in an area of 126square kilometers (49sqmi) (in 2009). Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area of East Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as part of the Palestinian territories under Israeli occupation.[186] Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Rishon LeZion rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 393,900, 265,600, and 227,600 respectively.[185]

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14

Israeli-occupied territories
In 1967, as a result of the Six-Day War, Israel gained control of the West Bank (Judaea and Samaria), East Jerusalem, the Gaza strip and the Golan Heights. Israel also took control of the Sinai Peninsula, but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979 IsraelEgypt Peace Treaty. Following Israel's capture of these territories, settlements consisting of Israeli citizens were established within each of them. Israel applied civilian law to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, incorporating them into its sovereign territory and granting their inhabitants permanent residency status and the choice to apply for citizenship. In contrast, the West Bank has remained under military occupation, and Palestinians in this area cannot become citizens. The Gaza Strip is independent of Israel with no Israeli military or civilian presence, but Israel continues to maintain control of its airspace and waters. The Gaza Strip and the West Bank are seen by the Palestinians and most of the international community as the site of a future Palestinian state.[187][188] The UN Security Council has Map of Israel showing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and Heights void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.[189][190] The International Court of Justice, principal judicial organ of the United Nations, asserted, in its 2004 advisory opinion on the legality of the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier, that the lands captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory.[191] The status of East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult hurdle in negotiations between Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians, as Israel views it as its sovereign territory, as well as part of its capital. Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, which emphasises "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war", and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states, a principle known as "Land for peace".[192][193][194] The West Bank was annexed by Jordan in 1948, following the Arab rejection of the UN decision to create two states in Palestine. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has since ceded its claim to the territory to the PLO. The West Bank was occupied by Israel in 1967 during the Six-Day War. The population are mainly Arab Palestinians, including refugees of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[195] From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the IsraelPLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks as part of the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier.[196] When completed, approximately 13% of the Barrier will be constructed on the Green Line or in Israel with 87% inside the West Bank.[197][198] The Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt from 1948 to 1967 and then by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part of Israel's unilateral disengagement plan, Israel removed all of its settlers and forces from the territory. Israel does not consider the Gaza Strip to be occupied territory and declared it a "foreign territory". That view has been disputed by numerous international humanitarian organizations and various bodies of the United Nations.[199][200][201][202][203] Following June 2007, when Hamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip,[204] Israel tightened its control of the Gaza crossings along its border, as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting the area except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian.[204] Gaza has a border with Egypt and an agreement between Israel, the European Union and the PA governed how border crossing would take place (it was monitored by European

Israel observers).[205] Egypt adhered to this agreement under Mubarak and prevented access to Gaza until April 2011 when it announced it was opening its border with Gaza.

15

Foreign relations
Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 157 countries and has 100 diplomatic missions around the world.[206] Only three members of the Arab League have normalized relations with Israel: Egypt and Jordan signed peace treaties in 1979 and 1994, respectively, and Mauritania opted for full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians.[207] Under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Sudan, and Yemen are enemy countries[208] and Israeli citizens may not visit them without permission from the Ministry of the Interior.[209]

The Israeli Foreign Ministry in Jerusalem.

The Soviet Union and the United States were the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously. The United States may regard Israel as its primary ally in the Middle East, based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests".[210] The United States has provided $68billion in military assistance and $32billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under the Foreign Assistance Act (period beginning 1962),[211] more than any other country for that period until 2003.[211][212][213] Their bilateral relations are multidimensional and the United States is the principal proponent of the Arab-Israeli peace process. The United States and Israeli views differ on some issues, such as the Golan Heights, Jerusalem, and settlements.[214] India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then.[215] According to an international opinion survey conducted in 2009 on behalf of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, India is the most pro-Israel country in the world.[216][217] India is the largest customer of Israeli military equipment and Israel is the second-largest military partner of India after the Russian Federation.[218] India is also the third-largest Asian economic partner of Israel[219] and the two countries enjoy extensive space technology ties.[220][221] India became the top source market for Israel from Asia in 2010 with 41,000 tourist arrivals in that year.[222] Germany's strong ties with Israel include cooperation on scientific and educational endeavors and the two states remain strong economic and military partners.[223][224] Under the reparations agreement, as of 2007 Germany had paid 25billion euros in reparations to the Israeli state and individual Israeli holocaust survivors.[225] The UK has kept full diplomatic relations with Israel since its formation having had two visits from heads of state in 2007. Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister Tony Blair's efforts for a two state resolution. The UK is seen as having a "natural" relationship with Israel on account of the British Mandate for Palestine.[226] Iran had diplomatic relations with Israel under the Pahlavi dynasty[227] but withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Islamic Revolution.[228] Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[229] Turkey has cooperated with the State since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to the other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel.[230] Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn after the Gaza War and Israel's raid of the Gaza flotilla.[231] IHH, which organized the flotilla, is a Turkish charity that some believe has ties to Hamas and Al-Qaeda.[232][233][234][235][236] Relation between Israel and Greece have improved since 1995 due to the decline of Israeli-Turkish relations.[237] The two countries have a defence cooperation agreement and in 2010, the Israeli Air Force hosted Greeces Hellenic Air Force in a joint exercise at the Uvda base. The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on the Leviathan gas field are also an important factor for Greece, given its strong links with Cyprus.[238] Israel is the

Israel second largest importer of Greek products in the Middle East.[239] In 2010, the Greek Prime minister George Papandreou made an official visit to Israel after many years, in order to improve bilateral relations between the two countries.[240] Israel and Cyprus have a number of bilateral agreements and many official visits have taken place between the two countries. The countries have ties on energy, agricultural, military and tourism matters. The prospects of joint exploitation of oil and gas fields off Cyprus, as well as cooperation in the world's longest sub-sea electric power cable has strengthened relations between the countries.[241][242][243] Azerbaijan is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop bilateral strategic and economic relations with Israel. The relationship includes cooperation in trade and security matters and cultural and educational exchanges. Azerbaijan supplies Israel with a substantial amount of its oil needs, and Israel has helped modernize the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan. In the spring of 2012, the two countries reportedly concluded an arms deal worth $1.6 billion.[244][245] In 2005, Azerbaijan was Israel's fifth largest trading partner.[246][247] In Africa, Ethiopia is Israel's main and closest ally in the continent due to common political, religious and security interests.[248] Israel provides expertise to Ethiopia on irrigation projects and thousands of Ethiopian Jews (Beta Israel) live in Israel. As a result of the 2009 Gaza War, Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel.[232][249]

16

Military
Israel has the highest ratio of defense spending to GDP and as a percentage of the budget of all developed countries.[250][251] The Israel Defense Forces is the sole military wing of the Israeli security forces, and is headed by its Chief of General Staff, the Ramatkal, subordinate to the Cabinet. The IDF consist of the army, air force and navy. It was founded during the 1948 ArabIsraeli War by consolidating paramilitary organizationschiefly the Haganahthat preceded the establishment of the state.[252] The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with the Mossad and Shabak.[253] The Israel Defense Forces have been involved in several major wars and border conflicts in its short history, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.[254][255]

Israeli and Greek navies in a joint military exercise in the Aegean Sea

Most Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of 18. Men serve three years and women two to three years.[256] Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Arab citizens of Israel (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt from military service, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years.[257][258] An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks.[259] As a IDF Kirya Compound, Tel Aviv result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and an additional 445,000 reservists.[260]

Israel The nation's military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. Since 1967, the United States has been a particularly notable foreign contributor of military aid to Israel: the US is expected to provide the country with $3.15billion per year from 20132018.[261][262] The Arrow missile is one of the world's few operational anti-ballistic missile systems.[263] Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[264] The success of the Ofeq program has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.[265] Since its establishment, Israel has spent a significant portion of its gross domestic product on defense. In 1984, for example, the country spent 24%[266] of its GDP on defense. By 2006, that figure had dropped to 7.3%.[1] Israel is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons[267] as well as chemical and biological weapons of mass destruction.[268] Israel has not signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons[269] and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities.[270] Since the Gulf War in 1991, when Israel was attacked by Iraqi Scud missiles, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[271]
The Caracal Battalion training in Southern Israel

17

The IDF has also been deployed on humanitarian missions, usually involving rescue workers and medical personnel, along with relief workers and body identifiers from ZAKA and the Israel Police. After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, a rescue team was dispatched to Haiti, which consisted of 40 doctors, 20 nurses and rescue workers, and two rescue planes loaded with medical equipment and a field hospital with X-ray equipment, intensive care units, and operating rooms. Other recent recipients of aid include Japan (a medical team after the 2011 tsunami), Congo 2008, Sri Lanka 2005 (tsunami), India and El Salvador 2001 (earthquakes), Ethiopia 2000, Turkey 1998 (earthquake), Kosovo 1999 (refugees) and Rwanda 1994 (refugees).[272] Israel is consistently rated very low in the Global Peace Index, ranking 145th out of 153 nations for peacefulness in 2011.[273]

Economy
Israel is considered one of the most advanced countries in Southwest Asia in economic and industrial development. In 2010, it joined the OECD.[23][274] The country is ranked 3rd in the region on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index[275] as well as in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.[276] It has the second-largest number of startup companies in the world (after the United States)[277] and the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.[278] In 2010, Israel ranked 17th among of the world's most economically developed nations, according to IMD's World Competitiveness Yearbook. The Israeli economy was ranked first as the world's most durable economy in the face of crises, and was also ranked first in the rate of research and development center investments.[279]
Gulfstream G200 transcontinental business jet was designed and is currently produced for Gulfstream Aerospace by Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI)

The Bank of Israel was ranked first among central banks for its efficient functioning, up from the 8th place in 2009. Israel was also ranked as the worldwide leader in its supply of skilled manpower.[279] The Bank of Israel holds $78 billion of foreign-exchange reserves.[280]

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Aerial view of Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area (Gush Dan)

Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Other major imports to Israel, totaling $47.8billion in 2006, include fossil fuels, raw materials, and military equipment.[1] Leading exports include electronics, software, computerized systems, communications technology, medical equipment, pharmaceuticals, fruits, chemicals, military technology, and cut diamonds;[281] in 2006, Israeli exports reached $42.86billion,[1] and by 2010 they had reached $80.5 billion a year.[281]

Shops at the Dizengoff Center, Tel Aviv

Israel is a leading country in the development of solar energy.[282][283] Israel is a global leader in water conservation and geothermal energy,[284] and its development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.[285][286] According to the OECD, Israel is also ranked 1st in the world in expenditure on Research and Development (R&D) as a percentage of GDP.[287] Intel[288] and Microsoft[289] built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. In July 2007, U.S. billionaire Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company Iscar, its first non-U.S. acquisition, for $4billion.[290] Since the 1970s, Israel has received military aid from the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form of loan guarantees, which now account for roughly half of Israel's external debt. Israel has one of the lowest external debts in the developed world, and is a net lender in terms of net external debt (the total value of assets vs. liabilities in debt instruments owed abroad), which as of June 2012 stood at a surplus of US$60billion.[291] Days of working time in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for a 5-day workweek), or Friday (for a 6-day workweek). In observance of Shabbat, in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day", usually lasting till 14:00 in the winter, or 16:00 in the summer. Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world, and make Sunday a non-working day, while extending working time of other days, and/or replacing Friday with Sunday as a work day .[292]

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Science and technology

Israel's eight public universities are subsidized by the state.[293][294] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel's oldest university, houses the Jewish National and University Library, the world's largest repository of books on Jewish subjects.[295] The Hebrew University is consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities by the prestigious ARWU academic ranking.[296] Other major universities in the country include the Technion, the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University (TAU), Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, The Open University and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Israel's seven research universities (excluding the Open University) are consistently ranked among top 500 in the world.[297] Israel has produced six Nobel Prize-winning scientists since 2002[298][298][299] and publishes among the most scientific papers per capita of any country in the world.[300][301]
The particle accelerator at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot

The world's largest solar parabolic dish at the Ben-Gurion National Solar Energy [302] Center.

Israel has embraced solar energy; its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology[283] and its solar companies work on projects around the world.[282][303] Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita in the world.[168][304] According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.[305] The high annual incident solar irradiance at its geographic latitude creates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in the Negev Desert.[282][283][303]

Israel is one of the world's technological leaders in water technology. In 2011, its water technology industry was worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. The ongoing shortage of water in the country has spurred innovation in water conservation techniques, and a substantial agricultural modernisation, drip irrigation, was invented in Israel. Israel is also at the technological forefront of desalination and water recycling. The Ashkelon seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) plant, the largest in the world, was voted 'Desalination Plant of the Year' in the Global Water Awards in 2006. Israel hosts an annual Water Technology Exhibition and Conference (WaTec) that attracts thousands of people from across the world.[306][307] By the end of 2013, 85 percent of the country's water consumption will be from reverse osmosis. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a net exporter of water in the coming years.[308]

Israel's most recent Nobel laureate: Dan Shechtman won the 2011 Nobel Prize in [299] Chemistry.

Israel Israel has led the world in stem-cell research papers per capita since 2000.[309] In addition, Israeli universities are among 100 top world universities in mathematics (Hebrew University, TAU and Technion), physics (TAU, Hebrew University and Weizmann Institute of Science), chemistry (Technion and Weizmann Institute of Science), computer science (Weizmann Institute of Science, Technion, Hebrew University, TAU and BIU) and economics (Hebrew University and TAU).[310] Israel has a modern electric car infrastructure involving a countrywide network of recharging stations to facilitate the charging and exchange of car batteries. It is thought that this will lower Israel's oil dependency and lower the fuel costs of hundreds of Israel's motorists that use cars powered only by electric batteries.[311][312][313] The Israeli model is being studied by several countries and being implemented in Denmark and Australia.[314] In 2009 Israel was ranked 2nd among 20 top countries in space sciences by Thomson Reuters agency.[315] Since 1988 Israel Aerospace Industries have indigenously designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.[316] Most were launched to orbit from Israeli air force base "Palmachim" by the Shavit space launch vehicle. Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.[317] In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia.

20

Transport
Israel has 18,096kilometers (11,244mi) of paved roads,[318] and 2.4million motor vehicles.[319] The number of motor vehicles per 1,000 persons was 324, relatively low with respect to developed countries.[319] Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,[320] operated by several carriers, the largest of which is Egged, serving most of the country. Railways stretch across 949kilometers (590mi) and are operated solely by government-owned Israel Railways[321] (All figures are for 2008). Following major investments beginning in the early-to-mid 1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5million in 1990, to 35million in 2008; railways are also used to transport 6.8million tons of cargo, per year.[321]

Duty Free at Ben Gurion International Airport

Israel is served by two international airports, Ben Gurion International Airport, the country's main hub for international air travel near Tel Aviv-Yafo, Ovda Airport in the south, as well as several small domestic airports.[322] Ben Gurion, Israel's largest airport, handled over 12.1million passengers in 2010.[323] On the Mediterranean coast, Haifa Port is the country's oldest and largest port, while Ashdod Port is one of the few deep water ports in the world built on the open sea.[322] In addition to these, the smaller Port of Eilat is situated on the Red Sea, and is used mainly for trading with Far East countries.[322]

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21

Tourism
Tourism, especially religious tourism, is an important industry in Israel, with the country's temperate climate, beaches, archaeological and historical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of incoming tourists is on the rebound.[324] In 2008, over 3 million tourists visited Israel.[325] Israel has the highest number of museums per capita in the world.[326]

Demographics
In 2012, Israel's population was an estimated 7,956,000people, of whom 5,995,700 are Jews.[3] Arab citizens of Israel comprise 20.6% of the country's total population.[2] Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,[327] but estimates run in the region of 203,000.[328] As of June 2012, approximately 60,000 African migrants have entered Israel.[329] Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[330] Emigration from Israel (yerida) to other countries, primarily the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,[331] but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[332][333]

Comparison of the changes in percentages of the main religious group in Israel between the years 19492008

As of 2009, over 300,000 Israeli citizens live in West Bank settlements[334] such as Ma'ale Adumim and Ariel, and communities that predated the establishment of the State but were re-established after the Six-Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion. 18,000 Israelis live in Golan Heights settlements.[335] In 2011, there were 250,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem.[336] The total number of Israeli settlers is over 500,000 (6.5% of the Israeli population). Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip, until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.[337] Israel was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as a Jewish state. The country's Law of Return grants all Jews and those of Jewish lineage the right to Israeli citizenship.[338] Over three quarters, or 75.5%, of the population are Jews from a diversity of Jewish backgrounds. Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others", are Russian-descendants of Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return.[339][340] Approximately 68% of Israeli Jews are Israeli-born, 22% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 10% are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including the Arab World).[341][342] Jews who left or fled Arab and Muslim countries and their descendants, known as Mizrahi and Sephardi Jews,[343] constitute approximately 50% of Jewish Israelis.[344][345][346] Jews from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union and their Israeli-born descendants, or Ashkenazi Jews, form most of the rest of the Jewish population.

Languages
Israel has two official languages, Hebrew and Arabic.[1] Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken by the majority of the population, and Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority. Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are broadcast in this language and English is taught from the early grades in elementary school. As a country of immigrants, many languages can be heard on the streets. Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia (some 120,000 Ethiopian Jews live in Israel),[347] Russian and Amharic are widely spoken.[348] Between 1990 and 1994, the Russian immigration increased Israel's population

Israel by twelve percent.[349] More than one million Russian-speaking immigrants arrived in Israel from the former Soviet Union states between 1990 and 2004.[350] French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,[351] mostly originating from France and North Africa (see Maghrebi Jews).

22

Religion
Israel and the Palestinian territories comprise the major part of the Holy Land, a region of significant importances to all Abrahamic religions Jews, Christians, Muslims and Baha'is. The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: a social survey for those over the age of 20 indicates that 55% say they are "traditional", while 20% consider themselves "secular Jews", 17% define themselves as "Religious Zionists"; 8% define themselves as "Haredi Jews".[355] While the ultra-Orthodox, or Haredim, represented only 5% of Israel's population in 1990,[356] they are expected to represent more than one-fifth of Israel's Jewish population by 2028.[357] Making up 16% of the population, Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority. About 2% of the population are Christian and 1.5% are Druze.[358] The Christian population primarily comprises Arab Christians, but also includes post-Soviet immigrants and the Foreign Laborers of multinational origins and followers of Messianic Judaism, considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.[359] Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[360] Out of more than one million immigrants from the former Soviet Union in Israel, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by the Orthodox rabbinate.[361] The city of Jerusalem is of special importance to Jews, Muslims and Christians as it is the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Israeli-controlled Old City that incorporates the Western Wall and the Temple Mount, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[362] Other locations of religious importance in Israel are Nazareth (holy in Christianity as the site of the Annunciation of Mary), Tiberias and Safed (two of the Four Holy Cities in Judaism), the White Mosque in Ramla (holy in Islam as the shrine of the prophet Saleh), and the Church of Saint George in Lod (holy in Christianity and Islam as the tomb of Saint George or Al Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in the West Bank, among them Joseph's tomb in Shechem, the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, venerated by Christians as the site of the [354] Crucifixion of Jesus.

The Western Wall and the Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem

The ancient synagogue of Kfar [352][353] Bar'am

The administrative center of the Bah' Faith and the Shrine of the Bb are located at the Bah' World Centre in Haifa and the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Bah' community in Israel, although it is a destination for pilgrimages. Bah' staff in Israel do not teach their faith to Israelis following strict policy.[363][364][365]

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International Bah' Archives building at Bah' World Centre, overlooking the Shrine of the Bb and the Port of Haifa.

Education
Israel has a school life expectancy of 15.5 years[366] and a literacy rate of 97.1% according to the United Nations.[367] The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[368] Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three University and eighteen.[369][370] Schooling is divided into three tiers primary school (grades 16), middle school (grades 79), and high school (grades 1012) culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, the Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, the English language, history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[293] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage.[371] In 2003, over half of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[372] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv University are ranked among the world's top 100 universities by Times Higher Education magazine.[373] Israel ranks third in the world in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).[374][375]
The Brain Research Centre at Bar-Ilan

Culture
Israel's diverse culture stems from the diversity of the population: Jews from around the world have brought their cultural and religious traditions with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs.[376] Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Work and school holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.[377] Israel's substantial Arab minority has also left its imprint on Israeli culture in such spheres as architecture,[378] music,[379] and cuisine.[380]

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Literature
Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages, such as English. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the Jewish National and University Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[382] In 2006, 85percent of the 8,000 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[383] The Hebrew Book Week (He: ) is held each June and features book fairs, public readings, and appearances by Israeli authors around the country. During the week, Israel's top literary award, the Sapir Prize, is presented. In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.[384] Leading Israeli poets have been Yehuda Amichai, Nathan Alterman and Rachel Bluwstein. Internationally famous contemporary Israeli novelists include Amos Oz and David Grossman.
Amos Oz's works have been translated into 36 languages, more [381] than any other Israeli writer.

Israel has also been the home of two leading Palestinian poets and writers: Emile Habibi, whose novel The Secret Life of Saeed the Pessoptimist, and other writings, won him the Israel prize for Arabic literature; and Mahmoud Darwish, considered by many to be "the Palestinian national poet."[385] Darwish was born and raised in northern Israel, but lived his adult life abroad after joining the Palestine Liberation Organization.

Music and dance

Israeli music contains musical influences from all over the world; Sephardic music, Hasidic melodies, Belly dancing music, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock are all part of the music scene.[386][387] The nation's canonical folk songs, known as "Songs of the Land of Israel," deal with the experiences of the pioneers in building the Jewish homeland.[388] The Hora ( )circle dance introduced by early Jewish settlers was originally popular in the Kibbutzim and outlying communities. It became a symbol of the Zionist reconstruction and of Tel Aviv Performing Arts Center. the ability to experience joy amidst austerity. It now plays a significant role in modern Israeli folk dancing and is regularly performed at weddings and other celebrations, and in group dances throughout Israel. Modern dance in Israel is a flourishing field, and several Israeli choreographers such as Ohad Naharin, Rami Beer, Barak Marshall and many others, are considered to be among the most versatile and original international creators working today. Famous Israeli companies include the Batsheva Dance Company and the Kibbutz Contemporary Dance Company.

Israel Among Israel's world-renowned[389][390] orchestras is the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, which has been in operation for over seventy years and today performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[391] Israel has also produced many musicians of note, some achieving international stardom. Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman and Ofra Haza are among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition three times and hosting it twice.[392] Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.[393]

25

Israel Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Zubin Mehta

Israel is home to many Palestinian musicians, including internationally acclaimed oud and violin virtuoso Taiseer Elias, singer Amal Murkus, and brothers Samir and Wissam Joubran. Israeli Arab musicians have achieved fame beyond Israel's borders: Elias and Murkus frequently play to audiences in Europe and America, and oud player Darwish Darwish (Prof. Elias's student) was awarded first prize in the all-Arab oud contest in Egypt in 2003. The Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance has an advanced degree program, headed by Taiseer Elias, in Arabic music.

Cinema and theatre

Ten Israeli films have been final nominees for Best Foreign Language Film at the Academy Awards since the establishment of Israel. The 2009 movie Ajami was the third consecutive nomination of an Israeli film.[394] Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theater in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.[395] Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made a number of films dealing with the Arab-Israel conflict and the status of Palestinians within Israel, such as Mohammed Bakri's 2002 film Jenin, Jenin and The Syrian Bride.

Museums
The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[396] and houses the Dead Sea scrolls,[397] along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art.[396] Israel's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, is the world central archive of Holocaust-related information.[398] Beth Hatefutsoth (the Diaspora Museum), on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[399]

Shrine of the Book, repository of the Dead Sea Scrolls in Jerusalem

Apart from the major museums in large cities, there are high-quality artspaces in many towns and kibbutzim. Mishkan Le'Omanut on Kibbutz Ein Harod Meuhad is the largest art museum in the north of the country.[400] Several museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including the Rockefeller Museum, which specializes in archaeological remains from the Ottoman and other periods of Middle East history, and the L. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art, also in Jerusalem.

Israel

26

Cuisine
Israeli cuisine includes local dishes as well as dishes brought to the country by Jewish immigrants from around the world. Since the establishment of the State in 1948, and particularly since the late 1970s, an Israeli fusion cuisine has developed. Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of various styles of Jewish cuisine, particularly the Mizrahi, Sephardic, and Ashkenazi styles of cooking, along with Moroccan Jewish, Iraqi Jewish, Ethiopian Jewish, Indian Jewish, Iranian Jewish and Yemeni Jewish influences. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in the Arab, Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines, such as falafel, hummus, shakshouka, couscous, and za'atar, which have become common ingredients in Israeli cuisine.

Sufganiyot served on Hanukkah

Sports
The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish athletes and Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. In 1964 Israel hosted and won the Asian Nations Cup; in 1970 the Israel national football team managed to qualify to the FIFA World Cup, which is still considered the biggest achievement of Israeli football. Israel was excluded from the 1978 Asian Games due to Arab pressure on the organizers. The exclusion left Israel in limbo and it ceased competing in Asian competitions.[401] In 1994, UEFA agreed to admit Israel and all Israeli sporting organizations now compete in Europe.

Ramat Gan Stadium, Israel's largest stadium

The most popular spectator sports in Israel are association football and basketball.[402] The Israeli Premier League is the country's premier football league, and the Israeli Basketball Super League is the premier basketball league.[403] Maccabi Haifa, Maccabi Tel Aviv, Hapoel Tel Aviv and Beitar Jerusalem are the largest sports clubs. Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in the UEFA Champions League and Hapoel Tel Aviv reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals. Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball five times.[404] Israeli tennis champion Shahar Pe'er ranked 11th in the world on 31 January 2011. Chess is a leading sport in Israel and is enjoyed by people of all ages. There are many Israeli grandmasters and Israeli chess players have won a number of youth world championships.[405] Israel stages an annual international championship and hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005. The Ministry of Education and the World Chess Federation agreed upon a project of teaching chess within Israeli schools, and it has been introduced into the curriculum of some schools.[406][407][408] The city of Beersheba has become a national chess center, with the game being taught in the city's kindergartens. Chess players in Ein HaHoresh, 1930s Owing partly to Soviet immigration, it is home to the largest number of [409][410] chess grandmasters of any city in the world. The Israeli chess team won the silver medal at the 2008 Chess Olympiad[411] and the bronze, coming in third among 148 teams, at the

Israel 2010 Olympiad. Israeli grandmaster Boris Gelfand won the Chess World Cup in 2009[412] and the 2011 Candidates Tournament for the right to challenge the world champion. He only lost the World Chess Championship 2012 to reigning world champion Anand after a speed-chess tie breaker. Krav Maga, a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders during the struggle against fascism in Europe, is used by the Israeli security forces and police. Its effectiveness and practical approach to self-defense, have won it widespread admiration and adherence round the world. To date, Israel has won seven Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.[413] Israel has won over 100 gold medals in the Paralympic Games and is ranked about 15th in the all-time medal count. The 1968 Summer Paralympics were hosted by Israel.[414]

27

Notes
a. The Jerusalem Law states that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the government, home to the President's residence, government offices, supreme court, and parliament. United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (20 August 1980; 140, U.S. abstaining) declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void" and called on member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from Jerusalem. The United Nations and all member nations refuse to accept the Jerusalem Law (see Kellerman 1993, p.140) and maintain their [415] [416] embassies in other cities such as Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan, and Herzliya (see the CIA Factbook and Map of Israel ). The U.S. Congress subsequently adopted the Jerusalem Embassy Act, which said that the U.S. embassy should be relocated to Jerusalem and that it should be recognized as the capital of Israel. However, the US Justice Department Office of Legal Counsel concluded that the provisions of the act "invade exclusive presidential authorities in the field of foreign affairs and are unconstitutional". Since passage of the act, all Presidents serving in office have determined that moving forward with the relocation would be detrimental to U.S. national security concerns and opted to issue waivers suspending any action on this front. The Palestinian Authority sees East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state . The city's final status awaits future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority (see "Negotiating Jerusalem," PalestineIsrael [417] Journal ). See Positions on Jerusalem for more information.

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28

Israel
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[352] Judaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, BRILL, 2001, p. 155 [353] Art and Judaism in the Greco-Roman world: toward a new Jewish archaeology, Steven Fine, Cambridge University Press, 2005, pp. 1314 [354] McMahon, Arthur .L."Holy Sepulchre". Retrieved 2 February 2009. [355] Elazar, Daniel J. "Religion in Israel: A Consensus for Jewish Tradition" (http:/ / www. jcpa. org/ dje/ articles2/ relinisr-consensus. htm). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 6 September 2007. [356] "The other Israeli conflict: with itself" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ World/ Middle-East/ 2010/ 0709/ The-other-Israeli-conflict-with-itself). The Christian Science Monitor. 9 July 2010. [357] "At the edge of the abyss" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ print-edition/ opinion/ at-the-edge-of-the-abyss-1. 3538). Haaretz. 24 November 2009. 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38

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[359] Bassok, Moti (25 December 2006). "Israel's Christian population numbers 148,000 as of Christmas Eve" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ news/ israel-s-christian-population-numbers-148-000-as-of-christmas-eve-1. 208151). Haaretz. Retrieved 26 April 2012. [360] "National Population Estimates" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ shnaton53/ st_eng02. pdf) (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics. p.27. Retrieved 6 August 2007. [361] "Israel's disputatious Avigdor Lieberman: Can the coalition hold together?" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ node/ 15675691). The Economist. 11 March 2010. Retrieved 12 August 2012. [362] Levine, Lee I. (1999). Jerusalem: its sanctity and centrality to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Continuum International Publishing Group. p.516. ISBN978-0-8264-1024-5. [363] Hebrew Phrasebook. Lonely Planet Publications. 1 November 1999. p.156. ISBN0-86442-528-7. [364] "The Bah' World Centre: Focal Point for a Global Community" (http:/ / info. bahai. org/ article-1-6-0-5. html). 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"Encounters: The Vernacular Paradox of Israeli Architecture" (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ MFA+ Publications/ Photo+ exhibits/ Encounters-+ The+ Vernacular+ Paradox+ of+ Israeli+ Arch-+ Intro. htm). Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 6 September 2007. [379] Brinn, David (23 October 2005). "Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian DJs create bridge for peace" (http:/ / www. israel21c. org/ culture/ israeli-palestinian-and-jordanian-djs-create-bridge-for-peace). ISRAEL21c. Retrieved 20 March 2012. [380] "The International Israeli Table" (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ History/ Modern History/ Israel at 50/ The International Israeli Table). Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 26 June 2009. [381] "Amos Oz is most translated Israeli author" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3668919,00. html). Ynetnews. 10 February 2009. [382] "Depositing Books to The Jewish National & University Library" (http:/ / jnul. huji. ac. il/ eng/ lgd. html). 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[389] Ben-Sasson 1985, p.1095 [390] Ewbank, Alison J. (1997). Whose Master's Voice?: The Development of Popular Music in Thirteen Cultures. Greenwood Press. p.117. ISBN978-0-313-27772-6. [391] Davis, Barry (5 February 2007). "Israel Philharmonic Orchestra celebrates 70th anniversary" (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Israel+ beyond+ politics/ Israel+ Philharmonic+ Orchestra+ celebrates+ 70th+ anniversary+ 5-Feb-2007. htm). Ministry of Foreign Affairs (from Israel21c). Retrieved 13 August 2007. [392] "Israel" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071225025137/ http:/ / www. eurovision. tv/ content/ view/ 537/ 1). Eurovision Song Contest (European Broadcasting Union). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. eurovision. tv/ content/ view/ 537/ 1) on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 13 August 2007. [393] "About the Red Sea Jazz Festival" (http:/ / www. redseajazzeilat. com/ en/ about/ ). Red Sea Jazz Festival. Retrieved 20 March 2012. [394] Brown, Hannah (2 February 2010). "'Ajami' nominated for Oscar" (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ ArtsAndCulture/ Entertainment/ Article. aspx?id=167582). Jerusalem Post. [395] (Hebrew) "( " http:/ / www. habima. co. il/ ). Habima National Theatre. Retrieved 13 August 2007. [396] "About the Museum" (http:/ / www. imj. org. il/ eng/ about/ index. html). The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 13 August 2007. [397] "Shrine of the Book" (http:/ / www. imj. org. il/ eng/ shrine/ index. html). The Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Retrieved 13 August 2007. [398] "About Yad Vashem" (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ yv/ en/ about/ index. asp). Yad Vashem. Retrieved 20 March 2012. [399] "Museum Information" (http:/ / www. bh. org. il/ about-us. aspx). Beth Hatefutsoth. Retrieved 13 August 2007. [400] TravelNet in cooperation with Israel museums|| "Mishkan LeOmanut, Ein Harod" (http:/ / www. ilmuseums. com/ museum_eng. asp?id=183). Ilmuseums.com. Retrieved 13 March 2009. [401] Montague, James (27 February 2008). "Time is right for Israel to return to its Asian roots" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ football/ 2008/ feb/ 27/ worldcup2010). The Guardian (London). Retrieved 4 May 2010. [402] Torstrick 2004, p.141 [403] "Basketball Super League Profile" (http:/ / www. basket. co. il/ Data. asp?id=1& lang=en). Winner Basketball Super League. Retrieved 13 August 2007. [404] Bouskila, Daniel (13 May 2005). "Israel Wins More Than Hoop Crown" (http:/ / www. jewishjournal. com/ opinion/ article/ israel_wins_more_than_hoop_crown_20050513/ ). The Jewish Journal. Retrieved 21 August 2007. [405] "Pawn stars shine in new 'national sport'" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ print-edition/ news/ pawn-stars-shine-in-new-national-sport-1. 317002). Haaretz. Retrieved 21 May 2012. [406] "Chess In Schools in Israel A progress report" (http:/ / www. fide. com/ component/ content/ article/ 1-fide-news/ 5656-chess-in-schools-in-israel-a-progress-report. html). FIDE. Retrieved 21 May 2012. [407] "Ashdod schools to incorporate chess into curriculum" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ print-edition/ news/ ashdod-schools-to-incorporate-chess-into-curriculum-1. 282917). Haaretz. Retrieved 21 May 2012. [408] "Israel is introducing chess to the school curriculum" (http:/ / www. fide. com/ component/ content/ article/ 1-fide-news/ 4947-israel-is-introducing-chess-to-the-school-curriculum. html). FIDE. Retrieved 21 May 2012. [409] Bekerman, Eitan (4 September 2006). "Chess masters set to blitz Rishon Letzion" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ print-edition/ news/ chess-masters-set-to-blitz-rishon-letzion-1. 196475). Haaretz. [410] "World Team Championship in Beer Sheva, Israel" (http:/ / www. fide. com/ component/ content/ article/ 9-other/ 2182-673-world-team-championship-in-beer-sheva-israel). World Chess Federation. 1 November 2005. Retrieved 13 March 2009. [411] Tzahor, Uri (26 November 2008). "Israel takes silver medal in Chess Olympiad" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3628765,00. html). Ynetnews. [412] Shvidler, Eli (15 December 2009). "Israeli grand master Boris Gelfand wins Chess World Cup" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ news/ israeli-grand-master-boris-gelfand-wins-chess-world-cup-1. 2120). Haaretz. [413] "Israel" (http:/ / www. olympic. org/ israel). International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 20 March 2012. [414] "Tel Aviv 1968" (http:/ / www. paralympic. org/ paralympic-games/ tel-aviv-1968). International Paralympic Committee. Retrieved 20 March 2012. [415] https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ is. html [416] http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ Cartographic/ map/ profile/ israel. pdf [417] http:/ / www. pij. org/ details. php?id=460

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Israel

41

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Israel Lustick, Ian (1988). For the Land and the Lord: Jewish Fundamentalism in Israel. Council on Foreign Relations Press. ISBN0-87609-036-6. Mazie, Steven (2006). Israel's Higher Law: Religion and Liberal Democracy in the Jewish State. Lexington Books. ISBN0-7391-1485-9. Morl, Gktu (2006). Handbook of Decision Making. CRC Press. ISBN1-57444-548-0. Mowlana, Hamid; Gerbner, George; Schiller, Herbert I. (1992). Triumph of the File: The Media's War in the Persian Gulf A Global Perspective. Westview Press. ISBN0-8133-1610-3. Roberts, Adam (1990). "Prolonged Military Occupation: The Israeli-Occupied Territories Since 1967". The American Journal of International Law (American Society of International Law) 84 (1): 44103. doi:10.2307/2203016. JSTOR2203016. Romano, Amy (2003). A Historical Atlas of Israel. The Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN0-8239-3978-2. Reveron, Derek S.; Murer, Jeffrey Stevenson (2006). Flashpoints in the War on Terrorism. Routledge. ISBN0-415-95490-8. Rosenzweig, Rafael (1997). The Economic Consequences of Zionism. T Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN90-04-09147-5. Rummel, Rudolph J. (1997). Power Kills: Democracy As a Method of Nonviolence. Transaction Publishers. ISBN0-7658-0523-5. Sampter, Jessie (2007). "Jewish Colonization Before 1917" (http://books.google.com/?id=3QZ8wqJUfgEC& printsec=frontcover&q=). Modern Palestine A Symposium. READ BOOKS. p.444. ISBN978-1-4067-3834-6. Scharfstein, Sol (1996). Understanding Jewish History. KTAV Publishing House. ISBN0-88125-545-9. Shindler, Colin (2002). The Land Beyond Promise: Israel, Likud and the Zionist Dream. I.B.Tauris Publishers. ISBN1-86064-774-X. Skolnik, Fred (2007). Encyclopedia Judaica. 9 (2nd ed.). Macmillian. ISBN0-02-865928-7. Smith, Derek (2006). Deterring America: Rogue States and the Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-86465-8. Stein, Leslie (2003). The Hope Fulfilled: The Rise of Modern Israel. Greenwood Press. ISBN0-275-97141-4. Stendel, Ori (1997). The Arabs in Israel. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN1-898723-23-0. Stone, Russell A.; Zenner, Walter P. (1994). Critical Essays on Israeli Social Issues and Scholarship. SUNY Press. ISBN0-7914-1959-2. Torstrick, Rebecca L. (2004). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Press. ISBN0-313-32091-8. Wenham, Gordon J. (1994). Word Biblical Commentary. 2. (Genesis 1650). Dallas, Texas: Word Books. ISBN0-8499-0201-0.

42

External links
Israel Government Portal (http://www.gov.il/firstgov/english) Israel (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/is.html) entry at The World Factbook Israel (http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/israel.htm) web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of ColoradoBoulder Libraries Key Development Forecasts for Israel (http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=IL) from International Futures Wikimedia Atlas of Israel Israel (http://www.wikimapia.org/#lat=31.7655374&lon=35.2331543&z=7&l=1&m=b) satellite view at WikiMapia Geographic data related to Israel (http://www.openstreetmap.org/browse/relation/1473946) at OpenStreetMap Official website (http://www.goisrael.com/Tourism_Eng/Pages/home.aspx) of the Israel Tourism Ministry

Israel Israel (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Israel/) at the Open Directory Project

43

Tel Aviv
Tel Aviv -

Tel Aviv at dusk

Flag Coat of arms Nickname(s): The White City, The City That Never Sleeps, The Big Orange

Tel Aviv
Location in Israel Coordinates: 324N 3447E Country District Israel Tel Aviv

Tel Aviv

44
Metropolitan Area Founded Government Type Body Mayor Area City Urban Metro Elevation Population (2011) City Rank Density Densityrank Urban Urbandensity Metro Metrodensity Demonym Ethnicity Jews Muslims Christians Unclassified Time zone Summer(DST) Postal code Area code Website 91% 3% 1% 5% IST (UTC+2) IDT (UTC+3) 61999 +972 (Israel) 3 (City) tel-aviv.gov.il [2] [1] 405,000 2nd in Israel 7,955.4/km2 (20,604/sqmi) 12th in Israel 1,295,000 7297.7/km2 (18,901/sqmi) 3,401,700 2193.7/km2 (5,682/sqmi) Tel Avivi 52km2 (20sqmi) 176km2 (68sqmi) 1516km2 (585sqmi) 5m (16ft) Mayor-council Tel Aviv municipality Ron Huldai (Labor) Gush Dan 20 April 1909

Tel Aviv (Hebrew: ;Arabic: ) is the second most populous city in Israel, with a population of 405,000 and a land area of 52km2 (20sqmi).[1] The city is located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline in central-west Israel. It is the largest and most populous city in the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area, home to 3,401,700 residents.[3] The city is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo municipality, headed by Ron Huldai. Residents of Tel Aviv are referred to as Tel Avivim.[4] As the United Nations and many countries do not recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel, Tel Aviv is home to most foreign embassies.[5]

Tel Aviv Tel Aviv was founded by the Jewish community on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa (Hebrew: Yafo; Arabic: Yf) in 1909. Jewish immigration meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced Jaffa, which had a majority Arab population at the time.[6] Tel Aviv and Jaffa were merged into a single municipality in 1950, two years after the establishment of the State of Israel. Tel Aviv's White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, comprises the world's largest concentration of Bauhaus buildings.[7][8][9] Tel Aviv is an economic hub, home to the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange, corporate offices and research and development centers.[10] It is the country's financial capital and a major performing arts and business center.[11] Tel Aviv has the second-largest economy in the Middle East after Dubai, and is the 31st most expensive city in the world.[12] With 2.5 million international visitors annually, Tel Aviv is the fifth-most-visited city in the Middle East & Africa.[13][14] It is known as "the city that never sleeps" and a "party capital" due to its thriving nightlife, young atmosphere and famous 24-hour culture.[15][16]

45

Etymology
Tel Aviv is the Hebrew title of Theodor Herzl's Altneuland ("Old New Land"), translated from German by Nahum Sokolow. Sokolow had adopted the name of a Mesopotamian site in Ezekiel3:15: "Then I came to them of the captivity at Tel Abib, that lived by the river Chebar, and to where they lived; and I sat there overwhelmed among them seven days.";[17] The name was chosen in 1910 from several suggestions, including "Herzliya". It was found fitting as it embraced the idea of a renaissance in the ancient Jewish homeland. Aviv is Hebrew for "spring", symbolizing renewal, and tel is a man-made mound accumulating layers of civilization built one over the other and symbolizing the ancient.[18] Theories vary about the etymology of Jaffa or Yafo in Hebrew. Some believe that the name derives from yafah or yofi, Hebrew for "beautiful" or "beauty". Another tradition is that Japheth, son of Noah, founded the city and that it was named after him.[19]

History
Jaffa
The ancient port of Jaffa changed hands many times in the course of history. Archeological excavations from 1955 to 1974 unearthed towers and gates from the Middle Bronze Age.[20] Subsequent excavations, from 1997 onwards, helped date earlier discoveries.[20] They also exposed sections of a packed-sandstone glacis and a "massive brick wall", dating from the Late Bronze Age as well as a temple "attributed to the Sea Peoples" and dwellings from the Iron Age.[20] Remnants of buildings from the Persian and Hellenistic periods were also discovered.[20] The city, Jaffa, is first mentioned in letters from 1470 BC that record its conquest by Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III.[9] Jaffa is mentioned several times in the Bible, as the port from which Jonah set sail for Tarshish;[21] as bordering on the territory of the Tribe of Dan;[22] and as the Jaffa Port at which the wood for Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem arrived from Lebanon.[23] Jaffa is also mentioned as the place where the Apostle Peter raised Tabitha and visited Simon the Tanner.[24] According to some sources it has been a port for at least 4,000years.[19]
Port of Jaffa in 1906

Tel Aviv

46

In 1099, the Christian armies of the First Crusade, led by Godfrey of Bouillon occupied Jaffa, which had been abandoned by the Muslims, fortified the town and improved its harbor.[25] As the County of Jaffa, the town soon became important as the main sea supply route for the Kingdom of Jerusalem.[26] Jaffa was captured by Saladin in 1192 but swiftly re-taken by Richard the Lionheart, who added to its defenses.[27] In 1223, Emperor Frederick II added further fortifications.[27] Crusader domination ended in 1268, when the Lottery for building plots in Tel Aviv, 1909 Mamluk Sultan Baibars captured the town, destroyed its harbor and razed its fortifications.[27][28] In 1336, when a new Crusade was being planned, Al-Nasir Muhammad had the harbor destroyed to prevent the Franks from landing there.[29] For the same reason, both the town and the harbor were destroyed in 1345.[29] In the 16thcentury, Jaffa was conquered by the Ottomans and was administered as a village in the Sanjak of Gaza.[28] Napoleon besieged the city in 1799 and killed scores of inhabitants; a plague epidemic followed, decimating the remaining population.[28] The surrendering garrison of several thousand Muslims was massacred.[30] Jaffa began to grow as an urban center in the early 18th century, when the Ottoman government in Istanbul intervened to guard the port and reduce attacks by Bedouins and pirates.[28] However, the real expansion came during the 19th century, when the population grew from 2,500 in 1806 to 17,000 in 1886.[9] From 1800 to 1870, many of Jaffa's old walls and towers were torn down to allow for expansion.[31] The sea wall, 2.5 metres (8.2ft) high, remained intact until the 1930s, when it was built over during a renovation of the port by the British Mandatory authorities.[31] During the mid-19th century, the city grew prosperous from trade, especially in silk and Jaffa oranges, with Europe.[9] In the 1860s Jaffa's small Sephardic community was joined by Jews from Morocco and small numbers of Ashkenazi Jews. By 1882, the Jewish population had reached more than 1,500.[9] The first Jews to settle outside of Jaffa, in the area of modern day Tel Aviv, were Yemenite Jews. These homes, built in 1881, later became the core of Kerem HaTeimanim (Hebrew for "the Vineyard of the Yemenites"). In 1896 Yemenite Jews established homes at Mahane Yehuda, and in 1904, Mahane Yossef. These neighbourhoods later became the Shabazi neighbourhood. During the 1880s, Ashkenazi immigration to Jaffa increased with the onset of the First Aliyah. The new arrivals were motivated more by Zionism than religion and came to farm the land and engage in productive labor.[9] In keeping with their "pioneer" ideology, some settled in the sand dunes north of Jaffa.[9] Between 1887 and 1899, Ashkenazi settlers constructed houses at Neve Tzedek.[7]
Builder in Tel Aviv, 1920s

Ahuzat Bayit
The Second Aliyah led to further expansion.[9] In 1906, a group of Jews, among them residents of Jaffa, followed the initiative of Akiva Arye Weiss and banded together to form the Ahuzat Bayit (lit. "homestead") society. The society's goal was to form a "Hebrew urban centre in a healthy environment, planned according to the rules of aesthetics and modern hygiene."[9] The urban planning for the new city was influenced by the Garden city movement.[32] The first 60 plots were purchased in Kerem Djebali near Jaffa by Jacobus Kann, a Dutch citizen, who registered them in his name to circumvent the Turkish prohibition on Jewish land acquisition.[33] Meir Dizengoff, later Tel Aviv's first mayor, also joined the Ahuzat Bayit society.[34][35] His vision for Tel Aviv involved peaceful co-existence with the Arabs.[9]

Tel Aviv

47

In April 1909, 66 Jewish families gathered on a desolate sand dune to parcel out the land by lottery using seashells. This gathering is considered the official date of the establishment of Tel Aviv. The lottery was organised by Akiva Arye Weiss, president of the building society.[36] Weiss collected 120 sea shells on the beach, half of them white and half of them grey. The members' names were written on the white shells and the plot numbers on the grey shells. A boy drew names from one box of shells and a girl drew plot numbers from the Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium in 1936 second box. A photographer, Avraham Soskin, documented the event. The first water well was later dug at this site (today Rothschild Boulevard, across from Dizengoff House).[37] Within a year, Herzl, Ahad Ha'am, Yehuda Halevi, Lilienblum, and Rothschild streets were built; a water system was installed; and 66houses (including some on six subdivided plots) were completed.[32] At the end of Herzl Street, a plot was allocated for a new building for the Herzliya Hebrew High School, founded in Jaffa in 1906.[32] On 21 May 1910, the name Tel Aviv was adopted.[32] Tel Aviv was planned as an independent Hebrew city with wide streets and boulevards, running water at each house and street lights.[38] By 1914, Tel Aviv had grown to more than 1 square kilometre (247acres).[32] However, growth halted in 1917 when the Ottoman authorities expelled the Jews of Jaffa and Tel Aviv.[32] A report published in The New York Times by United States Consul Garrels in Alexandria, Egypt described the Jaffa deportation of early April 1917. The orders of evacuation were aimed chiefly at the Jewish population.[39] Jews were free to return to their homes in Tel Aviv at the end of the following year when, with the end of World War I and the defeat of the Ottomans, the British took control of Palestine.

Under the British Mandate

With increasing Jewish immigration during the British administration, friction between Arabs and Jews in Palestine increased. On 1 May 1921, the Jaffa Riots resulted in the deaths of 48 Arabs and 47 Jews and injuries to 146 Jews and 73 Arabs.[40] In the wake of this violence, many Jews left Jaffa for Tel Aviv, increasing the population of Tel Aviv from 2,000 in 1920 to around 34,000 by 1925.[7][41] Tel Aviv began to develop as a commercial center.[32] In 1925, the Scottish biologist, sociologist, philanthropist and pioneering town planner Patrick Geddes drew up a master plan for Tel Aviv which was adopted by the city council led by Meir Dizengoff. This first plan for developing the northern part of the district was called "The Geddes Plan",[9] whose core idea was the development of a Garden City or "urban village," combining the best of urban and rural life.[42] The boundaries used by Geddes, the Yarkon River in the North and Ibn Gvirol Street in the East, are now the boundaries of Tel Aviv's Old North.

Master plan for Tel Aviv by Patrick Geddes, 1925

Tel Aviv

48 Ben Gurion House was built in 193031, part of a new worker's housing development. At the same time, Jewish cultural life was given a boost by the establishment of the Ohel Theater and the decision of Habima Theatre to make Tel Aviv its permanent base in 1931.[32]

Tel Aviv was granted municipal status in 1934.[32] The Jewish population rose dramatically during the Fifth Aliyah after the Nazis came to power in Germany.[32] By 1937 the Jewish population of Tel Aviv had risen to 150,000, compared to Jaffa's mainly Arab the British pavilion in the Orient Fair, 1934 69,000residents. Within two years, it had reached 160,000, which was over a third of Palestine's total [32] Jewish population. Many new Jewish immigrants to Palestine disembarked in Jaffa, and remained in Tel Aviv, turning the city into a center of urban life. Friction during the 193639 Arab revolt, led to the opening of a local Jewish port, Tel Aviv Port, independent of Jaffa, in 1938, (it closed on 25 October 1965). Lydda Airport (later Ben Gurion Airport) and Sde Dov Airport opened between 1937 and 1938.[9] Many German Jewish architects trained at the Bauhaus, the Modernist school of architecture fled Germany. Some, like architect Arieh Sharon, came to Palestine and adapted the architectural outlook of the Bauhaus as well as other similar schools, to local conditions, creating what is recognized as the largest concentration of buildings in the International Style in the world.[7][9] Tel Aviv's White City emerged in the 1930s, and became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003. Tel Aviv was hit during the Italian Bombing of Palestine in World War II. On 9 September 1940, 137 were killed in the bombing of Tel Aviv.[43] According to the 1947 UN Partition Plan for dividing Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, Tel Aviv, by then a city of 230,000, was included in the new Jewish state. Jaffa with, as of 1945, a population of 101,580 people, consisting of 53,930 Muslims, 30,820 Jews and 16,800 Christians, was designated as part of the Arab state. The Palestinian Arabs, however, rejected the plan.[9] Between 1947 and 1948, tensions grew between Tel Aviv and Jaffa. When fighting broke out, the Haganah and Irgun Jewish para-military forces laid virtual siege to Jaffa.[9] Arab snipers were reported firing at Jews from the minarets of the Hassan Bek Mosque. From April 1948, the Arab residents of Jaffa were forced to flee. By the time Jaffa had been captured by Jewish forces on 14 May, few Palestinian Arabs remained.[9]

Tel Aviv

49

After Israeli independence

When Israel declared Independence on 14 May 1948, the population of Tel Aviv was over 200,000.[1] Tel Aviv was the temporary government center of the State of Israel until the government moved to Jerusalem in December 1949. Due to the international dispute over the status of Jerusalem, most foreign embassies remained in or near Tel Aviv.[18] In the early 1980s, 13 embassies in Jerusalem moved to Tel Aviv as part of the UN's measures responding to Israel's 1980 Jerusalem Law.[44] Today, all national embassies are in Tel Aviv or environs.[45] The boundaries of Tel Aviv and Jaffa became a matter of contention between the Tel Aviv municipality and the Israeli government in 1948.[46] The former wished to incorporate only the northern Jewish suburbs of Jaffa, while the latter wanted a more complete Crowd outside Dizengoff House (now Independence Hall) to hear declaration and unification.[46] The issue also had international sensitivity, since the signing of Israel's Declaration of Independence in main part of Jaffa was in the Arab portion of the United Nations 1948 Partition Plan, whereas Tel Aviv was not, and no armistice agreements had yet been signed.[46] On 10 December 1948, the government announced the annexation to Tel Aviv of Jaffa's Jewish suburbs, the ex-Arab neighborhood of Abu Kabir, the ex-Arab village of Salama and some of its agricultural land, and the Jewish 'Hatikva' slum.[46] On 25 February 1949, the abandoned Arab village of al-Shaykh Muwannis was also annexed to Tel Aviv.[46] On 18 May 1949, Manshiya and part of Jaffa's central zone were added, for the first time including land that had been in the Arab portion of the UN partition plan.[46] The government voted on the unification of Tel Aviv and Jaffa on 4 October 1949, but the decision was not implemented until 24 April 1950 due to the opposition of Tel Aviv mayor Israel Rokach.[46] The name of the unified city was Tel Aviv until 19 August 1950, when it was renamed Tel Aviv-Yafo in order to preserve the historical name Jaffa.[46] Tel Aviv thus grew to 42 square kilometers (16.2sqmi). In 1949, a memorial to the 60founders of Tel Aviv was constructed.[47] Over the past 60years, Tel Aviv has developed into a secular, liberal-minded center with a vibrant nightlife and caf culture.[9] In the 1960s, some of the older buildings were demolished, making way for the country's first high-rises. Shalom Meir Tower was Israel's tallest building until 1999. Tel Aviv's population peaked in the early 1960s at 390,000, representing 16percent of the country's total.[48] A long period of steady decline followed, however, and by the late 1980s the city had an aging population of 317,000.[48] High property prices pushed families out and deterred young people from moving in.[48] At this time, gentrification began in the poor neighborhoods of southern Tel Aviv, and the old port in the north was renewed.[9] New laws were introduced to protect Modernist buildings, and efforts to preserve them were aided by UNESCO recognition of the Tel Aviv's White City as a world heritage site. In the early 1990s, the decline in population was reversed, partly due to the large wave of immigrants from the former Soviet Union.[48] Tel Aviv also began to emerge as a high-tech center.[9] The construction of many skyscrapers and high-tech office buildings followed. In 1993, Tel Aviv was categorized as a world city.[49] The city is regarded as a strong candidate for global city status.[11]

Tel Aviv

50

In the Gulf War in 1991, Tel Aviv was attacked by Scud missiles from Iraq. Iraq hoped to provoke an Israeli military response, which could have destroyed the US-Arab alliance. The United States pressured Israel not to retaliate, and after Israel acquiesced, the US and Netherlands rushed Patriot missiles to defend against the attacks, but they proved largely ineffective. Tel Aviv and other Israeli cities continued to be hit by Scuds throughout the war, and every city in the Tel Aviv area except for Bnei Brak was hit. A total of 74 Israelis died as a result of the Iraqi attacks, mostly from suffocation and heart A Bauhaus street caf in Florentin, Tel Aviv. attacks,[50] while approximately 230 Israelis were injured.[51] Extensive property damage was also caused, and some 4,000 Israelis were left homeless. It was feared that Iraq would fire missiles filled with nerve agents or sarin. As a result, the Israeli government issued gas masks to its citizens. When the first Iraqi missiles hit Israel, some people injected themselves with an antidote for nerve gas. The inhabitants of the southeastern suburb of HaTikva erected an angel-monument as a sign of their gratitude that "it was through a great miracle, that many people were preserved from being killed by a direct hit of a Scud rocket."[52] On 4 November 1995, Israel's prime minister, Yitzhak Rabin, was assassinated at a rally in Tel Aviv in support of the Oslo peace accord. The outdoor plaza where this occurred, formerly known as Kikar Malchei Yisrael, was renamed Rabin Square.[9] In 2009, Tel Aviv celebrated its official centennial.[53] In addition to city- and country-wide celebrations, digital collections of historical materials were assembled. These include the History section of the official Tel Aviv-Yafo Centennial Year website;[53] the Ahuzat Bayit collection, which focuses on the founding families of Tel Aviv, and includes photographs and biographies;[54] and Stanford University's Eliasaf Robinson Tel Aviv Collection [55],[56] documenting the history of the city. Arab-Israeli conflict Since the First Intifada, Tel Aviv has suffered from Palestinian political violence. The first suicide attack in Tel Aviv occurred on 19 October 1994, on the Line 5 bus, when a bomber killed 22 civilians and injured 50 as part of a Hamas suicide campaign.[57] On 6 March 1996, another Hamas suicide bomber killed 13 people (12 civilians and 1 soldier) in the Dizengoff Center suicide bombing.[58][59] Three women were killed by a Hamas terrorist in the Caf Apropo bombing on 27 March 1997.[60][61][62] One of the most deadly attacks occurred on 1 June 2001, during the Second Intifada, when a suicide bomber exploded at the entrance to the Dolphinarium discotheque, killing 21, mostly teenagers, and injuring 132.[63][64][65][66] Another Hamas suicide bomber killed six civilians and injured 70 in the Allenby Street bus bombing.[67][68][69][70][71] Twenty-three civilians were killed and over 100 injured in the Tel-Aviv central bus station massacre.[72][73] Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed responsibility for the attack. In the Mike's Place suicide bombing, an attack on a bar by a British Muslim suicide bomber resulted in the deaths of three civilians and wounded over 50.[74] Hamas and Al Aqsa Martyrs Brigades claimed joint responsibility. An Islamic Jihad bomber killed five and wounded over 50 in the 25 February 2005 Stage Club bombing.[75] The most recent suicide attack in the city occurred on 17 April 2006, when 11 people were killed and at least 70 wounded in a suicide bombing near the old central bus station.[76] Another attack took place on 29 August 2011 in which a Palestinian attacker stole an Israeli taxi cab and rammed it into a police checkpoint guarding the popular Haoman 17 nightclub in Tel Aviv which was filled with 2,000[75] Israeli teenagers. After crashing, the assailant went on a stabbing spree, injuring eight people.[75] Due to an Israel Border Police roadblock at the entrance and immediate response of the Border Police team during the subsequent stabbings, a much larger and fatal mass-casualty incident was avoided.[77]

Tel Aviv On 21 November 2012, during Operation Pillar of Defense, the Tel Aviv area was targeted by rockets, and air raid sirens were sounded in the city for the first time since the Gulf War. All of the rockets either missed populated areas or were shot down by an Iron Dome rocket defense battery stationed near the city. During the operation, a bomb blast on a bus wounded at least 28 civilians, three seriously.[78][79][80][81] This was described as a terrorist attack by Israel, Russia, and the United States and was condemned by the United Nations, United States, United Kingdom, France and Russia, whilst Hamas spokesman Sami Abu Zuhri declared that the organisation "blesses" the attack.[82]

51

Geography
Tel Aviv is located around 325N 3448E on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline, in central Israel, the historic land bridge between Europe, Asia and Africa. Immediately north of the ancient port of Jaffa, Tel Aviv lies on land that used to be sand dunes and as such has relatively poor soil fertility. The land has been flattened and has no important gradients; its most notable geographical features are bluffs above the Mediterranean coastline and the Yarkon River mouth.[83] Because of the expansion of Tel Aviv and the Gush Dan region, absolute borders between Tel Aviv and Jaffa and between the city's neighborhoods do not exist. The city is located 60 kilometers (37mi) northwest of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv seen from space 90 kilometers (56mi) south of the city of Haifa.[84] Neighboring cities and towns include Herzliya to the north, Ramat HaSharon to the northeast, Petah Tikva, Bnei Brak, Ramat Gan and Giv'atayim to the east, Holon to the southeast, and Bat Yam to the south.[85] The city is economically stratified between the north and south. Southern Tel Aviv is generally reputed to be poorer than Northern Tel Aviv with the exception of Neve Tzedek and some recent development on Jaffa beach. Central Tel Aviv is home to Azrieli Center and the important financial and commerce district along Ayalon Highway. The northern side of Tel Aviv is home to Tel Aviv University, Hayarkon Park, and upscale residential neighborhoods such as Ramat Aviv and Afeka.[86]

Climate
Tel Aviv has a Mediterranean climate (Kppen climate classification Csa) with hot, humid summers, unpredictable springs and autumns, and cool, rainy winters. Humidity tends to be high year-round due to ocean breeze. In winter, average temperatures are usually between 9 C (48F) and 17 C (63F), with temperatures as low as 7 C (45F) and as high as 20 C (68F) occurring several times a winter.[87] In summer, average temperatures are usually between 24 C (75F) and 30 C (86F). Heatwaves are most common during spring, with temperatures as high as 35 C (95F). There are barely any days in the year without sunshine, and even during the winter there are many clear days. Tel Aviv averages 532 millimeters (20.9in) of precipitation annually, which mostly occurs in the months of October through April. Winter is the wettest season, often accompanied by heavy showers and thunderstorms. Snow is extremely rare, with the last recorded snowfall within city limits occurring in February 1950. The rainiest month on record was January 2000 with 424.9mm (16.73in). The rainiest day on record was 8 November 1955 with 133mm (5.24in). However, Tel Aviv enjoys plenty of sunshine throughout the year with more than 300sunny days annually.

Tel Aviv

52

Climate data for Tel Aviv (19162007) Month Record high C (F) Average high C (F) Daily mean C (F) Average low C (F) Record low C (F) Rainfall mm (inches) %humidity Avg. rainy days Mean monthly sunshine hours Jan
26.8 (80.2) 17.5 (63.5) 13.0 (55.4) 9.6 (49.3) 2.5 (36.5)

Feb
29.6 (85.3) 17.7 (63.9) 13.8 (56.8) 9.8 (49.6) 1.9

Mar
35.2 (95.4) 19.2 (66.6) 15.4 (59.7) 11.5 (52.7) 3.5 (38.3)

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug
34.4 (93.9) 30.2 (86.4) 27.0 (80.6) 23.7 (74.7) 20 (68)

Sep
35.4 (95.7) 29.4 (84.9) 26.0 (78.8) 22.5 (72.5) 15.7 (60.3)

Oct
38.4 (101.1) 27.3 (81.1) 23.2 (73.8) 19.1 (66.4) 11.6 (52.9)

Nov
35.3 (95.5) 23.4 (74.1) 19.0 (66.2) 14.6 (58.3) 6.0 (42.8)

Dec
27.9 (82.2) 19.2 (66.6) 15.2 (59.4) 11.2 (52.2) 4.0 (39.2)

Year
46.5 (115.7) 24.04 (75.27) 20.3 (68.5) 16.44 (61.59) 1.9

40.4 46.5 37.6 37.4 (104.7) (115.7) (99.7) (99.3) 22.8 (73) 18.6 (65.5) 14.4 (57.9) 7.0 (44.6) 24.9 (76.8) 21.1 (70) 17.3 (63.1) 11.2 (52.2) 27.5 29.4 (81.5) (84.9) 24.1 26.2 (75.4) (79.2) 20.6 23.0 (69.1) (73.4) 15 (59) 0.0 (0) 70 0.0 357.0 19 (66) 0.0 (0) 70 0.0 368.9

126.9 90.1 60.6 18.0 2.3 (4.996) (3.547) (2.386) (0.709) (0.091) 73 12.8 192.2 71 10.0 205.9 69 8.5 235.6 65 3.1 270.0 68 0.8 328.6
[87][88]

0.7 1.4 26.3 79.3 126.4 532 (0.028) (0.055) (1.035) (3.122) (4.976) (20.94) 70 0.3 356.5 67 0.3 300.0 66 3.2 279.0 66 7.5 234.0
[89]

72 10.9 189.1

69 57.4 3,316.8

Source: Israel Meteorological Service,

Hong Kong Observatory for data of sunshine hours

Local government
Tel Aviv is governed by a 31-member city council elected for a five-year term in direct proportional elections.[90] All Israeli citizens over the age of 18 with at least one year of residence in Tel Aviv are eligible to vote in municipal elections. The municipality is responsible for social services, community programs, public infrastructure, urban planning, tourism and other local affairs.[91][92][93] The Tel Aviv City Hall is located at Rabin Square. Ron Huldai has been mayor of Tel Aviv since 1998.[90] Huldai was reelected in the 2008 municipal Rabin Square and Tel Aviv City Hall looking elections, defeating Dov Henin's list.[94] The longest serving mayor northwest was Shlomo Lahat, who was in office for 19years. The shortest serving was David Bloch, in office for two years, 192527. Outside the kibbutzim, Meretz receives more votes in Tel Aviv than in any other city in Israel.[95]

Mayors

Tel Aviv

53

Mayors of Tel Aviv

Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Meir Dizengoff David Bloch Meir Dizengoff Israel Rokach Chaim Levanon Mordechai Namir Term Party

19211925 General Zionists 19251927 Ahdut HaAvoda 19281936 General Zionists 19361952 General Zionists 19531959 General Zionists 19591969 Mapai

Yehoshua Rabinovitz 19691974 Alignment Shlomo Lahat Roni Milo 19741993 Likud 19931998 Likud 1998 Tel Aviv 1

10 Ron Huldai

City council
The coalition is led by Tel Aviv 1 and consists of 23 of 31 seats.

Tel Aviv City Council, 2008

Party Tel Aviv 1 City for All Power for Pensioners Meretz City Majority The Greens Likud United Torah Judaism Shas Seats 5 5 3 3 3 2 2 2 2

Latet Lihyot Let Live 2 Social Justice Jaffa 1 1

Tel Aviv

54

Education
In 2006, 51,359children attended school in Tel Aviv, of whom 8,977were in municipal kindergartens, 23,573 in municipal elementary schools, and 18,809 in high schools.[96] Sixty-four percent of students in the city are entitled to matriculation, more than 5 percent higher than the national average.[96] About 4,000 children are in first grade at schools in the city, and population growth is expected to raise this number to 6,000 by 2012.[97] As a result, 20additional kindergarten classes were opened in 200809 in the city. A new elementary school is planned north of Sde Dov as well as a new high school in northern Tel Aviv.[97] The first Hebrew high school, called Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium, was built in 1905 on Herzl Street. It was demolished in 1962. Tel Aviv University, the largest university in Israel, is known internationally for its physics, computer science, chemistry and linguistics departments. Together with Bar-Ilan University in neighboring Ramat Gan, the student population numbers over 50,000, including a sizeable international community.[98][99] Its campus is located in the neighborhood of Ramat Aviv.[100] Tel Aviv also has several colleges.[101] The Herzliya Hebrew Gymnasium moved from Jaffa to Tel Aviv in 1909. The school continues to operate, although it has moved to Jabotinsky Street.[102] Other notable schools in Tel Aviv include Shevah Mofet, the second Hebrew school in the city, Ironi Alef High School for Arts and Alliance.

The Vladimir Schreiber Institute of Mathematics in Tel Aviv University

Demographics
Tel Aviv has a population of 405,000 spread over a land area of 52,000 dunams (52km2) (20mi), yielding a population density of 7,606 people per square kilometer (19,699 per square mile). According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), as of 2009 Tel Aviv's population is growing at an annual rate of 0.5 percent Jews of all backgrounds form 91.8 percent of the population, Muslim and Arab Christian make up 4.2 percent, and the remainder belong to other groups (including various Christian and Asian communities).[103] As Tel Aviv is a multicultural city, many languages are spoken in addition to Hebrew. According to some estimates, about 50,000 unregistered Asian foreign workers live in the city.[104] Compared with Westernised cities, crime in Tel Aviv is relatively low.[105] According to Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, the average income in the city, which has an unemployment rate of 6.9 percent, is 20 percent above the national average.[96] The city's education standards are above the national average: of its 12th-grade students, 64.4 percent are eligible for matriculation certificates.[96] The age profile is relatively even, with 22.2 percent aged under 20, 18.5 percent aged 2029, 24 percent aged 3044, 16.2 percent aged between 45 and 59, and 19.1 percent older than 60.[106] Tel Aviv's population reached a peak in the early 1960s at around 390,000, falling to 317,000 in the late 1980s as high property prices forced families out and deterred young couples from moving in.[48] Since the mass immigration from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s, population has steadily grown.[48] Today, the city's population is young and growing.[97] In 2006, 22,000people moved to the city, while only 18,500 left,[97] and many of the new families had young children. The population is expected to reach 450,000 by 2025; meanwhile, the average age of residents fell from 35.8 in 1983 to 34 in 2008.[97] The population over age 65 stands at 14.6 percent compared with 19% in 1983.[97]

Tel Aviv

55

Religion
Though mostly secular, Tel Aviv has 544 active synagogues,[107] including historic buildings such as the Great Synagogue, established in the 1930s.[108] In 2008, a center for secular Jewish Studies and a secular yeshiva opened in the city.[109] Tensions between religious and secular Jews before the gay pride parade ended in vandalism of a synagogue.[110] The number of churches has grown to accommodate the religious needs of diplomats and foreign workers.[111] The population consists of 93% Jewish, 1% Muslim, and 1% Christian. The remaining 5 percent are not classified by religion.[112] Israel Meir Lau The Great Synagogue is chief rabbi of the city.[113] Tel Aviv is an ethnically diverse city. The Jewish population, which forms the majority group in Tel Aviv consists of immigrants from all parts of the world and their descendants, including Ashkenazi Jews from Europe, North America, South America and South Africa, as well as Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews from Southern Europe, North Africa, India, Central Asia, West Asia,and the Arabian Peninsula. There are also a sizable number of Ethiopian Jews and their descendants living in Tel Aviv. In addition to Muslim and Arab Christian minorities in the city, several hundred Armenian Christians who reside in the city are concentrated mainly in Jaffa and some Christians from the former Soviet Union who immigrated to Israel with Jewish spouses and relatives. In recent years, Tel Aviv has received many non-Jewish migrants, students, foreign workers (documented and undocumented) and refugees. There are many refugees from African countries located near the Central Bus Station.[114]

Neighborhoods
Tel Aviv is divided into nine districts that have formed naturally over the city's short history. The oldest of these is Jaffa, the ancient port city out of which Tel Aviv grew. This area is traditionally made up demographically of a greater percentage of Arabs, but recent gentrification is replacing them with a young professional and artist population. Similar processes are occurring in nearby Neve Tzedek, the original Jewish neighborhood outside of Jaffa. Ramat Aviv, a district in the northern part of the city that is largely made up of luxury apartments and includes Tel Aviv University, is currently undergoing Kerem HaTeimanim is a predominantly extensive expansion and is set to absorb the beachfront property of Sde Yemenite Jewish neighborhood in the center of [115] Dov Airport after its decommissioning. The area known as Tel Aviv HaKirya is the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) headquarters and a large military base.[86] Historically, there was a demographic split between the Ashkenazi northern side of the city, including the district of Ramat Aviv, and the southern, more Sephardi and Mizrahi neighborhoods including Neve Tzedek and Florentin.[9] Since the 1980s, major restoration and gentrification projects have been implemented in southern Tel Aviv.[9] Baruch Yoscovitz, city planner for Tel Aviv beginning in 2001, reworked old British plans for the Florentin neighborhood from the 1920s, adding green areas, pedestrian malls, and housing. The municipality invested 2 million shekels in the project. The goal was to make Florentin the Soho of Tel Aviv, and attract artists and young professionals.[116] Florentin is now known as a hip, "cool" place to be in Tel Aviv with coffeehouses, markets, bars, galleries and parties.[117]

Tel Aviv

56

Cityscape

View of Tel Aviv from Azrieli Center

View of Tel Aviv from Moshe Aviv Tower

Architecture
Tel Aviv is home to different architectural styles that represent influential periods in its history. The early architecture of Tel Aviv consisted largely of European-style single-story houses with red-tiled roofs.[118] Neve Tzedek, the first neighborhood to be constructed outside of Jaffa is characterised by two-story sandstone buildings.[7] By the 1920s, a new eclectic Orientalist style came into vogue, combining European architecture with Eastern features such as arches, domes and ornamental tiles.[118] Municipal construction followed the "garden city" master plan drawn up by Patrick Geddes. Two- and three-story buildings were interspersed with boulevards and public parks.[118] Various architectural styles, such as Art

the Bauhaus Museum of Tel Aviv

Deco, classical and modernist also exist in Tel Aviv.

Tel Aviv

57

Bauhaus
Bauhaus architecture was introduced in the 1920s and 1930s by German Jewish architects who settled in Palestine after the rise of the Nazis. Tel Aviv's White City, around the city center, contains more than 5,000Modernist-style buildings inspired by the Bauhaus school and Le Corbusier.[7][8] Construction of these buildings, later declared protected landmarks and, collectively, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, continued until the 1950s in the area around Rothschild Boulevard.[8][119] Some 3,000 buildings were created in this style between 1931 and 1939 alone.[118] In the 1960s, this architectural style gave way to office towers and a chain of waterfront hotels and commercial skyscrapers.[9] Some of the city's Modernist buildings were neglected to the point of ruin. Before legislation to preserve this landmark architecture, many of the old buildings were demolished. Efforts are under way to refurbish Bauhaus buildings and restore them to their original condition.[120] There is a small museum dedicated to the Bauhaus style in tel aviv in Bialik street, near the old City Hall.

1930s Bauhaus (left) and 1920s Eclectic (right) architecture styles

Classical Bauhaus architecture, part of the White City

High-rise construction and towers

The Shalom Meir Tower, Israel's first skyscraper, was built in Tel Aviv in 1965 and remained the country's tallest building until 1999. At the time of its construction, the building rivalled Europe's tallest buildings in height, and was the tallest in the Middle East. In the mid-1990s, the construction of skyscrapers began throughout the entire city, altering its skyline. Before that, Tel Aviv had had a generally low-rise skyline.[121] However, the towers were not concentrated in certain areas, and were scattered at random locations throughout the city, creating a disjointed skyline. New neighborhoods, such as Park Tzameret, have been constructed to house apartment towers such as YOO Tel Aviv towers, designed by Philippe Starck. The Azrieli Center complex contains Other districts, such as Sarona, have been developed with office towers. Other the tallest skyscrapers in Tel Aviv recent additions to Tel Aviv's skyline include the 1 Rothschild Tower and First International Bank Tower.[122][123] As Tel Aviv celebrated its centennial in 2009,[124] the city attracted a number of architects and developers, including I. M. Pei, Donald Trump, and Richard Meier.[125] American journalist David Kaufman reported in New York magazine that since Tel Aviv "was named a

Tel Aviv UNESCO World Heritage site, gorgeous historic buildings from the Ottoman and Bauhaus era have been repurposed as fabulous hotels, eateries, boutiques, and design museums."[126] In November 2009, Haaretz reported that Tel Aviv had 59 skyscrapers more than 100 meters tall.[127] Currently, dozens of skyscrapers planned for Tel Aviv have been approved and/or are under construction. Many of those under construction are slated for completion in 2013. The tallest building approved is the Egged Tower, which, if built to its highest design of 320 meters, will become the tallest building in Israel and the city's first supertall skyscraper, though it is likely that the current plan will be scrapped in favor of either a 245-meter tower or two 30-story towers.[128] In 2010, the Tel Aviv Municipality's Planning and Construction Committee launched a new master plan for the city in 2025. It decided not to allow the construction of any additional skyscrapers in the city center, while at the same time greatly increasing the construction of skyscrapers in the east. The ban extends to an area between the coast and Ibn Gabirol Street, and also between the Yarkon River and Eilat Street. It did not extend to towers already approved and/or under construction. Any new buildings there will usually not be allowed to rise above six and a half stories. However, hotel towers along almost the entire beachfront will be allowed to rise up to 25 stories. The committee decided to approve one last skyscraper project in the city center, while dozens of other planned projects had to be scrapped. According to the plan, the entire area between Ibn Gabirol Street and the eastern city limits would be "flooded" with skyscrapers and high-rise buildings at least 18 stories tall. Under the plan, corporate skyscrapers will line both sides of the Ayalon Highway. Further south, skyscrapers rising up to 40 stories will be built along the old Ottoman railway between Neve Tzedek and Florentine, with the first project there being the Neve Tzedek Tower. Along nearby Shlavim Street, passing between Jaffa and south Tel Aviv, office buildings up to 25 stories will line both sides of the street, which will be widened to accommodate traffic from the city's southern entrance to the center.[129][130] In 2011, Ashley Rindsberg editorialized that expensive, luxury residential towers were "popping up" throughout the city.[131]

58

Economy
Tel Aviv was built on sand dunes in an area unsuitable for farming. Instead, it developed as a hub of business and scientific research.[9] In 1926, the country's first shopping arcade, Passage Pensak, was built there. By 1936, as tens of thousands of middle class immigrants arrived from Europe, Tel Aviv was already the largest city in Palestine. A small port was built at the Yarkon estuary, and many cafes, clubs and cinemas opened. Herzl Street became a commercial thoroughfare at this time.[132] Economic activities account for 17 percent of the GDP.[48] In 2011, Tel Aviv had an unemployment rate of 4.4 percent.[133] The city has been described as a "flourishing technological center" by Newsweek and a "miniature Los Angeles" by The Economist.[134][135] In 1998, the city was described by Newsweek as one of the 10most technologically influential cities in the world. Since then, high-tech industry in the Tel Aviv area has continued to develop.[135] The Tel Aviv metropolitan area (including satellite cities such as Herzliya and Petah Tikva) is Israel's center of high-tech, sometimes referred to as Silicon Wadi.[135][136] Tel Aviv is home to the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange (TASE), Israel's only stock exchange, which has reached record heights since the [137] 1990s. The Tel Aviv Stock exchange has also gained attention for its resilience and ability to recover from war
Tel Aviv Stock Exchange (on the left)

and disasters. For example, the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange was higher on the last day of both the 2006 Lebanon war and the 2009 Operation in Gaza than on the first day of fighting[138] Many international venture-capital firms,

Tel Aviv scientific research institutes and high-tech companies are headquartered in the city. Industries in Tel Aviv include chemical processing, textile plants and food manufacturers.[9] The city's nightlife, cultural attractions and architecture attract tourists whose spending benefits the local economy.[139] In 2008, the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) at Loughborough University reissued an inventory of world cities based on their level of advanced producer services. Tel Aviv was ranked as a beta+ world city.[140] According to Forbes, nine of its fifteen Israeli-born billionaires live in Israel; four live in Tel Aviv and its suburbs.[141][142] The cost of living in Israel is high, with Tel Aviv being its most expensive city to live in. According to Mercer, a human resources consulting firm based in New York, as of 2010 Tel Aviv is the most expensive city in the Middle East and the 19th most expensive in the world.[136]

59

Shops at the Dizengoff Center

Shopping malls in Tel Aviv include Dizengoff Center, Ramat Aviv Mall and Azrieli Shopping Mall and markets such as Carmel Market, Ha'Tikva Market, and Bezalel Market.

Culture and contemporary life

Entertainment and performing arts
Tel Aviv is a major center of culture and entertainment.[143] Eighteen of Israel's 35major centers for the performing arts are located in the city, including five of the country's nine large theaters, where 55% of all performances in the country and 75 percent of all attendance occurs.[48][144] The Tel Aviv Performing Arts Center is home of the Israeli Opera, where Plcido Domingo was house tenor between 1962 and 1965, and the Cameri Theater.[145] With 2,760seats, the Frederic R. Mann Auditorium (Culture Palace) is the city's largest theater.[146] Habima Theater, Israel's national theater, was closed down for The Suzanne Dellal Center for Dance and Theater renovations in early 2008, and reopened in November 2011 after major remodelling. Enav Cultural Center is one of the newer additions to the cultural scene.[144] Other theaters in Tel Aviv are the Gesher Theater and Beit Lessin Theater; Tzavta and Tmuna are smaller theaters that host musical performances and fringe productions. In Jaffa, the Simta and Notzar theaters specialize in fringe as well. Tel Aviv is home to the Batsheva Dance Company, a world famous contemporary dance troupe. The Israeli Ballet is also based in Tel Aviv.[144] Tel Aviv's center for modern and classical dance is the Suzanne Dellal Center for Dance and Theater in Neve Tzedek.[147] The city often hosts pop and rock concerts in venues such as Hayarkon Park, the Israel Trade Fairs & Convention Center, the Barby Club and the Zappa Club.[148][149][150] Opera and classical music performances are held daily in Tel Aviv, with many of the world's leading classical conductors and soloists performing on Tel Aviv stages over the years.[144] The Tel Aviv Cinematheque screens art movies, premieres of short and full-length Israeli films, and hosts a variety of film festivals, among them the Festival of Animation, Comics and Caricatures, "Icon" Science Fiction and Fantasy Festival, the Student Film Festival, the Jazz, Film and Videotape Festival and Salute to Israeli Cinema. The city has several multiplex cinemas.[144]

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Tourism and recreation

In 2010, Knight Frank's world city survey ranked it 34th globally.[151] Tel Aviv has been named the third "hottest city for 2011" (behind only New York City and Tangier) by Lonely Planet, third-best in the Middle East and Africa by Travel + Leisure magazine (behind only Cape Town and Jerusalem), and the ninth-best beach city in the world by National Geographic.[152][153][154] Tel Aviv is consistently ranked as one of the top LGBT destinations in the world.[155][156] With 2.5 million international visitors annually, Tel Aviv is the Tel Aviv's beaches from Old Jaffa fifth-most-visited city in the Middle East & Africa.[13][14] It is known as "the city that never sleeps" and a "party capital" due to its thriving nightlife, young atmosphere and famous 24-hour culture.[15][16][157] NBA player Anthony Parker called Tel Aviv the best basketball city to go out in. Tel Aviv has branches of some of the world's leading hotels, including the Crowne Plaza, Sheraton, Dan, Isrotel and Hilton. It is home to many museums, architectural and cultural sites, with city tours available in different languages.[158] Apart from bus tours, architectural tours, Segway tours, and walking tours are also popular.[159][160][161] Tel Aviv has 44hotels with more than 6,500rooms.[96] The beaches of Tel Aviv play a major role in the city's cultural and touristic scene, often ranked as some of the best beaches in the world.[154] Hayarkon Park is the most visited urban park in Israel, with 16 million visitors annually. Other parks within city limits include Charles Clore Park, Independence Park, Meir Park and Dubnow Park. About 19% of the city land are green spaces.[162]

Nightlife
Tel Aviv is an international hub of highly active and diverse nightlife with bars, dance bars and nightclubs staying open well past midnight. The largest area for nightclubs is the Tel Aviv port, where the city's large, commercial clubs and bars draw big crowds of young clubbers from both Tel Aviv and neighboring cities. The "TLV club" is the largest and often hosts big international acts and DJs. Another major clubbing area is the Yad Harutsim area, near the old central bus station area of town. The South of Tel Aviv is known for the popular "Haoman 17" club, as well as for being the city's main hub of alternative clubbing, with underground venues including established clubs like the "Block" club, "Comfort 13" and the "Sublime", as well as various warehouse and loft party venues.

Tel Aviv by night

Tel Aviv

61

Cuisine
Tel Aviv is famous for its wide variety of world-class restaurants, offering traditional Israeli dishes as well as international fare.[163] More than 100sushi restaurants, the third highest concentration in the world, do business in the city, and an Italian restaurant in Tel Aviv was called the best Italian restaurant outside of Italy by the Italian Ministry of Agriculture.[8][164]

LGBT culture
Named by Out Magazine "The gay capital of the Middle East", Tel Aviv is one of the most popular destinations for LGBT tourists internationally, with a large LGBT community.[165][166] American journalist David Kaufman has described the city as a place packed with the kind of we're here, we're queer vibe more typically found in Sydney and San Francisco. The city hosts its well-known pride parade, the biggest in Asia, attracting over 100,000 people yearly.[167] In January 2008, Tel Aviv's municipality established the city's LGBT Community Center, providing all of the municipal and cultural services to the LGBT community under one roof. In December 2008, Tel Aviv began putting together a team of gay athletes for the 2009 World Outgames in Copenhagen.[168] In addition, Tel Aviv hosts an annual LGBT Film Festival.

Tel Aviv Pride is the largest annual pride parade in the Middle East and Asia

Tel Aviv's LGBT community is the subject of Eytan Fox's 2006 film The Bubble. In 2011, in an online poll conducted on LGBT travel website gaycities.com, Tel Aviv was voted best gay city of the year with 43 percent of the votes.[169]

Fashion
Tel Aviv has become an international center of fashion and design.[170] It has been called the next hot destination for fashion.[171] Israeli designers, such as swimwear company Gottex show their collections at leading fashion shows, including New Yorks Bryant Park fashion show.[172] In 2011, Tel Aviv hosted its first Fashion Week since the 1980s, with Italian designer Roberto Cavalli as a guest of honor.[173]

Museums
Israel has the highest number of museums per capita of any country, with three of the largest located in Tel Aviv.[174][175] Among these are the Eretz Israel Museum, known for its collection of archaeology and history exhibits dealing with the Land of Israel, and the Tel Aviv Museum of Art. Housed on the campus of Tel Aviv University is Beth Hatefutsoth, a museum of the international Jewish diaspora that tells the story of Jewish prosperity and persecution throughout the centuries of exile. Batey Haosef Museum specializes in Israel Defense Forces military history. The Palmach Museum near Tel Aviv University offers The Herta and Paul Amir Building in the Tel a multimedia experience of the history of the Palmach. Right next to Aviv Museum of Art Charles Clore Park is a museum of the Etzel. The Israel Trade Fairs & Convention Center, located in the northern part of the city, hosts more than 60major events annually. Many offbeat museums and galleries operate in the southern areas, including the Tel Aviv Raw Art contemporary art gallery.[176][177]

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Sports
Tel Aviv is the only city with three clubs in Israeli Premier League, the country's top football league. Maccabi Tel Aviv Sports Club was founded in 1906 and competes in more than 10sport fields. Its basketball team, Maccabi Tel Aviv, is a world-known professional team, that holds 50 Israeli titles, has won 39editions of the Israel cup, and has fiveEuropean Championships, and its football team has won 18 Israeli league titles and has won 22 State Cups, two Toto Cups and two Asian Club Championships. Yael Arad, an athlete in Maccabi's judo club, won a silver medal in the 1992 Olympic Games.[178] National Sport Center Tel Aviv (also Hadar Yosef Sports Center) is a compound of stadiums and sports facilities. It also houses the Olympic Committee of Israel and the National Athletics Stadium with the Israeli Athletic Association. Hapoel Tel Aviv Sports Club, founded in 1923, comprises more than 11 sports clubs,[179] including Hapoel Tel Aviv Football Club (13 championships, 11 State Cups, one Toto Cup and once Asian champions) which plays in Bloomfield Stadium, men's and women's basketball clubs.

The Tel Aviv Marathon going through Hayarkon Park

Bnei Yehuda (once Israeli champion, twice State Cup winners and twice Toto Cup winner) is the only Israeli football team in the top division that represents a neighborhood, the Hatikva Quarter in Tel Aviv, and not a city. Shimshon Tel Aviv and Beitar Tel Aviv both formerly played in the top division, but dropped into the lower leagues, and merged in 2000, the new club now playing in Liga Artzit, the third tier. Another former first division team, Maccabi Jaffa, is now defunct, as are Maccabi HaTzefon Tel Aviv, Hapoel HaTzefon Tel Aviv and Hakoah Tel Aviv, who merged with Maccabi Ramat Gan and moved to Ramat Gan in 1959. Tel Aviv is also the home to Hapoel Ussishkin, a fan-owned basketball club founded in 2007 due to disagreements between the Hapoel Tel Aviv basketball club's management and the fans. Two rowing clubs operate in Tel Aviv. The Tel Aviv Rowing Club, established in 1935 on the banks of the Yarkon River, is the largest rowing club in Israel.[180] Meanwhile, the beaches of Tel Aviv provide a vibrant Matkot (beach paddleball) scene.[181] Tel Aviv Lightning represent Tel Aviv in the Israel Baseball League.[182] Tel Aviv also has an annual half marathon, run in 2008 by 10,000 athletes with runners coming from around the world.[183]

Bloomfield Stadium

In 2009, the Tel Aviv Marathon was revived after a fifteen-year hiatus, and is run annually since, attracting a field of over 18,000 runners.[184] Tel Aviv is also ranked to be 10th best to-skateboarding city by Transworld Skateboarding.

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63

Media
The three largest newspaper companies in Israel Yedioth Ahronoth, Maariv (newspaper) and Haaretz are all based within the city limits.[185] Several radio stations cover the Tel Aviv area, including the city-based Radio Tel Aviv.[186] The three major Israeli television networks, Israel Broadcasting Authority, Keshet, Reshet, and Channel 10, are based in the city, as well as two of the most popular radio stations in Israel: Galatz and Galgalatz, which are both based in Jaffa.

Environment and urban restoration

Tel Aviv is ranked as the greenest city in Israel.[188] Since 2008, City lights are turned off annually in support of Earth Hour.[189] In February 2009, the municipality launched a water saving campaign, including competition granting free parking for a year to the household that is found to have consumed the least amount of water per person.[190] In the early 21st century, Tel Aviv's municipality transformed a derelict power station into a public park, now named "Gan HaHashmal" (electric park), paving the way for eco-friendly and environmentally conscious designs.[191] In October 2008, Martin Weyl IDF soldiers cleaning the beaches at Tel Aviv. turned an old garbage dump near Ben Gurion International Airport, The beaches have scored highly in environmental [187] tests. called Hiriya, into an attraction by building an arc of plastic bottles.[192] The site, which was renamed Ariel Sharon Park to honor Israels former prime minister, will serve as the centerpiece in what is to become a 2,000-acre (8.1km2) urban wilderness on the outskirts of Tel Aviv, designed by German landscape architect, Peter Latz.[192] At the end of the 20th century, the city began restoring historical neighborhoods such as Neve Tzedek and many buildings from the 1920s and 1930s. Since 2007, the city hosts its well-known, annual Open House Tel Aviv weekend, which offers the general public free entrance to the city's famous landmarks, private houses and public buildings. In 2010, the design of the renovated Tel Aviv Port (Nemal Tel Aviv) won the award for outstanding landscape architecture at the European Biennial for Landscape Architecture in Barcelona.[193]
Charles Clore Park

Electric cars
In early 2008, Tel Aviv Municipality announced a pilot scheme to build charging stations for electric cars. Initially, fivecharging points will be built, and eventually 150points will be set up across the city as part of the Israeli electric car project, Project Better Place.[194] Battery replacement points will be located at the city's entrances. A visitor center of Better Place is located in northwestern entrance to the city at Pi-Glilot site. Better Place's primary R&D facility is in Tel Aviv and is headed by Lior Storfer.[195]

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64

Transportation
Tel Aviv is a major transportation hub, served by a comprehensive public transport network, with many major routes of the national transportation network running through the city.

Bus and taxi

As with the rest of Israel, bus transport is the most common form of public transport and is very widely used. The Tel Aviv Central Bus Station is located in the southern part of the city. The main bus network in Tel Aviv metropolitan area operated by Dan Bus Company, Metropoline and Kavim. the Egged Bus Cooperative, the world's second-largest bus company, provides intercity transportation.[196] The city is also served by local and inter-city share taxis. Many local and Tel Aviv inter-city bus routes also have sherut taxis that follow the same route and display the same route number in their window. Fares are standardised within the region and are comparable to or less expensive than bus fares. Unlike other forms of public transport, these taxis also operate on Fridays and Saturdays (the Jewish sabbath "Shabbat"). Private taxis are white with a yellow sign on top. Fares are standardised and metered, but may be negotiated ahead of time with the driver.
Ayalon Highway which runs through

Rail
The Tel Aviv Central train station is the main train station of the city, and the busiest station in Israel. The city has three additional train stations along the Ayalon Highway: Tel Aviv University, HaShalom (adjacent to Azrieli Center) and HaHagana (near the Tel Aviv Central Bus Station). It is estimated that over a millionpassengers travel by train to Tel Aviv monthly. The trains do not run on Saturday and holidays.

Roads

Tel Aviv Central Railway Station

The main highway leading to the city is the Ayalon Highway (Highway 20), which runs along the eastern side of the city from north to south along the Ayalon River riverbed, dividing for the most part Tel Aviv and Ramat Gan. Driving south on the Ayalon gives access to Highway 1, leading to Ben Gurion International Airport and Jerusalem. Within the city, main routes include Kaplan Street, Allenby Street, Ibn Gabirol Street, Dizengoff Street, Rothschild Boulevard, and in Jaffa the main route is Jerusalem Boulevard. Namir Road connects the city to Highway 2, Israel's main northsouth highway, and Begin/Jabotinsky Road, which provides access from the east through Ramat Gan, Bnei Brak and Petah Tikva. Tel Aviv, accommodating about 500,000commuter cars daily, suffers from increasing congestion. In 2007, the Sadan Report recommended the introduction of a congestion charge similar to that of London in Tel Aviv as well as other Israeli cities. Under this plan, road users traveling into the city would pay a fixed fee.[197]

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65

Air
The main airport serving Tel Aviv is Ben Gurion International Airport (IATA: TLV). Located in the neighboring city of Lod, it is the main airport of Israel, handling over 13 million passengers in 2011. The airport serves both international flights and domestic flights, and is the main hub of El Al, Arkia Israel Airlines, Israir Airlines and Sun D'Or International Airlines. The airport is 15 kilometres (9mi) southeast of Tel Aviv, on Highway 1 between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem. It is often Ben Gurion International Airport rated as the best airport in the Middle East. Another airport in the Tel Aviv area, Sde Dov (IATA: SDV), in northwestern Tel Aviv close to Tel Aviv Port, serves mainly domestic flights and may be closed in favor of real-estate development.[198] In the future all services to Sde Dov will be transferred to Ben Gurion Airport.

Bicycle sharing system

In April 2011, Tel Aviv municipality launched Tel-O-Fun, a bicycle sharing system, in which 150 stations of bicycles for rent were installed within the city limits.[199] As of October 2011, there are 125 active stations, providing more than 1,000 bicycles. As of April 2011 the municipality has completed construction of about 100 kilometers of bicycle paths.

Light rail

Tel-O-Fun in Tel Aviv

The first line of a light rail system is under construction and scheduled to open in 2016.[200] The Red Line starts at Petah Tikva's Central Bus Station, east of Tel Aviv and follows the Jabotinsky Road (Route 481) westwards at street level. At the point were Jabotinsky Road and Highway 4 intersect the line drops into an underground tunnel for 10km (6.21mi) through Bnei Brak, Ramat Gan and Tel Aviv and emerges again to street level just before Jaffa, were it turns southwards towards Bat Yam. The underground section will include 10 stations, including an interchange with Israel Railways services at Tel Aviv Central Railway Station and the nearby 2000 Terminal. A maintenance depot, connected via a branch line and tunnel to the main section of the line, will be constructed in Kiryat Arye, across from the existing Kiryat Arye suburban railway station. The intended builder and operator of the first line, MTS, has had financial difficulties that postponed the line's opening. In May 2010, the ministry of finance decided to cancel the agreement with MTS due to the difficulties and the agreement was cancelled in August 2010.[201] The line is being built instead by NTA The Tel Aviv region's mass transit development authority. Initially, the line's targeted opening was in 2012 and today the target is 2016 after several postponements due to the disagreements with MTS and NTA's takeover of the project.

Twin towns and sister cities

Tel Aviv has a partnership with Los Angeles ( ), and is twinned with:

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66

Toulouse, France since 1962

[202] [203] [202]

Sofia, Bulgaria since 1992 Cannes, France since 2010 d, Poland, since 1994 Milan, Italy, since 1994

[202] [202]

[207]

Almaty, Kazakhstan since 1999 Chisinau, Moldova since 2000

[202]

Philadelphia, USA, since 1966 Cologne, Germany since 1979

[202] [202]

[204]

Incheon, South Korea since 2000 Moscow, Russia since 2001 So Paulo, Brazil, since [75][208][209] 2004 Vienna, Austria, since 2005 [202]

[205] Frankfurt, Germany, since 1980 Bonn, Germany since 1983 [202]

[206]

[202]

Thessaloniki, Greece, since 1994 [202]

Buenos Aires, Argentina, since 1988 [202] Budapest, Hungary, since 1989 [210]

Beijing, China, since 1995

New York City, United States since 1996 [202] Barcelona, Spain, since 1998 [211]

Paris, France since 2010

[202]

Belgrade, Serbia, since 1990 Warsaw, Poland, since [212][213] 1992 Essen, Germany, since 1992

[202]

[214]

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"Tel Aviv's Gay Pride parade draws thousands" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2011/ jun/ 10/ tel-aviv-gay-pride-parade). The Guardian (London). . Retrieved 10 June 2011. [168] Zeitun, Yoav (26 December 2008). "Tel Aviv recruits gay athletes for 2009 World Outgames" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3644715,00. html). Ynetnews. . Retrieved 26 December 2008. [169] Hartman, Ben. "Tel Aviv voted best homosexual city of 2011 on LGBT website" (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ LifeStyle/ Article. aspx?id=253121). Jpost.com. . Retrieved 2012-11-23. [170] Whats New in Tel Aviv (http:/ / www. travelandleisure. com/ articles/ newsflash-whats-new-in-tel-aviv), by David Kaufman, March 2008. 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[209] "International Relations So Paulo City Hall Official Sister Cities" (http:/ / www. prefeitura. sp. gov. br/ cidade/ secretarias/ relacoes_internacionais/ cidadesirmas/ index. php?p=1066). Prefeitura.sp.gov.br. . Retrieved 2012-11-23. [210] "Sister cities of Budapest" (http:/ / www. budapest. hu/ engine. aspx?page=20030224-cikk-testvervarosok) (in Hungarian). Official Website of Budapest. . Retrieved 1 July 2009. [211] "Barcelona internacional Ciutats agermanades" (http:/ / w3. bcn. es/ XMLServeis/ XMLHomeLinkPl/ 0,4022,229724149_257215678_1,00. html) (in Catalan). 20062009 Ajuntament de Barcelona (http:/ / www. bcn. es/ catala/ copyright/ welcome2. htm). . Retrieved 13 July 2009. [212] "( " http:/ / www. tel-aviv. gov. il/ Cityhall/ Pages/ Partnerships. aspx?tm=& sm=& side=515). Tel-aviv.gov.il. . Retrieved 2012-11-23. [213] "Miasta partnerskie Warszawy" (http:/ / um. warszawa. pl/ v_syrenka/ new/ index. php?dzial=aktualnosci& ak_id=3284& kat=11). um.warszawa.pl. Biuro Promocji Miasta. 4 May 2005. . Retrieved 29 August 2008. [214] "List of Twin Towns in the Ruhr Destrict" (http:/ / www. twins2010. com/ fileadmin/ user_upload/ pic/ Dokumente/ List_of_Twin_Towns_01. pdf?PHPSESSID=2edd34819db21e450d3bb625549ce4fd). 2009 Twins2010.com (http:/ / www. twins2010. com/ index. php?id=home& L=1). . Retrieved 28 October 2009.

73

Bibliography
Michael Turner, Catherine Weill-Rochant, Genevive Blondiau, Silvina Sosnovsky, Philippe Brandeis, Sur les traces du modernisme, Tel-Aviv-Hafa-Jrusalem, CIVA (ed.), Bruxelles 2004. (Hebrew and French) Catherine Weill-Rochant, L'Atlas de Tel-Aviv 19082008, Paris, CNRS Editions, 2008. (Historical maps and photos, French, soon in Hebrew and English) Catherine Weill-Rochant, Bauhaus Architektur in Tel-Aviv, Larchitecture Bauhaus Tel- Aviv, Rita Gans (d.), Zurich, Yad Yearim, 2008. (German and French) Catherine Weill-Rochant, 'The Tel-Aviv School : a constrained rationalism', DOCOMOMO journal (Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement), April 2009. Rochant Weill, Catherine (2006) (PDF). Le plan de Patrick Geddes pour la ville blanche de Tel Aviv : une part dombre et de lumire. Volume 1 (http://www.bu.univ-paris8.fr/web/collections/theses/RochantThese1. pdf) (PhD thesis). Paris: Universit Paris 8. Retrieved 9 July 2010. And: Rochant Weill, Catherine (2006) (PDF). Le plan de Patrick Geddes pour la ville blanche de Tel Aviv : une part dombre et de lumire. Volume 2 (http:/ /www.bu.univ-paris8.fr/web/collections/theses/RochantThese2.pdf) (PhD thesis). Paris: Universit Paris 8. Retrieved 9 July 2010. Catherine Weill-Rochant, Le travail de Patrick Geddes Tel-Aviv, un plan d'ombre et de lumire, Saarbrcken, ditions Universitaires Europennes, May 2010. Jochen Visscher (ed.): "Tel Aviv The White City", Photographs by Stefan Boness, JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2012, ISBN 978-3-939633-75-4

External links
The official Tel Aviv municipality website (http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/English/) The official Tel Aviv municipality website (http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/) (Hebrew) The official Tel Aviv municipality website (http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/Arabic/) (Arabic) The History of Tel Aviv (http://www.israelinarabic.com/?p=605) (Arabic) Tel Aviv official tourism website (http://www.visit-tlv.com/) The Tel Aviv Foundation (http://www.telavivfoundation.org/) Tel Aviv beach guide (http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/english/Documents/Beaches _2_.pdf) Tel Aviv bus map (http://telaviv.busmappa.com/p/bus-map.html)

Jerusalem

74

Jerusalem
Jerusalem ( Yerushalayim) ( al-Quds)
City

From upper left: Jerusalem skyline viewed from Givat ha'Arba, Mamilla, the Old City and the Dome of the Rock, a souq in the Old City, the Knesset, the Western Wall, the Tower of David and the Old City walls

Flag Coat of arms Nickname(s): Ir ha-Kodesh (Holy City), Bayt al-Maqdis (House of the Holiness)

Coordinates: 3147N 3513E District Government Mayor Area Nir Barkat Jerusalem

Jerusalem

75

City Metro Elevation Population (2012) City Density Metro Demonym Time zone Summer(DST) Area code(s) Website

125156dunams (125.156km2or48.323sqmi) 652,000dunams (652km2or252sqmi) 754m (2,474ft)

801,000 6400/km2 (17,000/sqmi) 1,029,300 Jerusalemite IST (UTC+2) IDT (UTC+3) overseas dialing +972-2; local dialing 02 jerusalem.muni.il [1][iv]

Jerusalem (pron.: /druslm/; Hebrew: Yerushalyim ; Arabic: al-Quds and/or rshalm)[i] is the capital of Israel, though not internationally recognized as such,[ii] and one of the oldest cities in the world.[2] It is located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern edge of the Dead Sea. It is Israel's largest city in both population and area, if East Jerusalem is included,[3][4] with a population of 801,000 residents[5] over an area of 125.1km2 (48.3sqmi).[6][7][iii] Jerusalem is also a holy city to the three major Abrahamic religionsJudaism, Christianity and Islam. During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times.[8] The oldest part of the city was settled in the 4th millennium BCE.[2] In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent. Today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quartersknown since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters.[9] The Old City became a World Heritage site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger.[10] Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond its boundaries. Jerusalem has been the holiest city in Jewish tradition since, according to the Hebrew Bible, King David of Israel first established it as the capital of the united Kingdom of Israel in c. 1000 BCE, and his son, King Solomon, commissioned the building of the First Temple in the city.[11] In Christian tradition, Jerusalem has been a holy city since, according to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified there, possibly in c. 33 CE,[12][13][14] and 300 years later Saint Helena identified the pilgrimage sites of Jesus' life. In Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city.[15][16] In Islamic tradition in 610 CE it became the first Qibla, the focal point for Muslim prayer (Salah),[17] and Muhammad made his Night Journey there ten years later, according to the Quran.[18][19] As a result, despite having an area of only 0.9 square kilometres (0.35sqmi),[20] the Old City is home to many sites of tremendous religious importance, among them the Temple Mount and its the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque. Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the IsraeliPalestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured by Jordan. Israel captured East Jerusalem during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently annexed it. Currently, Israel's Basic Law refers to Jerusalem as the country's "undivided capital". The international community has rejected the latter annexation as illegal and treats East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory held by Israel under military occupation.[21][22][23][24] The international community does not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, and the city hosts no foreign embassies.

Jerusalem According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics, 208,000 Palestinians live in East Jerusalem, which is sought by the Palestinian Authority as a future capital of a future Palestinian state.[25][26][27] All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister and President, and the Supreme Court. Jerusalem is home to the Hebrew University and to the Israel Museum with its Shrine of the Book. The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo has ranked consistently as Israel's top tourist attraction for Israelis.[28][29]

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Etymology
A city called Rualimum or Urualimum (Foundation of Shalem)[30] appears in ancient Egyptian records as the first two references to Jerusalem, dating back to the 19th and 18th centuries BCE.[31][32] The name recurs in Akkadian cuneiform as Urualim, in the Amarna tablets datable to the 1400-1360 BCE. The name Jerusalem is variously etymologised to mean foundation (Sumerian yeru, settlement/Semitic yry, found) of the god Shalem, dwelling of peace, founded in safety,[33] or to mean Salem gives instruction (yrh, show, teach, instruct). The god Shalem has a special relationship with Jerusalem.[34] Others dismiss the Sumerian link, and point to yarah, Semitic/Hebrew for to lay a cornerstone, yielding the idea of laying a cornerstone to the temple of the god Shalem, who was a member of the West Semitic pantheon (Akkadian Shalim, Assyrian Shulmanu), the god of the setting sun and the nether world, as well as of health and perfection.[35] The form Yerushalayim (Jerusalem) first appears in the Bible, in the book of Joshua. This form has the appearance of a portmanteau (blend) of Yireh (an abiding place of the fear and the service of God) [36] The meaning of the common root S-L-M is unknown but is thought to refer to either "peace" (Salam or Shalom in modern Arabic and Hebrew) or Shalim, the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion.[37][38] The name gained the popular meanings "The City of Peace"[30][39] and "Abode of Peace",[40][41] alternately "Vision of Peace" in some Christian theology.[42] Typically the ending -im indicates the plural in Hebrew grammar and -ayim the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name refers to the fact that the city sits on two hills.[43][44] However, the pronunciation of the last syllable as -ayim appears to be a late development, which had not yet appeared at the time of the Septuagint. The most ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was according to the Bible named Jebus.[45] It was renamed the City of David in the first millennium BCE,[45] and was known by this name in antiquity.[46][47] Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole and to represent the biblical Land of Israel. In Greek and Latin the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: ; in Greek hiers, , means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history. In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as ,transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "The Holy" or "The Holy Sanctuary".[40][41] Official Israeli government policy mandates that ,transliterated as ralm, which is the cognate of the Hebrew and English names, be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with ]84[.- .

History
Given the city's central position in both Israeli nationalism (Zionism) and Palestinian nationalism, the selectivity required to summarise more than 5,000 years of inhabited history is often[49][50] influenced by ideological bias or background (see Historiography and nationalism). For example, the Jewish periods of the city's history are important to Israeli nationalists (Zionists), whose discourse suggests that modern Jews descend from the Israelites and Maccabees,[51][52] whilst the Islamic, Christian and other non-Jewish periods of the city's history are important to Palestinian nationalism, whose discourse suggests that modern Palestinians descend from all the different peoples who have lived in the region.[53][54] As a result, both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city,[49][49][50][55][56] and that this is borne out by the different

Jerusalem focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history.

77

Ancient period
Ceramic evidence indicates occupation of the City of David, within present-day Jerusalem, as far back as the Copper Age (c. 4th millennium BCE),[2][57] with evidence of a permanent settlement during the early Bronze Age (c. 30002800 BCE).[57][58] The Execration Texts (c.19th century BCE), which refer to a city called Roshlamem or Rosh-ramen[57] and the Amarna letters (c.14th century BCE) may be the earliest mention of the city.[59][60] Some archaeologists, including Kathleen Kenyon, believe Jerusalem[61] as a city was founded by Northwest Semitic people with organized settlements from around 2600 BCE. According to Jewish tradition, the city was founded by Shem and Eber, ancestors of Abraham. In the biblical account, Jerusalem ("Salem") when first mentioned is ruled by Melchizedek, an ally of Abraham (identified with Shem in legend). Stepped Stone Structure, City of Later, in the time of Joshua, Jerusalem lay within territory allocated to the tribe David of Benjamin (Joshua18:28), but continued to be under the independent control of the Jebusites until it was conquered by David in the Siege of Jebus and made into the capital of the united Kingdom of Israel (c.11th centuryBCE).[62][63][v] Recent excavations of a Large Stone Structure and a nearby Stepped Stone Structure are widely believed to be the remains of King David's palace. The excavations have been interpreted by some archaeologists as lending credence to the biblical narrative, while others disagree.[64] According to Hebrew scripture, King David reigned for 40 years. The generally accepted estimate of the conclusion of this reign is 970 BCE. The Bible records that David was succeeded by his son Solomon,[65] who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish history as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant.[66] For more than 400 years, until the Babylonian conquest in 587 BCE, Jerusalem was the political capital of the united Kingdom of Israel and then the Kingdom of Judah. During this period, known as the First Temple Period,[67] the Temple was the religious center of the Israelites.[68] On Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE), the ten northern tribes split off to form the Kingdom of Israel. Under the leadership of the House of David and Solomon, Jerusalem remained the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.[69] Archeological remains from the ancient Israelite period also include Hezekiah's Tunnel, an aqueduct built by Judean king Hezekiah and decorated with ancient Hebrew inscription, known as Siloam Inscription,[70] Broad Wall a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE, also by Hezekiah,[71] Monolith of Silwan, Tomb of the Royal Steward, which were decorated with monumental Hebrew inscriptions,[72] and Israelite Tower, remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones.[73] A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near Robinson's Arch, indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the Judean kingdom.[74] When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. The First Temple period ended around 586 BCE, as the Babylonians conquered Judah and Jerusalem, and laid waste to Solomon's Temple.[67]

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Classical antiquity
In 538 BCE, after 50 years of Babylonian captivity, Persian King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple.[75] Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.[76][77] In about 445 BCE, King Artaxerxes I of Persia issued a decree allowing the city and the walls to be rebuilt.[78] Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and center of Jewish worship. When Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem again as its capital. In 63 BCE, Pompey the Great intervened in a Hasmonean struggle for the throne and captured Jerusalem, extending the influence of the Roman Republic over Judea.[79] Following a short invasion by Parthians, backing the rival Hasmonean rulers, Judea became a scene of struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian forces, eventually leading to the emergence of Edomite Herod, who would be appointed King of the Jews by the Roman senate and establish the Herodian dynasty. As Rome became stronger it installed Herod as a Jewish client king. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size.[65][80][81] Shortly after Herod's death, in 6 CE Judea came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province,[82] although Herod's descendants through Agrippa II remained client kings of Roman siege and destruction of Jerusalem (David neighbouring territories until 96 CE. Roman rule over Jerusalem and Roberts, 1850) the region began to be challenged with the First JewishRoman War, which resulted in the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Jerusalem once again served as the capital of Judea during the three-year rebellion known as the Bar Kokhba revolt, beginning in 132 CE. The Romans succeeded in suppressing the revolt in 135 CE. Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighboring provinces to create Syria Palaestina, erasing the name of Judea,[83] romanized the city, renaming it Aelia Capitolina,[84] and banned the Jews from entering it on pain of death, except for one day each year (9 Ab). These anti-Jewish measures[85][86][87] which affected also Jewish Christians,[88] was taken to ensure 'the complete and permanent secularization of Jerusalem.'[89] The enforcement of the ban on Jews entering Aelia Capitolina continued until the 4th century CE. In the five centuries following the Bar Kokhba revolt, the city remained under Roman then Byzantine rule. During the 4th century, the Roman Emperor Constantine I constructed Christian sites in Jerusalem, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered two square kilometers (0.8 sq mi.) and had a population of 200,000.[86][90] From the days of Constantine until the 7th century, Jews were banned from Jerusalem.[91] The eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, maintained control of the city for years. Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule and returned to Roman-Byzantine dominion once more. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early 7th century push into Byzantine, advancing through Syria, Sassanid Generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked the Byzantine-controlled city of Jerusalem (Persian: Dej Houdkh). They were aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.[92]

Jerusalem In the Siege of Jerusalem (614), after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. The Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanid army and the Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool and destroyed its Byzantine monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The episode has been the subject of much debate between historians.[93] The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.[94]

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Middle Ages
Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of Umar ibn al-Khattab in 634. Among Muslims of Islam's earliest era it was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis ("City of the Temple")[95] which was restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city "... was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 c.e.: Aelia Capitolina".[96] Later the Temple Mount became known as al-Haram al-Sharif, The Noble Sanctuary, while the city around it became known as Bayt al-Maqdis,[97] and later still, al-Quds al-Sharif "The Noble City". The Islamization of Jerusalem began in the first year A.H. (620 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place. After 16 months, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca.[98] In 638 the Islamic Caliphate Dome of the Rock viewed through extended its dominion to Jerusalem.[99] With the Arab conquest, Jews were Cotton Gate allowed back into the city.[100] The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Monophysite Christian Patriarch Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule.[101] Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the holiest site for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque.[102] He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar (Omar) stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.[103] When the Muslims went to Bayt Al-Maqdes for the first time, They searched for the site of the Far Away Holy Mosque (Al-Masjed Al-Aqsa) that was mentioned in Quran and Hadith according to Islamic beliefs. Contemporary Arabic and Hebrew sources say the site was full of rubbish, and that Arabs and Jews cleaned it.[104] The Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik commissioned the construction of the Dome of the Rock in the late 7th century.[105] The 10th century historian al-Muqaddasi writes that Abd al-Malik built the shrine in order to compete in grandeur with Jerusalem's monumental churches.[103] Over the next four hundred years Jerusalem's prominence diminished as Arab powers in the region jockeyed for control.[106] A messianic Karaite movement to gather in Jerusalem took place at the turn of the millennium, leading to a "Golden Age" of Karaite scholarship there, which was only terminated by the Crusades.[107]

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In 1099, The Fatimid ruler expelled the native Christian population before Jerusalem was conquered by the Crusaders, who massacred most of its Muslim and Jewish inhabitants when they took the solidly defended city by assault, after a period of siege, and left the city emptied of people; later the Crusaders created the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The city had been virtually emptied and recolonized by a variegated inflow of Greeks, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Georgians, Armenians, Syrians, Egyptians, Nestorians, Maronites, Jacobite Monophysites, Copts and others, to block the return of the surviving Muslims and Jews. The north-eastern quarter was repopulated with Eastern Christians from the Transjordan.[108] As a result, by 1099 Jerusalems population had climbed back to some 30,000.[109]

Medieval illustration of capture of Jerusalem during the First Crusade, 1099

In 1187, the city was wrested from the Crusaders by Saladin who permitted Jews and Muslims to return and settle in the city.[110] Under the terms of surrender, once ransomed, 60,000 Franks were expelled. The Eastern Christian populace was permitted to stay.[111] Under the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin, a period of huge investment began in the construction of houses, markets, public baths, and pilgrim hostels as well as the establishment of religious endowments. However, for most of the 13th century, Jerusalem declined to the status of a village due to city's fall of strategic value and Ayyubid internecine struggles.[112] In 1244, Jerusalem was sacked by the Khwarezmian Tartars, who decimated the city's Christian population and drove out the Jews.[113] The Khwarezmian Tartars were driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247. From 1250 to 1517, Jerusalem was ruled by the Mamluks. During this period of time many clashes occurred between the Mamluks on one side and the crusaders and the Mongols on the other side. The area also suffered from many earthquakes and black plague. Some European Christian presence was maintained in the city by the Order of the Holy Sepulchre.

Early modern period

In 1517, Jerusalem and environs fell to the Ottoman Turks, who generally remained in control until 1917.[110] Jerusalem enjoyed a prosperous period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent including the rebuilding of magnificent walls around the Old City. Throughout much of Ottoman rule, Jerusalem remained a provincial, if religiously important center, and did not straddle the main trade route between Damascus and Cairo.[114] The English reference book Modern history or the present state of all nations written in 1744 stated that "Jerusalem is still reckoned the capital city of Palestine".[115]

David's Citadel and the Ottoman walls

The Ottomans brought many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates and regular stagecoach and carriage services were among the first signs of modernization in the city.[116] In the mid 19th century, the Ottomans constructed the first paved road from Jaffa to Jerusalem, and by 1892 the railroad had reached the city.[116]

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Modern period
With the annexation of Jerusalem by Muhammad Ali of Egypt in 1831, foreign missions and consulates began to establish a foothold in the city. In 1836, Ibrahim Pasha allowed Jerusalem's Jewish residents to restore four major synagogues, among them the Hurva.[117] In the 1834 Arab revolt in Palestine, Qasim al-Ahmad led his forces from Nablus and attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Abu Ghosh clan, entered the city on 31 May 1834. The Christians and Jews of Jerusalem were subjected to attacks. Ibrahim's Egyptian army routed Qasim's forces in Jerusalem the following month.[118]

Ben-Zakai Synagogue in 1893

Ottoman rule was reinstated in 1840, but many Egyptian Muslims remained in Jerusalem and Jews from Algiers and North Africa began to settle in the city in growing numbers.[117] In the 1840s and 1850s, the international powers began a tug-of-war in Palestine as they sought to extend their protection over the region's religious minorities, a struggle carried out mainly through consular representatives in Jerusalem.[119] According to the Prussian consul, the population in 1845 was 16,410, with 7,120 Jews, 5,000 Muslims, 3,390 Christians, 800 Turkish soldiers and 100 Europeans.[117] The volume of Christian pilgrims increased under the Ottomans, doubling the city's population around Easter time.[120] In the 1860s, new neighborhoods began to develop outside the Old City walls to house pilgrims and relieve the intense overcrowding and poor sanitation inside the city. The Russian Compound and Mishkenot Sha'ananim were founded in 1860.[121] In 1867 an American Missionary reports an estimated population of Jerusalem of 'above' 15,000, with 4,000 to 5,000 Jews and 6,000 Muslims. Every year there were 5,000 to 6,000 Russian Christian Pilgrims.[122] In 1874 Jerusalem became the center of a special administrative district, independent of the Syria Vilayet and under the direct authority of Istanbul called the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem.[123] Until the 1880s there were no formal orphanages in Jerusalem, as families generally took care of each other. In 1881 the Diskin Orphanage was founded in Jerusalem with the arrival of Jewish children orphaned by a Russian pogrom. Other orphanages founded in Jerusalem at the beginning of the 20th century were Zion Blumenthal Orphanage (1900) and General Israel Orphan's Home for Girls (1902).[124]

Jerusalem British Mandate In 1917 after the Battle of Jerusalem, the British Army, led by General Edmund Allenby, captured the city,[125] and in 1922, the League of Nations at the Conference of Lausanne entrusted the United Kingdom to administer the Mandate for Palestine, the neighbouring mandate of Transjordan to the east across the River Jordan, and the Iraq Mandate beyond it. From 1922 to 1948 the total population of the city rose from 52,000 to 165,000 with two thirds of Jews and one-third of Arabs (Muslims and Christians).[126] The situation between Arabs and Jews in Palestine was not quiet. In Jerusalem, in particular, Arab riots occurred in 1920 and in 1929. Under the British, new garden suburbs were built in the western and northern parts of the city[127][128] and institutions of higher learning such as the Hebrew University were founded.[129]
General Edmund Allenby enters the Old City of Jerusalem on 11 December 1917

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Division and reunification 19481967 As the British Mandate for Palestine was expiring, the 1947 UN Partition Plan recommended "the creation of a special international regime in the City of Jerusalem, constituting it as a corpus separatum under the administration of the UN."[130] The international regime (which also included the city of Bethlehem) was to remain in force for a period of ten years, whereupon a referendum was to be held in which the residents were to decide the future regime of their city. However, this plan was not implemented, as the 1948 war erupted, while the British withdrew from Palestine and Israel declared its independence.[131] The war led to displacement of Arab and Jewish populations in the city. The 1,500 residents of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City were expelled and a few hundred taken prisoner when the Arab Legion captured the quarter on 28 May.[132][133] The Arab Legion also attacked Western Jerusalem with snipers.[134] Arab residents of Katamon, Talbiya, and the German Colony were driven from their homes. By the end of the war Israel had control of 12 of Jerusalem's 15 Arab residential quarters. An estimated minimum of 30,000 people had become refugees.[135][136] The war of 1948 resulted in Jerusalem being divided, with the old walled city lying entirely on the Jordanian side of the line. A no-man's land between East and West Jerusalem came into being in November 1948: Moshe Dayan, commander of the Israeli forces in Jerusalem, met with his Jordanian counterpart Abdullah el-Tell in a deserted house in

Israeli policemen meet a Jordanian Legionnaire near the Mandelbaum Gate

Jerusalem city hall at night

Jerusalems Musrara neighborhood and marked out their respective positions: Israels position in red and Jordan's in green. This rough map, which was not meant as an official one, became the final line in the 1949 Armistice

Jerusalem Agreements, which divided the city and left Mount Scopus as an Israeli exclave inside East Jerusalem.[137] Barbed wire and concrete barriers ran down the center of the city, passing close by Jaffa Gate on the western side of the old walled city, and a crossing point was established at Mandelbaum Gate slightly to the north of the old walled city. Military skirmishes frequently threatened the ceasefire. After the establishment of the State of Israel, Jerusalem was declared its capital city.[138] Jordan formally annexed East Jerusalem in 1950, subjecting it to Jordanian law, and in 1953 declared it the "second capital" of Jordan.[131][139][140] Only the United Kingdom and Pakistan formally recognized such annexation, which, in regard to Jerusalem, was on a de facto basis.[141] Also, it is dubious that Pakistan recognized Jordan's annexation.[142][143] After 1948, since the old walled city in its entirety was to the east of the armistice line, Jordan was able to take control of all the holy places therein, and contrary to the terms of the armistice agreement, denied Jews access to Jewish holy sites, many of which were desecrated. Jordan allowed only very limited access to Christian holy sites.[144] Of the 58 synagogues in the Old City, half were either razed or converted to stables and hen-houses over the course of the next 19 years, including the Hurva and the Tiferet Yisrael Synagogue. The Jewish Cemetery on the Mount of Olives was desecrated, with gravestones used to build roads and latrines.[145] Israeli authorities razed many ancient tombs in the ancient Muslim Mamilla Cemetery in West Jerusalem to facilitate the creation of a parking lot and public lavatories in 1964.[146] Many other historic and religiously significant buildings were demolished and replaced by modern structures.[147] During this period, the Dome of the Rock and Al-Aqsa Mosque underwent major renovations.[148] The Jewish Quarter became known as Harat al-Sharaf, and was resettled with refugees from the 1948 war. In 1966 the Jordanian authorities relocated 500 of them to the Shua'fat refugee camp as part of plans to redevelop the area.[149] In 1967, despite Israeli pleas that Jordan remain neutral during the Six-Day War, Jordanian forces attacked Israeli-held West Jerusalem on the war's second day. After hand to hand fighting between Israeli and Jordanian soldiers on the Temple Mount, the Israel Defense Force captured East Jerusalem, along with the entire West Bank. East Jerusalem, along with some nearby West Bank territory, was subsequently annexed by Israel, as were the city's Christian and Muslim holy sites.[150] On 27 June 1967, a few weeks after the war ended, Israel extended its law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem and some surrounding area, incorporating it into the Jerusalem Municipality.[151] Although at the time Israel informed the United Nations that its measures constituted administrative and municipal integration rather than annexation, later rulings by the Israeli Supreme Court upheld the government's view that East Jerusalem had become part of Israel. In 1980, Israel passed the Jerusalem Law as an addition to its Basic Laws, which declared Jerusalem the "complete and united" capital of Israel.[152] Following the annexation, 22 of the 24 countries that had previously recognized (West) Jerusalem as Israel's capital Map of East Jerusalem(2010) relocated their embassies in Tel Aviv. Costa Rica and San Salvador [153] followed suit in 2006. Israel conducted a census of Arab residents in the areas annexed. Residents were given permanent residency status and the option of applying for Israeli citizenship. Jewish and Christian access to the holy sites inside the old walled city was restored. Israel left the Temple Mount under the jurisdiction of an Islamic waqf, but opened the Western Wall to Jewish access. The Moroccan Quarter, which was located adjacent to the Western Wall, was evacuated and razed.[154] to make way for a plaza for those visiting the wall.[155] On 18 April 1968, an expropriation order by the Israeli Ministry of Finance more than doubled the size of the Jewish Quarter, evicting its Arab residents and seizing over 700 buildings of which only 105 belonged

83

Jerusalem to pre-1948 Jewish inhabitants. The old quarter was thus extended into the Mughrabi Harat Abu Sa'ud, and other quarters steeped in Arab and Palestinian history. The order designated these areas for public use, but were intended for Jews alone.[156] The government offered 200 Jordanian dinars to each displaced Arab family. After the Six-Day War the population of Jerusalem increased by 196% The Jewish population grew by 155%, while the Arab population grew by 314%. The proportion of the Jewish population fell from 74% in 1967 to 72% in 1980, to 68% in 2000, and to 64% in 2010.[157] Israeli Agriculture Minister Ariel Sharon proposed building a ring of Jewish neighborhoods around the city's eastern edges. The plan was intended to make East Jerusalem more Jewish and prevent it from becoming part of an urban Palestinian bloc stretching from Bethlehem to Ramallah. On 2 October 1977, the Israeli cabinet approved the plan, and seven neighborhoods were subsequently built on the city's eastern edges. They became known as the Ring Neighborhoods. Other Jewish neighborhoods were built within East Jerusalem, and Israeli Jews also settled in Arab neighborhoods.[158][159] The annexation of East Jerusalem was met with international criticism. Following the passing of the Jerusalem Law, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution that declared the law "a violation of international law" and requested all member states to withdraw all remaining embassies from the city.[160] The Israeli Foreign Ministry disputes that the annexation of Jerusalem was a violation of international law.[161][162] A poll conducted by Palestinian Center for Public Opinion and American Pechter Middle East Polls for the Council on Foreign Relations, among East Jerusalem Arab residents in Zion Square 2011 reviled that 39% of East Jerusalem Arab residents would prefer Israeli citizenship contrary to 31% who opted for Palestinian citizenship. According to the poll, 40% of Palestinian residents would prefer to leave their neighborhoods if they would be placed under Palestinian rule.[163] Today The status of the city, and especially its holy places, remains a core issue in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Israeli government has approved building plans in the Muslim Quarter of the Old City[164] in order to expand the Jewish presence in East Jerusalem, while some Islamic leaders have made claims that Jews have no historical connection to Jerusalem, alleging that the 2,500-year-old Western Wall was constructed as part of a mosque.[165][166] Palestinians envision East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state,[167][168] and the city's borders have been the subject of bilateral talks. A team of Panoramic view of Jerusalem from Gilo experts assembled by Ehud Barak in 2000 concluded that the city must be divided, since Israel had failed to achieve any of its national aims there. A poll taken at the same time indicated that 65-70% of the public regarded it as a divided city, and 56% would accept a partition.[169] A strong longing for peace is symbolized by the Peace Monument (with farming tools made out of scrap weapons), facing the Old City wall near the former Israeli-Jordanian border and quoting from the book of Isaiah in Arabic and Hebrew.[170] Some states, such as Russia[171] and China,[172] recognize the Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital. UN General Assembly resolution 58/292 affirmed that the Palestinian people have the right to sovereignty over East Jerusalem.[173]

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85

Geography
Jerusalem is situated on the southern spur of a plateau in the Judean Mountains, which include the Mount of Olives (East) and Mount Scopus (North East). The elevation of the Old City is approximately 760m (2,490ft).[174] The whole of Jerusalem is surrounded by valleys and dry riverbeds (wadis). The Kidron, Hinnom, and Tyropoeon Valleys intersect in an area just south of the Old City of Jerusalem.[175] The Kidron Valley runs to the east of the Old City and separates the Mount of Olives from the city proper. Along the southern side of old Jerusalem is the Valley of Hinnom, a steep ravine associated in biblical eschatology with the concept of Gehenna or Hell.[176] The Tyropoeon Valley commenced in the northwest near the Damascus Gate, ran south-southeasterly through the center of the Old City down to the Pool of Siloam, and divided the lower part into two hills, the Temple Mount to the east, and the rest of the city to the west (the lower and the upper cities described by Josephus). Today, this valley is hidden by debris that has accumulated over the centuries.[175] In biblical times, Jerusalem was surrounded by forests of almond, olive and pine trees. Over centuries of warfare and neglect, these forests were destroyed. Farmers in the Jerusalem region thus built stone terraces along the slopes to hold back the soil, a feature still very much in evidence in the Jerusalem landscape.

Astronaut View of Jerusalem

Mount of Olives

Water supply has always been a major problem in Jerusalem, as attested to by the intricate network of ancient aqueducts, tunnels, pools and cisterns found in the city.[177] Jerusalem is 60 kilometers (37mi)[178] east of Tel Aviv and the Mediterranean Sea. On the opposite side of the city, approximately 35 kilometers (22mi)[179] away, is the Dead Sea, the lowest body of water on Earth. Neighboring cities and towns include Bethlehem and Beit Jala to the south, Abu Dis and Ma'ale Adumim to the east, Mevaseret Zion to the west, and Ramallah and Giv'at Ze'ev to the north.[180][181][182] Mount Herzl, at the western side of the city near the Jerusalem Forest, serves as the national cemetery of Israel.

Climate
The city is characterized by a Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers, and mild, wet winters. Snow flurries usually occur once or twice a winter, although the city experiences heavy snowfall every three to four years, on average, with short-lived accumulation. January is the coldest month of the year, with an average temperature of 9.1 C (48.4F); July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 24.2 C (75.6F), and the summer months are usually rainless. The average annual precipitation is around 550mm (22in), with rain occurring almost entirely between October and May.[183] Jerusalem has nearly 3,400 annual sunshine hours. Most of the air pollution in Jerusalem comes from vehicular traffic.[184] Many main streets in Jerusalem were not built to accommodate such a large volume of traffic, leading to traffic congestion and more carbon monoxide released into the air. Industrial pollution inside the city is sparse, but emissions from factories on the Israeli Mediterranean coast can travel eastward and settle over the city.[184][185]

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Climate data for Jerusalem (18812007) Month Record high C (F) Average high C (F) Daily mean C (F) Average low C (F) Record low C (F) Rainfall mm (inches) %humidity Avg. rainy days Mean monthly sunshine hours Jan
23.4 (74.1) 11.8 (53.2) 9.1 (48.4) 6.4 (43.5) 6.7 (19.9)

Feb
25.3 (77.5) 12.6 (54.7) 9.5 (49.1) 6.4 (43.5) 2.4 (27.7)

Mar
27.6 (81.7) 15.4 (59.7) 11.9 (53.4) 8.4 (47.1) 0.3 (31.5)

Apr
35.3 (95.5) 21.5 (70.7) 17.1 (62.8) 12.6 (54.7) 0.8 (33.4)

May
37.2 (99) 25.3 (77.5) 20.5 (68.9) 15.7 (60.3) 7.6 (45.7)

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep
37.8 (100) 28.2 (82.8) 23.4 (74.1) 18.6 (65.5) 13.2 (55.8)

Oct
33.8 (92.8) 24.7 (76.5) 20.7 (69.3) 16.6 (61.9) 9.8 (49.6)

Nov
29.4 (84.9) 18.8 (65.8) 15.6 (60.1) 12.3 (54.1) 1.8 (35.2)

Dec
26 (79) 14.0 (57.2) 11.2 (52.2) 8.4 (47.1) 0.2 (32.4)

Year
44.4 (111.9) 21.5 (70.7) 17.5 (63.5) 13.5 (56.3) 6.7 (19.9)

36.8 40.6 44.4 (98.2) (105.1) (111.9) 27.6 (81.7) 22.7 (72.9) 17.8 (64) 11 (52) 0 (0) 44 0 381.0 29.0 (84.2) 24.2 (75.6) 19.4 (66.9) 14.6 (58.3) 0 (0) 52 0 384.4 29.4 (84.9) 24.5 (76.1) 19.5 (67.1) 15.5 (59.9) 0 (0) 57 0 365.8

133.2 118.3 92.7 24.5 3.2 (5.244) (4.657) (3.65) (0.965) (0.126) 72 12.9 192.2 69 11.7 226.3 63 9.6 243.6 58 4.4 267.0 41 1.3 331.7

0.3 15.4 60.8 105.7 554.1 (0.012) (0.606) (2.394) (4.161) (21.815) 58 0.3 309.0 56 3.6 275.9 61 7.3 228.0 69 10.9 192.2 58.3 62 3,397.1

Source #1: Israel Meteorological Service

[186][187] [188]

Source #2: Hong Kong Observatory for data of sunshine hours

Demographics
Demographic history
Jerusalem's population size and composition has shifted many times over its 5,000 year history. Since medieval times, the Old City of Jerusalem has been divided into Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Armenian quarters. Most population data pre-1905 is based on estimates, often from foreign travellers or organisations, since previous census data usually covered wider areas such as the Jerusalem District.[189] These estimates suggest that since the end of the Crusades, Muslims formed the largest group in Jerusalem until the mid-nineteenth century. Between 1838 and 1876, a number of estimates exist which conflict as to whether Jews or Muslims were the largest group during this period, and between 1882 and 1922 estimates conflict as to exactly when Jews became a majority of the population.

Current demographics
In December 2007, Jerusalem had a population of 747,60064% were Jewish, 32% Muslim, and 2% Christian.[6] At the end of 2005, the population density was 5,750.4/km2 (14,893/sqmi).[4][190] According to a study published in 2000, the percentage of Jews in the city's population had been decreasing; this was attributed to a higher Muslim birth rate, and Jewish residents leaving. The study also found that about nine percent of the Old City's 32,488 people were Jews.[191]

Jerusalem

87 In 2005, 2,850 new immigrants settled in Jerusalem, mostly from the United States, France and the former Soviet Union. In terms of the local population, the number of outgoing residents exceeds the number of incoming residents. In 2005, 16,000 left Jerusalem and only 10,000 moved in.[4] Nevertheless, the population of Jerusalem continues to rise due to the high birth rate, especially in the Haredi Jewish and Arab communities. Consequently, the total fertility rate in Jerusalem (4.02) is higher than in Tel Aviv (1.98) and well above the national average of 2.90. The average size of Jerusalem's 180,000 households is 3.8 people.[4]

Ezrat Torah, a Haredi neighborhood

In 2005, the total population grew by 13,000 (1.8%)similar to Israeli national average, but the religious and ethnic composition is shifting. While 31% of the Jewish population is made up of children below the age fifteen, the figure for the Arab population is 42%.[4] This would seem to corroborate the observation that the percentage of Jews in Jerusalem has declined over the past four decades. In 1967, Jews accounted for 74 percent of the population, while the figure for 2006 is down nine percent.[192] Possible factors are the high cost of housing, fewer job opportunities and the increasingly religious character of the city, although proportionally, young Haredim are leaving in higher numbers. The percentage of secular Jews, or those who 'wear their faith lightly' is dropping, with some 20,000 leaving the city over the past 7 years (2012). They now number 31% of the population, the same percentage as the rising ultra-orthodox population.[193] Many move to the suburbs and coastal cities in search of cheaper housing and a more secular lifestyle.[194] In 2009, the percentage of Haredim in the city was increasing. As of 2009, out of 150,100 schoolchildren, 59,900 or 40% are in state-run secular and National Religious schools, while 90,200 or 60% are in Haredi schools. This correlates with the high number of children in Haredi families.[195][196] While some Israelis see Jerusalem as poor, rundown and riddled with religious and political tension, the city has been a magnet for Palestinians, offering more jobs and opportunity than any city in the West Bank or Gaza Strip. Palestinian officials have encouraged Arabs over the years to stay in the city to maintain their claim.[197][198] Palestinians are attracted to the access to jobs, healthcare, social security, other benefits, and quality of life Israel provides to Jerusalem residents.[199] Arab residents of Jerusalem who choose not to have Israeli citizenship are granted an Israeli identity card that allows them The Armenian Quarter to pass through checkpoints with relative ease and to travel throughout Israel, making it easier to find work. Residents also are entitled to the subsidized healthcare and social security benefits Israel provides its citizens, and have the right to vote in municipal elections. Arabs in Jerusalem can send their children to Israeli-run schools, although not every neighborhood has one, and universities. Israeli doctors and highly regarded hospitals such as Hadassah Medical Center are available to residents.[200] Demographics and the Jewish-Arab population divide play a major role in the dispute over Jerusalem. In 1998, the Jerusalem Development Authority proposed expanding city limits to the west to include more areas heavily populated with Jews.[201] Within the past few years, there has been a steady increase in the Jewish birthrate and a steady decrease in the Arab birthrate. In May 2012, it was reported that the Jewish birthrate had overtaken the Arab birthrate. Currently, the city's birthrate stands about 4.2 children per Jewish family and 3.9 children per Arab family.[202][203] In the last few years, thousands of Palestinians have moved to previously fully Jewish neighborhoods of East Jerusalem, built after the 1967 Six-Day War. In 2007, 1,300 Palestinians lived in the previously exclusively Jewish neighborhood of Pisgat

Jerusalem Zeev and constituted three percent of the population in Neve Yaakov. In the French Hill neighborhood, Palestinians today constitute one-sixth of the overall population.[204]

88

Urban planning issues

Critics of efforts to promote a Jewish majority in Jerusalem say that government planning policies are motivated by demographic considerations and seek to limit Arab construction while promoting Jewish construction.[205] According to a World Bank report, the number of recorded building violations between 1996 and 2000 was four and half times higher in Jewish neighborhoods but four times fewer demolition orders were issued in West Jerusalem than in East Jerusalem; Arabs in Jerusalem were less likely to receive construction Sheikh Jarrah, a predominantly Arab neighborhood on the road to Mount Scopus permits than Jews, and "the authorities are much more likely to take action against Palestinian violators" than Jewish violators of the permit process.[206] In recent years, private Jewish foundations have received permission from the government to develop projects on disputed lands, such as the City of David archaeological park in the 60% Arab neighborhood of Silwan (adjacent to the Old City),[207] and the Museum of Tolerance on Mamilla cemetery (adjacent to Zion Square).[206][208] Opponents view such urban planning moves as geared towards the Judaization of Jerusalem.[209][210][211]

Municipality of Jerusalem
The Jerusalem City Council is a body of 31 elected members headed by the mayor, who serves a five-year term and appoints eight deputies. The former mayor of Jerusalem, Uri Lupolianski, was elected in 2003.[212] In the November 2008 city elections, Nir Barkat came out as the winner and is now the mayor. Apart from the mayor and his deputies, City Council members receive no salaries and work on a voluntary basis. The longest-serving Jerusalem mayor was Teddy Kollek, who spent 28 years-six consecutive terms-in office. Most of the meetings of the Jerusalem City Council are private, but each Jerusalem City Hall month, it holds a session that is open to the public.[212] Within the city council, religious political parties form an especially powerful faction, accounting for the majority of its seats.[213] The headquarters of the Jerusalem Municipality and the mayor's office are at Safra Square (Kikar Safra) on Jaffa Road. The municipal complex, comprising two modern buildings and ten renovated historic buildings surrounding a large plaza, opened in 1993 moved from the Jerusalem Historical City Hall Building.[214] The city falls under the Jerusalem District, with Jerusalem as the district's capital.

Jerusalem

89

Political status
Under the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine passed by the UN in 1947, Jerusalem was envisaged to become a corpus separatum administered by the United Nations. While the Jewish leaders accepted the partition plan, the Arab leadership (the Arab Higher Committee in Palestine and the Arab League) rejected it, opposing any partition.[215][216] In the war of 1948, the western part of the city was occupied by forces of the nascent state of Israel, while the eastern part was occupied by Jordan. The international community largely considers the legal status of Jerusalem to derive from the partition plan, and correspondingly refuses to recognize Israeli sovereignty in the city. On 5 December 1949, the State of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, proclaimed Jerusalem as Israel's capital,[217] and since then all branches of the Israeli governmentlegislative, judicial, and executivehave resided there, except for the Ministry of Defense, located at HaKirya in Tel Aviv.[218] At the time of the proclamation, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and thus only West Jerusalem was proclaimed Israel's capital. Following the Six-Day War, Israel annexed East Jerusalem, and a provision stipulating that the city was the united capital of Israel was added to the country's Basic Law.[219] The status of a "united Jerusalem" as Israel's "eternal capital"[217][220] has been a matter of immense controversy within the international community. Although some countries maintain consulates in Jerusalem, all embassies are located outside the city proper, mostly in Tel Aviv.[221][222] Due to the non-recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, some non-Israeli press use Tel Aviv as a metonym for Israel.[223][224][225][226] The non-binding United Nations Security Council Resolution 478, passed on 20 August 1980, declared that the Basic Law was "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith". Member states were advised to withdraw their diplomatic representation from Jerusalem as a punitive measure. Most of the remaining countries with embassies in Jerusalem complied with the resolution by relocating them to Tel Aviv, where many embassies already resided prior to Resolution 478. Currently, there are no embassies located within the city limits of Jerusalem, although there are embassies in Mevaseret Zion, on the outskirts of Jerusalem, and four consulates in the city itself.[222] In 1995, the United States Congress passed the Jerusalem Embassy Act, which required, subject to conditions, that that country's embassy be moved from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem.[227] However, U.S. presidents have argued that Congressional resolutions regarding the status of Jerusalem are merely advisory. The Constitution reserves foreign relations as an executive power, and as such, the United States embassy is still in Tel Aviv.[228]

Jerusalem Historical City Hall Building

The Knesset building in Givat Ram

Supreme Court of Israel

Israeli Foreign Ministry building

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90

On 28 October 2009, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon warned that Jerusalem must be the capital of both Israel and Palestine if peace is to be achieved.[229] The Palestinian National Authority views East Jerusalem as occupied territory according to United Nations Security Council Resolution 242. The Palestinian Authority claims all of East Jerusalem, including the Temple Mount, as the capital of the State of Palestine, and claims that West Jerusalem is also subject to permanent status negotiations. However, it has stated that it would be willing to consider alternative solutions, such as making Jerusalem an open city.[230] In 2010, Israel approved legislation giving Jerusalem the highest national priority status in Israel. The law prioritized construction throughout the city, and offered grants and tax benefits to residents to make housing, infrastructure, education, employment, business, tourism, and cultural events more affordable. Communications Minister Moshe Kahlon said that the bill sent "a clear, unequivocal political message that Jerusalem will not be divided", and that "all those within the Palestinian and international community who expect the current Israeli government to accept any demands regarding Israel's sovereignty over it's [sic] capital are mistaken and misleading".[231]

Beit Aghion, the official residence of the Prime Minister

Government precinct and national institutions

Many national institutions of Israel are located in Kiryat HaMemshala National Headquarters of the Israel Police in Givat Ram in Jerusalem as a part of the Kiryat HaLeom project which is intended to create a large district that will house most government agencies and national cultural institutions. Some government buildings are located in Kiryat Menachem Begin. The city is home to the Knesset,[232] the Supreme Court,[233] the Bank of Israel, and the National Headquarters of the Israel Police, the official residences of the President and Prime Minister, the Cabinet, and all ministries except the Ministry of Defense (which is located in Tel Aviv's HaKirya district). Prior to the creation of the State of Israel, Jerusalem served as the administrative capital of the British Mandate for Palestine, which included present-day Israel and Jordan.[234] From Bank of Israel 1949 until 1967, West Jerusalem served as Israel's capital, but was not recognized as such internationally because UN General Assembly Resolution 194 envisaged Jerusalem as an international city. As a result of the Six-Day War in 1967, the whole of Jerusalem came under Israeli control. On 27 June 1967, the government of Levi Eshkol extended Israeli law and jurisdiction to East Jerusalem, but agreed that administration of the Temple Mount compound would be maintained by the Jordanian waqf, under the Jordanian Ministry of Religious Endowments.[235] In 1988, Israel ordered the closure of Orient House, home of the Arab Studies Society, but also the headquarters of the Palestine Liberation Organization, for security reasons. The building reopened in 1992 as a Palestinian guesthouse.[236][237] The Oslo Accords stated that the final status of Jerusalem would be determined by negotiations with the Palestinian Authority. The accords banned any official Palestinian presence in the city until a final peace agreement, but provided for the opening of a Palestinian trade office in East

Jerusalem Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority regards East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state.[25] President Mahmoud Abbas has said that any agreement that did not not include East Jerusalem as the capital of Palestine would be unacceptable.[238] Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has similarly stated that Jerusalem would remain the undivided capital of Israel. Due to its proximity to the city, especially the Temple Mount, Abu Dis, a Palestinian suburb of Jerusalem, has been proposed as the future capital of a Palestinian state by Israel. Israel has not incorporated Abu Dis within its security wall around Jerusalem. The Palestinian Authority has built a possible future parliament building for the Palestinian Legislative Council in the town, and its Jerusalem Affairs Offices are all located in Abu Dis.[239]

91

Religious significance
Jerusalem has been sacred to Judaism for roughly 3000 years, to Christianity for around 2000 years, and to Islam for approximately 1400 years. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[240] Despite efforts to maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous source of friction and controversy.

The Western Wall, known as the Kotel

The al-Aqsa Mosque, a sacred site for Muslims

Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE. Jerusalem was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple.[11] Although not mentioned in the Torah / Pentateuch,[241] it is mentioned in the Bible 632 times. Today, the Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is a Jewish holy site second only to the Holy of Holies on the Temple Mount itself.[242] Synagogues around the world are traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem,[243] and Arks within Jerusalem face the "Holy of Holies".[244] As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their homes to indicate the direction of prayer.[244][245]
Church of the Holy Sepulchre

Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its Old Testament history but also for its significance in the life of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus was

Jerusalem brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth[246] and later in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[247] The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.[248][249] Another prominent Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being located outside Jerusalem,[250] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[251] The land currently occupied by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a Christian pilgrimage site for the past two thousand years.[251][252][253] Jerusalem is considered by some as the third-holiest city in Sunni Islam.[15] For approximately a year, before it was permanently switched to the Kaaba in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[254] The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night of Ascension (c. CE 620). Muslims believe Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from Mecca to the Temple Mount in Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam.[255][256] The first verse in the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of The Temple Mount Muhammad's journey as al-Aqsa (the farthest) mosque,[257] in reference to the location in Jerusalem. The hadith, the recorded sayings of the Prophet Mohammad, name Jerusalem as the location of the Al-Aqsa Mosque.[258] Today, the Temple Mount is topped by an Islamic landmark intended to commemorate the evental-Aqsa Mosque, derived from the name mentioned in the Qur'an, and also the place from which Muslims believe Muhammad ascended to Heaven.[259]

92

Culture
Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic and cultural venues. The Israel Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third of them tourists.[260] The 20-acre (81,000m2) museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The Dead Sea scrolls, discovered in the mid-20th century in the Qumran Caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the Museum's Shrine of the Book.[261] Beside Israel Museum is the Bible Lands Museum near the The National Campus for the Archaeology of Israel, which includes the Israel Antiquities Authority offices. A World Bible Center is planned to be built next to Mount Zion on a place called: the Bible Hill. The planned World Kabbalah Center is to sit on the nearby promenade overlooking old city.

The Shrine of the Book, housing the Dead Sea Scrolls, at the Israel Museum

Jerusalem Botanical Gardens

Jerusalem

93

Bible Lands Museum

The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive art education program, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture garden and a scale-model of the Second Temple.[260] The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.[262][263]

National Library of Israel

The entrance of Mount Herzl - the national cemetery of Israel

The national cemetery of Israel is located at the city's western edge, near the Jerusalem Forest on Mount Herzl. The western extension of Mount Herzl is the Mount of Remembrance, where the main Holocaust museum of Israel is located. Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, houses the world's largest library of Holocaust-related information.[264] It houses an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust. An art gallery featuring the work of artists who perished is also present. Further, Yad Vashem commemorates the 1.5million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and honors the Righteous among the

Nations.[265] The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of coexistence through art, is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.[266]

Jerusalem The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s,[267] has appeared around the world.[267] The International Convention Center (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city houses the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra. The Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Center (formerly Beit Ha'am) in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Center in Yemin Moshe,[268] and the Targ Music Center in Ein Kerem also present the arts. The Israel Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local and international singers, concerts, plays, and street theater has been held annually since 1961, and Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event. The Jerusalem Theater in the Talbiya neighborhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theater and dance companies and performing artists from overseas.[269] The Khan Theater, located in a caravanserai opposite the old Jerusalem train station, is the city's only repertoire theater.[270] The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in recent years as the site of Shav'ua Hasefer (an annual week-long book fair) and outdoor music performances.[271] The Jerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.[272]

94

The International Convention Center

Yad Vashem

The Ticho House in downtown Jerusalem houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912.[273] Al-Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.[274] In 1974 the Jerusalem Cinematheque was founded. In 1981 it was moved to a new building on Hebron Road near the Valley of Hinnom and the Old City.
Jerusalem Biblical Zoo

Jerusalem Cinematheque

Jerusalem Jerusalem was declared the Capital of Arab Culture in 2009.[275] Jerusalem is home to the Palestinian National Theatre, which engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to rekindle Palestinian interest in the arts.[276] The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music sponsors the Palestine Youth Orchestra[277] which toured the Gulf states and other Middle East countries in 2009.[278] The Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny kohl flasks and rare Heichal Shlomo manuscripts to giant marble columns.[279] While Israel approves and financially supports Arab cultural activities, Arab Capital of Culture events were banned because they were sponsored by the Palestine National Authority.[275] In 2009, a four-day culture festival was held in the Beit 'Anan suburb of Jerusalem, attended by more than 15,000 people[280] The Abraham Fund and the Jerusalem Intercultural Center] (JICC) promote joint Jewish-Palestinian cultural projects. The Jerusalem Center for Middle Eastern Music and Dance[281] is open to Arabs and Jews and offers workshops on Jewish-Arab dialogue through the arts.[282] The Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra performs both European classical and Middle Eastern music.[283] In 2006, a 38km (24mi) Jerusalem Trail was opened, a hiking trail that goes to many cultural sites and national parks in and around Jerusalem. In 2008, the Tolerance Monument, an outdoor sculpture by Czesaw Dwigaj, was erected on a hill between Jewish Armon HaNetziv and Arab Jebl Mukaber as a symbol of Jerusalem's quest for peace.[284]

95

Media
Jerusalem is the state broadcasting center of Israel. The Israel Broadcasting Authority's main office is located in Jerusalem, as well as the TV and radio studios for Israel Radio, Channel 2, Channel 10, and part of the radio studios of BBC News. Local media entities include newspapers such as The Jerusalem Times.

Israel Broadcasting Authority office

Jerusalem

96

Economy
Historically, Jerusalem's economy was supported almost exclusively by religious pilgrims, as it was located far from the major ports of Jaffa and Gaza.[285] Jerusalem's religious landmarks today remain the top draw for foreign visitors, with the majority of tourists visiting the Western Wall and the Old City,[4] but in the past half-century it has become increasingly clear that Jerusalem's providence cannot solely be sustained by its religious significance.[285]

Mamilla Avenue adorned with upscale shops adjacent to the Old City Walls.

Hadar Mall, Talpiot

Har Hotzvim high-tech park

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97

Although many statistics indicate economic growth in the city, since 1967 East Jerusalem has lagged behind the development of West Jerusalem.[285] Nevertheless, the percentage of households with employed persons is higher for Arab households (76.1%) than for Jewish households (66.8%). The unemployment rate in Jerusalem (8.3%) is slightly better than the national average (9.0%), although the civilian labor force accounted for less than half of all persons fifteen years or olderlower in comparison to that of Tel Aviv (58.0%) and Haifa (52.4%).[4] Poverty in the city has increased dramatically in Jerusalem Technology Park recent years. According to a report by the Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI), 78% of Palestinians in Jerusalem lived in poverty in 2012. This marks a steady increase from 2006 when 64% of Palestinians were in poverty. While the ACRI attributes the increase to the lack of employment opportunities, infrastructure and a worsening educational system, Ir Amim blames the legal status of Palestinians in Jerusalem.[286] In 2006, the average monthly income for a worker in Jerusalem was NIS5,940 (US$1,410), NIS1,350 less than that for a worker in Tel Aviv. During the British Mandate, a law was passed requiring all buildings to be constructed of Jerusalem stone in order to preserve the unique historic and aesthetic character of the city.[128] Complementing this building code, which is still in force, is the discouragement of heavy industry in Jerusalem; only about 2.2% of Jerusalem's land is zoned for "industry and infrastructure." By comparison, the percentage of land in Tel Aviv zoned for industry and infrastructure is twice as high, and in Haifa, seven times as high.[4] Only 8.5% of the Jerusalem District work force is employed in the manufacturing sector, which is half the national average (15.8%). Higher than average percentages are employed in education (17.9% vs. 12.7%); health and welfare (12.6% vs. 10.7%); community and social services (6.4% vs. 4.7%); hotels and restaurants (6.1% vs. 4.7%); and public administration (8.2% vs. 4.7%).[287] Although Tel Aviv remains Israel's financial center, a growing number of high tech companies are moving to Jerusalem, providing 12,000 jobs in 2006.[288] Northern Jerusalem's Har Hotzvim industrial park is home to some of Israel's major corporations, among them Intel, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, Ophir Optronics and ECI Telecom. Expansion plans for the park envision one hundred businesses, a fire station, and a school, covering an area of 530,000m2 (130acres).[289] Since the establishment of the State of Israel, the national government has remained a major player in Jerusalem's economy. The government, centered in Jerusalem, generates a large number of jobs, and offers subsidies and incentives for new business initiatives and start-ups.[285] In 2010, Jerusalem was named the top leisure travel city in Africa and the Middle East by Travel + Leisure magazine.[290]

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Transportation
Jerusalem is served by highly developed communication infrastructures, making it a leading logistics hub for Israel. The Jerusalem Central Bus Station, located on Jaffa Road, is the busiest bus station in Israel. It is served by Egged Bus Cooperative, which is the second-largest bus company in the world,[291] The Dan serves the Bnei Brak-Jerusalem route along with Egged, and Superbus serves the routes between Jerusalem, Modi'in Illit, and Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut. The companies operate from Jerusalem Central Bus Station. Arab neighborhoods in East Jerusalem and routes between Jerusalem and locations in the West Bank are served by the East Jerusalem Central Bus Station, a transportation hub located near the Old City's Damascus Gate. The Jerusalem Light Rail initiated service in August 2011. According to plans, the first rail line will be capable of transporting an estimated 200,000 people daily, and has 23 stops. The route is from Pisgat Ze'ev in the north via the Old City and city center to Mt. Herzl in the south. Another work in progress[292] is a new high-speed rail line from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, which is scheduled to be completed in 2017. Its terminus will be a new underground station (80m (262.47ft) deep) serving the International Convention Center and the Central Bus Station,[293] and is planned to be extended eventually to Malha station. Israel Railways operates train services to Malha train station from Tel Aviv via Beit Shemesh.[294][295] Begin Expressway is one of Jerusalem's major north-south thoroughfares; it runs on the western side of the city, merging in the north with Route 443, which continues toward Tel Aviv. Route 60 runs through the center of the city near the Green Line between East and West Jerusalem. Construction is progressing on parts of a 35-kilometer (22mi) ring road around the city, fostering faster connection between the suburbs.[296][297] The eastern half of the project was conceptualized decades ago, but reaction to the proposed highway is still mixed.[296]
Jerusalem Central Bus Station

Jerusalem Chords Bridge

Light Rail tram on the Jerusalem Chords Bridge

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Education
Jerusalem is home to several prestigious universities offering courses in Hebrew, Arabic and English. Founded in 1925, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem has been ranked among the top 100 schools in the world.[298] The Board of Governors has included such prominent Jewish intellectuals as Albert Einstein and Sigmund Freud.[129] The university has produced several Nobel laureates; recent winners associated with Hebrew University include Avram Hershko,[299] David Gross,[300] and Daniel Kahneman.[301] One of the university's major assets is the Jewish National and University Library, which houses over five million books.[302] The library opened in 1892, over three decades before the university was established, and is one of the world's largest repositories of books on Jewish subjects. Today it is both the central library of the university and the national library of Israel.[303] The Hebrew University operates three campuses in Jerusalem, on Mount Scopus, on Giv'at Ram and a medical campus at the Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital. the Academy of the Hebrew Language are located in the Hebrew university in Givat Ram and the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities located near the Presidents house. Al-Quds University was established in 1984[304] to serve as a flagship university for the Arab and Palestinian peoples. It describes itself as the "only Arab university in Jerusalem".[305] New York Bard College and Al-Quds University agreed to open a joint college in a building originally built to house the Palestinian Legislative Council and Yasser Arafats office. The college gives Master of Arts in Teaching degrees.[306] Al-Quds University resides southeast of the city proper on a 190,000 square metres (47acres) Abu Dis campus.[304] Other institutions of higher learning in Jerusalem are the Jerusalem Academy of Music and Dance[307] and Bezalel Academy of Art and Design,[308] whose buildings are located on the campuses of the Hebrew University.

Entrance to the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities

Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Mount Scopus campus

The Jerusalem College of Technology, founded in 1969, combines training in engineering and other high-tech industries with a Jewish Hand in Hand, a bilingual Jewish-Arab school in studies program.[309] It is one of many schools in Jerusalem, from Jerusalem elementary school and up, that combine secular and religious studies. Numerous religious educational institutions and Yeshivot, including some of the most prestigious yeshivas, among them the Brisk, Chevron, Midrash Shmuel and Mir, are based in the city, with the Mir Yeshiva claiming to be the largest.[310] There were nearly 8,000 twelfth-grade students in Hebrew-language schools during the 20032004 school year.[4] However, due to the large portion of students in Haredi Jewish frameworks, only fifty-five percent of twelfth graders took matriculation exams (Bagrut) and only

Jerusalem

100 thirty-seven percent were eligible to graduate. Unlike public schools, many Haredi schools do not prepare students to take standardized tests.[4] To attract more university students to Jerusalem, the city has begun to offer a special package of financial incentives and housing subsidies to students who rent apartments in downtown Jerusalem.[311]

Schools for Arabs in Jerusalem and other parts of Israel have been criticized for offering a lower quality education than those catering to Israeli Jewish students.[312] While many schools in the heavily Arab East Jerusalem are filled to capacity and there have been complaints of Academy of the Hebrew Language overcrowding, the Jerusalem Municipality is currently building over a dozen new schools in the city's Arab neighborhoods.[313] Schools in Ras el-Amud and Umm Lison opened in 2008.[314] In March 2007, the Israeli government approved a 5-year plan to build 8,000 new classrooms in the city, 40 percent in the Arab sector and 28 percent in the Haredi sector. A budget of 4.6billion shekels was allocated for this project.[315] In 2008, Jewish British philanthropists donated $3million for the construction of schools in Arab East Jerusalem.[314] Arab high school students take the Bagrut matriculation exams, so that much of their curriculum parallels that of other Israeli high schools and includes certain Jewish subjects.[312]

Sports
The two most popular sports are football (soccer) and basketball.[316] Beitar Jerusalem Football Club is one of the most well known in Israel. Fans include political figures who often attend its games.[317] Jerusalem's other major football team, and one of Beitar's top rivals, is Hapoel Jerusalem F.C. Whereas Beitar has been Israel State Cup champion seven times,[318] Hapoel has won the Cup only once. Beitar has won the top league six times, while Hapoel has never succeeded. Beitar plays in the more prestigious Ligat HaAl, while Hapoel is in the second division Liga Leumit. Since its opening in 1992, Teddy Kollek Teddy Stadium, Malha Stadium has been Jerusalem's primary football stadium, with a capacity of 21,600.[319] The most popular Palestinian football club is Jabal Al Mukaber (since 1976) which plays in West Bank Premier League. The club hails from Mount Scopus at Jerusalem, part of the Asian Football Confederation, and plays at the Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium at Al-Ram, across the West Bank Barrier.[320][321] In basketball, Hapoel Jerusalem plays in the top division. The club has won the State Cup three times, and the ULEB Cup in 2004.[322] The Jerusalem Half Marathon is an annual event in which runners from all over the world compete on a course that takes in some of the city's most famous sights. In addition to the 21.0975 kilometres (13.1094mi) Half Marathon, runners can also opt for the shorter 10km (6.2mi) Fun Run. Both runs start and finish at the stadium in Givat Ram.[323][324]

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High-rise construction
Jerusalem has traditionally had a low-rise skyline. About 18 tall buildings were built at different times in the downtown area when there was no clear policy over the matter. One of them, Holyland Tower 1, Jerusalem's tallest building, is a skyscraper by international standards, rising 32 stories. Holyland Tower 2, which has been approved for construction, will reach the same height.[325][326] A new master plan for the city will see many high-rise buildings, including skyscrapers, built in certain, designated areas of downtown Jerusalem. Towers reaching up to 24 stories will be built along Jaffa Road and King George Street. At the entrance to the city, near the Jerusalem Chords Bridge and the Central Bus Station, 12 skyscrapers rising between 24 and 33 stories will be built, as part of a complex that will also include an open square and an underground train station serving a new express line between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, and will be connected by bridges and underground tunnels. Eleven of the skyscrapers will be either office or apartment buildings, and one will be a 2,000-room hotel. The complex is expected to attract many businesses from Tel Aviv, and become the city's main business hub. In addition, a complex for the city's courts and the prosecutor's office will be built, as well as new buildings for Central Zionist Archives and Israel State Archives.[327][328][329] The skyscrapers built throughout the city are expected to contain public space, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues, and it has been speculated that this may lead to a revitalization of downtown Jerusalem.[330]

Notable residents
Ancient Abdi-Heba, Hurrian chieftan Melchizedek, King of Salem and priest Araunah, Jebusite vendor of land Zadok, Levitical High Priest King David (c. 1040 BCE-c. 970 BCE), second King of the united Kingdom of Israel Solomon the Great (c. 1011 BCE-c. 931 BCE), third King of Israel James the Just (d. 69), Christian Bishop of Jerusalem Mediaeval al-Muqaddasi (946-1000), Arab geographer Fulk, King of Jerusalem, (11311143) Modern Khalil al-Sakakini (born 1878) Yousef Al-Khalidi (born 1829) Musa Alami (born 1897) Sami Hadawi (born 1904) Yousef Beidas (born 1912) Ruhi al-Khatib (born 1914) Serene Husseini Shahid (born 1920) Jafar Tukan (born 1938) Makram Khoury (born 1945) Edward Said (born 1935) Hanna Batatu (born 1926) Naseer Aruri (born 1934) Walid Khalidi (born 1925)
King David's Tomb

Jerusalem Ghada Karmi (born 1939) Said K. Aburish (born 1935) Jamal Dajani (born 1957) Daoud Kuttab (born 1955) Afif Safieh (born 1950)

102

Yitzhak Rabin, general and the fifth Prime Minister of Israel

Mustafa Barghouti (born 1954) Yahya Ayyash (born 1966) Saeb Erekat (born 1955) Ahmed Qurei (born 1937) Mahmoud al-Zahar (born 1945) Amin al-Husayni (born 1895) Munib Younan (born 1950) Mubarak Awad (born 1943) Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni (born 1907) Naomi Ben-Ami (born 1960), Israeli government official and head of Lishkat Hakesher Amram Blau Rachel Bluwstein Trude Dothan (born 1923), archaeologist Shlomo Hillel William Holman Hunt Helena Kagan Ephraim Katzir (19162009), biophysicist and fourth President of Israel Teddy Kollek (19112007), mayor of Jerusalem and founder of the Jerusalem Foundation Dan Meridor Sallai Meridor Shlomo Moussaieff (18521922), a founder of the Bukharim neighborhood Uzi Narkiss Ezra Nawi Yoni Netanyahu (194676), commander of Sayeret Matkal; killed in action during Operation Entebbe Sari Nusseibeh (born 1949), writer and philosopher. Amos Oz (born 1939), writer, novelist, and journalist Herbert Plumer Natalie Portman (born 1981), actress Menachem Porush

Yitzhak Rabin (192295), general and the fifth Prime Minister of Israel Reuven Rivlin

Jerusalem Afif Safieh (born 1950), Palestinian diplomat Conrad Schick Nahman Shai Chemi Shalev Michael Sfard Menachem Ussishkin Matan Vilnai Yigael Yadin A.B. Yehoshua Rehavam Ze'evi

103

Twin towns and sister cities

See List of Israeli twin towns and sister cities New York City, United States (since 1993)[331][332] Prague, Czech Republic [333]

Partner city
Marseille, France

Notes
i. In other languages: official Arabic in Israel: rshalm-Al Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names); Russian: Ijerusalm; Armenian: Erusaem. ii. Jerusalem is the capital under Israeli law. The presidential residence, government offices, supreme court and parliament (Knesset) are located [334] there. The State of Palestine (according to the Basic Law of Palestine, Title One: Article 3) regards Jerusalem as its capital. The UN and most countries do not recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital, taking the position that the final status of Jerusalem is pending future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Most countries maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv and its suburbs or suburbs of Jerusalem, such [415] [416] as Mevaseret Zion (see CIA Factbook and Map of Israel PDF(319KB)) See Positions on Jerusalem for more information. iii. Statistics regarding the demographics of Jerusalem refer to the unified and expanded Israeli municipality, which includes the pre-1967 Israeli and Jordanian municipalities as well as several additional Palestinian villages and neighborhoods to the northeast. Some of the Palestinian [201] villages and neighborhoods have been relinquished to the West Bank de facto by way of the Israeli West Bank barrier, but their legal statuses have not been reverted. iv. The website for Jerusalem is available in three languagesHebrew [335], English [1], and Arabic [336]. v. ^ abMuch of the information regarding King David's conquest of Jerusalem comes from Biblical accounts, but some modern-day historians [337] have begun to give them credit due to a 1993 excavation. vi. Sources disagree on the timing of the creation of the Pact of Umar (Omar). Whereas some say the Pact originated during Umar's lifetime but [338][339] [340] was later expanded, others say the Pact was created after his death and retroactively attributed to him. Further still, other [341] historians believe the ideas in the Pact pre-date Islam and Umar entirely.

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References
[1] http:/ / www. jerusalem. muni. il/ jer_main/ defaultnew. asp?lng=2 [2] "Timeline for the History of Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Peace/ jerutime. html). Jewish Virtual Library. American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. . Retrieved 16 April 2007. [3] Largest city: "... modern Jerusalem, Israel's largest city ..." (Erlanger, Steven. Jerusalem, Now (http:/ / travel2. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 04/ 16/ travel/ 16jerusalem. html), The New York Times, 16 April 2006.) "Jerusalem is Israel's largest city." (" Israel (country) (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761575008_3/ Israel. html)", Microsoft Encarta, 2006, p. 3. Retrieved 18 October 2006. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwrqG7Gx) 31 October 2009.) "Since 1975 unified Jerusalem has been the largest city in Israel." ( "Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ ebi/ article-203247), Encyclopdia Britannica Online, 2006. Retrieved 18 October 2006. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080621103517rn_1/ student. britannica. com/ comptons/ article-203247/ Jerusalem) 21 June 2008) "Jerusalem is the largest city in the State of Israel. It has the largest population, the most Jews and the most non-Jews of all Israeli cities." (Klein, Menachem. Jerusalem: The Future of a Contested City, New York University Press, 1 March 2001, p. 18. ISBN 0-8147-4754-X) "In 1967, Tel Aviv was the largest city in Israel. By 1987, more Jews lived in Jerusalem than the total population of Tel Aviv. Jerusalem had become Israel's premier city." (Friedland, Roger and Hecht, Richard. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 19 September 2000, p. 192. ISBN 0-520-22092-7). [4] "Press Release: Jerusalem Day" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ hodaot2006n/ 11_06_106e. pdf) (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics. 24 May 2006. . Retrieved 10 March 2007. [5] "Jewish Birthrate Exceeds Arab in Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. jewishpress. com/ news/ jewish-higher-than-arab-birthrate-in-jerusalem/ 2012/ 05/ 20/ ). Jewishpress.com. . Retrieved 2012-12-07. [6] "TABLE 3. POPULATION(1) OF LOCALITIES NUMBERING ABOVE 2,000 RESIDENTS AND OTHER RURAL POPULATION ON 31/12/2008" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ population/ new_2009/ table3. pdf) (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. . Retrieved 26 October 2009. [7] "Local Authorities in Israel 2007, Publication #1295 Municipality Profiles Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ population/ new_2009/ table3. pdf) (in Hebrew) (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. . Retrieved 31 December 2007. [8] "Do We Divide the Holiest Holy City?" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080603214950/ http:/ / www. momentmag. com/ Exclusive/ 2008/ 2008-03/ 200803-Jerusalem. html). Moment Magazine. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. momentmag. com/ Exclusive/ 2008/ 2008-03/ 200803-Jerusalem. html) on 3 June 2008. . Retrieved 5 March 2008.. According to Eric H. Clines tally in Jerusalem Besieged. [9] Ben-Arieh, Yehoshua (1984). Jerusalem in the 19th Century, The Old City. Yad Izhak Ben Zvi & St. Martin's Press. p.14. ISBN0-312-44187-8. [10] "Old City of Jerusalem and its Walls" (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 148). Whc.unesco.org. . Retrieved 11 September 2010. [11] Since the 10th century BCE:[v] "Israel was first forged into a unified nation from Jerusalem some 3,000 years ago, when King David seized the crown and united the twelve tribes from this city... For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts. In exile, the Jewish nation came to be identified with the city that had been the site of its ancient capital. Jews, wherever they were, prayed for its restoration." Roger Friedland, Richard D. Hecht. To Rule Jerusalem, University of California Press, 2000, p. 8. ISBN 0-520-22092-7 "The Jewish bond to Jerusalem was never broken. For three millennia, Jerusalem has been the center of the Jewish faith, retaining its symbolic value throughout the generations." Jerusalem- the Holy City (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Facts About Israel/ State/ Jerusalem- the Holy City), Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 23 February 2003. Retrieved 24 March 2007. "The centrality of Jerusalem to Judaism is so strong that even secular Jews express their devotion and attachment to the city, and cannot conceive of a modern State of Israel without it.... For Jews Jerusalem is sacred simply because it exists... Though Jerusalem's sacred character goes back three millennia...". Leslie J. Hoppe. The Holy City: Jerusalem in the theology of the Old Testament, Liturgical Press, 2000, p. 6. ISBN 0-8146-5081-3 "Ever since King David made Jerusalem the capital of Israel 3,000 years ago, the city has played a central role in Jewish existence." Mitchell Geoffrey Bard, The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Middle East Conflict, Alpha Books, 2002, p. 330. ISBN 0-02-864410-7 "For Jews the city has been the pre-eminent focus of their spiritual, cultural, and national life throughout three millennia." Yossi Feintuch, U.S. Policy on Jerusalem, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1987, p. 1. ISBN 0-313-25700-0 "Jerusalem became the center of the Jewish people some 3,000 years ago" Moshe Maoz, Sari Nusseibeh, Jerusalem: Points of Friction And Beyond, Brill Academic Publishers, 2000, p. 1. ISBN 90-411-8843-6

"The Jewish people are inextricably bound to the city of Jerusalem. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, politics, culture, religion, national life and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Since King David established the city as the capital of the Jewish state circa 1000 BCE, it has served as the symbol and most profound expression of the Jewish people's identity as a nation." Basic Facts you should know: Jerusalem (http:/ / www. adl. org/ israel/ advocacy/ glossary/ jerusalem. asp), Anti-Defamation League, 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2007. [12] Maier, P. L. (1968). "Sejanus, Pilate, and the Date of the Crucifixion". Church History 37 (1): 313. doi:10.2307/3163182. JSTOR3163182.

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[13] Fotheringham, J. K. (1934). "The evidence of astronomy and technical chronology for the date of the crucifixion" (http:/ / www. biblicalstudies. org. uk/ pdf/ astronomy_fotheringham. pdf). Journal of Theological Studies 35 (138): 146162. doi:10.1093/jts/os-XXXV.138.146. . [14] The Mystery of the Last Supper, by Colin J. Humphreys (2011), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge ISBN 9780-521-732000 page 193 [15] Third-holiest city in Islam: Esposito, John L. (2 November 2002). What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam. Oxford University Press. p.157. ISBN0-19-515713-3. "The Night Journey made Jerusalem the third holiest city in Islam" Brown, Leon Carl (15 September 2000). "Setting the Stage: Islam and Muslims". Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. Columbia University Press. p.11. ISBN0-231-12038-9. "The third holiest city of IslamJerusalemis also very much in the center..." Hoppe, Leslie J. (August 2000). The Holy City: Jerusalem in the Theology of the Old Testament. Michael Glazier Books. p.14. ISBN0-8146-5081-3. "Jerusalem has always enjoyed a prominent place in Islam. Jerusalem is often referred to as the third holiest city in Islam..." [16] "Middle East peace plans" by Willard A. Beling": The Aqsa Mosque on the Temple Mount is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam after Mecca and Medina [17] Lewis, Bernard; Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann, eds. (1986). Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. [18] [Qur'an17:13] [19] Allen, Edgar (2004). States, Nations, and Borders: The Ethics of Making Boundaries (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=bntCSupRlO4C& pg=PA192& dq=Al-Masjid+ Al-Aqsa). Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-52575-6. . Retrieved 9 June 2008. [20] Kollek, Teddy (1977). "Afterword". In John Phillips. A Will to Survive Israel: the Faces of the Terror 1948-the Faces of Hope Today. Dial Press/James Wade. "about 225 acres (0.91km2)" [21] "Israel plans 1,300 East Jerusalem Jewish settler homes" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-middle-east-11709617). BBC News. 9 November 2010. . "East Jerusalem is regarded as occupied Palestinian territory by the international community, but Israel says it is part of its territory." [22] "The status of Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpi/ palestine/ ch12. pdf). The Question of Palestine & the United Nations. United Nations Department of Public Information. . "East Jerusalem has been considered, by both the General Assembly and the Security Council, as part of the occupied Palestinian territory." [23] Israeli authorities back 600 new East Jerusalem homes (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ 8538791. stm) [24] Resolution 298 September 25, 1971: (http:/ / domino. un. org/ unispal. nsf/ 0/ 441329a958089eaa852560c4004ee74d?OpenDocument) "Recalling its resolutions... concerning measures and actions by Israel designed to change the status of the Israeli-occupied section of Jerusalem,..." [25] Segal, Jerome M. (Fall 1997). "Negotiating Jerusalem" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060514191731/ http:/ / www. publicpolicy. umd. edu/ IPPP/ Fall97Report/ negotiating_jerusalem. htm). The University of Maryland School of Public Policy. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. publicpolicy. umd. edu/ IPPP/ Fall97Report/ negotiating_jerusalem. htm) on 14 May 2006. . Retrieved 25 February 2007. [26] Mller, Bjrn (November 2002) (PDF). A Cooperative Structure for Israeli-Palestinian Relations (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040106192631/ http:/ / shop. ceps. be/ downfree. php?item_id=171). Working Paper No. 1. Centre for European Policy Studies. Archived from the original (http:/ / shop. ceps. be/ downfree. php?item_id=171) on 6 January 2004. . Retrieved 16 April 2007. [27] Press, Associated (9 February 2008). "Palestinians grow by a million in decade" (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1202246355071& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull). Fr.jpost.com. . Retrieved 17 October 2011. [28] Rosenblum, Irit. "Haareez Biblical Zoo favorite tourist site in 2006" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 843385. html). Haaretz. Israel. . Retrieved 11 September 2010. [29] Lis, Jonathan. "Jerusalem Zoo is Israel's number one tourist attraction" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 978314. html). Haaretz. Israel. . Retrieved 9 September 2011. [30] Binz, Stephen J. (2005). Jerusalem, the Holy City (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=7zLuDlzdTFYC& lpg=PP1& dq=Jerusalem,+ the+ Holy+ City+ By+ Stephen+ J. + Binz& pg=PA2#v=onepage& q=Jerusalem, the Holy City By Stephen J. Binz& f=false). Connecticut, USA.: Twenty-Third Publications. p.2. ISBN9781585953653. . Retrieved 17 December 2011. [31] G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, (tr. David E. Green) William B. Eerdmann, Grand Rapids Michigan, Cambridge, UK 1990, Vol. VI, p. 348 [32] "''The El Amarna Letters from Canaan''" (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ humanities/ semitic/ EA263-end. html). Tau.ac.il. . Retrieved 11 September 2010. [33] Marten H. Wouldstra, The Book of Joshua, William B. Eerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan (1981) 1995, p. 169 n.2 [34] G. Johannes Bottereck, Helmer Ringgren, Heinz-Josef Fabry, (eds.) Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, tr. David E. Green, vol. XV, pp. 4849 William B. Eeerdmanns Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge UK 2006, pp. 456 [35] Meir Ben-Dov, Historical Atlas of Jerusalem, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002, p. 23. [36] The Legends of the Jews Volume 1 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ etext98/ 1lotj10. txt) by Louis Ginzberg, Release Date: October 1998 [37] Elon, Amos. Jerusalem (http:/ / www. usna. edu/ Users/ history/ tucker/ hh362/ telavivandjerusalem. htm). HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. ISBN0-00-637531-6. . Retrieved 26 April 2007. "The epithet may have originated in the ancient name of JerusalemSalem (after the pagan deity of the city), which is etymologically connected in the Semitic languages with the words for peace (shalom in Hebrew, salam in Arabic)." [38] Ringgren, H., Die Religionen des Alten Orients (Gttingen, 1979), 212.

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[39] Hastings, James (2004). A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume II: (Part II: I -- Kinsman), Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=0wvtFPz03GsC& pg=PA584& dq=jerusalem+ abode+ of+ peace#v=onepage& q=jerusalem abode of peace& f=false). Honolulu, Hawaii: Reprinted from 1898 edition by University Press of the Pacific. p.584. ISBN1-4102-1725-6. . Retrieved 17 December 2011. [40] Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic cities of the Islamic world (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=UB4uSVt3ulUC& pg=PA226& dq=Jerusalem+ Abode+ of+ Peace#v=onepage& q=Jerusalem Abode of Peace& f=false). The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV. pp.225226. ISBN90-04-15388-8. . Retrieved 17 December 2011. [41] Denise DeGarmo (9 September 2011). "Abode of Peace?" (http:/ / centre4conflictstudies. org/ wanderingthoughts/ category/ denise-degarmo/ ). Wandering Thoughts. Center for Conflict Studies. . Retrieved 17 December 2011. [42] Bosworth, Francis Edward (1968). Millennium: a Latin reader, A (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5sC2pJYlzbsC& pg=PA183& dq=jerusalem+ abode+ of+ peace#v=onepage& q=jerusalem abode of peace& f=false). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. p.183. ISBNB0000CO4LE. . Retrieved 17 December 2011. [43] Wallace, Edwin Sherman (August 1977). Jerusalem the Holy. New York: Arno Press. p.16. ISBN0-405-10298-4. "A similar view was held by those who give the Hebrew dual to the word" [44] Smith, George Adam (1907). Jerusalem: The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to A.D. 70. Hodder and Stoughton. p.251. ISBN0-7905-2935-1. "The termination -aim or -ayim used to be taken as the ordinary termination of the dual of nouns, and was explained as signifying the upper and lower cities" (see here (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Nf4QAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA251& dq=jerusalem+ name+ dual& ie=ISO-8859-1)) [45] The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=lNV6-HsUppsC& pg=RA3-PA113& dq=jebus+ jerusalem#v=onepage& q=jebus jerusalem& f=false), p. 113 [46] Bar-Kochva, Bezalel (2002). Judas Maccabeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=SIKuW_bl6LAC& pg=PA447). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p.447. ISBN0-521-01683-5. . [47] Mazar, Eilat (2002). The Complete Guide to the Temple Mount Excavations. Jerusalem: Shoham Academic Research and Publication. p.1. ISBN965-90299-1-8. [48] "The Official Website of Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. jerusalem. muni. il/ jer_main/ defaultnew. asp?lng=3). Municipality of Jerusalem. 19 September 2011. . [49] Azmi Bishara. "A brief note on Jerusalem" (http:/ / weekly. ahram. org. eg/ 2010/ 995/ focus. htm). . Retrieved 22 September 2010. [50] Daniel Pipes. "Constructing a Counterfeit History of Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. danielpipes. org/ blog/ 2002/ 05/ counterfeit-history-jerusalem). . Retrieved 22 2010. [51] No city in the world, not even Athens or Rome, ever played as great a role in the life of a nation for so long a time, as Jerusalem has done in the life of the Jewish people. David Ben-Gurion, 1947 [52] For three thousand years, Jerusalem has been the center of Jewish hope and longing. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, culture, religion and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Throughout centuries of exile, Jerusalem remained alive in the hearts of Jews everywhere as the focal point of Jewish history, the symbol of ancient glory, spiritual fulfillment and modern renewal. This heart and soul of the Jewish people engenders the thought that if you want one simple word to symbolize all of Jewish history, that word would be Jerusalem. Teddy Kollek (DC: Washington Institute For Near East Policy, 1990), pp. 1920. [53] "Throughout history a great diversity of peoples has moved into the region and made Palestine their homeland: Canaanites, Jebusites, Philistines from Crete, Anatolian and Lydian Greeks, Hebrews, Amorites, Edomites, Nabateans, Arameans, Romans, Arabs, and European crusaders, to name a few. Each of them appropriated different regions that overlapped in time and competed for sovereignty and land. Others, such as Ancient Egyptians, Hittites, Persians, Babylonians, and Mongols, were historical 'events' whose successive occupations were as ravaging as the effects of major earthquakes... Like shooting stars, the various cultures shine for a brief moment before they fade out of official historical and cultural records of Palestine. The people, however, survive. In their customs and manners, fossils of these ancient civilizations survived until modernityalbeit modernity camouflaged under the veneer of Islam and Arabic culture." Ali Qleibo, Palestinian anthropologist [54] "(With reference to Palestinians in Ottoman times) Although proud of their Arab heritage and ancestry, the Palestinians considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the seventh century but also from indigenous peoples who had lived in the country since time immemorial, including the ancient Hebrews and the Canaanites before them. Acutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history, the Palestinians saw themselves as the heirs of its rich associations." Walid Khalidi, 1984, Before Their Diaspora: A Photographic History of the Palestinians, 18761948. Institute for Palestine Studies [55] Eric H. Cline. "How Jews and Arabs Use (and Misuse) the History of Jerusalem to Score Points" (http:/ / hnn. us/ articles/ 7257. html). . Retrieved 22 September 2010. [56] Eli E. Hertz. [http:// www.mythsandfacts.com/conflict/3/jerusalem.pdf "One Nations Capital Throughout History"]. http:// www.mythsandfacts.com/conflict/3/jerusalem.pdf. Retrieved 22 September 2010. [57] Freedman, David Noel (1 January 2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp.69495. ISBN0-8028-2400-5. [58] Killebrew Ann E. "Biblical Jerusalem: An Archaeologiref name="mfa-40th"> "TABLE 3. POPULATION(1) OF LOCALITIES NUMBERING ABOVE 2,000 RESIDENTS AND OTHER RURAL POPULATION ON 31/12/2008" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ population/ new_2009/ table3. pdf) (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. . Retrieved 26 October 2009.cal Assessment" in Andrew G. Vaughn and Ann E. Killebrew, eds., "Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: The First Temple Period" (SBL Symposium Series 18; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2003)

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[59] Vaughn, Andrew G. (http:/ / www. gustavus. edu/ academics/ religion/ Profiles/ andyvaughn. cfm); Ann E. Killebrew (http:/ / jbe. la. psu. edu/ cams/ killebrewvita. htm) (1 August 2003). "Jerusalem at the Time of the United Monarchy". Jerusalem in Bible and Archaeology: the First Temple Period. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. pp.3233. ISBN1-58983-066-0. [60] Shalem, Yisrael (3 March 1997). "History of Jerusalem from Its Beginning to David" (http:/ / www. biu. ac. il/ JS/ rennert/ history_2. html). Jerusalem: Life Throughout the Ages in a Holy City. Bar-Ilan University Ingeborg Rennert Center for Jerusalem Studies. . Retrieved 18 January 2007. [61] the original name URU URU salem KI in Akkadianlisted in the Amarna letters when it was still a fortified well of the Egyptians and ruled by Abi Hebameant "city of peace" [62] Greenfeld, Howard (29 March 2005). A Promise Fulfilled: Theodor Herzl, Chaim Weizmann, David Ben-Gurion, and the Creation of the State of Israel. 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Ktav Publishing House. pp.6079. ISBN0-88125-371-5. [80] Har-el, Menashe (1977). This Is Jerusalem. Canaan Publishing House. pp.6895. ISBN0-86628-002-2. [81] Zank, Michael. "The Temple Mount" (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ mzank/ Michael_Zank/ Jerusalem/ templemount. html). Boston University. . Retrieved 22 January 2007. [82] Crossan, John Dominic (26 February 1993). The Historical Jesus: the life of a Mediterranean Jewish peasant (Reprinted ed.). San Francisco: HarperCollins. p.92. ISBN0-06-061629-6. "from 4 BCE until 6 CE, when Rome, after exiling [Herod Archelaus] to Gaul, assumed direct prefectural control of his territories" [83] Elizabeth Speller, Following Hadrian: A Second-Century Journey Through the Roman Empire (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3c8kB3m0r8kC& pg=PT218), Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 218 [84] Lehmann, Clayton Miles. "Palestine: People and Places" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080310053409/ http:/ / www. usd. edu/ erp/ Palestine/ people& p. htm). The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. usd. edu/ erp/ Palestine/ people& p. htm) on 10 March 2008. . Retrieved 18 April 2007. [85] Peter Schfer (2003). The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC& pg=PA36). Mohr Siebeck. pp.36. ISBN978-3-16-148076-8. . Retrieved 4 December 2011. [86] Lehmann, Clayton Miles (22 February 2007). "Palestine: History" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080310053428/ http:/ / www. usd. edu/ erp/ Palestine/ history. htm). The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. usd. edu/ erp/ Palestine/ history. htm) on 10 March 2008. . Retrieved 18 April 2007. [87] Cohen, Shaye J. D. (1996). "Judaism to Mishnah: 135220 C.E". In Hershel Shanks. 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[312] "Summary" (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ reports/ 2001/ israel2/ ISRAEL0901-01. htm). Second Class Discrimination Against Palestinian Arab Children in Israel's Schools. Human Rights Watch. September 2001. . Retrieved 27 March 2007. [313] Bridging the gap (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1221034883085& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull) [314] Lis, Jonathan (21 April 2008). "Mayor to raise funds for E. J'lem Arabs to block Hamas" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 976126. html). Haaretz. . Retrieved 9 September 2011. [315] Or Kashti (18 March 2007). "8,000 new classrooms to be built in Arab, ultra-Orthodox schools" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080607102540/ http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 839099. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 839099. html) on 7 June 2008. . Retrieved 22 July 2009. [316] Torstrick, Rebecca L. (30 June 2004). Culture and Customs of Israel. Greenwood Press. p.141. ISBN0-313-32091-8. "The two most popular spectator sports in Israel are football and basketball." [317] Griver, Simon (October 1997). "Betar Jerusalem: A Local Sports Legend Exports Talent to Europe's Top Leagues" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071231081639/ http:/ / www. israel-mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Israel+ beyond+ the+ conflict/ Betar+ Jerusalem-+ A+ Local+ Sports+ Legend+ Exports+ Tal). Israel Magazine via the Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. israel-mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Israel beyond the conflict/ Betar Jerusalem- A Local Sports Legend Exports Tal) on 31 December 2007. . Retrieved 7 March 2007. [318] "( " " http:/ / bjerusalem. co. il/ ). Bjerusalem.co.il. . Retrieved 11 September 2010. [319] Eldar, Yishai (1 December 2001). "Jerusalem: Architecture Since 1948" (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ mfa/ mfaarchive/ 2000_2009/ 2001/ 12/ focus on israel- jerusalem - architecture since 19). Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. . Retrieved 7 March 2007. [320] "Palestinian Football Association, Jabal Al-Mokaber" (http:/ / www. pfa. ps/ clubdetails. aspx?clubid=13). Pfa.ps. . Retrieved 17 October 2011. [321] Football and the wall: The divided soccer community of Jerusalem (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2010/ SPORT/ football/ 09/ 14/ football. israel. palestine. beitar/ index. html), by James Montague, CNN 17 September 2010 [322] (Hebrew) "Home" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080102043627/ http:/ / www. hapoel. co. il/ hapoel. asp). Hapoel Migdal Jerusalem. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. hapoel. co. il/ hapoel. asp) on 2 January 2008. . Retrieved 7 March 2007. (The listing of championship wins are located at the bottom after the completion of the Flash intro.) [323] "Jerusalem Half Marathon official website" (https:/ / www. jerusalem. muni. il/ jer_main/ TopSiteJeruEng. asp?newstr=4& src=/ jer_sys/ publish/ HtmlFiles/ 1616/ results_pub_id=15283. html& cont=736). Jerusalem.muni.il. . Retrieved 17 October 2011. [324] "Events site Half Marathon and Fun Run summary" (http:/ / www. iexplore. com/ dmap/ Israel/ Event/ 16248). Iexplore.com. 3 January 2009. . Retrieved 11 September 2010. [325] "Jerusalem's tallest buildings - Top 20 | Statistics" (http:/ / www. emporis. com/ statistics/ tallest-buildings-jerusalem-israel). Emporis. . Retrieved 2012-12-07. [326] "Holyland Tower 2 | Buildings" (http:/ / www. emporis. com/ building/ holylandtower2-jerusalem-israel). Jerusalem /: Emporis. . Retrieved 2012-12-07. [327] Hasson, Nir (2008-04-02). "Jerusalem skyline to undergo massive transformation with 12 new skyscrapers Israel News | Haaretz Daily Newspaper" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ news/ national/ jerusalem-skyline-to-undergo-massive-transformation-with-12-new-skyscrapers. premium-1. 458031). Haaretz.com. . Retrieved 2012-12-07. [328] Dvir, Noam (2011-03-07). "Jerusalem reaches for the heavens - Israel News | Haaretz Daily Newspaper" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ print-edition/ business/ jerusalem-reaches-for-the-heavens-1. 347554). Haaretz.com. . Retrieved 2012-12-07. [329] Lidman, Melanie (2012-08-14). "Interior Ministry approves 12 skyscrapers for J'lem" (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ NationalNews/ Article. aspx?id=281153). Jpost.com. . Retrieved 2012-12-07. [330] "A revitalized downtown Jerusalem with skyscrapers" (http:/ / israelity. com/ 2011/ 03/ 07/ a-revitalized-downtown-jerusalem-with-skyscrapers/ ). Israelity. 2011-03-07. . Retrieved 2012-12-07. [331] "Online Directory: Israel, Middle East" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080117184923/ http:/ / www. sci-icrc. org/ icrc/ directory/ MiddleEast/ Israel). Sister Cities International. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. sci-icrc. org/ icrc/ directory/ MiddleEast/ Israel) on 17 January 2008. . Retrieved 5 April 2007. [332] "New York City Global Partners" (http:/ / www. nyc. gov/ html/ unccp/ scp/ html/ sc/ main. shtml). NYC.gov. . Retrieved 9 September 2011. [333] "Partner Cities (Portal of Prague)" (http:/ / www. praha. eu/ jnp/ en/ city_hall/ foreign_activities/ partner_cities/ ). Praha.eu. . Retrieved 17 October 2011. [334] 2003 Amended Basic Law (http:/ / www. palestinianbasiclaw. org/ basic-law/ 2003-amended-basic-law). Basic Law of Palestine. Retrieved: 9 December 2012. [335] http:/ / www. jerusalem. muni. il/ [336] http:/ / www. jerusalem. muni. il/ jer_main/ defaultnew. asp?lng=3 [337] Pellegrino, Charles R. (1 December 1995). Return to Sodom & Gomorrah (Second revised ed.). Harper Paperbacks. p.271. ISBN0-380-72633-5. "[see footnote]" [338] Marcus, Jacob Rader (March 2000). The Jew in the Medieval World: A Source Book, 3151791 (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ jewish/ jews-umar. html) (Revised ed.). Hebrew Union College Press. pp.1315. ISBN0-87820-217-X. . Retrieved 1 February 2007. [339] Jonsson, David J. (19 February 2005). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press. p.256. ISBN1-59781-039-8. "During the reign of Umar, the Pact of Umar was established."

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Jerusalem
[340] Goddard, Hugh (25 April 2001). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. New Amsterdam Books. p.46. ISBN1-56663-340-0. "Although the documents are attributed to `Umar, in all probability they actually come from the second Islamic century... The covenant was drawn up in the schools of law, and came to be ascribed, like so much else, to `Umar I" [341] Goddard, Hugh (25 April 2001). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. New Amsterdam Books. p.47. ISBN1-56663-340-0. "It has recently been suggested that many of the detailed regulations concerning what the ahl al-dhimma were and were not permitted to do come from an earlier historical precedent, namely the regulations which existed in the Sassanian Persian Empire with reference to its religious minorities in Iraq."

117

Further reading
Cheshin, Amir S.; Bill Hutman and Avi Melamed (1999). Separate and Unequal: the Inside Story of Israeli Rule in East Jerusalem Harvard University Press ISBN 978-0-674-80136-3 Cline, Eric (2004) Jerusalem Besieged: From Ancient Canaan to Modern Israel. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press ISBN 0-472-11313-5. Collins, Larry, and La Pierre, Dominique (1988). O Jerusalem!. New York: Simon and Schuster ISBN 0-671-66241-4 Gold, Dore (2007) The Fight for Jerusalem: Radical Islam, The West, and the Future of the Holy City. International Publishing Company J-M, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-59698-029-7 Kchler, Hans (1981) The Legal Aspects of the Palestine Problem with Special Regard to the Question of Jerusalem Vienna: Braumller ISBN 3-7003-0278-9 The Holy Cities: Jerusalem produced by Danae Film Production, distributed by HDH Communications; 2006 Wasserstein, Bernard (2002) Divided Jerusalem: The Struggle for the Holy City New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09730-1 "Keys to Jerusalem: A Brief Overview", The Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Center, Amman, Jordan, 2010. http:/ /www.rissc.jo/docs/J101-10-10-10.pdf Sebag Montefiore, Simon (2011) Jerusalem: The Biography, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, ISBN 978-0-297-85265-0 Young,Robb A (2012)Hezekiah in History and Tradition Brill Global Oriental Hotei Publishing, Netherlands

External links
Official website of Jerusalem Municipality (http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_main/defaultnew.asp?lng=2) Jerusalemp3 (http://www.jerusalemp3.com/), offers free virtual tours in mp3 format from the Jerusalem Municipality Jerusalem (http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Israel/Localities/Jerusalem/) at the Open Directory Project Government The Status of Jerusalem (http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/palestine/ch12.pdf)PDF(159KB), United Nations document related to the recent dispute over Jerusalem Basic Law: Jerusalem, Capital of Israel, Government of Israel (http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/ 1980_1989/Basic Law- Jerusalem- Capital of Israel), the Israeli law making Jerusalem the capital of Israel Culture Israel Museum (http://www.imj.org.il/), one of Jerusalem's premier art museums Yad Vashem (http://www.yadvashem.org/), Israeli memorial to victims of The Holocaust Education Hebrew University of Jerusalem (http://www.huji.ac.il/huji/eng/index_e.htm), Jerusalem's foremost institution of higher learning al-Quds University (http://www.alquds.edu/), the only Palestinian university in Jerusalem

Jerusalem Maps Modern-day map of Jerusalem (http://www.jerusalem.muni.il/jer_sys/map2000_eng/first1.asp), from City of Jerusalem. Ancient Maps of Jerusalem (http://maps-of-jerusalem.huji.ac.il/), from the Jewish National Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem Modern maps, post-1947 (http://www.passia.org/jerusalem/maps/0_M_A_P_S.htm) from PASSIA Maps of Jerusalem (http://www.israelstarnews.com/maps-of-jerusalem/), from Israel Star News

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Caesarea Maritima

119

Caesarea Maritima
Caesarea Maritima

Shown within Israel

Location Coordinates Israel 323009N 345330E History Builder Periods Herod the Great Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, Crusader Site notes Condition Ownership ruin Israel Nature and Parks Authority

Publicaccess yes Website Caesarea National Park

[1]

Caesarea Maritima (Greek: ) is a national park on Israeli coastline, near the town of Caesarea. The ancient Caesarea Maritima (or Caesarea Palestinae[2]) city and harbor was built by Herod the Great about 2513 BCE. The city has been populated through the late Roman and Byzantine era. Its ruins lie on the Mediterranean coast of Israel, about halfway between the cities of Tel Aviv and Haifa, on the site of Pyrgos Stratonos ("Straton's Tower").[3] The national park is a popular location for the summer period, having a developed promenade with restaurants and coffee shops. The access to the Caesarea Maritima national park is via the coastal road. Caesarea Maritima was named in honor of Augustus Caesar.[2] The city was described in detail by the 1st century Roman Jewish historian Josephus.[4] The city became the seat of the Roman prefect soon after its foundation.

Caesarea Maritima Caesarea was the "administrative capital" beginning in 6 CE.[5] This city is the location of the 1961 discovery of the Pilate Stone, the only archaeological item that mentions the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, by whose order Jesus was crucified.[6] The emperor Vespasian raised its status to that of a colonia. After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, Caesarea was the provincial capital of the Judaea Province, before the change of name to Syria Palaestina in 134 CE, shortly before the Bar Kokhba revolt.[7] In Byzantine times, Caesarea remained the capital, with brief interruption of Persian and Jewish conquest between 614 and 625. In the 630s, Arab Muslim armies had taken control of the region, keeping Caesarea as its administrative center. In the early 8th century, the Umayyad caliph Suleiman transferred the seat of government of the Jund Filastin from Caesarea to Ramla.

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History
Roman era
Herod built his palace on a promontory jutting out into the sea, with a decorative pool surrounded by stoas. In 6CE, Caesarea became the civilian and military capital of Iudaea Province and the official residence of the Roman procurators and governors, Pontius Pilatus, praefectus and Antonius Felix. Josephus describes the harbor as being as large as the one at Piraeus, the major harbor of Athens. Remains of the principal buildings erected by Herod and the medieval town are still visible today, including the city walls, the castle and a Crusader cathedral and church. Caesarea grew rapidly, becoming the largest city in Judea, with an estimated population of 125,000 over an urban area of 3.7 square kilometres (1.4sqmi). In 66 CE, the desecration of the local synagogue led to the disastrous Jewish revolt.[8] This city is the location of the 1961 discovery of the Pilate Stone, the only archaeological item that mentions the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, by whose order Jesus was crucified.[6][9] It is likely that Pilate used it as a base, and only went to Jerusalem when needed.[10] In 69, Vespasian declared it a colony and renamed it Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta Caesarea. In 70 CE, after the Jewish revolt was suppressed, games were held here to celebrate the victory of Titus. Many Jewish captives were brought to Caesarea Maritima and 2500 were slaughtered in Gladiatorial games.[11]

Remains of the ancient Roman aqueduct

The theatre at Caesarea

After the revolt of Simon bar Kokhba in 132, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem and expulsion of Jews, Caesarea became the center of Early Christianity in Palestine. Christian hub According to the Acts of the Apostles, Caesarea was first introduced to Christianity when Peter the apostle baptized Cornelius the Centurion, his household, and his soldiers.[12] This was the first time any Apostle had preached to the Gentiles and before Paul's first missionary journey. The Apostle Paul sought refuge there,[13] staying once at the house of Philip the Evangelist, and later being imprisoned at Caesarea (which was the capital of the Roman province) for two years before being sent to Rome.[14] The Apostolic Constitutions state that the first Bishop of Caesarea was Zacchaeus the Publican. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Caesarea became the metropolitan See. In the 3rd century Origen wrote his Hexapla and

Caesarea Maritima other exegetic and theological works while living there. The early church historian Eusebius was one of its bishops (315 - 318) in the early 4th century. Nicene Creed may have originated in Caesarea. The main church, a martyrion (martyr's shrine) was built in the 6th century and sited directly upon the podium that had supported the Roman temple, as was a widespread Christian practice. Throughout the Empire, prominently-sited pagan temples were rarely left unconsecrated to Christianity: in time the Martyrion's site was re-occupied, this time by a mosque. The Martyrion was an octagon, richly re-paved and surrounded by small radiating enclosures. Archaeologists have recovered some foliate capitals that included representations of the Cross. An elaborate government structure contained a basilica with an apse, where magistrates would have sat, for the structure was used as a hall of justice, as fragments of inscriptions detailing the fees that court clerks might claim attest. A well-preserved 6th century mosaic gold and colored glass table patterned with crosses and rosettes was found in 2005.[15][16] Theological library Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea, an avid collector of books of Scripture, the theological school of Caesarea won a reputation for having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Jerome and others came to study there. The Caesarean text-type is recognized by scholars as one of the earliest New Testament types. The collections of the library suffered during the persecutions under the Emperor Diocletian, but were repaired subsequently by bishops of Caesarea.[17] It was noted in the 6th century, but Henry Barclay Swete[18] was of the opinion that it probably did not long survive the capture of Caesarea by the Saracens in 638, though a modern historian would attribute more destruction to its previous capture by the Sassanid Persians (in 614).

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Arab rule
In 638 the city, capital of Byzantine Palestine and an important commercial and maritime center, was conquered by the Muslims, allegedly through the betrayal of a certain Yusef, who conducted a party of troops of Muawiyah through a "secret tunnel", perhaps the extensive Byzantine sewers, into the city.[19] The Persian historian al-Baladhuri, who offers the earliest Muslim account, merely states that the city was "reduced".[20] The 7th-century Coptic bishop John of Niki, mentions "the horrors committed in the city of Caesarea in Palestine".[21]
Fishing Boats

Crusader era
The walls remained, but within them the population dwindled and agriculture crept in among the ruins. When Baldwin I took the city in 1101/2, during the First Crusade, it was still very rich, nevertheless. A legend grew up that in this city was discovered the Holy Grail around which so much lore accrued in the next two centuries. The city was strongly refortified and rebuilt by the Crusaders. A lordship was created there, as was one of the four archbishoprics in the kingdom (see Archbishop of Caesarea). A list of thirty-six Latin bishops, from 1101 to 1496 has been reassembled by 19th century papal historians; the most famous of these is probably Heraclius. After that the Latin "Bishop of Caesarea" became an empty title. Saladin retook the city in 1187; it was recaptured by the Crusaders in 1191, and finally lost by them in 1265, this time to the Mamluks, who ensured that there would be no more battling over the site where the harbor has silted in anyway by razing the fortifications - in line with their practice in other formerly-Crusader coastal cities.

Caesarea Maritima

122

Sebastos harbor
When it was built in the 1st century BC, Sebastos Harbor ranked as the largest artificial harbor built in the open sea, enclosing around 100,000 m2.[22][23] King Herod built the two moles, or breakwaters, of the harbor between 22 and 15 BC,[24] and in 10/9 BC he dedicated the city and harbor to Caesar (Sebastos is Greek for Augustus).[25] The pace of construction was impressive considering its size and complexity. The moles were made of lime and pozzolana, a type of volcanic ash, set into a concrete underwater. Herod imported over 24,000 m3 pozzolana from Pozzuoli, Italy, to construct the 500 meter long southern breakwater and 275 meter long northern breakwater.[26] A shipment of this size would have required at least 44 shiploads of 400 tons each.[24] Herod also had 12,000 m3 of kurkar quarried to make rubble and 12,000 m3 of slaked lime mixed with the pozzolana. Architects had to devise a way to lay the wooden forms for the concrete moles underwater. One technique was to drive stakes into the ground to make a box and then fill the box with pozzolana concrete bit by bit.[22] However, this method required many divers to hammer in the stakes underwater and it used large quantities of pozzolana. Another technique was a double planking method used in the northern breakwater. On land, carpenters would construct a box with beams and frames on the inside and a watertight, double-planked wall on the outside. This double wall was built with a 23cm gap between the inner and outer layer.[27] Although the box had no bottom, it was buoyant enough to float out to sea because of the watertight space between the inner and outer walls. Once it was floated into position, pozzolana was poured into the gap between the walls and the box would sink into place on the seafloor and be staked down in the corners. The flooded inside area was then filled by divers bit by bit with pozzolana-lime mortar and kurkar rubble until it rose above sea level.[27] On the southern breakwater, barge construction was used. The southern side of Sebastos was much more exposed than the northern side, requiring sturdier breakwaters. Instead of using the double planked method filled with rubble, the architects sank barges filled with layers of pozzolana concrete and lime sand mortar. The barges were similar to boxes without lids, and were constructed using mortise and tenon joints, the same technique used in ancient boats, to ensure they remained watertight. The barges were ballasted with 0.5 meters of pozzolana concrete and floated out to their position. Alternating layers of pozzolana based and lime based concretes were hand placed inside the barge to sink it and fill it up to the surface.[27] At its height, Sebastos was one of the most impressive harbors of its time. It had been constructed on a coast that had no natural harbors and served as an important commercial harbor in antiquity, rivaling Cleopatras harbor at Alexandria. Josephus wrote: Although the location was generally unfavorable, [Herod] contended with the difficulties so well that the solidity of the construction could not be overcome by the sea, and its beauty seemed finished off without impediment.[28] However, there were underlying problems that led to its demise. Studies of the concrete cores of the moles have shown that the concrete was much weaker than similar pozzolana hydraulic concrete used in ancient Italian ports. For unknown reasons, the pozzolana mortar did not adhere as well to the kurkar rubble as it did to other rubble types used in Italian harbors.[26] Small but numerous holes in some of the cores also indicate that the lime was of poor quality and stripped out of the mixture by strong waves before it could set.[26] Also, large lumps of lime were found in all five of the cores studied at Caesarea, which shows that the mixture was not mixed thoroughly.[26] However, stability would not have been seriously affected if the harbor had not been constructed over a geological fault line that runs along the coast. Seismic action gradually took its toll on the breakwaters, causing them to tilt down and settle into the seabed.[28] Also, studies of seabed deposits at Caesarea have shown that a tsunami struck the area sometime between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.[29] Although it is unknown if this tsunami simply damaged or completely destroyed the harbor, it is known that by the 6th century the harbor was unusable and today the moles rest over 5 meters underwater.[30]

Caesarea Maritima

123

Archaeology and reconstruction

Archaeological excavations in the 1950s and 1960s uncovered remains from many periods, in particular, a complex of Crusader fortifications and a Roman theatre. Other buildings include a temple dedicated to Caesar; a hippodrome rebuilt in the 2nd century as a more conventional theater; the Tiberieum, which has a limestone block with a dedicatory inscription.[31] This is the only archaeological find with an inscription mentioning the name "Pontius Pilatus"; a double aqueduct that brought water from springs at the foot of Mount Carmel; a boundary wall; and a 200ft (60 m) wide moat protecting the harbour to the south and west. The harbor was the largest on the eastern Mediterranean coast. Worked directed by Robert Bull of Drew University is still in the process of publication while more recent work in the harbor directed by Robert Hohlfelder *U of Minaret of Caesarea Maritima Colorado, John Oleson of the U of Victoria, and the late Avner Raban has been largely published. Caesarea has recently become the site of what bills itself as the world's first underwater museum, where 36 points of interest on four marked underwater trails through the ancient harbor can be explored by divers equipped with waterproof maps.

References
[1] http:/ / www. parks. org. il/ BuildaGate5/ general2/ data_card. php?Cat=~25~~858800043~Card12~& ru=& SiteName=parks& Clt=& Bur=36142818 [2] "Csarea Palestin". New International Encyclopedia. 1905. [3] Avner Raban and Kenneth G. Holum (1996) Caesarea Maritima: a retrospective after two millennia BRILL, ISBN 90-04-10378-3 p 54 [4] Jewish Antiquities XV.331ff; The Jewish War I.408ff [5] A History of the Jewish People, H.H. Ben-Sasson editor, 1976, page 247: "When Judea was converted into a Roman province [in 6 CE, page 246], the Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters from Jerusalem to Caesarea. [6] Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence by Jonathan L. Reed 2002 ISBN 1-56338-394-2 page 18 [7] Shimon Applebaum (1989) Judaea in Hellenistic and Roman Times: Historical and Archaeological Essays Brill Archive, ISBN 90-04-08821-0 p 123 [8] http:/ / www. sacred-destinations. com/ israel/ caesarea-history. htm accessed September 17, 2007 [9] Studying the historical Jesus: evaluations of the state of current research by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998 ISBN 90-04-11142-5 page 465 [10] Historical Dictionary of Jesus by Daniel J. Harrington 2010 ISBN 0-8108-7667-1 page 32 [11] Kasher, Aryeh (1990) Jews and Hellenistic Cities in Eretz-Israel: Relations of the Jews in Eretz-Israel with the Hellenistic Cities During the Second Temple Period (332 BCE-70CE) Mohr Siebeck, ISBN 3-16-145241-0, p 311 [12] Acts10:1-31 [13] Acts9:26-30; 18:22; 21:8 [14] Acts 23:23, 25:1-13 [15] Unique glass mosaic unveiled after restoration in Caesarea (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=948950) [16] (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasite/ images/ iht_daily/ D280108/ 250mosaic_Jes. jpg) [17] Jerome, "Epistles" xxxiv [18] Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, pp 74-75. [19] Eric M. Meyers, Galilee Through the Centuries, ch. "The Fall of Caesarea Maritima", 1999:380ff. [20] The archaeological stratum representing the destruction is analyzed in the PhD dissertation of Cherie Joyce Lentzen, The Byzantine/Islamic Occupation of Caesarea Maritima as Evidenced Through the Pottery (Drew University 1983), noted by Meyer 1999:381 note 23. [21] Quoted in Meyers 1999:381. [22] Hohfelder, R. 2007. Constructing the Harbour of Caesarea Palaestina, Israel: New Evidence from ROMACONS Field Campaign of October 2005. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:409-415 [23] Votruba, G. 2007. Imported Building Materials of Sebastos Harbour, Israel. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:325-335. [24] Votruba, G., 2007, Imported building materials of Sebastos Harbour, Israel, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36: 325-335. [25] Raban, A., 1992. Sebastos: the royal harbour at Caesarea Maritima - a short-lived giant, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21: 111-124. [26] Hohfelder, R. 2007. Constructing the Harbour of Caesarea Palaestina, Israel: New Evidence from ROMACONS Field Campaign of October 2005. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 36:409-415.

Caesarea Maritima
[27] Brandon, C., 1996, Cements, Concrete, and Settling Barges at Sebastos: Comparisons with Other Roman Harbor Examples and the Descriptions of Vitruvius, Caesarea Maritima: A Retrospective after Two Millennia, 25-40. [28] Holum, K. 1988. King Herods Dream: Caesarea on the Sea. New York: Norton. [29] Reinhardt, E., Goodman, B., Boyce, J., Lopez, G., Hengstum, P., Rink, W., Mart, Y., Raban, A. 2006. The Tsunami of 13 December A.D. 115 and the Destruction of Herod the Greats Harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel. Geology 34:1061-1064. [30] Raban, A., 1992, Sebastos: the royal harbour at Caesarea Maritima - a short-lived giant, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 21: 111-124 [31] Pilate Inscription (http:/ / www. bible-history. com/ empires/ pilate. html)

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Other sources
Books
Avner Raban and Kenneth G. Holum, Caesarea Maritima: a retrospective after two millennia (Leiden, Brill, 1996). Clayton Miles Lehmann and Kenneth G. Holum, The Greek and Latin Inscriptions of Caesarea Maritima (Boston, American Schools of Oriental Research, 2000). J. Patrich, Caesarea in the Time of Eusebius, in: Sabrina Inowlocki & Claudio Zamagni (eds), Reconsidering Eusebius: Collected papers on literary, historical, and theological issues (Leiden, Brill, 2011) (Vigiliae Christianae, Supplements, 107).

Films
Herod's Lost Tomb (2008; National Geographic Society), in addition to examining Netzer's purported find of Herod's tomb, Caesarea Maritima and most of Herod's other large projects are reconstructed in CGI.

External links
Jewish Encyclopedia (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=10&letter=C#0): Csarea by the Sea PBS Frontline Caesarea Maritima (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/arch/ caesarea.html) Archaeology: Archaeology of Caesarea (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Archaeology/Caesarea.html) Pilate inscription (http://www.bible-history.com/empires/pilate.html) Photos: Photo gallery of Caesarea Maritima (http://www.ianandwendy.com/Israel/Caesarea/slideshow.htm) Photo gallery of Caesarea Maritima (http://www.fotogalerien.ch/index.php?gallery=154&lang=2)

Mount Carmel

125

Mount Carmel
Mount Carmel
Mount Carmel Hebrew: Karem El/Har Ha'Karmel Arabic: /Kurmul/Jabal Mar Elyas

Mount Carmel at sunset, as seen from the entrance of Kibbutz Ma'agan Michael Highest point Elevation 525.4m (1,724ft) Dimensions Length Width 39km (24mi) 8km (5mi) Naming Etymology Literally, in Hebrew: God's vineyard and Mount St Elijah in Arabic Geography Country District Israel Haifa

Range coordinates 3244N 3503E Type of rock Limestone and flint

Mount Carmel (Hebrew: , Har HaKarmel ISO 259-3 Har ha Karmell (lit. God's vineyard); Greek: , Krmlos; Arabic: ,Kurmul or Jabal Mar Elyas 'Mount Saint Elias') is a coastal mountain range in northern Israel stretching from the Mediterranean Sea towards the southeast. Archaeologists have discovered ancient wine and oil presses at various locations on Mt. Carmel.[1][2] The range is a UNESCO biosphere reserve and a number of towns are located there, most notably the city of Haifa, Israel's third largest city, located on the northern slope.
A view of Mount Carmel in 1894

Mount Carmel

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Geography and geology

The phrase Mount Carmel has been used in three distinct ways:[1] To refer to the 39km-long (24-mile long) mountain range, stretching as far in the southeast as Jenin. To refer to the northwestern 19km (12mi) of the mountain range. To refer to the headland at the northwestern end of the range. The Carmel range is approximately 6.5 to 8km (4 to 5miles) wide, sloping gradually towards the southwest, but forming a steep ridge on the northeastern face, 546m (1,810ft) high. It is named Rom Carmel.[2] The Jezreel Valley lies to the immediate northeast. The range forms a natural barrier in the landscape, just as the Jezreel Valley forms a natural passageway, and consequently the mountain range and the valley have had a large impact on migration and invasions through the Levant over time.[1] The mountain formation is an admixture of limestone and flint, containing many caves, and covered in several volcanic rocks.[1][2] The sloped side of the mountain is covered with luxuriant vegetation, including oak, pine, olive, and laurel trees.[2] Several modern towns are located on the range, including Yokneam on the eastern ridge, Zikhron Ya'aqov on the southern slope, the Druze town of Carmel City on the more central part of the ridge, and the towns of Nesher, Tirat Hakarmel, and the city of Haifa, on the far northwestern promontory and its base. There is also a small kibbutz called Beit Oren, which is located on one of the highest points in the range to the southeast of Haifa.
University of Haifa atop Mount Carmel in 1996

Panorama of the Carmel mountain range

Paleolithic history
As part of a 19291934 campaign,[3] between 1930 and 1932, Dorothy Garrod excavated four caves, and a number of rock shelters, in the Carmel mountain range at el-Wad, el-Tabun, and Es Skhul.[4] Garrod discovered Neanderthal and early modern human remains, including the skeleton of a Neanderthal female, named Tabun I, which is regarded as one of the most important human fossils ever found.[5] The excavation at el-Tabun produced the longest stratigraphic record in the region, spanning 600,000 or more years of human activity,[6] from the Lower Paleolithic to the present day, representing roughly a million years of human evolution.[7] There are also several well-preserved burials of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens and passage from nomadic hunter-gatherer groups to complex, sedentary agricultural societies is extensively documented at the site. Taken together, these emphasize the paramount significance of the Mount Carmel caves for the study of human cultural and biological evolution within the framework of palaeo-ecological changes."[8]

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As a strategic location
Due to the lush vegetation on the sloped hillside, and many caves on the steeper side, Carmel became the haunt of criminals;[1] Carmel was seen as a place offering an escape from Yahweh, as implied by the Book of Amos.[1][9] According to the Books of Kings, Elisha travelled to Carmel straight after cursing a group of young men because they had mocked him and the ascension of Elijah by jeering, "Go on up, bald man!" After this, bears came out of the forest and killed 42 of them.[10] This does not necessarily imply that Elisha had sought asylum there from any potential backlash,[1] although the description in the Book of Amos, of the location being a refuge, is dated by textual scholars to be earlier than the accounts of Elisha in the Book of Kings,[11][12] and according to Strabo it had continued to be a place of refuge until at least the first century.[13] According to Epiphanius,[14] and Josephus,[15] Mount Carmel had been the stronghold of the Essenes that came from a place in Galilee named Nazareth; though this Essene group are sometimes consequently referred to as Nazareans, they are not to be confused with the "Nazarene" sect, which followed the teachings of Jesus, but associated with the Pharisees. Members of the modern American groups claiming to be Essenes, but viewed by scholars as having no ties to the historical group,[16] treat Mount Carmel as having great religious significance on account of the protection it afforded to the historic Essene group. During World War I, Mount Carmel played a significant strategic role. The (20th century) Battle of Megiddo took place at the head of a pass through the Carmel Ridge, which overlooks the Valley of Jezreel from the south. General Allenby led the British in the battle, which was the turning point in the war against the Ottoman Empire. The Jezreel Valley had played host to many battles before, including the very historically significant Battle of Megiddo between the Egyptians and Canaanites, but it was only in the 20th century battle that the Carmel Ridge itself played a significant part, due to the developments in munitions.

As a sacred location
In ancient Canaanite culture, high places were frequently considered to be sacred, and Mount Carmel appears to have been no exception; Thutmose III lists a holy headland among his Canaanite territories, and if this equates to Carmel, as Egyptologists such as Maspero believe, then it would indicate that the mountain headland was considered sacred from at least the 15th century BC.[1] According to the Books of Kings, there was an altar to God on the mountain, which had fallen into ruin by the time of Ahab, but Elijah built a new one.[17] Iamblichus describes Pythagoras visiting the mountain on account of its reputation for sacredness, stating that it was the most holy of all mountains, and access was forbidden to many, while Tacitus states that there was an oracle situated there, which Vespasian visited for a consultation;[2] Tacitus states that there was an altar there,[1] but without any image upon it,[1][2] and without a temple around it.[2]

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Elijah
In mainstream Jewish, Christian, and Islamic[1] thought, Elijah is indelibly associated with the mountain, and he is regarded as having sometimes resided in a grotto on the mountain. Indeed, one name for Mount Carmel is Jabal Mar Elyas Mount Saint Elias. In the Books of Kings, Elijah challenges 450 prophets of a particular Baal to a contest at the altar on Mount Carmel to determine whose deity was genuinely in control of the Kingdom of Israel; since the narrative is set during the rule of Ahab and his association with the Phoenicians, biblical scholars suspect that the Baal in question was probably Melqart.[18]

The Grotto of Elijah

According to the Bible in 1 Kings 18, the challenge was to see which deity could light a sacrifice by fire. After the prophets of Baal had failed to achieve this, Elijah had water poured on his sacrifice to saturate the altar and then he prayed; fire fell and consumed the sacrifice, wood, stones, soil, and water which prompted the Israelite witnesses to proclaim, "The LORD, He is God! The LORD, He is God!". In the account, Elijah announced the end to a long drought; clouds gathered, the sky turned black, and it rained heavily. Though there is no biblical reason to assume that the account of Elijah's victory refers to any particular part of Mount Carmel,[1] Islamic tradition places it at a point known as El-Maharrakah, meaning the burning.[2]

Carmelites
A Catholic religious order was founded on Mount Carmel in the 12th century, named the Carmelites, in reference to the mountain range; the founder was a certain Berthold (who died at an unknown point after 1185), who was either a pilgrim or crusader. The order was founded at the site that it claimed had once been the location of Elijah's cave, 1,700 feet (520m) above sea level at the northwestern end of the mountain range;[1] this, perhaps not coincidentally, is also the highest natural point of the entire mountain range. Though there is no documentary evidence to support it, Carmelite tradition suggests that a A statue of Elijah in the crypt of the monastery on community of Jewish hermits had lived at the site from the time of Mount Carmel. According to Carmelite tradition, Elijah until the Carmelites were founded there; prefixed to the the crypt was originally the Cave of Elijah Carmelite Constitution of 1281 was the claim that from the time when Elijah and Elisha had dwelt devoutly on Mount Carmel, priests and prophets, Jewish and Christian, had lived praiseworthy lives in holy penitence adjacent to the site of the fountain of Elisha, in an uninterrupted succession. A Carmelite monastery was founded at the site shortly after the order itself was created, and was dedicated to Mary, in her aspect of Star of the Sea (stella maris in Latin) - a common medieval presentation of Mary;[1] although Louis IX (of France) is commonly referred to as the founder, he was not, and had merely visited it in 1252.[2] The Carmelite order grew to be one of the major Catholic religious orders worldwide, although the monastery at Carmel had a less successful history. During the Crusades the monastery often changed hands, frequently finding itself to have become a mosque;[2] under Islamic control, the location came to be known as El-Maharrakah, meaning place of burning, in reference to the account of Elijah's challenge to the priests of Hadad.[2] In 1799 the building was finally converted into a hospital, by Napoleon, but in 1821 the surviving structure was destroyed by the pasha of

Mount Carmel Damascus.[2] A new monastery was later constructed directly over a nearby cave, after funds were collected by the Carmelite order for restoration of the monastery;[2] the cave, which now forms the crypt of the monastic church, is termed Elijah's grotto by the monks.[2] One of the oldest scapulars is associated with Mount Carmel, and the Carmelites. According to Carmelite legend, the Scapular of Our Lady of Mount Carmel was first given to Simon Stock, an English Carmelite, by Mary, the mother of Jesus. The Carmelites sometimes refer to Mary as Our Lady of Mount Carmel, in honour of the legend, and celebrate a feast day dedicated to her in this guise, on the 16 July.

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Bah' Faith
Mount Carmel is considered a sacred place for Bah's around the world, and is the location of the Bah' World Centre and the Shrine of the Bb. The location of the Bah' holy places has its roots to the imprisonment of the religion's founder, Bah'u'llh, near Haifa by the Ottoman Empire during the Ottoman Empire's rule over Palestine. The Shrine of the Bb is a structure where the remains of the Bb, the founder of Bbism and forerunner of Bah'u'llh in the Bah' Faith, have been laid to rest. The shrine's precise location on Mount Carmel was designated by Bah'u'llh himself and the Bb's remains were laid The Shrine of the Bb and its Terraces on Mount to rest on March 21, 1909 in a six-room mausoleum made of local Carmel, 2004 stone. The construction of the shrine with a golden dome was completed over the mausoleum in 1953,[19] and a series of decorative terraces around the shrine were completed in 2001. The white marbles used were from the same ancient source that most Athenian masterpieces were using, the Penteliko Mountain. Bah'u'llh, the founder of the Bah' Faith, writing in the Tablet of Carmel, designated the area around the shrine as the location for the administrative headquarters of the religion; the Bah' administrative buildings were constructed adjacent to the decorative terraces, and are referred to as the Arc, on account of their physical arrangement.

Ahmadiyya Muslim Community

The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community has its largest Israeli mosque on Mount Carmel known as the Mahmood Mosque in Kababir. It is a unique structure composed of two minarets.[20] The mosque was once visited by the President of Israel, Shimon Peres for an Iftar Dinner.[21]

References
[1] Cheyne and Black, Encyclopedia Biblica [2] Jewish encyclopedia [3] Callander, Jane (2004). "Garrod, Dorothy Annie Elizabeth (18921968)" (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 37443). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. . Retrieved 2011-02-14.

The Kababir Mosque

[4] "Timeline in the Understanding of Neanderthals" (http:/ / www. athenapub. com/ 8timelin. htm). . Retrieved 2007-07-13. [5] Christopher Stringer, custodian of Tabun I, Natural History Museum, quoted in an exhibition in honour of Garrod; Callander and Smith, 1998 [6] "From small, dark and alive to cripplingly shy: Dorothy Garrod as the first woman Professor at Cambridge" (http:/ / www. arch. cam. ac. uk/ ~pjs1011/ Pams. html). . Retrieved 2007-07-13. [7] "Excavations and Surveys (University of Haifa)" (http:/ / arch. haifa. ac. il/ excav. php). . Retrieved 2007-07-13. [8] "The Zinman Institute of Archaeology - Excavations and Surveys" (http:/ / arch. haifa. ac. il/ excav. php). Arch.haifa.ac.il. . Retrieved 2009-01-19. [9] Amos9:3

Mount Carmel
[10] Kings22:25 [11] Jewish Encyclopedia, Books of Kings [12] Jewish Encyclopedia, Book of Amos [13] Strabo, Geographica [14] Epiphanius of Salamis, Panarion 1:18 [15] Josephus, War of the Jews [16] J Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions [17] Kings118:30-32 [18] Peake's commentary on the Bible [19] "Golden anniversary of the Queen of Carmel" (http:/ / news. bahai. org/ story/ 252). Bah' World News Service.. 2003-10-12. . Retrieved 2007-05-12. [20] "Holy Sites in Haifa" (http:/ / www. tour-haifa. co. il/ eng/ modules/ article/ view. article. php/ c12/ 67). Tour-Haifa. . Retrieved 18 November2010. [21] "Shimon Peres visits Ahmadiyya Mosque in Kababir Israel" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=MKC-m6pq4Uo). youtube. . Retrieved 4 December 2010.

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External links
Mount Carmel - BiblePlaces.com (http://www.bibleplaces.com/mtcarmel.htm), pictures and text illuminating the biblical site

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Tel Megiddo
UNESCO World Heritage Site

Biblical Tells Megiddo, Hazor, Beer Sheba

Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List
[1]

Country Type Criteria Reference

Israel Cultural ii, iii, iv, vi 1108 [3] Asia [2]

UNESCO region

Inscription history
Inscription 2005 (29th Session)

Location of Tel Megiddo in Israel.

Megiddo (Hebrew: ;Arabic: ,Tell al-Mutesellim) is a tell in modern Israel near Kibbutz Megiddo, about 30km south-east of Haifa, known for its historical, geographical, and theological importance, especially under its Greek name Armageddon. In ancient times Megiddo was an important city-state. Excavations have unearthed 26 layers of ruins, indicating a long period of settlement. Megiddo is strategically located at the head of a pass through the Carmel Ridge overlooking the Jezreel Valley from the west.
Ruins atop Tel Megiddo

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Etymology
Megiddo is also known as Greek: /, Megidd/Mageddn in the Septuagint; Latin: Mageddo; Assyrian: Magiddu, Magaddu; Magidda and Makida in the Amarna tablets; Egyptian: Maketi, Makitu, and Makedo. The Book of Revelation mentions apocalyptic military amassment at Armageddon, a name derived from the Hebrew "Har Megiddo" meaning "Mount of Megiddo". 'Armageddon' has become a byword for the end of the age.[4]

History
Megiddo was a site of great importance in the ancient world. It guarded the western branch of a narrow pass and trade route connecting Egypt and Assyria. Because of its strategic location, Megiddo was the site of several historical battles. The site was inhabited from approximately 7000 BC to 586 BC (the same time as the destruction of the First Israelite Temple in Jerusalem by the Babylonians, and subsequent fall of Israelite rule and exile). Since this time it has remained uninhabited, preserving ruins pre-dating 586 BC without settlements ever disturbing them. Instead, the town of Lajjun (not to be confused with the el-Lajjun archaeological site in Jordan) was built up near to the site, but without inhabiting or disturbing its remains. Megiddo is mentioned in Ancient Egyptian writings because one of Egypt's mighty kings, Thutmose III, waged war upon the city in 1478 BC. The battle is described in detail in the hieroglyphics found on the walls of his temple in Upper Egypt. Mentioned in the Bible as "Derekh HaYam" or "Way of the Sea," it became an important military artery of the Roman Empire and was known as the Via Maris. Famous battles include: Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC): fought between the armies of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition led by the rulers of Megiddo and Kadesh. Battle of Megiddo (609 BC): fought between Egypt and the Kingdom of Judah, in which King Josiah fell. Battle of Megiddo (1918): fought during World War I between Allied troops, led by General Edmund Allenby, and the defending Ottoman army. Kibbutz Megiddo is nearby less than 1 kilometre (0.62mi) away to the south. Today, Megiddo Junction is on the main road connecting the center of Israel with lower Galilee and the north. It lies at the northern entrance to Wadi Ara, an important mountain pass connecting the Jezreel Valley with Israel's coastal plain.[5] In 1964, during Pope Paul VI's visit to the Holy Land, Megiddo was the site where he met with Israeli dignitaries, including Israeli President Zalman Shazar and Prime Minister Levi Eshkol.[6]
Circular altar-like shrine Migron 4040

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Archaeology
Megiddo has been excavated three times and is currently being excavated yet again. The first excavations were carried out between 1903 and 1905 by Gottlieb Schumacher for the German Society for the Study of Palestine.[7] Techniques used were rudimentary by later standards and Schumacher's field notes and records were destroyed in World War I before being published. After the war, Carl Watzinger published the remaining available data from the dig.[8] In 1925, digging was resumed by the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, financed by John D. Rockefeller, Jr., continuing until the outbreak of the Second World War. The work was led initially by Clarence S. Fisher, and later by P. L. O. Guy, Robert Lamon, and Gordon Loud.[9][10][11][12][13] The Oriental Institute intended to completely excavate the whole tel, layer by layer, but unfortunately money ran out before they could do so. Today excavators limit themselves to a square or a trench on the basis that they must leave something for future archaeologists with better techniques and methods. During these excavations it City Gate was discovered that there were around 8 levels of habitation, and many of the uncovered remains are preserved at the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem and the Oriental Institute of Chicago. Yigael Yadin conducted excavations in 1960, 1966, 1967, and 1971 for the Hebrew University.[14][15] The formal results of those digs have not yet been published, though in 2005 a grant was issued by the Shelby White Leon Levy Program for Archaeological Publications to produce an expedition final report. Megiddo has most recently (since 1994) been the subject of biannual excavation campaigns conducted by the Megiddo Expedition of Tel Aviv University, currently co-directed by Israel Finkelstein and David Ussishkin, with Eric H. Cline of The George Washington University serving as Associate Director (USA), together with a consortium of international universities.[16][17] One notable feature of the dig is close on-site co-operation between archaeologists and specialist scientists, with detailed chemical analysis being performed at the dig itself using a field infrared spectrometer.[18] In 2010, the Jezreel Valley Regional Project, directed by Matthew J. Adams of Bucknell University in cooperation with the Megiddo Expedition, undertook excavations of the eastern extension of the Early Bronze Age town of Megiddo, at the site known as Tel Megiddo (East).[19]

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Archaeological features
A path leads up through a Solomonic gateway overlooking the excavations of the Oriental Institute. A solid circular stone structure has been interpreted as an altar or a high place from the Canaanite period. Further on is a grain pit from the Israelite period for storing provisions in case of siege; the stables, originally thought to date from the time of Solomon but now dated a century and a half later to the time of Ahab; and a water system consisting of a square shaft 35 metres (115ft) deep, the bottom of which opens into a tunnel bored through rock for 100 metres (330ft) to a pool of water.
View of Jezreel Valley and Mount Tabor from Megiddo

Jewelry
In 2010, a collection of jewelry pieces was found in a ceramic jug [20][21] The jewelry dates to around 1100 B.C.[22]The collection includes beads made of carnelian stone, a ring and earrings. The jug was subject to molecular analysis to determine the contents. The collection was probably owned by a wealthy Canaanite family, likely belonging to the ruling elite.[23]

Megiddo ivories
The Megiddo ivories are thin carvings in ivory found at Tel Megiddo, the majority excavated by Gordon Loud. The ivories are on display at the Oriental Institute of Chicago and the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem. They were found in the stratum VIIA, or Late Bronze Age layer of the site. Carved from hippopotamus incisors from the Nile, they show Egyptian stylistic influence. An ivory pen case was found inscribed with the cartouche of Ramses III.

Megiddo stables
At Megiddo two stable complexes were excavated from Stratum IVA, one in the north and one in the south. The southern complex contained five structures built around a lime paved courtyard. The buildings themselves were divided into three sections. Two long stone paved aisles were built adjacent to a main corridor paved with lime. The buildings were about twenty-one meters long by eleven meters wide. Separating the main corridor from outside aisles was a series of stone pillars. Holes were bored into many of these pillars so that horses could be tied to them. Also, the remains of stone mangers were found in the buildings. These mangers were placed Megiddo Stables between the pillars to feed the horses. It is suggested that each side could hold fifteen horses, giving each building an overall capacity of thirty horses. The buildings on the northern side of the city were similar in their construction. However, there was no central courtyard. The capacity of the northern buildings was about three hundred horses altogether. Both complexes could hold from 450-480 horses combined. The buildings were found during excavations between 1927 and 1934. The head excavator originally interpreted the buildings as stables. Since then his conclusions have been challenged by James Pritchard, Dr Adrian Curtis of Manchester University Ze'ev Herzog, and Yohanan Aharoni, who suggest they were storehouses, marketplaces or barracks. [24]

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Megiddo church
In 2005, Israeli archaeologist Yotam Tepper of Tel-Aviv University discovered the remains of a church, believed to be from the third century, a few hundred meters south of the Tel on the grounds of the Megiddo Prison. Among the finds is an approx. 54-square-metre (580sqft) large mosaic with a Greek inscription stating that the church is consecrated to "the God Jesus Christ." It is speculated that this may be the oldest remains of a church in the Holy Land.[25]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 1108 http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ ?search=& search_by_country=& type=& media=& region=& order=region Revelation 16:16 (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation+ 16:16) Davies, Graham, Megiddo, (Lutterworth press, 1986), pg 1. History of Megiddo (http:/ / megiddo. tau. ac. il/ history. html) Schumacher, Gottlieb; Watzinger, Carl, 1877-1948, (1908): Tell el Mutesellim; Bericht ber die 1903 bis 1905 mit Untersttzung SR. Majestt des deutschen Kaisers und der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft vom deutschen Verein zur Erforschung Palstinas Veranstalteten Ausgrabungen (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ tellelmutesellim01schuuoft) Volume: 1

[8] Schumacher, Gottlieb; Watzinger, Carl, 1877-1948, (1929): Tell el Mutesellim; Bericht ber die 1903 bis 1905 mit Untersttzung SR. Majestt des deutschen Kaisers und der Deutschen Orientgesellschaft vom deutschen Verein zur Erforschung Palstinas Veranstalteten Ausgrabungen (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ tellelmutesellim02schuuoft) Volume: 2 [9] (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ oic4. pdf) Clarence S. Fisher, The Excavation of Armageddon, Oriental Institute Communications 4, University of Chicago Press, 1929 [10] (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ oic9. pdf) P. L. O. Guy, New Light from Armageddon: Second Provisional Report (1927-29) on the Excavations at Megiddo in Palestine, Oriental Institute Communications 9, University of Chicago Press, 1931 [11] (https:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ oip42. pdf) Robert S. Lamon and Geoffrey M. Shipton, Megiddo 1. Seasons of 1925-34: Strata I-V, Oriental Institute Publication 42, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1939, ISBN 0-226-14233-7 [12] Text (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ oip62_text. pdf) Plates (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ oip62_plates. pdf) Gordon Loud, Megiddo 2. Seasons of 1935-1939, Oriental Institute Publication 62, Oriental Institute of Chicago,1948, ISBN 0-226-49385-7 [13] (https:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ OIP127. pdf) Timothy P. Harrison, Megiddo 3. Final Report on the Stratum VI Excavations, Oriental Institute Publication 127, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 2004, ISBN 1-885923-31-7 [14] Yigael Yadin, New Light on Solomons Megiddo, Biblical Archaeology, vol. 23 , pp. 62-68, 1960 [15] Yigael Yadin, Megiddo of the Kings of Israel, Biblical Archaeology, vol. 33, pp. 66-96, 1970 [16] Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Baruch Halpern (eds.), Megiddo III: The 1992-1996 Seasons, Tel Aviv University, 2000, ISBN 965-266-013-2 [17] Israel Finkelstein, David Ussishkin and Baruch Halpern (eds.), Megiddo IV: The 1998-2002 Seasons, Tel Aviv University, 2006, ISBN 965-266-022-1 [18] Haim Watzman (2010), Chemists help archaeologists to probe biblical history (http:/ / www. nature. com/ news/ 2010/ 101130/ full/ 468614a. html), Nature, 468 614615. doi:10.1038/468614a [19] The website of the Jezreel Valley Regional Project (http:/ / www. jezreelvalleyregionalproject. com/ ) [20] Unique Gold Earring Found in Intriguing Collection of Ancient Jewelry at Tel Megiddo (http:/ / www. globalscientia. com/ article/ asia-middle-east/ education-culture/ unique-gold-earring-found-intriguing-collection-ancient) [21] http:/ / www. livescience. com/ 20463-gold-egyptian-earring-israel. html [22] http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ news/ national/ megiddo-dig-unearths-cache-of-buried-canaanite-treasure. premium-1. 431797 [23] Trove of 3,000-year-old jewelry found in Israel (http:/ / www. philly. com/ philly/ news/ nation_world/ 154313585. html) [24] Amihai Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 476-78. [25] Greg Myre (2005-11-07). "Israeli Prisoners Dig Their Way to Early Christianity" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 11/ 07/ international/ middleeast/ 07mideast. html?_r=1& oref=slogin). New York Times. . Retrieved 2012-02-24.

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Further reading
Gordon Loud, The Megiddo Ivories, Oriental Institute Publication 52, University of Chicago Press, 1939, ISBN 978-0-226-49390-9 (http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip52.pdf) P. L. O. Guy, Megiddo Tombs, Oriental Institute Publications 33, The University of Chicago Press, 1938 (http:// oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip33.pdf) Robert S. Lamon, The Megiddo Water System, Oriental Institute Publication 32, University of Chicago Press, 1935 (http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip32.pdf) H.G. May, Material Remains of the Megiddo Cult, Oriental Institute Publication 26, University of Chicago Press, 1935 (http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oip26.pdf) Geoffrey M. Shipton, Notes on the Megiddo Pottery of Strata VI-XX, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 17, University of Chicago Press, 1939 (http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc17.pdf) Gabrielle V. Novacek, Ancient Israel: Highlights from the Collections of the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Museum Publications 31, Oriental Institute, 2011, ISBN 978-1-885923-65-3 (http:// oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/oimp31.pdf) The Megiddo Ivories, John A. Wilson, American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 42, No. 3 (Jul. - September, 1938), pp.333336 Luxurious forms: Redefining a Mediterranean "International Style," 1400-1200 B.C.E., Marian H Feldman, The Art Bulletin, New York, March 2002. Vol. 84, Iss. 1

External links
Shelby White - Leon Levy grant for the publication of Yadin excavations (http://www.fas.harvard.edu/ ~semitic/wl/digsites/CLevant/Megiddo_05/index.htm) The Megiddo Expedition (http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/archaeology/megiddo/) Megiddo At Bibleplaces.com (http://www.bibleplaces.com/megiddo.htm) Tel Megiddo National Park (http://www.parks.org.il/BuildaGate5/general2/data_card. php?Cat=~25~~584902694~Card12~&ru=&SiteName=parks&Clt=&Bur=408476391) from the Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority Megiddo: Tell el-Mutesellim (http://bigbible.org/israel/megiddo/index.html) from Images of Archaeological Sites in Israel "Mageddo" (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09526a.htm). Catholic Encyclopedia. - contains list of Biblical references Excavation of an early christian building in Megiddo, with floor mosaics (fish) and three inscriptions (http:// home.planet.nl/~slofs018/Megiddo.htm#Gaianos) The Devil Is Not So Black as He Is Painted: BAR Interviews Israel Finkelstein (http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/ article.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=3&ArticleID=5) Biblical Archaeology Review Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Palestine Collection (http://oi.uchicago.edu/museum/ highlights/palestine.html) The Megiddo Expedition: Archaeology and the Bible (http://www.uwlax.edu/urc/jur-online/PDF/2005/ westpfahl.pdf), UW-L Journal of Undergraduate Research VIII (2005)

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Armageddon
Armageddon (from Ancient Greek: Harmagedn,[1][2] Late Latin: Armagedn[3]) will be, according to the Book of Revelation, the site of a battle during the end times, variously interpreted as either a literal or symbolic location. The term is also used in a generic sense to refer to any end of the world scenario. The word "Armageddon" appears only once in the Greek New Testament, in Revelation16:16. The word may come from Hebrew har mgidd ( ,) meaning "Mountain of Megiddo". "Mount" Ruins atop Tel Megiddo. Megiddo is not actually a mountain, but a tell (a hill created by many [4] generations of people living and rebuilding on the same spot) on which ancient forts were built to guard the Via Maris, an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Megiddo was the location of various ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC and one in 609 BC. Modern Megiddo is a town approximately 25 miles (40km) west-southwest of the southern tip of the Sea of Galilee in the Kishon River area.[5] According to one premillennial Christian interpretation, the Messiah will return to earth and defeat the Antichrist (the "beast") and Satan the Devil in the Battle of Armageddon. Then Satan will be put into the "bottomless pit" or abyss for 1,000 years, known as the Millennium. After being released from the abyss, Satan will gather Gog and Magog (peoples of two specific nations) from the four corners of the earth. They will encamp surrounding the "holy ones" and the "beloved city" (this refers to Jerusalem). Fire will come down from God, out of heaven and devour Gog and Magog after the Millennium. The Devil, death, hell, and those not found written in the Book of Life are then thrown into Gehenna (the Lake of Fire burning with brimstone).[6]

Christianity

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Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to "the plain of Megiddo", most probably simply meaning "the plain next to the city".[7] None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in Revelation 16:16 in fact also makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, but instead seems to predict only that "they (will gather) the kings together to .... Armageddon.[8] " The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the "place called Armageddon" is "for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location.[9] Rushdoony says, "There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate Evangelist John of Patmos writes the Book of destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place."[10] Other Revelation. Painting by Hieronymus Bosch scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan argue that the word (1505). is derived from the Hebrew moed ( ,)meaning "assembly". Thus, "Armageddon" would mean "Mountain of Assembly," which Jordan says is "a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion."[9]

Dispensationalism
The Dispensational viewpoint interprets biblical prophecy literally and expects that the fulfillment of prophecy will also be literal, depending upon the context of scripture. In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted an entire chapter to the subject, titled "The Campaign of Armageddon", in which he discusses Armageddon as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes: It has been held commonly that the battle of Armageddon is an isolated event transpiring just prior to the second advent of Christ to the earth. The extent of this great movement in which God deals with "the kings of the earth and of the whole world" (Rev. 16:14) will not be seen unless it is realized that the "battle of that great day of God Almighty" (Rev. 16:14)[11] is not an isolated battle, but rather a campaign that extends over the last half of the tribulation period. The Greek word "polemo", translated "battle" in Revelation 16:14, signifies a war or campaign, while "mach" signifies a battle, and sometimes even single combat. This distinction is observed by Trench, (see Richard C. Trench, New Testament Synonyms, pp.301-2) and is followed by Thayer (see Joseph Henry Thayer, Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 528) and Vincent (see Marvin R. Vincent, Word Studies in the New Testament, II, 541). The use of the word polemos (campaign) in Revelation 16:14 would signify that the events that culminate in the gathering at Armageddon at the second advent are viewed by God as one connected campaign. Pentecost, p.340 Pentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the "hill of Megiddo" and other geographic locations such as "the valley of Jehoshaphat"[12] and "the valley of the passengers",[13] "Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when He returns from the judgment"; and Jerusalem itself.[14][15] Pentecost further describes the area involved:

Armageddon This wide area would cover the entire land of Israel and this campaign, with all its parts, would confirm what Ezekiel pictures when he says the invaders will 'cover the land'.[16] This area would conform to the extent pictured by John in Revelation 14:20."[17] Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy "will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking: (Dan. 11:40b-45).[18] Again, events are listed by Pentecost in his book: 1. "The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast-False Prophet coalition, which takes place 'at the time of the end.'"[19] 2. "The King of the South is joined by the Northern Confederacy, who attacks the Wilful King by a great force over land and sea (11:40). Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack,[20] and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed"[21] 3. "The full armies of the Beast move into Israel (11:41) and shall conquer all that territory (11:41-42). Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape. . . ." 4. ". . . a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast"[22] 5. "The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Israel and assembles his armies there."[23] 6. "It is there that his destruction will come. (11:45)."[24] After the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the Saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed "for a season" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically, Gog and Magog.[25] The army mentioned attacks the Saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from Heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages[26] and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the "second death" and Gehenna, not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan's domain. Pentecost describes this as follows: The destiny of the lost is a place in the lake of fire (Rev. 19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8). This lake of fire is described as everlasting fire (Matt. 25:41)[27] (Matt. 18:8)[28] and as unquenchable fire (Mark 9:43-44),[29] 46-48,[30] emphasizing the eternal character of retribution of the lost. Pentacost, p. 555

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Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Armageddon is the means by which God will finally realize his purpose for the Earth to be populated with happy healthy humans free of sin and death.[31] They teach that the armies of heaven will eradicate all who oppose the kingdom of God and its rule, wiping out all wicked humans on Earth, leaving only righteous mankind.[32] They believe that the gathering of the all the nations of the Earth refers to the uniting of the world's political powers, as a gradual process beginning in 1914 and seen later in manifestations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations following the First and Second World Wars.[33] These political powers are influenced by Satan and his demons in opposition to God's kingdom.[34] Babylon the Great is interpreted as the world empire of false religion, and that it will be destroyed by the beast just prior to Armageddon.[35][36] Witnesses believe that after all other religions have been destroyed, the governments will turn to destroy them, and that God will then intervene, precipitating Armageddon.[37] Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the armies of heaven, commanded by Jesus Christ, will then destroy all forms of human government and then Jesus with a selected 144,000 will rule Earth for 1000 years.[38] They believe that Satan and his demons will be bound for that period, unable to influence mankind. After the 1000 years are ended, and the second resurrection has taken place, Satan is released and allowed to tempt the perfect human race one last time.

Armageddon Those who follow Satan are destroyed, along with him, leaving the Earth, and humankind at peace with God forever, free of sin and death.[39] The religion's current teaching on Armageddon originated in 1925 with former Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford, who based his interpretations on the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional material from the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The doctrine marked a further break from the teachings of Watch Tower Society founder Charles Taze Russell, who for decades had taught that the final war would be an anarchistic struggle for domination on earth.[40] Tony Wills, author of a historical study of the Jehovah's Witnesses, claimed that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He claimed that towards the close of his ministry Rutherford spent about half of each year's Watchtower magazines writing about Armageddon.[41]

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Seventh-day Adventist
The teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms "Armageddon", "Day of the Lord" and "The Second Coming of Christ" all describe the same event.[42] Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by the growing unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further significant difference in Seventh-day Adventist theology is the teaching that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium.[43] They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively "bound."[44] The final re-creation of a "new heaven and a new earth."[45] then follows the millennium.

Christadelphians
For Christadelphians Armageddon is a symbolic term meaning "A heap of sheaves in a valley for judge-ment" for Christadelphians Armageddon is a 40 year war starting in The Valley of Jehoshaphat and ending when the Papacy the Antichrist is destroyed

Ahmadiyya

Seventh-day Adventist understanding of Revelation 13-22

In Ahmadiyya, Armageddon is viewed as a spiritual battle or struggle in the present age between the forces of good, i.e. righteousness, purity and virtue, and the forces of evil. The final struggle between the two comes as satanic influence is let loose with the emergence of Gog and Magog. Satan gathers all his powers, and uses all his methods to mislead people, introducing an age where iniquity, promiscuity, atheism, and materialism abound. Ahmadiyya believe that God appointed Promised Messiah and Mahdi for the spiritual reformation and moral direction of mankind. This age continues for approximately one thousand years as per Judeo-Christian and Islamic prophecies of the Apocalypse; it is characterised by the assembling of mankind under one faith, Islam in Ahmadiyya belief.[46]

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Bah' Faith
From Bah' literature a number of interpretations of the expectations surrounding the Battle of Armageddon may be inferred, three of them being associated with events surrounding the World Wars.[47] The first interpretation deals with a series of tablets written by Bah'u'llh, founder of the Bah' Faith, to be sent to various kings and rulers.[47] The second, and best-known one, relates to events near the end of World War I involving General Allenby and the Battle of Megiddo (1918) wherein World Powers are said to have drawn soldiers from many parts of the world to engage in battle at Megiddo. In winning this battle Allenby also prevented the Turks from killing 'Abdu'l-Baha, then head of the Baha'i Faith, whom they had intended to crucify.[48] A third interpretation reviews the overall progress of the World Wars, and the situation in the world before and after.[47]

Influence
The idea that a final Battle of Armageddon will be fought at Tel Megiddo has had a wide influence, especially in the US. According to Donald E. Wagner, Professor of Religion and Director of the Center for Middle Eastern Studies at North Park University, Ronald Reagan was an adherent of "Armageddon theology," and "seemed to blend his political analysis with his Armageddon theology quite naturally."[49] Some militia groups in the US, such as the Hutaree,[50] are reported to have prepared for violent action associated with related apocalyptic beliefs.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Bibletranslation.ws (http:/ / bibletranslation. ws/ trans/ revwgrk. pdf) Scripturetext.com (http:/ / scripturetext. com/ revelation/ 16-16. htm) Collins English Dictionary, HarperCollins, 3rd ed., p. 81 "Amateur Archaeologists Get the Dirt on the Past" (http:/ / travel. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 07/ 16/ travel/ 16family. html), New York Times Maps and pictures of Megiddo mountain and the surrounding plain (in Spanish) (http:/ / www. bloganavazquez. com/ tag/ anales-tutmosis-iii/ ) [6] Book of Revelation in the New Testament, Rev. 19: 11-20, Rev. 20: 1-3, 7-15. [7] "Bible Keyword Search Results: megiddo (KJV)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ keyword/ ?search=megiddo& version1=9& searchtype=all& limit=none& wholewordsonly=no). 2011. . Retrieved 2011-01-15. Listing of the 12 Biblical Old Testament passages containing the word "Megiddo". [8] "Revelation 16, The Seven Bowls of God's Wrath" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation+ 16& version=NIV). 2011. . Retrieved 2011-01-15. New Testament excerpt describing various apparent calamities of nature with respect to Armageddon. [9] James B. Jordan, Biblical Horizons, No. 85 (http:/ / www. biblicalhorizons. com/ biblical-horizons/ no-85-some-observations/ ) [10] Rousas John Rushdoony, Thy Kingdom Come: Studies in Daniel and Revelation, 190. [11] Revelation16:14 [12] Joel3:2 [13] Ezekiel39:11 [14] Zech. 12:2-11; 14:2 [15] Pentacost, p. 341 [16] Ezekiel38:9-16 [17] Revelation14:20 [18] "Daniel 11:40-45 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Dan. 11:40-45;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071125073621/ http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Dan. 11:40-45;& version=9;) from the original on 25 November 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-16. [19] "Daniel 11:40 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Dan. 11:40;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071125073626/ http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Dan. 11:40;& version=9;) from the original on 25 November 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-16. [20] Zechariah12:2 [21] Ezekiel39, Zeckariah12:4 [22] Revelation11:44, Revelation16:12 [23] Daniel11:45 [24] Pentacost, p. 356 [25] Revelation20:8

Armageddon
[26] Revelation20:11-15 [27] "Matthew 25:41 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Matt. 25:41;& version=9;). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071125073727/ http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Matt. 25:41;& version=9;) from the original on 25 November 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-16. [28] "Matthew 18:8 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Matt. 18:8;& version=9;). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071125073722/ http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Matt. 18:8;& version=9;) from the original on 25 November 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-16. [29] "Mark 9:43-44 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Mark 9:43-44;& version=9;). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071125073712/ http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Mark 9:43-44;& version=9;) from the original on 25 November 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-16. [30] "Mark 9:46-48 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Mark 9:46-48;& version=9;). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071125073717/ http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Mark 9:46-48;& version=9;) from the original on 25 November 2007. . Retrieved 2007-11-16. [31] Armageddon - A Happy Beginning (http:/ / www. watchtower. org/ e/ 20051201/ article_02. htm) [32] ArmageddonGods War to End All Wars (http:/ / www. watchtower. org/ e/ 20080401/ article_02. htm) [33] "What Does the Bible Really Teach" pp. 215-218 '1914A Significant Year in Bible Prophecy' [34] The Watchtower 12/1/05 p. 4 ArmageddonA Happy Beginning (http:/ / www. watchtower. org/ e/ 20051201/ article_02. htm) Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania [35] The End of False Religion is Near watchtower.org (http:/ / www. watchtower. org/ e/ kn37/ article_01. htm) [36] Mankinds Search for God chap. 16 p. 371 par. 13 "the destruction of Babylon the Great will usher in a period of great tribulation that culminates in the war of the great day of God the Almighty . . . HarMagedon. " [37] Watchtower 9/15/05 p. 19 par. 13 "Walk by Faith, Not by Sight!" Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania [38] The Marvelous New World of God's Making watchtower.org (http:/ / www. watchtower. org/ e/ dg/ article_10. htm) [39] Watchtower 6/1/96 p. 18 par. 20 "Flight to Safety Before the "Great Tribulation"" Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania [40] Alan Rogerson (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable. p.47. [41] Wills, Tony (2006), A People For His Name, Lulu Enterprises, p.154, ISBN978-1-4303-0100-4 [42] "Seventh-day Adventists believe" 1988 by the Ministerial Association General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists [43] "Handbook of Seventh-day Adventist Theology" 2000 Review and Herald Publishing Association and the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists [44] Revelation20:2 [45] Revelation21:1 [46] The Review of Religions, January 2009, Vol.104, issue 1. p. 18-22 [47] Lambden, Stephen. "Catastrophe, Armageddon and Millennium: some aspects of the Bb-Bah' exegesis of apocalyptic symbolism" (http:/ / bahai-library. com/ lambden_catastrophe_millennium). Bah' Studies Review Volume 9. . Retrieved 2007-06-10. [48] Maude (1997). The Servant, the General, and Armageddon. George Ronald. ISBN0-85398-424-7. [49] Donald E. Wagner, The alliance between fundamentalist Christians and the Pro-Israel lobby: Christian Zionism in US Middle East policy (http:/ / www. cnep. org/ churchorgs/ methodist/ CZionism-Wagner1. doc) [50] " US 'Christian militants' charged after FBI raids (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ americas/ 8593975. stm)" BBC, 30 March 2010. Retrieved 30 March 2010.

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Sea of Galilee
Kinneret

Coordinates Lake type Primary inflows

3250N 3535E Monomictic Upper Jordan River and local runoff

[1]

Primary outflows Lower Jordan River, evaporation Catchment area Basin countries Max. length Max. width Surface area Average depth Max. depth Water volume Residence time Shore length1 2,730km (1,050sqmi) Israel, Syria, Lebanon 21km (13mi) 13km (8.1mi) 166km2 (64sqmi) 25.6m (84ft) 43m (141ft) 4km3 (0.96cumi) 5 years 53km (33mi)
2

[2]

Surface elevation -211.315m (693.29ft) Islands References

1

2
[1][2]

Shore length is not a well-defined measure.

Sea of Galilee The Sea of Galilee, also Kinneret, Lake of Gennesaret, or Lake Tiberias (Hebrew: , Judeo-Aramaic: ,Arabic: ,) is the largest freshwater lake in Israel, and it is approximately 53km (33mi) in circumference, about 21km (13mi) long, and 13km (8.1mi) wide. The lake has a total area of 166km2 (64sqmi), and a maximum depth of approximately 43 m (141feet).[3] At 211.315 metres (693.29ft) below sea level,[4] it is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake overall (after the Dead Sea, a saltwater lake).[5] The lake is fed partly by underground springs although its main source is the Jordan River which flows through it from north to south.

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Geography
The Sea of Galilee (Kinneret) is situated in northeast Israel, near the Golan Heights, in the Jordan Rift Valley, the valley caused by the separation of the African and Arabian Plates. Consequently the area is subject to earthquakes and, in the past, volcanic activity. This is evident by the abundant basalt and other igneous rocks that define the geology of the Galilee region.

Etymology
The modern name, Kinneret, comes from the Old Testament or Hebrew Tanakh "sea of Chinnereth" in Numbers34:11 and Joshua13:27, and spelled "Chinneroth" in Joshua11:2. This name was also found in the scripts of Ugarit, in the Aqhat Epic. Chinnereth was listed among the "fenced cities" in Joshua19:35. The name Kinneret may originate from the Hebrew word kinnor ("harp" or "lyre")), in view of the shape of the lake.[6] In the New Testament the term "sea of Galilee" is used in the gospel of Matthew 4:18; 15:29, the gospel of Mark 1:16; 7:31, and in the gospel of John 6:1 as "the sea of Galilee, which is the sea of Tiberias", the late first century name.[7] Sea of Tiberias is also the name mentioned in Roman texts and in the Jerusalem Talmud, and was adopted into Arabic as Buhairet Tabariyya (.) All Bible writers use the term "sea" (Hebrew yam or Greek thalassa) except the gospel of Luke, written to Theophilus of Macedonia, where it is called "the lake of Genneseret" in Luke5:1, from the Greek , (limnen Genneseret), the "Grecized form of Chinnereth" according to Easton, who says Genneseret means "a garden of riches".[8] The Babylonian Talmud, as well as Flavius Josephus mention the sea by the name "Sea of Ginnosar" after the small fertile plain of Gennesereth that lies on its western side.

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History
Antiquity
The Sea of Galilee lies on the ancient Via Maris, which linked Egypt with the northern empires. The Greeks, Hasmoneans, and Romans founded flourishing towns and settlements on the land-locked lake including Gadara, Hippos and Tiberias. The first-century historian Flavius Josephus was so impressed by the area that he wrote, "One may call this place the ambition of Nature." Josephus also reported a thriving fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake. Archaeologists discovered one such boat, nicknamed the Jesus Boat, in 1986. Much of the ministry of Jesus occurred on the shores of Lake Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat. The Synoptic gospels of Mark (1:1420), Matthew (4:1822), and Luke (5:111) describe how Jesus recruited four of his apostles from the shores of Lake Galilee: the fishermen Simon and his brother Andrew and the brothers John and James. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, the Sermon on the Mount, is supposed to have been given on a hill overlooking the lake. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here including his walking on water, calming the storm, the disciples and the boatload of fish, and his feeding five thousand people (in Tabgha).

Jesus and the miraculous catch of fish, in the Sea of Galilee, by Raphael

The beach of the Sea of Galilee

In 135 CE the second Jewish revolt against the Romans was put down. The Romans responded by banning all Jews from Jerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of the Kinneret, particularly the city of Tiberias. It was in this region that the so-called "Jerusalem Talmud" is thought to have been compiled. In the time of the Byzantine Empire, the lake's significance in Jesus' life made it a major destination for Christian pilgrims. This led to the growth of a full-fledged tourist industry, complete with package tours and plenty of comfortable inns. The lake's importance declined when the Byzantines lost control and the area came under the control of the Umayyad Caliphate and subsequent Islamic empires. Apart from Tiberias, the major towns and cities in the area were gradually abandoned. The palace Khirbat al-Minya was built by the lake during the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I (705715 CE). In 1187, Saladin defeated the armies of the Crusades at the Battle of Hattin, largely because he was able to cut the Crusaders off from the valuable fresh water of the Sea of Galilee.

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Modern era
In 1909, Jewish pioneers established the first cooperative farming village (kibbutz), Kvutzat Kinneret. The settlement trained Jewish immigrants in farming and agriculture. Later, Kinneret pioneers established Kibbutz Degania Alef. The Kinneret is considered the cradle of the kibbutz culture of early Zionism and the birthplace of Naomi Shemer and the burial site of Rachel two of the most prominent Israeli poets.

On the Sea of Galilee, Tiberias, 1891

In 1917, the British defeated Ottoman Turkish forces and took control of Palestine, while France took control of Syria. In the carve-up of the Ottoman territories between Britain and France, it was agreed that Britain would retain control of Palestine, while France would control Syria. However, the allies had to fix the border between the British Mandate for Palestine and the French Mandate of Syria.[9] The boundary was defined in broad terms by the Franco-British Boundary Agreement of December 1920, which drew it across the middle of the Kinneret landscape [10] lake. However, the commission established by the 1920 treaty redrew the boundary. The Zionist movement pressured the French and British to assign as many water sources as possible to Palestine during the demarcating negotiations. The High Commissioner of Palestine, Herbert Samuel, had sought full control of the Sea of Galilee.[11] The negotiations led to the inclusion into the Palestine territory of the whole Sea of Galilee, both sides of the River Jordan, Lake Hula, Dan spring, and part of the Yarmouk.[12] The final border approved in 1923 followed a 10-meter wide strip along the lake's northeastern shore,[13] cutting Syria off from the lake. The British and French Agreement provided that existing rights over the use of the waters of the Jordan by the inhabitants of Syria would be maintained; the Government of Syria would have the right to erect a new pier at Semakh on Lake Tiberias or jointly use the existing pier; persons or goods passing between the landing-stage on the Lake of Tiberias and Semakh would not be subject to customs regulations, and the Syrian government would have access to the said landing-stage; the inhabitants of Syria and Lebanon would have the same fishing and navigation rights on Lakes Huleh, Tiberias and River Jordan while the Government of Palestine would be responsible for policing of lakes.[14] On May 15, 1948, Syria invaded the State of Israel,[15] capturing some Israeli kibbutzim near the Sea of Galilee.[16]

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Water use
Israel's National Water Carrier, built in 1964, transports water from the lake to the population centers of Israel, and is the source of much of the country's drinking water. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of a Headwater Diversion Plan that would have blocked the flow of water into the Sea of Galilee, sharply reducing the water flow into the lake.[17] This project and Israel's attempt to block these efforts in 1965 were factors which played into regional tensions culminating in the 1967 Six-Day War. During the war, Israel captured the Golan Heights, which contain some of the sources of water for the Sea of Galilee. Under the terms of the IsraelJordan peace treaty, Israel also supplies 50,000,000 cubic metres (1.8109cuft) of water annually from the lake to Jordan.[18] Increasing water demand and dry winters have resulted in stress on the lake and a decreasing water line to dangerously low levels at times. The Sea of Galilee is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake, which are held in check by the weight of the freshwater on top of them.[19] The Israeli government monitors water levels and publishes the results daily at this web page. The level over the past eight years can be retrieved from that site. By early April 2012, having risen almost 2 metres (6ft7in) over the winter, the water level of the Kinneret was at its highest level in five years.[20] The Water Authority partly attributes the improvement to the expansion of desalination technology as a water source.[21][22]
View of Kinneret from space

Water levels January 2004 February 2012

Tourism
Today, tourism is the Kinneret's most important economic activity with the entire region being a popular holiday destination. The many historical and spiritual sites around the lake, especially its main town Tiberias, are visited by millions of local and foreign tourists annually. The Sea of Galilee attracts many Christian pilgrims, because, according to the New Testament, many of the miracles of Jesus occurred on its shoresincluding his walking on water, calming the storm, and feeding five thousand people in Tabgha.

Tiberias hotels on the waterfront

In April 2011, Israel unveiled a 40-mile (64km) hiking trail in the Galilee for Christian pilgrims, called the "Jesus Trail". It includes a network of footpaths, roads

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and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples. It ends at Capernaum on the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus espoused his teachings.[23] Another key attraction is the site where the Kinneret's water flows into the Jordan River, to which thousands of pilgrims from all over the world come to be baptized every year. Israel's most well-known open water swim race, the Kinneret Crossing, is held every year in September, drawing thousands of open water swimmers to participate in competitive and noncompetitive events.

Tourists also partake in the building of rafts on Lavnun Beach, called Rafsodia. Here many different age groups work together to build a raft with their bare hands and then sail that raft across the Kinneret.

Tilapia zilli (redbelly tilapia, "St. Peter's fish"), served in a Tiberias restaurant

Other economic activities include fishing in the lake and agriculture, particularly bananas, in the fertile belt of land surrounding it.

Fauna and flora

The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well as phytoplankton. Fauna include zooplankton, benthos and a number of fish species such as Acanthobrama terraesanctae. Fish caught commercially include Tristramella simonis and notably Tilapia, locally called "St. Peters Fish".[24] In 2005, 300 short tons (270t) of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to 8 short tons (7.3t) in 2009 due to overfishing.[25] However, low water levels in drought years have stressed the lake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-abstraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan (see "Water use" section above). Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake.[26] A fish species that is unique to the lake, Tristramella sacra, used to spawn in the marsh and has not been seen since the 1990s droughts.[26] Conservationists fear this species may have become extinct.[26]

References
[1] Aaron T. Wolf, Hydropolitics along the Jordan River (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ 80859e/ 80859E02. htm#Hydrography), United Nations University Press, 1995 [2] Exact-me.org (http:/ / www. exact-me. org/ overview/ images/ p31_map. gif) [3] Data Summary: Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ asi/ dasi09. html) [4] NTDTV 11Feb2011 http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=-dJAAJ8w3Zw [5] The 1996-discovered subglacial Lake Vostok challenges both records; it is estimated to be 200m (660ft) to 600m (2,000ft) below sea level. [6] Easton's Revised Bible Dictionary, Chinnereth. (Other speculation is that the name comes from a fruit called in Biblical Hebrew kinar, which is thought to be the fruit of Ziziphus spina-christi). [7] Easton, Tiberias [8] Easton, Genneseret. [9] The Preamble of the League of Nations Mandate (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ mideast/ palmanda. htm) [10] Franco-British Convention on Certain Points Connected with the Mandates for Syria and the Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia, signed Dec. 23, 1920. Text available in American Journal of International Law, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1922, 122126. [11] The boundaries of modern Palestine, 18401947 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jC9MbKNh8GUC& pg=PA1& dq=boundary+ palestine) (2004), by Gideon Biger. Publisher Rutledge Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7146-5654-0, p. 130.

Sea of Galilee
[12] The boundaries of modern Palestine, 18401947, p. 150. and 130. [13] The boundaries of modern Palestine, 18401947, p. 145. [14] Agreement between His Majesty's Government and the French Government respecting the Boundary Line between Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean to El Hmm (http:/ / untreaty. un. org/ unts/ 60001_120000/ 20/ 29/ 00039450. pdf), Treaty Series No. 13 (1923), Cmd. 1910. Page 7. [15] The Arab-Israeli Conflict a brief history (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ flash/ 0,,720353,00. html) [16] The Year of 1948 (http:/ / www. alnakba. org/ chronology/ sixth. htm) [17] Fischhendler, Itay (2008). "When Ambiguity in Treaty Design Becomes Destructive: A Study of Transboundary Water" (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ journals/ global_environmental_politics/ v008/ 8. 1fischhendler. html). Global Environmental Politics. . Retrieved 2008-11-28. [18] "Developments related to the Middle East Peace Process" (http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ 1759b55472ee398b852562d7006b014a?OpenDocument). UN. . Retrieved 2008-02-20. [19] Skynews report, 5 May 2009: Race To Save Sea Of Galilee From Disaster (http:/ / news. sky. com/ skynews/ Home/ World-News/ Sea-Of-Galilee-In-Israel-Is-Facing-Disaster-Says-Friends-Of-The-Earth-Prompting-Government-Campaign/ Article/ 200905115274946) [20] Kinneret water level highest in 9 years (http:/ / www. globes. co. il/ serveen/ globes/ docview. asp?did=1000739536& fid=1725) 5 April 12 13:48, Globes' correspondent [21] Kinneret Basin Water Level (http:/ / www. water. gov. il/ Hebrew/ WaterResources/ Kinneret-Basin/ Pages/ default. aspx) Rains fill Kinneret to 4-year high (http:/ / www. globes. co. il/ serveen/ globes/ docview. asp?did=1000729671& fid=1725), Globes, 1 March 2012, Yuval Azulai [22] Kinneret rises 2 meters (http:/ / www. globes. co. il/ serveen/ globes/ docview. asp?did=1000735826& fid=1725)Globes, Yuval Azulai, 22 March 12 [23] Daniel Estrin, Canadian Press (April 15, 2011). "Israel unveils hiking trail in Galilee for Christian pilgrims" (http:/ / ca. news. yahoo. com/ israel-unveils-hiking-trail-galilee-christian-pilgrims-20110415-093756-814. html). Yahoo! News. . Retrieved 2011-05-16. [24] World Lakes Database entry for Sea of Galilee (http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ asi/ asi-09. html) [25] "Still Fishers of Men". Vermont Catholic 1 (12): 3. June 2010. [26] Goren, M. (2006). "Tristramella sacra" (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ search/ details. php/ 61372/ all). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. International Union for Conservation of Nature. . Retrieved 2011-06-13.

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External links
Israel Bans Fishing in Sea of Galilee (http://www.greenprophet.com/2010/04/25/20291/ israel-fishing-ban-sea-galilee/) World Lakes Database entry for Sea of Galilee (http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-09.html) Bibleplaces.com: Sea of Galilee (http://www.bibleplaces.com/seagalilee.htm) Sea of Galilee photos (http://koti.phnet.fi/petripaavola/Bible_SeaofGalilee.html) Peace Mural of the Sea of Galilee in the Chapel of the Good Shephard Ramallah (http://www.wilkens-art. com/galilee.htm) Updated elevation of the Kinneret's level (http://www.israelweather.co.il/kineret.asp) (Hebrew). Elevation (meters below sea level) is shown on the line following the date line. Virtual Map of Israel: Kinneret (http://www.mapisrael.info/kinneret)

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Capernaum
Capernaum (pron.: /kprnim/ k-PUR-nee-m; Hebrew: , Kfar Nahum, "Nahum's village") was a fishing village in the time of the Hasmoneans. Located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee.[1] It had a population of about 1,500.[2] Archaeological excavations have revealed two ancient synagogues built one over the other. A church near Capernaum is said to be the home of Saint Peter.

Etymology

Capernaum synagogue

Although Kfar Nahum, the original name of the small town, means "Nahum's village" in Hebrew, apparently there is no connection with the prophet named Nahum. In the writings of Josephus, the name is rendered in Greek as K (Kapharnaum) and in the New Testament as K (Kapharnaum) in some manuscripts and as K (Kapernaum) in others. In Arabic, it is called Talhum, and it is assumed that this refers to the ruin (Tell) of Hum (perhaps an abbreviated form of Nahum) (Tzaferis, 1989).

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New Testament traditions

The town is cited in the Gospel of Luke where it was reported to have been the home of the apostles Simon Peter, Andrew, James and John, as well as the tax collector Matthew. In Matthew 4:13 the town was reported to have been the home of Jesus. One Sabbath, Jesus taught in the synagogue in Capernaum and healed a man who had the spirit of an unclean devil.[3] [This story is notable for being the only one common between the Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of Luke but not contained in the Gospel of Matthew. See Synoptic Gospels for more literary comparison between the Gospels.] Afterwards, he healed a fever in Simon Peter's mother-in-law.[4] According to Luke7:110, it is also the place where a Roman Centurion asked Jesus to heal his servant. Capernaum is also mentioned in the Gospel of Mark (2:1), it is the location of the famous healing of the paralytic lowered through the roof to reach Jesus. According to the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus selected this town as the center of his public ministry in the Galilee after he left the small mountainous hamlet of Nazareth (Matthew 4:1217). He also formally cursed the city, saying "You shall be brought down to Hades," (Matthew 11:23) because of their lack of response to his teaching.

Archaeological evidence demonstrates that the town was established in the 2nd century BC during the Hasmonean period. The site had no defensive wall and extended along the shore of the nearby lake (from east to west). The cemetery zone is found 200 meters north of the synagogue, which places it beyond the inhabited area of the town. It extended 3 kilometers to Tabgha, an area which appears to have been used for agricultural purposes, judging by the many oil and grain mills which were discovered in the excavation. Fishing was also a source of income; the remains of another harbor were found to the west of that built by the Franciscans. No sources have been found for the belief that Capernaum was involved in the bloody Jewish revolts against the Romans, the First Jewish-Roman War (AD 6673) or Bar Kokhba's revolt (132135), although there is reason to believe that Josephus, one of the Jewish generals during the earlier revolt, was taken to Capernaum (which he called "Kapharnakos") after a fall from his horse in nearby Bethsaida (Josephus, Vita, 72). Josephus referred to Capernaum as a fertile spring. He stayed the night there after spraining his ankle. During the first Jewish revolt of 6670 Capernaum was spared as it was never occupied by the Romans.

James Tissot - Healing of the Lepers at Capernaum (Gurison des lpreux Capernaum) - Brooklyn Museum

History

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Archaeology
In 1838, the American explorer, Edward Robinson discovered the ruins of the ancient Capernaum. In 1866, British Captain Charles William Wilson identified the remains of the synagogue, and in 1894, Franciscan Friar Giuseppe Baldi of Naples, the Custodian of the Holy Land, was able to recover a good part of the ruins from the Bedouins. The Franciscans raised a fence to protect the ruins from frequent vandalism, and planted palms and eucalyptus trees brought from Australia to create a small oasis for pilgrims. They also built a small harbor. These labors were directed by the Franciscan Virgilio Corbo. The most important excavations began in 1905 under the direction of the Germans Heinrich Kohl and Carl Watzinger. They were continued by the Franciscans Fathers Vendelin von Benden (19051915) and Gaudenzio Orfali (19211926). The excavations resulted in the discovery of two public buildings, the synagogue (which was partially restored by Fr Orfali), and an octagonal church. Later, in 1968, excavation of the western portion of the sitethe portion owned by the Franciscanswas restarted by Corbo and Stanislao Loffreda, with the financial assistance of the Italian government. During this phase, the major discovery was of a house which is claimed to be St. Peter's house, in a neighborhood of the town from the 1st century AD. These excavations have been ongoing, with some publication on the Internet as recently as 2003.[5] The excavations revealed that the site was established at the beginning of the Hasmonean Dynasty, roughly in the 2nd century BC, and abandoned in the 11th century. The eastern half of the site, where the Church of the Seven Apostles stands and owned by an Orthodox monastery, was surveyed and partially excavated under the direction of Vasilios Tzaferis. This section has uncovered the village from the Byzantine and Arab periods. Features include a pool apparently used for the processing of fish and a hoard of gold coins. (Tzaferis, 1989). The layout of the town was quite regular. On both sides of an ample north-south main street arose small districts bordered by small cross-sectional streets and no-exit side-streets. The walls were constructed with coarse basalt blocks and reinforced with stone and mud, but the stones (except for the thresholds) were not dressed and mortar was not used. The most extensive part of the typical house was the courtyard, where there was a circular furnace made of refractory earth, as well as grain mills and a set of stone stairs that led to the roof. The floors of the Ruins of the old Roman town. houses were cobbled. Around the open courtyard, modest cells were arranged which received light through a series of openings or low windows (Loffreda, 1984). Given the coarse construction of the walls, there was no second story to a typical home, and the roof would have been constructed of light wooden beams and thatch mixed with mud. This, along with the discovery of the stairs to the roof, recalls the biblical story of the Healing of the Paralytic: "And when they could not come nigh unto him for the press, they uncovered the roof where he was: and when they had broken it up, let down the bed wherein the sick of the palsy lay." (Mark 2:4) With the type of construction seen in Capernaum, it would not have been difficult to raise the ceiling by the courtyard stairs and to remove a part to allow the bed to be brought down to where Jesus stood. A study of the district located between the synagogue and the octagonal church showed that several families lived together in the patriarchal style, communally using the same courtyards and doorless internal passages. The houses
An olive mill and an olive press dating from Roman times in Capernaum

Capernaum had no hygienic facilities or drainage; the rooms were narrow. Most objects found were made of clay: pots, plates, amphoras and lamps. Fish hooks, weights for fish nets, striker pins, weaving bobbins, and basalt mills for milling grain and pressing olives were also found (Loffreda, 1974). As of the 4th century, the houses were constructed with good quality mortar and fine ceramics. This was about the time that the synagogue now visible was built. Differences in social class were not noticeable. Buildings constructed at the founding of the town continued to be in use until the time of the abandonment of the town.

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House of Peter
One block of homes, called by the Franciscan excavators the sacra insula or "holy insula" ("insula" refers to a block of homes around a courtyard) was found to have a complex history. Located between the synagogue and the lakeshore, it was found near the front of a labyrinth of houses from many different periods. Three principal layers have been identified: 1. A group of private houses built around the 1st century BC which remained in use until the early 4th century. 2. The great transformation of one of the homes in the 4th century. 3. The octagonal church in the middle of the 5th century.

Glass-enclosed church foundation

The excavators concluded that one house in the village was venerated as the house of Peter the fisherman as early as the mid-1st century, with two churches having been constructed over it (Lofreda, 1984).

1st century
The city's basalt houses are grouped around two large courtyards, one to the north and the other to the south. One large room in particular, near the east side and joining both courtyards, was especially large (sides about 7.5 meters long) and roughly square. An open space on the eastern side contained a brick oven. A threshold which allowed crossing between the two courtyards remains well-preserved to this day. Beginning in the latter half of the 1st century AD, this house displayed markedly different characteristics than the other excavated houses. The Interior of the Catholic Church rough walls were reworked with care and were covered with inscriptions; the floor was covered with a fine layer of plaster. Furthermore, almost no domestic ceramics are recovered, but lamps abound. One explanation suggested for this treatment is that the room was venerated as a religious gathering place, a domus-ecclesia or house church, for the Christian community. (Loffreda, 1984) This suggestion has been critiqued by several scholars, however. In particular, where excavators had claimed to find graffiti including the name of Peter, others have found very little legible writing (Strange and Shanks, 1982). Others have questioned whether the space is actually a room; the paved floor, the large space without supports, and the presence of a cooking space have prompted some to note that these are more consistent with yet another courtyard (Freyne, 2001).

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4th-century transformation
In this period, the sacra insula acquired a new appearance. First, a thick-walled, slightly trapezoidal enclosure was built surrounding the entire insula; its sides were 2730 meters long. Made of plaster, they reached a height of 2.3 meters on the north side. It had two doors, one in the southwest corner and the other in the northeast corner. Next, although there is evidence that the private houses remained in use after the transformation, the one particular room that had before been treated differently was profoundly altered and expanded. A central archway was added to support a roof and the north wall was strengthened with mortar. New pavement was installed, and the walls and floor were plastered. (Loffreda, 1974) This structure remained until the middle of the 5th century when the sacra insula was dismantled and replaced with a larger basilica.

Octagonal Church
The 5th-century church consists of a central octagon with eight pillars, an exterior octagon with thresholds still in situ, and a gallery or portico that leads both into the interior of the church as well as into a complex of associated buildings to the East, a linkage achieved via a short passageway. Later, this passage was blocked and an apse with a pool for baptism was constructed in the middle of the east wall. From this wall ascended two stairs on either side of the baptistry, and the excess water from the rite would have escaped along this path. The Byzantines, upon constructing the new church, placed the central octagon directly on top of the walls of St. Peter's house with the aim of preserving its exact location, although none of the original house was visible any longer, as the walls had been torn down and the floor covered in mosaics. In the portico, the pattern of the mosaic was purely geometric, with four rows of contiguous circles and small crosses. In the zone of the external octagon, the mosaics represented plants and animals in a style similar to that found in the Basilica of the Feeding of the Five Thousand, in Taghba. In the central octagon, the mosaic was composed of a strip of calcified flowers, of a field of schools of fish with small flowers, and of a great circle with a peacock in the center.

Synagogue
The ruins of this building, among the Oldest synagogues in the world were identified by Charles William Wilson. The large, ornately carved, white building stones of the synagogue stood out prominently among the smaller, plain blocks of local black basalt used for the towns other buildings, almost all residential. The synagogue was built almost entirely of white blocks of calcareous stone brought from distant quarries. The building consists of four parts: the praying hall, the western patio, a southern balustrade and a small room at the northwest of the building. The praying hall measured 24.40 ms by 18.65 m, with the southern face looking toward Jerusalem.

Remains of the 4th-century synagogue

The internal walls were covered with painted plaster and fine stucco work found during the excavations. Watzinger, like Orfali, believed that there had been an upper floor reserved for women, with access by means of an external staircase located in the small room. But this opinion was not substantiated by the later excavations of the site. The synagogue appears to have been built around the 4th or 5th century. Beneath the foundation of this synagogue lies another foundation made of basalt, and Loffreda suggests that this is the foundation of a synagogue from the 1st century, perhaps the one mentioned in the Gospels (Loffreda, 1974). Later excavation work was attempted underneath the synagogue floor, but while Loffreda claimed to have found a paved surface, others are of the opinion that this was an open, paved market area. [6]

Capernaum The ancient synagogue has two inscriptions, one in Greek and the other in Aramaic, that remember the benefactors that helped in the construction of the building. There are also carvings of five- and six-pointed stars and of palm trees. In 1926, the Franciscan Orfali began the restoration of the synagogue. After his death, this work was continued by Virgilio Corbo beginning in 1976. A mosaic uncovered in 1991 shows an image of the Woman and Dragon motif mentioned in the Christian biblical book Revelation of St.John. It shows a woman about to give birth to a child as a dragon waits to devour it. The mosaic is not mentioned in any articles to date. Two possibilities seem possible: the mosaic is a Christian addition at some point when the synagogue became a Christian church, or that this was a Jewish motif indicating the dangers facing any Messiah who might come in those dangerous times of Christian predominance in Roman-ruled Palestine.

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Fishing vessel
In 1986 the water of the lake reached an unusually low point. At that time, an ancient fishing boat was discovered. Radio-carbon dating of the wood points to 120BC-AD40,[7] while the pottery found in or near the boat can be dated from 100BC-AD200. As it seems likely that the boat was built of re-used timbers, the preferred date is first century AD. The vessel was 8 meters long and was preserved in the mud of the lake. After a difficult unearthing process that had to be completed before the water rose again, the excavated boat was put on display in its modern-day position near the kibbutz Ginosar as The Sea of Galilee Boat.

Papal visit
In March 2000, John Paul II visited the ruins of Capernaum during his visit to Israel.[8]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Freedman, DN 2000, Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, Amsterdam University Press Borgen, P, Aune, DE, Seland, T & Ulrichsen, JH 2003, Neotestamentica et Philonica, BRILL Publishing. (Luke 4:3136 and Mark 1:2128) Luke 4:31-44 http:/ / 198. 62. 75. 1/ www1/ ofm/ sbf/ arch/ Capharnaum2003. html http:/ / 198. 62. 75. 1/ www1/ ofm/ sites/ TScpsyn1. html Wachamann, et al, Shelley (1988). An Ancient Boat Discovered in the Sea of Galilee. Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority. Papal Visit to Israel: Itinerary (http:/ / www. ewtn. com/ holyland2000/ map. htm)

Further reading
Sean Freyne, "A Galilean Messiah?," Studia Theologica 55 (2001), 198218. Contains an analysis of the singled-out 1st-century AD house as a courtyard rather than a room or house. Loffreda, Stanislao. Cafarnao. Vol. II. La Ceramica. Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1974. Technical publication (in original Italian) of the western site. Loffreda, Stanislao. Recovering Capharnaum. Jerusalem: Edizioni Custodia Terra Santa, 1984. ASIN B0007BOTZY. Non-technical English summary of the excavations on the western (Franciscan) portion of the site. Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, Oxford Archaeological Guides: The Holy Land (Oxford, 1998), 217220. ASIN 0192880136. James F. Strange and Hershel Shanks, "Has the House Where Jesus Stayed in Capernaum Been Found?," Biblical Archaeology Review 8, 6 (Nov./Dec., 1982), 2637. Critique of the domus-ecclesia claims. Tzaferis, Vassilios. Excavations at Capernaum, 19781982. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1989. ISBN 0-931464-48-X. Overview publication of the dig on the eastern portion of the site.

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External links
Strong's G2584 (http://www.blueletterbible.org/cgi-bin/strongs.pl?strongs=2584) Capharnaum The town of Jesus (http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/sites/TScpmain.html) Franciscan Cyberspot Capernaum (http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2000/3/Capernaum) information from the Israeli government Capernaum (http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/capernaum.htm) Sacred Destinations (includes 38 photos (http://www.sacred-destinations.com/israel/capernaum-photos/index.htm)) Images of Capernaum (http://www.pohick.org/sts/capernaum.html) Article by Dr. Zeev Goldmann (http://star-of-david.blogspot.com/search?q=Capernaum+Goldmann)

Mount of Beatitudes
The Mount of Beatitudes refers to the hill in northern Israel where Jesus delivered the Sermon on the Mount.

Location
The traditional location for the Mount of Beatitudes is on the northwestern shore of the Sea of Galilee, between Capernaum and Gennesaret (Ginosar). The actual location of the Sermon on the Mount is not certain, but the present site (also known as Mount Eremos) has been commemorated for more than 1600 years. The site is very near Tabgha. Other suggested locations have included the nearby Mount Arbel, or even the Horns of Hattin.

Churches at the site

A Byzantine church was erected near the current site in the 4th century, and it was used until the 7th century. Remains of a cistern and a monastery are still visible. The current Roman Catholic Franciscan chapel was built in 1938.

Mount of Beatitudes, seen from Capernaum

Other
Pope John Paul II celebrated a Mass at this site in March 2000. The Jesus Trail pilgrimage route connects the Mount to other sites from the life of Jesus. Vasco Nasorri is the Italian artist who realised the mosaic installed in the floor in front of the Church in 1984
Roman Catholic chapel at Mount of Beatitudes

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References
Macmillan Bible Atlas, ISBN 0-02-500605-3 Oxford Archaeological Guide: The Holy Land (paperback, fourth edition (1998)), pg 279. ISBN 0-19-288013-6 The Catholic Encyclopedia [1] Online

External links
Mount of Beatitudes page [2] at http://www.bibleplaces.com Mount of Beatitudes in Photos [3] - Israel in Photos
Mosaic floor beside the church

References
[1] http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 02369a. htm [2] http:/ / www. bibleplaces. com/ mtbeatitudes. htm [3] http:/ / israelinphotos. com/ gallery14-MtBeatitudes. htm

Sermon on the Mount

The Sermon on the Mount (anglicized from the Matthean Vulgate Latin section title: Sermo in monte) is a collection of sayings and teachings of Jesus, which emphasizes his moral teaching found in the Gospel of Matthew (chapters 5, 6 and 7).[1] It is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew and takes place relatively early in the Ministry of Jesus after he has been baptized by John the Baptist and preached in Galilee. The Sermon is the longest piece of teaching from Jesus in the New Testament, and has been one of the most widely quoted elements of the Canonical Gospels.[2] It includes some of the best known teachings of Jesus such as the Beatitudes, and the widely recited Lord's Prayer. To most believers in Jesus, the Sermon on the Mount contains the central tenets of Christian discipleship.[2] The last verse of chapter 5 is considered to be a Sermon on the Mount by Carl Bloch focal point that summarizes the teaching of the sermon: "be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect", advising the disciples or students to seek the path towards perfection and the Kingdom of God.[3][4]

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Context and components

Background and setting
The Sermon on the Mount is the longest piece of teaching from Jesus in the New Testament, and occupies chapters 5, 6 and 7 of the Gospel of Matthew. The Sermon has been one of the most widely quoted elements of the Canonical Gospels.[2] To most believers in Jesus, the Sermon contains the central tenets of Christian discipleship.[2] This is the first of the Five Discourses of Matthew, the other four being Matthew 10, Matthew 13 (1-53), Matthew 18 and the Olivet discourse in Matthew 24.[5][6][7] The Sermon takes place relatively early in the Ministry of Jesus, after he has been baptized by John the Baptist in chapter 3 of Matthew and gathered his first disciples in chapter 4.

A page from Matthew, from Papyrus 1, c. 250

Before this episode, Jesus had been "all about Galilee" preaching, as in Matthew 4:23, and "great crowds followed him" from all around the area. The setting for the sermon is given in Matthew 5:1-2. Jesus sees the multitudes, goes up into the mountain, is followed by his disciples, and begins to preach.

Components
While the issue of the exact theological structure and composition of the Sermon on the Mount is subject to debate among scholars, specific components within it, each associated with particular teachings, can be identified.[8][9] Matthew 5:3-12 discusses the Beatitudes. These describe the character of the people of the Kingdom of God, expressed as "blessings".[10] In Matthew, there are eight (or nine) blessings, while in Luke there are four, followed by four woes.[10] In almost all cases the phrases used in the Beatitudes are familiar from an Old Testament context, but in the sermon Jesus elevates them to new teachings.[11] Together, the Beatitudes present a new set of ideals that focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction; they echo the highest ideals of Jesus' teachings on spirituality and compassion.[11] In Christian teachings, the Works of Mercy, which have corporal and spiritual components, have resonated with the theme of the Beatitude for mercy.[12] These teachings emphasize that these acts of mercy provide both temporal and spiritual benefits.[13]

The Lord's Prayer, in Matthew 6:9, 1500, Vienna

Matthew 5:13-16 presents the metaphors of Salt and Light. This completes the profile of God's people presented in the beatitudes, and acts as the introduction to the next section. There are two parts in this section, using the terms "salt of the earth" and Light of the World to refer to the disciples implying their value. Elsewhere in John 8:12 Jesus applies Light of the World to himself.[14] The longest discourse in the Sermon is Matthew 5:17-48, traditionally referred to as the Antitheses or Matthew's Antitheses though Gundry disputes that title.[15] In the discourse Jesus fulfills and reinterprets the Old Covenant and in particular its Ten Commandments, contrasting with what "you have heard" from others, e.g. turning the other cheek compared to taking an eye for an eye. According to most interpretations of Matthew 5:17, 18, 19, and 20, and most Christian views of the Old Covenant, these new interpretations of the Law and Prophets are not opposed to the Old Testament, which was the position of Marcion, but form Jesus' new teachings which bring about salvation, and

Sermon on the Mount hence must be adhered to, as emphasized in Matthew 7:24-27 towards the end of the sermon.[16] In Matthew 6 Jesus condemns doing what would normally be "good works" simply for recognition and not from the heart, such as those of alms (6:1-4), prayer (6:5-15), and fasting (6:16-18). The discourse goes on to condemn the superficiality of materialism and call the disciples not to worry about material needs, but to "seek" God's kingdom first. Within the discourse on ostentation, Matthew presents an example of correct prayer. Luke places this in a different context. The Lord's prayer (6:9-13) contains parallels to Chronicles129:10-18.[17][18] The first part of Matthew 7, i.e. Matthew 7:1-6 deals with judging. Jesus condemns those who judge others before first judging themselves: "Judge not, that ye be not judged." In the last part in Matthew 7:7-29 Jesus concludes the sermon by warning against false prophets, and emphasizing that humans are unable to do right ("bear fruit") apart from God.

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Teachings and theology

Plaque of the 8 Beatitudes, St. Cajetan Church, Lindavista, Mexico

be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect Matthew 5:48

[3]

The teachings of the Sermon on the Mount have been a key element of Christian ethics, and for centuries the sermon has acted as a fundamental recipe for the conduct of the followers of Jesus.[19] Various religious and moral thinkers (e.g. Tolstoy and Gandhi) have admired its message, and it has been one of the main sources of Christian pacifism.[1][20] In the 5th century, Saint Augustine began his book Our Lord's Sermon on the Mount by stating: If any one will piously and soberly consider the sermon which our Lord Jesus Christ spoke on the mount, as we read it in the Gospel according to Matthew, I think that he will find in it, so far as regards the highest morals, a perfect standard of the Christian life The last verse of chapter 5 of Matthew, (5:48) is a focal point of the sermon that summarizes its teachings by advising the disciples to seek perfection."[3] The Greek word telios used to refer to perfection also implies an end, or destination, advising the disciples to seek the path towards perfection and the Kingdom of God.[3] It teaches that God's children are those who act like God.[4] The teaching of the sermon are often referred to as the Ethics of the Kingdom: they place a high level of emphasis on "purity of the heart" and embody the basic standard of Christian righteousness.[21]

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Theological structure
The issue of the theological structure and composition of the Sermon on the Mount remains unresolved.[8][9][22] One group of theologians ranging from Saint Augustine in the 5th century to Michael Goulder in the 20th century, see the Beatitudes as the central element of the Sermon.[8] Others such as Bornkamm see the Sermon arranged around the Lord's prayer, while Daniel Patte, closely followed by Ulrich Luz, see a chiastic structure in the sermon.[8][9] Dale Allison has proposed a structure based on triads.[9][22] Jack Kingsbury and Hans Dieter Betz see the sermon as composed of theological themes, e.g. righteousness or way of life.[8]

Analysis and interpretation

Debate over literalness
One of the most common debates over the sermon is how directly it should be applied to everyday life. Many of the rules Jesus calls for are considered by some to be extreme. At Matthew 5:29 Jesus appears to state that if your vision is leading you to adultery, then you should remove your eye. At Matthew 5:40 Jesus seems to say that if you're sued, you should not fight, but rather give up more than was asked for. These are considered by some to be challenging rules to apply to life. Many Christian groups have developed nonliteral ways to interpret and apply the sermon. Denominations like the Amish, Old Order Mennonites, and Conservative Mennonites believe in a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount. Craig S. Keener has pointed out that at least 65 different interpretations regarding the message of the Sermon exist.[23] Harvey King McArthur lists twelve of the basic schools of thought on these issues as follows:[24]

1. The Absolutist View rejects all compromise and believes that, if obeying the scripture costs the welfare of the believer, then that is a reasonable sacrifice for salvation. All the precepts in the sermon must be taken literally and applied universally. Proponents of this view include Francis of Assisi, Dietrich Bonhoeffer and in later life Leo Tolstoy. The Oriental Orthodox Churches fully adopt this position; among Radical Reformation groups, the early Anabaptists came close, and modern Anabaptist groups such as the Mennonites and Hutterites come closest. More recently, this view is supported by Franz Alt[25] and James W. Douglass.[26]

The Sermon of the Mount as depicted by Louis Comfort Tiffany in a stained glass window at Arlington Street Church in Boston

2. One method that is common, but not endorsed by any denomination, is to simply modify the text of the sermon. In ancient times this took the form of actually altering the text of the sermon to make it more palatable. Thus some early copyists changed Matthew 5:22 from "whosoever is angry with his brother shall be in danger of the judgment" to the watered-down "whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall be in danger of the judgment." "Love your enemies" was changed to "Pray for your enemies" in pOxy 1224 6:1a; Did. 1:3; Pol. Phil. 12:3. John13:34-35 tells the disciples to "Love one another". The exception for divorce at Matthew 5:32 in the case of porneia may be a Matthean addition;[27] it is not present in Luke 16:18, Mark 10:11, or 1 Cor 7:1011; and in 1 Cor 7:1216, Paul gives his own exceptions to Jesus' teaching. Additions were made to the Lord's Prayer to support other doctrines, and other prayers were developed as substitute. More common in recent centuries is to paraphrase the Sermon and in so doing make it far less radical. A search through the writings of almost every major Christian writer finds them at some point to have made this modification. 3. One of the most common views is the Hyperbole View, which argues that portions of what Jesus states in the Sermon are hyperbole, and that if one is to apply the teaching to the real world, they need to be "toned down." Most interpreters agree that there is some hyperbole in the sermon, with Matthew 5:29 being the most prominent

Sermon on the Mount example, but there is disagreement over exactly which sections should not be taken literally. 4. Closely related is the general principles view that argues that Jesus was not giving specific instructions, but general principles of how one should behave. The specific instances cited in the sermon are simply examples of these general principles. 5. The double standard view is the official position of the Roman Catholic Church. It divides the teachings of the sermon into general precepts and specific counsels. Obedience to the general precepts is essential for salvation, but obedience to the counsels is only necessary for perfection. The great mass of the population need only concern themselves with the precepts; the counsels must be followed by only a pious few such as the clergy and monks. This theory was initiated by St. Augustine and later fully developed by Thomas Aquinas, though an early version of it is cited in Did. 6:2, "For if you are able to bear the entire yoke of the Lord, you will be perfect; but if you are not able to do this, do what you are able" (Roberts-Donaldson), and reflected in the Apostolic Decree of the Council of Jerusalem (Acts15:19-21). Geoffrey Chaucer also did much to popularize this view among speakers of English with his Canterbury Tales (Wife of Bath's Prologue, v. 117-118) 6. Martin Luther rejected the Roman Catholic approach and developed a different two-level system McArthur refers to as the two realms view.[24] Luther divided the world into the religious and secular realms and argued that the Sermon only applied to the spiritual. In the temporal world, obligations to family, employers, and country force believers to compromise. Thus a judge should follow his secular obligations to sentence a criminal, but inwardly, he should mourn for the fate of the criminal. 7. At the same time as the Protestant Reformation was underway, a new era of biblical criticism began leading to the Analogy of Scripture View. Close reading of the Bible found that several of the most rigid precepts in the sermon were moderated by other parts of the New Testament. For instance, while Jesus seems to forbid all oaths, Paul is shown using them at least twice; thus the prohibition in the Sermon may seem to have some exceptions; though in fairness to Paul, it should be pointed out that he was not present at the Sermon on the Mount and may not have been aware of all of its teachings. See also Pauline Christianity. 8. In the nineteenth century, several more interpretations developed. Wilhelm Herrmann embraced the notion of attitudes not acts, which can be traced back to Augustine. This view states that Jesus in the Sermon is not saying how a good Christian should behave, only what his attitude is. The spirit lying behind the act is more important than the act itself. 9. Albert Schweitzer popularized the interim ethic view. This view sees Jesus as being convinced that the world was going to end in the very near future. As such, survival in the world did not matter as in the end times material well-being would be irrelevant.[28] 10. In the twentieth century another major German thinker, Martin Dibelius, presented another view also based on eschatology. His unconditional Divine will view is that the ethics behind the sermon are absolute and unbending, but the current fallen state of the world makes it impossible to live up to them. Humans are bound to attempt to live up to them, but failure is inevitable. This will change when the Kingdom of Heaven is proclaimed and all will be able to live in a godly manner. A similar view is also described in Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, written in the late nineteenth century. 11. Closely linked to this is the repentance view, which is that Jesus intended for the precepts in his Sermon to be unattainable, and through our certain failure to live up to them, we will learn to repent or that we will be driven to faith in the Gospel. 12. Another eschatological view is that of modern dispensationalism. Dispensationalism, first developed by the Plymouth Brethren, divides human history into a series of ages or dispensations. Today we live in the period of grace where living up to the teachings of the sermon is impossible, but in the future, the Millennium will see a period where it is possible to live up to the teachings of the sermon, and where following them will be a prerequisite to salvation.

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Comparison with the Sermon on the Plain

While Matthew groups Jesus' teachings into sets of similar material, the same material is scattered when found in Luke.[1] The Sermon on the Mount may be compared with the similar but more succinct Sermon on the Plain as recounted by the Gospel of Luke (6:1749), which occurs at the same moment in Luke's narrative, and also features Jesus heading up a mountain, but giving the sermon on the way down at a level spot. Some scholars believe that they are the same sermon, while others hold that Jesus frequently preached similar themes in different places.[29]

Comparison with other teachings

Although modern parallels between the teachings of Jesus such as the Sermon on the Mount and some Buddhist teachings have been drawn, these comparisons emerged after missionary contacts in the 19th century, and there is no historically reliable evidence of contacts between Buddhism and Jesus during his life.[30] Modern scholarship has almost unanimously agreed that claims of the travels of Jesus to Tibet, Kashmir or India and the influence of Buddhism on his teachings are without historical basis.[31][32]

Notes
[1] "Sermon on the Mount." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of The Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 [2] The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation by Carl G. Vaught 2001 ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3 pages xi-xiv [3] The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation by Carl G. Vaught 2001 ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3 pages 7-10 [4] Matthew by Charles H. Talbert 2010 ISBN 0-8010-3192-3 page 78 [5] The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Kstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 194-196 [6] The Gospel of Matthew by Craig S. Keener 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-6498-7 pages 37-38 [7] Preaching Matthew's Gospel by Richard A. Jensen 1998 ISBN 978-0-7880-1221-1 pages 25 & 158 [8] Reading the Sermon on the mount: by Charles H. Talbert 2004 ISBN 1-57003-553-9 pages 21-26 [9] What are they saying about Matthew's Sermon on the mount? by Warren Carter 1994 ISBN 0-8091-3473-X pages 35-47 [10] "Beatitudes." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 [11] A Dictionary Of The Bible by James Hastings 2004 ISBN 1-4102-1730-2 page 15-19 [12] Jesus the Peacemaker by Carol Frances Jegen 1986 ISBN 0-934134-36-7 pages 68-71 [13] The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Jn Majernk, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6, pages 63-68 [14] Spear, Charles (2003). Names and Titles of the Lord Jesus Christ. p.226. ISBN0-7661-7467-0. [15] Gundry, Robert H. (2011). "The righteousness which surpasses that of the scholars and pharisees" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SDt4uW-hxCUC& pg=PT54). Commentary on Matthew. Baker Academic. p.54. ISBN978-1-4412-3758-3. . [16] France, R. T. (2007). The Gospel of Matthew. pp.11189. ISBN080282501X. [17] Clontz, T.E. and J., "The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping and references for the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philo, Josephus, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, Plato, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Talmud, Old Testament, Patristic Writings, Dhammapada, Tacitus, Epic of Gilgamesh", Cornerstone Publications, 2008, p. 451, ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5 [18] Stevenson (2004), p. 198. [19] The sources of Christian ethics by Servais Pinckaers 1995 ISBN 0-8132-0818-1 page 134 [20] For Tolstoy, see My Religion, 1885. cf. My Religion on Wikisource. [21] Christian ethics, issues and insights by E Stephan 2007 ISBN 81-8069-363-5 page [22] Allison, Dale C. (September 1987). "The Structure of the Sermon on the Mount" (http:/ / www. biblicalstudies. org. uk/ pdf/ jbl/ 1987_allison. pdf). Journal of Biblical Literature 106 (3): 42345. JSTOR3261066. . [23] Keener, Craig S. (2009). "The sermon's message" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C& pg=PA160). The Gospel of Matthew. pp.1602. ISBN978-0-8028-6498-7. . [24] McArthur, Harvey King (1978). Understanding the Sermon on the Mount. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN978-0-313-20569-9. [25] Franz Alt, Frieden isr mglich. Die Politik der Bergpredigt., 1983. [26] James W. Douglass, see his bibliography. [27] Instone-Brewer, David. Divorce and Remarriage in the Bible: The Social and Literary Context. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 2002. [28] Albert Schweitzer, The Mystery Of The Kingdom Of God: The Secret Of Jesus' Messiahship And Passion, (New York: Macmillan, 1950), p. 55 [29] Ehrman 2004, p. 101 [30] Jesus: The Complete Guide 2006 by Leslie Houlden ISBN 082648011X page 140 [31] Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 page 17

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[32] The Historical Jesus in Recent Research edited by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1-57506-100-7 page 303

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References
St. Augustine of Hippo. Commentary on Sermon on Mount. Translated by William Findlay. http://www. newadvent.org/fathers/1601.htm Betz, Hans Dieter. Essays on the Sermon on the Mount. translations by Laurence Welborn. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985. Kissinger, Warren S. The Sermon on the Mount: A History of Interpretation and Bibliography. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1975. Knight, Christopher The Hiram Key Century Books, Random House, 1996 Kodjak, Andrej. A Structural Analysis of the Sermon on the Mount. New York: M. de Gruyter, 1986. Lapide, Pinchas. The Sermon on the Mount, Utopia or Program for Action? translated from the German by Arlene Swidler. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1986. Lambrecht, Jan, S.J. The Sermon on the Mount. Michael Glazier: Wilmington, DE, 1985. McArthur, Harvey King. Understanding the Sermon on the Mount. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1978. Prabhavananda, Swami Sermon on the Mount According to Vedanta 1991 ISBN 0-87481-050-7 Easwaran Eknath. Original Goodness (on Beatitudes). Nilgiri Press, 1989. ISBN 0-915132-91-5. Stevenson, Kenneth. The Lord's prayer: a text in tradition, Fortress Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8006-3650-3.

External links
Augustine: On the Sermon on the Mount (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/16011.htm) Sermon on the Mount as heart of Gospel's Law according to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church (http:// www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P6W.HTM)].]

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Golan Heights
Golan Heights

Lake Ram near Mount Hermon (background), in the northeastern Golan Heights

Coordinates: 325854N 354458E Country Area Total Occupied by Israel Highestelevation Lowestelevation 1800km2 (700sqmi) 1200km2 (500sqmi) 2814m (9,232ft) 0m (0ft) Syrian territory occupied by Israel. [1][2]

The Golan Heights (Arabic: Habatu 'l-Jawln or Murtafatu l-Jawln, Hebrew: ,Ramat ha-Golan (audio)), also called the Golan or the Syrian Golan,[3] is a region in the Levant. The exact

Golan Heights region defined as the Golan Heights changes among disciplines: As a geological and biogeographical region, the Golan Heights is a basaltic plateau bordered by the Yarmouk River in the south, the Sea of Galilee and Hula Valley in the west, Mount Hermon in the north, and the Raqqad Wadi in the east. The western two thirds of this region are currently occupied by Israel, whereas the eastern third is controlled by Syria. As a geopolitical region, the Golan Heights is the area captured and occupied by Israel from Syria in the Six-Day War, which subsequently effectively annexed the territory in 1981. This region includes the western two thirds of the geological Golan Heights, as well as the Israeli occupied part of Mount Hermon. The earliest evidence of human habitation dates to the Upper Paleolithic period.[4] According to the Bible, an Amorite Kingdom in Bashan was conquered by Israelites during the reign of King Og.[5] Throughout the Old Testament period, the Golan was "the focus of a power struggle between the Kings of Israel and the Aramaeans who were based near modern-day Damascus."[6] The Itureans, an Arab or Aramaic people, settled there in the 2nd century BCE and remained until the end of the Byzantine period.[7][8][9] Organized Jewish settlement in the region came to an end in 636 CE when it was conquered by Arabs under Umar ibn al-Khattb.[10] In the 16th century, the Golan was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and was part of the Vilayet of Damascus until it was transferred to French control in 1918. When the mandate terminated in 1946, it became part of the newly independent Syrian Arab Republic. Internationally recognized as Syrian territory, the Golan Heights has been occupied and administered by Israel since 1967.[1] It was captured during the 1967 Six-Day War, establishing the Purple Line.[11] On 19 June 1967, the Israeli cabinet voted to return the Golan to Syria in exchange for a peace agreement. Such overtures were dismissed by the Arab world with the Khartoum Resolution on September 1, 1967.[12][13] In the aftermath of the 1973 Yom Kippur War, Israel agreed to return about 5% of the territory to Syrian civilian control. This part was incorporated into a demilitarised zone that runs along the ceasefire line and extends eastward. This strip is under the military control of UN peace keeping forces. Construction of Israeli settlements began in the remainder of the territory held by Israel, which was under military administration until Israel passed the Golan Heights Law extending Israeli law and administration throughout the territory in 1981.[14] This move was condemned by the United Nations Security Council in UN Resolution 497,[15][16] which said that "the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan Heights is null and void and without international legal effect." Israel asserts it has a right to retain the Golan, citing the text of UN Resolution 242, which calls for "safe and recognised boundaries free from threats or acts of force".[17] However, the international community rejects Israeli claims to title to the territory and regards it as sovereign Syrian territory.[1][18][19] Israeli Prime Ministers Yitzhak Rabin, Ehud Barak, and Ehud Olmert each stated that they were willing to exchange the Golan for peace with Syria. Approximately 10% of Syrian Golan Druze have accepted Israeli citizenship.[20] According to the CIA World Factbook, as of 2010, "there are 41 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights."[21]

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Etymology and toponymy

Arabic names are Jawln[22] and Djolan (Arabic: ]32[.)In the bible Golan is mentioned as a city of refuge located in Bashan: Deuteronomy4:43, Joshua20:8, 1Chronicles6:71.[24] 19th century authors interpreted the word "Golan" (Hebrew: )as meaning "something surrounded, hence a [25][26] district". The Greek name for the region is Gaulanitis (Greek: ).[22] In the Mishna the name is Gabln similar to Aramaic language names for the region: Gawlna, Guwlana and Gubln.[22]
Farms in the Golan Heights

Arab cartographers of the Byzantine period referred to the area as jabal (mountain), though the region is a plateau.[27] The Muslims took over in 7th century CE.[22] The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia refers to the region as Gaulonitis.[28] The name Golan Heights was not used before the 19th century.[24] The UN refers to the region as The Occupied Syrian Golan.

Geography
The Golan Heights borders Israel, Lebanon, and Jordan. According to Israel, it has captured 1,150 square kilometres (440sqmi). [29] According to Syria the Golan Heights measures 1,860 square kilometers, of which 1,500 square kilometres (580sqmi) are occupied by Israel.[30] According to the CIA, Israel holds 1,300 square kilometres (500sqmi)[21] The area is hilly and elevated, overlooking the Sea of Galilee, Jordan River and 2,743.2 metres (9,000ft) tall Mount Hermon.[31] The plateau has an average altitude of 1,000 metres (3,300ft), an area totaling 1,800 square kilometres (690sqmi), and straddles the boundary between Syria and Israeli-held territory. Elevations range from 2,814 metres (9,232ft) in the north at Mount Hermon, to below sea level along the Sea of Galilee and the Yarmuk River in the south.[21] The plateau that Israel controls is part of a larger area of volcanic basalt fields stretching north and east that were
CIA map of Golan Heights and vicinity, October 1994

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created in the series of volcanic eruptions that began recently in geological terms, almost 4 million years ago, and continue to this day. It has distinct geographic boundaries. On the north, the Sa'ar valley (Banias) generally divides the lighter-colored limestone bedrock of the mountains from the dark-colored volcanic rocks Sea of Galilee and southern Golan Heights, from Umm Qais, Jordan of the Golan plateau. The western border of the plateau is truncated structurally by the Jordan Rift Valley, which falls down steeply into the lake. The southern border is lined by the Yarmuk River, which separates the plateau from the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Finally, the east end of Golan Heights is carved out by the Raqqad river (Wadi Ruqqad) and areas still controlled by Syria.[32] The plateau's north-south length is approximately 65 kilometres (40mi) and its east-west width varies from 12 kilometres (7.5mi) to 25 kilometres (16mi).[33][34] Topographically, the Panorama showing The upper Golan Heights and Mt. Hermon with the Hula Valley to the left Golan Heights ranges in elevation from 2,814 metres (9,232ft) on Mount Hermon in the north, to about 400 metres (1,300ft) elevation along the Yarmuk River in the south. Lake Kinneret (also known as Sea of Galilee, Lake Tiberias) at the southwest corner of the plateau is 200 Panorama looking west from the former Syrian post of Tel Faher. metres (660ft) below sea level. The steeper, more rugged topography is generally limited to the northern half, including Mount Hermon foothills; on the south the plateau is more level.[33] The broader Golan plateau exhibits a more subdued topography, generally ranging between 120 metres (390ft) and 520 metres (1,710ft) in elevation. In Israel, the Golan plateau is divided into three regions: northern (between the Sa'ar and Jilabun valleys), central (between the Jilabun and Daliyot valleys), and southern (between the Dlayot and Yarmouk valleys). The Golan Heights is bordered on the west by a rock escarpment that drops 500 metres (1,600ft) to the Jordan River valley and the Sea of Galilee. In the south, the incised Yarmouk River valley marks the limits of the plateau and, east of the abandoned railroad bridge upstream of Hamat Gader and Al Hammah, it marks the recognised international border between Syria and Jordan.[35]

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Geologically, the Golan plateau and the Hauran plain to the east constitute a Holocene volcanic field that also extends northeast almost to Damascus. Much of the area is scattered with dormant volcanos, as well as cinder cones, such as Majdal Shams. The plateau also contains a crater lake, called Birkat Ram ("Ram Pool"), which is fed by both surface runoff and underground springs. These volcanic areas are characterised by basalt bedrock and dark soils derived from its weathering. The basalt flows overlie older, distinctly lighter-colored limestones and marls, exposed along the Yarmouk River in the south.
Temple of Pan at Banias

The rock forming the mountainous area in the northern Golan Heights, descending from Mount Hermon, differs geologically from the volcanic rocks of the plateau and has a different physiography. The mountains are characterised by lighter-colored, Jurassic age limestone of sedimentary origin. Locally, the limestone is broken by faults and solution channels to form a karst-like topography in which springs are common. In addition to its strategic military importance, the Golan Heights is an important water resource, especially at the higher elevations, which are snow-covered in the winter and help sustain baseflow for rivers and springs during the dry season. The heights receive significantly more precipitation than the surrounding, lower-elevation areas. The occupied sector of the Golan Heights provides or controls a substantial portion of the water in the Jordan River watershed, which in turn provides a portion of Israel's water supply. The Golan Heights supply 15% of Israel's water.[36]

History

Banyas waterfall in the Golan Heights

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Antiquity
The Venus of Berekhat Ram, a stone figure from the Lower Paleolithic era, found in the Golan Heights, may have been created by Homo erectus between 700,000 and 230,000 BCE.[37] In the 3rd millennium BC the Amorites inhabited the Golan until it was conquered in the 2nd millennium by the Arameans. The Aramaean city state Aram Damascus reached over most of Golan to the Sea of Galilee.[38] According to the Bible, the Children of Israel conquered the Golan from the Amorites.[5] The Bible also says that the area, known as Bashan, was inhabited by two Israelite tribes during the time of Joshua, [39] the tribe of Dan and Manasseh. The city of Golan was a city of refuge. King Solomon appointed ministers in the region.[40] After the split of the United Monarchy, the area was contested between the northern Kingdom of Israel and the Aramean kingdom from the 9th century BC. King Ahab of Israel (reigned 874852 BC) defeated Ben-Hadad I in the southern Golan.
Entrance to Talmudic-era synagogue, Katzrin archaeological park

In the 8th century BC the Assyrians gained control of the area, followed by the Babylonian and the Persian Empire. In the 5th century BC, the Persian Empire allowed the region to be resettled by returning Jewish exiles from Babylonian Captivity. The Golan Heights, along with the rest of the region, came under the control of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, following the Battle of Issus. Following Alexander's death, the Golan came under the domination of the Macedonian noble Seleucus and remained part of the Seleucid Empire for most of the next two centuries. It is during this period that the name Golan, previously that of a city mentioned in the book of Deuteronomy, came to be applied to the entire region (Greek: Gaulanitis). In the middle of the 2nd century BCE, Itureans started living in the Golan.[9] They lived in over 100 locations in the Mount Hermon and Golan region.[41] The Maccabean Revolt saw much action in the regions around the Golan and it is possible that the Jewish communities of the Golan were among those rescued by Judas Maccabeus during his campaign in the Galilee and Gilead (Transjordan) mentioned in Chapter 5 of 1 Maccabees. The Golan, however, remained in Seleucid hands until the campaign of Alexander Jannaeus from 8380 BC. Jannaeus established the city of Gamla in 81 BC as the Hasmonean capital for the region. During the Roman and Byzantine periods the area was administered as part of Phoenicia Prima and Syria Palaestina, and finally Golan/Gaulanitis was included together with Peraea[27] in Palaestina Secunda, after 218 AD.[22] Ancient kingdom Bashan was incorporated into the province of Batanea.[42] Following the death of Herod the Great in 4 BC, Augustus Caesar adjudicated that the Golan fell within the Tetrarchy of Herod's son, Herod Philip I. After Philip's death in 34 AD, the Romans absorbed the Golan into the province of Syria, but Caligula restored the territory to Herod's grandson Agrippa in 37. Following Agrippa's death in 44, the Romans again annexed the Golan to Syria, promptly to return it again when Claudius traded the Golan to Agrippa II, the son of Agrippa I, in 51 as part of a land swap. Although nominally under Agrippa's control and not part of the province of Judea, the Jewish communities of the Golan joined their coreligionists in the First Jewish-Roman War, only to fall to the Roman armies in its early stages. Gamla was captured in 67; according to Josephus, its inhabitants committed mass suicide, preferring it to crucifixion and slavery. Agrippa II contributed soldiers to the Roman war effort and attempted to negotiate an end to the revolt. In return for his loyalty, Rome allowed him to retain his kingdom, but finally absorbed the Golan for good after his death in 100. In about 250, the Ghassanids, Arab Christians from Yemen, established a kingdom which encompassed southern Syria and the Transjordan, building their capital at Jabiyah on the Golan. Like the later Herodians, the Ghassanids

Golan Heights ruled as clients of Byzantine Rome; unlike the Herodians, the Ghassanids were able to hold on to the Golan until the Sassanid invasion of 614. Following a brief restoration under the Emperor Heraclius, the Golan again fell, this time to the invading Arabs after the Battle of Yarmouk in 636.

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Middle Ages
After Yarmouk, Muawiyah I, a member of Muhammad's tribe, the Quraish, was appointed governor of Syria, including the Golan. Following the assassination of his cousin, the Caliph Uthman, Muawiya claimed the Caliphate for himself, initiating the Umayyad dynasty. Over the next few centuries, while remaining in Muslim hands, the Golan passed through many dynastic changes, falling first to the Abbasids, then to the Shi'ite Fatimids, then to the Seljuk Turks, then to the Kurdish Ayyubids. During the Crusades, the Heights represented a formidable Nimrod Fortress obstacle the Crusader armies were not able to conquer, and the area was a part of the Emirate of Damascus during this time.[43][44] The Mongols swept through in 1259, but were driven off by the Mamluk sultan Qutuz at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. Ain Jalut ensured Mamluk dominance of the region for the next 250years. For many centuries nomadic tribes lived together with the sedentary population in the region. At times, the central government attempted to settle the nomads which would result in the establishment of permanent communities. When the power of the governing regime declined, as happened during the early Muslim period, nomadic trends increased and many of the rural and agricultural villages were abandoned due to harassment from the Bedouins. They were not resettled until the second half of the 19th century.[45]

Ottoman era
In the 16th century, the Ottoman Turks conquered Syria. During this time, the Golan formed part of the southern district of their empire. Some Druze communities were established in the Golan during the 17th and 18th centuries.[46] In 1868, the region was described as "almost entirely desolate." According to a travel handbook of the time, only 11 of 127 ancient towns and villages in the Golan were inhabited.[47] As a result of the Russo-Turkish War of 187778, there was a huge influx of refugees from the Caucasus into the empire. The Ottomans encouraged them to settle in southern Syria, particularly the Golan Heights, by granting them land with a 12-year tax exemption.[48][49][50][51] Early Jewish settlement In 1884 there were still open stretches of uncultivated land between villages in the lower Golan, but by the mid-1890s most was owned and cultivated.[52] Some land had been purchased in the Golan and Hawran by Zionist associations based in Romania, Bulgaria, the USA and

Natural spring in Golan Heights

England, in the late 19th century and early 20th century.[53] In 1880, Laurence Oliphant published Eretz ha-Gilad (The Land of Gilead), which described a plan for large-scale Jewish settlement in the Golan.[54] In the winter of

Golan Heights 1885, members of the Old Yishuv in Safed formed the Beit Yehuda Society and purchased 15,000 dunams of land from the village of Ramthaniye in the central Golan.[55] Due to financial hardships and the long wait for a kushan (Ottoman land deed) the village, Golan be-Bashan, was abandoned after a year. Soon afterwards, the society regrouped and purchased 2,000 dunams of land from the village of Bir e-Shagum on the western slopes of the Golan.[56] The village they established, Bnei Yehuda, existed until 1920.[57][58] The last families left in the wake of the Passover riots of 1920.[55] In 1944 the JNF bought the Bnei Yehuda lands from their Jewish owners, but a later attempt to establish Jewish ownership of the property in Bir e-Shagum through the courts was not successful.[57] Between 1891 and 1894, Baron Edmond James de Rothschild purchased around 150,000 dunams of land in the Golan and the Hawran for Jewish settlement.[55] Legal and political permits were secured and ownership of the land was registered in late 1984.[55] The Agudat Ahim society, whose headquarters were in Yekatrinoslav, Russia, acquired 100,000 dunams of land in several locations in the districts of Fiq and Daraa. A plant nursery was established and work began on farm buildings in Djillin.[55] The Jews also built a road stretching from Lake Hula to Muzayrib.[57] A village called Tiferet Binyamin was established on lands purchased from Saham al-Jawlan by the Shavei Zion Association based in New York,[53] but the project was abandoned after a year when the Turks issued an edict in 1896 evicting the 17 non-Turkish families. A later attempt to resettle the site with Syrian Jews who were Ottoman citizens also failed.[59] Between 1904 and 1908, a group of Crimean Jews settled in the Bethsaida Valley, initially as tenants of a Kurdish proprietor with the prospects of purchasing the land, but the arrangement faltered.[60][61] Jewish settlement in the region dwindled over time, due to Arab hostility, Turkish bureaucracy, disease and economic difficulties.[62] In 19211930, during the French Mandate, the Palestine Jewish Colonization Association (PICA) obtained the deeds to the Rothschild estate and continued to manage it, collecting rents from the Arab peasants living there.[57]

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French and British mandates

Great Britain accepted a Mandate for Palestine at the meeting of the Allied Supreme Council at San Remo, but the borders of the territory were not defined at that stage.[63][64] The boundary between the forthcoming British and French mandates was defined in broad terms by the Franco-British Boundary Agreement of December 1920.[65] That agreement placed the bulk of the Golan Heights in the French sphere. The treaty also established a joint commission to settle the precise details of the border and mark it on the ground.[65] The commission submitted its final report on February 3, 1922, and it was approved with some caveats by the British and French governments on March 7, 1923, several months before Britain and France assumed their Mandatory responsibilities on 29 September 1923.[66][67] In accordance with the same process, a nearby parcel of land that included the ancient site of Tel Dan and the Dan spring were transferred from Syria to Palestine early in 1924. The Golan Heights, including the spring at Wazzani and the one at Banias, thus became part of the French Mandate of Syria, while the Sea of Galilee was placed entirely within the British Mandate of Palestine. When the French Mandate of Syria ended in 1944, the Golan Heights became part of the newly independent state of Syria and was later incorporated into Quneitra Governorate.

Boundary changes in the area of the Golan Heights in the 20th-century

Border incidents after 1948

After the 194849 Arab-Israeli War, the Golan Heights were partly demilitarised by the Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement. During the following years, the area along the border witnessed thousands of violent incidents; the armistice agreement was being violated by both sides. The underlying causes of the conflict were a disagreement over the legal status of the demilitarised zone (DMZ), cultivation of land within it and competition over water resources. Syria claimed that neither party had sovereignty over the DMZ. Israel contented that the Minefield warning sign in the Golan Armistice Agreement dealt solely with military concerns and that she had political and legal rights over the DMZ. Israel wanted to assert control up till the 1923 boundary in order to reclaim the Hula swamp, gain exclusive rights to Lake Galilee and divert water from the Jordan for its National Water Carrier. During 1950s, Syria registered two principal territorial accomplishments: it took over Al-Hammah enclosure south of Lake Tiberias and established a de facto presence on and control of eastern shore of the lake.[68][69] Attempts by Israel and Syria to divert water from the Jordan River and its tributaries in the 1950s and 1960s sparked "The War over Water" in July 1966.[70] Fatah began raids into Israeli territory in early 1965, with active support from Syria. At first the militants entered via Lebanon or Jordan, but those countries made concerted attempts to stop

Golan Heights them and raids directly from Syria increased.[71] Israel's response was a series of retaliatory raids, of which the largest were an attack on the Jordanian village of Samu in November 1966.[72] In April 1967, after Syria heavily shelled Israeli villages from the Golan Heights, Israel shot down six Syrian MiG fighter planes and warned Syria against future attacks.[71][73] In the period between Israels War of Independence (1948) and the Six Day War (1967), the Syrians constantly harassed Israeli border communities by firing artillery shells from their dominant positions on the Golan Heights.[74][75] In October 1966 Israel brought the matter up before the United Nations. Five nations sponsored a resolution criticizing Syria for its actions but it failed to pass due to a Soviet veto.[76][77][78] Former Israeli General Mattityahu Peled said that more than half of the border clashes before the 1967 war "were a result of our security policy of maximum settlement in the demilitarised area."[79] Israeli incursions into the zone were responded to with Syrians shooting. Israel in turn would retaliate with military force.[68] Sir Alec Douglas-Home, former Prime Minister of the UK, stated that when he was visiting the Galilee a few months before the 1967 war "at regular intervals the Russian-built forts on the Golan Heights used to lob shells into the villages, often claiming civilian casualties." He said after the 1973 war that any agreement between the two sides "must clearly put a stop the that kind of offensive action."[80] In 1976, Israeli defense minister Moshe Dayan said that Israel provoked more than 80% of the clashes with Syria, although historians have voiced skepticism regarding the truthfulness of this informal comment.[81] Jan Mhren, a former UN observer in the area at the time, told a Dutch current affairs programme that Israel provoked most border incidents as part of its strategy to annex more land.[82]

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Six-Day War and Israeli occupation

After the Six-Day War broke out in June 1967, Syria's shelling greatly intensified and the Israeli army captured the Golan Heights on 910 June. The area which came under Israeli control as a result of the war is two geologically distinct areas: the Golan Heights proper 1,070 square kilometres (410sqmi) and the slopes of the Mt. Hermon range 100 square kilometres (39sqmi). The new boundary between the two forces was named the Purple Line. In the battle, Israel lost 115 men, with another 306 wounded. An estimated 2,500 Syrians were killed, with another 5,000 wounded.[83] During the war, between 80,000[84] and 131,000[85] Arab Druze and Circassians fled or were driven from the heights and around 7,000 remained in the Israeli-occupied territory.[85] Israel has not allowed former residents to return, citing security reasons.[86] Israeli settlement in the Golan began soon after the war. Merom Golan was founded in July 1967 and by 1970 there were 12 settlements.[87] Israeli sources and the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants reported that much of the local population of 100,000 fled as a result of the war, whereas the Syrian government stated that a large proportion of it was expelled.[88]
Israeli children in a bomb shelter at Kibbutz Dan during the Six-Day War In the 1970s, Israeli politician Yigal Allon proposed as part of the Allon Plan that a Druze state be established in Syria's Quneitra Governorate, including the Israeli-held Golan Heights. Allon died in 1980 and his plan never materialised.[89]

Israeli tanks advancing on the Golan Heights during the Six-Day War, June 10, 1967

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Yom Kippur War

During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Syrian forces overran much of the southern Golan, before being pushed back by an Israeli counterattack. Israel and Syria signed a ceasefire agreement in 1974 that left almost all the Heights in Israeli hands. East of the 1974 ceasefire line lies the Syrian controlled part of the Heights, an area that was not captured by Israel 500 square kilometres (190sqmi) or withdrawn from 100 square kilometres (39sqmi). This area forms 30% of the Golan Heights.[90] Today it contains more than 40 Syrian towns and villages. In 1975, following the 1974 ceasefire agreement, Israel returned a narrow demilitarised zone to Syrian control. Some of the displaced residents began returning to their homes located in this strip and the Syrian government began helping people rebuild their villages, except for Quneitra. In the mid-1980s the Syrian government launched a plan called "The Project for the Reconstruction of the Liberated Villages". By the end of 2007, the population of the Quneitra Governorate was estimated at 79,000.[91] Mines deployed by the Syrian army remain active. As of 2003, there had been at least 216 landmine casualties in the Syrian-controlled Golan since 1973, of which 108 were fatalities.[92]

Israeli civil administration since 1981

The Golan Heights was under Israeli military administration from 1967 to 1981. In 1981, Israel passed the Golan Heights Law,[14] which applied Israeli "laws, jurisdiction and administration" to the Golan Heights. Although the law in effect annexed the territory to Israel, it was not formally annexed.[93] The area was administered as part of Israels North District. Israel's action was not recognised internationally[94] and United Nations Security Council Resolution 242 which declared the Golan Heights an Israeli occupied territory continues to apply. Israel maintains that it may retain the area as the text of Resolution 242 calls for "safe and recognised boundaries free from threats or acts of force".[17]

Ramat Hagolan wind farm

During the negotiations regarding the text of United Nations Security Council resolution 242, U.S. Secretary of State Rusk explained that U.S. support for secure permanent frontiers did not mean the US supported territorial changes.[95] The U.N. representative for Great Britain was responsible for negotiating and drafting the Security Council resolution said that the actions of the Israeli Government in establishing settlements and colonizing the Golan are in clear defiance of Resolution 242.[96] Syria continued to demand a full Israeli withdrawal to the 1967 borders, including a strip of land on the east shore of the Sea of Galilee that Syria captured during the 194849 Arab-Israeli War and occupied from 194967. Successive Israeli governments have considered an Israeli withdrawal from the Golan in return for normalization of relations with Syria, provided certain security concerns are met. Prior to 2000, Syrian president Hafez al-Assad rejected normalization with Israel.

Peace negotiations
During United Statesbrokered negotiations in 19992000, Israel and Syria discussed a peace deal that would include Israeli withdrawal in return for a comprehensive peace structure, recognition and full normalization of relations. The disagreement in the final stages of the talks was on access to the Sea of Galilee. Israel offered to withdraw to the pre-1948 border (the 1923 Paulet-Newcombe line), while Syria insisted on the 1967 frontier. The former line has never been recognised by Syria, claiming it was imposed by the colonial powers, while the latter was rejected by Israel as the result of Syrian aggression. The difference between the lines is less than 100m for the most part, but the 1967 line would give Syria access to the Sea of Galilee, and Israel wished to retain control of the Sea of Galilee, its only freshwater lake and a major water resource.[97] Dennis Ross, Clinton's chief Middle East negotiator,

Golan Heights blamed "cold feet" on the part of Barak for the breakdown.[98] Clinton also laid blame on Israel.[99] In June 2007, it was reported that Prime Minister Ehud Olmert had sent a secret message to Syrian President, Bashar Assad saying that Israel would concede the land in exchange for a comprehensive peace agreement and the severing of Syria's ties with Iran and militant groups in the region.[100] On the same day, former Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that the former Syrian President, Hafez Assad, had promised to let Israel retain Mount Hermon in any future agreement.[101]

175

Israeli soldiers of the Alpinist Unit are

dispatched to Mount Hermon In April 2008, Syrian media reported Turkey's Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoan told President Bashar al-Assad that Israel would withdraw from the Golan Heights in return for peace.[102][103] Israeli leaders of communities in the Golan Heights held a special meeting and stated: "all construction and development projects in the Golan are going ahead as planned, propelled by the certainty that any attempt to harm Israeli sovereignty in the Golan will cause severe damage to state security and thus is doomed to fail". [104] That year, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution 1611 in favour of a motion on the Golan Heights that reaffirmed Security Council resolution 497 and called on Israel to desist from "changing the physical character, demographic composition, institutional structure and legal status of the occupied Syrian Golan and, in particular, to desist from the establishment of settlements [and] from imposing Israeli citizenship and Israeli identity cards on the Syrian citizens in the occupied Syrian Golan and from its repressive measures against the population of the occupied Syrian Golan." Israel was the only nation to vote against the resolution.[105] Indirect talks broke down after the Gaza War began. Syria broke off the talks to protest Israeli military operations. Israel subsequently appealed to Turkey to resume mediation.[106]

In May 2009, Prime Minister Netanyahu said that returning the Golan Heights would turn it into "Iran's front lines which will threaten the whole state of Israel."[107][108] He said: "I remember the Golan Heights without Katzrin, and suddenly we see a thriving city in the Land of Israel, which having been a gem of the Second Temple era has been revived anew."[109] American diplomat Martin Indyk said that the 19992000 round of negotiations began during Netanyahu's first term (19961999), and he was not as hardline as he made out.[110] In March 2009, Syrian President Bashar al-Assad claimed that indirect talks had failed after Israel did not commit to full withdrawal from the Golan Heights. In August 2009, he said that the return of the entire Golan Heights was "non-negotiable," it would remain "fully Arab," and would be returned to Syria.[111] In June 2009, Israeli President Shimon Peres said that Syrian President Assad would have to negotiate without preconditions, and that Syria would not win territorial concessions from Israel on a "silver platter" while it maintained ties with Iran and Hezbollah.[112] In response, Syrian Foreign Minister Walid Muallem demanded that Israel unconditionally cede the Golan Heights "on a silver platter" without any preconditions, adding that "it is our land," and blamed Israel for failing to commit to peace. Syrian President Assad claimed that there was "no real partner in Israel."[113] In 2010, Israeli foreign minister Avigdor Lieberman told Syria to abandon its dreams of recovering the Golan Heights, just as it relinquished its dream of conquering Lebanon.[114]

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Territorial claims
Claims on the territory include the fact that an area in northwestern of the Golan region, (delineated by a rough triangle formed by the towns of Banias, Quneitra and the northern tip of the Sea of Galilee), was part of the British Palestine Mandate in which the establishment of a Jewish national home had been promised.[115] In 1923, this triangle in northwestern Golan was ceded to the French Mandate in Syria, but in exchange for this, land areas in Syria and Lebanon was ceded to Overview of UN zone and Syrian controlled Palestine, and the whole of the Sea of Galilee which previously had its [116] territory from the Golan Heights eastern boundary connected to Syria was placed inside Palestine. Syrians counter that the region was placed in the Vilayet of Damascus as part of Syria under the Ottoman boundaries and that the 1920 British-Franco agreement which had placed part of the Golan under the control of Britain was only temporary and that the final border line drawn up in 1923, which excluded the Golan triangle, had superseded it,[115] (although Syria has never recognised the 1923 border as legally binding).

Borders, armistice line and ceasefire line

One of the aspects of the dispute involves the existence prior to 1967 of three different lines separating Syria from Israel (or, prior to 1948, from the British Mandate for Palestine). The 1923 boundary between Mandate Palestine and the French Mandate of Syria was drawn with water in mind.[117] Accordingly, it was demarcated so that all of the Sea of Galilee, including a 10-meter wide strip of beach along its northeastern shore, would stay inside Palestine. From the Sea of Galilee north to Lake Hula the boundary Mt. Hermon from the Road to Masaade was drawn between 50 and 400 meters east of the upper Jordan River, keeping that stream entirely within the British Mandate. The British also received a sliver of land along the Yarmouk River, out to the present-day Hamat Gader.[118] During the Arab-Israeli War, Syria captured various areas of the former Palestine mandate, including the 10-meter strip of beach, the east bank of the upper Jordan, as well as areas along the Yarmouk. While negotiating the 1949 Armistice Agreements, Israel called for the removal of all Syrian forces from the former Palestine territory. Syria refused, insisting on an armistice line based not on the 1923 international border but on the military status quo. The result was a compromise. Under the terms of an armistice signed on July 20, 1949, Syrian forces were to withdraw east of the old Palestine-Syria boundary. Israeli forces were to refrain from entering the evacuated areas, which would become a demilitarised zone, "from which the armed forces of both Parties shall be totally excluded, and in which no activities by military or paramilitary forces shall be permitted."[119] Accordingly, major parts of the armistice lines departed from the 1923 boundary and protruded into Israel. There were three distinct, non-contiguous enclavesin the extreme northeast to the west of Banias, on the west bank of the Jordan River near Lake Hula, and the eastern-southeastern shores of the Sea of Galilee extending out to Hamat Gader, consisting of 66.5 square kilometers of land lying between the 1949 armistice line and the 1923 boundary, forming the demilitarised zone.[117] Following the armistice, both Israel and Syria sought to take advantage of the territorial ambiguities left in place by the 1949 agreement. This resulted in an evolving tactical situation, one "snapshot" of which was the disposition of forces immediately prior to the Six-Day War, the line of June 4, 1967.[117]

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Shebaa Farms
On June 7, 2000, the demarcation Blue Line was established by UN in order to ensure full Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, according to UN Security Council Resolution 425. After Israeli troops left Lebanese soil, UN announced the resolution was respected. Lebanon continues to claim a small portion of the area occupied by Israel as part of the Golan Heights. The territory, known as the Shebaa Farms, measures 22 square kilometres (8.5sqmi) and lies on the border between Lebanon and the Golan Heights. Maps used by the UN in demarcating the Blue Line were not able to conclusively show the border between Lebanon and Syria in the area. Syria agrees that the Shebaa Farms are within Lebanese territory; however, Israel considers the area to be inside of Syria's borders and continues to occupy the territory.[120][121][122]

Al-Ghajar
Al Ghajar village is another complex border issue west of Shebaa farms. Before the 1967 war this Allawite village was in Syria. It is divided by an international boundary, with the northern part of the village on the Lebanese side since 2000. Residents of both parts hold Israeli citizenship, and in the northern part often a Lebanese passport as well. Today the entire village is surrounded by a fence, with no division between the Israeli-occupied and Lebanese sides. There is an Israeli army checkpoint at the entrance to the village from the rest of the Golan Heights.[122]

U.S. position
In 1975, U.S. President Gerald Ford wrote a letter to Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin stating that the U.S. had not developed a final position on the borders but once it had, it would give great weight to Israel's position that a peace agreement with Syria must be predicated on Israel remaining on the Golan Heights.[123] In 1991, U.S. Secretary of State James Baker told Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir that the United States would honor the position expressed in Ford's letter. William B. Quandt speculates that Baker told Syrian President Hafez al-Assad that the United States did not recognize Israel's annexation of the Golan and thought that UN Resolution 242 should apply there.[124] The United States considers the Golan Heights to be Syrian territory held under Israeli occupation subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal. The United States considers the application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights to be a violation of international law, both the Fourth Geneva Convention's prohibition on the acquisition of territory by force and United Nations Security Council Resolution 242.[125]

UNDOF supervision
UNDOF (the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force) was established in 1974 to supervise the implementation of the disengagement agreement and maintain the ceasefire with an area of separation known as the UNDOF Zone. Currently there are more than 1,000 UN peacekeepers there trying to sustain a lasting peace. Details of the UNDOF mission, mandate, map and military positions can be accessed via the following United Nations link.[126] Syria and Israel still contest the ownership of the Heights but have not used overt military force since 1974. The great strategic value of the Heights both militarily and as a source of water

Golan ceasefire line crossing, 2012

Golan Heights means that a deal is uncertain. Members of the UN Disengagement force are usually the only individuals who cross the Israeli-Syrian de facto border (cease fire "Alpha Line"), but since 1988 both Israel and Syria have taken measures to relieve the problems encountered by the Druze population of the Golan Heights. Since 1988 Israel has allowed Druze pilgrims to cross into the rest of Syria to visit the shrine of Abel on Mount Qasioun. In 2005, Syria allowed a few trucks of Druze-grown Golan apples to be imported. The trucks themselves were driven by Kenyan nationals. Since 1967, Druze brides have been allowed to cross the Golan border into the rest of Syria, but they do so in the knowledge that the journey is a one-way trip. Israel began constructing settlements in the territory in the 1970s. The area was governed by military administration until 1981 when Israel passed the Golan Heights Law, which extended Israeli law and administration throughout the territory.[14] This move was condemned by the United Nations Security Council in UN Resolution 497,[15][16] although Israel asserts it has a right to retain the area, citing the text of UN Resolution 242, adopted after the Six-Day War, which calls for "safe and recognised boundaries free from threats or acts of force".[17] The continued Israeli control of the Golan Heights remains highly contested and is still regarded as belligerent occupation by most countries, but is recognised by many states as a valid military tactic in an unresolved conflict, consistent with the self-defence provision of the UN charter. However, the international community rejects the validity of the Golan Heights Law as an attempted annexation by force, illegal under the UN Charter and the Geneva Conventions.[127] Israeli settlements and human rights policy in the occupied territory have also drawn criticism from the UN.[128][129] Though the cease fire in the UNDOF zone has been largely uninterrupted since the seventies, in 2012 there have been repeated violations from the Syrian side, including tanks[130] and live fire,[131] though these incidents are attributed to the ongoing fighting within Syria, rather than intentionally directed towards Israel.

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Syrian villages
According to most estimates, the population of the entire area prior to the 1967 Six Day War ranged from between 130,000145,000. This included 17,000 Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA.[132] Between 80,000[84] and 130,000[85] Syrians fled or were driven from the heights during the Six-Day War and around 7,000 remained in the Israeli-held territory in six villages: Majdal Shams, Mas'ade, Buq'ata, Ein Qiniyye, Ghajar and Shayta.[85] Israel demolished over one hundred Syrian villages and farms in the Golan Heights.[133][134] After the demolitions, the lands were given to Israeli settlers.[135]
Destroyed buildings in Quneitra Quneitra was the biggest city in the Golan Heights until 1967, housing some 27,000 people. The city came under Israeli control on the last day of the Six-Day War and was handed back to

View of Beer ajam ( )a Syrian Circassian village in the province of Quneitra founded in 1872

Syrian civil control per the 1974 Disengagement Agreement. But the Israelis had destroyed Quneitra with dynamite and bulldozers before they withdrew from the city.[136][137] East of the 1973 ceasefire line, in the Syrian controlled

Golan Heights part of the Golan Heights, an area of 600km, are more than 40 Syrian towns and villages, including Quneitra, Khan Arnabah, Alhameedia, Alrafeed, Alsamdaneea, Almudareea, Beer Ajam, Barika, Gadeer Albustan, Hadar, Juba, Kodana, Ofanya, Rwaiheena, Nabe Alsakher, Trinja, Umm Alezam, and Umm batna. The population of the Quneitra Governorate numbers 79,000,[91] and the Syrian population in the Israeli-occupied portion consists of 20 000 people.[138] In the late 1970s, the Israeli government offered all non-Israelis living in the Golan citizenship, but at present, fewer than 10% of the Druze are Israeli citizens; the remainder hold Syrian citizenship.[139] The Golan Alawites in the village of Ghajar accepted Israeli citizenship in 1981.[140]

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Israeli settlements
The Israeli-occupied territory is administered by the Golan Regional Council, based in the Israeli settlement of Katzrin, which has a population of 6,400. There another 19 moshavim and 10 kibbutzim. In 1989, the settler population was around 10,000.[141] In 2010 the settlers had expanded to 20,000[138] living in 32 settlements.[142][143]

Landmarks
The Golan Heights has a rich history and features numerous archeological sites, mountains, streams and waterfalls. Throughout the region 62 ancient synagogues have been found dating back to the Roman and Byzantine periods.[144] Kursi Kursi is the ruins of a Byzantine Christian monastery. Katzrin Katzrin is the administrative and commercial center of the Israeli-controlled area of the Golan Heights. The Katzrin Ancient Village is an archaeological site on the outskirts of Katzrin where the remains of a Talmud-era village and synagogue have been reconstructed.[145] The Golan Archaeological Museum hosts archaeological finds uncovered in the Golan Heights from prehistoric times. A special focus concerns Gamla and excavations of synagogues and Byzantine churches.[146] The Golan Heights Winery, a major Israeli winery, and the mineral water plant of Mey Eden, which derives its water from the spring of Salukiya in the Golan. One can tour these factories as well as factories of oil products and fruit products. Two open air strip malls, one which holds the Kesem ha-Golan (Golan Magic), a three-dimensional movie and model of the geography and history of the Golan Heights. Gamla Nature Reserve The Gamla Nature Reserve is an open park which holds the archaeological remains of the ancient Jewish city of Gamla including a tower, wall and synagogue. It is also the site of a large waterfall, an ancient Byzantine church, and a panoramic spot to observe the nearly 100 vultures who dwell in the cliffs. Israeli scientists study the vultures and tourists can watch them fly and nest.[147] Rujm el-Hiri Rujm el-Hiri is a large circular stone monument similar to Stonehenge. Excavations since 1968 have not
Gamla from above

Golan Heights uncovered material remains common to archaeological sites in the region. Archaeologists believe the site may have been a ritual center linked to a cult of the dead.[148] A 3D model of the site exists in the Museum of Golan Antiquities in Katzrin. Um el Kanatir Um el Kanatir is another impressive set of standing ruins of a Jewish village of the Byzantine era. The site includes a very large synagogue and two arches next to a natural spring.[149] Nimrod Fortress Now a nature reserve, the Nimrod Fortress was once used by the Ayyubids, Crusaders, Mongols and Mamluks. Mount Hermon and Lake Ram A ski resort on the slopes of Mount Hermon features a wide range of ski trails and activities. Several restaurants are located in the area. The Lake Ram crater lake is nearby. Hamat Gader Hamat Gader is site of natural hot mineral springs with temperatures reaching 50C. Hamat Gader was already used for recreation and healing purposes during Roman times. The site includes a Roman theatre, which was built in the 3rd century CE and contained 2,000 seats. A large synagogue was built in the 5th century CE. Hippos Hippos is an ancient Greco-Roman city, known in Jewish Aramaic as Susita. The archaeological site includes excavations of the city's forum, the small imperial cult temple, a large Hellenistic temple compound, the Roman city gates, and two Byzantine churches.

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Hamat Gader hot springs

Viticulture
On a visit to Israel and the Golan Heights in 1972, Cornelius Ough, a professor of viticulture and oenology at the University of California, Davis, pronounced conditions in the Golan very suitable for the cultivation of wine grapes.[150] A consortium of four kibbutzim and four moshavim took up the challenge, clearing 250 burnt-out tanks in the Golan's Valley of Tears to plant vineyards for what would eventually become the Golan Heights Winery.[151] The first vines were planted in 1976, and the first wine was released by the winery in 1983.[150] The heights are now home to about a dozen wineries.[152]
Organic vineyard in the Golan Heights

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Hydrocarbon exploration
In the early 1990s, the Israel National Oil Company (INOC) was granted shaft-sinking permits in the Golan Heights. It estimated a recovery potential of two million barrels of oil, equivalent at the time to $24 million. During the Yitzhak Rabin administration (19921995), the permits were suspended as efforts were undertaken to restart peace negotiations between Israel and Syria. In 1996, Benjamin Netanyahu granted preliminary approval to INOC to proceed with oil exploration drilling in the Golan.[153][154][155] INOC began undergoing a process of privatization in 1997, overseen by then-Director of the Government Companies Authority (GCA), Tzipi Livni. During this time, it was decided that INOC's drilling permits would be returned to the state.[156][157] In 2012, National Infrastructure Minister Uzi Landau approved exploratory drilling for oil and natural gas in the Golan.[158]

References
"The international community maintains that the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan is null and void and without international legal effect." International Labour Office (2009). The situation of workers of the occupied Arab territories (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DqIv03qWPc0C& printsec=frontcover& dq=The+ situation+ of+ workers+ of+ the+ occupied+ Arab+ territories:+ report+ of+ the#v=snippet& q="The international community maintains that the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan is null and void and without international legal effect. "& f=false) (International government publication ed.). International Labour Office. p.23. ISBN978-92-2-120630-9. .

"...occupied Syrian Golan Heights..." ( The Arab Peace Initiative, 2002 (http:/ / www. al-bab. com/ arab/ docs/ league/ peace02. htm), www.al-bab.com. Retrieved August 1, 2010.) In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 1611 in favour of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. ( General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2008/ ga10794. doc. htm), United Nations, December 5, 2008.) "the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". Also, "the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war." ( CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues (http:/ / fpc. state. gov/ documents/ organization/ 62681. pdf), Congressional Research Service. 19 January 2006) [2] "Golan Heights profile" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-middle-east-14724842). BBC. . Retrieved 30 November 2011. [3] "Human rights in the occupied Syrian Golan" (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ 5EDA05102FDE89548525757C00655B20). Human Rights Council. United Nations General Assembly. 27 February 2009. . Retrieved 19 December 2011. [4] Tina Shepardson. Stones and Stories: Reconstructing the Christianization of the Golan (http:/ / www. bibfor. de/ archiv/ 99-1. shepardson. htm), Biblisches Forum, 1999. [5] Dt3:1, Dt3:2, Dt3:3, Dt3:4, Dt3:5, Dt3:6, Dt3:7 [6] Tatro, Nicolas. "The Golan Heights: A Battlefield of the Ages" (http:/ / articles. latimes. com/ 1988-09-11/ news/ mn-2605_1_golan-heights). The Los Angeles Times. . Retrieved 29 November 2011. [7] Avraham Negev, Shimon Gibson (2005). Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=27nq65cZUIgC& pg=PA249& dq=itureans& hl=en& ei=ry4WTZ3TDJGbOvqwiIQJ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CDkQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q=itureans& f=false) (Paperback ed.). Continuum. p.249. ISBN0-8264-8571-5. . [8] Dan Urman; Paul Virgil McCracken Flesher (1998). Ancient synagogues: historical analysis and archaeological discovery (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=HQyxvmYV-50C& pg=PA423). BRILL. p.423. ISBN978-90-04-11254-4. . Retrieved 2 March 2011. [9] Eric M. Meyers (1996). The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in the Near East, Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kSgZAQAAIAAJ& q="The+ Itureans,+ a+ tribe+ probably+ of+ Aramean+ stock,+ established+ settlements+ in+ the+ northeastern+ Golan+ in+ the+ middle+ of+ the+ second+ century+ bce. "& dq="The+ Itureans,+ a+ tribe+ probably+ of+ Aramean+ stock,+ established+ settlements+ in+ the+ northeastern+ Golan+ in+ the+ middle+ of+ the+ second+ century+ bce. ") (Hardcover ed.). Oxford University Press. p.421. ISBN0-19-511216-4. . [10] "The Golan Heights: Geography, Geology and History" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Peace/ golan1. html). Jewish Virtual Library. . Retrieved 29 November 2011. [11] "Agreement on Disengagement between Israeli and Syrian Force" (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ 4FCBEABF0E58068085256DB70074A828). Report of the Secretary-General concerning the Agreement on Disengagement between Israeli and Syrian Forces. United Nations. . Retrieved 29 November 2011. [12] Dunstan, Simon (2009). The Six Day War 1967: Jordan and Syria (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Uk3HcrMpTW8C& pg=PA88& dq=golan+ "six-day+ war"& hl=en& ei=rObUTrfNAcOhiQKivZmSDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=golan "six-day war"& f=false). Osprey. . [13] Herzog, Chaim, The Arab Israeli Wars, New York: Random House (1982) p.190-191 [14] Golan Heights Law (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Peace+ Process/ Guide+ to+ the+ Peace+ Process/ Golan+ Heights+ Law. htm), MFA. [15] UN Security Council Resolution 497 (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ content/ publications/ attachments/ SC497. pdf)

Golan Heights
[16] Korman, Sharon, The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice, Oxford University Press, pp.262263 [17] Y.Z Blum "Secure Boundaries and Middle East Peace in the Light of International Law and Practice" (1971) pages 2446 [18] Occupied territory: "Israeli-occupied Golan Heights" (Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Factbook 2010 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=pqanFyF6nI0C& pg=PA339& dq="OCCUPIED+ GOLAN"& hl=en& ei=T2BVTJuyLsH48AbYwM3kBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage& q="OCCUPIED GOLAN"& f=false), Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009. pg. 339. ISBN 1-60239-727-9.) "...the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal..." ( "CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations" (http:/ / fpc. state. gov/ documents/ organization/ 9570. pdf), Congressional Research Service, April 5, 2002. pg. 5. Retrieved August 1, 2010.) "Occupied Golan Heights" ( Travel advice: Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories (http:/ / www. fco. gov. uk/ en/ travelling-and-living-overseas/ travel-advice-by-country/ middle-east-north-africa/ israel-occupied), UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved August 1, 2010.) "In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory." ( ICRC activities in the occupied Golan during 2007 (http:/ / www. icrc. org/ web/ eng/ siteeng0. nsf/ htmlall/ israel-golan-311207?OpenDocument& style=custo_print), International Committee of the Red Cross, April 24, 2008.)

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[19] Korman, Sharon. The right of conquest: the acquisition of territory by force in international law and practice (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=ueDO1dJyjrUC& pg=PA261& dq=The+ right+ of+ conquest+ golan+ heights& hl=en& ei=AzpYTMLXE4mhOPufvPEI& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=The right of conquest golan heights& f=false), Oxford University Press, 1996. pg. 265. ISBN 0-19-828007-6. "The continued occupation of the Syrian Golan Heights is recognized by many states as valid and consistent with the provisions of the United Nations Charter, on a self-defence basis. Israel, on this view, would be entitled to exact as a condition of withdrawal from the territory the imposition of security measures of an indefinite character--such as perpetual demilitarization, or the emplacement of a United Nations force--which would ensure, or tend to ensure, that the territory would not be used against it for aggression on future occasions. But the notion that Israel is entitled to claim any status other than that of belligerent occupant in the territory which it occupies, or to act beyond the strict bounds laid down in the Fourth Geneva Convention, has been universally rejected by the international community--no less by the United States than by any other state." [20] At a Glance: The Golan Heights (http:/ / www. sbs. com. au/ news/ article/ 1552801/ At-a-glance-The-Golan-Heights) World News Australia, 6 June 2011 [21] CIA - The World Factbook - Syria (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ sy. html) [22] Moshe Sharon (2004). Corpus inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, (CIAP) (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=01ogNhTNz54C& pg=PA211& dq=greek+ Gaulanitis#v=onepage& q=greek Gaulanitis& f=false) (Hardcover ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. p.211. ISBN90-04-13197-3. . [23] John Lewis Burchhardt (1822). Travels in Syria and the Holy Land (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=cN1YB8fTAI4C& pg=PA287& dq=djolan#v=onepage& q=djolan& f=false). Association for the promoting the discovery of the interior parts of Africa. p.286. . [24] E. A. Myers (2010). The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East: Reassessing the Sources (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=-cRrGQ8bIAkC& pg=PA43& dq=golan+ bashan#v=onepage& q=golan bashan& f=false) (Hardcover ed.). Cambridge University Press. p.43. ISBN0-521-51887-3. . [25] "Ancient faiths embodied in ancient names: or, An attempt to trace the religious belief ... of certain nations", by Thomas Inman, 1872 History, page 551 [26] A Dictionary of the Bible: Volume II: (Part I: Feign Hyssop), Volume 2, by [[James Hastings (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=PYxOWKf8wSoC& lpg=PA225& dq=Golan dictionary& pg=PA225#v=onepage& q=Golan dictionary& f=false)] page 225] [27] Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century: pt. 1. Toponymy, monuments ... By Irfan Shahd, page 87 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=pfwAG3-rpzcC& lpg=PP1& ots=Ikqr4k6X7j& dq=Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century: pt. 1. Toponymy, monuments . . . By Irfan Shahd& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q& f=false) [28] "Gaulonitis" (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ articles/ 6530-gaulonitis). Jewish Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 7 December 2011. [29] CBS, Statistical Abstract of Israel 2011 AREA OF DISTRICTS, SUB-DISTRICTS, NATURAL REGIONS AND LAKES (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ shnaton62/ st01_01. pdf) (table 1.1) [30] The Syrian Golan (http:/ / www. un. int/ syria/ golan. htm) Permanent Mission of the Syrian Arab Republic to the United Nations [31] Earth Tales: New Perspectives on Geography and History (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tTQGBMpQW50C& lpg=PP1& dq=Earth Tales: New Perspectives on Geography and History By Henry T. Conserva& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q& f=false) by Henry T. Conserva, page 197 [32] Israel handbook: with the Palestinian Authority areas By Dave Winter (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q0suiJ7Gj1QC& lpg=PA742& dq=Israel handbook: with the Palestinian Authority areas By Dave Winter Golan Geography& pg=PA742#v=onepage& q& f=false) [33] Edgar S. Marshall (2002). Israel: Current Issues and Historical Background (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=aTqU-YskSpwC& pg=PA32& lpg=PA32& dq="Syrian+ heights"& q="Syrian heights"). Nova Science Publishers. p.32. ISBN1-59033-325-X. . [34] United States, Central Intelligence Agency, Golan Heights and Vicinity : Oct 1994 (http:/ / hdl. loc. gov/ loc. gmd/ g7462g. ct001957)

Golan Heights
[35] FSU.edu (http:/ / www. law. fsu. edu/ library/ collection/ LimitsinSeas/ IBS094. pdf): International Boundary Study Number 94, December 30, 1969. JordanSyria Boundary. US Department of State, p. 12 [36] Haim Gvirtzman, Israel Water Resources, Chapters in Hydrology and Environmental Sciences, Yad Ben-Zvi Press, Jerusalem (Hebrew) Water.gov.il (http:/ / www. water. gov. il/ + / + + / + + / + / + + + . htm) indicates that the Golan Heights contributes no more than 195 million m per year to the Sea of Galilee, as well as another 120 million m per year from the Banias River tributary. Israel's annual water consumption is about 2,000 million m. [37] Venus of Berekhat Ram (http:/ / www. visual-arts-cork. com/ prehistoric/ venus-of-berekhat-ram. htm) [38] Richard 2003, p.377 [39] Dt33:22 [40] Kg14:13 [41] Richard 2003, p.427 [42] Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WE4EAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA182& lpg=PA182& dq="ard+ el+ bathanyeh"& source=web& ots=LLYh6CXO2x& sig=VvaKLzo_6hkChbXICMRj7advvUw) [43] Utexas.edu (http:/ / www. lib. utexas. edu/ maps/ historical/ shepherd/ asia_minor_1140. jpg) [44] UMN.edu (http:/ / www. hist. umn. edu/ courses/ hist3613/ calendar/ states/ images/ Map----Crusader-States-1100. gif) [45] Ronnie Ellenblum, Ronnie. Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=W08225mbAjAC& pg=PA219& dq=nomads+ in+ eastern+ galilee& hl=en& ei=czZhTIvLBqiHOLef3agK& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=nomads in eastern galilee& f=false), Cambridge University Press, 2003. pg. 219-20. ISBN 0-521-52187-4 [46] Shoup, John A. Culture and customs of Jordan, Volume 2006 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=dm7Ups_zsbcC& pg=PA31& dq=JAWLAN& hl=en& ei=hBdgTOv9KNOUOMqC0b0J& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10& ved=0CGEQ6AEwCThG#v=onepage& q=JAWLAN& f=false), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. pg. 31. ISBN 0-313-33671-7. [47] Porter, Josias Leslie. A handbook for travellers in Syria and Palestine (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=BIZEWykI9fMC& pg=PA439& dq="haj+ road"+ golan& hl=en& ei=mfFfTNaoGor-Ofi1xZMD& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=onepage& q="haj road" golan& f=false), J. Murray, 1868. pg. 439. [Harvard University, 4 Jan 2007] [48] The Caspian Region: The Caucasus (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=t2Etjf8S8fgC& pg=PA64& dq=the+ Golan+ Circassian& hl=en& ei=ctpVTIXWHsGC8gaywKzXCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=6& ved=0CD8Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=the Golan Circassian& f=false), M. Gammer, pg. 64. [49] Gudrun Krmer. A history of Palestine: from the Ottoman conquest to the founding of the state of Israel (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=bWjwcoSdoiAC& pg=PA137& dq=golan+ ottoman+ circassians& hl=en& ei=W9hVTOiPFIH_8AaMzrD6Ag& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDQQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage& q=golan ottoman circassians& f=false), Princeton University Press, 2008. pg.137. ISBN 0-691-11897-3 [50] David Dean Commins. Historical dictionary of Syria (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=_EhACvcqVXkC& pg=PA77& dq=golan+ ottoman+ circassians& hl=en& ei=nNdVTNayB4K88gbgpKWSBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10& ved=0CFYQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage& q=golan ottoman circassians& f=false), pg. 77. [51] Bat Yeor. The decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam: from Jihad to Dhimmitude (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=C2GgHl9Rls0C& pg=PA206& dq=golan+ ottoman+ circassians& hl=en& ei=E9lVTKDmF4H48Aa75pmVBQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDUQ6AEwAzgU#v=onepage& q=golan ottoman circassians& f=false), Fairleigh Dickinson Univ. Press, 1996. pg. 206. [52] Martha Mundy, Basim Musallam. The transformation of nomadic society in the Arab East (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=iwxeHaKUGFMC& pg=PA40& dq=JAWLAN& hl=en& ei=YRZgTISBPZ6gOOXZhb0J& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3& ved=0CDMQ6AEwAjg8#v=onepage& q=JAWLAN& f=false), Cambridge University Press, 2000. pg. 40. ISBN 0-521-77057-2, [53] Kats, Yosef. The "business" of settlement: private entrepreneurship in the Jewish settlement of Palestine, 19001914 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?ei=JX1gTOaNJ8L48Abu4sG5DQ& ct=result& id=zgPtAAAAMAAJ& dq=tiferet+ binyamin+ golan& q=tiferet+ binyamin), Magnes Press, Hebrew University, 1994. p. 20. ISBN 965-223-863-5. [54] A hundred years of settlement (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=E5QSAQAAIAAJ& q="+ described+ in+ his+ book+ the+ land+ "+ golan& dq="+ described+ in+ his+ book+ the+ land+ "+ golan& hl=en& ei=fcFaTJKlJIiaOJbcseEF& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA), Keter, 1985. pg. 200. [55] Separation of Trans-Jordan from Palestine, Yitzhak Gil-Har, The Jerusalem Cathedra, ed. Lee Levine, Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi and Wayne State University, Jerusalem, 1981, p.306 [56] Reshaping Palestine: From Muhammad Ali to the British Mandate, 1831-1922, Martin Sicker (http:/ / books. google. co. il/ books?id=TWBxUi5fVS0C& pg=PA60& lpg=PA60& dq=Shagum+ golan& source=bl& ots=H6JdSHMeh4& sig=kVRspx_4yCbBnYJoWQumtGe1ZIw& hl=en& sa=X& ei=AJGoUMCQNYa20QXl_YGIDQ& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q=Shagum golan& f=true) [57] M. R. Fishbach, Jewish property claims against Arab countries, Columbia University Press (2008), pp36-37. [58] Aharonson, Ran. Rothschild and early Jewish colonization in Palestine (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=-Q9lnkLX8LAC& pg=PA98& dq=golan+ Palestine+ Jewish+ Colonization+ Association& hl=en& ei=JcBaTPuOIqegOM3bqa8P& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CE4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage& q& f=false), Rowman & Littlefield, 2000. pg. 98. ISBN 0-7425-0914-1

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[59] Efraim Orni, Elisha Efrat. Geography of Israel (http:/ / www. google. co. uk/ search?hl=en& safe=off& tbs=bks:1& q="A+ second+ attempt,+ this+ time+ to+ bring+ in+ Syrian-Jewish+ settlers"& btnG=Search& aq=f& aqi=& aql=& oq=& gs_rfai=), Israel Universities Press, 1971. [60] Efraim Orni, Elisha Efrat. Geography of Israel (http:/ / www. google. co. uk/ search?hl=en& q="initially as his tenants, with the prospects of purchasing"& um=1& ie=UTF-8& tbo=u& tbs=bks:1& source=og& sa=N& tab=wp), Israel Universities Press, 1971. [61] Military government in the territories administered by Israel, 19671980 (http:/ / www. google. co. uk/ search?q="attempted+ settlement+ also+ in+ 1908+ in+ the+ Bet+ Zayyada+ "& hl=en& safe=off& tbs=bks:1& sa=2), Hebrew University Jerusalem, Faculty of Law, Harry Sacher Institute for Legislature Research and Comparative Law, 1982, p.102. [62] Jewish spectator (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=I08uAQAAIAAJ& q="Zayyada+ Valley+ in+ 1908. "& dq="Zayyada+ Valley+ in+ 1908. "& hl=en& ei=qfheTNOdEsO78gbosuy1DQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAA), Volume 60, 1995. [63] Biger, 2005, p. 173. [64] Chaim Weizmann, subsequently reported to his colleagues in London: "There are still important details outstanding, such as the actual terms of the mandate and the question of the boundaries in Palestine. There is the delimitation of the boundary between French Syria and Palestine, which will constitute the northern frontier and the eastern line of demarcation, adjoining Arab Syria. The latter is not likely to be fixed until the Emir Faisal attends the Peace Conference, probably in Paris." See: 'Zionist Aspirations: Dr Weizmann on the Future of Palestine', The Times, Saturday, 8 May 1920; p. 15. [65] Franco-British Convention on Certain Points Connected with the Mandates for Syria and the Lebanon, Palestine and Mesopotamia, signed Dec. 23, 1920. Text available in American Journal of International Law, Vol. 16, No. 3, 1922, 122126. [66] Agreement between His Majesty's Government and the French Government respecting the Boundary Line between Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean to El Hmm, Treaty Series No. 13 (1923), Cmd. 1910. Also Louis, 1969, p. 90. [67] FSU Law (http:/ / www. law. fsu. edu/ library/ collection/ LimitsinSeas/ IBS075. pdf). [68] Robert G. Rabil (2003). Embattled neighbors: Syria, Israel, and Lebanon (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=heR4OG-LdIYC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Embattled+ neighbors:+ Syria,+ Israel,+ and+ Lebanon& cd=1#v=onepage& q=). Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp.1516. ISBN1-58826-149-2. . [69] The Brink of Peace: The Israeli-Syrian Negotiations By Itamar Rabinovich, page 19 [70] M. Shemesh, Prelude to the Six-Day War: The Arab-Israeli Struggle Over Water Resources, Israel Studies, vol 9, no. 3, 2004. [71] M. Shemesh, The Fidaiyyun Organizations Contribution to the Descent to the Six-Day War, Israel Studies, vol 11, no. 1, 2006. [72] M. Shemesh, The IDF Raid On Samu: The Turning-Point In Jordans Relations With Israel and the West Bank Palestinians, Israel Studies, vol 7, no. 1, 2002. [73] "Six-Day War" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761570433/ Six-Day_War. html), Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007. Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5kwq6OlLo) 2009-10-31. [74] Herzog, Chaim, The Arab Israeli Wars, New York: Random House (1982) p185 [75] Sicker, Martin, Israel's quest for security, New York. Praeger Publishing (1989), p. 92-95 [76] Eban, Abba, Abba Eban. An Autobiography, New York: Random House (1977) p. 313-314 [77] Herzog, Chaim, The Arab Israeli Wars, New York: Random House (1982) p.146-148 [78] Gilbert, Martin, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Its History in Maps, 4th ed, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson (1985) p 63-64 [79] Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (http:/ / www. washington-report. org/ backissues/ 1191/ 9111023. htm), 1991-11. [80] Yitschak Ben Gad. The road map to nowhere, New Leaf Publishing Group, 2004. pg. 292. ISBN 0-89221-578-X. [81] Schmemann, Serge (1997-05-11). "General's Words Shed a New Light on the Golan" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1997/ 05/ 11/ world/ general-s-words-shed-a-new-light-on-the-golan. html?pagewanted=1). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-05-03. [82] "Israel provoked Six-Day War, says former Dutch UN observer" (http:/ / www. monstersandcritics. com/ news/ middleeast/ news/ article_1313492. php/ Israel_provoked_Six-Day_War_says_former_Dutch_UN_observer). monstersandcritics. June 5, 2007. . [83] Robert Slater. Warrior Statesman: The Life of Moshe Dayan, Robson Books, London (1992), pg. 277. [84] Morris (2001), p. 327: "Another eighty to ninety thousand civilians fled or were driven from the Golan Heights." [85] The Arab Centre for Human Rights in the Golan Heights: NGO Report (http:/ / www2. ohchr. org/ english/ bodies/ cerd/ docs/ ngos/ almarsad. pdf), pg. 3. January 25, 2007. (90,000 according to Israeli sources and 115,000 according to Syrian sources, which included 17,000 Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA, cited in the Report of the Secretary-General under General Assembly resolution 2252 (ES-V) and Security Council resolution 237 (1967 (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ CC2CFCFE1A52BDEC852568D20051B645), pg. 14. September 15, 1967.) [86] A View From Damascus: Internal Refugees From Golans 244 Destroyed Syrian Villages (http:/ / www. washington-report. org/ backissues/ 062000/ 0006010. html) [87] Golan Facts (http:/ / english. golan. org. il/ vaad/ efacts. asp). [88] Different accounts on whether Golan inhabitants were expelled or whether they fled (19972002) (http:/ / www. internal-displacement. org/ idmc/ website/ countries. nsf/ (httpEnvelopes)/ 052C5608BA2DEC58802570B8005AA937) [89] Eldar, Akiva. A matter of a few dozen meters (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 988828. html), Haaretz, June 1, 2008. [90] The Middle East and North Africa 2003, Occupied Territories, The Golan Heights, page 604. [91] Syrian Arab New Agency (http:/ / www. sana. sy/ ara/ 134/ 2008/ 01/ 14/ 156322. htm)

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[92] Landmine monitor report (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=czKwMrKV-HIC& pg=PA696& lpg=PA696& dq="syrian+ controlled"+ golan& source=bl& ots=Hy8siiv-q2& sig=lKg8AhsAEsVJ-foolA_yRSoRT1o& hl=en& ei=-P1fTISNNpKM4QaR5KnXBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CCQQ6AEwBA#v=onepage& q="syrian controlled" golan& f=false), International Campaign to Ban Landmines, pg. 696. ISBN 1-56432-287-4. [93] Marshall, Edgar S. Israel: current issues and historical background (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aTqU-YskSpwC& pg=PA34& dq=Although+ the+ law+ in+ effect+ annexed+ the+ territory+ to+ Israel,+ it+ was+ not+ formally+ annexed& hl=en& ei=IgRYTJHUG8yfsQaO5bW5Cg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q& f=false), Nova Publishers, 2002. pg. 34. ISBN 1-59033-325-X. [94] "Golan Heights" A Dictionary of Contemporary World History. Jan Palmowski. Oxford University Press, 2003. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. [95] "Document 487" (http:/ / history. state. gov/ historicaldocuments/ frus1964-68v19/ d487). Foreign Relations of the United States, 19641968, Volume XIX, Arab-Israeli Crisis and War. U.S. State Department. . Retrieved 26 October 2010. [96] (Baron) Caradon, Hugh Foot (1981). U.N. Security Council Resolution 242: A Case Study in Diplomatic Ambiguity. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University. pp.12. ISBN0-934742-11-1. [97] Moshe Ma'oz (March 2005). "Can Israel and Syria Reach Peace?: Obstacles, Lessons, and Prospects" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080227132019/ http:/ / www. bakerinstitute. org/ Pubs/ wp_israelsyria. pdf) (pdf). Archived from the original (http:/ / bakerinstitute. org/ Pubs/ wp_israelsyria. pdf) on 2008-02-27. . Retrieved 2008-04-06. [98] Ross, Missing Peace, 589 [99] Clinton, My Life 883-88,903 [100] "Olmert to Assad: Israel willing to withdraw from Golan Heights" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3410174,00. html). Ynet News. 2007-06-08. . Retrieved 2007-06-08. [101] "Hafez Assad conceded Mt Hermon, says Netanyahu" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3410090,00. html). Ynet News. 2007-06-08. . Retrieved 2007-06-08. [102] BBC (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 7362937. stm) [103] Nahmias, Roee. "Syrian report: Olmert agreed to concede Golan Heights" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3534884,00. html). Ynet. . Retrieved 2008-04-23. [104] Einav, Hagai. "Attempt to cede Golan doomed to fail, say local leaders" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3535541,00. html). Ynet. . Retrieved 2008-04-24. [105] General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees (http:/ / www. un. org/ News/ Press/ docs/ 2008/ ga10794. doc. htm), United Nations, December 5, 2008 [106] http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3751170,00. html [107] Netanyahu: Golan pullout would put Iran on Israel's doorstep, Mazal Mualem, Haaretz Correspondent, 22 May 2008 (http:/ / www. haaretz. co. il/ hasen/ pages/ ShArtStEng. jhtml?itemNo=986206& contrassID=1& subContrassID=1& title='Netanyahu: Golan pullout would put Israel on Iran's front lines'& dyn_server=172. 20. 5. 5) [108] Barak Ravid (8 May 2009). "Netanyahu: Israel will never withdraw from Golan" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 1084194. html). Haaretz. . [109] JTA, Netanyahu: Golan ours forever, August 1, 2007 (http:/ / jta. org/ news/ article/ 2007/ 08/ 01/ 103366/ NetanyahuGolan) [110] Indyk, Martin (2009). Innocent Abroad: An Intimate Account of American Peace Diplomacy in the Middle East. Simon & Schuster. [111] http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3755265,00. html [112] http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3741957,00. html [113] http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3742904,00. html [114] "Israel's Lieberman cautions Syria" (http:/ / english. aljazeera. net/ news/ middleeast/ 2010/ 02/ 201024174859584145. html). Al Jazeera. 4 February 2010. . Retrieved 8 April 2011. "'We must make Syria recognise that just as it relinquished its dream of a greater Syria that controls Lebanon ... it will have to relinquish its ultimate demand regarding the Golan Heights,' Lieberman said." [115] Edgar S. Marshall. Israel: current issues and historical background. Nova Publishers, 2002. pg. 35. ISBN 1-59033-325-X. [116] Garfinkle, Adam (1998). "History and Peace: Revisiting two Zionist myths" (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~db=all~content=a777088926). Israel Affairs (Routledge) 5 (1): 135146. doi:10.1080/13537129808719501. . [117] Frederic C. Hof, "The line of June 4, 1967" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Peace/ 67line. html) [118] A. Garfinkle, History and Peace: Revisiting two Zionist myths, Israel Affairs, vol. 5 (1998) pp126148. [119] Israel Syria Armistice Agreement (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ History/ issyrarm. html/ ) [120] Kaufman, Asher (2004). "Understanding the Sheeba Farms dispute" (http:/ / www. pij. org/ details. php?id=9). Palestine-Israel Journal 11 (1). . Retrieved July 22, 2006. [121] "In focus: Shebaa farms" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ middle_east/ 763504. stm). BBC News. May 25, 2000. . Retrieved September 29, 2006. [122] Border problems. Lebanon, UNIFIL and Italian participation by Lucrezia Gwinnett Liguori (http:/ / cadmus. eui. eu/ dspace/ bitstream/ 1814/ 11764/ 1/ CARIM_SS_IV_Essay_2009_04. pdf) [123] Gold, Dore The Golan Heights and the Syrian Israeli-Negotiations (http:/ / www. jcpa. org/ JCPA/ Templates/ ShowPage. asp?DBID=1& LNGID=1& TMID=111& FID=283& PID=0& IID=2207) JCPA, 22 May 2008

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[124] William B. Quandt, Peace process: American diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli conflict since 1967, University of California Press, 2001 p.309 [125] Israeli-United States Relations (http:/ / fpc. state. gov/ documents/ organization/ 9570. pdf) Congressional Research Service Reports, U.S. Department of State. 5 April 2002 [126] http:/ / www. un. org/ Depts/ dpko/ missions/ undof/ index. html [127] http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ un/ un497. htm "United Nations Security Council Resolution 497" [128] (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=o2Va21wfwvIC& pg=PA524& dq=Golan+ Heights+ settlements+ UN+ resolution& hl=en& ei=tgByTMD0HsH7lweHyqT-DQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=9& ved=0CFgQ6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=Golan Heights settlements UN resolution& f=false)"Yearbook of the United Nations 2005, Volume 59" pg.524 [129] (http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ 68ecea2cd994bc9285256c6100569819?OpenDocument) "Report of the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Palestinian People and Other Arabs of the Occupied Territories" September 2002 [130] http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ ap/ article/ ALeqM5jg656u-DXtb9CEPRuFxpsCC9gRHA?docId=cd06e1f9e2e446aba9a244da22e241d8 [131] http:/ / seattletimes. com/ html/ nationworld/ 2019613589_apmlisraelsyria. html [132] Fogelman, Shay. The disinherited (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ weekend/ magazine/ the-disinherited-1. 304959), Haaretz, July 30, 2010. (90,000 according to Israeli sources and 115,000 according to Syrian sources, which included 17,000 Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA, cited in the Report of the Secretary-General under General Assembly resolution 2252 (ES-V) and Security Council resolution 237 (1967) (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ CC2CFCFE1A52BDEC852568D20051B645), pg. 14. September 15, 1967.) [133] Politicide: Ariel Sharon's war against the Palestinians. p.28. ISBN978-1-84467-532-6 [134] "The Fate of Abandoned Arab Villages, 19651969" by Aron Shai (History & Memory Volume 18, Number 2, Fall/Winter 2006, pp. 86106) "As the pace of the surveys increased in the West Bank, widespread operations also began on the Golan Heights, which had been captured from Syria during the war (figure 7). Dan Urman, whose official title was Head of Surveying and Demolition Supervision for the Golan Heights, was in charge of this task. Urman submitted a list of 127 villages for demolition to his bosses. ... The demolitions were executed by contractors hired for the job. Financial arrangements and coordination with the ILA and the army were recorded in detail. Davidson commissioned surveys and demolition supervision from the IASS [Israel Archaeological Survey Society]. Thus, for example, in a letter dated 15 May 1968, he wrote to Ze'ev Yavin: 'Further to our meeting, this is to inform you that within a few days we will start demolishing about 90 abandoned villages on the Golan Heights (see attached list)." [135] "The Golan Heights under Israeli Occupation 1967 1981" (http:/ / dro. dur. ac. uk/ 138/ 1/ 18CMEIS. pdf) p.5. "The remainder of 131 agricultural villages and 61 individual farms were wiped of the face of the earth by the Israeli occupation authorities immediately following the Israeli victory in the 1967 war. They were razed to the ground and their lands handed over to exclusive Israeli-Jewish settlement." [136] U.S. Committee for Refugees World Refugee Survey 1999 Syria (http:/ / www. unhcr. org/ refworld/ publisher,USCRI,,SYR,3ae6a8cb3c,0. html) [137] 3240 (XXIX). Report of the Special Committee to Investigate Israeli Practices Affecting the Human Rights of the Population of the Occupied Territories (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ 5B1BC7E46C040DF7852560DE0054E654) [138] Regions and territories: The Golan Heights (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ country_profiles/ 3393813. stm) BBC [139] Scott Wilson (2006-10-30). "Golan Heights Land, Lifestyle Lure Settlers" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 10/ 29/ AR2006102900926. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2007-06-05. [140] Ghajar says `don't fence me in' (http:/ / news. haaretz. co. il/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=172568& contrassID=2& subContrassID=5& sbSubContrassID=0& listSrc=Y& itemNo=172568) [141] Report of the Director-General, Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=Vva0n1w5mAwC& pg=PA34& dq=original+ population+ of+ the+ golan& hl=en& ei=bzJYTJjjKMX-Obbp4JEJ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=book-preview-link& resnum=9& ved=0CFQQuwUwCA#v=onepage& q& f=false), International Labour Conference, 1991.pg. 34. ISBN 92-2-107533-8. [142] Oudat, Basel. Shouting in the hills (http:/ / weekly. ahram. org. eg/ 2008/ 901/ re3. htm), Al-Ahram Weekly, 1218 June 2008. Issue No. 901. [143] "Population by District, Sub-District and Religion" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ reader/ shnaton/ templ_shnaton. html?num_tab=st02_06x& CYear=2009). Statistical Abstract of Israel, no. 60. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2009. . [144] The Ancient world (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ChMiAQAAIAAJ). Ares Publishers. 2002. p.54. . Retrieved 7 March 2011. [145] Reflections on a Reconstruction of Ancient Qasrin Village, The reconstructed past: reconstructions in the public interpretation of archaeology and history, Ann Killebrew John H. Jameson, Rowman Altamira, 2004, pp. 127-146 [146] Golan Archaeological Museum (http:/ / www. museum. golan. org. il/ emeyda. htm) [147] Antiquities (http:/ / www. antiquities. org. il/ article_Item_eng. asp?module_id=& sec_id=17& subj_id=296& id=508). [148] Morbid theory in mystery of Israel's answer to Stone Henge (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ news/ national/ morbid-theory-in-mystery-of-israel-s-answer-to-stone-henge-1. 393568) [149] Kanatir (http:/ / geophysics. tau. ac. il/ personal/ neta/ kanatir/ kanatir. htm), TAU. [150] Tarnopolsky, Noga (September 15, 2006). "Upstart Wineries Drench Previously Arid Country" (http:/ / www. forward. com/ articles/ 3896/ ). . [151] Battlefield becomes Israeli vineyard (http:/ / www. welnerwines. com/ Articles/ about-us/ 2nytimes. pdf) [152] "Wine map" (http:/ / www. israeli-wine. org/ map/ ). mykerem. .

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Golan Heights
[153] Hayoun, David (15 April 1997). "INOC Will Seek Two Year Extension of Golan Heights Drilling Licence" (http:/ / archive. globes. co. il/ searchgl/ INOC Will Seek Two Year Extension of Golan Heights_h_hd_2L3amDp1SCpOnD3CsBcXqRMm0. html). Globes. . Retrieved 14 May 2012. "The Israel National Oil Company (INOC), intends shortly to approach the Commissioner for Oil Prospecting at the Ministry of National Infrastructures with a demand for a two-year extension of the licence awarded the company in the past for shaft-sinking on the Golan Heights." [154] "Netanyahu Approves Oil Drilling In Golan Heights" (http:/ / www. apnewsarchive. com/ 1996/ Netanyahu-Approves-Oil-Drilling-In-Golan-Heights/ id-6ca8bcf86b3e4902870f5663644aa3ea). Associated Press (Jerusalem). 25 October 1996. . Retrieved 14 May 2012. "The National Oil Company expects the Golan site to yield some 2 million barrels of oil and revenue of about $24 million, Haaretz said." [155] "[ : The covert decision of Minister Landau: Israel will search for oil in the Golan Heights]" (http:/ / www. themarker. com/ dynamo/ 1. 1706455) (in Hebrew). TheMarker. 13 May 2012. . Retrieved 14 May 2012. " , -09, ", ". [156] Hayoun, David (3 July 1997). "[ , Searching for Oil, and Peace]" (http:/ / www. globes. co. il/ news/ article. aspx?did=132167) (in Hebrew). Globes. . Retrieved 14 May 2012. " " ) ( : ". , , , [157] Hayoun, David (3 July 1997). "[ : " Livni: Taking the Golan drilling permit from INOC meant to prevent exposure of state to legal action]" (http:/ / www. globes. co. il/ news/ article. aspx?did=129317) (in Hebrew). Globes. . Retrieved 14 May 2012. ", , , ". " [158] Ben Zion, Ilan (13 May 2012). "Government secretly approves Golan Heights drilling" (http:/ / www. timesofisrael. com/ government-secretly-approves-golan-heights-drilling/ ). The Times of Israel. . Retrieved 14 May 2012.

187

Bibliography
Biger, Gideon (2005). The Boundaries of Modern Palestine, 18401947. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5654-2. Bregman, Ahron (2002). Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28716-6. Louis, Wm. Roger (1969). "The United Kingdom and the Beginning of the Mandates System, 19191922". International Organization, 23(1), pp.7396. Maar'i, Tayseer, and Usama Halabi (1992). "Life under occupation in the Golan Heights". Journal of Palestine Studies 22: 7893. doi:10.1525/jps.1992.22.1.00p0166n. Maoz, Asher (1994). "Application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights is annexation". Brooklyn Journal of International Law 20, afl. 2: 35596. Morris, Benny (2001). Righteous Victims. New York, Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-74475-7. Sheleff, Leon (1994). "Application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights is not annexation". Brooklyn Journal of International Law 20, afl. 2: 33353. Zisser, Eyal (2002). "June 1967: Israel's capture of the Golan Heights". Israel Studies 7,1: 168194. Richard, Suzanne (2003). Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader (http://books.google.com/ ?id=khR0apPid8gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Near+Eastern+archaeology:+a+reader#v=onepage&q& f=false). Eisenbrauns. ISBN978-1-57506-083-5

External links
The Syrian Golan (http://www.un.int/syria/golan.htm) Permanent Mission of the Syrian Arab Republic to the United Nations Jawlan.org (http://jawlan.org/) (Arabic) Gaulonitis (http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=87&letter=G&search=golan) in The unedited full text of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Golan, Gaulonitis (http://www.studylight.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T3866) in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Qatzrin (http://www.qatzrin.muni.il/ts.exe?tsurl=0.752.18040.0.0)

Golan Heights What is the dispute over the Golan Heights? (http://israelipalestinian.procon.org/view.answers. php?questionID=000507) A View From Damascus: Internal Refugees From Golans 244 Destroyed Syrian Villages (http://www. washington-report.org/backissues/062000/0006010.html) from Washington Report

188

Caesarea Philippi
Not to be confused with Caesarea Maritima, on the Mediterranean, or the town Caesarea in Israel, or with Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia.
Caesarea Philippi

The ruins of Caesarea Philippi

Shown within Golan Heights

Location Coordinates Type Golan Heights 331446N 354136E settlement History Cultures Roman

Caesarea Philippi or Caesarea Paneas was an ancient Roman city located at the southwestern base of Mount Hermon, adjacent to a spring, grotto, and related shrines dedicated to the god Pan, and called "Banias, Paneas", or Baniyas (not to be confused with Baniyas in northwestern Syria). The surrounding region was known as the "Panion". The city is mentioned in the gospels of Matthew[1] and Mark.[2] The city is now uninhabited, an archaeological site in the Golan Heights. While Banias does not appear in the Old Testament, Philostorgius, Theodoret, Benjamin of Tudela and Samuel ben Samson all incorrectly identified it with Laish (Tel Dan).[3][4][5] While Eusebius of Caesarea accurately places Dan/laish in the vicinity of Paneas at the fourth mile on the route to Tyre.[6]

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189

Pagan associations
Alexander the Great's conquests started a process of Hellenisation in Egypt and Syria that continued for 1,000 years. Paneas was first settled in the Hellenistic period. The Ptolemaic kings, in the 3rd century BC, built a cult centre.

The major Hellenistic realms; the Ptolemaic kingdom (dark blue); the Seleucid empire (yellow); Macedon (green) and Epirus (pink). The orange areas were often in dispute after 281 BC.

Panias is a spring, also known as Banias, named for Pan, the Greek god of desolate places. It lies close to the fabled "way of the sea" mentioned by Isaiah.[7] Along which many armies of Antiquity have marched. In the distant past a giant spring, gushed from a cave in the limestone bedrock, tumbling down the valley to flow into the Huela marshes. Currently it is the source of the stream Nahal Senir. Whereas previously the Jordan River rose from the malaria infested Huela marshes it now rises from this spring and two others at the base of Mount Hermon. The flow of the spring has decreased greatly in modern times.[8] The water no View at the remnants of the Temple of Pan with Pan's grotto. The longer gushes from the cave, but only seeps from the building on the slope of the cliff in the background is the shrine of bedrock below it. Paneas was certainly an ancient place Nebi Khader. of great sanctity and when Hellenised religious influences were overlaid on the region, the cult of its local numen gave place to the worship of Pan, to whom the cave was dedicated and from which the copious spring feeding the Huela mashes rose and ultimately supplied the river Jordan.[9] The pre-Hellenic deities that have been associated with the site are Ba'al-gad or Ba'al-hermon.[10] In extant sections of the Greek historian Polybius' history of "The Rise of the Roman Empire", the Battle of Panium is mentioned. The battle of Panium occurred in 198 BC between the Macedonian armies of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid Greeks of Coele-Syria, led by Antiochus III.[11][12][13] Antiochus's victory cemented Selucid control over Phoenicia, Galilee Samaria and Judea until the Maccabean revolt. The Hellenised Sellucids built a pagan temple dedicated to Pan, (a goat-footed god of victory in battle [creator of panic in the enemy], desolate places, music and goat herds), at Paneas.[14]

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190

Roman
Herodian city
On the death of Zenodorus in 20 BC, the Panion, which included Paneas was annexed to the Kingdom of Herod the Great.[15] He erected here a temple of "white marble" in honour of his patron. In the year 3 BC, Philip II (also known as Philip the Tetrarch) founded a city at Paneas. It became the administrative capital of Philip's large tetrarchy of Batanaea which encompassed the Golan and the Hauran. Flavius Josephus in Antiquities of the Jews refers to the city as Caesarea Paneas; the New Testament as Caesarea Philippi (to distinguish it from Caesarea Maritima on the Mediterranean coast).[16][17] In 14 AD Philip II named it Caesarea (in honour of the Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus) and "made improvements" to the city. His image was placed on a coin issued in 29/30 AD (to commemorate the founding of the city), this was considered as idolatrous by Jews but was following in the Idumean tradition of Zenodorus.[18] On the death of Philip II in 33 AD the tetrachy was incorporated into the province of Syria with the city given the autonomy to administer its own revenues.[19]

The Division of Herod the GreatHerod's Kingdom: Territory under Herod Archelaus, from 6 Iudaea ProvinceTerritory under Herod AntipasTerritory under Herod Philip IISalome I (cities of Jabneh, Azotas, Phaesalis)Syria (Roman province)Roman province of SyriaAutonomous cities (Decapolis)

In 61 AD the king Agrippa II renamed the administrative capital as Neronias in honour of the Roman emperor Nero, but this name held only till 68 AD.[20] Agrippa also carried out urban improvements[21] During the First JewishRoman War Vespasian rested his troops at Caesarea Philippi in July 67 AD holding games over a period of 20 days before advancing on Tiberias to crush the Jewish resistance in Galilee.[22]

Gospel association
In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus is said to have approached the area near the city, but without entering the city itself. Jesus, while in this area, asked his closest disciples who they thought he was. Accounts of their answers, including the Confession of Peter, are found in the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, as well as in the Gospel of Thomas. Here Saint Peter made his confession of Jesus as the Messiah and the "Son of the living God", and Christ in turn gave a charge to Peter.[23][24] A woman from Paneas, who had been bleeding for 12 years, is said to have been miraculously cured by Jesus.[25]

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Byzantium
On attaining the position of Emperor of the Roman Empire in 361 Julian the Apostate instigated a religious reformation of the Roman state, as part of a programme intended to restore the lost grandeur and strength of the Roman State.[26] He supported the restoration of Hellenic paganism as the state religion.[27] In Panease this was achieved by replacing the Christian symbols. Sozomen describes the event surrounding the replacement of a statue of Christ:Having heard that at Casarea Philippi, otherwise called Panease Paneades, a city of Phoenicia, there was a celebrated statue of Christ, which had been erected by a woman whom the Lord had cured of a flow of blood. Julian commanded it to be taken down, and a statue of himself erected in its place; but a violent fire from the heaven fell upon it, and broke off the parts contiguous to the breast; the head and neck were thrown prostrate, and it was transfixed to the ground with the face downwards at the point where the fracture of the bust was; and it has stood in that fashion from that day until now, full of the rust of the lightning. [28]

Caliphate
In 635 Paneas gained favourable terms of surrender from the Muslim army of Khalid ibn al-Walid after the defeat of Heracliuss army. In 636 a newly formed Byzantine army advanced on Palestine using Paneas as a staging post on the way to confront the Muslim army at Yarmuk.[29] The depopulation of Paneas after the Muslim conquest was rapid, as the traditional markets of Paneas disappeared (only 14 of the 173 Byzantine sites in the area show signs of habitation from this period). The Hellenised city fell into decline. At the council of al-Jabiyah the administration of the new territory of the Umar Caliphate was established, Paneas remained the principal city of the district of al-Djawlan (the Golan) in the jund (military Province) of Dimshq (Damascus), due to its strategic military importance on the border with Filistin (Palestine).[30] Around AD 780 the nun Hugeburc visited Caesarea and reported that the town had a church and a "great many Christians" but does not record any Christians as living in the town at the time of her visit.[31]

References
Footnotes
[1] Matthew 16:13 [2] Mark 8:27 [3] A Biblical History of Israel By Iain William Provan, V. Philips Long, Tremper Longman Published by Westminster John Knox Press, 2003 ISBN 0-664-22090-8 pp 181-183 [4] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid p 150 [5] Louis Flicien Joseph Caignart de Saulcy, Edouard de Warren (1854) Narrative of a Journey Round the Dead Sea, and in the Bible Lands; in 1850 and 1851. Including an Account of the Discovery of the Sites of Sodom and Gomorrah Parry and M'Millan, pp 417-418 [6] Louis Flicien Joseph Caignart de Saulcy, Edouard de Warren (1854) ibid p 418 [7] Isaiah 9:1 [8] Wilson, John F (2004) Banias: The Story of Caesarea Philippi, Lost City of Pan I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1-85043-440-9 p 2 [9] Kent, Charles Foster (1912) Biblical Geography and History reprinted by Read Books, 2007 ISBN 1-4067-5473-0 pp 47-48 [10] Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995) International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 p 569 [11] Perseus (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0234;query=chapter=#821;layout=;loc=16. 19) Digitital Library. TUFTS University Polybius Book 16 para 18 [12] Perseus (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0234;query=chapter=#822;layout=;loc=16. 20) Digitital Library. TUFTS University Polybius Book 16 para 19 [13] Perseus (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 01. 0234;query=chapter=#823;layout=;loc=16. 19) Digitital Library. TUFTS University Polybius Book 16 para 20 [14] Chambers Dictionary of Etymology: The Origins and Development of Over 25,000 English Words Edited By Robert K. Barnhart, Sol Steinmetz (1999) Chambers Harrap Publishers L, ISBN 0-550-14230-4, p 752 [15] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) Caesarea Philippi: Banias, the Lost City of Pan I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1-85043-440-9 p 9 [16] Matthew. 16:13

Caesarea Philippi
[17] Josephus Flavius Antiquities of the Jews Book 18 chapter 2 para 1 [18] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid pp 20-22 [19] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid p 23 [20] Madden, Frederic William (1864) History of Jewish Coinage, and of Money in the Old and New Testament B. Quaritch, p 114 [21] Josephus, Flavius war of the Jews Book 3 chapter 10 para 7 As for Panium itself, its natural beauty had been improved by the royal liberality of Agrippa, and adorned at his expenses. [22] Emil Schrer, Fergus Millar, Gza Verms (1973) The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ (175 BC-135 AD) Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 0-567-02242-0 p 494 [23] Mark 8: 27-33, Mathew. 16; 13-23 and Luke 9: 18-22. [24] Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (1991) A Christological Catechism: New Testament Answers Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-3253-2 p 62 [25] Luke; 8:43. Mark 5:23 Matthew 9:20 [26] Norwich, John Julius (1988) Byzantium; the Early Centuries Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-011447-5 pp 88-92 [27] Brown, Peter, The World of Late Antiquity, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, ISBN 0-393-95803-5 p. 93. [28] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid p 99 [29] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid p 114 [30] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid pp 115-116 [31] Wilson, John Francis. (2004) ibid pp 118-119

192

Bibliography
al-Athr, Izz al-Dn Ibn (Translated 2006) The Chronicle of Ibn Al-Athr for the Crusading Period from Al-Kmil Fl-tarkh: The Years AH 491-541/1097-1146, the Coming of the Franks And the Muslim Response Translated by Donald Sidney Richards Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0-7546-4078-7 Brown, Peter The World of Late Antiquity, W. W. Norton, New York, 1971, ISBN 0-393-95803-5 Flavius, Josephus The Jewish War ISBN 0-14-044420-3 Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (1991) A Christological Catechism: New Testament Answers Paulist Press, ISBN 0-8091-3253-2 Gregorian, Vartan (2003) "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, ISBN 0-8157-3283-X Hindley, Geoffrey. (2004) The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy Carroll & Graf Publishers, ISBN 0-7867-1344-5 Kent, Charles Foster (1912) Biblical Geography and History reprinted by Read Books, 2007 ISBN 1-4067-5473-0 Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome (2008) The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700 Oxford University Press US, ISBN 0-19-923666-6 Norwich, John Julius (1988) Byzantium; the Early Centuries Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-011447-5 Polybius The Rise of the Roman Empire, Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert Contributor Frank William Walbank, Penguin Classics, 1979 ISBN 0-14-044362-2 Richard, Jean (1999) The Crusades c.1071-c.1291 Cambridge University press ISBN 0-521-62566-1 Salibi, Kamal Suleiman (1977) Syria Under Islam: Empire on Trial, 634-1097 Caravan Books, 1977 ISBN 0-88206-013-9 Wilson, John Francis. (2004) Caesarea Philippi: Banias, the Lost City of Pan I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1-85043-440-9

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193

Mount Hermon
Mount Hermon
Arabic: Jabal ash-Shaykh Hebrew: Har Hermon

Mount Hermon, viewed from Mount Bental in the Golan Heights Elevation 2,814 m (9,232 ft) Prominence 1,804 m (5,919 ft) Listing Country high point Ultra Location

Mount Hermon

Mount Hermon's summit straddles the border between Lebanon and Syria. Location Syria (southern slopes are located in the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights) Lebanon Anti-Lebanon mountain range

Range

Coordinates 332458N 355127E

Mount Hermon (Arabic: / ALA-LC: Jabal al-Shaykh / "Mountain of the Chief"; Hebrew: , Har Hermon, "Mount Hermon") is a mountain cluster in the Anti-Lebanon mountain range. Its summit straddles the border between Syria and Lebanon[1] and, at 2,814m (9,232ft) above sea level, is the highest point in Syria.[2] On the top there is Hermon Hotel, in the buffer zone between Syria and Israeli-occupied territory, the highest permanent manned UN position in the world.[3] The southern slopes of Mount Hermon extend to the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights, where the Mount Hermon ski resort is located.[4] A peak in this area rising to 2,236m (7,336ft) is the highest elevation in Israeli-controlled territory.

Mount Hermon

194

Geography
Mount Hermon is actually a cluster of mountains with three distinct summits, each about the same height. The Anti-Lebanon range extends for approximately 150km (93mi) in a northeast-southwest direction, running parallel to the Lebanon range on the west. The Hermon range covers an area of about 1000 square km, of which about 70km are under Israeli control. Most of the portion of Mount Hermon within the Golan Heights constitutes the Hermon nature reserve. The mountain forms one of the greatest geographic resources of the area. Because of its height it captures a great deal of precipitation in a very dry area of the world. The Jurassic limestone is broken by faults and solution channels to form a karst topography. Mount Hermon has seasonal winter and spring snow falls which cover all three of its peaks for most of the year. Melt water from the snow-covered mountain's western and southern bases seeps into the rock channels and pores, feeding springs at the base of the mountain, which form streams and rivers. These merge to become the Jordan River. Additionally, the runoff facilitates fertile plant life below the snow line, where vineyards and pine, oak, and poplar trees are abundant. The springs, and the mountain itself, are much contested by the nations of the area for the use of the water. Mount Hermon is also called the "snowy mountain," the "gray-haired mountain," and the "mountain of snow." It is also called "the eyes of the nation" in Israel because its elevation makes it Israel's primary strategic early warning system.

Epigraphy, Archaeology and references in religious texts

Gilgamesh passes near Mount Hermon in the Epic of Gilgamesh, where it was called Saria by Sumerians, "Saria and Lebanon tremble at the felling of the cedars".[5][6] In the Book of Enoch, Mount Hermon is the place where the Grigori ("Watcher") class of fallen angels descended to Earth. They swore upon the mountain that they would take wives among the daughters of men and take mutual imprecation for their sin (Enoch 6). The mountain or summit is referred to as Saphon in Ugaritic texts where the palace of Baal is located in a myth about Attar.[7][8] Various Temples of Mount Hermon can be found in villages on the slopes. There is a sacred building made of hewn blocks of stone on summit of Mount Hermon. Known as Qasr Antar, it is the highest temple of the ancient world and was documented by Sir Charles Warren in 1869. An inscription on a limestone stele recovered by Warren from Qasr Antar was translated by George Nickelsburg to read "According to the command of the greatest a(nd) Holy God, those who take an oath (proceed) from here." Nickelsburg connected the inscription with oath taken by the angels under Semjaza who took an oath together, bound by a curse in order to take wives in the Book of Enoch (1 Enoch 6:6). Hermon was said to have become known as "the mountain of oath" by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau. The name of God was supposed to be a Hellenized version of Baal or Hadad and Nickelsburg connected it with the place name of Baal-Hermon (Lord of Hermon) and the deity given by Enoch as "The Great Holy One".[9] The mountain was said to have become known as "the mountain of oath" by Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau. Eusebius recognized the religious importance of Hermon in his work "Onomasticon", saying "Until today, the mount in front of Panias and Lebanon is known as Hermon and it is respected by nations as a sanctuary". It has been related to the Arabic term al-haram, which means "sacred enclosure".[10] Another Greek inscription found in a large temple at Deir El Aachayer on the northern slopes notes the year that a bench was installed "in the year 242, under Beeliabos, also called Diototos, son of Abedanos, high priest of the gods of Kiboreia". The era of the gods of Kiboreia is not certain, as is their location which is not conclusively to be identified with Deir al-Achayer, but was possibly the Roman sanctuary or the name of a settlement in the area.[11]

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195

Climate
Climate data for Hermon (1640 meters above sea level) Month Average high C (F) Daily mean C (F) Average low C (F) Jan
4.3 (39.7)

Feb
5.0 (41)

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec
6.1 (43)

Year
13.19 (55.75)

7.6 12.0 16.0 19.4 21.6 21.7 19.1 15.3 10.2 (45.7) (53.6) (60.8) (66.9) (70.9) (71.1) (66.4) (59.5) (50.4)

1.2 1.9 4.1 7.5 11.2 14.5 16.8 16.7 14.3 11.2 7.0 3.3 9.14 (34.2) (35.4) (39.4) (45.5) (52.2) (58.1) (62.2) (62.1) (57.7) (52.2) (44.6) (37.9) (48.46) 1.8 1.2 0.6 3.1 6.4 9.6 12.0 11.8 9.5 (28.8) (29.8) (33.1) (37.6) (43.5) (49.3) (53.6) (53.2) (49.1) 7.2 (45) 3.7 0.5 5.12 (38.7) (32.9) (41.21)

Arab-Israeli conflict
The Israeli controlled sector was captured by Israel in the Six-Day War of June 1967. It was regained by Syria on October 6, 1973, the first day of the Yom Kippur War, following the First Battle of Mount Hermon. Israel recaptured both the formerly Israeli occupied sector and the pre-Yom Kippur War Syrian controlled sector on October 21, during Operation Dessert.[12] The pre-Yom Kippur War Syrian controlled sector was returned to Syria after the war.[13] The Israeli occupied sector of the mountain is patrolled by the Israel Defense Forces and the Israel Police, and the Israeli Security Forces maintain a strategic observation post for monitoring Syrian and Lebanese military activity near Mitzpe Shlagim ("Snow Lookout"), which is at an elevation of about 2,224 m (7,300 ft). Its neighboring peak, at 2,236 m, is the highest elevation in Israeli controlled territory.[14]

Ski resort
Since 1981, the Israeli-occupied portion of the Golan Heights has been governed under Golan Heights Law. Mount Hermon hosts the only ski resort in territory held by Israel, including a wide range of ski trails at novice, intermediate, and expert levels. It also offers additional winter family activities such as sledding and Nordic skiing. Those who operate the Hermon Ski area live in the nearby Israeli settlement of Neve Ativ and the Druze town of Majdal Shams. The ski resort has a ski school, ski patrol, and several restaurants located at either the bottom or peak of the area. The Syrian government has plans to develop a multi-billion dollar ski resort on the slopes of the mountain.[15]

The Mount Hermon ski resort on the southeastern slopes of the mountain

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196

References
[1] ACME Mapper terrain display (http:/ / mapper. acme. com/ ?ll=33. 416111,35. 8575& z=14& t=R& marker0=33. 416111,35. 8575,Mount Hermon) [2] "CIA World Fact Book: Syria" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ sy. html). 14 November 2011. . Retrieved 27 November 2011. "highest point: Mount Hermon 2,814 m" [3] Lovegrove, Dwayne. "A mini Nijmegen, but with gravel" (http:/ / www. forces. gc. ca/ site/ commun/ ml-fe/ article-eng. asp?id=3881). National Defence and the Canadian Forces. . Retrieved 29 November 2011. [4] The World's 18 Strangest Ski Resorts: The Mount Hermon Ski Resort (http:/ / www. popularmechanics. com/ outdoors/ sports/ skiing-boarding/ the-worlds-18-strangest-ski-resorts-2#fbIndex2), Shannon Hassett, Popular Mechanics [5] Rivka Nir; R. Mark Shipp (December 2002). Of dead kings and dirges: myth and meaning in Isaiah 14:4b-21 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LTyDz6JUv28C& pg=PA10). BRILL. pp.10, 154. ISBN978-90-04-12715-9. . Retrieved 15 June 2011. [6] Oxford Old Testament Seminar p. 9 & 10; John Day (2005). Temple and worship in biblical Israel (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eCMvAAAAYAAJ). T & T Clark. . Retrieved 18 June 2011. [7] John C. L. Gibson; Nick Wyatt; Wilfred G. E. Watson; Jeffery B. Lloyd (1996). Ugarit, religion and culture: proceedings of the International Colloquium on Ugarit, religion and culture, Edinburgh, July 1994 : essays presented in honour of Professor John C.L. Gibson (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SgxmAAAAMAAJ). Ugarit-Verlag. ISBN978-3-927120-37-2. . Retrieved 20 June 2011. [8] Manfried Dietrich; Oswald Loretz (1996). Ugarit-Forschungen, p. 236 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P9tiAAAAMAAJ). Verlag Butzon & Bercker.. ISBN978-3-7887-1588-5. . Retrieved 20 June 2011. [9] Nickelsburg, 1 Enoch 1. A Commentary on the Book of 1 Enoch, 136; 81108 (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001. [10] E. A. Myers (11 February 2010). The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East: Reassessing the Sources (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-cRrGQ8bIAkC& pg=PA65). Cambridge University Press. pp.65. ISBN978-0-521-51887-1. . Retrieved 18 September 2012. [11] Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IA-YlZqHv90C& pg=PA311). Harvard University Press. pp.311. ISBN978-0-674-77886-3. . Retrieved 18 September 2012. [12] "The Yom Kippur War" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3621090,00. html). Ynetnews. 2008-11-11. . Retrieved 2008-11-24. [13] "Syria" (http:/ / www. ynet. co. il/ english/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3285832,00. html). Ynetnews. 2007-12-23. . Retrieved 2008-11-25. [14] Cordesman, Anthony H. (2008). Israel and Syria (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zr6Y3VusjqIC). USA: Center for Strategic and International Studies. p.222. ISBN978-0-313-35520-2. . Retrieved 2 September 2011. "Its adjacent peak, at 2,236 meters, is the highest elevation in Israel." [15] Middle East Online (http:/ / www. middle-east-online. com/ english/ ?id=15277)

External links
Photos of Mount Hermon ski resort (in a snowless season) (http://www.co-ground.com/common/hermon_mt. html) Map of the ski resort (http://www.skihermon.co.il/bigmap.htm) Home page of the ski resort Hermon, English (http://www.skihermon.co.il/en-winterhome.html) Home page of the ski resort Hermon, Hebrew (http://www.skihermon.co.il/home.html) 360 degree view of Mount Hermon (Lebanese side) (http://www.discoverlebanon.com/en/panoramic_views/ bekaa/rashaya/view_hermon_mountain.php)

Jordan River

197

Jordan River
Jordan River (Hebrew: , Nehar haYarden Arabic: , Nahr al-Urdun)
River

Name origin: Hebrew: ( yardn, descender) < ( yarad, to descend) Country Regions District Tributaries -left -right Landmarks Source -location -elevation Mouth -elevation Length Israel, Jordan

[1]

West Asia, Eastern Mediterranean littoral Galilee

Banias River, Dan River, Yarmouk River, Zarqa River Hisbani River (Lebanon), Iyon River Sea of Galilee, Dead Sea

Anti-Lebanon Mountain Range at Mount Hermon, Golan Heights 2,814 m (9,232 ft) Dead Sea -416 m (-1,365 ft) 251 km (156 mi)

The Jordan River runs along the border between the Kingdom of Jordan and Israel and the Occupied West Bank.

The Jordan River (American English) or River Jordan (British English) (Hebrew: Nehar haYarden, Arabic: Nahr al-Urdun) is a 251-kilometre (156mi)-long river in West Asia flowing to the Dead Sea.

Jordan River Currently, the river serves as the eastern border of the State of Israel and of the Israeli-occupied Palestinian Territories. In Christian tradition, Jesus was baptised in it by John the Baptist. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan takes its name from this river.

198

Physical characteristics
Tributaries
The Hasbani (Arabic: Hasbani, Hebrew: Snir), which flows from Mount Lebanon. The Banias (Arabic: Banias, Hebrew: Hermon), arising from a spring at Banias at the foot of Mount Hermon. The Dan (Hebrew: Dan, Arabic: Leddan), whose source is also at the base of Mount Hermon. The Iyon (Hebrew: Iyon, Arabic: Dardara or Braghith), which flows from Lebanon.

Course
The river drops rapidly in a 75 kilometre run to swampy Lake Hula, which is slightly above sea level. Exiting the lake, it drops much more in the 25 kilometres down to the Sea of Galilee. The last section has less gradient, and the river meanders before entering the Dead Sea, about 422 metres below sea level, which has no outlet. Two major tributaries enter from the east during this last section: the Yarmouk River and Jabbok River. Its section north of the Sea of Galilee (Hebrew: kinneret, Arabic: Bohayrat Tabaraya, meaning Lake of Tiberias) is within the boundaries of Israel, and forms the western boundary of the Golan Heights. South of the lake, it forms the border between the Kingdom of Jordan (to the east) and Israel and the West Bank (to the west).

Human impact
In 1964, Israel began operating a dam that diverts water from the Sea of Galilee, a major Jordan River water provider, to the National Water Carrier. Also in 1964, Jordan constructed a channel that diverted water from the Yarmouk River, another main tributary of the Jordan River. Syria has also built reservoirs that catch the Yarmouk's waters. Environmentalists blame Israel, Jordan and Syria for extensive damage to the Jordan River ecosystem.[2]
Colored postcard of the Jordan River, by Karimeh In modern times, the waters are 70% to 90% used for human Abbud, circa 1925 purposes and the flow is much reduced. Because of this and the high evaporation rate of the Dead Sea, the sea is shrinking. All the shallow waters of the southern end of the sea have been drained in modern times and are now salt flats.

Small sections of the Jordan's upper portion, near the Sea of Galilee, have been kept pristine for baptisms. Most polluted is the 60-mile downstream stretch - a meandering stream from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea. Environmentalists say the practice has almost destroyed the river's ecosystem. Rescuing the river could take decades, according to environmentalists.[2] In 2007, Friends of the Earth Middle East (FoEME) named the Jordan River as one of the world's 100 most endangered ecological sites, due in part to lack of cooperation between Israel and neighboring Arab states.[3] The same environmentalist organization said in a report that the Jordan River could dry up by 2011 unless the decay is stopped.[4] The flow rate of the Jordan River once was 1.3 billion cubic metres per year; as of 2010, just 20 to 30 million cubic metres per year flow into the Dead Sea.[4] For comparison, the total amount of desalinated water produced by Israel by 2012 will be about 500 million cubic metres per year.

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199

Importance
The waters of the Jordan River are an important resource to the dry lands in the area and are a source of conflict among Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Israel and the Palestinians which began with 1951 Syrian border clashes. Mediation by the Eisenhower administration failed because Arab states would not agree to diverting 33% of water to Israel while only 23% originated there.[5] For Israel the Jordan, including the Yarmouk, supplies 40% of its fresh water, of which 70% is used in agriculture, while 80% of the water derived from renewable resources of the mountain aquifers in the region are also exploited by Israel.[5] The National Water Carrier Project was begun in 1956 and completed in 1964; it combined all previous water projects and delivered water to the dry Mitzpe Ramon in the south. Soon after, Syria and Jordan decided to divert the Jordan water at the source. The diversion works would have reduced the installed capacity of Israel's carrier by about 35%, and Israel's overall water supply by about 11%.[6] In April 1967 Israel conducted air raids into Syria to halt this work, and two months later the Six Day War followed. The use of Jordan River's water as a vital regional resource was the cause of the war confirmed by Ariel Sharon who has said, People generally regard June 5, 1967, as the day the Six Day War began. That is the official date, but in reality it started two and a half years earlier on the day Israel decided to act against the diversion of the Jordan River.[7]

Transport
Route 90, part of which is named after Rehavam Zeevi, connects the northern and southern tips of Israel and parallels the Jordan River on the western side.

Biblical importance
Hebrew Bible
In the Hebrew Bible the Jordan is referred to as the source of fertility to a large plain ("Kikkar ha-Yarden"), and it is said to be like "the garden of God" (Genesis 13:10). There is no regular description of the Jordan in the Bible; only scattered and indefinite references to it are given. Jacob crossed it and its tributary, the Jabbok (the modern Al-Zarqa), to reach Haran (Genesis32:11, 32:23-24). It is noted as the line of demarcation between the "two tribes and the half tribe" settled to the east (Numbers 34:15) and the "nine tribes and the half tribe of Manasseh" that, led by Joshua, settled to the west (Joshua13:7, passim).

"The Children of Israel Crossing the Jordan" by Gustave Dor

Opposite Jericho, it was called "the Jordan of Jericho" (Numbers34:15; 35:1). The Jordan has a number of fords, and one of them is famous as the place where many Ephraimites were slain by Jephthah (Judges 12:5-6). It seems that these are the same fords mentioned as being near Beth-barah, where Gideon lay in wait for the Midianites (Judges7:24). In the plain of the Jordan, between Succoth and Zarthan, is the clay ground where Solomon had his brass-foundries (1 Kings 7:46).

Jordan River In biblical history, the Jordan appears as the scene of several miracles, the first taking place when the Jordan, near Jericho, was crossed by the Israelites under Joshua (Joshua3:15-17). Later the two tribes and the half tribe that settled east of the Jordan built a large altar on its banks as "a witness" between them and the other tribes (Joshua22:10, 22:26, et seq.). The Jordan was crossed by Elijah and Elisha on dry ground (Kings22:8, 2:14). God thrived through Elisha performing two other miracles at the Jordan: God healed Naaman by having him bathe in its waters, and he made the axe head of one of the "children of the prophets" float, by throwing a piece of wood into the water (Kings25:14; 6:6). The Jordan was crossed by Judas Maccabeus and his brother Jonathan Maccabaeus during their war with the Nabataeans (1 Maccabees 5:24). A little later the Jordan was the scene of the battle between Jonathan and Bacchides, in which the latter was defeated (1 Maccabees 9:42-49).

200

New Testament
The New Testament states that John the Baptist baptised unto repentance[8] in the Jordan (Matthew 3:5-6; Mark1:5; Luke 3:3; John1:28). This is recounted as having taken place at Bethabara (John1:28). Jesus came to be baptised by him there (Matthew 3:13; Mark1:9; Luke3:21, 4:1). The Jordan is also where John the Baptist bore record of Jesus as the Son of God and Lamb of God (John1:29-36). The prophesy of Isaiah regarding the Messiah which names the Jordan (Isaiah9:1-2) is recounted in Matthew4:15.
The excavated remains of Bethabara, in modern-day Jordan, where John the Baptist is believed to have conducted his ministry.

The New Testament speaks several times about Jesus crossing the Jordan during his ministry (Matthew19:1; Mark10:1), and of believers crossing the Jordan to come hear him preach and to be healed of their diseases (Matthew4:25; Mark3:7-8). When his enemies sought to capture him, Jesus took refuge at Jordan in the place John had first baptised (John10:39-40).

Symbolic importance
The Jordan is a frequent symbol in folk, gospel, and spiritual music, or in poetic or literary works. Because the Israelites made a difficult and hazardous journey from slavery in Egypt to freedom in The Promised Land, the Jordan can refer to freedom. The actual crossing is the final step of the journey, which is then complete. Because of the baptism of Jesus, water from the Jordan is employed for the christening of heirs and princes in several Christian royal houses, such as the cases of Simeon of Bulgaria[9] or James Ogilvy.[10]

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201

In popular culture
The song "Ol' Man River" from the musical Show Boat mentions "Show me dat stream called de river Jordan, / Dat's de ol' stream dat I long to cross."[11] It is also referenced in the songs "Eve of Destruction", "Will You Be There", "The Wayfaring Stranger" and in the traditional African-American spiritual/folk song "Michael Row the Boat Ashore".

Gallery

Northern part of the Jordan Rift Valley as seen from space (NASA)

The Jordan River

In spring

Jordan River just south of the Bnot Ya'akov Bridge (May 2009)

References
[1] Klein, Ernest, A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language for Readers of English, The University of Haifa, Carta, Jerusalem, p.264 [2] Plushnick-Masti, Ramil (10 September 2006). "Raw Sewage Taints Sacred Jordan River" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2006/ 09/ 10/ AR2006091001354. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 10 October 2010. [3] "Endangered Jordan", Dateline World Jewry, World Jewish Congress, September, 2007 [4] Jordan River could die by 2011 (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news192044027. html) [5] Mehr, Farhang, The politics of water, in, Antonino Zichichi, Richard C. Ragaini, eds., International Seminar on Nuclear War and Planetary Emergencies, 30th session, Erice, Italy, 1826 August 2003, Ettore Majorana International Centre for Scientific Culture, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pie. Ltd., 2004, p.258 [6] "Appendix C: Historical review of the political riparian issues in the development of the Jordan River and basin management" (http:/ / www. unu. edu/ unupress/ unupbooks/ 80858e/ 80858E0m. htm). Murakami. 1995. . [7] Mehr, Farhang, The politics of water, in, Antonino Zichichi, Richard C. Ragaini, eds., International Seminar on Nuclear War and Planetary Emergencies, 30th session, Erice, Italy, 1826 August 2003, Ettore Majorana International Centre for Scientific Culture, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pie. Ltd., 2004, p.259 [8] Cf. Acts19:4 [9] Kate Connolly, "Once upon a time in Bulgaria" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2001/ jun/ 20/ worlddispatch. kateconnolly), The Guardian, 20 June 2001.

Jordan River
[10] "Baptized" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,871108-1,00. html). Time (magazine). May 22, 1964. . Retrieved 2008-03-11. "water from the River Jordan was sent for the occasion;" [11] "Showboat Cast * Ol' Man River Lyrics | from "Showboat"" (http:/ / www. stlyrics. com/ lyrics/ showboat/ olmanriver. htm). Stlyrics.com. . Retrieved 2012-11-07.

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External links
Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law (http://www.ppl.nl/index. php?option=com_wrapper&view=wrapper&Itemid=82) Peace Palace Library SMART - Multilateral project for sustainable water management in the lower Jordan Valley (http://www. iwrm-smart.org/) The Baptism of Christ - Uncovering Bethany beyond the Jordan - 47 min Documentary (http://www. tenthousandfilms.com/) Inventory of Conflict and Environment (ICE), Jordan River Dispute (http://www1.american.edu/ted/ice/ jordan.htm)

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Beit She'an
Beit She'an
Municipality of Israel Hebrewtranscription(s) Hebrew ISO 259 Translit. Also spelled

Beit an Bet an Bet She'an (official) Beth Shean (unofficial) Arabictranscription(s)

Arabic

Roman Cardo in Beit She'an National Park

Logo

Beit She'an
Coordinates: 3230N 3530E

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District Government Type Mayor Area Total Population (2009) Total Name meaning [1] 16,900 House of Tranquillity [2] 7330dunams (7.33km2or2.83sqmi) City Jacky Levi North

Beit She'an (Hebrew: Beth n; Arabic: ,Beesn, Beisan or Bisan)[2] is a city in the North District of Israel which has played an important role historically due to its geographical location at the junction of the Jordan River Valley and Jezreel Valley. It has also played an important role in modern times, acting as the regional center for the numerous villages in the Beit She'an Valley Regional Council.

History
Beit She'an's location has often been strategically significant, as it sits at the junction of the Jordan River Valley and the Jezreel Valley, essentially controlling access from the interior to the coast, as well as from Jerusalem to the Galilee.

Early Beit Shean

In 1933, archaeologist G.M. FitzGerald, under the auspices of the University of Pennsylvania Museum, carried out a "deep cut" on Tell el-Hosn, the large mound of Beth She'an, in order to determine the earliest occupation of the site. His results suggest that settlement began in the Late Neolithic or Early Chalcolithic periods (sixth to fifth millennia BCE.[3] Occupation continued intermittently up to the late Early Bronze Age I (3200-3000), according to pottery finds, and then resumes in the Early Bronze Age III.[4] A large cemetery on the northern side of the mound was in use from the Bronze Age to Byzantine times.[5] Canaanite graves dating from 2000 to 1600 BCE were discovered in 1926.[6]

Egyptian period
After the Egyptian conquest of Beit Shean by pharaoh Thutmose III in the 15th century BCE (recorded in an inscription at Karnak),[7] the small town on the summit of the Tell became the center of the Egyptian administration of the region.[8] The Egyptian newcomers changed the organization of the town and left a great deal of material culture behind. A large Canaanite temple (39 meters in length) excavated by the University of Pennsylvania Museum may date from about the same period as Thutmose III's conquest, though the Hebrew University excavations suggest that it dates to a later period.[9] Artifacts of potential cultic significance were found in the temple. Based on a stele found in the temple and inscribed with Egyptian hieroglyphs, the temple was dedicated to the god Mekal.[10] One of the

BetShe'an - an ancient house of Egyptian governor

Beit She'an University Museum's most important finds near the temple is the Lion and Dog stela (currently in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem), which depicts two combat scenes between these two creatures. The Hebrew University excavations determined that this temple was built on the site of an earlier one.[11] During the three hundred years of Egyptian rule (18th Dynasty to the 20th Dynasty), the population of Beit Shean appears to have been primarily Egyptian administrative officials and military personnel. The town was completely rebuilt, following a new layout, during the 19th dynasty.[12] The University Museum excavations uncovered two important stelae from the period of Seti I and a monument of Rameses II.[13] Pottery was produced locally, but some was made to mimic Egyptian forms.[14] Other Canaanite goods existed alongside Egyptian imports or locally-made Egyptian style objects.[15] The 20th dynasty saw the construction of large administrative buildings in Beit She'an, including Building 1500, a small palace for the Egyptian governor.[16] During the 20th dynasty, invasions of the "Sea Peoples" upset Egypt's control over the Eastern Mediterranean. Though the exact circumstances are unclear, the entire site of Beit She'an was destroyed by fire around 1150 BCE. The Egyptians did not attempt to rebuild their administrative center and lost control of the region.

205

Biblical period
An Iron Age I Canaanite city was constructed on the site of the Egyptian center shortly after its destruction.[17] Around 1100 BC, Canaanite Beit She'an was conquered by the Philistines, who used it as a base of operations for further penetrations into Israel proper. During a subsequent battle against the Jewish King Saul at nearby Mount Gilboa in 1004 BC, the Philistines prevailed. 1 Samuel 31 states that the victorious Philistines hung the body of King Saul on the walls of Beit Shean. Portions of these walls were excavated on Tel Beit She'an recently.[18] King David was able to capture Beit Shea'an in a series of brilliant military campaigns that expelled the Philistines from the area, pushing them back to their coastal strongholds of Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, Gaza, and Ashdod. During the Iron Age II period, the town became a part of the larger Israelite kingdom under the rule of the Biblical kings David and Solomon (1 Kings 4:12 refers to Beit Shean as a part of the district of Solomon, though the historical accuracy of this list is debated.[19] The Assyrian conquest of northern Israel under Tiglath-Pileser III (732 BCE) brought about the destruction of Beit She'an by fire. Minimal reoccupation occurred until the Hellenistic period.[14]

Map of the Decapolis showing the location of Beit She'an, (here called by its Greek name, Scythopolis)

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The Hellenistic and Roman Periods

The Hellenistic period saw the reoccupation of the site of Beit She'an under the new name Scythopolis, possibly named after the Scythian mercenaries who settled there as veterans. Little is known about the Hellenistic city, but during the 3rd century BCE a large temple was constructed on the Tell.[20] It is unknown which deity was worshipped there, but the temple continued to be used during Roman times. The local Greek mythology holds that the city was founded by Dionysus and that his nursemaid Nysa was buried there; thus it was sometimes known as Beit She'an theatre Nysa-Scythopolis. Graves dating from the Hellenistic period are simple singular rock-cut tombs.[21] From 301 to 198 BCE the area was under the control of the Ptolemies, and Beit She'an is mentioned in 3rd2nd-century BC written sources describing the Syrian Wars between the Ptolemid and Seleucid dynasties. In 198 BCE the Seleucids conquered the region. The town played a role after the Hasmonean Maccabee Revolt: Josephus records that the Jewish High Priest Jonathan was killed there by Demetrius II Nicator.[22] The city was destroyed by fire at the end of the 2nd century BCE.[23] In 63 BC, Pompey made Judea a part of the Roman empire. Beit She'an was refounded and rebuilt by Gabinius.[24] The town center shifted from the summit of the Tel to its slopes. Scythopolis prospered and became the leading city of the Decapolis, a loose confederation of ten cities that were centers of Greco-Roman culture, an event so significant that the town based its calendar on that year. The city flourished under the Pax Romana, as evidenced by high-level urban planning and extensive construction, including the best preserved Roman theatre of ancient Samaria, as well as a hippodrome, cardo, and other Roman baths trademarks of the Roman influence. Mount Gilboa, 7 kilometres (4.3mi) away, provided dark basalt blocks as well as water via an aqueduct. The town is said to have sided with the Romans during the Jewish uprising of 66 CE.[24] Excavations have focused less on the Roman period ruins, so less is known about this period. The University Museum excavation of the northern cemetery, however, did uncover significant finds. The Roman period tombs are of the loculus type: a rectangular rock-cut chamber with smaller chambers (loculi) cut into its side.[21] Bodies were placed in the loculi or inside sarcophagi which were the placed in the loculi. A sarcophagus with an inscription identifying its occupant in Greek as "Antiochus, the son of Phallion" may have held the cousin of Herod the Great.[21] One of the most interesting Roman grave finds was a bronze incense shovel with the handle in the form of an animal leg and hoof, now in the University of Pennsylvania Museum.[25]

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Byzantine period
Copious archaeological remains were found dating to the Byzantine period (330 CE 636 CE) and were excavated by the University of Pennsylvania Museum from 1921-23. A rotunda church was constructed on top of the Tell and the entire city was enclosed in a wall.[26] Textual sources mention several other churches in the town.[26] Beit She'an was primarily Christian, as attested to by the large number of churches, but evidence of Jewish habitation and a Samaritan synagogue indicate established communities of these minorities. The pagan temple in the city centre was destroyed, but the nymphaeum and Roman baths were restored. Many of the buildings of Scythopolis were damaged in the Galilee earthquake of 363, and in 409 it became the capital of the northern district, Palaestina Secunda.[23] Dedicatory inscriptions indicate a preference for donations to religious buildings, and many colourful mosaics, such as that featuring the zodiac in the Monastery of Lady Mary, or the one picturing a menorah and shalom in the House of Leontius' Jewish synagogue, were preserved. A Samaritan synagogue's mosaic was unique in abstaining from human or animal images, instead utilising floral and geometrical motifs. Elaborate decorations were also found in the settlement's many luxurious villas, and in the 6th century especially, the city reached its maximum size of 40,000 and spread beyond its period city walls.[23] The Byzantine period portion of the northern cemetery was excavated in 1926. The tombs from this period consisted of small rock-cut halls with vaulted graves on three sides.[27] A great variety of objects were found in the tombs, including terracotta figurines possibly depicting the Virgin and Child, many terracotta lamps, glass mirrors, bells, tools, knives, finger rings, iron keys, glass beads, bone hairpins, and many other items.[27]

Arab Caliphate period

In 634, Byzantine forces were defeated by the Muslim army of Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab and the city was renamed Baysan. The day of victory came to be known in Arabic as Yawm Baysan or "the day of Baysan."[2] The city was not damaged and the newly arrived Muslims lived together with its Christian population until the 8th century, but the city declined during this period and its glorious Roman-Byzantine architecture was lost to neglect. Structures were built in the streets themselves, narrowing them to mere alleyways, and makeshift shops were opened among the colonnades. The city reached a low point by the 8th century, witnessed by the removal of marble for producing lime, the blocking off of the main street, and the conversion of a main plaza into a cemetery.[28] Abu Ubayd al-Andalusi noted that the wine produced there was delicious.[2] On January 18, 749, Umayyad Baysan was completely devastated by the Golan earthquake of 749. A few residential neighborhoods grew up on the ruins, probably established by the survivors, but the city never recovered its magnificence. The city center moved to the southern hill where a Crusader fortress surrounded by a moat was constructed.[29] Jerusalemite historian al-Muqaddasi visited Baysan in 985, during Abbasid rule and wrote that it was "on the river, with plentiful palm trees, and water, though somewhat heavy (brackish.)" He further noted that Baysan was notable for its indigo, rice, dates and grape syrup known as dibs.[30] The town formed one of the districts (kurah) of Jund al-Urdunn during this period.[31] Its principal mosque was situated in the center of its marketplace.[32]

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Crusader period
In the Crusader period, the settlement was part of the Belvoir fiefdom. A small fort was built east of the defunct amphitheater.[33] During the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut, retreating Mongol forces passed in the vicinity but did not enter the town itself.

Mamluk period
Under Mamluk rule, Beit She'an was the principal town Crusader remains in the district of Damascus and a relay station for the postal service between Damascus and Cairo. It was also the capital of sugar cane processing for the region. Jisr al-Maqtu'a, a bridge consisting of a single arch spanning 25 feet and hung 50 feet above a stream, was built during that period.[2]

Ottoman period
Beit She'an was long home to a Jewish community. The 14th century Jewish topographer Ishtori Haparchi settled there and completed his work Kaftor Vaferech in 1322, the first Hebrew book on the geography of Palestine.[34] During the 400 years of Ottoman rule, Baysan lost its regional importance. During the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II when the Haifa-Damascus extension of the Hejaz railway was constructed, a limited revival took place. The local peasant population was largely impoverished by the Ottoman feudal land system which leased tracts of land to tenants and collected taxes from them for their use.[2] The Swiss-German traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt described Beisan in 1812 as "a village with 70 to 80 houses, whose residents are in a miserable state." In the early 1900s, though still a small and obscure village, Beisan was known for its plentiful water supply, fertile soil, and its production of olives, grapes, figs, almonds, apricots, and apples.[2]

British Mandate
In 1934, Lawrence of Arabia noted that "Bisan is now a purely Arab village," where "very fine views of the river can be had from the housetops." He further noted that "many nomad and Bedouin encampments, distinguished by their black tents, were scattered about the riverine plain, their flocks and herds grazing round them."[2] Beisan was home to a mainly Mizrahi Jewish community of 95 until 1936, when the 19361939 Arab revolt saw Beisan serve as a center of Arab attacks on Jews in Palestine.[34][35][36] In 1938, after learning of the murder of his close friend and Jewish leader Haim Sturmann, Orde Wingate led his men on an offensive in the Arab section of Beit She'an, the rebels suspected base.[37]

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According to population surveys conducted in British Mandate Palestine, Beisan consisted of 5,080 Muslim Arabs out of a population of 5,540 (92% of the population), with the remainder being listed as Christians.[38] In 1945, the surrounding "Beisan district" consisted of 16,660 Muslims (67%), 7,590 Jews (30%), and 680 Christians (3%); and Arabs owned 44% of land, Jews owned 34%, and 22% constituted public lands. The 1947 UN Partition Plan allocated Beisan and most of its district to the proposed Jewish state.[2][39][40]

Pioneers of Kibbutz Ein Hanatziv settle in Bet She'an, 1946

State of Israel
Jewish militias and local Bedouins first clashed during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War in February and March 1948, part of Operation Gideon,[2] which Walid Khalidi argues was part of a wider Plan Dalet.[41] Joseph Weitz, a leading Yishuv figure, wrote in his diary on May 4, 1948 that, "The Beit Shean Valley is the gate for our state in the Galilee...[I]ts clearing is the need of the hour."[2] Beisan fell to the Jewish militias three days before the end of British Mandate Palestine. After Israel's Declaration of Independence in May 1948, during intense shelling by Syrian border units, the Arab inhabitants, followed by the recapture of the valley by the Haganah, fled across the Jordan River.[42] The property and buildings abandoned after the conflict were then held by the state of Israel.[2] Most Arab Christians relocated to Nazareth. A ma'abarah (refugee camp) inhabited mainly by North African Jewish immigrants was erected in Beit She'an, and it later became a development town. From 1969, Beit She'an was a target for Katusha and mortar attacks from Jordan.[43] In the 1974 Beit She'an attack, militants of the Popular Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, took over an apartment building and murdered a family of four.[35] In 1999, Beit She'an was incorporated as a city.[44] Geographically, it lies in the middle of the Beit She'an Valley Regional Council.[45] Beit She'an was the hometown and political power base of David Levy, a prominent figure in Israeli politics. During the Second Intifada, in the 2002 Beit She'an attack, six Israelis were killed and over 30 were injured by two Palestinian militants, who opened fire and threw grenades at a polling station in the center of Bet She'an where party members were voting in the Likud primary.

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Demographics
According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), the population of the municipality was 16,900 at the end of 2009.[1] In 2005, the ethnic makeup of the city was 99.5% Jewish and other non-Arab (97.3% Jewish), with no significant Arab population. See Population groups in Israel. The population breakdown by gender was 8,200 males and 8,100 females.[46] The age distribution was as follows:
Age Percentage 0 - 4 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 19 20 - 29 30 - 44 45 - 59 60 - 64 65 - 74 75+ 9.9 9.4 9.4 9.4 17.6 17.7 16.7 2.7 4.4 2.8

[46] Source: Israel Central Bureau of Statistics

Economy
According to CBS, as of 2000, in the city there were 4,980 salaried workers and 301 are self-employed. The mean monthly wage in 2000 for a salaried worker in the city is ILS 4,200, a real change of 3.3% over the course of 2000. Salaried males have a mean monthly wage of ILS 5,314 (a real change of 5.1%) versus ILS 2,998 for females (a real change of -1.0%). The mean income for the self-employed is 6,106. There are 470 people who receive unemployment benefits and 1,409 people who receive an income guarantee. Beit She'an is a center of cotton-growing, and many of residents are employed in the cotton fields of the surrounding kibbutzim. Other local industries include a textile mill and clothing factory.[34]

Beit She'an park

Education
According to CBS, there are 16 schools and 3,809 students in the city. They are spread out as 10 elementary schools and 2,008 elementary school students, and 10 high schools and 1,801 high school students. 56.2% of 12th grade students were entitled to a matriculation certificate in 2001.

Transportation
Historically, Beit She'an was a railway station in the Jezreel Valley railway, an extension of the Hejaz railway. Currently, no railway is in use in the city, although a planned expansion by Israel Railways seeks to change this by Q1 2011.[47] The main means of transport in Beit She'an is the bus, and the city is served by the Egged (long-distance, bus 961) and Kavim (local) bus companies.[48]

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Archaeology
The University of Pennsylvania carried out excavations of ancient Beit She'an in 19211933. Relics from the Egyptian period were discovered, most of them in the Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem. Some are in the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia. Excavations at the site were resumed by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1983 and then again from 1989 to 1996 under the direction of A. Mazar.[49] The excavations have revealed no less than 18 successive ancient towns.[50][51] Ancient Beit She'an is one of the most impressive Roman and Byzantine sites in Israel, and it attracts approximately 300,000 tourists annually.[52]

Sports
The local football club, Hapoel Beit She'an spent several seasons in the top division in the 1990s, but folded in 2006 after several relegations. Maccabi Beit She'an currently play in Liga Bet.

Landmarks
The town lies within an area known as the Valley of Springs Regional Council where several springs provide leisure opportunities [53].

Twin towns Sister cities

Beit She'an is twinned with: Cleveland, United States (Since 1995) [54]

References
[1] "Table 3 - Population of Localities Numbering Above 2,000 Residents and Other Rural Population" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ population/ new_2010/ table3. pdf). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2010-06-30. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20101121034400/ http:/ / cbs. gov. il/ population/ new_2010/ table3. pdf) from the original on 21 November 2010. . Retrieved 2010-10-31. [2] Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. pp.159165. ISBN1-56656-557-X. [3] Braun, Eliot. Early Beth Shan (Strata XIX-XIII): G.M. FitzGeralds Deep Cut on the Tell, p. 28 [4] Braun, p.62; 64 [5] Rowe, Alan. The Topography and History of Beth Shan. Philadelphia: 1930, p. v [6] Rowe, p. 2 [7] No. 110: bt 'ir. Mazar, Amihai. Tel Beth-Shean: History and Archaeology. In One God, One Cult, One Nation. Ed. R.G. Kratz and H. Spieckermann. New York: 2010, P. 239 [8] Mazar 242 [9] Rowe, 10; http:/ / www. rehov. org/ project/ tel_beth_shean. htm [10] Rowe 11 [11] Mazar 247 [12] Mazar 250 [13] Rowe 23-32 [14] "Tel Beth Shean: An Account of the Hebrew University Excavations" (http:/ / www. rehov. org/ project/ tel_beth_shean. htm). Rehov.org. . Retrieved 2012-03-04. [15] Mazar 256 [16] Mazar 253 [17] "The Beth-Shean Valley Archaeological Project" (http:/ / www. rehov. org/ project/ index. htm). Rehov.org. . Retrieved 2012-03-04. [18] Dr. Murphy-O'Connor, Oxford University Guide to the Holy Land, 218-222 [19] Mazar 263 [20] Rowe 44 [21] Rowe 49 [22] Josephus Ant. XIII, vi, 1,2; Rowe 45 [23] 3 [24] Rowe 46 [25] Rowe 53 [26] Rowe 50

Beit She'an
[27] Rowe 52 [28] "Beit She'an" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Archaeology/ Beitshean. html). Jewish Virtual Library. . [29] Israel Antiquities Authority, Death of a City (http:/ / www. antiquities. org. il/ article_Item_eng. asp?sec_id=17& sub_subj_id=328& id=662#as) [30] le Strange, 1890, pp. 18-19. [31] le Strange, 1890, p. 30. [32] le Strange, 1890, p. 411. [33] "( " http:/ / parks. org. il/ BuildaGate5/ general2/ data_card. php?Cat=~30~~269867317~Card1~& ru=& SiteName=parks& Clt=& Bur=133421493) (in Hebrew). Israel National parks authority. . [34] "Bet She'an" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9078948/ Bet-Shean). Encyclopdia Britannica. . Retrieved 2008-10-20. [35] Ashkenazi, Eli (2007-05-11). "The other Beit She'an" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 831404. html). Haaretz. . Retrieved 2008-10-20. [36] "Virtual Israel Experience:Bet She'an" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ vie/ Betshean. html). Jewish Virtual Library. . Retrieved 2008-10-20. [37] Michael B. Oren (Winter 2001). "Orde Wingate: Friend Under Fire" (http:/ / azure. org. il/ article. php?id=279). Azure: Ideas for the Jewish Nation. . Retrieved 2007-05-15. [38] "Settled Population Of Palestine" (http:/ / domino. un. org/ UNISPAL. nsf/ 3822b5e39951876a85256b6e0058a478/ be931279021bcfb4852563d20078d30b!OpenDocument). United Nations. . Retrieved 2009-02-01. [39] prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. (1991). A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December, 1945 and January, 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. 1. Institute for Palestine Studies. pp.1213. ISBN0-88728-211-3. [40] United Nations. Land Ownership of PalestineMap prepared by the government of the British Mandate of Palestine on the instructions of the UN Ad Hoc Committee on the Palestine Question (http:/ / domino. un. org/ maps/ m0094. jpg) (Map). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081029103953/ http:/ / domino. un. org/ maps/ m0094. jpg) from the original on 29 October 2008. . Retrieved 2008-10-20. [41] Khalidi, Walid (Autumn 1988). "Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine". Journal of Palestine Studies (Journal of Palestine Studies) 18 (1): 433. doi:10.1525/jps.1988.18.1.00p00037. JSTOR2537591. [42] WPN Tyler, State lands and rural development in mandatory Palestine, 1920-1948, p. 79 [43] [Jordnian katusha,bazuka and mortar attack on Beit She'an],Marriv, 22 Jun 1969 , scan source: Historical Jewish press [44] "( " - http:/ / www. 7wonders. co. il/ -/ + -+ + ) (in Hebrew). 7wonders.co.il. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090305101549/ http:/ / www. 7wonders. co. il/ -/ + -+ + ) from the original on 5 March 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-08. [45] "Beit Shean" (http:/ / www. foeme. org/ docs/ Brochure_Beit_Shean_English. pdf). Friends of the Earth Middle East (FoEME). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090226132524/ http:/ / www. foeme. org/ docs/ Brochure_Beit_Shean_English. pdf) from the original on 26 February 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-04. [46] "Local Authorities in Israel 2005, Publication #1295 - Municipality Profiles Beit She'an" (http:/ / www. cbs. gov. il/ publications/ local_authorities2005/ pdf/ 120_9200. pdf) (PDF). Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. . Retrieved 2008-07-05. (Hebrew) [47] "Valley Railway HaifaBeit She'an" (http:/ / www. rail. co. il/ HE/ Development/ Planned/ Pages/ MesilatHaemek. aspx). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080926022944/ http:/ / www. rail. co. il/ HE/ Development/ Planned/ Pages/ MesilatHaemek. aspx) from the original on 26 September 2008. . Retrieved 2008-10-20. (Hebrew) [48] "Kavim Public Transportation Ltd." (http:/ / www. kavim-t. co. il/ content/ page. asp?maincat=1& catId=2& PageId=4). Kavim Public Transportation Ltd.. . Retrieved 2009-02-07. [49] Tel Beth Shean (http:/ / www. archaeowiki. org/ Tel_Beth_Shean) [50] "Beth Shean (Israel)" (http:/ / www. sas. upenn. edu/ aamw/ resources/ fieldwork/ #Beth Shean (Israel)). University of Pennsylvania. . Retrieved 2009-02-04. [51] Heiser, Lauren (2000-03-10). Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090226132524/ http:/ / srb. stanford. edu/ nur/ GP50/ laurenh. pdf) from the original on 26 February 2009. http:/ / srb. stanford. edu/ nur/ GP50/ laurenh. pdf. Retrieved 2009-02-04. [52] "Beit She'an" (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Peace Process/ Regional Projects/ Jordan Rift Valley- Tourism). Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090325063422/ http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Peace Process/ Regional Projects/ Jordan Rift Valley- Tourism) from the original on 25 March 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-08. [53] http:/ / www. gogalilee. org/ tamar. asp [54] "Cleveland Jews support Israel generously" (http:/ / blog. cleveland. com/ metro/ 2008/ 05/ cleveland_jews_support_israel. html). cleveland.com. Archived (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20090318164725/ http:/ / blog. cleveland. com/ metro/ 2008/ 05/ cleveland_jews_support_israel. html) from the original on 18 March 2009. . Retrieved 2009-02-08.

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Bibliography
Yoram Tsafrir and Gideon Foerster: "Urbanism at Scythopolis-Bet Shean in the Fourth to Seventh Centuries", Dumbarton Oaks Papers. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. Number Fifty-One, 1997. pp.85146. Yoram Tsafrir and Gideon Foerster: "Bet Shean Excavation Project 1988/1989", Excavations and Surveys in Israel 1989/1990. Volume 9. Israel Antiquities Authority. Numbers 94-95. Jerusalem 1989/1990, pp.120128. Yoram Tsafrir and Gideon Foerster: "The Dating of the 'Earthquake of the Sabbatical Year of 749 C. E.' in Palestine", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies of London. Vol. LV, Part 2. London 1992, pp.231235. Yoram Tsafrir and Gideon Foerster: "From Scythopolis to Baisn: Changes in the perception of the city of Bet Shean during the Byzantine and Arab Eras", Cathedra. For the History of Eretz Israel and its Yishuv, 64. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi. Jerusalem, July 1992 (in Hebrew). Gideon Foerster and Yoram Tsafrir: "Nysa-Scythopolis A New Inscription and the Titles of the City on its Coins", The Israel Numismatic Journal. Vol. 9, 19867, pp.5358. Sharon, Moshe (1999). Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum Palaestinae, Vol. II, B-C (http://books.google.com/ ?id=EPFDU8POrXIC). BRILL. ISBN90-04-11083-6. (see p.195 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=EPFDU8POrXIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA195#v=onepage&q=&f=false) ff)

Excavation Reports
[edit]

University of Pennsylvania Excavations

Braun, Eliot [2004], Early Beth Shan (Strata XIX-XIII) - G.M. FitzGerald's Deep Cut on the Tell, [University Museum Monograph 121], Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum, 2004. ISBN 1-931707-62-6 Fisher, Clarence [1923], Beth-Shan Excavations of the University Museum Expedition, 19211923", Museum Journal 14 (1923), pp.229231. FitzGerald, G.M. [1931], Beth-shan Excavations 1921-23: the Arab and Byzantine Levels, Beth-shan III, University Museum: Philadelphia, 1931. [1932], "Excavations at Beth-Shan in 1931", PEFQS 63 (1932), pp.142145. Rowe, Alan [1930], The Topography and History of Beth-Shan, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1930. [1940], The Four Canaanite Temples of Beth-shan, Beth-shan II:1, University Museum: Philadelphia, 1940. James, Frances W. & McGovern, Patrick E. [1993], The Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan: a Study of Levels VII and VIII, 2 volumes, [University Museum Monograph 85], Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania & University of Mississippi, 1993. ISBN 0-924171-27-8 [edit]

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Hebrew University Jerusalem Excavations

Mazar, Amihai [2006], Excavations at Tel Beth Shean 1989-1996, Volume I: From the Late Bronze Age IIB to the Medieval Period, Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society / Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2006. Mazar, A. and Mullins, Robert (eds) [2007], Excavations at Tel Beth Shean 1989-1996, Volume II: The Middle and Late Bronze Age Strata in Area R, Jerusalem: IES / HUJ, 2007. [edit]

General
Finkelstein, Israel [1996], "The Stratigraphy and Chronology of Megiddo and Beth-Shan in the 12th-11th Centuries BCE", TA 23 (1996), pp.170184. Garfinkel, Yosef [1987], "The Early Iron Age Stratigraphy of Beth Shean Reconsidered", IEJ 37 (1987), pp.224228. Geva, Shulamit [1979], "A Reassessment of the Chronology of Beth Shean Strata V and IV", IEJ 29 (1979), pp.610. Greenberg, Raphael [2003], "Early Bronze Age Megiddo and Beth Shean: Discontinuous Settlement in Sociopolitical Context", JMA 16.1 (2003), pp.1732. Hankey, V. [1966], "Late Mycenaean Pottery at Beth-Shan", AJA 70 (1966), pp.169171. Higginbotham, C. [1999], "The Statue of Ramses III from Beth Shean", TA 26 (1999), pp.225232. Horowitz, Wayne [1994], "Trouble in Canaan: A Letter of the el-Amarna Period on a Clay Cylinder from Beth Shean", Qadmoniot 27 (1994), pp.8486 (Hebrew). [1996], "An Inscribed Clay Cylinder from Amarna Age Beth Shean", IEJ 46 (1996), pp.208218. McGovern, Patrick E. [1987], Silicate Industries of Late Bronze-Early Iron Age Palestine: Technological Interaction between New Kingdom Egypt and the Levant, in Bimson, M. & Freestone, LC. (eds), Early Vitreous Materials, [British Museum Occasional Papers 56], London: British Museum Press, 1987, pp.91114. [1989], Cross-Cultural Craft Interaction: the Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan, in McGovern, P.E. (ed,), Cross-Craft and Cultural Interactions in Ceramics, [Ceramics and Civilisation 4, ed. Kingery, W.D.], Westerville: American Ceramic Society, 1989, pp.147194. [1990], The Ultimate Attire: Jewelry from a Canaanite Temple at Beth Shan, Expedition 32 (1990), pp.1623. [1994], Were the Sea Peoples at Beth Shan?, in Lemche, N.P. & Mller, M. (eds), Fra dybet: Festskrift til John Strange, [Forum for Bibelsk Eksegese 5], Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanus and University of Copenhagen, 1994, pp.144156. McGovern, P.E., Fleming, S.J. & Swann, C.P. [1993], The Late Bronze Egyptian Garrison at Beth Shan: Glass and Faience Production and Importation in the Late New Kingdom, BASOR 290-91 (1993), pp.127. Mazar, A., Ziv-Esudri, Adi and Cohen-Weinberger, Anet [2000], "The Early Bronze Age II-III at Tel Beth Shean: Preliminary Observations", in Philip, G. and Baird, D. (eds), Ceramics and Change in the Early Bronze Age of the Southern Levant, [Levantine Archaeology 2], Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000, pp.255278. Mazar, Amihai [1990], The Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean, Eretz-Israel 21 (1990), pp.197211 (.) [1992], Temples of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages and the Iron Age, in Kempinski, A. and Reich, R. (eds), The Architecture of Ancient Israel from the Prehistoric to the Persian Periods in Memory of Immanual (Munya) Dunayevsky, Jerusalem: IES, 1992, pp.161187. [1993a], The Excavations at Tel Beth-Shean in 1989-1990, in Biran, A. and Aviram, J. (eds), Biblical Archaeology Today, 1990 - Proceedings of the Second International Congress on Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem, 1990, Jerusalem: IES, 1993, pp.606619. 1993b, Beth Shean in the Iron Age: Preliminary Report and Conclusions of the 1990 - 1991 Excavations, IEJ 43.4 (1993), pp.201229. [1994], Four Thousand Years of History at Tel Beth-Shean, Qadmoniot 27.3-4 (1994), pp.6683 (.)

Beit She'an [1997a], Four Thousand Years of History at Tel Beth-Shean An Account of the Renewed Excavations, BA 60.2 (1997), pp.6276. [1997b], The Excavations at Tel Beth Shean during the Years 1989-94, in Silberman, N.A. and Small, D. (eds), The Archaeology of Israel Constructing the Past, Interpreting the Present, [JSOT Supplement Series 237], Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997, pp.144164. [2003], "Beth Shean in the Second Millennium BCE: From Canaanite Town to Egyptian Stronghold", in Bietak, M. (ed.), The Synchronisation of Civilisations in the Eastern Mediterranean in the SEcond Millennium BC, II. Proceedings of the SCIEM 2000-EuroConference Haindorf, 2 May7 May 2001, Vienna, 2003, pp.323339. [2006], Tel Beth-Shean and the Fate of Mounds in the Intermediate Bronze Age, in Gitin, S., Wright, J.E. and Dessel, J.P. (eds), Confronting the PastArchaeological and Historical Essays on Ancient Israel in Honor of William G. Dever, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2006, pp.105118. ISBN 1-57506-117-1 Mullins, Robert A. [2006], A Corpus of Eighteenth Dynasty Egyptian-Style Pottery from Tel Beth-Shean, in Maeir, A.M. and Miroschedji, P. de (eds), I Will Speak the Riddle of Ancient TimesArchaeological and Historical Studies in Honor of Amihai Mazar on the Occasion of His Sixtieth Birthday, Volume 1, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2006, pp.247262. ISBN 1-57506-103-1 Oren, Eliezer D. [1973], The Northern Cemetery of Beth-Shean, [Museum Monograph of the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania], E.J. Brill: Leiden, 1973. Porter, R.M. [1994-1995], "Dating the Beth Shean Temple Sequence", Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum 7 (199495), pp.5269. [1998], "An Egyptian Temple at Tel Beth Shean and Ramesses IV", in Eyre, C. (ed.), Seventh International Congress of Egyptologists, Cambridge, 39 September 1995, [Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 82], Uitgeverij Peeters: Leuven, 1998, pp.903910. Sweeney, Deborah [1998], "The Man on the Folding Chair: An Egyptian Relief from Beth Shean", IEJ 48 (1998), pp.3853. Thompson, T.O. [1970], Mekal, the God of Beth Shean, E.J. Brill: Leiden, 1970.

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External links
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0003_0_02880.html Map of Scythopolis (http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early History - Archaeology/Beit She-an - Map of the center of Scythopolis) Foreign Ministry of Israel Beit Shean Travel Guide (http://www.arzaworld.com/israel-travel-guide/israel-travel-destinations/beit-shean. aspx)

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Jericho
Jericho
Othertranscription(s) Arabic Also spelled Hebrew Ariha (official)

The city of Jericho

Municipal Seal of Jericho

Jericho
Location of Jericho within the Palestinian territories Coordinates: 3151N 3527E Governorate Founded Government Type Head of Municipality Population (2006) City (from 1994) Hassan Saleh [1] Jericho 9000 BCE

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Jurisdiction Name meaning Website 20,300 "Fragrant" www.jericho-city.org [2]

Jericho (pron.: /drko/; Arabic: Ar Arabic pronunciation:[aria]( listen); Hebrew: Yerio Hebrew pronunciation:[jeio]( listen)) is a Palestinian city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank. It is the administrative seat of the Jericho Governorate. In 2007 it had a population of 18,346.[3] The city was occupied by Jordan from 1948 to 1967, and has been held under Israeli occupation since 1967; administrative control was handed over to the Palestinian Authority in 1994.[4][5] It is believed to be one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world.[6][7][8] Jericho is described in the Old Testament as the "City of Palm Trees." Copious springs in and around the city attracted human habitation for thousands of years.[9] It is known in Judeo-Christian tradition as the place of the Israelites' return from bondage in Egypt, led by Joshua, the successor to Moses. Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of more than 20 successive settlements in Jericho, the first of which dates back 11,000 years (9000 BCE),[10] almost to the very beginning of the Holocene epoch of the Earth's history.

Etymology
Jericho's name in Hebrew, Yerio, is thought to derive from Canaanite word Rea, though an alternative theory holds that it is derived from the word meaning "moon" (Yarea) in Canaanite, since the city was an early centre of worship for lunar deities.[11] Jericho's Arabic name, Ar, means "fragrant" and derives from same Canaanite word Rea, of the same meaning as in Hebrew.[12][13][14][15]

History
Ancient period
Natufian Hunter-Gatherers c. 10,000 BCE Jericho has evidence of settlement dating back to 9000 BCE. During the Younger Dryas period of cold and drought, permanent habitation of any one location was not possible. However, the spring at what would become Jericho was a popular camping ground for Natufian hunter-gatherer groups, who left a scattering of crescent microlith tools behind them.[16] Around 9600 BCE the droughts and cold of the Younger Dryas Stadial had come to an end, making it possible for Natufian groups to extend the duration of their stay, eventually leading to year round habitation and permanent settlement.

Jericho Pre-Pottery Neolithic A, c. 9600 BCE The first permanent settlement was built near the Ein as-Sultan spring between 10000 and 9000 BCE. As the world warmed, a new culture based on agriculture and sedentary dwelling emerged, which archaeologists have termed "Pre-Pottery Neolithic A" (abbreviated as PPNA). PPNA villages are characterized by small circular dwellings, burials of the dead within the floors of buildings, reliance on hunting wild game, the cultivation of wild or domestic cereals, and no use of pottery. At Jericho, circular dwellings were built of clay and straw bricks left to dry in the sun, which were plastered together with a mud mortar. Each house measured about 5 metres across, and was roofed with mud-smeared brush. Hearths were located within and outside the homes.[17] By about 9400 BCE the town had grown to more than 70 modest dwellings. Population estimates have been as high as two to three thousand people, but it has been suggested that these are highly exaggerated by at least tenfold.[18] The most striking aspect of this early town was a massive stone wall over 3.6 metres high, and 1.8 metres wide at the base. Inside this wall was a tower over 3.6 metres high, contained an internal staircase with 22 stone steps.[13][19] The wall and tower were unprecedented in human history, and would have taken a hundred men more than a hundred days to construct it. The wall may have been a defence against flood water with the tower used for ceremonial purposes.[18] After a few centuries it was abandoned for a second settlement, established in 6800 BCE, perhaps by an invading people who absorbed the original inhabitants into their dominant culture. Artifacts dating from this period include ten plastered human skulls, painted so as to reconstitute the individuals' features.[13] These represent the first example of portraiture in art history, and it is thought that they were kept in people's homes while the bodies were buried.[8][20] This was followed by a succession of settlements from 4500 BCE onward, the largest being constructed in 2600 BCE.[13] Bronze age Archaeological evidence indicates that in the latter half of the Middle Bronze Age (circa 1700 BCE) the city enjoyed some prosperity, its walls having been strengthened and expanded.[21] According to carbon dating the Canaanite city (Jericho City IV) was destroyed between 1617 and 1530 BCE.[22] The site remained uninhabited until the city was refounded in the 9th century BCE.

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An aerial view of Jericho showing the ruins of Tell es-Sultan

Dwelling foundations unearthed at Tell es-Sultan in Jericho

Yarmukian pottery with fishbone decoration

Jericho Iron Age In the 8th century BCE the Assyrians invaded from the north, followed by the Babylonians, and Jericho was depopulated between 586 and 538 BCE, the period of the Jewish exile to Babylon. Cyrus the Great, the Persian king, refounded the city one mile southeast of its historic site at the mound of Tell es-Sultan and returned the Jewish exiles after conquering Babylon in 539 BCE.[13]

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Classical antiquity
Jericho went from being an administrative centre of Yehud Medinata under Persian rule to serving as the private estate of Alexander the Great between 336 and 323 BCE after his conquest of the region. In the middle of the 2nd century BCE Jericho was under Hellenistic rule of the Seleucid Empire, when the Syrian General Bacchides built a number of forts to strengthen the defences of the area around Jericho against the revolt by the Macabees.[23] One of these forts, built at the entrance to Wadi Qelt, was later refortified by Herod the Great, who named it Kypros after his mother.[24]
Remains from Herod's palace

The city came to be ruled by the Hasmoneans, following the success of the Maccabean Revolt, and remained such until the Roman influence over the area brought Herod to claim the Hasmenean throne of Judea. Herod originally leased Jericho from Cleopatra, after Mark Antony gave it to her as a gift. After their joint suicide in 30 BCE, Octavian assumed control of the Roman Empire and granted Herod free rein over Jericho, as part of the new Herodian domain. Herods rule oversaw the construction of a hippodrome-theatre (Tel es-Samrat) to entertain his guests and new aqueducts to irrigate the area below the cliffs and reach his winter palace built at the site of Tulul al-Alaiq.[24]

Roman aqueduct near Jericho

The dramatic murder of Aristobulus III in a swimming pool in Jericho, as told by the Roman Jewish historian Josephus, took place during a banquet organized by Herod's Hasmonean mother-in-law. After the construction of its palaces the city had functioned not only as an agricultural center and as a crossroad but as a winter resort for Jerusalem's aristocracy.[25] Herod was succeeded in Judea by his son, Archelus, who built an adjacent village in his name, Archelais, to house workers for his date plantation (Khirbet al-Beiyudat). First-century Jericho is described in Strabo's Geography as follows: Jericho is a plain surrounded by a kind of mountainous country, which in a way, slopes toward it like a theatre. Here is the Phoenicon, which is mixed also with all kinds of cultivated and fruitful trees, though it consists mostly of palm trees. It is 100 stadia in length and is everywhere watered with streams. Here also are the Palace and the Balsam Park."[24] The rock-cut tombs of a Herodian and Hasmonean era cemetery lie in the lowest part of the cliffs between Nuseib al-Aweishireh and Jebel Quruntul in Jericho and were used between 100 BCE and 68 CE.[24]

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The Christian Gospels state that Jesus passed through Jericho where he healed one[26][27] or two[28] blind beggars and inspired a local chief tax-collector named Zacchaeus to repent of his dishonest practices. The road between Jerusalem and Jericho is the setting for the Parable of the Good Samaritan[29] After the fall of Jerusalem to Vespasian's armies in the Great Revolt of Judea in 70 CE, Jericho declined rapidly, and by 100 CE it was but a small Roman garrison town.[30] A fort was built there in 130 and played a role in putting down the Bar Kochba revolt in 133. Accounts of Jericho by a Christian pilgrim are Jesus healing a blind man in Jericho, El Greco given in 333. Shortly thereafter the built-up area of the town was abandoned and a Byzantine Jericho, Ericha, was built a mile (1.61km) to the east, around which the modern town is centred.[30] Christianity took hold in the city during the Byzantine era and the area was heavily populated. A number of monasteries and churches were built, including St George of Koziba in 340 CE and a domed church dedicated to Saint Eliseus.[25] At least two synagogues were also built in the 6th century CE.[24] The monasteries were abandoned after the Persian invasion of 614.[13]

Arab Caliphate era

Jericho, by then named "Ariha" in Arabic variation, became part Jund Filastin ("Military District of Palestine"), part of the larger province of Bilad al-Sham. The Arab Muslim historian Musa b. 'Uqba (d. 758) recorded that caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab exiled the Jews and Christians of Khaybar to Jericho (and Tayma).[31] By 659 that district had come under the control of Mu'awiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty. That year, an earthquake struck Jericho and destroyed the city.[32] A decade later the pilgrim Arculf visited Jericho and found it in ruins, all its "miserable Canaanite" inhabitants now dispersed in shantytowns around the Dead Sea shore.[33]

Arabic Umayyad mosaic from Hisham's Palace in Jericho

The tenth Umayyad caliph, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, built a palatial complex known as Khirbet al-Mafjar about one mile north of Tell as-Sultan in 743, and two mosques, a courtyard, mosaics, and other items from it can still be seen in situ today, despite its having been partially destroyed in an earthquake in 747. Umayyad rule ended in 750 and was followed by the Arab caliphates of the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties. Irrigated agriculture was developed under Islamic rule, reaffirming Jericho's reputation as a fertile "City of the Palms".[34] Al-Maqdisi, the Arab geographer, wrote in 985 that, "the water of Jericho is held to be the highest and best in all Islam. Bananas are plentiful, also dates and flowers of fragrant odor."[35] Jericho is also referred to by him as one of the principal cities of Jund Filastin.[36] The city flourished until 1071 with the invasion of the Seljuk Turks, followed by the upheavals of the Crusades.

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Crusader rule
In 1179, the Crusaders rebuilt the Monastery of St. George of Koziba, at its original site six miles from the center of town. They also built another two churches and a monastery dedicated to John the Baptist, and are credited with introducing sugarcane production to the city.[37] In 1187, the Crusaders were evicted by the Ayyubid forces of Saladin after their victory in the Battle of Hattin, and the town slowly went into decline.[13]

Mamluk rule
In 1226, Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi said of Jericho, "it has many palm trees, also sugarcane in quantities, and bananas. The best of all the sugar in the Ghaur land is made here." In the 14th century, Abu al-Fida writes there are sulfur mines in Jericho, "the only ones in Palestine."[38]

14th century map of Jericho in Farchi Bible

Ottoman era
In the late years of Ottoman rule, Jericho formed part of the waqf and imerat of Jerusalem. The villagers processed indigo as one source of revenue, using a cauldron specifically for this purpose that was loaned to them by the Ottoman authorities in Jerusalem.[39] For most of the Ottoman period, Jericho was a small village of farmers susceptible to attacks by Bedouins. The French traveller Laurent d'Arvieux described the city in 1659 as "now desolate, and consists only of about fifty poor houses, in bad condition... The plain around is extremely fertile; the Postcard image depicting Jericho in the late 19th soil is middling fat; but it is watered by several rivulets, which flow or early 20th century into the Jordan. Notwithstanding these advantages. only the gardens adjacent to the town are cultivated."[40] In the 19th century, European scholars, archaeologists and missionaries visited often. The first excavation at Tell as-Sultan was carried out in 1867, and the monasteries of St. George of Koziba and John the Baptist were refounded and completed in 1901 and 1904, respectively.[13]

Modern era
After the collapse of the Ottoman empire at the end of World War I, Jericho came under the rule of the British Mandate. The British built fortresses in Jericho during World War II with the help of the Jewish

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company Solel Boneh, and bridges were rigged with explosives in preparation for a possible invasion by German allied forces.[41]

Greek Orthodox Monastery of Temptation overlooking modern Jericho

Jericho was occupied by the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. The Jericho Conference, organized by King Abdullah and attended by over 2,000 Palestinian delegates in 1948 proclaimed "His Majesty Abdullah as King of all Palestine" and called for "the unification of Palestine and Transjordan as a step toward full Arab unity." In mid-1950, Jordan formally annexed the West Bank and Jericho residents, like other residents of West Bank localities became Jordanian citizens.[42] Jericho was occupied by Israel during the Six-Day War of 1967 along with the rest of the West Bank. It was the first city handed over to Palestinian Authority control in accordance with the Oslo accords.[43] The limited Palestinian self-rule of Jericho was agreed on in the GazaJericho Agreement of 4 May 1994. Part of the GazaJericho Agreement was a Protocol on Economic Relations, signed on 29 April 1994.[44] The city is in an enclave of the Jordan Valley that is in Area A of the West Bank, while the surrounding area is designated as being in Area C under full Israeli military control. Four roadblocks encircle the enclave, restricting Jericho's Palestinian population's movement through the West Bank.[45] In response to the 2001 Second Intifada and suicide bombings, Jericho was re-occupied by Israeli troops.[43] A two meter deep trench was built around a large part of the city to control Palestinian traffic to and from Jericho.[46] On 14 March 2006, the Israel Defense Forces launched Operation Bringing Home the Goods, raiding a Jericho prison to capture PFLP general secretary, Ahmad Sa'adat and five other prisoners charged with assassinating Israeli tourist minister Rehavam Zeevi who were about to be released.[47] After Hamas assaulted a neighborhood in Gaza mostly populated by the Fatah-aligned Hilles clan in response to their attack on Hamas which killed six of its members, the Hilles clan was relocated to Jericho on 4 August 2008.[48] The city's current mayor is Hassan Saleh, a former lawyer. In 2009, Palestinian Authority Prime Minister Salam Fayyad and U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs David Johnson inaugurated the Presidential Guard Training Center in Jericho, a $9.1 million training facility for Palestinian Authority security forces built with U.S. funding.[49]

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Geography
Jericho is located 258 metres (846ft) below sea level in an oasis in Wadi Qelt in the Jordan Valley.[7][13][50] The nearby spring of Ein es-Sultan produces 3.8m3/min (1,000 gallons) of water per minute, irrigating some 10 square kilometres (2,500acres) through multiple channels and feeding into the Jordan River, 10 kilometres (6mi) away.[13][50] Annual rainfall is 160mm (6.4in), mostly concentrated between November and February. The average temperature is 15 C (59F) in January and 31 C (88F) in August. The constant sunshine, rich alluvial soil, and abundant water from the spring have always made Jericho an attractive place for settlement.[50]

250px}Jericho cable car

Demographics
Demographics have varied widely depending on the dominant ethnic group and rule in the region over the past three thousand years. In a 1945 land and population survey by Sami Hadawi, 3,010 inhabitants is the figure given for Jericho, of which 94% (2840) were Arab and 6% (170) were Jews.[51] In the first census carried out by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, Jericho's population was 14,674. Palestinian refugees constituted a significant 43.6% of the residents or Municipality of Jericho, 1967 6,393 people.[52] The gender make-up of the city was 51% male and 49% female. Jericho has a young population, with nearly half (49.2%) of the inhabitants being under the age of 20. People between the ages of 20 and 44 made up 36.2% of the population, 10.7% between the ages of 45 and 64, and 3.6% were over the age of 64.[53] The Christian community makes up around 1% of the population.[54] In the 2007 census by the PCBS, Jericho had a population of 18,346.[3]

Economy
In 1994, Israel and the Palestinians signed an economic accord that enabled Palestinians in Jericho to open banks, collect taxes and engage in export and import in preparation for self-rule.[55] In 1998, a $150 million casino-hotel was built in Jericho with the backing of Yasser Arafat.[56] One of Jerichos primary sources of income is Christian tourism. A cable car takes Christian pilgrims up the hill to the Mount of Temptation, topped by a Greek Orthodox monastery with panoramic views of the region.[4] In 2010, Jericho, with its proximity to the Dead Sea, was declared the most popular destination among Palestinian tourists.[57]

Jericho marketplace, 1967

Jericho Agriculture is another source of income, with banana groves ringing the city.[4] The Jericho Agro-Industrial Park is a public-private enterprise being developed in the Jericho area. Agricultural processing companies are being offered financial concessions to lease plots of land in the park in a bid to boost Jericho's economy.[58]

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Schools and religious institutions

In 1925, Christian friars opened a school for 100 pupils that became the Terra Santa School. The city has 22 state schools and a number of private schools.[54]

Health care
In April 2010, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) held a groundbreaking ceremony for the renovation of the Jericho Governmental Hospital. USAID is providing $2.5 million in funding for this project.[59]

Archaeology
The first excavations of the site were made by Charles Warren in 1868. Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger excavated Tell es-Sultan and Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq between 19071909 and in 1911, and John Garstang excavated between 1930 and 1936. Extensive investigations using more modern techniques were made by Kathleen Kenyon between 1952 and 1958. Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolo Marchetti conducted excavations in 1997-2000. Since 2009 the Italian-Palestinian archaeological project of excavation and restoration was resumed by Rome "La Sapienza" University and Palestinian MOTA-DACH under the direction of Lorenzo Nigro and Hamdan Taha (www.lasapienzatojericho.it).

Tell es-Sultan
The earliest settlement was located at the present-day Tell es-Sultan (or Sultan's Hill), a couple of kilometers from the current city. In Arabic and in Hebrew, tell means "mound" - consecutive layers of habitation built up a mound over time, as is common for ancient settlements in the Middle East and Anatolia. Jericho is the type site for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPN A) and B periods.

Stone Age
Epipaleolithicconstruction at the site appears to predate the invention of agriculture, with the construction of Natufian culture structures beginning earlier than 9000 BCE, the very beginning of the Holocene epoch in geologic history.[8] Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (8350 7370 BCE); sometimes it is called Sultanian. The site is a 40,000 square metre settlement surrounded by the Wall of Jericho, with the Tower of Jericho in the centre of one wall. Along with Tell Qaramel, this is one of the first walls ever to be discovered, thus suggesting some kind of social organization. The town contained round

Tower of Jericho

Jericho mud-brick houses, yet no street planning.[60] The identity and number of the inhabitants (some sources say 20003000 dwellers)[10] of Jericho during the PPN A period is still under debate, though it is known that they had domesticated emmer wheat, barley and pulses and hunted wild animals. Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, 7220 BCE to 5850 BCE (but carbon-14-dates are few and early). Expanded range of domesticated plants. Possible domestication of sheep. Apparent cult involving the preservation of human skulls, with facial features reconstructed from plaster and eyes set with shells in some cases. After the PPN A settlement-phase there was a settlement hiatus of several centuries, then the PPN B settlement was founded on the eroded surface of the tell. The architecture consisted of rectilinear buildings made of mudbricks on stone foundations. The mudbricks were loaf-shaped with deep thumb prints to facilitate bounding. No building has been excavated in its entirety. Normally, several rooms cluster around a central courtyard. There is one big room (6.5m 4m (21.33ft 13.12ft) and 7m 3m (22.97ft 9.84ft)) with internal divisions, the rest are small, presumably used for storage. The rooms have red or pinkish terrazzo-floors made of lime. Some impressions of mats made of reeds or rushes have been preserved. The courtyards have clay floors. Kathleen Kenyon interpreted one building as a shrine. It contained a niche in the wall. A chipped pillar of volcanic stone that was found nearby might have fit into this niche. The dead were buried under the floors or in the rubble fill of abandoned buildings. There are several collective burials. Not all the skeletons are completely articulated, which may point to a time of exposure before burial. A skull cache contained seven skulls. The jaws were removed and the faces covered with plaster; cowries were used as eyes. A total of ten skulls were found. Modelled skulls were found in Tell Ramad and Beisamoun as well. Other finds included flints, such as arrowheads (tanged or side-notched), finely denticulated sickle-blades, burins, scrapers, a few tranchet axes, obsidian, and green obsidian from an unknown source. There were also querns, hammerstones, and a few ground-stone axes made of greenstone. Other items discovered included dishes and bowls carved from soft limestone, spindle whorls made of stone and possible loom weights, spatulae and drills, stylised anthropomorphic plaster figures, almost life-size, anthropomorphic and theriomorphic clay figurines, as well as shell and malachite beads. In the late 4th millennium BCE, Jericho was occupied during Neolithic 2 and the general character of the remains on the site link it culturally with Neolithic 2 sites in the West Syrian and Middle Euphrates groups. This link is established by the presence of rectilinear mud-brick buildings and plaster floors that are characteristic of the age.

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Bronze Age
During the Middle Bronze Age Jericho was a small prominent city of the Canaan region, reaching its greatest Bronze Age extent in the period from 1700 to 1550 BCE. It seems to have reflected the greater urbanization in the area at that time, and has been linked to the rise of the Maryannu, a class of chariot-using aristocrats linked to the rise of the Mitannite state to the north. Kathleen Kenyon reported ...the Middle Bronze Age is perhaps the most prosperous in the whole history of Kna'an. ... The defenses ... belong to a fairly advanced date in that period and there was a massive stone revetment... part of a complex system of defenses (pp.213218).[61] Bronze-age Jericho fell in the 16th century at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the calibrated carbon remains from its City-IV destruction layer dating to 16171530 BCE. Notably this carbon dating c. 1573 BCE confirmed the accuracy of the stratigraphical dating c. 1550 by Kenyon.

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Synagogues
The Jericho Synagogue in the Royal Maccabean winter palace at Jericho dates from 70-50 BCE. A synagogue dating to the late 6th or early 7th century CE was discovered in Jericho in 1936, and was named Shalom Al Israel synagogue, or "peace unto Israel," after the central Hebrew motto in its mosaic floor. It was controlled by Israel after the Six Day War, but after the handover to Palestinian Authority control per the Oslo Accords, it has been a source of conflict. On the night of October 12, 2000, the synagogue was vandalized by Palestinians who burned holy books and relics and damaged the mosaic.[62][63]

Copy of Mosaic of Shalom Al Yisrael Synagogue, 6th-7th CE

The Na'aran synagogue, another Byzantine era construction, was discovered on the northern outskirts of Jericho in 1918. While less is known of it than Shalom Al Israel, it has a larger mosaic and is in similar condition.[64]

Sports
Jericho International Stadium, an association football stadium is the home of Hilal Areeha, which plays in the West Bank Premier League. The stadium seats 15,000 spectators.[65]

Panorama of Jericho

Twin towns - Sister cities

Jericho is twinned with: Campinas in Brazil Pisa in Italy (since 2000)[66] Kragujevac in Serbia Lyon in France Calipatria, California in the USA Iai in Romania Lrdal in Norway(since 1998)

Jericho

227

Notable residents
Saeb Erekat[67] Musa Alami

References
[1] Elected City Council Municipality of Jericho (http:/ / www. jericho-city. org/ etemplate. php?id=12). Retrieved 8 March 2008. [2] http:/ / www. jericho-city. org/ [3] 2007 PCBS Census (http:/ / www. pcbs. gov. ps/ Portals/ _PCBS/ Downloads/ book1487. pdf#page=109). Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). [4] The lost Jewish presence in Jericho, [[Jerusalem Post (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Features/ InThespotlight/ Article. aspx?id=254558)]] [5] Palestinian farmers ordered to leave lands (http:/ / www. aljazeera. com/ news/ middleeast/ 2012/ 08/ 2012829184442780471. html) Al Jazeera. 29 Aug 2012 [6] Gates, Charles (2003). "Near Eastern, Egyptian, and Aegean Cities", Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome. Routledge. p.18. ISBN0-415-01895-1. ""Jericho, in the Jordan River Valley in Palestine, inhabited from ca. 9000 BCE to the present day, offers important evidence for the earliest permanent settlements in the Near East."" [7] Murphy-O'Connor, 1998, p. 288. [8] Freedman et al., 2000, p. 689671. [9] Bromiley, 1995, p. 715. [10] "Jericho" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9043547/ Jericho), Encyclopdia Britannica [11] "Strong's Bible Dictionary" (http:/ / www. htmlbible. com/ sacrednamebiblecom/ kjvstrongs/ STRHEB34. htm). Htmlbible.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-31. [12] Schreiber, 2003, p. 141. [13] Ring et al., 1994, p. 367370 (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC& pg=RA1-PA367& dq=jericho+ babylonian+ ring& lr=#v=onepage& q=& f=false). [14] Bromiley, 1995, p. 1136. [15] "Bibliotheca Sacra 132" (http:/ / faculty. gordon. edu/ hu/ bi/ Ted_Hildebrandt/ OTeSources/ 01-Genesis/ Text/ Articles-Books/ Waltke_CreationIV_BSac. pdf). 1975. pp.32742. . [16] Mithen, Steven (2006). After the ice: a global human history, 20,000-5000 BC (1st Harvard University Press pbk. ed. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp.57. ISBN0-674-01999-7. [17] Mithen, Steven (2006). After the ice : a global human history, 20,000-5000 BC (1st Harvard University Press pbk. ed. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp.54. ISBN0-674-01999-7. [18] Akkermans, Peter M. M.; Glenn M. Schwartz (2004). The Archaeology of Syria: From Complex Hunter-Gatherers to Early Urban Societies (c.16,000-300 BC). Cambridge University Press. p.57. ISBN978-0521796668. [19] Mithen, Steven (2006). After the ice : a global human history, 20,000-5000 BC (1st Harvard University Press pbk. ed. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp.59. ISBN0-674-01999-7. [20] Janson and Janson, 2003. [21] Scneller, 1994, p. 138. [22] Bruins, HJ and van der Plicht, J (1995). Tell es-Sultan (Jericho): Radiocarbon results of short-lived cereal and multiyear charcoal samples from the end of the Middle Bronze Age, Radiocarbon Vol. 37, pp. 213220. A radiocarbon date of 33067 BP was obtained for grains probably remaining from the final few years. This corresponds to a date range (2 sigma) of 16171530 BCE by the 2004 calibration scale. (http:/ / calib. qub. ac. uk/ calib/ calib. html) [23] 1 Macc 9:50 [24] Murphy-O'Connor, 1998, pp. 289291. [25] Jericho - (Ariha) (http:/ / 198. 62. 75. 1/ www1/ ofm/ mad/ discussion/ 012discuss. html) Studium Biblicum Franciscum - Jerusalem. [26] "Blind Bartimaeus Receives his Sight, Mark 10:46" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Mark+ 10& version=NIV). Biblegateway.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-31. [27] "A Blind Beggar Receives His Sight Luke 18:35" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Luke+ 18:35& version=NIV). Biblegateway.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-31. [28] "Jesus Heals Two Blind Beggars, Matthew 20:29" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Matthew+ 20& version=NIV). Biblegateway.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-31. [29] "The Parable of the Good Samaritan Luke 10:25" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Luke+ 10& version=NIV). Biblegateway.com. . Retrieved 2011-03-31. [30] Losch, 2005, p. 117118. [31] Several hadith collections: e.g. Bukhari, Sahih as translated Muammad Musin Khn, The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih al-Bukhari (India: Kitab Bhavan, 1987) 3.39.531 and 4.53.380, and Muslim Sahih trans. Abdul Hamid Siddiqui (Lahore: Kazi Publications, 1976) 10.3763.

Jericho
[32] The Maronite Chronicle, written during Mu'awiya's caliphate. Note that for propaganda reasons it dates the earthquake to the wrong year: Andrew Palmer, The Seventh Century in the West-Syrian Chronicles (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1993), 30, 31, 32. [33] The Pilgrimage of Arculf in the Holy Land, De Locis Sanctis as translated by Rev. James Rose MacPherson (W. London: BD. 24, Hanover Square, 1895), ch. I.11. [34] Shahin, 2005, p. 285. [35] Shahin, 2005, p. 283. [36] al-Muqaddasi quoted in Le Strange, 1890, p.39. [37] Hull, 1855. [38] al-Hamawi and Abu-l Fida quoted in Le Strange, 1890, p.397. [39] Singer, 2002, p. 120. [40] Graham, Peter. A Topographical Dictionary of Palestine. London, 1836. Page 122. [41] Friling and Cummings, 2005, p. 65. [42] Benvenisti, 1998, pp. 27-28. [43] At 10th anniversary, a far poorer Palestinian Authority (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2004/ 0914/ p01s04-wome. html) [44] Simons, Marlise (1994-04-30). "Gaza-Jericho Economic Accord Signed by Israel and Palestinians" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9502EED91530F933A05757C0A962958260). Jericho (West Bank); Middle East; Gaza Strip: New York Times. . Retrieved 2011-03-31. [45] nim, Asad (2010), Palestinian Politics After Arafat: A Failed National Movement, Indiana University Press, p.35, ISBN9780253354273 [46] ARIJ & LRC, 20 March 2001, The Tightening of the Siege on Jericho: Israel Employs a New Policy of Trench Digging (http:/ / www. poica. org/ editor/ case_studies/ view. php?recordID=138) [47] Israel holds militant after siege (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ middle_east/ 4806714. stm) 14 March 2006 BBC News [48] Jerusalem Post (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1215331192135& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull) 4 August 2008 IDF: Hilles clan won't boost terrorism Yaacov Katz And Khaled Abu Toameh [49] Training Center for Palestinian Authority Security Forces Opens in Jericho (http:/ / jerusalem. usconsulate. gov/ pr150309. html) [50] Holman, 2006, p. 1391. [51] Hadawi, 1970, p.57 (http:/ / www. palestineremembered. com/ download/ VillageStatistics/ Table I/ Jerusalem/ Page-057. jpg) [52] Palestinian Population by Locality and Refugee Status (http:/ / www. pcbs. gov. ps/ Portals/ _pcbs/ phc_97/ jer_t6. aspx) Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). [53] Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years (http:/ / www. pcbs. gov. ps/ Portals/ _pcbs/ phc_97/ jer_t1. aspx) (PCBS). [54] Jericho: A small Christian community and their school (http:/ / www. ilsussidiario. net/ News/ English-Spoken-Here/ From-the-World/ 2012/ 5/ 24/ HOLY-LAND-Jericho-A-small-Christian-community-and-their-school/ 283382/ ) [55] Gaza-Jericho Economic Accord Signed by Israel and Palestinians (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1994/ 04/ 30/ world/ gaza-jericho-economic-accord-signed-by-israel-and-palestinians. html?pagewanted=all& src=pm) [56] Walls going up in Jericho -- construction of casino-hotel Palestinians, Israelis have role in project (http:/ / articles. baltimoresun. com/ 1998-07-26/ news/ 1998207031_1_casinos-austria-play-in-casinos-jericho) [57] Palestinians aim to push tourism beyond Bethlehem (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ expat/ expatnews/ 7214355/ Palestinians-aim-to-push-tourism-beyond-Bethlehem. html) [58] Jericho business park aims to inch Palestine towards sustainability, [[The Guardian (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ global-development/ 2012/ jun/ 18/ jericho-business-park-palestine-sustainability)]] [59] USAID to Renovate the Jericho Governmental Hospital (http:/ / www. usaid. gov/ wbg/ pr_April_14_2010. html) [60] "Old Testament Jericho" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080220035014/ http:/ / www. ourfatherlutheran. net/ biblehomelands/ palestine/ jericho/ jericho. htm). Web.archive.org. 2008-02-20. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ourfatherlutheran. net/ biblehomelands/ palestine/ jericho/ jericho. htm) on 2008-02-20. . Retrieved 2011-03-31. [61] Kenyon, Kathleen "Digging up Jericho"(London, 1957) [62] "The Palestinian Authority and the Jewish Holy Sites" (http:/ / www. jcpa. org/ JCPA/ Templates/ ShowPage. asp?DBID=1& LNGID=1& TMID=111& FID=377& PID=1852& IID=1923). JCPA. . Retrieved 21 February 2010. [63] "Jewish life in Jericho" (http:/ / www. jewishjericho. org. il/ english/ places/ shalomalyisrael. html). Jewishjericho.org.il. . Retrieved 5 May 2009.{} [64] "Jewish life in Jericho" (http:/ / www. jewishjericho. org. il/ english/ places/ naaran. html). Jewishjericho.org.il. . Retrieved 5 May 2009.{} [65] World Stadiums (http:/ / www. worldstadiums. com/ middle_east/ countries/ palestine. shtml) [66] "Pisa - Official Sister Cities" (http:/ / www. comune. pisa. it/ english/ doc/ gemhome. htm). Comune di Pisa, Via degli Uffizi, 1 - 56100 Pisa centralino: +39 050 910111. . Retrieved 16 December 2008. [67] His West Bank Oasis, Palestinian Adviser Talks Peace (http:/ / forward. com/ articles/ 435/ from-his-west-bank-oasis-palestinian-adviser-talk/ From)

228

Jericho

229

Bibliography
Benvenisti, Meron (1998). City of Stone: The Hidden History of Jerusalem. University of California Press. ISBN0-520-20768-8, 9780520207684. Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995). The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN0-8028-3782-4, 9780802837820. Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C.; Beck, Astrid B. (2000). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN0-8028-2400-5, 9780802824004. Kenyon, Kathleen (1957). Digging Up Jericho. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed. Touchstone. ISBN0-684-86913-6. Janson, Horst Woldemar; Janson, Anthony F. (2003). History of Art: The Western Tradition. Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-182895-9. Gates, Charles (2003). Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome.. Friling, Tuvia; Cummings, Ora (2005). Arrows in the Dark: David Ben-Gurion, the Yishuv Leadership, and Rescue Attempts During the Holocaust. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN0-299-17550-2, 9780299175504. Holman (2006). Holman Illustrated Study Bible-HCSB: Holman Christian Standard Bible. Broadman & Holman Publishers. ISBN1-58640-275-7, 9781586402754. Hull, Edward (1855). Mount Seir, Sinai and Western Palestine. Richard Bently and Sons. Losch, Richard R. (2005). The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN0-8028-2805-1, 9780802828057. Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome (1998). The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-288013-6, 9780192880130. Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert M.; Berney, K. A.; Schellinger, Paul E. (1994). International dictionary of historic places. Taylor & Francis. ISBN1-884964-03-6, 9781884964039. Scheller, William (1994). Amazing Archaeologists and Their Finds. The Oliver Press, Inc.. ISBN1-881508-17-X, 9781881508175. Schreiber, Mordecai; Schiff, Alvin I.; Klenicki, Leon (2003). The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia. Schreiber Pub.. ISBN1-887563-77-6, 978188756377. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN1-56656-557-X, 978-1566565578. D. Stacey, Hedonists or pragmatic agriculturalists? Reassessing Hasmonean Jericho, Levant, 38 (2006), 191202. le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine Under the Moslems. Alexander P. Watt for the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.

External links
Jericho (Ariha) - History (http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/mad/discussion/012discuss.html) Studium Biblicum Franciscum - Jerusalem. Telepherique & Sultan Tourist Center (http://web.archive.org/web/20080616055428/http://www. jericho-cablecar.com/) Jericho Municipality Official Website (http://www.jericho-city.org/) Jericho Municipality Official Website Historical site (http://www.jericho-city.org/etemplate.php?id=19) Resources on Biblical Archaeology (http://www.BiblicalArcheology.Net/) Jericho: Tel es-Sultan (http://ljames1.home.netcom.com/jericho99.html) The walls of Jericho fell in 1550 BCE (http://www.biblicalchronologist.org/answers/bryantwood.php)

Mount of Temptation

230

Mount of Temptation
The Mount of Temptation is said to be the hill in the Judean Desert where Jesus was tempted by the devil (Matt. 4:8). The exact location is unknown, and impossible to determine. It is generally identified with Mount Quarantania, a mountain approximately 366 m (1 200 feet) high, located about 11km (6.8mi) north-west of the West Bank town of Jericho. According to the public domain Catholic Encyclopedia, Quarantania is "a limestone peak on the road from Jerusalem to Jericho".

Mt. of Temptation. 1910

It is mentioned in a poem of the Temptation event by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. See Christus: A Mystery (I:1:2 Mount Quarantania) [1]. Atop the mount is the Greek Orthodox Monastery of the Temptation or "Qarantal". Above Qarantal, on top of the cliff, is a wall, that sits on the ruins of the Hasmonean (later Herodian) fortress, Dok Dagon.
Old postcard

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Easton, Matthew George (1897). " ". Easton's Bible Dictionary (New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.
article name needed

References
[1] http:/ / www. readbookonline. net/ title/ 2859/

Dead Sea

231

Dead Sea
Dead Sea

A view from the Israeli side looking across to Jordan Coordinates Lake type Primary inflows Primary outflows Catchment area Basin countries 3120N 3530E Endorheic Hypersaline Jordan River None 41,650km (16,080sqmi)
Jordan Israel Palestine
2

Max. length Max. width Surface area

67.4km (41.9mi) 18km (11mi) 810km (310sqmi) North Basin 118m (387ft)
[1]
2

Average depth Max. depth Water volume Shore length1 Surface elevation References
1

377m (1,237ft) 147km3 (35cumi) 135km (84mi) 423m (1388ft)

[1][2] [2]

Shore length is not a well-defined measure.

The Dead Sea (Arabic: al-Bar al-Mayyit,[3] Hebrew: , Ym HamMla, "Sea of Salt", also Hebrew: , Ym HamMwe, "The Sea of Death"), also called the Salt Sea, is a salt lake bordering Jordan to the east and Israel and the West Bank to the west. Its surface and shores are 423 metres (1,388ft) below sea level,[2] Earth's lowest elevation on land. The Dead Sea is 377m (1,237ft) deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. With 33.7% salinity, it is also one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, though Lake Assal (Djibouti), Garabogazkl and some hypersaline lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond) have reported higher salinities. It is 8.6 times saltier than the ocean.[4] This salinity makes for a harsh environment in which animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea is 67 kilometres (42mi) long and 18 kilometres

Dead Sea (11mi) wide at its widest point. It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River. The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. Biblically, it was a place of refuge for King David. It was one of the world's first health resorts (for Herod the Great), and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from balms for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilizers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets. In 2009, 1.2 million foreign tourists visited on the Israeli side. The Dead Sea seawater has a density of 1.240kg/L, which makes swimming similar to floating.[5][6]

232

Etymology and toponymy

In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is Ym ha-Mela, meaning "sea of salt" (Genesis 14:3). In prose sometimes the term Ym ha-Mvet (" , sea of death") is used, due to the scarcity of aquatic life there.[7] In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al-Bahr al-Mayyit[3] ("the Dead Sea"), or less commonly bar l (" , the Sea of Lot"). Another historic name in Arabic was the "Sea of Zoar", after a nearby town in biblical times. The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites (Attic Greek , h Thlatta asphaltts, "the Asphaltite[8] sea"). The Bible also refers to it as Ym ha-Mizra (" , the Eastern sea") and Ym ha-rv (" , Sea of the Arabah").

Geography
The Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST). This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai. The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, forming pools and quicksand pits along the edges.[9] There are no outlet streams. Rainfall is scarcely 100mm (4in) per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely 50mm (2in) in the southern part. The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judean Hills. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself. To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judean Hills rise less steeply and are much lower than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210m (700ft) tall halite formation called "Mount Sodom".
Satellite photograph showing the location of the Dead Sea

Dead Sea

233

Natural history
There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that it lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step-over" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating an extension of the crust with consequent subsidence. Around three million years ago, what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long scale climate change. The lake that occupied the Dead Sea Rift, named Lake Sedom,[10] deposited beds of salt that eventually became 3km (2mi) thick. Approximately two million years ago, the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long bay became a lake. The first such prehistoric lake is named "Lake Amora",[10] which was a freshwater or brackish lake that extended at least 80km (50mi) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea and 100km (60mi) north, well above the present Hula Depression. As the climate became more arid, Lake Amora shrank and became saltier. The large, saltwater predecessor of the Dead Sea is called "Lake Lisan."[10] In prehistoric times, great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Amora. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the pail. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs. (see salt domes) From 70,000 to 12,000 years ago, the lake level was 100m (330ft) to Pebbles cemented with halite on the western 250m (820ft) higher than its current level. This lake, called "Lake shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi. Lisan", fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating a very wet climate in the Near East.[11] Around 10,000 years ago, the lake level dropped dramatically, probably to levels even lower than today. During the last several thousand years, the lake has fluctuated approximately 400m (1,300ft), with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity; therefore, it may have been a seismic event.

Near Ein Gedi, salt builds up along the shores of the Dead Sea.

Climate
The Dead Sea's climate offers year-round sunny skies and dry air. It has less than 50 millimetres (2in) mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between 32 and 39 C (90and 102F). Winter average temperatures range between 20 and 23 C (68and 73F). The region has weakened ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays), and an atmosphere characterized by a high oxygen content due to the high barometric pressure.[12] The sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the result of the water's mass and specific heat capacity. On average, there are 192 days

Dead Sea above 30C (86F) annually.[13]

Climate data for Dead Sea Month Record high C (F) Average high C (F) Average low C (F) Record low C (F) Precipitation mm (inches) %humidity Avg. precipitation days Jan
26.4 (79.5) 20.5 (68.9) 12.7 (54.9) 5.4 (41.7)

234

Feb
30.4 (86.7) 21.7 (71.1) 13.7 (56.7) 6.0 (42.8)

Mar
33.8 (92.8) 24.8 (76.6) 16.7 (62.1) 8.0 (46.4)

Apr
42.5 (108.5) 29.9 (85.8) 20.9 (69.6) 11.5 (52.7)

May
45.0 (113) 34.1 (93.4) 24.7 (76.5) 19.0 (66.2)

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct
40.0 (104) 32.4 (90.3) 24.7 (76.5) 17.0 (62.6)

Nov
35.0 (95) 26.9 (80.4) 19.3 (66.7) 9.8 (49.6)

Dec
28.5 (83.3) 21.7 (71.1) 14.1 (57.4) 6.0 (42.8)

Year
47 (116.6) 30.4 (86.7) 21.9 (71.4) 5.4 (41.7) 41.9 (1.65) 31.5 15.6

46.4 47.0 44.5 43.6 (115.5) (116.6) (112.1) (110.5) 37.6 (99.7) 27.6 (81.7) 23.0 (73.4) 0.0 (0) 23 0.0 39.7 39.0 (103.5) (102.2) 29.6 (85.3) 26.0 (78.8) 0.0 (0) 24 0.0 29.9 (85.8) 26.8 (80.2) 0.0 (0) 27 0.0 36.5 (97.7) 28.3 (82.9) 24.2 (75.6) 0.0 (0) 31 0.0

7.8 9.0 7.6 4.3 0.2 (0.307) (0.354) (0.299) (0.169) (0.008) 41 3.3 38 3.5 33 2.5 27 1.3 24 0.2

1.2 3.5 8.3 (0.047) (0.138) (0.327) 33 0.4 36 1.6 41 2.8

Source: Israel Meteorological Service

[14]

Chemistry
Until the winter of 1978-79, when a major mixing event took place,[15] the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost 35 metres (115ft) or so of the Dead Sea had a salinity that ranged between 300 and 400 parts per thousand and a temperature that swung between 19 C (66F) and 37 C (99F). Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 C (72F) temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride (NaCl). Since the water near the bottom is saturated, the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor. Beginning in the 1960s, water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975, the upper water layer was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer cooled so its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters mixed (197879). For the first time in centuries, the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, stratification has begun to redevelop.[15]
Beach pebbles made of halite; western Dead Sea coast.

Halite deposits (and teepee structure) along the western Dead Sea coast.

The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s, the

Dead Sea concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl (181.4), Br (4.2), SO42 (0.4), HCO3 (0.2), Ca2+ (14.1), Na+ (32.5), K+ (6.2) and Mg2+ (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg.[16] These results show that the composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides on a weight percentage basis, was calcium chloride (CaCl2) 14.4%, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4%, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 50.8% and sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) 30.4%. In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 97% sodium chloride. The concentration of sulfate ions (SO42) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br) is the highest of all waters on Earth. The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24kg/l. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States. An unusual feature of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles and blocks of the black substance.[17] Asphalt coated figurines and bitumen coated Neolithic skulls from archaeological sites have been found. Egyptian mummification processes used asphalt imported from the Dead Sea region.[18][19]

235

Health effects and therapies

The Dead Sea area has become a major center for health research and treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the very low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific health effects. For example, persons experiencing reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.[20] The region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for several types of therapies: Climatotherapy: Treatment which exploits local climatic features such as temperature, humidity, sunshine, barometric pressure and special atmospheric constituents Heliotherapy: Treatment that exploits the biological effects of the sun's radiation Thalassotherapy: Treatment that exploits bathing in Dead Sea water

Treatment for psoriasis

Climatotherapy at the Dead Sea is an effective therapy for patients with psoriasis,[21] who benefit from sunbathing for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that many of the sun's harmful UV rays are reduced.[22]

Treatment for rhinosinusitis

Rhinosinusitis patients receiving Dead Sea saline nasal irrigation exhibited significantly better symptom relief compared to standard hypertonic saline spray.[23]

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Treatment for osteoarthritis

Dead Sea mud pack therapy has been suggested to temporarily relieve pain in patients with osteoarthritis of the knees. According to researchers of the Ben Gurion University of the Negev, treatment with mineral-rich mud compresses can be used to augment conventional medical therapy.[24]

Panorama of the Dead Sea from observation point in the Israeli side

Panorama of the Dead Sea from the Mvenpick Resort, Jordan.

Panorama of the Dead Sea from the Israeli side

Panorama of the Dead sea from Mount Sodom.

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Fauna and flora

The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present. In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% to 30% or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada University of Jerusalem found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of algae called Dunaliella. The Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria, whose presence caused the color change. Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers. Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. Hikers can see camels, ibex, hares, hyraxes, jackals, foxes, and even leopards. Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea. The delta of the Jordan River was formerly a veritable jungle of papyrus and palm trees. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus described Jericho as "the most fertile spot in Judea". In Roman and Byzantine times, sugarcane, henna, and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley quite wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree, which could be made into perfume. However, by the 19th century, Jericho's fertility had disappeared.

Human settlement
There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include Ein Gedi, Neve Zohar and the Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Kalya, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and several Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north-south on the Israeli side for a total distance of 565km from Metula on the Lebanese border in the north to its southern terminus at the Egyptian border near the Red Sea port of Eilat. Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea. Highway 65 runs north-south on the Jordanian side.

Hebrew Bible
Just north of the Dead Sea is Jericho. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeastern shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorra (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain" - Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29:23). Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephew Lot escaped to Zoar from Sodom (Genesis 19:21-22). Before the destruction, the Dead Sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the vale of Siddim. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby. In Ezekiel 47:8-9 there is a specific prophecy that the sea will ".. be healed and made fresh", becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life. A similar prophecy is stated in Zechariah 14:8, which says that "Living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea (likely the Dead Sea) and half to the western sea (the Mediterranean)..." Josephus identifies the Dead Sea in geographic proximity to the ancient Biblical city of Sodom. However, he refers to the lake by its Greek name, Asphaltites.[25]

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History
Second Temple period
Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan, and extensively at the time of King David. Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.[26] The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced persimmon for the temple's fragrance and for export, World's lowest (dry) point, Jordan, 1971 using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt" was an essential mineral for the temple's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use and could cause blindness.[27] The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.[28]

Ancient Greek period

The Greeks knew the Dead Sea as "Lake Asphaltites", due to the naturally surfacing asphalt. Aristotle wrote about the remarkable waters. Later, the Nabateans discovered the value of bitumen extracted from the Dead Sea needed by the Egyptians for embalming their mummies.

Herodian period
King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the western bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was Masada, where, in 70-73 CE, a small group of Jewish zealots held out against the might of the Roman legion, and Machaerus where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died.[29] Also in Roman times, some Essenes settled on the Dead Sea's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda" (Natural History, Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls" discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library. In the Bible, the Dead Sea is called the Salt Sea, the Sea of the Arabah, and the Eastern Sea. The designation Dead Sea is a modern name which never appears in the Bible. The Dead Sea basin is another part of the Great Rift Valley. It is here that the Upper Jordan River/Sea of Galilee/Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end. Intimately connected with the Judean wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries, such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judean Desert, are places of pilgrimage.

Mount Sodom, Israel, showing the so-called "Lot's Wife" pillar made of halite like the rest of the mountain.

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Modern times
Explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, hundreds of religious documents dated between 150 BCE and 70 CE were found in caves near the ancient settlement of Qumran, about a mile inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea (presently in the West Bank). They became known and famous as the Dead Sea Scrolls. A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore. The world's lowest road, Highway 90, runs along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea at 393m (1,289ft) below sea level. The first major hotels were built in nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Neve Zohar resort complex. On Jordanian side, three international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center along the eastern coast of the Dead Sea.[30]

Turkish trenches at the shores of the Dead Sea, World War I, 1917.

Industry
In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced the Sea was a natural deposit of potash (potassium chloride) and bromine. The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929, after its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation, Moses Novomeysky, worked for the charter for over ten years. The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalya and produced potash by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times.[31] The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East, and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the 'Lashon' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash during World War II, but ultimately became a casualty of the 1948 ArabIsraeli War. Its remnants were nationalised and Dead Sea Works Ltd. was established in 1952 in its stead as a state-owned company to extract potash and other minerals from the Dead Sea.

View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, taken in 1989 from the Space Shuttle Columbia (STS-28). The southern half is separated from the northern half at what used to be the Lisan Peninsula because of the fall in level of the Dead Sea.

From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride. On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. Both companies use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite, potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride. The ponds are

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separated by a central dike that runsroughly north-southalong the international border. The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.). Due to the popularity of the sea's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products.

View of the mineral evaporation ponds almost 12 years later (STS-102). A northern and small southeastern extension were added and the large polygonal ponds subdivided.

The dwindling water level of the Dead Sea

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Recession and environmental concerns

In recent decades, the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a depression of 395m (1,296ft) below sea level in 1970[32] it fell 22m (72ft) to 418m (1,371ft) below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of 1m (3ft) per year. As the water level decreases, the characteristics of the Sea and surrounding region may substantially change. The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.[33]
Erosional gully in unconsolidated Dead Sea sediments exposed by recession. This gully was excavated by floods from the Judean Mountains in less than a year.

In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum, Jordan announced its plans to construct the "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project" (JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide fresh water to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. As of 2009, the project is in its early phases of planning, with developer and financier selection to be completed by year's end. The project is anticipated to begin detailed design in early 2010, with water delivery by 2017. Israel has expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region. Some hydro-power will be collected near the Dead Sea from the dramatic change in elevation on the downhill side of the project. In October 2009, the Jordanians announced accelerated plans to extract around 300 million cubic meters of water per year from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact.[34] At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed increased concerns that water levels are dropping. Some suggested various industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised a range of possible environmental measures to restore conditions. This might include increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fish ponds run in the river's channel. Experts also asserted a need for strict conservation efforts. They also said agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced.[35]

Gallery

Israeli highway beside the Dead Sea

Jordanian highway along the Dead Sea coast

Twisty coastline

Coastline (from Israel)

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A rough Dead Sea, with salt deposits on cliffs

Dead Sea northern coast (Jordan)

Located in Jordan, this sign diagrams the topography of Jordan, the West Bank, Israel, and the Mediterranean Sea.

Dead Sea at dawn (from Sodom mountain, Israel)

Dead Sea at dusk (from Suwayma, Jordan)

Dead Sea at dusk (from Mvenpick Resort Dead Sea, Jordan)

A tourist demonstrates the unusual buoyancy caused by high salinity

Many people believe that the mud of the Dead Sea has special healing and cosmetic uses.

Sinkholes at Mineral Beach

Cobble encrusted with halite evaporated from the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi

Dead Sea from Masada

Line painted in 1900 (at top of image) by Robert A.S. Macalister of the Palestine Exploration Fund showing the level of the Dead Sea

The Dead Sea region

Dead Sea seen from Jordan

Panorama of the Dead Sea from Masada, facing northeast. The area between the two is visible, as well as Jordan in the background.

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References
[1] Dead Sea Data Summary (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071227155952/ http:/ / www. ilec. or. jp/ database/ asi/ dsasi009. html). International Lake Environment Committee Foundation. [2] Monitoring of the Dead Sea (http:/ / isramar. ocean. org. il/ DeadSea/ ). Israel Marine Data Center (ISRAMAR). [3] The first article al- is unnecessary and usually not used. [4] Goetz, P.W. (ed.) The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (15th ed.). Vol. 3, p. 937. Chicago, 1986 [5] R W McColl, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of world geography (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C& pg=PA237& dq=Dead+ sea+ has+ a+ density+ + + + swimming#v=onepage& q& f=false). Facts on File. p.237. . [6] Dead Sea - Composition of Dead Sea Water (http:/ / www. dspimport. com/ about_the_dead_sea. html) [7] David Bridger; Samuel Wolk (September 1976). The New Jewish Encyclopedia (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hZqpCrG3qw0C& pg=PA109). Behrman House, Inc. p.109. ISBN978-0-87441-120-1. . Retrieved 25 July 2011. "It was named the Dead Sea because of the fact that no living thing can exist there, since the water is extremely salty and bitter." [8] See bitumen and asphalt for more about asphaltite. [9] Springs and quicksand at the Dead Sea (http:/ / www. tommyimages. com/ Stock_Photos/ Middle_East/ Israel/ Dead_Sea/ index. html) Retrieved on 2008-08-27 [10] (http:/ / www. gsi. gov. il/ _Uploads/ 4739SteinF. pdf) [11] Geochemical Society; Meteoritical Society (1971). Geochimica et cosmochimica acta (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3LccAQAAIAAJ). Pergamon Press.. . Retrieved 12 April 2011. [12] "Lowest Elevation: Dead Sea" (http:/ / www. extremescience. com/ dead-sea. htm). Extreme Science. . Retrieved 2007-05-22. [13] "Climatological Averages for Dead Sea" (http:/ / www. ims. gov. il/ IMS/ CLIMATE). IMS. . [14] "Averages and Records for several places in Israel" (http:/ / ims. gov. il/ IMS/ CLIMATE/ LongTermInfo). Israel Meteorological Service. June 2011. . [15] "Dead Sea Canal" (http:/ / www1. american. edu/ TED/ deadsea. htm). American.edu. 1996-12-09. . Retrieved 2009-05-05. [16] I. Steinhorn, In Situ Salt Precipitation at the Dead Sea, Limnol. Oceanogr. 28(3),1983, 580-583 [17] Bein, A. and O. Amit (2007). The evolution of the Dead Sea floating asphalt blocks: simulations by pyrolisis (http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 119589883/ abstract?CRETRY=1& SRETRY=0). 2. Journal of Petroleum Geology. pp.439447. . [18] Niemi, Tina M., Zvi Ben-Avraham and Joel Gat, eds., The Dead Sea: the lake and its setting, 1997, Oxford University Press, p. 251 ISBN 978-0-19-508703-1 [19] J. Rullktter and A. Nissenbaum (December, 1988). "Dead sea asphalt in egyptian mummies: Molecular evidence" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ q227110151k37061/ ). Naturwissenschaften 75 (12). . [20] "Asthma, Cystic Fibrosis, Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease" (http:/ / www. deadsea-health. org/ new_html/ diseases_respiratory. html). Dead Sea Research Center. . Retrieved 2007-05-22. [21] Effectiveness of climatotherapy at the Dead Sea for psoriasis vulgaris: A communityoriented study introducing the Beer Sheva Psoriasis Severity Score, Journal of Dermatological Treatment, 2005, Vol. 16, No. 5-6 , Pages 308-313 doi:10.1080/09546630500375841. [22] S. Halevy et al. Dead sea bath salt for the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris: a double-blind controlled study. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, Volume 9, Issue 3: 237-242. [23] A Randomized, Prospective, Double-Blind Study on the Efficacy of Dead Sea Salt Nasal Irrigations. Michael Friedman, Ramakrishnan Vidyasagar, Ninos Joseph. doi:10.1097/01.mlg.0000216798.10007. The Laryngoscope Volume 116, Issue 6, pages 878882, June 2006. [24] Therapy With Mud Compresses for Knee Osteoarthritis: Comparison of Natural Mud Preparations With Mineral-Depleted Mud (http:/ / fohs. bgu. ac. il/ homes/ shlomi/ articles/ mud_kneeOA_JClinRHeum. pdf). Flusser, Daniel; Abu-Shakra, Mahmoud; Friger, Michael; Codish, Shlomi; Sukenik, Shaul. Journal of Clinical Rheumatology. August 2002 - Volume 8 - Issue 4 - pp 197-203 [25] Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews. Book I. Chapter 9. Retrieved from: http:/ / sacred-texts. com/ jud/ josephus/ ant-1. htm [26] Found today in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum of Jerusalem [27] Sodomite salt could cause blindness (http:/ / www. pardes. org. il/ online_learning/ weekly-talmud/ 2009-02-12. php) [28] A synagogue mosaic floor (circa 100 BCE) at Ein Gedi repeats the Mishna, portraying a curse on whoever reveals the town's secret persimmon recipe. Papyrus parchments found in caves near the Dead Sea document the vast amount of cultivated land in the area, especially persimmon trees, but also olive and date trees [29] Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 18.119 (http:/ / old. perseus. tufts. edu/ cgi-bin/ ptext?lookup=J. + AJ+ 18. 119). [30] staff writer, ArabianBusiness.com (2007-05-22). "Jordan's Dead Sea Comes to Life" (http:/ / www. arabianbusiness. com/ property/ article/ 12982-jordanian-secret). Arabian Business. . Retrieved 2008-11-02. [31] "Wealth From The Dead Sea" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uOQDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA794& dq=popular+ mechanics+ 1930+ aircraft& hl=en& ei=K_4aTczQDdOcnweLw7TEDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=popular mechanics 1930 aircraft& f=true) Popular Mechanics, November 1930 [32] C. Klein, A. Flohn, Contribution to the Knowledge in the Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Level. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 38, p. 151156, 1987 [33] M. Abelson, Y. Yechieli, O. Crouvi, G. Baer, D. Wachs, A. Bein, V. Shtivelman. "Evolution of the Dead Sea Sinkholes", in New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, Geological Society of America, special paper 401, p. 241253, 2006

Dead Sea
[34] Jordan to refill shrinking Dead Sea (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ earth/ earthnews/ 6285055/ Jordan-to-refill-shrinking-Dead-Sea-with-salt-water. html) Daily Telegraph 13 October 2009 [35] Back from the Dead? (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Features/ Article. aspx?id=148034), Ehud Zion Waldoks, The Jerusalem Post, July 8, 2009.

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Further reading
Yehouda Enzel, et al., eds (2006) New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, Geological Society of America, ISBN 0-8137-2401-5 Niemi, Tina M., Ben-Avraham, Z., and Gat, J., eds., 1997, The Dead Sea: The Lake and Its Setting: N.Y., Oxford University Press, 286 p.

External links
Ezekiel's Water Project (http://www.ezekielproject.org/) New Life Found At Dead Sea (http://www.greenprophet.com/2011/09/new-life-found-dead-sea/) Go Visit Israel: Dead Sea (http://www.govisitisrael.com/dead-sea/145/) Race is on to save the Dead Sea (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article626646.ece) Dead Sea Photos (http://www.mapisrael.info/dead-sea) A Web Documentary On The Dead Sea (http://www.wysinfo.com/Dead_Sea/dead_sea_overview.html)

Multilateral project for sustainable water management in the lower Jordan Valley (http://www.iwrm-smart.org/ ) Salt Route (http://www.saltroute.org/)

Qumran
Qumran (Hebrew: ,Arabic: - Khirbet Qumran) is an archaeological site in the West Bank. It is located on a dry plateau about a mile inland from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalia. The Hellenistic period settlement was constructed during the reign of John Hyrcanus, 134-104BCE or somewhat later, and was occupied most of the time until it was destroyed by the Romans in 68CE or shortly after. It is best known as the settlement nearest to the caves in which the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer desert cliffs and beneath, in the marl terrace.

Caves at Qumran

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History
Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947-1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran. Nearly 900 scrolls were discovered. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus. Cisterns, Jewish ritual baths, and cemeteries have been found, along with a dining or assembly room and debris from an upper story alleged by some to have been a scriptorium as well as pottery kilns and a tower. Many scholars believe the location to have been home to a Jewish sect, the Essenes being the preferred choice; others have proposed non-sectarian interpretations, some of these starting with the notion that it was a Hasmonean fort which was later transformed into a villa for a wealthy family or a production center, perhaps a pottery factory or similar. A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site. While most of the graves contain the remains of males, some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of the graves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law. Over a thousand bodies are buried at Qumran cemetery.[1] One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, while another is that they were brought to Qumran because burial was easier there than in rockier surrounding areas.[2] The scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through the settlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, due to the presence of the remains of a shelving system. Other scholars believe that some caves also served as Location of Qumran domestic shelters for those living in the area. Many of the texts found in the caves appear to represent widely accepted Jewish beliefs and practices, while other texts appear to speak of divergent, unique, or minority interpretations and practices. Some scholars believe that some of these texts describe the beliefs of the inhabitants of Qumran, which, may have been the Essenes, or the asylum for supporters of the traditional priestly family of the Zadokites against the Hasmonean priest/kings. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community, some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud.[3] Most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden in the caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish Revolt, though some of them may have been deposited earlier.

Discovery and excavation

Early site analysis
The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since the 19th century.[4] The initial attention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, the first excavations at Qumran (prior to the development of modern methodology) were of burials in the cemetery, conducted by Henry Poole in 1855 followed by Charles Clermont-Ganneau in 1873.[5]
Caves of Qumran

Qumran Rev. Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran in December 1856.[6] Isaacs stated regarding Qumran's tower, "It can hardly be doubted that this formed a tower or stronghold of some kind. The situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensive operations."[7] Finn later suggested Qumran was "some ancient fort with a cistern."[8] The British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing the positioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the Ein Feshkha Springs, he concluded the ruins "may have very well been once a small fortress."[9] Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs.[10] Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a burg, or fort.[11] Archaeologist Michael Avi-Yonah agreed with Dalmans identification of Qumran as a fort and published a map that identified the remains at Qumran as part of a string of fortresses along the southeastern Judean border.[12]

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Major excavations
Full-scale work at the site began after Roland de Vaux and G. Lankester Harding in 1949 excavated what became known as Cave 1, the first scroll-bearing cave. A cursory surface survey that year produced nothing of interest,[13] but continued interest in the scrolls led to a more substantial analysis of the ruins at Qumran in 1951, an analysis which yielded traces of pottery closely related to that found in Cave 1.[14] This discovery led to intensive excavations at the site over a period of six seasons under the direction of de Vaux. The Iron Age remains at the site, which were modest but included a lmlk-seal, led de Vaux to identify Qumran as the City of Salt listed in Josh 15:62. The site, however, may be identified with Secacah, which is referenced in the same area as the City of Salt in Josh 15:61. Secacah is mentioned in the Copper Scroll, and the water works of Secacah that are described in this source are consistent with those of Qumran.[16] Following the Iron Age, the excavations revealed that Qumran was principally in use from the Hasmonean times [15] Chart of various proposed chronologies of Qumran. until some time after the destruction of the temple by Titus. De Vaux divided this use into three periods: Period I, the Hasmonean era, which he further divided in two, Period Ia, the time of John Hyrcanus, and Period Ib, the latter Hasmoneans, ending with an earthquake and fire in 31BCE (this was followed by a hiatus in de Vaux's interpretation of the site); Period II, the Herodian era, starting in 4BCE on up to the destruction of the site apparently at the hands of the Romans during the Jewish War; and Period III, a reoccupation in the ruins. De Vaux's periodization has been challenged by both Jodi Magness[17] and Yizhar Hirschfeld.[18] The site that de Vaux uncovered divides into two main sections: a main building, a squarish structure of two stories featuring a central courtyard and a defensive tower on its north-western corner; and a secondary building to the west. The excavation revealed a complex water system which supplied water to several stepped cisterns, some quite large, located in various parts of the site. Two of these cisterns were placed within the walls of the main building. Both the buildings and the water system evince signs of consistent evolution throughout the life of the settlement with frequent additions, extensions and improvements. The water channel was raised in order to carry water to newer cisterns further away and a dam was placed in the upper section of Wadi Qumran to secure more water, which was brought to the site by an aqueduct. Rooms were added, floors were raised, pottery ovens relocated and locations were repurposed. De Vaux found three inkwells at Qumran (Loci 30 (2) and 31) and over the following years more inkwells have come to light with a Qumran origin. Jan Gunneweg identified a fourth (locus 129). S. Steckoll found a fifth

Qumran (reportedly near the scriptorium). Magen and Peleg found a sixth inkwell . Without counting the Ein Feshkha inkwell or others with debated provenance, that is more inkwells than found at any other Second Temple Period site, a significant indication of writing there.

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De Vaux's interpretations
De Vaux interpreted his findings at Qumran based (at least in part) upon the information contained within the Dead Sea Scrolls, which continued to be discovered in the nearby caves throughout his excavations. De Vaux concluded that the remains at Qumran were left by a sectarian religious community. Using his excavations as well as textual sources, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the historical accounts recorded by Pliny the Elder, Philo, and Flavius Josephus. De Vaux's conclusion was that the inhabitants of the site were a sect of highly ritualistic Jews called the Essenes, a conclusion that has come to be known as the "Qumran-Essene Hypothesis."[19] This hypothesis suggests that the original residents of the settlement were the Essenes, and that they established the site in the desert for religious purposes. He interpreted the room above locus 30 as a "scriptorium" because he discovered inkwells there. A plastered bench was also discovered in the remains of an upper story. De Vaux concluded that this was the area in which the Essenes could have written some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. De Vaux also interpreted locus 77 as a "refectory", or a community dining hall, based on the discovery of numerous sets of bowls in the nearby "pantry" of locus 89. Additionally, de Vaux interpreted many of the numerous stepped cisterns as "miqvaot", or Jewish ritual baths, due to their similarity to several stepped and partitioned ritual baths near the Jerusalem Temple Mount. Regarding the scrolls De Vaux cautiously stated that "manuscripts were copied in the scriptorium of Qumran... We may also suppose... that certain works were composed at Khirbet Qumran. But beyond this we cannot go."[20] He believed that the Essenes later hid the scrolls in the nearby caves when they felt their safety was in danger.

Further excavations and surveys

Although de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were quite exhaustive, and thereby the most important source of information on the settlement, there have been several excavations since de Vaux finished his work. As de Vaux left little of the settlement unexcavated, later diggers were sometimes reduced to digging in the less-important dump areas. During the 1960s, according to Catherine Murphy, there were some unpublished excavations at Qumran by John Allegro and by Solomon Steckoll.[21] Steckoll also carried out work in the cemetery, excavating twelve tombs.[22] In 1967 restoration work was performed at Qumran by R.W. Dajjani of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan.[23] In 1984 and 1985 Joseph Patrich and Yigael Yadin carried out a systematic survey of the caves and pathways around Qumran. Between 1985-1991 Patrich excavated five caves, including Caves 3Q and 11Q. One of Patrich's conclusions was that the caves "did not serve as habitations for the members of the Dead Sea Sect, but rather as stores and hiding places".[24] From mid-November 1993 to January 1994 the Israel Antiquities Authority carried out works in the Qumran compound and nearby installations as part of "Operation Scroll" under the direction of Amir Drori and Yitzhak Magen.[25] In the winter of 1995-1996 and later seasons Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel carried out further excavations in the caves north of Qumran; they also dug in the cemetery and in marl terrace caves.[23] In 1996 James Strange and others dug at Qumran using remote sensing equipment.[26] From 1996 to 1999 and later Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg carried out excavations at Qumran under the auspices of the National Parks Authority.[27] Randall Price and Oren Gutfield dug on the Qumran plateau, seasons in 2002, 2004 and 2005 (and plan a 2010 season).[28]

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Recent archaeological analysis

Most of the small finds from the de Vaux excavations were taken back to Jerusalem to be used in later excavation reports for Qumran, but the death of Roland de Vaux brought a halt to the reports and the small finds were left to gather dust on shelves in museum backrooms. In the late 1980s archaeologist Robert Donceel, while working on the de Vaux materials in a new effort towards publishing excavation reports, found artifacts which he considered did not fit the religious settlement model, including [29] "sophisticated glass and stoneware". In 1992 Pauline Donceel-Voute put forward the Roman villa model in an attempt to explain these Rooms on the western side of the main building at Qumran. artifacts.[30] A recent final publication of the French excavations by Jean-Baptist Humbert[31] outlining evidence of a decorated frieze, opus sectile, fine columns etc., indicates a phase of a wealthier occupation, "une grande maison", at Qumran.

Pottery
The range of pottery, glass and high quantity of coins found at Qumran do not sit well in the context of a sectarian settlement according to the Donceels[32][33] These materials point to trade connections in the area, and provide evidence that Qumran may not have been in a vacuum in the Graeco-Roman period. Rachel Bar-Nathan has argued from similarities between pottery finds at Qumran and at the Hasmonean and Herodian palaces of Jericho that Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan valley context rather than as an isolated site.[34] While the cylindrical "scroll jars" from Qumran were once thought to be unique, she cites a proposed similar find at Jericho, shows a related form existed at Masada,[35] and reports that such jars have been found at Qalandiya.[36] Bar-Nathan states from the Jericho palace data that "it is possible to trace the typological development of this group of jars", i.e. the cylindrical jars.[35] Jodi Magness, citing Bar-Nathan's M.A. thesis on the Jericho pottery data, refers to cylindrical jars at Jericho, saying "[a]t Jericho, most of these jars .. come from an industrial area dating to the time of Herod".[37] Jan Gunneweg observed that the supposed single partial parallel at Jericho - "a partly preserved rim and neck with a vertical loop handle" - is in fact not a "scroll" jar.[38] Another one was reported found in Jordan in a later burial near Abila but no photos or drawings were published and the jar has not been relocated, showing de Vaux sought parallels. Taking into account subtypes of pottery, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are not common outside Qumran. They are, however, clearly not unique to Qumran. Bar-Nathan noted the jar's "rarity in the Second Temple period."[39] Of some of the proposed parallel Masada jars, Bar-Nathan wrote "It seems that this group of storage jars was brought (or pillaged?) from the area of Qumran and probably also from the Plain of Jericho."[40]

Cisterns
The several large stepped cisterns which are a feature of Qumran have been viewed as ritual baths by many scholars. This accords with the religious settlement model. There are difficulties in understanding all these cisterns as baths, however. Qumran's water arrived perhaps twice a year from run off of water brought down by rain. Water was one of Qumran's most valued commodities and water management is an integral part of the site, as seen with the numerous cisterns and channels. If the large cisterns were ritual baths the water would sit getting dirtier through ritual bathing throughout the year and was extremely infrequently replenished by the run off. The current state of analysis of the cisterns is still unresolved, but Katharina Galor suggests a mixed usage of the stepped cisterns as both ritual baths

Qumran and water storage.[41] According to the Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg, the clay found in the cisterns was used for pottery factory facilities.[42]

249

Numismatic Studies
The coins from Qumran are one of the most important groups of primary evidence from the ancient site. Much of what has been written on the chronology, the occupational periods and the history of Qumran was based on the preliminary report and lecture written by the original excavator Roland de Vaux in 1961, which was translated in 1973.[43] A tentative list of the Qumran bronze coins along with Roland de Vaux's field diary from the excavations was published in 1994 in French, in German in 1996 and in English in 2003.[44] The first reconstruction of the Qumran bronze coinage, including a complete coin catalogue with up-dated and cross-referenced coin identifications, was done by Kenneth Lnnqvist and Minna Lnnqvist in 2005.[45] Also in 1955, three very important silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first lot of the Qumran silver coins was published by Marcia Sharabani in 1980.[46] The last two hoards located in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lnnqvist in 2007.[47] The bronze coinage De Vaux's excavations uncovered about 1250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze coins) altogether from Qumran, though today some Qumran coins have been lost, some lots mixed-up, and records less accurate than ideal. Firstly, there are a surprisingly high number of coins from the site. This means that the site was highly monetized in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, i.e. that the occupants of Qumran were not a community of poor and isolated people. That the flow of cash at Qumran may have been large in the 1st century CE is hardly surprising given the archaeological evidence of trade at Qumran in luxury goods such as glass, which is specifically dated to this period. The coin profile of Qumran shows that there do not appear to have been any major changes in the role of coins and money in the economic system at Qumran during any of the occupational periods from ca. 150BCE. to 73CE. Worth noting here is that the amount of coins found at Qumran suggests according to numismatic principles of loss and survival of ancient coins that millions of bronze coins must have circulated at Qumran. Thirdly, the bronze coins identified from Qumran, some dating to the second and third years of the Jewish War, indicate that the site was still in use in 68CE and only destroyed after 70CE, perhaps as late as 73CE.[48][49] The coins from Qumran of this period end with a peculiar series of bronze coins minted in 72/73CE at Ascalon, which sent auxiliary troops to assist the Roman army in the First Jewish War (66-73CE). In 73CE the Romans stormed the mountain fortress of Masada, which also was located on the western bank of the Dead Sea. It is more than likely that Qumran was destroyed this same time, as the coin finds from Qumran end with the same peculiar bronze coins minted at Ascalon. The silver coinage The publication of the bulk of the silver coins in 2007 and the regional analysis brought about new interpretations as to the importance, chronology and significance of the coins. Firstly, the newly dated coins in the silver coin hoards give an earliest possible burial date for the coin hoards to 52/3-66CE, based on an interpretation of a countermark. However, the archaeological and numismatic nature of the silver coin hoard burials suggests that the coin hoards may have been buried in the early 3rd century CE. The final coin belongs to Emperor Caracalla and came from the mint of Rome (206-210CE). The new suggestion made is, that the silver coin hoards from Qumran may be connected to Roman military campaigns in the region, as these are widely attested to in the early 3rd century CE. It is also quite possible that the silver were part of Roman army payments made to troops in a local garrison. Thirdly, the technical evidence of the recording and documenting of the Qumran silver coin hoards in 2006-2007 showed that the coins came from lots, groups or batches of coins that originated in a few or one single large payment. This payment may have come from a mint, bank or an authority like the treasury of the Roman army. The new evidence refutes the possibility that the silver coins could have been collected from single individuals, for instance, as tax payments, or that Qumran could have been a regional tax house.[50]

Qumran The new 2007 analysis of the silver coinage contradicts the findings of de Vaux, Seyrig, and Spijkerman as well as the findings of Robert Donceel.[51] Donceel was surprised to find in the Amman museum unrecorded coins, notably denarius coins of Trajan, that he claimed were intrusive. The original Amman Museum records of the Qumran coin hoards and the museum bags where the coins where kept do not support the hypothesis that the 2nd and 3rd century Roman coins are intrusive in relation to the Tyrian silver. Furthermore, the new countermark .[52] that went unrecorded is apparently from 52/53CE and the Greek letters in it do not support a date of 9/8BCE, as the other countermarks. This means archaeologically and numismatically that at least one, but probably two minimum, of the three hoards post-date de Vaux's suggestion of a burial date after 9/8BCE. The unusual and intensive die-linkage of the Qumran silver hoards suggest that the three hoards were buried at the same time, and this would mean at the earliest in 52/53CE. The final proof for that a third century CE date for the three silver coin hoards from Qumran is possible beyond any reasonable doubt is shown by a highly unusual type of coin hoard found at Ain Hanaziv in the Jordan Valley in the early 1960 and reported in the Israel Numismatic Bulletin.[53] This coin hoard spanned hundreds of years, starting from the Seleucid era and ended with the same kind of coins from reign of Septimius Severus in 210CE. Therefore, claiming an earlier date for the silver hoards is untenable and contradicts the first complete recording of the Qumran silver hoards made in 2007 by Lnnqvist, which includes the first photographic evidence of the coin hoards, and the regional coin evidence from other hoards. It has already been shown that de Vaux's dating system of Qumran and the silver coin hoards was based on what is generally known as a circular argument; the end of the first major settlement period was dated after the assumed date of hiding of the coin hoards, which in turn dated the coin hoards themselves.

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Population at Qumran
One important issue for the understanding of the site of Qumran is a realistic calculation of its population. Using estimates based on the size of the cemetery and average lifespan de Vaux calculated that the inhabitants "would not have numbered many more than 200 members."[54] He noted that "[t]here is a manifest disproportion between the number of tombs and the number of inhabitants for whom there was room in the buildings."[55] This led him to speculate whether the caves were used as lodgings for his estimated 200 inhabitants. J.T. Milik some years earlier Qumran caves provided an estimate of between 150 and 200 as the average population, working on the comparison with the population of the monastery of Mar Saba, which numbered 150 monks in the 9th century and from Josephus' figure of 3,000 Essenes calculating that "at least five per cent lived the strict monastic life".[56] E.M. Laperrousaz went as high as 1,428 inhabitants.[57] Magen Broshi, analyzing the size of L77 (which he calls an assembly hall), estimated that about 120 to 150 people could sit there, to which he added a few dozen candidates to the population, yielding over 170 people.[58] From 1983 to 1987 Joseph Patrich carried out archaeological surveys around Qumran and its caves. He concluded that the caves were "stores and hiding places". He found no traces of permanent tent dwellings and that any "dwelling quarters should be sought inside the wall of Khirbet Qumran, mainly on the upper floor." Patrich estimated that the population was only 50-70 people.[59] Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel, revisiting the caves and the territory around Qumran in 1995-1996, later pointed out that Patrich's estimate was far too high for what Qumran could offer, reducing the number to 12-20. They turned back to caves (mainly artificial ones cut into the marl terrace most of

Qumran which have not survived) and tents (pointing to pottery and nails found along one of the paths near Qumran), and staying with 150-200 inhabitants.[60] While waiting for the publication of Broshi and Eshel's results, Patrich, anticipating them, doubted the possibility that there were once "significantly more habitable caves" cut into the marl, pointing to the lack of paths and suitable terrain. He went on to discount the significance of the nails for tent dwelling without "further substantial evidence and returned to a figure of "a few tens of residents, fifty at most".[61] Jodi Magness accepted Broshi's estimate, adding "This number accords better than lower estimates with the presence of over 1000 dining dishes in the pantry (L86)."[62] Working from ratios of populations in other ancient settlements, Yizhar Hirschfeld estimated the population of Qumran thus: "If we use the lower value of fifteen people per dunam [1,000 m2], it emerges that in the Hasmonean period only about 20 people occupied the site of Qumran.[63] Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg entered the discussion commenting on how one could feed such large numbers of community members: "Were we to accept the claim that the sect lived at Qumran for about 170 years, we would expect to find hundreds of cooking and baking ovens as well as thousands of cooking pots."[64] The population question is a complex issue, as can be seen by the above considerations. A lot hinges on the interpretation of two locations at Qumran, those which are called the "refectory" and the "pantry". The search for extramural dwelling quarters has failed to provide substantial evidence. Discounting Laperrousaz's apparently excessively high estimate, there is a number of proposals ranging from 20 to 200 people living in and around Qumran.

251

Qumran-Essene hypothesis
There were few serious challenges to de Vaux's interpretation of the site of Qumran from the time it was introduced. While the archaeologist E.-M. Laperrousaz,[65] had some quite divergent views, members of de Vaux's team followed approximately the same narrative, with minor deviations, members including J. T. Milik, and F. M. Cross. De Vaux's initial dig co-director, G. Lankester Harding, in 1955 wrote an article [66] where he presented Qumran as "a building in which John the Baptist, and probably Christ, studied: Khirbet Qumran". Others outside de Vaux's team proposed other interpretations, people such as Henri del Medico,[67] Solomon Zeitlin,[68] and G. R. Driver,[69] but their analyses received little lasting attention. In 1960 Karl Heinrich Rengstorf proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls were not the product of the residents of Qumran, but came from the library of the Jerusalem Temple, despite their being discovered near Qumran.[70] (Rengstorf's basic Jerusalem proposal has become increasingly more popular since the materials from de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were brought into the public arena in 1992.[71])

Dead Sea Scroll - part of Isaiah Scroll (Isa 57:17 - 59:9), 1QIsab

J.H. Charlesworth in 1980 proposed that Qumran was damaged in the Parthian war c. 40BCE.[72] Jean-Baptiste Humbert published de Vaux's field notes.[73] Humbert proposes a hybrid solution to the debate surrounding Qumran. Humbert accepts that the site might have been originally established as a villa rustica, but that the site was abandoned, and was reoccupied by Essenes in the late 1st century BCE. Humbert argues that the site may have also been used a place where sectarians pilgrims barred from entering Jerusalem may have celebrated the

Qumran pilgrimage.[74] Minna Lnnqvist and Kenneth Lnnqvist brought an approach to the Qumran studies based on contextual archaeology with its spatial studies and interpretation of symbolic language of the archaeological data, positing that text scholars, who had only focused their studies on the scrolls, had removed the Dead Sea Scrolls from their archaeological context. The Lnnqvists proposed that the orientations of the settlement and the graves show that they both belonged to an intentional scheme based on adherence to a solar calendar. They argued from this that the settlement and its cemetery are connected to the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated with an Essene-type group which finds the closest parallels in the contemporary Jewish Therapeutic group known to have lived in Egypt.[75] Robert Cargill argues that the theory suggesting Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fortress is not incompatible with the theory proposing that a group of Jewish sectarians reoccupied the site. Cargill suggests that Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fort (see below, "Qumran as fortress"), abandoned, and later reoccupied by Jewish settlers, who expanded the site in a communal, non-military fashion, and who were responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls. [76][77] Some who challenged de Vaux's findings took issue with the practice of using the Dead Sea Scrolls to interpret the archaeological remains at Qumran. They argued that these remains should be interpreted independently, without any influence from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Various reinterpretations have led to various conclusions about the site. These include:

252

Qumran as fortress
The overlooked early suggestion that Qumran was a fortress was given new life by the analysis of Pessach Bar-Adon. Using de Vaux's Period 1a findings, his own excavations at Ain el-Ghuweir 15km south of Qumran, and Mazar's level 2 at 'En-Gedi, Bar-Adon argued, "these fortresses [belonged] to John Hyrcanus, who needed a strong, comprehensive defence system commanding vital water sources, agricultural fields, flocks, Jordan River crossings, the plains of Jericho and the caravan routes in the Judean desert. He turned the Qumran-Ain Feshka oasis, like the one at En-Gedi, into crown property and incorporated his tenants into his strategic plans."[78] Norman Golb took up the notion that the Qumran settlement was established as a fortress and arguedagainst the prevailing views of the timethat not only was Qumran not established as a sectarian residence, but that there were no sectarians at the site at all. Like Rengstorf he proposed that the Scrolls had been produced in Jerusalem, but unlike Rengstorf, Golb argues that the scrolls came from different libraries throughout Jerusalem and were hidden in the caves by Jews fleeing the Romans during a political uprising.[79]

Qumran as villa
Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel-Vote focused their research on the small finds amongst de Vaux's unpublished materials from Qumran, including, but not limited to, glassware (55 newly catalogued items), stoneware (53 new items), metal wares, and coins. Contrary to the belief that the inhabitants of the site were poor monastics, Donceel and Donceel-Vote suggest that the residents were actually wealthy traders, with connections to the upper class and wealthy in nearby Jerusalem. They ultimately suggest that Qumran was a villa rustica, or wealthy manor house, that may have been a winter or year-round second home to some wealthy family from Jerusalem.[80][81] (At the same conference as the Donceel's presentation, J. Magness reported that from what she saw of the pottery in the Rockefeller Museum that "there was very, very little in the way of fine wares." Eric Meyers, next, said "I concur; my visits also corroborate that. I see an affirmative nod from Professor Donceel-Voute."[82] Rachel Bar-Nathan also notes, "[a]t Jericho, there is also a striking lack of luxury ware, with only a few painted shards in the whole repertoire."[83])

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253

Qumran as commercial center

While the villa model has gained little support, the evidence that it tried to deal with has led to further attempts at explanation. Lena Cansdale and Alan Crown argued for the first time that the settlement was a fortified road station and a port town on the shores of the Dead Sea, meaning that the site was actually a prominent commercial site (or "entrepot") on a major north-south trade route.[84] Yizhar Hirschfeld accepted that Qumran was originally a Hasmonean fortress. Citing his work at Ein Feshkha as a comparison, he suggested that the site at Qumran ultimately became an agriculturally-based, fortified trading station during the Herodian era.[85][86] Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg have focused their 10-year excavation at Qumran upon the vast water system at Qumran. They accept that the site was originally a "forward field fort", but argue that the site was repurposed as a pottery production plant, and that the water system was actually used to bring the clay-laced water into the site for the purpose of pottery production.[87] Y. Magen and Y. Peleg proposed that Qumran was a pottery export site and said clay in pool 71 was used. (Samples of that clay have now been analysed, and they do not match tested Qumran pottery. "This information goes straight against" the Magen Peleg proposal, according to scientists J. Gunneweg and M. Balla.[88] J. Michniewicz responding to previous analyses of Balla and Gunneweg, wrote, "Balla and Gunneweg's conclusions are corroborated neither by information about which elements were taken for statistical interpretation and which determined the division particularly strongly.... nor by the reference data or statistical computation".[89])

Qumran as part of the Jordan valley

Rachel Bar-Nathan rejects the claim that dishware found at Qumran shows any sectarian characteristic, and proposes that such pottery has also been found in varying quantities at Masada, Jericho and other sites in the region.[90] David Stacey argues that the settlement at Qumran is associated with the estate at Jericho. Due to the scarcity of year-round water at Qumran, he suggests that the site served as a seasonal tannery and pottery production facility.[91]

Other issues
Recent scientific evidence published by Ira Rabin, Oliver Hahn, Timo Wolff, Admir Masic, and Gisela Weinberg demonstrates that the ink from The Thanksgiving Scroll uses water taken from the Dead Sea and vicinity thereby demonstrating a link between the Dead Sea region and at least some of the scrolls.[92] Paleographer Ada Yardeni [93] analysed and listed dozens of manuscripts from most of the caves (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11) that she assigns to a single scribe who she refers to as a "Qumran scribe". Yardeni cautions against claims of scribal hands being as many as 500 and claims that the manuscripts are a cross-section of then-current literature from many distant libraries, deposited in a short time. Gila Kahila Bar-Gal,[94] determined that some of the skin used for the Dead Sea scrolls came from the Nubian ibex, whose range did not include Jerusalem, but includes the Hermon and Golan heights, the Negev highlands and the western shore of the Dead Sea.

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254

References External links

Scholarly articles on the site of Qumran
The Fortress at Qumran: A History of Interpretation [95] Robert Cargill (2009). Three Notes on Qumran [96] David Stacey (2009). The Enigma of Qumran [97] Yaron Ben-Ami (2004). An analysis of the work of Magen and Peleg. Some Notes on the Archaeological Context of Qumran in the light of recent publications [98] David Stacey (2001). Spatial Approach to the Ruins of Khirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea) [99] Lnnqvist, K. & M., (2004), Institute for Cultural Research, Dept of Archaeology, University of Helsinki, Finland.

Other links relevant to the site of Qumran

Newly Discovered Photographs from 1950's Qumran [100] The UCLA Qumran Visualization Project [101] A Virtual Reconstruction of the Settlement at Qumran. 3Disrael.com Virtual tours of the Qumran site (360 degree views): from the esplanade [102] and within the main building [103]. Isaac, B., R. Talbert, T. Elliott, S. Gillies. "Places: 688011 (Qumran)" [104]. Pleiades. Retrieved March 8, 2012.

References
[1] de Vaux 1973, p. 45f, states that there were 1100 tombs in the main cemetery. However, Kapera 2000, p. 46, argues for only 669 tombs. But an on-site survey came closer to de Vaux's number, Eshel, Hanan, Magen Broshi, Richard Freund, and Brian Schultz. "New Data on the Cemetery East of Khirbet Qumran." DSD 9/2 (2002) 135-165. [2] Stacey, Some Notes on the Archaeological Context of Qumran in the Light of Recent Publications (http:/ / www. bibleinterp. com/ articles/ Stacey_Qumran_Light_of_Recent_Publications. shtml#Note_11). [3] Joseph M. Baumgarten, "The 'Halakha' in Miqsat Ma`ase ha-Torah (MMT)." JAOS 116/3 (1996) 512-516)cautioned against premature suggestions of few Sadducee agreements as if pointing to identity. Schofield, Alison, and James C. VanderKam. "Were the Hasmoneans Zadokites?" JBL 124/1 (2005) 73-87 show that matters of "Zadokite" identity are not simple. Also, "Sadducees" in Second Temple Period are not fully identical with Talmudic use of the term. In some scrolls "sons of Zadok" are members of the sect, but not a name for the whole sect. [4] J. E. Taylor, "Khirbet Qumran in the Nineteenth Century and the Name of the Site." pp. 144164. Cansdale 2000, especially p. 633 regarding F. de Saulcy. [5] B. Schultz, "The Qumran Cemetery: 150 Years of Research." pp. 194-196. [6] Isaacs, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A. The Dead Sea: or, Notes and Observations Made During a Journey to Palestine in 1856-7, London: Hatchard and Son, Piccadilly,1857. [7] See p. 66 in Isaacs, A., The Dead Sea: or, Notes and Observations Made During a Journey to Palestine in 1856-7, (London: Hatchard and Son, 1857). [8] See p. 416 in Finn, J., Byeways in Palestine (London: James Nisbet, 1868). [9] See p. 161 in Masterman, E. W. G. "Ain el-Feshkhah, el-Hajar, el-Asbah, and Khurbet Kumrn," PEFQS 27 (1902): 160-167; 297-299. [10] See p. 162 in Masterman, E. W. G. "Ain el-Feshkhah, el-Hajar, el-Asbah, and Khurbet Kumrn," PEFQS 27 (1902): 160-167; 297-299. [11] Dalman, G. Palstinajahrbuch des Deutschen evangelischen Instituts fr Altertumswissenschaft des heiligen Landes zu Jerusalem. (Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler, 1914), 9-11. [12] See p. 164 in Avi-Yonah, M. "Map of Roman Palestine," Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities in Palestine 5 (1936): 139-196. [13] Trever 1965, p. 147. [14] Trever. ibid. [15] From Cargill, Robert R., Qumran through (Real) Time: A Virtual Reconstruction of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Bible in Technology 1, (Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2009), Plate 10.1. Used with permission - author upload. [16] H. Eshel, "A Note on Joshua 15:6162 and the Identification of the City of Salt." pp. 3740. [17] Magness 2000, p. 713f. Magness rejected Period Ia and the hiatus between Periods Ib and II. [18] Hirschfeld, "Context", p. 52f. Hirschfeld proposed a new periodization based on the analysis of Humbert Revue Biblique 1994. 209f. [19] De Vaux was actually a relative late-comer to the Essene identification, years after Eliezer Sukenik proposed the notion in 1948. It seems that it was also derived independently by Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery at the same time, according to Trever 1965, p. 25.

Qumran
[20] de Vaux 1973, p. 104. [21] Murphy 2002, pp. 293-294. Murphy is citing Laperoussez, Qoumran, L'establissement essenien des bord de la Mer Morte: Histoire et archeologie (Paris: A.&J. Picard, 1976) 14 & 135. [22] Steckoll, Solomon, "Preliminary Excavation Report in the Qumran Cemetery" Revue de Qumran 6 (1968) 323-344. [23] Hirschfeld 2004, p. 21. [24] Patrich 1995, p. 93. [25] Murphy 2002, p. 294. Murphy is citing A. Drori et al., "Operation Scroll" in Twentieth Archaeological Conference in Israel: Abstracts (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1994) 12-17 [Hebrew]. [26] Strange, James F. "The 1996 Excavations at Qumran and the Context of the New Hebrew Ostracon." In The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates. Proceedings of the Conference Held at Brown University, November 1719, 2002, ed. Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert and Jrgen Zangenberg, 41-54. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57. Leiden: Brill, 2005. [27] Magen 2006, p. 55. [28] "Qumran Plateau Israel Archaeological Digs - World of the Bible Ministries" (http:/ / www. worldofthebible. com/ archaeology. htm). Worldofthebible.com. 2002-09-05. . Retrieved 2011-11-28. [29] I. Magen, The stone vessel industry in the Second Temple period, 2002. Donceel & Donceel-Voute, 1994, p. 12. [30] Donceel & Donceel-Voute, 1994. [31] See Humbert "Reconsideration", 2003. [32] Donceel & Donceel-Voute 1994, coins: p. 6; glass and stoneware, p. 12. [33] But relatively few "luxury" items, such as glass and stone ware have so far been published (and some of them may be from Period III). [34] Bar-Nathan 2006. [35] Bar-Nathan 2006, p. 275. [36] Personal communication from Y. Magen, Bar-Nathan 2006, p. 275. [37] Magness 2002, p. 81. [38] p105-6, with photo, "Figure 5. The wrongly dubbed Jericho 'Scroll' jar with handle." in Jan Gunneweg and Marta Balla, "The Provenance of Qumran Pottery by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis, 99-108 in Bio- and Material Culture at Qumran, ed. J. Gunneweg et al. (Stuttgart : Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, 2006). [39] Masada VII (Israel Exploration Society, 2006), p. 43. [40] Masada VII, p. 43. [41] Galor 2003, esp. 317. [42] Magen 2006. [43] In French, in R. de Vaux (1961), LArchologie et les Manuscrits de la Mer Morte. The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy 1959. Oxford, pp. 3-37. In English translation, in R. de Vaux (1973) Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Schweich Lectures 1959, Revised edition in an English translation. Oxford, especially pp. 33-41, but also elsewhere. [44] De Vaux 1994 = R. de Vaux (1994) Ed. J.-B. Humbert and A. Chambon, Fouilles de Khirbet Qumrn et de An Feshkha. Album de photographies. Rpertoire du fonds photographique. Synthse des notes de chantier du Pre Roland de Vaux OP. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1. Fribourg. De Vaux 1996 = R. de Vaux, F. Rohrhirsch and B. Hofmeir (1996) Die Ausgrabungen von Qumran und En Feschcha. Die Grabungstagebcher. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1A. Gttingen. Humbert, Chambon and Pfann 2003 = J.-B. Humbert, A. Chambon and S. Pfann (2003) The Excavations of Khirbet Qumran and Ein Feshkha. Synthesis of Roland de Vauxs Field Notes. Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, Series Archaeologica 1B. Fribourg. [45] K. Lnnqvist and M. Lnnqvist (2006) The Numismatic Chronology of Qumran: Fact and Fiction, The Numismatic Chronicle 166, London: The Royal Numismatic Society, pp. 121-165. [46] Sharabani 1980 = M. Sharabani, Monnaies de Qumrn au Muse Rockefeller de Jrusalem, Revue Biblique 87, pp. 274-84. [47] K. Lnnqvist (2007). The report of the Amman lots of the Qumran silver coin hoards. New Chronological Aspects of the Silver Coin Hoard Evidence from Khirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea. Amman 2007, pp. 1-72. [48] Lnnqvist and M. Lnnqvist (2006) The Numismatic Chronology of Qumran: Fact and Fiction, The Numismatic Chronicle 166, London: The Royal Numismatic Society, pp. 21-165. [49] Leonard, Robert D., 'Numismatic Evidence for the Dating of Qumran', The Qumran Chronicle 7:3/4 (1997), p. 231. [50] K. A. K. Lnnqvist (2009) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. VDM Verlag Dr. Mller. Saarbrcken 2009, pp. 222-227. [51] Revue Biblique 99 (1992) 559-60 n.10. [52] K. A. K. Lnnqvist (2009) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. [VDM Verlag Dr. Mller]. Saarbrcken 2009,Coin No. 304). [53] K. A. K. Lnnqvist (2009) New Perspectives on the Roman Coinage on the Eastern Limes in the Late Republican and Roman Imperial Periods. [VDM Verlag Dr. Mller]. Saarbrcken 2009, 155). [54] de Vaux 1973, p. 86. [55] de Vaux 1973, p. 56. [56] Milik 1959, p. 97. [57] Laperrousez, Qoumran, L'establissement essenien des bord de la Mer Morte: Histoire et archeologie (Paris: A.&J. Picard, 1976) 99-107. [58] M. Broshi 1992, p. 104.

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[59] Patrich 1994, pp. 93-94. [60] Broshi 1999, pp. 330-334. [61] Patrich 2000, p. 726. Patrich's article actually appeared after the publication of Broshi and Eshel's paper, but was already in press when it appeared. [62] Magness 2002, p. 70. [63] Hirchfeld 2004, p. 65. [64] Magen 2006, p. 99. [65] Qoumrn ltablissement essnien des bords de la mer Morte : histoire et archologie du site / E.-M. Laperrousaz. Paris : A.&J. Picard, 1976. [66] "Where Christ Himself may Have Studied: An Essene Monastery at Khirbet Qumran", Illustrated London News 227 September 3, 1955 pp. 379-81. De Vaux never wrote of Qumran as a "monastery" even though some claim he did. [67] The riddle of the Scrolls. London, Burke [1958, trans, from French 1957]. [68] For an annotated bibliography of the most of the critiques, see Sidney B. Hoenig, Solomon Zeitlin: Scholar Laureate, New York, 1971. [69] Driver, Godfrey Rolles, The Judaean scrolls; the problem and the solution. (Oxford: B.Blackwell, 1965); and see de Vaux's review in French in Revue biblique, 73 no 2 Ap 1966, p 212-235 and in English in New Testament Studies, 13 no 1 O 1966, pp. 89-104. [70] Rengstorf based his theory on the fact that the scrolls were written in several different scripts and come from different periods and that the copies of the Isaiah scrolls from Cave 1 are substantially different. See: Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Hirbet Qumrn and the Problem of the Library of the Dead Sea Caves, Translated by J. R. Wilkie, Leiden: Brill, 1963. German edition, 1960. [71] The first materials were presented at a conference in New York in 1992, by Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel Voute. See Wise et al., 1994, 1-32. [72] "The origin and subsequent history of the authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Four transitional phases among the Qumran Essenes", Revue de Qumran 10 no 2 May 1980, pp. 213-233. [73] Humbert, Jean-Baptiste and Alain Chambon, The Excavations of Khirbet Qumran and Ain Feshkha: Synthesis of Roland de Vaux's Field Notes, Translated by Stephen J. Pfann, Vol. 1B, Fribourg and Gttingen: University Press and Vandenhoeck & Ruprect, 2003. [74] Humbert, Jean-Baptiste, "Lespace sacr Qumrn. Propositions pour larchologie (Planches I-III)", Revue Biblique 101 (1994): 161-214. [75] Lnnqvist M.& Lnnqvist K.(2002) "Archaeology of the Hidden Qumran, The New Paradigm" Helsinki: Helsinki University Press. [76] Cargill, Robert R., Qumran through (Real) Time: A Virtual Reconstruction of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Bible in Technology 1, Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2009. [77] Cargill, Robert R., "The Qumran Digital Model: An Argument for Archaeological Reconstruction in Virtual Reality and Response to Jodi Magness", Near Eastern Archaeology 72/1 (2009): 28-47. [78] Bar-Adon 1981. English summary, p. 86. [79] Golb, Norman, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls?: The Search for the Secret of Qumran, New York: Scribner, 1995. [80] Donceel, Robert and Pauline H. E. Donceel-Vote, "The Archaeology of Khirbet Qumran." Pages 1-38 in Methods of Investigation of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Khirbet Qumran Site: Present Realities and Future Prospects. Edited by Michael O. Wise, Norman Golb, John J. Collins, and Dennis G. Pardee, Vol. 722 of Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1994. [81] Donceel-Vote, Pauline H. E., "Les ruines de Qumran reinterprtes", Archeologia 298 (1994): 24-35. [82] Wise, et al Methods of Investigation, 50. [83] Bar-Nathan 2002, p. 272. [84] Crown, Alan David and Lena Cansdale, "Qumran: Was it an Essene Settlement?", Biblical Archaeology Review 20 no. 5 (1994): 24-35, 73-4, 76-78. [85] Hirschfeld, Yizhar, "Early Roman Manor Houses in Judea and the Site of Khirbet Qumran", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57/3 (1998): 161-89. [86] Hirschfeld, Yizhar, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 2004. [87] Magen, Yizhak and Yuval Peleg, The Qumran Excavations 1993-2004: Preliminary Report, Judea & Samaria Publications 6, Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, 2007, p. 29. pdf (http:/ / www. antiquities. org. il/ images/ shop/ jsp/ JSP6_Qumran_color. pdf) [88] In Holistic Qumran: Trans-Disciplinary Research of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls (Leiden, 2010) 39-61, quote on p. 49. [89] In Qumran and Jericho Pottery: A Petrographic and Chemical Provenance Study, Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland, p.26. [90] Bar-Nathan, Rachel, "Qumran and the Hasmonean and Herodian Winter Palaces of Jericho: The Implication of the Pottery Finds on the Interpretation of the Settlement at Qumran." Pages 263-77 in Qumran: The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates. Proceedings of a Conference held at Brown University, November 1719, 2002. Edited by Katharina Galor, Jean-Baptiste Humbert, and Jrgen K. Zangenberg, Leiden: Brill, 2006. [91] Stacey, David, "Some Archaeological Observations on the Aqueducts of Qumran", Dead Sea Discoveries 14/2 (2007): 222-43. [92] Rabin 2009, 97-106. [93] Yardeni, Ada, "A Note on a Qumran Scribe." In New Seals and Inscriptions: Hebrew, Idumean, and Cuneiform, ed. Meir Lubetski, 287-298. Hebrew Bible Monographs 8. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2007. [94] Bar-Gal, Gila Kahila, "Principles of the Recovery of Ancient DNA--What it Tells Us of Plant and Animal Domestication and the Origin of the Scroll Parchment", in Bio- and material cultures at Qumran: papers from a COST Action G8 working group meeting held in Jerusalem, Israel on 2223 May 2005 / edited by Jan Gunneweg, Charles Greenblatt, and Annemie Adriaens. (Stuttgart: Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, 2006) 41-50.

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[95] http:/ / www. bibleinterp. com/ articles/ qumfort. shtml [96] http:/ / www. bibleinterp. com/ articles/ stacey. shtml [97] http:/ / www. bibleinterp. com/ articles/ Ben-Ami--The_Enigma_of_Qumran. htm [98] http:/ / www. bibleinterp. com/ articles/ Stacey_Qumran_Light_of_Recent_Publications. shtml [99] http:/ / www. isprs. org/ congresses/ istanbul2004/ comm5/ papers/ 616. pdf [100] http:/ / www. pef. org. uk/ qumran/ [101] http:/ / www. virtualqumran. com [102] http:/ / www. 3disrael. com/ dead_sea/ qumran. cfm [103] http:/ / www. 3disrael. com/ dead_sea/ qumran2. cfm [104] http:/ / pleiades. stoa. org/ places/ 688011

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Dead Sea Scrolls

The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of 972[1] texts discovered between 1946 and 1956 that consist of biblical manuscripts from what is now known as the Hebrew Bible and extra-biblical documents found on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, from which they derive their name. They were specifically located at Khirbet Qumran in what was then British Mandate Palestine, and since 1947, what has been known as the West Bank.

The Psalms Scroll, designated 11Q5, with transcription.

The texts are of great historical and religious significance and include the earliest known surviving copies of biblical and extra-biblical documents, as well as preserving evidence of great diversity in late Second Temple Judaism. They are written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean, mostly on parchment, but with some written on papyrus and bronze.[2] These manuscripts have been dated to various ranges between 408BCE and 318CE.[3] Bronze coins found on the site form a series beginning with Hyrcanus 1 (135-104BCE) and continue without a gap until the first Jewish revolt (6673 CE).[4] The scrolls are traditionally identified with the ancient Jewish sect called the Essenes, though some recent interpretations have challenged this association and argue that the scrolls were penned by priests in Jerusalem, Zadokites, or other unknown Jewish groups.[5][6] The Dead Sea Scrolls are traditionally divided into three groups: "Biblical" manuscripts (copies of texts from the Hebrew Bible), which comprise roughly 40% of the identified scrolls; Other manuscripts (known documents from the Second Temple Period like Enoch, Jubilees, Tobit, Sirach, additional psalms, etc., that were not ultimately canonized in the Hebrew Bible), which comprise roughly 30% of the identified scrolls; and "Sectarian" manuscripts (previously unknown documents that shed light on the rules and beliefs of a particular group or groups within greater Judaism) like the Community Rule, War Scroll, Pesher on Habakkuk (Hebrew: pesher = "Commentary"), and the Rule of the Blessing, which comprise roughly 30% of the identified scrolls.[7] Most of the scrolls can be found online in high resolution imagery either on the Israel Museum site http:/ / dss. collections. imj. org. il or on the Israel Antique Authority site: http:/ / www. deadseascrolls. org. il/ . Both sites were developed with cooperation with Google Israel R&D center.

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Discovery
The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in a series of twelve caves around the site known as Wadi Qumran near the Dead Sea in what is now the West Bank between 1946 and 1956 by the Bedouin people and archeologists.[8]

Initial discovery (19461947)

The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed Edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947.[9][10] The shepherds discovered 7 Qumran cave 4, in which ninety percent of the scrolls were found. scrolls (See Fragment and scroll lists) housed in jars in a cave at what is now known as the Qumran site. John C. Trever reconstructed the story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin. edh-Dhib's cousin noticed the caves, but edh-Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one. He retrieved a handful of scrolls, which Trever identifies as the Isaiah Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule, and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process, despite popular rumor.[11] The Bedouin kept the scrolls hanging on a tent pole while they figured out what to do with them, periodically taking them out to show people. At some point during this time, the Community Rule was split in two. The Bedouin first took the scrolls to a dealer named Ibrahim 'Ijha in Bethlehem. 'Ijha returned them, saying they were worthless, after being warned that they might have been stolen from a synagogue. Undaunted, the Bedouin went to a nearby market, where a Syrian Christian offered to buy them. A sheikh joined their conversation and suggested they take the scrolls to Khalil Eskander Shahin, "Kando," a cobbler and part-time antiques dealer. The Bedouin and the dealers returned to the site, leaving one scroll with Kando and selling three others to a dealer for GBP7 (US$29 in 2003).[11] The original scrolls continued to change hands after the Bedouin left them in the possession of a third party until a sale could be arranged. (See Ownership) In 1947 the original seven scrolls caught the attention of Dr. John C. Trever, of the American Schools of Oriental Research (ASOR), who compared the script in the scrolls to that of The Nash Papyrus, the oldest biblical manuscript then known, and found similarities between them. In March, the 1948 Arab-Israeli War prompted the move of some of scrolls to Beirut, Lebanon, for safekeeping. On 11 April 1948, Miller Burrows, head of the ASOR, announced the discovery of the scrolls in a general press release.

Search for the Qumran caves (19481949)

Early in September 1948, Mar brought Professor Ovid R. Sellers, the new Director of ASOR, some additional scroll fragments that he had acquired. By the end of 1948, nearly two years after their discovery, scholars had yet to locate the original cave where the fragments had been found. With unrest in the country at that time, no large-scale search could be undertaken safely. Sellers attempted to get the Syrians to assist in the search for the cave, but he was unable to pay their price. In early 1948, the government of Jordan gave permission to the Arab Legion to search the area where the original Qumran cave was thought to be. Consequently, Cave 1 was rediscovered on 28 January 1949, by Belgian United Nations observer Captain Phillipe Lippens and Arab Legion Captain Akkash el-Zebn.[12]

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Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries (19491951)

The rediscovery of Cave 1 prompted the initial excavation of the site from 15 February to 5 March 1949 by the Jordanian Department of Antiquities. The excavation was led by Lancaster Harding, director of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, and Roland de Vaux, the President of the Trustees of the museum. The Cave 1 site yielded discoveries of additional Dead Sea Scroll fragments, linen cloth, jars, and other artifacts.[13]

Excavations of Qumran (19511956)

In November 1951, Roland de Vaux and his team from the ASOR began a full excavation of Qumran.[14] In February 1952, the Bedouin people discovered 30 fragments in what was to be designated Cave 2. These included fragments of Jubilees and Ben Sira written in Hebrew.[13][14] The following month, the ASOR team discovered Cave 3 and the Copper Scroll. Between September and December 1952 the fragments and scrolls of Caves 4, 5, and 6 were subsequently discovered by the ASOR teams.[14] With the monetary value of the scrolls rising as their historical significance was made more public, the Bedouins and the ASOR archaeologists accelerated their search for the scrolls separately in the same general area of Qumran, which was over 1 kilometer in length. Between 1953 and 1956, Roland de Vaux led four more archaeological expeditions in the area to uncover scrolls and artifacts.[13] The last cave, Cave 11, was discovered in 1956 and yielded the last fragments to be found in the vicinity of Qumran.[15]

Fragment and scroll lists

While many of the Dead Sea Scrolls are small fragments of Biblical, apocryphal, or sectarian manuscripts, some of the scrolls have come to be well known and influential to Second Temple Judaism. The following are lists of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the caves near Qumran:[16]

Qumran Cave 1
Cave 1 was discovered in the winter or spring of 1947. It was first excavated by Gerald Lankester Harding and Roland de Vaux from 15 February to 5 March 1949.[17] In addition to the original seven scrolls, Cave 1 produced jars and bowls, whose chemical composition and shape matched vessels discovered at the settlement at Qumran, pieces of cloth, and additional fragments that matched portions of the original scrolls, thereby confirming that the original scrolls came from Cave 1. The original seven scrolls from Cave 1 are:[18] 1QIsaa ("Great Isaiah Scroll", a copy of the book of "Isaiah") 1QIsab (a second copy of the book of "Isaiah") 1QS ("Community Rule") cf. 4QSa-j = 4Q255-64, 5Q11 1QpHab ("Pesher on Habakkuk") 1QM ("War Scroll") cf. 4Q491, 4Q493 1QH ("Thanksgiving Hymns") 1QapGen ("Genesis Apocryphon")
The War Scroll, found in Qumran Cave 1.

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A portion of the second discovered copy of the Isaiah scroll, 1QIsab.

Fragment/Scroll # 1QIsa 1QIsa

Fragment/Scroll Name

KJV Bible Association

Description

Great Isaiah Scroll

Large portion of the Book of Isaiah The Book of Isaiah A second copy of portions of the Book of Isaiah cf. 4QSa-j = 4Q255-64, 5Q11

1QS

Serekh ha-Yahad or "Community Rule" Pesher on Habakkuk Milhamah or War Scroll Hodayot or Thanksgiving Hymns Genesis Apocryphon Cairo Geniza or Testament of Levi Genesis 1:18-21; 3:11-14; 22:13-15; 23:17-19; 24:22-24 Exodus 16:12-16; 19:24-20:2, 20:5-6; 20:25-21:1; 21:4-5

1QpHab 1QM 1QHa 1QapGen CTLevi 1QGen

cf. 4Q491, 4Q493; 11Q14?

In Aramaic In Aramaic = 1Q1

1QExod

= 1Q2

1QpaleoLev

Leviticus 11:10-11; 19:30-34; 20:20-24; 21:24-22:6; In palaeo-Hebrew script = 1Q3 23:4-8 and Numbers 1:48-50 Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Judges Samuel Parts of the Book of Isaiah Ezekiel Psalms = 1Q4 = 1Q5 = 1Q6 = 1Q7 Parts of 1QIsab = 1Q8 Parts of 1QIsab = 1Q9 = 1Q10

1QDeuta 1QDeutb 1QJudg 1QSam 1QIsab 1QEzek 1QPsa

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261
Psalms Psalms = 1Q11 = 1Q12 58 fragments from a Phylactery = 1Q13 Pesher on Micah Pesher on Zephaniah Pesher on Psalms Jubilees Jubilees = 1Q14 = 1Q15 = 1Q16 = 1Q17 = 1Q18 Parts of the lost Book of Noah = 1Q19 Fragments of the "Genesis Apocryphon" Testament of Levi "Dibr Moshe" or "Words of Moses" Book of Giants Book of Giants "Apocryphal Prophecy" "Instruction" "Mysteries" Fragment from "Community Rule" "Rule of the Congregation" "Rule of the Blessing" or "Rule of the Benedictions" "Liturgy of the Three Tongues of Fire" "Liturgical Text 1" "Liturgical Text 2" "New Jerusalem" Fragment of the 1QM or "War Scroll") "Liturgical Prayers" or "Festival Prayers" Hodayot" or "Thanksgiving Hymns" "Hymnic Composition" Unclassified Fragments Daniel Daniel = 1Q71 = 1Q72 = 1Q34 in Aramaic = 1Q32 cf. 11Q18 = 1Q28a = 1Q28b = 1Q27 Enoch Enoch In Aramaic) = 1Q20

1QPsb 1QPsc 1QPhyl

1QpMic 1QpZeph 1QpPs 1QJuba 1QJubb 1QNoah

1QapGen

1QTLevi 1QDM 1QEnGiantsa 1QEnGiantsb 1Q25 1Q26 1QMyst 1Q28 1QSa 1QSb 1Q29

In Aramaic= 1Q21 = 1Q22 In Aramaic) = 1Q23 In Aramaic) = 1Q24

1Q30 1Q31 1QNJ 1Q33

1QLitPr

1QHb 1Q36-40 1Q41-70 1QDana 1QDanb

= 1Q35

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Qumran Cave 2
Cave 2 was discovered in February 1952.[19] It yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts, including Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach in the original Hebrew.
Fragment/Scroll # 2QGen 2QExoda 2QExodb 2QExodc 2QpaleoLev 2QNuma 2QNumb 2QNumc 2QNumd 2QDeuta 2QDeutb 2QDeutc 2QJer 2QPs 2QJob 2QRutha 2QRuthb 2QSir 2QJuba 2QJubb 2QapMoses 2QapDavid 2QapProph 2QapProph 2QNJ 2Q25 2QEnGiants 2Q27-33 "Apocryphon of Moses" "Apocryphon of David" "Apocryphal Prophecy" "Apocryphal Prophecy" "New Jerusalem" "Juridical Text" "Book of Giants" from "Enoch" Unidentified Texts Text in in Aramaic = 2Q26 cf. 6Q8 "Wisdom of Sirach" or "Ecclesiasticus" The Book of Jubilees The Book of Jubilees Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association The Book of Genesis The Book of Exodus The Book of Exodus The Book of Exodus Leviticus 11:22-29 The Book of Numbers The Book of Numbers The Book of Numbers The Book of Numbers The Book of Deuteronomy The Book of Deuteronomy = 2Q1 = 2Q2 = 2Q3 = 2Q4 Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 2Q5 = 2Q6 = 2Q7 = 2Q8 = 2Q9 = 2Q10 = 2Q11 Description

The Book of Deuteronomy 10:8-12 = 2Q12 The Book of Jeremiah The Book of Psalms The Book of Job 33:28-30 The Book of Ruth The Book of Ruth = 2Q13 = 2Q14 = 2Q15 = 2Q16 = 2Q17 = 2Q18 = 2Q19 = 2Q20 = 2Q21 = 2Q22 = 2Q23 = 2Q23 Text in Aramaic = 2Q24 cf. 1Q32 ar, 11Q18 ar

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Qumran Cave 3
Cave 3 was discovered on 14 March 1952.[19] The cave yielded 14 manuscripts including Jubilees and the curious Copper Scroll, which lists 67 hiding places, mostly underground, throughout the ancient Roman province of Judea (now Israel). According to the scroll, the secret caches held astonishing amounts of gold, silver, copper, aromatics, and manuscripts.
Frangment/Scroll # 3QEzek 3QPs 3QLam 3QpIsa 3QJub 3QHymn 3QTJudah 3Q8 3Q9 3Q10-11 3Q12-13 3Q14 3QCopper Scroll Unclassified fragments Unclassified fragments Unclassified fragments The Copper Scroll = 3Q15 In Aramaic Unidentified hymn Testament of Judah Fragment of an unidentified text Possible unidentified sectarian text Pesher on Isaiah Jubilees Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Ezekiel 16:31-33 Psalms 2:6-7 Lamentations = 3Q1 = 3Q2 = 3Q3 = 3Q4 = 3Q5 = 3Q6 = 3Q7 cf. 4Q484, 4Q538 Description

Qumran Caves 4a and 4b

Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated from 2229 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Jzef Milik.[20] Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is the most famous of Qumran caves both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 910 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot.

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The Damascus Document Scroll, 4Q271Df, found in Cave 4

Fragment/Scroll # 4QGen-Exoda 4QGenb 4QGenc 4QGend 4QGene 4QGenf 4QGeng 4QGenh1 4QGenh2 4QGenh-para 4QGenh-title 4QGenj 4QGenk 4QpaleoGen-Exodl 4QpaleoGenm 4QExodb 4QExodc 4QExodd 4QExode 4QExodf

Fragment/Scroll Name

KJV Bible Association

Description

Genesis and the Exodus Genesis Genesis Genesis 1:18-27 Genesis Genesis 48:1-11 Genesis 48:1-11 Genesis 1:8-10 Genesis 2:17-18 A paraphrase of Genesis 12:4-5 The title of a Genesis manuscript Genesis Genesis Genesis and the Exodus Genesis Exodus Exodus Exodus Exodus 13:3-5 Exodus and Leviticus

= 4Q1 = 4Q2 = 4Q3 = 4Q4 = 4Q5 = 4Q6 = 4Q7 = 4Q8 = 4Q8a = 4Q8b = 4Q8c = 4Q9 = 4Q10 Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q11 Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q12 = 4Q13 = 4Q14 = 4Q15 = 4Q16 = 4Q17

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Exodus 14:21-27 Exodus 6:3-6 Exodus Exodus 36:9-10 Exodus Leviticus and Numbers Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Numbers Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs Song of Songs = 4Q18 = 4Q19 = 4Q20 = 4Q21 Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 4Q22 = 4Q23 = 4Q24 = 4Q25 = 4Q26 = 4Q26a = 4Q26b = 4Q27 Written in Hebrew = 4Q107

4QExodg 4QExodh 4QExodj 4QExodk 4QExodm 4QLev-Numa 4QLev-Numb 4QLev-Numc 4QLev-Numd 4QLev-Nume 4QLev-Numg 4QNumb 4QCanta 4QCantb 4QCantc 4Q112 4Q123 4Q127 4Q128-148 4Q156 4QtgJob 4QRPa 4Q161-164 4QpHos "Rewritten Joshua" "Rewritten Exodus" Various tefillin Targum of Leviticus Targum of Job Rewritten Pentateuch Pesher on Isaiah The Hosea Commentary Scroll, Pesher on Hosea Pesher on Hosea Pesher on Nahum or Nahum Commentary Florilegium or Midrash on the Last Days Messianic Anthology or Testimonia [21] a

Song of Songs

Written in Hebrew = 4Q107

Song of Songs

= 4Q108

Daniel

= 4Q157 = 4Q158

= 4Q166

4Q167 4Q169

4Q174 4Q175

Contains Deuteronomy 5:28-29, 18:18-19, 33:8-11; Joshua 6:26

Written in Hasmonean script.

4Q179 4Q196-200 4Q201a 4Q213-214

Lamentations Tobit The Enoch Scroll Aramaic Levi [21]

cf. 4Q501 cf. 4Q501

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Testament of Naphtali Pesher on Canticles or Pesher on the Song of Songs Aramaic Apocalypse or The Son of God Text Pesher on Genesis Serekh ha-Yahad or Community Rule The Damascus Document cf. 1QSd cf. 4QDa/g = 4Q266/272, 4QDa/e = 4Q266/270, 5Q12, 6Q15, 4Q265-73 cf. 11Q14 = 4Q364 = 4Q365 = 4Q365a (=4QTemple?) = 4Q366 = 4Q367 = 4Q415-418 4Q415-418 15 fragments: likely hymns of thanksgiving praising God for his power and expressing thanks cf. 4Q394-399 = 4Q240

4Q4Q215 4QCanta 4Q246

4Q252 4Q258 4Q265-273

4Q285 4QRPb 4QRPc 4QRPc 4QRPd 4QRPe 4QInstruction 4QParaphrase 4Q434

Rule of War Rewritten Pentateuch Rewritten Pentateuch Rewritten Pentateuch Rewritten Pentateuch Rewritten Pentateuch Sapiential Work A Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus Barkhi Napshi - Apocryphal Psalms

4QMMT

Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah or Some Precepts of the Law or the Halakhic Letter Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice or the Angelic Liturgy Hymn to King Jonathan or The Prayer For King Jonathan Scroll Songs of the Sage Messianic Apocalypse MeKleine Fragmente, z.T. gesetzlichen Inhalts Testament of Joseph Testament of Levid Psalms 154

4Q400-407

cf. 11Q5-6

4Q448

In addition to parts of Psalms 154 it contains a prayer mentioning King Jonathan.

4Q510-511 4Q521 4Q523

Made up of two fragments Fragment is legal in content. PAM number, [22] 41.944.

4Q539 4Q541

Aramaic frag. also called "4QApocryphon of Levib ar" cf. 1Q32, 2Q24, 5Q15, 11Q18

4Q554-5

New Jerusalem

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Qumran Cave 5
Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 5 produced approximately 25 manuscripts.[20]
Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description 5QDeut 5QKgs 5Q10 5Q11 5Q12 5Q13 5Q14 5Q15 5Q16-25 5QX1 Apocryphon of Malachi Rule of the Community Damascus Document Rule Curses New Jerusalem Unclassified Leather fragment Deuteronomy 1 Kings = 5Q2Joshua = 5Q1 = 5Q9

Qumran Cave 6
Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of Cave 4. Cave 6 contained fragments of about 31 manuscripts.[20] List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 6[23][24] :
Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name Genesis 6:13-21 KJV Bible Association Description

6QpaleoGen

Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 6Q1 Written in palaeo-Hebrew script = 6Q2

6QpaleoLev

Leviticus 8:12-13

6Q3 6QKings

A few letters of Deuteronomy 26:19 1 Kings 3:12-14; 2 Kings 7:8-10; 1 Kings 12:28-31; 2 Kings 7:20-8:5; 1 Kings 22:28-31; 2 Kings 9:1-2; 2 Kings 5:26; 2 Kings 10:19-21; 2 Kings 6:32 Possibly Psalms 78:36-37 Song of Songs 1:1-7 Written in Hebrew = 6Q6 13 Fragments. =6Q7 = 6Q8 Written on papyrus. = 6Q9 Written in Hebrew papyrus. = 6Q10 = 6Q11 Made up of 94 Fragments. = 6Q4

6Q5 6QCant

6QDaniel 6QGiants ar 6QApocryphon on Samuel-Kings 6QProphecy Apocryphon on Samuel-Kings Unidentified prophetic fragment

Daniel 11:38; 10:8-16; 11:33-36 Book of Giants from Enoch

6QAllegory of the Vine Allegory of the Vine

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An apocryphal prophecy Priestly Prophecy Damascus Document Benediction Calendrical Document = 6Q12

6QapocProph

6QPriestProph 6QD 6QBenediction 6QCalendrical Document 6QHymn 6Q19 6Q20 6Q21

= 6Q13 = 6Q15 = 6Q16 = 6Q17

Hymn Possibly from Genesis Possibly from Deuteronomy Possibly prophetic text

= 6Q18

Fragment containing 5 words.

6Q22 6Q23 6Q24-25 6Q26 6Q27-28 6QpapProv

Unclassified fragments Unclassified fragments Unclassified fragments Accounts or contracts Unclassified fragments Parts of Proverbs 11:4b-7a; 10b Single six-line fragment. = 6Q30

6Q31

Unclassified fragments

Qumran Cave 7
Cave 7, along with caves 8 and 9, was one of the only caves that is accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, archaeologists excavated cave 7 in 1957. Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents, including 7Q2 (the "Letter of Jeremiah" = Baruch 6), 7Q5 (which became the subject of much speculation in later decades), and a Greek copy of a scroll of Enoch.[25][26][27] Cave 7 also produced several inscribed potsherds and jars.[28] List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 7[23][24] :

Dead Sea Scroll fragments 7Q4, 7Q5, and 7Q8 from Cave 7 in Qumran, written on papyrus.

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A view of part of the Temple Scroll that was found in Qumran Cave 11.

Fragment/Scroll # 7QLXXExod gr 7QLXXEpJer 7Q3-4 7Q5 7Q6-18 7Q19

Fragment/Scroll Name

KJV Bible Association Exodus 28:4-7 Jeremiah 43-44 = 7Q1 = 7Q2

Description

Unknown biblical text Unknown biblical text Unidentified fragments Unidentified papyrus imprint Very tiny fragments written on papyrus. Very tiny fragments written on papyrus.

Qumran Cave 8
Cave 8, along with caves 7 and 9, was one of the only caves that is accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, archaeologists excavated cave 8 in 1957. Cave 8 produced five fragments: Genesis (8QGen), Psalms (8QPs), a tefillin fragment (8QPhyl), a mezuzah (8QMez), and a hymn (8QHymn).[29] Cave 8 also produced several tefillin cases, a box of leather objects, tons of lamps, jars, and the sole of a leather shoe.[28] List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 8[23][24] :
Fragment/Scroll # 8QGen 8QPs 8QPhyl Fragments from a "Phylactery" Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

Genesis 17:12-19; 18:20-25 Psalms 17:5-9; 17:14; 18:6-9; 18:10-13 Exodus 12:43-51 13:1-16; 20:11; Deuteronomy 5:1-14; 6:1-9; 11:13; 10:12-22; 11:1-12 Deuteronomy 10:12-11:21 from a Mezuzah Unidentified hymn

= 8Q1 = 8Q2 = 8Q3

8QMez 8QHymn

= 8Q4 = 8Q5

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Qumran Cave 9
Cave 9, along with caves 7 and 8, was one of the only caves that is accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, archaeologists excavated cave 9 in 1957. There was only one fragment found in Cave 9:
Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association 9Qpap Unidentified fragment Description =9Q1 Written on papyrus.

Qumran Cave 10
In Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with some writing on them, along with an unknown symbol on a grey stone slab:
Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association 10QOstracon Ostracon Description =10Q1 Two letters written on a piece of pottery. [10]

Qumran Cave 11
Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts, some of which were quite lengthy. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7feet (8.15m) long. Its original length may have been over 28feet (8.75m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes." On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such, but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing.[30] Also in Cave 11, an escatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13) was found. Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees. According to former chief editor of the DSS editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave 11, that have not yet been made available for scholars. Among them is a complete Aramaic manuscript of the Book of Enoch.[31] List of groups of fragments collected from Wadi Qumran Cave 11:
Fragment/Scroll # 11QpaleoLeva Fragment/Scroll Name KJV Bible Association Description

Leviticus 4:24-26; 10:4-7; 11:27-32; 13:3-9; 13:39-43; 14:16-21; 14:52-!5:5; Written in 16:2-4; 16:34-17:5; 18:27-19:4; 20:1-6; 21:6-11; 22:21-27; 23:22-29; palaeo-Hebrew script. = 24:9-14; 25:28-36; 26:17-26; 27:11-19 11Q1 Leviticus Written in palaeo-Hebrew script. = 11Q2 = 11Q3 = 11Q4 = 11Q5 = 11Q6

11QpaleoLevb

11QDeut 11QEz 11QPsa 11QPsb 11QPsc

Deuteronomy Ezekiel Psalms Psalms 77:18-21; 78:1; 109:3-4; 118:1; 118:15-16; 119:163-165; 133:1-3; 141:10; 144:1-2

Psalms 2:1-8; 9:3-7; 12:5-9; 13:1-6; 14:1-6; 17:9-15; 18:1-12; 19:4-8; 25:2-7 = 11Q7

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Psalms 6:2-4; 9:3-6; 18:26-29; 18:39-42; 36:13; 37:1-4; 39:13-14; 40:1; 43:1-3; 45:6-8; 59:5-8; 68:1-5; 68:14-18; 78:5-12; 81:4-9; 86:11-14; 115:16-18; 116:1 Psalms 50:3-7 Targum of Job Apocryphal paraphrase of Psalms 91 Ethiopic text of Jubilees "Heavenly Prince Melchizedek" "The Book of War" Jubilees 4:6-11; 4:13-14; 4:16-17; 4:29-31; 5:1-2; 12:15-17; 12:28-29 = 11Q8

11QPsd

11QPse 11QtgJob 11QapocrPs 11QJub

= 11Q9 = 11Q10 = 11Q11 = 11Q12

11QMelch

= 11Q13

11QSM 11QHymnsa 11QHymnsb 11QShirShabb

= 11Q14 = 11Q15 = 11Q16

Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice "New Jerusalem"

= 11Q17

11QNJ ar

Written in Aramaic = 11Q18 = 11Q19 = 11Q20 = 11Q21

11QTa 11QTb 11QTc 11Q22-28

"Temple Scroll" "Temple Scroll" "Temple Scroll" Unidentified fragments

11Q29 11Q30 Unidentified fragments Unidentified wads

Serekh ha-Yahad related

11Q31

Fragments with unknown provenance

Some fragments of scrolls do not have significant archaeological and provenance records that reveal which designated Qumran cave area they were found in. They are believed to have come from Wadi Qumran caves, however are just as likely to have come from other archaeological sites in the Judaean Desert area.[32] These fragments have therefore been designated to the temporary "X" series.

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Fragment/Scroll # Fragment/Scroll Name XQ1-3 XQ4 XQ5a XQ5b XQ6 XQ7 XQpapEn Hymn Offering Unidentified fragment

KJV Bible Association

Description

"Tefillin from Qumran" Deuteronomy 5:1 - 6:3; 10:12 - 11:12.[32] First published in 1969; Phylacteries "Tefillin from Qumran" Jubilees 7:4-5 Phylacteries

Small fragment with only one word in Aramaic. Strong possibility that it is part of 4QInstruction. Book of Enoch 9:1 One small fragment written in Hebrew. = XQ8

Origin of the Scrolls

There has been much debate about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The dominant theory remains that the scrolls were the product of a sect of Jews living at nearby Qumran called the Essenes, but this theory has come to be challenged by several modern scholars. The various theories concerning the origin of the scrolls are as follows:

Christian Origin Theory

Spanish Jesuit Josep O'CallaghanMartnez has argued that one fragment (7Q5) preserves a portion of text from the New Testament Gospel of Mark 6:5253.[33] In recent years, Robert Eisenman has advanced the theory that some scrolls describe the early Christian community. Eisenman also attempted to relate the career of James the Just and the Apostle Paul / Paul of Tarsus to some of these documents.[34]

Jerusalem Origin Theory

Some scholars have argued that the scrolls were the product of Jews living in Jerusalem, who hid the scrolls in the caves near Qumran while fleeing from the Romans during the destruction of Jerusalem in 70CE. Karl Heinrich Rengstorf first proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem.[35] Later, A view of the Dead Sea from a cave at Qumran in Norman Golb suggested that the scrolls were the product of multiple which some of the Dead Sea Scrolls were libraries in Jerusalem, and not necessarily the Jerusalem Temple discovered. library.[6][36] Proponents of the Jerusalem Origin theory point to the diversity of thought and handwriting among the scrolls as evidence against a Qumran origin of the scrolls. Several archaeologists have also accepted an origin of the scrolls other than Qumran, including Yizhar Hirschfeld[37] and most recently Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg,[38] who all understand the remains of Qumran to be those of a Hasmonean fort that was reused during later periods.

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QumranEssene Theory
The prevalent view among scholars, almost universally held until the 1990s, is the "QumranEssene" hypothesis originally posited by Roland Gurin de Vaux[39] and Jzef Tadeusz Milik,[40] though independently both Eliezer Sukenik and Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery connected scrolls with the Essenes well before any excavations at Qumran.[41] The QumranEssene theory holds that the scrolls were written by the Essenes, or perhaps by another Jewish sectarian group, residing at Khirbet Qumran. They composed the scrolls and ultimately hid them in the nearby caves during the Jewish Revolt sometime between 66 and 68CE. The site of Qumran was destroyed and the scrolls were never recovered by those that placed them there. A number of arguments are used to support this theory. There are striking similarities between the description of an initiation ceremony of new members in the Community Rule and descriptions of the Essene initiation ceremony mentioned in the works of Flavius Josephus a JewishRoman historian of the Second Temple Period. Josephus mentions the Essenes as sharing property among the members of the community, as does the Community Rule. During the excavation of Khirbet Qumran, two inkwells and plastered elements thought to be tables were found, offering evidence that some form of writing was done there. More inkwells were discovered in nearby loci. De Vaux called this area the "scriptorium" based upon this discovery. Several Jewish ritual baths (Hebrew: miqvah = )were discovered at Qumran, which offers evidence of an observant Jewish presence at the site. Pliny the Elder (a geographer writing after the fall of Jerusalem in 70CE) describes a group of Essenes living in a desert community on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea near the ruined town of 'Ein Gedi. The QumranEssene theory has been the dominant theory since its initial proposal by Roland de Vaux and J.T. Milik. Recently, however, several other scholars have proposed alternative origins of the scrolls.

QumranSectarian Theory
QumranSectarian theories are variations on the QumranEssene theory. The main point of departure from the QumranEssene theory is hesitation to link the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically with the Essenes. Most proponents of the QumranSectarian theory understand a group of Jews living in or near Qumran to be responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls, but do not necessarily conclude that the sectarians are Essenes.

QumranSadducean Theory
A specific variation on the QumranSectarian theory that has gained much recent popularity is the work of Lawrence H. Schiffman, who proposes that the community was led by a group of Zadokite priests (Sadducees).[42] The most important document in support of this view is the "Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah" (4QMMT), which cites purity laws (such as the transfer of impurities) identical to those attributed in rabbinic writings to the Sadducees. 4QMMT also reproduces a festival calendar that follows Sadducee principles for the dating of certain festival days.

Physical characteristics
Age
Radiocarbon dating Parchment from a number of the Dead Sea Scrolls have been carbon dated. The initial test performed in 1950 was on a piece of linen from one of the caves. This test gave an indicative dating of 33CE plus or minus 200 years, eliminating early hypotheses relating the scrolls to the mediaeval period.[43] Since then two large series of tests have been performed on the scrolls themselves. The results were summarized by VanderKam and Flint, who said the tests give "strong reason for thinking that most of the Qumran manuscripts belong to the last two centuries BCE and the

Dead Sea Scrolls first century CE."[44] Paleographic dating Analysis of handwriting, a path of study known as palaeography, was applied to the text on the Dead Sea Scrolls by a variety of scholars in the field. Major linguistic analysis by Cross and Avigad dates fragments from 225BCE to 50CE.[45] These dates were determined by examining the size, variability, and style of the text.[46] The same fragments were later analyzed using radiocarbon date testing and were dated to an estimated range of 385BCE to 82CE with a 68% accuracy rate.[47]

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Ink and parchment

The scrolls were analyzed using a cyclotron at the University of California, Davis, where it was found that two types of black ink were used: iron-gall ink and carbon soot ink.[48] In addition, a third ink on the scrolls that was red in color was found to be made with cinnabar (HgS, mercury sulfide).[48] There are only four uses of this red ink in the entire collection of Dead Sea Scroll fragments.[49] The black inks found on the Shown here are gall powder (top left) and Iron(II) Oxide (bottom left), two of the scrolls that are made up of carbon soot were key ingredients in Iron-Gall Ink, one of the three inks used to make the Dead Sea [50] Scrolls. The Isaiah Scroll, which has been shown to use Iron-Gall Ink, is pictured found to be from olive oil lamps. Gall on the right. nuts from oak trees, present in some, but not all of the black inks on the scrolls, was added to make the ink more resilient to smudging common with pure carbon inks.[48] Honey, oil, vinegar and water were often added to the mixture to thin the ink to a proper consistency for writing.[50] In order to apply the ink to the scrolls, its writers used reed pens.[51] The Dead Sea scrolls were written on parchment made of processed animal hide known as vellum (approximately 85.5 - 90.5% of the scrolls), papyrus (estimated at 8.0 - 13.0% of the scrolls), and sheets of bronze composed of about 99.0% copper and 1.0% tin (approximately 1.5% of the scrolls).[51][52] For those scrolls written on animal hides, scholars with the Israeli Antiquities Authority, by use of DNA testing for assembly purposes, believe that there may be a hierarchy in the religious importance of the texts based on which type of animal was used to create the hide. Scrolls written on goat and calf hides are considered by scholars to be more significant in nature, while those written on gazelle or ibex are considered to be less religiously significant in nature.[53]

Shown here is a closeup of the ink and text of two of the fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The two fragments, fragments 1 and 2 of 7Q6, are written on papyrus.

In addition, tests by the National Institute of Nuclear Physics in Sicily, Italy, have suggested that the origin of parchment of select Dead Sea Scroll fragments is from the Qumran area itself, by using X-ray and Particle Induced X-ray emission testing of the water used to make the parchment that were compared with the water from the area around the Qumran site.[54]

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Deterioration, storage, and preservation

The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea.[55] In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation.[56] Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced at Qumran.[57] During the first few years in the late 1940s and early 1950s, adhesive tape used to join fragments and seal cracks caused significant damage to the documents.[57] The Government of Jordan had recognized the urgency of protecting the scrolls from deterioration and the presence of the deterioration among the scrolls.[58] However, the government did not have adequate funds to purchase all the scrolls for their protection and agreed to have foreign institutions purchase the scrolls and have them held at their museum in Jerusalem until they could be "adequately studied".[58]

Two examples of the pottery that held some of the Dead Sea Scrolls documents found at Qumran.

In early 1953, they were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem and through their transportation suffered more deterioration and damage.[59] The museum was underfunded and had limited resources with which to examine the scrolls, and, as a result, conditions of the "scrollery" and storage area were left relatively uncontrolled by modern standards.[59] The museum had left most of the fragments and scrolls lying between window glass, trapping the moisture in with them, causing an acceleration in the deterioration process. During a portion of the conflict during the 1956 Arab-Israeli War, the scrolls collection of the Palestinian Archaeological Museum was stored in the vault of the Ottoman Bank in Amman, Jordan.[60] Damp conditions from temporary storage of the scrolls in the Ottoman Bank vault from 1956 to the Spring of 1957 lead to a more rapid rate of deterioration of the scrolls. The conditions caused mildew to develop on the scrolls and fragments, and some of the fragments were partially destroyed or made illegible by the glue and paper of the manila envelopes in which they were stored while in the vault.[60] By 1958 it was noted that up to 5% of some of the scrolls had completely deteriorated.[58] Many of the texts had become illegible and many of the parchments had darkened considerably.[57][59] Until the 1970s, the scrolls continued to deteriorate because of poor storage arrangements, exposure to different adhesives, and being trapped in moist environments.[57] Fragments written on parchment (rather than papyrus or bronze) in the hands of private collectors and scholars suffered an even worse fate than those in the hands of the museum, with large portions of fragments being reported to have disappeared by 1966.[61] In the late 1960s, the deterioration was becoming a major concern with scholars and museum officials alike. Scholars John Allegro and Sir Francis Frank were some of the first to strongly advocate for better preservation techniques.[59] Early attempts made by both the British and Israel Museums to remove the adhesive tape ended up exposing the parchment to an array of chemicals, including "British Leather Dressing," and darkening some of them significantly.[59] In the 1970s and 1980s, other preservation attempts were made that included removing the glass plates and replacing them with cardboard and removing pressure against the plates that held the scrolls in storage; however, the fragments and scrolls continued to rapidly deteriorate during this time.[57] In 1991, the Israeli Antiquities Authority established a temperature controlled laboratory for the storage and preservation of the scrolls. The actions and preservation methods of Rockefeller Museum staff were concentrated on

Dead Sea Scrolls the removal of tape, oils, metals, salt, and other contaminants.[57] The fragments and scrolls are preserved using acid-free cardboard and stored in solander boxes in the climate-controlled storage area.[57]

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Photography and assembly

Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process, they were not all photographed by the same organization nor in their entirety.

First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research (1948)

The first individual to photograph a portion of the collection was John C. Trever (19162006), a biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research.[62] He photographed three of the scrolls discovered in Cave 1 on 21 February 1948, both on black-and-white and standard color film.[62][63][64] Although an amateur photographer, the quality of his photographs often exceeded the visibility of the scrolls themselves as, over the years, the ink of the texts quickly deteriorated after they were removed from their linen wrappings.

Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestinian Archaeological Museum (1952-1967)

Najib Albina working on the Dead Sea Scrolls in the photo lab of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, Circa 1955-1960.

A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archeological Museum. They hired Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem to take photographs of the scrolls.[65] Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archeological Museum, using infrared photography. Using a process known today as broadband, fluorescence infrared photography, or NIR photography, Najib and the team at the museum assembled over 1750 photographic plates of the scrolls and fragments.[66][67][68][69] The photographs were taken on animal skin using large format film, allowing for the text to standout, making the plates especially useful for assembling fragments.[70] Being the earliest photographs of the museum's collection, the most complete in the world at the time, they recorded the fragment and scrolls before their further decay in storage and are often considered the best recorded copies of the scrolls.[71]

Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993-2012)

Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments.[72] In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed.[73] NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique, adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order to reveal previously illegible text on fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls.[73] The process uses a liquid crystal tunable filter in order to photograph the scrolls at specific wavelengths of light and, as a result, image distortion is significantly diminished.[74] This method was used with select fragments of the Dead Sea Scrolls to reveal text and details that cameras that take photographs using a larger light spectrum could not reveal.[74] The camera and digital imaging assembly was developed by Greg Berman, a scientist with NASA, specifically for the purpose of photographing illegible ancient texts.[75] On Dec-18-2012[76] the first output of this

Dead Sea Scrolls project was launched together with Google on a dedicated site http:/ / www. deadseascrolls. org. il/ . The site contains both digitizations of old images taken in the 50s and about 1000 new images taken with the new NASA technology[77]

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Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006-2012)

Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide any papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help scholars determine which scrolls may hold greater significance based on the type of material that was used.[78]

Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011-2016, Estimated)

In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain.[79] The lead photographer of the project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a Leaf Aptus-II back in order to produce ultra-high resolution digital images of the scrolls and fragments.[80] With photos taken at 1,200 megapixels, the results are digital images that can be used to distinguish details that are invisible to the naked eye. In order to minimize damage to the scrolls and fragments, photographers are using a 1/4000th of a second exposure time and UV-protected flash tubes.[79] The digital photography project, estimated in 2011 to cost approximately 3.5 million U.S. dollars, is expected to be completed by 2016.[80]

A previously unreadable fragment of the Dead Sea Scrolls photographed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at NASA in the early 1990s using digital infrared technology. The fragment, translated into English, reads "he wrote the words of Noah."

Scholarly examination and translation

Early study by scholars
After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestinian Archaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them and log them for translation and study in a room that became known as the "Scrollery".[81]

Language and script

The text of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written in four different languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Nabataean.
Scholar Eleazar Sukenik examining one of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1951.

Scripts of the Dead Sea Scrolls:

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Language Hebrew Hebrew

Script Assyrian block script [82] [83][84][85]

Percentage of Documents Estimated 76.0-79.0% Estimated 0.9%-1.0% Estimated 1.0-1.5% [86]

Centuries of Known Use 3rd century BCE to present Unknown 10th century BCE to the 2nd century CE

Cryptic scripts "A" "B" and "C"

Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew script[87] Biblical Hebrew Paleo-Hebrew scribal script[87] Aramaic Greek Nabataean Aramaic square script Greek uncial script Nabataean script [87]

[85]

Estimated 16.0-17.0% Estimated 3.0% Estimated 0.2% [85] [89]

[88]

8th century BCE to present 3rd century CE to 8th centuries CE 2nd century BCE to the 4th century CE

[89]

Translation

Publication
Physical publication
Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of the longer, more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Their Scholars assembling and examining the Dead Sea translations into English soon followed. Publication of the scrolls has Scrolls fragments in what became known as the taken many decades, and delays have been a source of academic "Scrollery" room of the Palestine Archaeological controversy. The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle Museum. fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many to be excessively slow. During early assembly and translation work by scholars through the Rockefeller Museum from the 1950s through the 1960s, access to the unpublished documents was severely limited to the editorial committee.

Dead Sea Scrolls Discoveries in the Judean Desert (1955-2009) The content of the scrolls was published in a 40 volume series by Oxford University Press published between 1955 and 2009 known as Discoveries in the Judean Desert.[90] In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them.[91] The initial publication, assembled by Dominique Barthlemy and Jzef Milik, was published as Qumran Cave 1 in 1955.[90] After a series of other publications in the late 1980s and early 1990s and with the appointment of the respected Dutch-Israeli textual scholar Emanuel Tov as Editor-in-Chief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project in 1990 publication of the scrolls accelerated. Tov's team had published five volumes covering the Cave 4 documents by 1995. Between 1990 and 2009, Tov helped the team produce 32 volumes. The final volume, Volume XL, was published in 2009. A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls (1991)

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Emanuel Tov (1941-) who was Editor-in-Chief of the Dead Seas Scrolls Publication Project and, as a result, responsible for the publication of 32 volumes of the "Discoveries in the Judean Desert" series. He also worked to publish a six-volume printed edition with a majority of the non-Biblical Dead Sea Scrolls and make the same volumes available electronically on CD in a collection titled "The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader".

In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts.[92] Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to the librarys complete set of photographs of the scrolls. In the fall of that year, Wacholder published 17 documents that had been reconstructed in 1988 from a concordance and had come into the hands of scholars outside of the International Team; in the same month, there occurred the discovery and publication of a complete set of facsimiles of the Cave 4 materials at the Huntington Library. Thereafter, the officials of the Israel Antiquities Authority agreed to lift their long-standing restrictions on the use of the scrolls.[93] A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1991) After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client," who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls, which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991.[94] Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman, Robinson and the Biblical Archaeology Society for copyright infringement of one of the scrolls, MMT, which he deciphered. The District Court of Jerusalem found in favor of Qimron in September 1993.[95] The Court issued a restraining order, which prohibited the publication of the deciphered text, and ordered defendants to pay Qimron NIS 100,000 for infringing his copyright and the right of attribution. Defendants appealed the Supreme Court of Israel, which approved the District Court's decision, in August 2000. The Supreme Court further ordered that the defendants hand over to Qimron all the infringing copies.[96] The decision met Israeli and international criticism from copyright law scholars.[97]

Dead Sea Scrolls The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007-2008) In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile Editions Limited, to produce a facsimile edition of The Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), The Order of the Community (1QS), and The Pesher to Habakkuk (1QpHab).[98][99] The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah scroll at the time of its discovery than the does the current condition of the real Isaiah scroll.[98] Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition in Seoul, South Korea, and a second set was purchased by the British Library in London. A further 46 sets including facsimiles of fragments Testimonia (4Q175), Pesher Isaiahb (4Q162) and Qohelet (4Q109) were announced in May 2009. The edition is strictly limited to 49 numbered sets of these reproductions on either specially prepared parchment paper or real parchment. These facsimiles of the Isaiah scroll can be purchased for $60,000.[98] The facsimiles have since been exhibited in Qumrn. Le secret des manuscrits de la mer Morte [100] at the Bibliothque Nationale, Paris, France (2010) and Verbum Domini [101] at the Vatican, Rome, Italy (2012) and Google [102]

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Digital publication
Olive Tree Bible Software (2000-2011) The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr. Martin Abegg, Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies at Trinity Western University located in Langley, British Columbia, Canada.[103] It is available on handheld devices through Olive Tree Bible Software - BibleReader, on Macs and Windows via emulator through Accordance with a comprehensive set of cross references, and on Windows through Logos Bible Software and BibleWorks. The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader (2005) The text of almost all of the non-Biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisher E.J. Brill in 2005.[104] The 2400 page, 6 volume series, was assembled by an editorial team led by Donald W. Parry and Emanuel Tov.[105] Unlike the text translations in the physical publication, Discoveries in the Judean Desert, the texts are sorted by genres that include religious law, parabiblical texts, calendrical and sapiental texts, and poetic and liturgical works.[104] Israel Antiquities Authority and Google digitization project (2010-2016) High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea scrolls are now available online at the Israel Museum's website.[106] On 19 October 2010, it was announced[107] that Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge [108], on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools. The first images, which according to the announcement could reveal new letters and words,[107] are expected to be posted online in the few months following the announcement, and the project is scheduled for completion within five years. According to IAA director Pnina Shor, "from the minute all of this will go online there will be no need to expose the scrolls anymore",[107] referring to the dark, climate-controlled storeroom where the manuscripts are kept when not on display.[107] On 25 September 2011 [109] the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls this site went online. Google and the Israel Museum teamed up on this project,[110] allowing users to examine and explore these most ancient manuscripts from Second Temple times at a level of detail never before possible. The new website gives users access to searchable, high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts

Dead Sea Scrolls and their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online. These include the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll. All five scrolls can be magnified so that users may examine texts in detail.

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In context of the Canon of the Bible

Biblical books found
Biblical texts make up 220 of the 972 (22.6%) Dead Sea Scroll documents.[111] As of 2012, scholars have identified that the Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all of the Old Testament in the traditional Christian Bible and the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible except for parts from the Book of Esther. Scholars believe the Book of Esther may have been left out because Esther, a Jew, married a Persian king, a marriage that may have been looked down upon by the inhabitants of Qumran.[112] The books ranked according to number of manuscripts found for the top 16 are:[113]

An American Bible printed in 1859.

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Book Psalms Deuteronomy 1 Enoch Genesis Isaiah Jubilees Exodus Leviticus Numbers Minor Prophets Daniel Jeremiah Ezekiel Job 1 & 2 Samuel Sirach Tobit

Number found 39 33 25 24 22 21 18 17 11 10 8 6 6 6 4 1 Fragments

Biblical significance
The significance of the scrolls relates in a large part to the field of textual criticism and how accurately the Bible has been transcribed over time. Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to 10th century AD, such as the Aleppo Codex. Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century AD.[114] The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a millennium to the 2nd century BC.[115] Before this discovery, the earliest extant manuscripts of the Old Testament were manuscripts such as Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 and Codex Sinaiticus (both dating from the 4th century) that were written in Greek. According to The Oxford Companion to Archaeology: The biblical manuscripts from Qumran, which include at least fragments from every book of the Old Testament, except perhaps for the Book of Esther, provide a far older cross section of scriptural tradition than that available to scholars before. While some of the Qumran biblical manuscripts are nearly identical to the Masoretic, or traditional, Hebrew text of the Old Testament, some manuscripts of the books of Exodus and Samuel found in Cave Four exhibit dramatic differences in both language and content. In their astonishing range of textual variants, the Qumran biblical discoveries have prompted scholars to reconsider the once-accepted theories of the development of the modern biblical text from only three manuscript families: of the Masoretic text, of the Hebrew original of the Septuagint, and of the Samaritan Pentateuch. It is now becoming increasingly clear that the Old Testament scripture was extremely fluid until its canonization around A.D. 100. [116] At the time of their writing the area was transitioning between Greek and Roman dominance. The Jewish Qahal (society) had some measure of autonomy following the death of Alexander and the fracturing of the Greek Empire among his successors. The country was long called or Juda at that time, named for the Hebrews that returned to dwell there, following the well documented diaspora.[117] Most scholars believe the Jews actually

Dead Sea Scrolls redacted the Biblical stories due to the pressures of losing their ethnicity in Babylon, and picked up the square script there.[118] The majority of Jews never actually returned to Israel from Babylon and Persia according to the Talmud, oral and archeological evidence.[119][120]

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Museum exhibitions and displays

Temporary public exhibitions
Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions were co-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six-days War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage. A list of major temporary public exhibitions can be found here[121]:
Exhibition Place Exhibition City Exhibition Name Exhibition Dates Description Picture

The National Museum of Washington, Natural History D.C., United States

"The Torch"

27 February The exhibition took place in the Foyer 1965 21 Gallery of the Natural History Building. The March 1965 exhibit, sponsored by the Government of [122] Jordan, drew 209,643 visitors. 3 April 1965 25 April 1965 Part of a Smithsonian Institution Traveling [122] Exhibition Service exhibit.

The University of Pennsylvania Museum

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States London, England, United Kingdom "The Dead Sea Scrolls of Jordan"

The British Museum

December 1965

The exhibition aroused great public interest and attracted large attendances. The exhibition involved cooperation between the Palestinian Archeological Museum, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Government [123] of the Heshemite Kingdom of Jordan The exhibition featured 12 scrolls and 88 artifacts displayed in the library's Madison [124] Gallery.

The Library of Congress

Washington, D.C., United States

"Scrolls from the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship" "The Dead Sea Scrolls: Ancient Civilization-Modern Scholarship" "Highlights from the Israel Antiquities Authority: The Dead Sea Scrolls and 5,000 Years of Treasures"

29 April 1993 - June 1993

The New York Public Library

New York, New York, United States

October 1993 January 1994

This exhibition featured 12 fragments of the Israel Antiquities Authority Collection and [125] 200 pieces in all.

The Fine Arts Museum of San Francisco

San Francisco, California, United States

26 February Among others, the exhibition included the 1994 29 Book of Psalms and included 50 total [126] May 1994 artifacts on display.

Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana

Vatican City

4 July 1994 16 October 1994

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Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States Dead Sea Scrolls: Life and Faith in Ancient Times 12 May 2012 14 October 2012 February 1995 - May 1995 1 May 1998 30 August 1998

The Franklin Institute

This exhibit contains 20 scrolls, four that have never been on display before, as well as [127] artifacts from the time and area.

Israel Museum Jerusalem

Jerusalem, Israel

[128] Kelvingrove

Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom Koln, Germany

Romisch-Germanisches Museum

12 November 1998 18 April 1999 7 May 1999 8 August 1999 4 February 2000 18 June 2000 "Dead Sea Scrolls" 14 July 2000 15 October 2000 15 February 2003 31 May 2003 1 August 2004 10 October 2004 1 October 2004 2 January 2005 27 October 2004 15 February 2005 17 February 2006 29 May 2006 This exhibit included the Psalms Scroll. [129]

Austellungssaal des Regeirungsgebaudes

St. Gallen, Switzerland

Field Museum of Chicago

Chicago, Illinois, United States Sydney, Australia

The Art Gallery of New South Wales

The exhibition featured parts of the War Scroll and other fragments along with related [130] artifacts.

The Public Museum of Grand Rapids

Grand Rapids, Michigan, United States

Museu Historic Nacional Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Houston Museum of Natural Science

Houston, Texas, United States

Museu Brasileiro da Escultura Marilisa Rathsman

So Paulo, Brazil

Discovery Place

Charlotte, North Carolina, United States Seattle, Washington, United States

Pacific Science Center

23 September 2006 7 January 2007 8 February 2007 13 May 2007 Not exclusively a museum exhibition.

Union Station

Kansas City, Missouri, United States

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San Diego, California, United States "Dead Sea Scrolls" 29 June 2007 6 January 2008

San Diego Natural History Museum

The museum claimed that the exhibition "was the largest and most comprehensive exhibition of Dead Sea Scrolls ever assembled." The exhibition displayed 24 sets of fragments, including some from the [131] Copper Scroll. The exhibition featured 12 sets of scroll [132] fragments on loan from the IAA.

Museum of Natural Sciences

Raleigh, North "The Dead Sea Scrolls" Carolina, United States

28 June 2008 28 December 2008

Jewish Museum New York

New York, New York, United States

"The Dead Sea Scrolls: 21 Mysteries of the Ancient September World" 2008 4 January 2009 "Words that Changed the World" 27 June 2009 3 January 2010

The exhibition featured six sets of scroll [133] fragments.

Royal Ontario Museum

Toronto, Canada

On 24 September 2008 it was announced that the Royal Ontario Museum would be hosting [134] an exhibition of the Dead Sea Scrolls. From 27 June 2009, to 3 January 2010, a collection of over 200 manuscripts of the Dead Sea Scrolls were displayed at the Royal [134] Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada. The exhibition was a joint venture between the Israel Antiquities Authority and the [135] Royal Ontario Museum. The exhibition featured three sets of five [136] fragments from scrolls.

Science Museum of Minnesota

St. Paul, Minnesota, United States

"Words that Changed the World"

12 March 2010 24 October 2010 12 May 2012 14 October 2012

The Franklin Institute

Philadelphia, PA

"Dead Sea Scrolls: Life and Faith in Ancient Times"

The exhibition features a total of twenty scrolls, displayed ten at a time, including the oldest known copies of the Hebrew Bible and four never-before-seen scrolls. With more than 600 items on display, visitors will experience firsthand the traditions, beliefs and iconic objects from everyday life, more [137] than 2000 years ago. A landmark endeavor, Southwestern Seminary's exhibit marks the first time a private institution has hosted a display of the Dead Sea Scrolls. With over 21 scroll pieces, the exhibition includes a never-before-seen Genesis fragment on loan from the Kando family (the largest piece held in any private collection) and one of only five existing laser-facsimiles of the Great Isaiah Scroll. The exhibit focuses on the unique relationship between the 1947 discovery and its implications for biblical textual criticism [138] and historicity.

Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary

Fort Worth, Texas, United States

"Dead Sea Scrolls and the Bible"

2 July 2012 13 January 2013

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Long-term museum exhibitions

Display at the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem Since its completion in April 1965,[139] the majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection has been moved to the Shrine of the Book, a part of the Israel Museum, located in Jerusalem. The museum falls under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority, an official agency of the Israeli government. The permanent Dead Sea Scrolls exhibition at the museum features a reproduction of the Great Isaiah Scroll, surrounded by reproductions of other famous fragments that include Community Rule, the War Scroll, and the Thanksgiving Psalms Scroll.[140][141]

Individuals examining part of the Israeli Antiquities Authority's Dead Sea Scrolls collection on display at the Shrine of the Book, a wing of the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

Display at the Jordan Museum, Amman, Jordan Some of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Jordian government prior to 1967 was stored in Amman rather than at the Palestinian Archaeological Museum in East Jerusalem. As a consequence, that part of the collection remained in Jordanian hands under their Department of Antiquities. Parts of this collection are anticipated to be on display at the Jordan Museum in Amman after the documents move. They were moved there in between June 2011 and August 2011 from the National Archaeological Museum of Jordan.[142] Among the display items are artificats from the Qumran site and the Copper Scroll.

Ownership
Past ownership
Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That third party, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syrian Orthodox Church, who soon contacted St. Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as Mar Samuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls found their way into his hands: the now famous Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), the Community Rule, the Habakkuk Pesher (a commentary on the book of Habakkuk), and the Genesis Apocryphon. More scrolls soon surfaced in the antiquities market, and Professor Eleazer Sukenik and Professor Benjamin Mazar, Israeli archaeologists at Hebrew University, soon found themselves in possession of three, The War Scroll, Thanksgiving Hymns, and another, more fragmented, Isaiah scroll (1QIsab).

Advertisement in the Wall Street Journal dated 1 June 1954 for four of the "Dead Sea Scrolls."

Four of the Dead Sea Scrolls went up for sale eventually, in an advertisement in the 1 June 1954, Wall Street Journal. On 1 July 1954, the scrolls, after delicate negotiations and accompanied by three people including the Metropolitan, arrived at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York. They were purchased by Professor Mazar and the son of Professor Sukenik, Yigael Yadin, for $250,000, approximately $2.14 million in 2012, and brought to Jerusalem.[143]

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Current ownership
Most of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection is currently under the ownership of the Government of the state of Israel, and housed in the Shrine of the Book on the grounds of the Israel Museum. This ownership is contested by both Jordan and Palestine. A list of known ownership of Dead Sea Scroll fragments:
Claimed Owner Azusa Pacific University [144] [145] Year Acquired 2009 1956 Number of Fragments/Scrolls Owned 5 1

Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary

[146] [147][148]

2009; 2010; 2012 8 1967 > 15,000

Rockefeller Museum - Government of Israel

The Schyen Collection owned by Martin Schyen The Jordan Museum - Government of Jordan [150]

[149] 1980; 1994; 1995 60 19471956 > 25

Ownership disputes
The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the State of Israel, and the Palestinian Authority. The debate over the Dead Sea Scrolls stems from a more general Israeli-Palestinian conflict over land and state recognition.
Parties Involved Jordan Party Role Disputant; Minority Owner Explanation of Role Alleges that the Dead Sea Scrolls were stolen from the Palestinian Archaeological Museum, which was operated by Jordan from 1966 until the Six-Day War when advancing Israeli forces took control of the Museum and that they fall under the rules of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural [151] Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Jordan regularly demands their return and petitions third-party countries that host the scrolls to return them to Jordan instead of to Israel, claiming they have legal [152] documents that prove Jordanian ownership of the scrolls.

Israel

Disputant; After the Six-Day War Israel seized the scrolls and moved them to the Shrine of the Book in the Israel Current Majority Museum. Israel refutes Jordan's claim and states that they never lawfully possessed the scrolls since it was an [153][154][155] Owner unlawful occupier of the museum and region. Disputant The Palestinian Authority also holds a claim to the scrolls. [156]

Palestinian Authority Canada

Neutral Exhibition Host

In 2009, a part of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection held by the Israeli Antiquities Authority was moved and displayed at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Canada. Both Palestine and Jordan petitioned the [157] international community, including the United Nations, for the scrolls to be seized under disputed international law. Ottawa dismissed the demands and the exhibit continued, with the scrolls returning to [158] Israel upon its conclusion. Under Resolution 181 (II), Jerusalem, in particular East Jerusalem, that is currently home to the Rockefeller Museum that holds the scrolls, is part of a "Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem" that is supposed to be administered by the United Nations, further complicating matters. East Jerusalem was under Jordanian occupation from 1948 to 1967 and has been under Israeli occupation since 1967.

United Nations

Supranational Authority

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Copyright disputes
There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous. The documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law. Copyright of the original scrolls and translations, Qimron v. Shanks (1992) In 1992 a copyright case Qimron v. Shanks was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had published was his intellectual property as he had reconstructed about 40% of the published text. In 1993, the district court Judge Dalia Dorner ruled for the plaintiff, Elisha Qimron, in context of both United States and Israeli copyright law and granted the highest compensation allowed by law for aggravation in compensation against Hershel Shanks and others.[159] An appeal in 2000 in front of Judge Aharon Barak the verdict was upheld in Israeli Supreme Court in Qimron's favor.[160] The court case established the two main principles from which facsimiles are examined under copyright law of the United States and Israel: authorship and originality. The courts ruling not only affirms that the "deciphered text" of the scrolls can fall under copyright of individuals or groups, but makes it clear that the Dead Sea Scrolls themselves do not fall under this copyright law and scholars have a degree of, in the words of David Nimmer, "freedom" in access. Nimmer shows how this freedom was in the theory of law applicable, but how it did not exist in reality as the Israeli Antiquities Authority tightly controlled access to the scrolls and photographs of the scrolls.[159]

References
Notes
[1] Down, David. "Unveiling the Kings of Israel." P.160. 2011. [2] From papyrus to cyberspace (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2008/ aug/ 27/ israel) The Guardian 27 August 2008. [3] Doudna, Greg, "Dating the Scrolls on the Basis of Radiocarbon Analysis", in The Dead Sea Scrolls after Fifty Years, edited by Flint Peter W., and VanderKam, James C., Vol.1 (Leiden: Brill, 1998) 430-471. [4] ARC Leaney, Fom Judaean Caves, p.27,Religious Education Press, 1961. [5] Ilani, Ofri, " Scholar: The Essenes, Dead Sea Scroll 'authors,' never existed (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 1070797. html)", Ha'aretz, 13 March 2009. [6] Golb, Norman, " On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls (http:/ / oi. uchicago. edu/ pdf/ jerusalem_origin_dss. pdf)", University of Chicago Oriental Institute, 5 June 2009. [7] Abegg, Jr., Martin, Peter Flint, and Eugene Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English, San Francisco: Harper, 2002. [8] http:/ / virtualreligion. net/ iho/ dss. html#ASOR. Retrieved 22 May 2012. [9] Humphries, Mark. "Early Christianity." 2006. [10] Evans, Craig. "Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls." 2010. [11] John C. Trever. The Dead Sea Scrolls. Gorgias Press LLC, 2003. [12] "The Archaeological Site OF Qumran and the Personality Of Roland De Vaux." http:/ / www. biblicaltheology. com/ Research/ TrstenskyF01. pdf. Retrieved 22 May 2012. [13] "The Archaeological Site Of Qumran and the Personality Of Roland De Vaux." http:/ / www. biblicaltheology. com/ Research/ TrstenskyF01. pdf. Retrieved 22 May 2012. [14] http:/ / www. gnosis. org/ library/ dss/ dss_timeline. htm. Retrieved 23 May 2012. [15] "The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls." http:/ / dss. collections. imj. org. il/ discovery. Retrieved 23 May 2012. [16] name="Vermes 1998" [17] VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. p. 9. [18] Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London: Penguin, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024501-4.

Dead Sea Scrolls

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Dead Sea Scrolls Brill, 2006. Garca-Martinez, Florentino, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English, (Translated from Spanish into English by Wilfred G. E. Watson) (Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1994). Gaster, Theodor H., The Dead Sea Scriptures, Peter Smith Pub Inc., 1976. ISBN=0-8446-6702-1 Golb, Norman, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran, New York: Scribner, 1995. Golb, Norman, On the Jerusalem Origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls (http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/ jerusalem_origin_dss.pdf), University of Chicago Oriental Institute, 5 June 2009. Heline, Theodore, Dead Sea Scrolls, New Age Bible & Philosophy Center, 1957, Reprint edition March 1987, ISBN 0-933963-16-5 Hirschfeld, Yizhar, Qumran in Context: Reassessing the Archaeological Evidence, Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers, 2004. Israeli, Raphael, Piracy in Qumran: The Battle over the Scrolls of the Pre-Christ Era, Transaction Publishers: 2008 ISBN 978-1-4128-0703-6 (http://www.transactionpub.com/cgi-bin/transactionpublishers.storefront/en/ Product/1-4128-0703-4) Khabbaz, C., "Les manuscrits de la mer Morte et le secret de leurs auteurs",Beirut, 2006. (Ce livre identifie les auteurs des fameux manuscrits de la mer Morte et dvoile leur secret).

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Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, The Qumran Excavations 1993-2004: Preliminary Report, JSP 6 (Jerusalem: Israel Antiquities Authority, 2007) Download (http://www.antiquities.org.il/images/shop/jsp/ JSP6_Qumran_color.pdf) Magen, Yizhak, and Yuval Peleg, "Back to Qumran: Ten years of Excavations and Research, 1993-2004," in The Site of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Archaeological Interpretations and Debates (Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 57), Brill, 2006 (pp.55116). Magness, Jodi, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002. Maier, Johann, The Temple Scroll, [German edition was 1978], (Sheffield:JSOT Press [Supplement 34], 1985). Milik, Jzef Tadeusz, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judea, London: SCM, 1959. Muro, E. A., "The Greek Fragments of Enoch from Qumran Cave 7 (7Q4, 7Q8, &7Q12 = 7QEn gr = Enoch 103:3-4, 7-8)." Revue de Qumran 18, no. 70 (1997): 307, 12, pl. 1. O'Callaghan-Martnez, Josep, Cartas Cristianas Griegas del Siglo V, Barcelona: E. Balmes, 1963. Qimron, Elisha, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvard Semitic Studies, 1986. (This is a serious discussion of the Hebrew language of the scrolls.) Rengstorf, Karl Heinrich, Hirbet Qumran und die Bibliothek vom Toten Meer, Translated by J. R. Wilkie. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1960. Roitman, Adolfo, ed. A Day at Qumran: The Dead Sea Sect and Its Scrolls. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum, 1998. Sanders, James A., ed. Dead Sea scrolls: The Psalms scroll of Qumrn Cave 11 (11QPsa), (1965) Oxford, Clarendon Press. Schiffman,Lawrence H., Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls: their True Meaning for Judaism and Christianity, Anchor Bible Reference Library (Doubleday) 1995, ISBN 0-385-48121-7, (Schiffman has suggested two plausible theories of origin and identity - a Sadducean splinter group, or perhaps an Essene group with Sadducean roots.) Excerpts of this book can be read at COJS: Dead Sea Scrolls (http://cojs.org/cojswiki/ Dead_Sea_Scrolls). Schiffman, Lawrence H., and James C. VanderKam, eds. Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Shanks, Hershel, The Mystery and Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Vintage Press 1999, ISBN 0-679-78089-0 (recommended introduction to their discovery and history of their scholarship) Stegemann, Hartmut. "The Qumran Essenes: Local Members of the Main Jewish Union in Late Second Temple Times." Pages 83166 in The Madrid Qumran Congress: Proceedings of the International Congress on the Dead

Dead Sea Scrolls Sea Scrolls, Madrid, 1821 March 1991, Edited by J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Mountainer. Vol. 11 of Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah. Leiden: Brill, 1992. Thiede, Carsten Peter, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity, PALGRAVE 2000, ISBN 0-312-29361-5 Thiering, Barbara, Jesus the Man, New York: Atria, 2006. Thiering, Barbara, Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls (ISBN 0-06-067782-1), New York: Harper Collins, 1992 VanderKam, James C., The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994. Vermes, Geza, The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London: Penguin, 1998. ISBN 0-14-024501-4 (good translation, but complete only in the sense that he includes translations of complete texts, but neglects fragmentary scrolls and more especially does not include biblical texts.) (7th ed. 2011 ISBN 978-0-141-19731-9) Wise, Michael O., Martin Abegg, Jr., and Edward Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation, (1996), HarperSanFrancisco paperback 1999, ISBN 0-06-069201-4, (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls, including fragments) Yadin, Yigael. The Temple Scroll: The Hidden Law of the Dead Sea Sect, New York: Random House, 1985.

294

Other sources
Dead Sea Scrolls Study Vol 1: 1Q1-4Q273, Vol. 2: 4Q274-11Q31, (compact disc), Logos Research Systems, Inc., (contains the non-biblical portion of the scrolls with Hebrew and Aramaic transcriptions in parallel with English translations) Comprehensive Cross Reference interactive module for Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, Philo, Nag Hammadi Library, Pseudepigrapha, Old Testament Apocrypha, New Testament Apocrypha, Plato, Pythagoras, Dhammapada, Egyptian Book of the Dead, Tacitus, Talmud, New and Old Testaments, Apostolic and Early Church Fathers (http://www.accordancebible.com/Comprehensive-Crossreferences)

External links
The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls (http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/) hosted by the Israel Museum, Jerusalem Shrine of the Book (http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/htmls/page_899.aspx?c0=14389&bsp=14162), home of the physical scrolls at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem Exhibits and academic projects The Dead Sea Scrolls: Mysteries of the Ancient World (2009) (http://www.thejewishmuseum.org/exhibitions/ DeadSeaScrolls) at The Jewish Museum (New York) Dead Sea Scrolls facsimile of 1QIsa 1Qs and 1QpHab (http://www.facsimile-editions.com/en/ds), Facsimile-editions.com Qumran Visualization Project (http://www.virtualqumran.com), UCLA Timetable of the Discovery and Debate about the Dead Sea Scrolls (http://virtualreligion.net/iho/dss.html), VirtualReligion.net The Dead Sea Scrolls Collection (http://www.gnosis.org/library/dss/dss.htm) at the Gnostic Society Library The Dead Sea Scrolls (http://farms.byu.edu/dss/index.html?selection=&cat=0) (FARMS), Brigham Young University Dead Sea Scroll Exhibit (http://www.apu.edu/deadseascrolls/) at Azusa Pacific University displays five Dead Sea Scrolls fragments in Azusa, California Scrolls From the Dead Sea: The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern Scholarship (http://www.loc.gov/ exhibits/scrolls/toc.html) at the Library of Congress Library of Congress On-line Exhibit (http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/deadsea.scrolls.exhibit/intro.html), ibiblio.org

Dead Sea Scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls Project (http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/SCR/Scrolls.html) at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago features several articles by Norman Golb, some of which take issue with statements made in popular museum exhibits of the Dead Sea Scrolls The Qumran Essene Theory and recent strategies employed in its defense (http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/ projects/scr/Recent_Strategies_2007.pdf) Norman Golb (2007) The Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature (http://orion.mscc.huji.ac.il/ index.html), Hebrew University of Jerusalem, includes bibliography Ancient Treasures and the Dead Sea Scrolls (http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/israel/isrele. shtml) at the Canadian Museum of Civilization Dead Sea Scrolls (http://www.rom.on.ca/scrolls/index.php) at the Royal Ontario Museum Media coverage and academic articles Dead Sea Scrolls (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/d/dead_sea_scrolls/index. html) collected news and commentary at The New York Times The Importance of the Discoveries in the Judean Desert (http://www.antiquities.org.il/article_Item_eng. asp?sec_id=36&subj_id=69&id=129&module_id=) Israel Antiquities Authority What Are the Dead Sea Scrolls? (http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1725431/jewish/ What-Are-the-Dead-Sea-Scrolls.htm). Chabad.org interview with Dr. Lawrence Schiffman, reviewed by him. Pesher Technique: Dr. Barbara Thiering's Writings (http://www.peshertechnique.infinitesoulutions.com//) Barbara Thiering's (unconventional) theories connecting the scrolls with the Bible The Dead Sea Scrolls as a source on Palestine History of 1st century AD (http://ec-dejavu.ru/q/Qumran-en. html). Sergey E. Rysev. "Jannaeus, His Brother Absalom, and Judah the Essene," (http://www.duke.edu/~goranson/jannaeus.pdf) Stephen Goranson, on Teacher of Righteousness and Wicked Priest identities. "Others and Intra-Jewish Polemic as Reflected in Qumran Texts," (http://www.duke.edu/~goranson/ Essenes_&_Others.pdf) Stephen Goranson, evidence that English "Essenes" comes from Greek spellings that come from Hebrew 'osey hatorah, a self-designation in some Qumran texts. Introduction to the Dead Sea Scrolls (http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/dead-sea-scrolls-02.asp), Biblical Archaeology Review Searching for the Better Text: How errors crept into the Bible and what can be done to correct them (http://www. bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp), Biblical Archaeology Review The Dead Sea Scrolls and Why They Matter (http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/dead-sea-scrolls-01. asp), Biblical Archaeology Review

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Masada

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Masada
UNESCO World Heritage Site

Masada
Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List
[1]

Aerial view of Masada, showing legionary camps F (top right) and D (bottom right). Country Type Criteria Reference Israel Cultural iii, iv, vi 1040 [3] [1]

UNESCO region

Europe and North Africa

Inscription history
Inscription 2001 (25th Session)

Masada (Hebrew ,pronounced Metzada) is an ancient fortification in the Southern District of Israel, on top of an isolated rock plateau (akin to a mesa) on the eastern edge of the Judaean Desert, overlooking the Dead Sea. Herod the Great built palaces for himself on the mountain and fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE. The Siege of Masada by troops of the Roman Empire towards the end of the First JewishRoman War ended in the mass suicide of the 960 Jewish rebels holed up there. Masada is located 20 kilometres (12mi) east of Arad. Masada is Israel's most popular paid tourist attraction.[2]

Geography
The cliffs on the east edge of Masada are about 1,300 feet (400m) high and the cliffs on the west are about 300 feet (91m) high; the natural approaches to the cliff top are very difficult. The top of the plateau is flat and rhomboid-shaped, about 1,800 feet (550m) by 900 feet (270m). There was a casemate wall around the top of the plateau totaling 4,300 feet (1.3km) long and 12 feet (3.7m) high, with many towers, and the fortress included storehouses, barracks, an armory, the palace, and cisterns that were refilled by rainwater. Three narrow, winding paths led from below up to fortified gates.

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History
According to Josephus, a 1st-century Jewish Roman historian, Herod the Great fortified Masada between 37 and 31 BCE as a refuge for himself in the event of a revolt. In 66 CE, a group of Jewish extremists, the Sicarii, overcame the Roman garrison of Masada. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, additional members of the Sicarii and numerous Jewish families fled Jerusalem and settled on the mountaintop.[3] In 72, the Roman governor of Iudaea Lucius Flavius Silva headed the Northern palace of Masada, overlooking the Dead Roman legion X Fretensis and laid siege to Masada. The Roman Sea legion surrounded Masada, and built a circumvallation wall and then a siege embankment against the western face of the plateau, moving thousands of tons of stones and beaten earth to do so. Josephus does not record any attempts by the Sicarii to counterattack the besiegers during this process, a significant difference from his accounts of other sieges against Jewish fortresses. He did record their raid before the siege on Ein-Gedi, a nearby Jewish settlement, where the Sicarii allegedly killed 700 of its inhabitants. According to Dan Gill,[4] geological investigations in the early 1990s confirmed earlier observations that the 375-foot (114m) high assault ramp consisted mostly of a natural spur of bedrock that required a ramp only 30 feet (9.1m) high built atop it in order to reach the Masada defenses. This discovery would diminish both the scope of the construction and of the conflict between the Sicarii and Romans, relative to the popular perspective in which the ramp was an epic feat of construction. The rampart was complete in the spring of 73, after probably two to three months of siege, allowing the Romans to finally breach the wall of the fortress with a battering ram on April 16.[5] According to Josephus, when Roman troops entered the fortress, they discovered that its 960 inhabitants had set all the buildings but the food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide.

Archaeology
The site of Masada was identified in 1842 and extensively excavated between 1963 and 1965 by an expedition led by Israeli archeologist Yigael Yadin. Due to the remoteness from human habitation and its arid environment, the site remained largely untouched by humans or nature for two millennia. The Roman ramp still stands on the western side and can be climbed on foot. Many of the ancient buildings have been restored from their remains, as have the wall-paintings of Herod's two main palaces, and the Roman-style bathhouses that he built. The synagogue, storehouses, and houses of the Jewish rebels have also been identified and restored. The meter-high circumvallation wall that the Romans built around Masada can be seen, together with eleven barracks for the Roman soldiers just outside this wall. Water cisterns two-thirds of the way up the cliff drain the nearby wadis by an elaborate system of channels, which explains how the rebels managed to conserve enough water for such a long time.
Thermal baths on Masada

Inside the synagogue, an ostracon bearing the inscription me'aser cohen (tithe for the priest) was found, as were fragments of two scrolls; parts of Deuteronomy 3334 and parts of

Masada Ezekiel 3538 (including the vision of the "dry bones"), found hidden in pits dug under the floor of a small room built inside the synagogue. In other loci fragments were found of the books of Genesis, Leviticus, Psalms, and Sirach, as well as of the Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice. In the area in front of the northern palace, eleven small ostraca were recovered, each bearing a single name. One reads "ben Yair" and could be short for Eleazar ben Ya'ir, the commander of the fortress. It has been suggested that the other ten names are those of the men chosen by lot to kill the others and then themselves, as recounted by Josephus. Archaeologist Yigael Yadin's excavations uncovered the skeletal remains of 28 people at Masada. The remains of a male 2022 years of age, a female 1718 and a child approximately 12 years old were found in the palace. The remains of two men and a full head of hair with braids belonging to a woman were also found in the bath house. Forensic analysis showed the hair had been cut from the woman's head with a sharp instrument while she was still alive (a Jewish practice for captured women) while the braids indicated that she was married. Based on the evidence, anthropologist Joe Zias believes the remains View facing east from Masada. The Dead Sea and may have been Romans whom the rebels captured when they seized Lisan Peninsula are in the middle distance; the garrison.[6] The remains of 25 people were found in a cave at the Jordan is in the background. base of the cliff. Carbon dating of textiles found with the remains in the cave indicate they are contemporaneous with the period of the Revolt and it is believed that as they were buried with pig bones (a Roman practice); this indicates that the remains may belong to Romans who garrisoned Masada after its recapture. Others, nevertheless, still maintain that the remains are those of the Jewish Zealots who committed suicide during the siege of Masada, and all were reburied at Masada with full military honours on July 7, 1969.[7][8] The remnants of a Byzantine church dating from the 5th and 6th centuries have also been excavated on the top of Masada. The Masada story was the inspiration for the "Masada plan" devised by the British during the Mandate era. The plan was to man defensive positions on Mount Carmel with Palmach fighters, in order to stop Erwin Rommel's expected drive through the region in 1942. The plan was abandoned following Rommel's defeat at El Alamein. The Chief of Staff of the Israel Defence Forces (IDF), Moshe Dayan, initiated the practice of holding the swearing-in ceremony of soldiers who have completed their Tironut (IDF basic training) on top of Masada. The ceremony ends with the declaration: "Masada shall not fall again." The soldiers climb the Snake Path at night and are sworn in with torches lighting the background.[9]

298

Cable car heading down from Masada

Masada was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001. An audiovisual light show is presented nightly on the western side of the mountain (access by car from the Arad road or by foot, down the mountain via the Roman ramp path). While a hike up the Snake Path on the eastern side of the mountain (access via the Dead Sea Highway) is considered part of the "Masada experience," a cable car operates at the site for those who wish to avoid the physical exertion. In 2007, a new museum opened at the site in which archeological findings are displayed in a theatrical setting.[10] A 2,000-year-old seed discovered during archaeological excavations in the early 1960s was successfully germinated into a date plant. At the time it was the oldest known germination,[11] remaining so until a new record was set in

Masada 2012.[12]

299

Layout
An example of Herodian architecture, Masada was the first site Herod the Great fortified after he gained control of his kingdom.[13] The first of three building phases completed by Herod began in 35 BCE. During the first phase the Western Palace was built, along with three smaller palaces, a storeroom, and army barracks. Three columbarium towers and a swimming pool at the south end of the site were also completed during this building phase.[14] The original center of the Western Palace was square and was accessed through an open courtyard on the northwest corner of the building. The courtyard was the central room of the Western Palace and directed visitors into a portico, used as a reception area for visitors. Visitors were then led to a throne room. Off the throne room was a corridor that was used by the king, with a private dressing room. The dressing room also had another entrance way that connected to the courtyard through the mosaic room. The mosaic room contained steps that led to a second floor with separate bedrooms for the king and queen.[14] The second building phase in 25 BCE included an addition of the Western Palace, a large storage complex for food, and the Northern Palace. The Northern Palace is one of Herod's more lavish palace-fortresses and was built on the hilltop on the north side of Masada and continues two levels down, over the end of the cliffs. The upper Terrace (building)of the Northern Palace included living quarters for the king and a semi-circular portico to provide a view of the area. A stairway on the west side led down to the middle terrace that was a decorative circular reception hall. The lower terrace was also for receptions and banquets. It was enclosed on all four sides with porticos and included a Roman bathhouse.[14] In 15 BCE during the third and final building phase the entire site of Masada, except for the Northern Palace, was enclosed by a casemate wall. The casemate wall included a double wall with a space between that was used as living chambers for the soldiers and extra storage space. The Western Palace was also extended for a third time to include more rooms for the servants and their duties.[15]

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Map of Masada: 1.snake path gate. 2.rebel dwellings. 3.Byzantine monastic cave. 4.eastern water cistern. 5.rebel dwellings. 6.mikvah. 7.southern gate. 8.rebel dwellings. 9.southern water cistern. 10.southern fort. 11.swimming pool. 12.small palace. 13.round columbarium tower. 14.mosaic workshop. 15.small palace. 16.small palace. 17.public immersion pool.1821.Western Palace: 18.service area. 19.residential area. 20.storerooms. 21.administrative area. 22.tanners' tower. 23.western Byzantine gate. 24.columbarium towers. 25.synagogue. 26.Byzantine church. 27.barracks.2839.Northern Palace: 28.grand residence. 29.quarry. 30.commandants headquarters. 31.tower. 32.administration building. 33.gate. 34.storerooms. 35.bathhouse. 36.water gate.3739.Herod'sPalace: 37.upper terrace. 38.middle terrace. 39.lower terrace. A.ostraca cache found in casemate. B.Herod's throne room. C.colorful mosaic. D.Roman breaching point. E.coin cache found. F.ostraca cache found. G.three skeletons found.

References
[1] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 1040 [2] "Masada tourists' favorite spot in Israel" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3698864,00. html). Ynetnews. . Retrieved 2009-04-08. [3] Jewish Virtual Library Masada (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Archaeology/ Masada1. html) [4] Gill, Dan. "A natural spur at Masada" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v364/ n6438/ abs/ 364569a0. html), Nature 364, pp. 569570 (12 August 1993); DOI 10.1038/364569a0 [5] Duncan B. Campbell, "Capturing a desert fortress: Flavius Silva and the siege of Masada", Ancient Warfare Vol. IV, no. 2 (Spring 2010), pp. 2835. The dating is explained on pp. 29 and 32. [6] Friedman, Matti (June 22, 2007). "Some Masada Remains Questioned by Study" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 06/ 22/ AR2007062201113. html). Washington Post. . Retrieved March 22, 2010. [7] Watzman, Haim (November 2007). "Masada Martyrs?" (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 9711/ newsbriefs/ masada. html). Archaeological Institute of America. . Retrieved March 22, 2010. [8] "Israeli Scientists: Masada Bodies Are Roman, Not Jewish" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,286607,00. html). Fox News. June 25, 2007. . Retrieved July 26, 2010. [9] Dan Bitan, Mesada the Symbol and the Legend (http:/ / lib. cet. ac. il/ Pages/ item. asp?item=13096), the Dead Sea and the Judean Desert, 1960, Yad Ben Zvi [10] "A new museum at Masada" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3396257,00. html). Ynetnews. 2007-05-06. . Retrieved 2007-05-06. [11] Connor, Steve (June 13, 2008). "2,000-year-old seed grows into 'tree of life' for scientists" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ news/ science/ 2000yearold-seed-grows-into-tree-of-life-for-scientists-846247. html). London: Independent News. . Retrieved 2008-06-17. [12] Wade, Nicholas (February 20, 2012). "Dead for 32,000 Years, an Arctic Plant Is Revived" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 02/ 21/ science/ new-life-from-an-arctic-flower-that-died-32000-years-ago. html). New York: New York Times. . Retrieved 2012-02-20. [13] Roller, Duane W. The Building Program of Herod the Great/ Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998. [14] Netzer, Ehud. The Palaces of the Hasmoneans and Herod the Great. Jerusalem: Yed Ben-Zvi Press and The Israel Exploration Society, 2001.

Masada
[15] Yadin, Yigael. Masada: Herod's Fortress and the Zealot's Last Stand. London, 1966.

301

Bibliography
Avi-Yonah, Michael et al., Israel Exploration Journal 7, 1957, 1160 (excavation report Masada) Yadin, Yigael. Masada: Herods Fortress and the Zealots Last Stand. London, 1966. Yadin, Yigael. Israel Exploration Journal 15, 1965 (excavation report Masada). Netzer, Ehud. The Palaces of the Hasmoneans and Herod the Great. Jerusalem: Yed Ben-Zvi Press and The Israel Exploration Society, 2001. Netzer, E., Masada; The Yigael Yadin Excavations 19631965. Vol III. IES Jerusalem, 1991. Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. The Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking In Israel, University of Wisconsin Press (December 8, 1995). Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. Sacrificing Truth: Archaeology and the Myth of Masada, Humanity Books, 2002. Bar-Nathan, R., Masada; The Yigael Yadin Excavations 19631965, Vol VII. IES Jerusalem, 2006. Jacobson, David, "The Northern Palace at Masada Herod's Ship of the Desert?" Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 138,2 (2006), 99117. Roller, Duane W. The Building Program of Herod the Great/ Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1998.

External links
Photographs & footage of the Yadin excavations (http://www.yadinproductions.com/yadin_archeology.html) Nachman Ben-Yehooda on the construction of The Myth of Masada (http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/ masadamyth1.htm) Sacrificing Truth: Archaeology and The Myth of Masada (http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/ ben-yehuda_masada.htm) World Heritage Sites page (http://whc.unesco.org/sites/1040.htm)

Mount of Olives

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Mount of Olives
The Mount of Olives (also Mount Olivet, Hebrew: , Har HaZeitim; Arabic: , , Jebel az-Zeitun) is a mountain ridge east of Jerusalem's Old City in East Jerusalem.[1] It is named for the olive groves that once covered its slopes. It is said by believers that Jesus gave an end-time prophecy at this location.[2] The Mount of Olives is associated predominantly with Jewish and Christian traditions but also contains several sites important in Islam. The mount has been used as a Jewish cemetery for over 3,000 years and holds approximately 150,000 graves.[3]

Mount of Olives

Geography & Geology

The Mount of Olives is one of three peaks of a mountain ridge which runs for 3.5km just east of Old Jerusalem across the Kidron Valley, in this area called the Valley of Josaphat. The peak to its north is Mount Scopus, at 826 m, while the peak to its south is the Mount of Corruption, at 747. The highest point on the Mount of Olives is at-Tur, at 818 meters (2,683ft).[4] The ridge acts as a watershed, and its eastern side is the beginning of the Judean Desert. The ridge is formed of oceanic sedimentary rock from the Late Cretaceous, and contains a soft chalk and a hard flint. While the chalk is easily quarried, it is not a suitable strength for construction, which is why the Mount was never built up, and instead features many man-made burial caves.

History
From Biblical times until the present, Jews have been buried on the Mount of Olives. The necropolis on the southern ridge, the location of the modern village of Silwan, was the burial place of Jerusalem's most important citizens in the period of the Biblical kings.[5] There are an estimated 150,000 graves on the Mount, including tombs traditionally associated with Zechariah and Absalom. On the upper slope, the traditional Tomb of the Prophets Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi is situated. Notable rabbis buried on the mount include Chaim ibn Attar and others from the 15th-century to present. Roman soldiers from the 10th Legion camped on the Mount during the Siege of Jerusalem

Mt. of Olives, circa 1899

in

the

year

70

CE.

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The religious ceremony marking the start of a new month was held on the Mount of Olives in the days of the Second Temple.[6] After the destruction of the Temple, Jews celebrated the festival of Sukkot on the Mount of Olives. They made pilgrimages to the Mount of Olives because it was 80 meters higher than the Temple Mount and offered a panoramic view of the Temple site. It became a traditional place for lamenting the Temple's destruction, especially on Tisha B'Av.[6] In 1481, an Italian Jewish pilgrim, Rabbi Meshulam Da Volterra, wrote: "And all the community of Jews, every year, goes up to Mount Zion on the day of Tisha B'Av Tomb of Zechariah and Tomb of Benei Hezir to fast and mourn, and from there they move down along Yoshafat Valley and up to Mount of Olives. From there they see the whole Temple (the Temple Mount) and there they weep and lament the destruction of this House."[7] In the mid-1850s, the villagers of Silwan were paid 100 annually by the Jews in an effort to prevent the desecration of graves on the mount.[8] Prime Minister of Israel Menachem Begin asked to be buried on the Mount of Olives near the grave of Etzel member Meir Feinstein, rather than Mount Herzl national cemetery.[9]

Status since 1948

Following the 1948 ArabIsraeli War, Jordan obligated itself within the framework of the 3 April 1949 Armistice Agreement to allow "free access to the holy sites and cultural institutions and use of the cemeteries on the Mount of Olives." However, during the 19 year Jordanian occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem the terms were not upheld. Non-Israeli Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the Mount, but Jews of all countries and most non-Jewish Israeli citizens were barred from entering Jordan and therefore were unable to travel to the area.[10][11][12] By the end of 1949, and throughout the Jordanian occupation of the site, some Arab residents uprooted tombstones and plowed the land in the cemeteries and an estimated 38,000 tombstones were damaged in total. During this period, four roads were paved through the cemeteries, in the process destroying graves including those of famous persons. Jordan's King Hussein permitted the construction of the Intercontinental Hotel at the summit of the Mount of Olives together with a road that cut through the cemetery which destroyed hundreds of Jewish graves, some from the First Temple Period. Graves were also demolished for parking lots and a filling station[13][14][15] and were even used in latrines at a Jordanian Army barracks.[16][17][18][19][20] Following the 1967 Six-Day War and the Israeli capture of East Jerusalem, its government began restoration work and re-opened the cemetery for burials. Israel's 1980 unilateral annexation of East Jerusalem was condemned as a violation of international law and ruled null and void by the UN Security Council in UNSC Resolution 478.

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Recent events
As of 2010, the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives is targeted regularly by vandals. Mourners have been assaulted. Notable graves that have been defaced by vandals include those of the Gerrer Rebbe and Menahem Begin.[21][22][23][24] On 6 November 2010, an international watch-committee was set up by Diaspora Jews with the aim of reversing the desecration of the Jewish cemetery. According to one of the founders, the initiative was triggered by witnessing tombstones that were wrecked with "the kind of maliciousness that defies the imagination."[24]

Religious significance
Old Testament references
The Mount of Olives is first mentioned in connection with David's flight from Absalom (II Samuel 15:30): "And David went up by the ascent of the Mount of Olives, and wept as he went up." The ascent was probably east of the City of David, near the village of Silwan.[1] The sacred character of the mount is alluded to in the Ezekiel (11:23): "And the glory of the Lord went up from the midst of the city, and stood upon the mountain which is on the east side of the city."[1] The biblical designation Mount of Corruption, or in Hebrew Har HaMashchit (I Kings 11:78), derives Jewish cemetery on Mount of Olives from the idol worship there, begun by King Solomon building altars to the gods of his Moabite and Ammonite wives on the southern peak, "on the mountain which is before (east of) Jerusalem" (Kings I 11:17), just outside the limits of the holy city. This site was infamous for idol worship throughout the First Temple period, until king of Judah, Josiah, finally destroyed "the high places that were before Jerusalem, to the right of Har HaMashchit..."(II Kings 23:13) An apocalyptic prophecy in the Book of Zechariah states that Yahweh will stand on the Mount of Olives and the mountain will split in two, with one half shifting north and one half shifting south (Zechariah 14:4). According to the Masoretic Text, people will flee through this newly-formed valley to a place called Azal (Zechariah 14:5). The Septuagint (LXX) has a different reading of Zechariah 14:5 stating that a valley will be blocked up as it was blocked up during the earthquake during King Uzziah's reign. Jewish historian Flavius Josephus mentions in Antiquities of the Jews that the valley in the area of the King's Gardens was blocked up by landslide rubble during Uzziah's earthquake.[25] Israeli geologists Wachs and Levitte identified the remnant of a large landslide on the Mount of Olives directly adjacent to this area.[26] Based on geographic and linguistic evidence, Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, a 19th-century linguist and archeologist in Palestine, theorized that the valley directly adjacent to this landslide is Azal.[27] This evidence accords with the LXX reading of Zechariah 14:5 which states that the valley will be blocked up as far as Azal. The valley he identified (which is now known as Wady Yasul in Arabic, and Nahal Etzel in Hebrew) lies south of both Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives.

Mount of Olives Burial and resurrection Many Jews have wanted to be buried on the Mount of Olives "since antiquity," based on the Jewish tradition (from the Biblical verse Zechariah 14:4) that when the Messiah comes, the resurrection of the dead will begin there.[28]

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New Testament references

The Mount of Olives is frequently mentioned in the New Testament (Matthew21:1;26:30, etc.) as the route from Jerusalem to Bethany and the place where Jesus stood when he wept over Jerusalem. Jesus is said to have spent time on the mount, teaching and prophesying to his disciples (Matthew 2425), including the Olivet discourse, returning after each day to rest (Luke 21:37), and also coming there on the night of his betrayal (Matthew26:39). At the foot of the Mount of Olives lies the Garden of Gethsemane. The New Testament, tells how Jesus and his friends sang together "When they had sung the hymn, they went out to the Mount of Olives" Gospel of Matthew 26:30. Jesus ascended to heaven from the Mt of Olives as recorded in the book of Acts 1:912.

Churches on Mt. of Olives

Landmarks
The Arab neighborhood of at-Tur is located on the mountain's summit, and the Mount Scopus campuses of both the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and the Brigham Young University Jerusalem Center abuts the mount on the north. Landmarks on the Mount of Olives include Yad Avshalom, the Tomb of Zechariah, the Church of all Nations, the Church of Maria Magdalene, Dominus Flevit Church, Chapel of the Ascension, Gethsemane, Mary's Tomb, Church of the Pater Noster, the Seven Arches Hotel, Orson Hyde Park and Beit Orot. At the foot of the mountain lies Emek Tzurim National Park and the Temple Mount Antiquities Salvage Operation.[29]

The Russian Orthodox Church of Maria Magdalene

Notable graves

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Rishonim
Nahmanides, the Ramban Obadiah ben Abraham, the Bartenura

Acharonim
Chaim ibn Attar, the Ohr Hachaim Ben Ish Chai, Sephardi rabbi and posek Shalom Sharabi, the Rashash Yaakov Chaim Sofer, the Kaf Hachaim

Rabbis
Elazar Abuchatzeira, Rabbi and grandson of the Baba Sali Levi Yitzchok Bender, leader of the Breslov community in Uman and Jerusalem Avrohom Blumenkrantz, American Orthodox rabbi Yehoshua Leib Diskin, rabbi in Brisk and Jerusalem Shlomo Elyashiv, Lithuanian kabbalist Moshe Mordechai Epstein, rosh yeshivas Slabodka, Lithuania Nosson Tzvi Finkel, the Alter of Slabodka Abraham Gershon of Kitov, brother-in-law of the Baal Shem Tov Shimon Hakham, Bukharian writer and translator of Jewish holy texts and stories in Judeo-Tajik Moshe Halberstam, rosh yeshivas Tschakava Yitzchok Hutner, rosh yeshivas Yeshiva Rabbi Chaim Berlin, Brooklyn, New York Judah he-Hasid, 17th-century immigration leader Aryeh Kaplan, American Orthodox rabbi and author Zvi Yehuda Kook, rosh yeshivas Mercaz HaRav Avigdor Miller, American Orthodox rabbi, author and lecturer Shlomo Moussaieff, Bukharian family patriarch Meir ben Judah Leib Poppers, Bohemian rabbi and kabbalist Eliyahu David Rabinowitz-Teomim, rosh yeshivas Mir Zundel Salant, rabbi and primary teacher of Rabbi Yisrael Salanter Yechezkel Sarna, rosh yeshivas Slabodka Chaim Pinchas Scheinberg, Rabbi and Rosh Yeshiva of Torah Ore Gedalia Schorr, Rabbi and Rosh Yeshiva of Torah Vodaas Sholom Schwadron, the "Maggid of Jerusalem" Dov Schwartzman, rosh yeshiva Yeshivas Bais HaTalmud, Jerusalem Avraham Shapira, rosh yeshivas Mercaz HaRav Ahron Soloveichik, rosh yeshivas Brisk, Chicago Pesach Stein, rosh yeshivas Telz, Cleveland, Ohio Yitzchok Yaakov Weiss, head of the Edah HaChareidis, Jerusalem

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Hasidic Rebbes
Simcha Bunim Alter, fifth Gerrer Rebbe Yisrael Alter, fourth Gerrer Rebbe Moshe Biderman, Lelover Rebbe Mordechai Shlomo Friedman, Boyaner Rebbe of New York Levi Yitzchak Horowitz, second Bostoner Rebbe Yosef Leifer, first Pittsburger Rebbe Maiden of Ludmir, female Hasidic rebbe Yechiel Yehoshua Rabinowicz, Shedlitser Rebbe Issamar Rosenbaum, Nadvorna Rebbe Shaul Yedidya Elazar Taub, Modzitzer Rebbe

Chanan Feld [30], Hasidic Rebbe, Berkeley, CA (1956-2009)

Chief Rabbis
Solomon Eliezer Alfandari, Chief Rabbi of Damascus and Safed Meir Auerbach, first Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem Chaim Berlin, Chief Rabbi of Moscow Haim Douek, Chief Rabbi of Egypt Jacob Saul Elyashar, Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Ottoman Palestine Shlomo Goren, Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel Immanuel Jakobovits, Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, London Abraham Isaac Kook, Chief Rabbi of British Mandate Palestine Jacob Meir, Sephardi Chief Rabbi of British Mandate Palestine Meyer Rosenbaum, Chief Rabbi of Cuba Shmuel Salant, Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld, Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem Isser Yehuda Unterman, Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel

Cultural figures
Shmuel Yosef Agnon, Israeli writer Princess Alice of Battenberg, mother of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh Judah Alkalai, Zionist pioneer Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Israeli linguist Harry Fischel, American businessman and philanthropist Israel Dov Frumkin, Israeli journalist Uri Zvi Grinberg, Israeli poet and journalist Yossele Rosenblatt, hazzan and composer Else Lasker-Schler, German-Jewish poet Boris Schatz, founder of the Bezalel School in Jerusalem Henrietta Szold, founder of Hadassah Women's Organization Ephraim Urbach, Israeli scholar

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Political figures
Eliyahu Asheri, Israeli terror victim Moshe Barazani, Israeli independence fighter Menahem Begin, Israeli prime minister Nissim Behar, Zionist educator Israel Eldad, Israeli independence fighter Meir Feinstein, Israeli independence fighter Jacob Isral de Haan, Dutch Jewish journalist assassinated by the Haganah Gavriel and Rivka Holtzberg, terror victims Moshe Hirsch, leader of Neturei Karta Robert Maxwell, Member of Parliament Boedil Thurgotsdatter, medieval Danish queen

Mount of Olives today

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] This is Jerusalem Menashe Har-El, Canaan Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1977, p. 117 Matthew24:2-3 International committee vows to restore Mount of Olives (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3981588,00. html), Ynet. Hull, Edward (1885). Mount Seir, Sinai and Western Palestine. Richad Bently and Son, London. pp.152. The Necropolis from the Time of the Kingdom of Judah at Silwan, Jerusalem, David Ussishkin, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 33, No. 2 (May, 1970), pp. 3346, [6] Har-el, Menashe (1977). This is Jerusalem. Jerusalem: Canaan. pp.120123. [7] Nom de Deu, J. (1987). Relatos de Viajes y Epistolas de Peregrinos Jud.os a Jerusaln. Madrid. pp.82. [8] Menashe Har-El (April 2004). Golden Jerusalem (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9Z2cFY9iGqgC& pg=PA244). Gefen Publishing House Ltd. p.244. ISBN978-965-229-254-4. . Retrieved 14 October 2010. [9] Sheleg, Yair (2007-07-04). "The good jailer" (http:/ / www. haaretz. co. il/ hasen/ pages/ ShArtStEngPE. jhtml?itemNo=846330& contrassID=2& subContrassID=14& title='The good jailer '& dyn_server=172. 20. 5. 5). Haaretz. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [10] To Rule JerusalemBy Roger Friedland, Richard Hecht, 2000, p. 39, "Tourists entering East Jerusalem had to present baptismal certificates or other proof they were not Jewish." [11] Thomas A Idinopulos, Jerusalem, 1994, p. 300, "So severe were the Jordanian restrictions against Jews gaining access to the old city that visitors wishing to cross over from west Jerusalem...had to produce a baptismal certificate." [12] Armstrong, Karen, Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, 1997, "Only clergy, diplomats, UN personnel, and a few privileged tourists were permitted to go from one side to the other. The Jordanians required most tourists to produce baptismal certificates to prove they were not Jewish ... ." [13] Bronner, Ethan; Kershner, Isabel (2009-05-10). "Parks Fortify Israel's Claim to Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 05/ 10/ world/ middleeast/ 10jerusalem. html?_r=1& pagewanted=2& em). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-03-27. [14] "Fact Sheets #8 Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ talking/ 8_Jerusalem. html). Jewish Virtual Library. May 19, 2005. . Retrieved 2007-06-27.

Mount of Olives
[15] Nadav Shragai, The Mount of Olives under Jordanian Rule (http:/ / www. jcpa. org/ JCPA/ Templates/ ShowPage. asp?DBID=1& LNGID=1& TMID=111& FID=443& PID=0& IID=3052), JCPA 2009 and references [16] Alon, Amos (1995). Jerusalem: Battlegrounds of Memory. New York: Kodansha Int'l. pp.75. ISBN1-56836-099-1. "After 1967, it was discovered that tombstones had been removed from the ancient cemetery to pave the latrines of a nearby Jordanian army barrack." [17] City of Stone, [[Meron Benvenisti (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_Q8Ete9w6woC& pg=PA228& lpg=PA228& dq=east+ jerusalem+ arab+ electric+ corporation& source=bl& ots=ph25n5cIWx& sig=S9R5Xbn-1NZbsiYxFnWoxnL1Eo8& hl=en& ei=yE55Suf-C5jNjAeGsN2nBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=9#v=onepage& q=& f=false)]] [18] Letter dated 5th March 1968 from the permanent representative of Israel to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary General (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ A8138AD15B0FCAC385256B920059DEBF), Ref: S/8439, March 6, 1968. "In the ancient historic Jewish graveyard on the Mount of Olives, tens of thousands of tombstones had been torn up, broken into pieces or used as flagstones, steps and building materials in Jordanian military installations and civilian constructions. Large areas of the cemetery had been levelled and converted into parking places and petrol-filling stations." [19] Har-El, Menashe. Golden Jerusalem (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=9Z2cFY9iGqgC& pg=PA126& dq=mount+ of+ olives+ grave+ desecration+ thousands& hl=en& ei=D25ATL-nPNSA4QaCspyPDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=5& ved=0CEAQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage& q& f=false), Gefen Publishing House Ltd, 2004, pg. 126. ISBN 965-229-254-0. The majority (50,000 of the 70,000) was desecrated by the Arabs during the nineteen years of Jordanian rule in eastern Jerusalem. [20] Tessler, Mark A. A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=3kbU4BIAcrQC& pg=PA329& dq=mount+ of+ olives+ grave+ desecration+ thousands& hl=en& ei=lWxATI7kC5Hv4Abws8nbDg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=6& ved=0CEMQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q& f=false), Indiana University Press, 1994. pg. 329. ISBN 0-253-20873-4. [21] Mount of Olives security beefed up to stop vandalism (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Home/ Article. aspx?id=163398), Jerusalem Post 17-12-2009 [22] Has Israel abandoned the Mount of Olives? (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Opinion/ Editorials/ Article. aspx?id=175637), Jerusalem Post 15-05-2010 [23] Vandalism returns to Mount of Olives cemetery (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3888827,00. html), Ynet News 12-05-2010 [24] Shameful dereliction at the Mt. of Olives Cemetery (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Opinion/ Editorials/ Article. aspx?id=194272), Jerusalem Post 06-11-2010 [25] Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, book 9, chapter 10, paragraph 4, verse 225, William Whiston [26] Daniel Wachs and Dov Levitte, Earthquake Risk and Slope Stability in Jerusalem, Environmental Geology and Water Sciences, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 183-186, 1984 [27] Charles Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeological Researches in Palestine, Vol. 1. pg. 420, 1899; Charles Clermont-Ganneau, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, April 1874, pg. 102 [28] Mount of Olives description, from www.goisrael.com (http:/ / www. goisrael. com/ Tourism_Eng/ Tourist Information/ Jewish Themes/ Jewish_Sites/ Pages/ Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery jew. aspx), retrieved January 4, 2012. [29] "Emek Tzurim" (http:/ / www. mountofolives. co. il/ eng/ panorama. aspx?index=18). The City of David. 2009. . Retrieved 2010-07-16. [30] http:/ / www. jweekly. com/ article/ full/ 40390/ rabbi-chanan-feld-is-buried-on-the-mount-of-olives1/

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External links
the Mount of Olive (http://www.mountofolives.co.il/eng/) in the "CITY of DAVID" Website Interactive Panoramas of the Mount of Olives jerusalem360.com (http://jerusalem360.com/panoramas/ mount_of_olives_overlook), GoJerusalem.com (http://www.gojerusalem.com/article_1153/ Mount-of-Olives---Virtual-Tour) Jerusalem Photo Portal (http://www.jerusalemshots.com/cat_en65.html) Mount of Olives

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Gethsemane
Gethsemane (Greek: , Gethsmani Hebrew: , Gat-mnim Aramaic: , Gath-mn, Classical Syriac: , Gat mn, lit. "oil press") is a garden at the foot of the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem most famous as the place where, according to the gospels, Jesus and his disciples are said to have prayed the night before he was arrested, the day before his death.

Etymology
Gethsemane appears in the Greek of the Gospel of Matthew[1] and the Gospel of Mark[2] as (Gethsmani). The name is derived from the Aramaic ( Ga-mn), meaning "oil press".[3] Matthew (26:36) and Mark (14:32) call it (18:1), a place or estate. The Gospel of John says Jesus entered a garden () with his disciples.[4]
Garden of Gethsemane

Location
According to the New Testament it was a place that Jesus and his disciples customarily visited, which allowed Judas to find him on the night of his arrest.[5] There are four[6] locations claimed to be the place where Jesus prayed on the night he was betrayed. 1. The Church of All Nations overlooking a garden with a so-called "Rock of the Agony." 2. The location near the Tomb of the Virgin to the north. 3. The Greek Orthodox location to the east.
Garden of Gethsemane, 1914

4. The Russian Orthodox orchard, next to the Church of Maria Magdalene by an orchard. Dr. Thomson, author of The Land and the Book, wrote: "When I first came to Jerusalem, and for many years afterward, this plot of ground was open to all whenever they chose to come and meditate beneath its very old olive trees. The Latins, however, have within the last few years succeeded in gaining sole possession, and have built a high wall around it. The Greeks have invented another site a little to the north of it. My own impression is that both are wrong. The position is too near the city, and so close to what must have always been the great thoroughfare eastward, that our Lord would scarcely have selected it for retirement on that dangerous and dismal night. I am inclined to place the garden in the secluded vale several hundred yards to the north-east of the present Gethsemane."[7]

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Pilgrimage site
According to Luke 22:4344, Jesus' anguish in Gethsemane was so deep that "his sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down to the ground." According to the Eastern Orthodox Church tradition, Gethsemane is the garden where the Virgin Mary was buried and was assumed into heaven after her dormition on Mount Zion. The Garden of Gethsemane became a focal site for early Christian pilgrims. It was visited in 333 by the anonymous "Pilgrim of Bordeaux", whose Itinerarium Burdigalense is the earliest description left by a Christian traveler in the Holy Land. In his Onomasticon, Eusebius of Caesarea notes the site of Gethsemane located "at the foot of the Mount of Olives", and he adds that "the faithful were accustomed to go there to pray". Ancient olive trees growing in the garden are said to be 900 years old.[8]

Andrea Mantegna's Agony in the Garden, circa 1460, depicts Jesus in the garden of Gethsemane

Olive trees
A study conducted by the National Research Council of Italy in 2012 found that several olive trees in the garden are older than any other olive trees reported in the scientific literature.[9] Dates of 1092, 1166 and 1198 were obtained by carbon dating older parts of the trunks of three trees.[9] DNA tests show that the trees were originally planted from the same parent plant.[9]

References
[1] Matthew26:36 (King James Version); "Holy Bible: Greek New Testament (Scrivener 1894)" (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ bible/ gntscr. Matt. 26. html). . Retrieved 2009-03-25. ( [2] Mark14:32 (KJV); "Holy Bible: Greek New Testament (Scrivener 1894)" (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ bible/ gntscr. Mark. 14. html). Christian Classics Ethereal Library. . Retrieved 2009-03-25. [3] Metzger, Bruce M. (ed); Michael D. Coogan (ed) (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. p.253. ISBN0-19-504645-5. [4] John18:1 (KJV)( [5] Gethsemane (lightplanet.com) (http:/ / www. lightplanet. com/ mormons/ basic/ christ/ gethsemane. html) [6] Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, "Gethsemane", p.675, 1975, ISBN 0-8024-9697-0 [7] Easton's Bible Dictionary, Gethsemane [8] Paul Maier In the Fullness of Time (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Hnb67CuoHugC& pg=PA235& lpg=PA235& dq=gethsemane+ + archaeology+ ancient+ olive& source=bl& ots=0BaV0mm3Cm& sig=bY1szERvXi7nQHVPgFzdyl_EaJw& hl=en& ei=1i0JSrW5AcarjAff5pSWCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=10) [9] Reuters (October 20, 2012). "Jerusalem olive trees among oldest in world" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ 2012-10-20/ jerusalem-olive-trees-among-oldest-in-world/ 4324342). Haaretz. .

Taylor, Joan E., "The Garden of Gethsemane," Biblical Archaeology Review 21/4 (July/August 1995) 26-35: www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/Easter-03.asp

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External links
Catholic Encyclopedia on Gethsemane (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06540a.htm) Pauls Knowledge of the Garden of Gethsemane Narrative (http://christiancadre.org/member_contrib/cp_abba. html), by Christopher Price FotoTagger Annotated Galleries - Gethsemane in the art and reality (http://galleries.fototagger.com/link. php?action=detail&id=353) Article on the history of the Russian monastery itself (http://www.roca.org/OA/143-144/143e.htm)

Church of St. Ann

The Church of St. Ann, Church of Saint Anne, St. Ann's Church, St. Anne's Church, St. Anne's Roman Catholic Church or variations may refer to:

United Kingdom
St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast Old St Ann's Church, Warrington, Cheshire St Anne's Cathedral, Leeds Church of St Anne, Aigburth, Liverpool St Ann's Church Tottenham, London St Ann Blackfriars, London St Anne's Church, Soho, London St Ann's Church, Manchester St Ann's, Stretford, Greater Manchester St Anne's Church, Haughton Green, Greater Manchester St Anne's Church, Hindsford, Greater Manchester St Wilfrid and St Ann's Church, Newton Heath, Greater Manchester St. Ann with Emmanuel, Nottingham St. Anne's Church, Sutton Bonington, Nottinghamshire St Anne's Church, HMNB Portsmouth St Anne's Church, Singleton, Lancashire St Anne's Church, St Anne's-on-the-Sea, Lancashire St Anne's Church, Thwaites, Cumbria St Ann's Church Tottenham St Anne's Church, Woodplumpton

Other areas of Europe

St. Anne's Church, Dervian, Albania Church of Saint Anne, Aldeneik, Belgium St. Anne's Church, Augsburg, Germany St. Anne's Church, Miskolc, Hungary Church of St Anne (Shandon), Ireland St. Ann's Church, Dawson Street, Dublin, Ireland

St. Anne's Church, Vilnius, Lithuania St. Anne's Church, Warsaw, Poland Saint Anne in Vatican, Vatican City

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USA
(by state) St. Ann Church (Bridgeport, Connecticut) St. Anne's Episcopal Church (Middletown, Delaware) (Old St. Anne's Church), Middletown, Delaware, listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) Saint Ann Catholic Church in Kaneohe, Hawaii St. Anne Catholic Community, Barrington, Illinois Church of St. Anne (Allen, Louisiana), Allen, Louisiana, listed on the NRHP in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana St. Ann's Catholic Church (Morganza, Louisiana), founded in 1916 in Morganza, Louisiana and destroyed in 1935 St. Anne's Church and Mission Site, Old Town, Maine, NRHP-listed Chapel of St. Anne (Arlington, Massachusetts), NRHP-listed St. Anne's Church and Parish Complex, Fall River, Massachusetts, NRHP-listed St. Anne Church (Berlin, New Hampshire), NRHP-listed St. Ann's Church (Manhattan), New York St. Ann and the Holy Trinity Church, Brooklyn, New York St. Ann's Church Complex (Bronx, New York) St. Ann's Federation Building, Hornell, New York, NRHP-listed St. Ann's Church Complex (New York, New York), listed on the NRHP in New York St. Ann Church, Nyack, New York St. Ann Church, Cleveland Heights, Ohio, listed on the NRHP in Ohio St. Mary Roman Catholic Church (Detroit, Michigan) St. Ann Roman Catholic Church Complex, Toledo, Ohio, listed on the NRHP in Ohio St. Ann's Church Complex (Woonsocket, Rhode Island), listed on the NRHP in Rhode Island St. Ann's Catholic Church of Badus, Ramona, South Dakota, listed on the NRHP in South Dakota St. Anne's Roman Catholic Church (Marysville, Washington), listed on the NRHP in Washington St. Ann Roman Catholic Church [1], Arlington, Virginia Glebe House of St. Anne's Parish, Champlain, Virginia, listed on the NRHP in Virginia Kearns-St. Ann's Orphanage, Salt Lake City, Utah, listed on the NRHP in Utah

Asia
St. Anne's Church, Bukit Mertajam, Penang, Malaysia St Anne's Church (Singapore), a Roman Catholic church

References
[1] http:/ / www. rc. net/ arlington/ stann/ index. html

Pool of Bethesda

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Pool of Bethesda
The Pool of Bethesda is a pool of water in the Muslim Quarter of Jerusalem, on the path of the Beth Zeta Valley. The Gospel of John describes such a pool in Jerusalem, near the Sheep Gate, which is surrounded by five covered colonnades. It is associated with healing. Until the 19th century, there was no evidence outside of Johns Gospel for the existence of this pool; therefore, scholars argued that the gospel was written later, probably by someone without first-hand knowledge of the city of Jerusalem, and that the pool had only a metaphorical, rather than historical, significance.[1] In the 19th century, archaeologists discovered the remains of a pool fitting the description in Johns Gospel.[2]

Name
The name of the pool is said to be derived from the Hebrew language and/or Aramaic language. beth hesda ( ,) /meaning either house of mercy[3] or house of grace. In both Hebrew and Aramaic the word could also mean 'shame, disgrace'. This dual meaning may have been thought appropriate since the location was seen as a place of disgrace due to the presence of invalids, and a place of grace, due to the granting of healing.[4][5][6][7] Alternative renderings of the name, appearing in manuscripts of the Gospel of John, include Beth-zatha[8] and Bethsaida (not to be confused with Bethsaida, a town in the Galilee), although the latter is considered to be a metathetical corruption by Biblical scholars.[9] Delitzsch (Talmudische Studien, X. Bethesda, Zeitschrift fr die gesamte lutherische Theologie und Kirche,1856) suggested that the name comes from a mishnaic Hebrew loanword from Greek, estiv/estava, that appropriately referred to .

The Ruins of the Byzantine Church, adjacent to the site of the Bethesda Pool

The pools. Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period - A model in the Israel Museum.

Relationship to the historical Jesus

The Pool of Bethesda has been an area of controversy for Christian historians and archaeologists alike. According to the Gospel of John, Bethesda was a swimming bath (Greek: kolumbethra) with five porticos (translated as porches by older English Bible translations).[10][11]

Gospel of John
The Johannine narrative describes the porticos as being a place in which large numbers of infirm people were waiting, which corresponds well with the site's 1st century CE use as an asclepieion. Some ancient biblical manuscripts argue that these people were waiting for the troubling of the water;[12] a few such manuscripts also move the setting away from Roman rituals into something more appropriate to Judaism, by adding that an angel would occasionally stir the waters, which would then cure the first person to enter.[13] Although the Vulgate does not

Pool of Bethesda include the troubling of the water or the 'angel tradition', these were present in many of the manuscripts used by early English translations of the Bible, who therefore included it in their translations. Modern textual scholarship views these extra details as unreliable and unlikely to have been part of the original text; many modern translations do not include the troubling of the water or the 'angel tradition', but leave the earlier numbering system, so that they skip from verse 3a straight to verse 5.[14][15] The biblical narrative continues by describing a Shabbat visit to the site by Jesus, during which he heals a man who has been bedridden for many years, and could not make his own way into the pool.[16] Some scholars have suggested that the narrative is actually part of a deliberate polemic against the Asclepius cult, an antagonism possibly partly brought on by the fact that Asclepius was worshipped as Saviour (Greek: Soter), in reference to his healing attributes.[17] The narrative uses the Greek phrase hygies genesthai,[18] which is not used anywhere in the Synoptic Gospels, but appears frequently in ancient testimonies to the healing powers of Asclepius;[17] the later narrative in the Gospel of John about Jesus washing Simon Peter's feet at the Last Supper,[19] similarly uses the Greek term louein,[20] which is a special term for washing in an Asclepieion,[17] rather than the Greek word used elsewhere in the Johannine text to describe washing - niptein.[14]

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Archaeology
Prior to archaeological digs, the Pool of Bethesda was identified with the modern so-called Fountain of the Virgin, in the Kidron Valley, not far from the Pool of Siloam, and alternately with the Birket Israel, a pool near the mouth of the valley which runs into the Kidron south of St. Stephen's Gate. Others identified it with the twin pools then called the Souterrains (French for "Subterranean"), under the Convent of the Sisters of Zion;[3] subsequent archaeological investigation of the area has determined these to actually be the Strouthion Pool.[21] In digs conducted in the 19th century, Schick discovered a large tank Displayed in the west transept of St. Mary's situated about 100 feet north-west of St. Anne's Church, which he Episcopal Cathedral in Memphis, Tennessee, this stone is part of one of the columns of the contended was the Pool of Bethesda. Further archaeological excavation balustrade that surrounded the Pool of Bethesda. in the area, in 1964, discovered the remains of the Byzantine and Crusader churches, Hadrian's Temple of Asclepius and Serapis, the small healing pools of the Asclepieion, the other of the two large pools, and the dam between them.[22] It was discovered that the Byzantine construction was built in the very heart of Hadrian's construction, and contained the healing pools.[14][22]

Conclusion
This archaeological discovery proved beyond a doubt that the description of this pool in the Gospel of John was not the creation of the Evangelist. It reflected an accurate and detailed knowledge of the site. The Gospel speaks of (a) the name of the pool as Bethesda; (b) its location near the Sheep Gate; (c) the fact that it has five porticos; with rushing water. All these details are corroborated through literary and archaeological evidence affirming the historical accuracy of the Johannine account.[23]

Pool of Bethesda

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History
The history of the pool began in the 8th century BC, when a dam was built across the short Beth Zeta valley, turning it into a reservoir for rain water;[24][25][26] a sluice-gate in the dam allowed the height to be controlled, and a rock-cut channel brought a steady stream of water from the reservoir into the city[24] The reservoir became known as the Upper Pool ( .) Around 200 BC, during the period in which Simon II was the Jewish High Priest, the channel was enclosed, and a second pool was added on the south side of the dam;[24][25][26] although popular legend argues that this pool was used for washing sheep, this is very unlikely due to the pool's use as a water supply, and its extreme depth (13m). In the 1st century BC, natural caves to the east of the two pools were turned into small baths, as part of an asclepieion;[24][27] however, the Mishnah implies that at least one of these new pools was sacred to Fortuna,[28] the goddess of fortune, rather than Asclepius, the god of healing.[29] Scholars think it likely that this development was founded by the Roman garrison of the nearby Antonia Fortress,[24] who would also have been able to protect it from attack[27] the location of the asclepieion, outside the then city walls, would have made its presence tolerable to the Jews, who might otherwise have objected to a non-Jewish religious presence in their holy city.[27] In the mid 1st century AD, Herod Agrippa expanded the city walls, bringing the asclepieion into the city. When Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina, he placed a roadway along the dam, and expanded the asclepieion into a large temple to Asclepius and Serapis.[24] In the Byzantine era, the asclepieion was converted to a church. After the Crusader conquest of Jerusalem, the church buildings were rebuilt on a smaller scale with a new church erected nearby. This new church, named for Saint Anne and completed in 1138 AD., was built over the site of a grotto believed by the Crusaders to be the birthplace of Anne, grandmother of Jesus. After the conquest of Jerusalem by Saladin it was transformed into a school for Shafi`i fiqh. Gradually the buildings fell into ruin, becoming a midden. In the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire, as an act of gratitude, offered Queen Victoria the choice of possessing the Bethesda site or Cyprus; the Anglican church lobbied for the Bethesda site, but Victoria chose Cyprus, so in 1856, the Ottomans gave the site to France instead. The French constructed the Church of Saint Anne, at the south east corner of the site, leaving the ancient ruins untouched.

Scripture
The Upper Pool is mentioned in the Book of Kings (in a passage also repeated by the Book of Isaiah):[30] And the king of Assyria sent Tartan and Rab-saris and Rab-shakeh from Lachish to King Hezekiah with a great army unto Jerusalem. And they went up and came to Jerusalem. And when they were come up, they came and stood by the conduit of the upper pool, which is in the highway of the fullers' field.[31] It is also mentioned in an earlier part of the Book of Isaiah: Then said the LORD unto Isaiah: 'Go forth now to meet Ahaz, thou, and Shear-jashub thy son, at the end of the conduit of the upper pool, in the highway of the fullers' field.[32]

Pool of Bethesda

317

References
[1] Eddie Arthur, The Pool of Bethesda in Jerusalem (http:/ / www. facingthechallenge. org/ bethesda. php), Focus Pub, 2010 p 1 [2] James H. Charlesworth, Jesus and archaeology, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006. pp 560-566 [3] Easton's Bible Dictionary [4] "Bethsaida (the pool)" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 02536a. htm). Catholic Encyclopedia. . [5] International Standard Bible Encyclopedia (1995), on sheep gate and on sheep market [6] D. A. Carson, The Gospel according to John (1991), page 241 [7] Frederick Fyvie Bruce, The Gospel of John (1994), page 121-122 [8] Revised Standard Version marginal note to John5:2 [9] "Bethsaida" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 02536a. htm). newadvent.org. . Retrieved 6 October 2010. [10] John5:2 [11] Peake's commentary on the Bible (1962), on John 5:1-18 [12] John5:3 [13] John5:4 [14] James H. Charlesworth, Jesus and archaeology, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006. p 560-566 [15] see the New International Version, English Standard Version, Revised Standard Version, and New Living Translation, for example [16] John5:1-18 [17] Maureen W. Yeung, Faith in Jesus and Paul, page 79 [18] John5:6 [19] John13:5-18 [20] John13:10 [21] Pierre Benoit, The Archaeological Reconstruction of the Antonia Fortress, in Jerusalem Revealed (edited by Yigael Yadin), (1976) [22] An archaeological diagram of the layout - the diagram displayed at the location itself - is visible at this link (http:/ / www. christusrex. org/ www1/ ofm/ sbf/ escurs/ Ger/ 10quadroBig. jpg) [23] James H. Charlesworth, Jesus and archaeology, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2006. p 566 [24] Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, The Holy Land, (2008), page 29 [25] Maureen W. Yeung, Faith in Jesus and Paul, page 76 [26] Dave Winter, Israel handbook, page 121 [27] Andr Duprez, Jesus and the god of Healing, as according to John (1970), page 97 [28] Zabim 1:5 [29] Maureen W. Yeung, Faith in Jesus and Paul, page 78 [30] Isaiah36:2 [31] Kings218:17 [32] Isaiah7:3

External links
Pictures of the Bethesda (http://holyland-pictures.com/category/jerusalem/bet-hesda/) Jewish Encyclopedia: Bethesda (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=990&letter=B&search=Pool of Bethesda) Catholic Encyclopedia: Bethsaida: II. THE POOL (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02536a.htm) Pool of Bethesda Video (http://www.jerusalemexperience.com/st-anne-church-and-pool-of-bethesda/)

Convent of the Sisters of Zion

318

Convent of the Sisters of Zion

The Convent of the Sisters of Zion is a convent of the Congregation of Notre-Dame de Sion, located near to the eastern end of the Via Dolorosa, in Jerusalem. The convent was built in 1857, by Marie-Alphonse Ratisbonne,[1] but the site also contains ancient archaeological remains of significant value.

19th century Buildings

In 1857, on the land later taken by the convent lay ruins. Ratisbonne, a French Jew and former atheist who converted to Catholicism and became a Jesuit, decided to purchase the site. Between 1858 and 1862, he built a basilica (the Church of Ecce Homo), an orphanage for girls, and standard convent buildings. As the convent was quite confined in size, the nuns bought a few of the surrounding Arab homes, incorporated them into the convent; they soon opened a medical dispensary on the site. Due to the introduction of state support for orphans, by the Ottoman government and later (1948) by the Israeli government, the orphanage buildings have been used for other religious purposes since 1967. The Convent now maintains a guesthouse and library.

The span of the Ecce Homo arch outside the church

Roman Pavement
Immediately beneath the convent is an extensive area of Roman flagstones; as these continue, to a lesser extent, under the Church of the Condemnation and Imposition of the Cross, they have been known about for several centuries. These flagstones were once thought to be the pavement (Greek: lithostratos) which the Bible describes as the location where Pontius Pilate adjudged Jesus' trial,[2] but archaeological investigation now indicates that it is the paving of the eastern of two 2nd century Forums, built by Hadrian as part of the construction of Aelia Capitolina.[3]

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319

Struthion Pool
Beneath the paving is a large cuboid cistern, which gathered the rainwater from guttering on the Forum buildings. Prior to Hadrian, this cistern had been an open-air pool, but Hadrian added arch vaulting to enable the pavement to be placed over it. The existence of the pool in the first century is attested by Josephus, who reports that it was called Struthius (literally meaning sparrow).[4] This Struthion Pool was originally built as part of an open-air water conduit by the Hasmoneans, which has since been enclosed; the source of the water for this conduit is currently unidentified.

Ecce Homo arch

The convent also includes the Ecce Homo Church, which contains part of the Ecce Homo arch, which extends to the outside street. Although the arch was traditionally believed to be spot corresponding to the Biblical account of Pilate giving the Ecce Homo speech,[5] it is now known to have been a triple-arched gateway built by Hadrian, as an entrance to the aforementioned Roman Forum.[6]

One chamber of the pool

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Encyclopedia Judaica, Ratisbonne Brothers, Volume 13, pp.1570-1571, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972 John19:13 Pierre Benoit, The Archaeological Reconstruction of the Antonia Fortress, in Jerusalem Revealed (edited by Yigael Yadin), (1976) Josephus, Jewish War 5:11:4 John19.5 Pierre Benoit, The Antonia of Herod the Great, and the East Forum of Aelia Capitolina (1971)

Temple Mount

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Temple Mount
Temple Mount
, Har haByith , al-Haram ash-Sharf,

Elevation

740 m (2,428 ft) Location

Temple Mount

Jerusalem Range Coordinates Judean 314640.7N 35148.9E Geology Type Limestone

[1]

The Temple Mount, known in Hebrew (and in Judaism) as Har haByith (Hebrew: ) and in Arabic (and in Islam) as the Haram Ash-Sharif (Arabic: , al-haram al-quds ash-sharf, Noble Sanctuary), is one of the most important religious sites in the Old City of Jerusalem. It has been used as a religious site for thousands of years. At least four religions are known to have used the Temple Mount: Judaism, Christianity, Roman paganism, and Islam. Biblical scholars have often identified it with two biblical mountains of uncertain location: Mount Moriah where the binding of Isaac took place, and Mount Zion where the original Jebusite fortress stood; however, both interpretations are disputed. Judaism regards the Temple Mount as the place where God chose the Divine Presence to rest (Isa 8:18); according to the rabbinic sages whose debates produced the Talmud, it was from here the world expanded into its present form and where God gathered the dust used to create the first man, Adam. The site is the location of Abraham's binding of Isaac, and of two Jewish Temples. According to the Bible the site should function as the center of all national lifea governmental, judicial and, of course, religious center (Deut 12:5-26; 14:23-25; 15:20; 16:2-16; 17:8-10; 26: 2; 31:

Temple Mount 11; Isa 2: 2-5; Oba 1:21; Psa 48). During the Second Temple Period it functioned also as an economical center. From that location the word of God will come out to all nations, and that is the site where all prayers are focused. According to Jewish tradition and scripture (2 Chronicles 3:1-2), the first temple was built by Solomon the son of David in 957 BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE. The second was constructed under the auspices of Zerubbabel in 516 BCE and destroyed by the Roman Empire in 70 CE. Jewish tradition maintains it is here the Third and final Temple will also be built. The location is the holiest site in Judaism and is the place Jews turn towards during prayer. Due to its extreme sanctity, many Jews will not walk on the Mount itself, to avoid unintentionally entering the area where the Holy of Holies stood, since according to Rabbinical law, some aspect of the Divine Presence is still present at the site.[2] It was from the Holy of Holies that the High Priest communicated directly with God. Among Sunni Muslims, the Mount is widely considered to be the third holiest site in Islam. Revered as the Noble Sanctuary (Bait-ul-Muqaddas) and the location of Muhammad's journey to Jerusalem and ascent to heaven, the site is also associated with Jewish biblical prophets who are also venerated in Islam. After the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 637 CE, Umayyad Caliphs commissioned the construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock on the site.[3] The Dome was completed in 692 CE, making it one of the oldest extant Islamic structures in the world, after the Kaabah. The Al Aqsa Mosque rests on the far southern side of the Mount, facing Mecca. The Dome of the Rock currently sits in the middle, occupying or close to the area where the Bible mandates the Holy Temple be rebuilt.[4] In light of the dual claims of both Judaism and Islam, it is one of the most contested religious sites in the world. Since the Crusades, the Muslim community of Jerusalem has managed the site as a Waqf, without interruption.[5] As part of the Old City, controlled by Israel since 1967, both Israel and the Palestinian Authority claim sovereignty over the site, which remains a major focal point of the Arab-Israeli conflict.[6] In an attempt to keep the status quo, the Israeli government enforces a controversial ban on prayer by non-Muslim visitors.

321

Location and dimensions

The Temple Mount forms the northern portion of a very narrow spur of hill that slopes sharply from north to south. Rising above the Kidron Valley to the east and Tyropoeon Valley to the west,[7] its peak reaches a height of 740m (2,428ft) above sea level.[8] In around 19 BCE, Herod the Great extended the Mount's natural plateau by enclosing the area with four massive retaining walls and filling the voids. This artificial expansion resulted in a large flat Model of Jerusalem in the Late 2nd Temple Period. Note that the large flat expanse expanse which today forms the eastern was a base for the temple located there section of the Old City of Jerusalem. The trapezium shaped platform measures 488m along the west, 470m along the east, 315m along the north and 280m along the south, giving a total area of approximately 150,000 m2 (37acres).[9] The northern wall of the Mount, together with the northern section of the western wall, is hidden behind residential buildings. The southern section of the western flank is revealed and contains what is known as the Western Wall. The retaining walls on these two sides descend many meters below ground level. A northern portion of the western wall may be seen from within the Western Wall Tunnel, which was

Temple Mount excavated through buildings adjacent to the platform. On the southern and eastern sides the walls are visible almost to their full height. The platform itself is separated from the rest of the Old City by the Tyropoeon Valley, though this once deep valley is now largely hidden beneath later deposits, and is imperceptible in places. The platform can be reached via Bridge Street a street in the Muslim Quarter at the level of the platform, actually sitting on a monumental bridge; the bridge is no longer externally visible due to the change in ground level, but it may be seen from beneath via the Western Wall Tunnel.

322

History
Israelite period
The hill is believed to have been inhabited since the 4th millennium BCE. Assuming colocation with the biblical Mount Zion, its southern section would have been walled at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, in around 1850 BCE, by Canaanites who established a settlement there (or in the vicinity) named Jebus. Biblical scholars have also identified it with Mount Moriah where the binding of Isaac took place. According to the Hebrew Bible, Mount Moriah was originally a threshing-floor owned by Araunah, a Jebusite. The prophet Gad suggested the area to King David as a fitting place for the erection of an altar to YHWH, since it was there a destroying angel was standing when God stopped a great plague in Jerusalem.[10] David then bought the property from Araunah, for fifty pieces of silver, and erected the altar. YHWH instructed David to build a sanctuary on the site, outside the city walls on the northern edge of the hill. The building was to replace the Tabernacle, and serve as the Temple of the Israelites in Jerusalem.[11] The Temple Mount is an important part of Biblical archaeology.

Achaemenid Persian, Hasmonean periods, and Herods expansion

Much of the Mount's early history is synonymous with events pertaining to the Temple itself. After the destruction of Solomons Temple by Nebuchadnezzar II, construction of the Second Temple began under Cyrus in around 538 BCE, and completed in 516 BCE. Evidence of a Hasmonean expansion of the Temple Mount has been recovered by archaeologist Leen Ritmeyer. Around 19 BCE, Herod the A stone (2.43x1 m) with Hebrew inscription "To the Trumpeting Place" excavated by Benjamin Great further expanded the Mount and rebuilt the temple. The Mazar at the southern foot of the Temple Mount ambitious project, which involved the employment of 10,000 is believed to be a part of the Second Temple workers,[12] more than doubled the size of Temple Mount to approximately 36 acres (150,000m2). Herod leveled the area by cutting away rock on the northwest side and raising the sloping ground to the south. He achieved this by constructing huge buttress walls and vaults, filling the necessary sections with earth and rubble.[13] A basilica (the Royal Stoa) was constructed on the southern end of the expanded platform, which provided a focus for the city's commercial and legal transactions, and which was provided with separate access to the city below via the Robinson's Arch overpass.[14] In addition to restoration of the Temple, its courtyards, and porticoes, Herod also built Antonia Fortress abutting the northwestern corner of the Temple Mount, and a rainwater reservoir, Birket Israel, in the northeast. As a result of the First Jewish-Roman War, the fortress was destroyed by Roman emperor Vespasian, in 70 CE, under the command of his son and imperial heir, Titus.

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323

Middle Roman period

The city of Aelia Capitolina was built in 130 CE by the Roman emperor Hadrian, and occupied by a Roman colony on the site of Jerusalem, which was still in ruins from the First Jewish Revolt in 70 CE. Aelia came from Hadrian's nomen gentile, Aelius, while Capitolina meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a temple was built on the site of the former second Jewish temple, the Temple Mount.[15] Hadrian had intended the construction of the new city as a gift to the Jews, but since he had constructed a giant statue of himself in front of the Temple of Jupiter and the Temple of Jupiter had a huge statue of Jupiter inside of it, there were now two enormous graven images on the Temple Mount. It was also the normal practice of the adherents of the Hellenic religion to sacrifice pigs before their deities. In addition to this, Hadrian issued a decree prohibiting the practice of circumcision. These three factors, the graven images, the sacrifice of pigs before the altar, and the prohibition Stones from the walls of the Temple Mount thrown onto the street by of circumcision, constituted for non-Hellenized radical Roman soldiers in 70 CE Zealot Jews a new abomination of desolation, and thus Bar Kochba launched the Third Jewish Revolt. After the Third Jewish Revolt failed, all Jews were forbidden on pain of death from entering the city.

Late Roman period

About 325 it is believed that Constantine's mother, St. Helena, built a small church on the Mount in the 4th century, calling it the Church of St. Cyrus and St. John, later on enlarged and called the Church of the Holy Wisdom. The church was later destroyed and on its ruins the Dome of the Rock was built.[16] Since it is known that Helena ordered the Temple of Venus to the west of the Temple Mount to be torn down to construct the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, presumably she also ordered the Temple of Jupiter on the Temple Mount to be torn down to construct the Church of St. Cyrus and St. John. In 363, Emperor Julian, on his way to engage Persia, stopped at the ruins of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Julian granted the Jews permission to begin rebuilding the Temple.[17] To Christians, the destroyed Temple was a symbol of Christianity's triumph over Judaism, and Julian, was an opponent of Christianity.[17] Rebuilding work began, but was ended by the Galilee earthquake of 363.[17][18] There are records of Jews continuing to offer sacrifices on the Foundation Stone after the destruction of the Temple and into the Byzantine period.[17]

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Byzantine period
Archaeological evidence in the form of an elaborate mosaic floor similar to the one in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and multiple fragments of an elaborate marble Templon (chancel screen) prove that an elaborate Byzantine church or monastery or other public building stood on the Temple Mount in Byzantine times, presumably the aforementioned Holy Wisdom Church.[19]

Sassanid vassal state period

See Jewish revolt against Heraclius See also Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628 In 610, the Sassanid Empire drove the Byzantine Empire out of the Middle East, giving the Jews control of Jerusalem for the first time in centuries. The Jews in Palestine were allowed to set up a vassal state under the Sassanid Empire called the Sassanid Jewish Commonewealth which lasted for five years. Jewish rabbis ordered the restart of animal sacrifice for the first time since the time of Second Temple and started to reconstruct the Jewish Temple. Shortly before the Byzantines took the area back five years later in 615, the Persians gave control to the Christian population, who tore down the partially built Jewish Temple edifice and turned it into a garbage dump,[20] which is what it was when the Caliph Omar took the city in the 630s.

Arabic period
Upon the capture of Jerusalem by the victorious Caliph Omar, Omar immediately headed to the Temple Mount with his advisor, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, a formerly Jewish rabbi who had converted to Islam, in order to find the holy site of the "Furthest Mosque" or Al Masjid al Aqsa which was mentioned in the Quran and specified in the Hadiths of being in Jerusalem.Ka'ab al-Ahbar suggested to Caliph Omar to build the Dome of the Rock monument on the site that Ka'ab believed to be the Biblical Holy of the Holies, arguing that this site is where Mohammad ascended to heaven during the Isra and Mi'raj miracle. The actual construction of the Muslim monuments at the southeast corner, facing Mecca, near which the al-Aqsa Mosque were built 78 years later. The original building is now known to have been wooden and to have been constructed on the site of a Byzantine public building with an elaborate mosaic floor. (The Persian conquest that immediately preceded the Arab conquest makes it uncertain who destroyed the building.)[19]

Southwest qanatir of the Haram al Sharif

In 691 an octagonal Islamic building topped by a dome was built by the Caliph Abd al-Malik around the rock, for a myriad of political, dynastic and religious reasons, built on local and Koranic traditions articulating the site's holiness, a process in which textual A model of the Haram-al-Sharif made in 1879 by and architectural narratives reinforced one another.[21] The shrine Conrad Schlick. The model can be seen in the Bijbels became known as the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat as-Sakhra Museum in Amsterdam .)The dome itself was covered in gold in 1920. In 715 the Umayyads led by the Caliph al-Walid I, rebuilt the Temple's nearby Chanuyot into a mosque (see illustrations [22] and detailed drawing [23]) which they named al-Masjid al-Aqsa , the al-Aqsa Mosque or in translation "the furthest mosque", corresponding to the Islamic belief of Muhammad's miraculous nocturnal journey as

Temple Mount recounted in the Qur'an and hadith. The term al-Haram al-Sharif ( the Noble Sanctuary) refers to the whole area that surrounds that Rock as was called later by the Mamluks and Ottomans.[24] For Muslims, the importance of the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque makes Jerusalem the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. The mosque and shrine are currently administered by a Waqf (an Islamic trust). The various inscriptions on the Dome walls and the artistic decorations imply on symbolic eschatological significance of the structure. From the Arabic Conquest to the Crusades there seems to have been good relations between the Arab rulers and the Jewish minority. A Jewish synagogue was built on the Temple Mount. Its location has not been established, but it was destroyed by the Crusaders when they took the city and massacred the Jews and Muslims in 1099.

325

Ottoman period
Following the Ottoman conquest of Palestine in 1516, the Ottoman authorities continued the policy of prohibiting non-Muslims from setting foot on the Temple Mount until the early 19th-century, when non-Muslims were again permitted to visit the site.[17] In 1867, a team from the Royal Engineers, led by Lieutenant Charles Warren and financed by the Palestine Exploration Fund (P.E.F.), discovered a series of underground tunnels near the Temple Mount. Warren secretly excavated some tunnels near the Temple Mount walls and was the first one to document their lower courses. Warren also conducted some small scale excavations inside the Temple Mount, by removing rubble that blocked passages leading from the Double Gate chamber.

British Mandate period

Between 1922 and 1924, the Dome of the Rock was restored by the Islamic Higher Council.[25]

Jordanian period
Jordan undertook two renovations of the Dome of the Rock, replacing the leaking, wooden dome with an aluminum dome in 1952, and, when the new dome leaked, carrying out a second restoration between 1959 and 1964.[25] Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories during this period.[26][27]

Israeli period
During the 1967 Six-Day War Israel captured the Temple Mount together with all of East Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan, who had controlled it since 1948. The Chief Rabbi of the Israeli Defense Forces, Shlomo Goren, led the soldiers in religious celebrations on the Temple Mount and at the Western Wall. The Israeli Chief Rabbinate also declared a religious holiday on the anniversary, called "Yom Yerushalayim" (Jerusalem Day), which also became a national holiday that commemorates the reunification of the city. Many Jews saw the capture of Jerusalem and the Temple Mount as a miraculous liberation of biblical-messianic proportion. A few days after the war was over 200,000 Jews flocked to the Western Wall in the first mass Jewish pilgrimage near the mount since the destruction of Temple in 69 CE. However, the Israeli government subsequently left the Islamic waqf in control of the site. The site has become a flash-point between Israel and the Muslim world. On October 8, 1990, Israeli forces patrolling the site blocked worshipers from accessing it. A tear gas canister was accidentally detonated among the female worshipers, which caused events to escalate.[28] Rocks were eventually thrown, while security forces fired rounds that ended up killing 20 people and injured around 140 more. An Israeli enquiry found Israeli forces at fault, but it also concluded that charges could not be brought against any particular individuals.[29]

Temple Mount Between 1992 and 1994, the Jordanian government undertook the unprecedented step of gilding the dome of the Dome of the Rock, covering it with 5000 gold plates, and restoring and reinforcing the structure. The Salah Eddin minbar was also restored. The project was paid for by King Hussein personally, at a cost of $8 million.[25] The Second Palestinian Intifada is often cited as being sparked by a visit made to the Temple Mount by Israeli opposition leader Ariel Sharon. He toured the site, together with a Likud party delegation and a large number of Israeli riot police, on September 28, 2000. The visit was seen as a provocative gesture by many Palestinians, who gathered around the site. Demonstrations soon turned violent, with both rubber bullets and tear gas being used. This event is often cited as one of the catalysts of the Second Intifada.[30] Also in this period, Palestinian authorities have begun excavations at the Temple Mount, damaging the structural integrity of the site; see below.

326

Management and access

An Islamic Waqf has managed the Temple Mount continuously since the Muslim reconquest of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187. On June 7, 1967, soon after Israel had taken control of the area during the Six-Day War, Prime Minister Levi Eshkol assured that "no harm whatsoever shall come to the places sacred to all religions". Together with the extension of Israeli jurisdiction and administration over east Jerusalem, the Knesset passed the Preservation of the Holy Places Law,[31] ensuring protection of the Holy Places against desecration, as well as freedom of access thereto.[32] Israel agreed to leave administration of the site in the hands of the Waqf. Although freedom of access was enshrined in the law, as a security measure, the Israeli government currently enforces a ban on non-Muslim prayer on the site. Non-Muslims who are observed praying on the site are subject to expulsion by the police.[33] At various Sign in Hebrew and English outside the Temple times, when there is fear of Arab rioting upon the mount resulting in Mount stating what the Torah says about entering throwing stones from above towards the Western Wall Plaza, Israel has the area prevented Muslim men under 45 from praying in the compound, citing these concerns.[34] Sometimes such restrictions have coincided with Friday prayers during the Islamic holy month of Ramadan.[35] Normally, West Bank Palestinians are allowed access to Jerusalem only during Islamic holidays, with access usually restricted to men over 35 and women of any age eligible for permits to enter the city.[36] Palestinian residents of Jerusalem, which because of Israel's annexation of Jerusalem, hold Israeli permanent residency cards, and Israeli Arabs, are permitted unrestricted access to the Temple Mount.

Current features
An additional flat platform was built above the portion of the hill rising above the general level of the top of the Temple Mount, and this upper platform is the location of the Dome of the Rock; the rock in question is the bedrock at the peak of the hill, just breaching the floor level of the upper platform. Beneath the rock is a natural cave known as the Well of Souls, originally accessible only by a narrow hole in the rock itself, Crusaders hacked open an entrance to the cave from the south, by which it can now be entered. There is also a smaller domed building on the upper platform, slightly to the east of the Dome of the Rock, known as the Dome of the Chain traditionally the location where a chain once rose to heaven. Several stairways rise to the upper platform from the lower; that at the northwest corner is believed by some archaeologists be part of a much wider monumental staircase, mostly hidden or

Temple Mount destroyed, and dating from the Second Temple era. The lower platform which constitutes most of the surface of the Temple Mount has at its southern end the al-Aqsa Mosque, which takes up most of the width of the Mount. Gardens take up the eastern and most of the northern side of the platform; the far north of the platform houses an Islamic school.[37] The lower platform also houses a fountain (known as al-Kas), originally supplied with water via a long narrow aqueduct leading from pools at Bethlehem (colloquially known as Solomon's Pools), but now supplied from Jerusalem's water mains. There are several cisterns embedded in the lower platform, designed to collect rain water as The al-Kas ablution fountain for Muslim worshipers on a water supply. These have various forms and structures, the southern portion of the lower platform. seemingly built in different periods by different architects, ranging from vaulted chambers built in the gap between the bedrock and the platform, to chambers cut into the bedrock itself. Of these, the most notable are (numbering traditionally follows Wilson's scheme[38]): Cistern 1 (located under the northern side of the upper platform). There is a speculation that it had a function connected with the altar of the Second Temple (and possibly of the earlier Temple),[39] or with the bronze sea. Cistern 5 (located under the south eastern corner of the upper platform) a long and narrow chamber, with a strange anti-clockwise curved section at its north western corner, and containing within it a doorway currently blocked by earth. The cistern's position and design is such that there has been speculation it had a function connected with the altar of the Second Temple (and possibly of the earlier Temple), or with the bronze sea. Charles Warren thought that the altar of burnt offerings was located at the north western end.[40] Cistern 8 (located just north of the al-Aqsa Mosque) known as the Great Sea, a large rock hewn cavern, the roof supported by pillars carved from the rock; the chamber is particularly cave-like and atmospheric,[41] and its maximum water capacity is several hundred thousand gallons. Cistern 9 (located just south of cistern 8, and directly under the al-Aqsa Mosque) known as the Well of the Leaf due to its leaf-shaped plan, also rock hewn. Cistern 11 (located east of cistern 9) a set of vaulted rooms forming a plan shaped like the letter E. Probably the largest cistern, it has the potential to house over 700,000 gallons of water. Cistern 16/17 (located at the centre of the far northern end of the Temple Mount). Despite the currently narrow entrances, this cistern (17 and 16 are the same cistern) is a large vaulted chamber, which Warren described as looking like the inside of the cathedral at Cordoba (which was previously a mosque). Warren believed that it was almost certainly built for some other purpose, and was only adapted into a cistern at a later date; he suggested that it might have been part of a general vault supporting the northern side of the platform, in which case substantially more of the chamber exists than is used for a cistern.

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The walls of the platform contain several gateways, all currently blocked. In the east wall is the Golden Gate, through which legend states the Jewish Messiah would enter Jerusalem. On the southern face are the Hulda Gates the triple gate (which has three arches) and the double gate (which has two arches, and is partly obscured by a Crusader building); these were the entrance and exit (respectively) to the Temple Mount from Ophel (the oldest part of Jerusalem), and the main access to the Mount for ordinary Jews. In the western face, near the southern corner, is the Barclay's Gate only half visible due to a building on the northern side. Also in the western face, hidden by later construction but visible via the recent Western Wall Tunnels, and only rediscovered by Warren, is Warren's Gate; the function of these western gates is obscure, but many Jews view Warren's Gate as particularly holy, due to its location due west of the Dome of the Rock. Traditional belief considers the Dome of the Rock to have earlier been the location at which the Holy of Holies was placed; numerous alternative opinions exist, based on study and calculations, such as those of Tuvia Sagiv.[42]

The eastern set of Hulda gates.

Warren was able to investigate the inside of these gates. Warren's Gate and the Golden Gate simply head towards the centre of the Mount, fairly quickly giving access to the surface by steps.[43] Barclay's Gate is similar, but abruptly turns south as it does so; the reason for this is currently unknown. The double and triple gates (the Huldah Gates) are more substantial; heading into the Mount for some distance they each finally have steps rising to the surface Robinson's Arch, situated on the southwestern flank, just north of the al-Aqsa Mosque.[44] The passageway for each is once supported a staircase that led to the Mount. vaulted, and has two aisles (in the case of the triple gate, a third aisle exists for a brief distance beyond the gate); the eastern aisle of the double gates and western of the triple gates reach the surface, the other aisles terminating some way before the steps Warren believed that one aisle of each original passage was extended when the al-Aqsa Mosque blocked the original surface exits. East of and joined to the triple gate passageway is a large vaulted area, supporting the southeastern corner of the Temple Mount platform which is substantially above the bedrock at this point the vaulted chambers here are popularly referred to as King Solomon's Stables.[45] They were used as stables by the Crusaders, but were built by Herod the Great along with the platform they were built to support. In the process of investigating Cistern 10, Warren discovered tunnels that lay under the Triple Gate passageway.[46] These passages lead in erratic directions, some leading beyond the southern edge of the Temple Mount (they are at a depth below the base of the walls); their purpose is currently unknown as is whether they predate the Temple Mount a situation not helped by the fact that apart from Warren's expedition no one else is known to have visited them. The existing four minarets include three near the Western Wall and one near the northern wall. The first minaret was constructed on the southwest corner of the Temple Mount in 1278. The second was built in 1297 by order of a Mameluk king, the third by a governor of Jerusalem in 1329, and the last in 1367.

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Alterations to antiquities and damage to existing structures

Due to the extreme political sensitivity of the site, no real archaeological excavations have even been conducted on the Temple Mount itself. Protests commonly occur whenever archaeologists conduct projects near the Mount. Aside from visual observation of surface features, most other archaeological knowledge of the site comes from the 19th century survey carried out by Charles Wilson and Charles Warren and others. This sensitivity has not prevented the Muslim Waqf from destroying archeological evidence on a number of occasions.[47][48][49][50] After the Six-Day War of 1967, Israeli archeologists began a series of excavations near the site at the southern wall that uncovered finds from the Second Temple period through Roman, Umayyad and Crusader times.[51] Over the period 197088, a number of tunnels were excavated in the vicinity, including one that passed to the west of the Mount and became known as the Western Wall Tunnel, which was opened to the public in 1996.[52][53] The same year the Waqf began construction of a new mosque in the structures known since Crusader times as Solomon's Stables. Many Israelis regarded this as a radical change of the status quo, which should not have been undertaken without first consulting the Israeli government. The project was done without attention to the possibility of disturbing historically significant archaeological material, with stone and ancient artifacts treated without regard to their preservation.[54] In October 1999, the Islamic Waqf, and the Islamic Movement conducted an illegal dig which inflicted much archaeological damage. The earth from this operation, which has archeological wealth relevant to Jewish, Christian and Muslim history, was removed by heavy machinery and unceremoniously dumped by trucks into the nearby Kidron Valley. Although the archeological finds in the earth are already not in situ, this soil still contains great archeological potential. No archeological excavation was ever conducted on the Temple Mount, and this soil was the only archeological information that has ever been available to anyone. For this reason Israeli archaeologists Dr. Gabriel Barkay and Zachi Zweig established a unique project for sifting all the earth in this dump: the Temple Mount Antiquities Salvage Operation. Among finds uncovered in rubble removed from the Temple Mount were: The imprint of a seal thought to have belonged to a priestly Jewish family mentioned in the Old Testament's Book of Jeremiah. More than 4300 coins from various periods. Many of them are from the Jewish revolt that preceded the destruction of the Second Temple by Roman legions in 70 CE emblazoned with the words "Freedom of Zion" Arrowheads shot by Babylonian archers 2,500 years ago, and others launched by Roman siege machinery 500 years later. Unique floor slabs of the 'opus sectile' technique that were used to pave the Temple Mount courts. This is also mentioned in Josephus accounts and the Babylonian Talmud. In late 2002, a bulge of about 700mm was reported in the southern retaining wall part of the Temple Mount. A Jordanian team of engineers recommended replacing or resetting most of the stones in the affected area.[55] In February 2004, the eastern wall of the Mount was damaged by an earthquake. The damage threatened to topple sections of the wall into the area known as Solomon's Stables.[56] A few days later, a portion of retaining wall, supporting the earthen ramp that led from the Western Wall plaza to the Gate of the Moors on the Temple Mount, collapsed.[57] In 2007 the Israel Antiquities Authority started work on the construction of a temporary wooden pedestrian pathway to replace the Mugrabi Gate ramp after a landslide in 2005 made it unsafe and in danger of collapse.[58] The works sparked condemnation from Arab leaders.[59] In July 2007 the Muslim religious trust which administers the Mount began digging a 400-metre-long, 1.5-metre-deep trench[60] from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock[61] in order to replace 40-year-old[62] electric cables in the area. Israeli archaeologists accused the waqf of a deliberate act of cultural vandalism.[61]

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Israelis allege that Palestinians are deliberately removing significant amounts of archaeological evidence about the Jewish past of the site and claim to have found significant artifacts in the fill removed by Southern Wall of Temple Mount, southwestern corner. bulldozers and trucks from the Temple Mount. Muslims allege that the Israelis are deliberately damaging the remains of Islamic-era buildings found in their excavations.[63] Since the Waqf is granted almost full autonomy on the Islamic holy sites, Israeli archaeologists have been prevented from inspecting the area; although they have conducted several excavations around the Temple Mount.

Religious attitudes
In Judaism
Jewish connection and veneration to the site arguably stems from the fact that it contains the Foundation Stone which, according to the rabbis of the Talmud, was the spot from where the world was created and expanded into its current form.[64][65] It was subsequently the Holy of Holies of the Temple, the Most Holy Place in Judaism.[17] Jewish tradition names it as the location for a number of important events which occurred in the Bible, including the Binding of Isaac, Jacob's dream, and the prayer of Isaac and Rebekah.[66] Similarly, when the Bible recounts that King David purchased a threshing floor owned by Araunah the Jebusite,[67] tradition locates it as being on this mount. An early Jewish text, the Genesis Rabba, states that this site is one of three about which the nations of the world cannot taunt Israel and say "you have stolen them," since it was purchased "for its full price" by David.[68] David wanted to construct a sanctuary there, but this was left to his son Solomon, who completed the task in c. 950 BCE with the construction of the First Temple.

Presumed to be The Foundation Stone, or a large part of it

In 1217, Spanish Rabbi Judah al-Harizi found the sight of the Muslim structures on the mount profoundly disturbing. "What torment to see our holy courts converted into an alien temple!" he wrote.[69] Due to religious restrictions on entering the most sacred areas of the Temple Mount (see following section), the Western Wall, a retaining wall for the Temple Mount and remnant of the Second Temple structure, is considered by some rabbinical authorities the holiest accessible site for Jews to pray. Jewish texts record that the Mount will be the site of the Third Temple, which will be rebuilt with the coming of the Jewish Messiah. Jewish religious law concerning entry to the site During Temple times, entry to the Mount was limited by a complex set of purity laws. Maimonides wrote that it was only permitted to enter the site to fulfill a religious precept. After the destruction of the Temple there was discussion as to whether the site, bereft of the Temple, still maintained its holiness or not. Jewish codifiers accepted the opinion of Maimonides who ruled that the holiness of the Temple sanctified the site for eternity and consequently the restrictions on entry to the site are still currently in force.[17] While secular Jews ascend freely, the question of whether ascending is permitted is a matter some debate among religious authorities, with a majority holding that it is

Temple Mount permitted to ascend to the Temple Mount, but not to step on the site of the inner courtyards of the ancient Temple.[17] The question then becomes whether the site can be ascertained accurately.[17] A second complex legal debate centers around the precise divine punishment for stepping onto these forbidden spots. There is debate over whether reports that Maimonides himself ascended the Mount are reliable.[70] One such report[71] claims he did so on Thursday, October 21, 1165, during the Crusader period. Some early scholars however, claim that entry onto certain areas of the Mount are permitted. It appears that Radbaz also entered the Mount and advised others how to do this. He permits entry from all the gates into the 135135 cubits of the Women's Courtyard in the east, since the biblical prohibition only applies to the 187135 cubits of the Temple in the west.[72] There are also Christian and Islamic sources which indicate that Jews accessed the site,[73] but these visits may have been made under duress.[74] Opinions of contemporary rabbis concerning entry to the site In August 1967 after Israel's capture of the Mount, the Chief Rabbis of Israel, Isser Yehuda Unterman and Yitzhak Nissim, together with other leading rabbis, asserted that "For generations we have warned against and refrained from entering any part of the Temple Mount."[75] A recent study of this rabbinical ruling suggests that it was both "unprecedented" and possibly prompted by governmental pressure on the rabbis, as well as "brilliant" in preventing Muslim-Jewish friction on the Mount.[17][76]

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1978 sign warning against entry to the Mount

Rabbinical consensus in the post-1967 period in the Religious Zionist stream of Orthodox Judaism held that it is forbidden for Jews to enter any part of the Temple Mount,[77] and in January 2005 a declaration was signed confirming the 1967 decision.[78] Nearly all Haredi rabbis are also of the opinion that the Mount is off limits to Jews and non-Jews alike.[79] Their opinions against entering the Temple Mount are based on the danger of entering the hallowed area of the Temple courtyard and the impossibility of fulfilling the ritual requirement of cleansing oneself with the ashes of a red heifer.[80][81] The boundaries of the areas which are completely forbidden, while having large portions in common, are delineated differently by various rabbinic authorities. However, there is a growing body of Modern Orthodox and national religious rabbis who encourage visits to certain parts of the Mount, which they believe are permitted according to most medieval rabbinical authorities.[17] These rabbis include: Shlomo Goren (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Chaim David Halevi (former Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv and Yaffo); Dov Lior (Rabbi of Kiryat Arba); Yosef Elboim; Yisrael Ariel; She'ar Yashuv Cohen (Chief Rabbi of Haifa); Yuval Sherlo (rosh yeshiva of the hesder yeshiva of Petah Tikva); Meir Kahane. One of them, Shlomo Goren, states that it is possible that Jews are even allowed to enter the heart of the Dome of the Rock, according to Jewish Law of Conquest.[82] These authorities demand an attitude of veneration on the part of Jews ascending the Temple Mount, ablution in a mikveh prior to the ascent, and the wearing of non-leather shoes.[17] Some rabbinic authorities are now of the opinion that it is imperative for Jews to ascend in order to halt the ongoing process of Islamization of the Temple Mount. Maimonides, perhaps the greatest codifier of Jewish Law, wrote in Laws of the Chosen House ch 7 Law 15 "One may bring a dead body in to the (lower sanctified areas of the) Temple Mount and there is no need to say that the ritually impure (from the dead) may enter there, because the dead body itself can enter". One who is ritually impure through direct or in-direct contact of the dead cannot walk in the higher

Temple Mount sanctified areas. For those who are visibly Jewish, they have no choice, but to follow this peripheral route [83] as it has become unofficially part of the status quo on the Mount. Many of these recent opinions rely on archaeological evidence.[17] The law committee of the Masorti movement in Israel has issued two responsa (a body of written decisions and rulings given by legal scholars) on the subject, both holding that Jews may visit the permitted sections of the Temple Mount. One responsa allows such visits, another encourages them.

332

In Islam
In Islam, the Mount is called al-haram al-quds ash-sharf, meaning the Noble Sanctuary. Muslims view the site as being one of the earliest and most noteworthy places of worship of God. For a few years in the early stages of Islam, Muhammad instructed his followers to face the Mount during prayer, as the Jews did. The site is also important as being the site of the "Farthest Mosque" (mentioned in the Qur'an as the location of Muhammad's miraculous Night Journey) to heaven.: "Exalted is He who took His Servant by night from al-Masjid al-Haram (the Sacred Mosque) to al-Masjid al-Aqsa (the Further Mosque), whose surroundings We have blessed, to show him of Our signs. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the Seeing." Quran 17:1 [84]
Facade of the Al-Aqsa Mosque

The hadith, a collection of the sayings of the Prophet Mohammad, confirm that the location of the Al-Aqsa mosque is indeed in Jerusalem: "When the people of Quraish did not believe me (i.e. the story of my Night Journey), I stood up in Al-Hijr and Allah displayed Jerusalem in front of me, and I began describing Jerusalem to them while I was looking at it." Sahih Bukhari: Volume 5, Book 58, Number 226. [85] Muslim interpretations of the Qur'an agree that the Mount is the site of a Temple built by Sulayman, considered a prophet in Islam, that was later destroyed.[86] After the construction, Muslims believe, the temple was used for the worship of one God by many prophets of Islam, including Jesus.[87][88][89] Other Muslim scholars have used the Torah (called Tawrat in Arabic) to expand on the details of the temple.[90]

In Christianity
The Mount has significance in Christianity due to the role the Temple played in the life of Jesus. During the Crusades, the Dome of the Rock was given to the Augustinians, who turned it into a church, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque became the royal palace of Baldwin I of Jerusalem in 1104. The Knights Templar, who believed the Dome of the Rock was the site of the Temple of Solomon, gave it the name "Templum Domini" and set up their headquarters in the Al-Aqsa Mosque adjacent to the Dome for much of the 12th century. Though some Christians believe that the Temple will be reconstructed before, or concurrent with, the Second Coming of Jesus (also see dispensationalism), the Temple Mount is largely unimportant to the beliefs and worship of most Christians. To wit, the New Testament recounts a story of a Samaritan woman asking Jesus about the appropriate place to worship, Jerusalem or the Samaritan holy place at Mount Gerizim, to which Jesus replies, "Woman, believe me, the hour is coming when neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the Father. You worship what you do not know; we worship what we know, for salvation is from the Jews. But the hour is coming, and is now here, when the true worshipers will worship the Father in spirit and in truth, for the Father is seeking such people to worship him. God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and

Temple Mount truth."(John4:21-24) The place is of some importance to Eastern Christians because there was a fully consecrated church on that spot during the Byzantine period. According to Eastern Church canons, once a church has been fully consecrated, it cannot ever serve as anything other than a church. Of course, this is just one example of the thousands of churches that were either destroyed, or converted to mosques, during the long decline of the Eastern Roman Empire. The most notable example is the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.

333

Recent events
March 2005 Allah inscription: The word "Allah", in approximately a foot-tall Arabic script, was found newly carved into the ancient stones, an act viewed by Jews as vandalism. The carving was attributed to a team of Jordanian engineers and Palestinian laborers in charge of strengthening that section of the wall. The discovery caused outrage among Israeli archaeologists and many Jews were angered by the inscription at Judaism's holiest site.[91] October 2006 Synagogue proposal: Uri Ariel, a member of the Knesset from the National Union party (a right wing opposition party) ascended to the mount,[92] and said that he is preparing a plan where a synagogue will be built on the mount. His proposed synagogue would not be built instead of the mosques but in a separate area in accordance with rulings of 'prominent rabbis.' He said he believed that this will be correcting a historical injustice and that it is an opportunity for the Muslim world to prove that it is tolerant to all faiths.[93] October 2006 Minaret proposal: Plans are mooted to build a new minaret on the mount, the first of its kind for 600 years.[94] King Abdullah II of Jordan announced a competition to design a fifth minaret for the walls of the Temple Mount complex. He said it would "reflect the Islamic significance and sanctity of the mosque". The scheme, estimated to cost $300,000, is for a seven-sided tower after the seven-pointed Hashemite star and at 42 metres (138ft), it would be 3.5 metres (11ft) taller than the next-largest minaret. The minaret would be constructed on the eastern wall of the Temple Mount near the Golden Gate. February 2007 Mugrabi Gate ramp reconstruction: Repairs to an earthen ramp leading to the Mugrabi Gate sparked Arab protests. May 2007 Right-wing Jews ascend the Mount: A group of right-wing Religious Zionist rabbis entered the Temple Mount.[95] This elicited widespread criticism from other religious Jews and from secular Israelis, accusing the rabbis of provoking the Arabs. An editorial in the newspaper Haaretz accused the rabbis of 'knowingly and irresponsibly bringing a burning torch closer to the most flammable hill in the Middle East,' and noted that rabbinical consensus in both the Haredi and the Religious Zionist worlds forbids Jews from entering the Temple Mount.[96] On May 16, Rabbi Avraham Shapiro, former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel and rosh yeshiva of the Mercaz HaRav yeshiva, reiterated his opinion that it is forbidden for Jews to enter the Temple Mount.[97] The Litvish Haredi newspaper Yated Ne'eman, which is controlled by leading Litvish Haredi rabbis including Rabbi Yosef Sholom Eliashiv and Rabbi Nissim Karelitz, accused the rabbis of transgressing a decree punishable by 'death through the hands of heaven.'[81] July 2007 Temple Mount cable replacement: The Waqf began digging a ditch from the northern side of the Temple Mount compound to the Dome of the Rock as a prelude to infrastructure work in the area. Although the dig

Temple Mount was approved by the police, it generated protests from archaeologists. October 2009 Clashes: Palestinian protesters gathered at the site after rumours that an extreme Israeli group would harm the site, which the Israeli government denied.[98] Israeli police assembled at the Temple Mount complex to disperse Palestinian protesters who were throwing stones at them. The police used stun grenades on the protesters, of which 15 were later arrested, including the Palestinian President's adviser on Jerusalem affairs.[99][100] 18 Palestinians and 3 police officers were injured.[101] July 2010 A public opinion poll in Israel showed that 50% of Israelis believe that the Temple should be rebuilt. The poll was conducted by channel 99, the government owned Knesset channel, in advance of the 9th day of the Hebrew month of Av on which Jews commemorate the destruction of both the first and second Temples that both stood at this site.[102] July 2010 Knesset Member Danny Danon visited the Temple Mount [103] in accordance with rabbinical views of Jewish Law on the 9th of the Hebrew Month of Av, which commemorates the destruction of both the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem. The Knesset Member condemned the conditions imposed by Muslims upon religious Jews at the site and vowed to work to better conditions.

334

Panorama

Panorama of the Temple Mount, seen from the Mount of Olives

References
[1] New Jerusalem Finds Point to the Temple Mount (http:/ / www. cbn. com/ cbnnews/ insideisrael/ 2010/ March/ New-Jerusalem-Finds-Point-to-the-Temple-Mount) [2] Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Avoda (Divine Service): The laws of the Temple in Jerusalem, chapter 14, rule 16 [3] Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk AD 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing. [4] Rizwi Faizer (1998). "The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20020210164811/ http:/ / us. geocities. com/ rfaizer/ reviews/ book9. html). Rizwi's Bibliography for Medieval Islam. Archived from the original (http:/ / us. geocities. com/ rfaizer/ reviews/ book9. html) on 2002-02-10. . [5] Haram al-Sharif (http:/ / archnet. org/ library/ sites/ one-site. jsp?site_id=8180), ArchNet [6] Israeli Police Storm Disputed Jerusalem Holy Site (http:/ / www. voanews. com/ english/ 2009-10-25-voa6. cfm) [7] Gonen (2003), pp. 9-11 [8] Lundquist (2007), p. 103 [9] Finkelstein, Horbury, Davies & Sturdy (1999), p. 43 [10] II Sam. xxiv. 16 et seq.; I Chron. xxi. 15 et seq. [11] "Moriah" (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ easton/ ebd2. html?term=Moriah). Easton's Bible Dictionary. . Retrieved July 14, 2008. [12] Gonen (2003), p. 69 [13] Negev (2005), p. 265

Temple Mount
[14] Mazar (1975), pp. 124-126, 132 [15] Encyclopdia Britannica 11th Edition (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Aelia_Capitolina/ ) [16] Wilkinson, Jerusalem Pilgrims Before the Crusades, p. 204 [17] "Entering the Temple Mount - in Halacha and Jewish History," Gedalia Meyer and Henoch Messner, PDF available at (http:/ / hakirah. org/ ), VOl 10, Summer 2010, Hakirah. [18] See "Julian and the Jews 361-363 CE" (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ jewish/ julian-jews. html) and "Julian the Apostate and the Holy Temple" (http:/ / www. gibsoncondo. com/ ~david/ convert/ history. html). [19] Was the Aksa Mosque built over the remains of a Byzantine church? (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1226404750389& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull), By ETGAR LEFKOVITS, Jerusalem Post, November 16, 2008] [20] Karmi, Ghada (1997). Jerusalem Today: What Future for the Peace Process?. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p.116. ISBN0-86372-226-1. [21] The Dome of the Rock as Palimpsest, Necipoglu, Muqarnas 2008 [22] http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ room18. htm [23] http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ 18a. jpg [24] Oleg Grabar, The Haram ak-Sharif: An essay in interpretation, BRIIFS vol. 2 no 2 (Autumn 2000) (http:/ / www. riifs. org/ journal/ essy_v2no2_grbar. htm).</ref name=MeyerMessner>"Entering the Temple Mount - in Halacha and Jewish History," Gedalia Meyer and Henoch Messner, PDF available at (http:/ / hakirah. org/ ), VOl 10, Summer 2010, Hakirah. [25] "Hashemite Restorations of the Islamic Holy Places in Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. kinghussein. gov. jo/ islam_restoration. html), Jordanian government website. [26] Martin Gilbert, Jerusalem in the Twentieth Century (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996, p254. [27] Israeli, Raphael (2002). "Introduction: Everyday Life in Divided Jerusalem". Jerusalem Divided: The Armistice Regime, 19471967. Jerusalem: Routledge. p.23. ISBN0-7146-5266-0. [28] "RECONSTRUCTION OF EVENTS (REVISED) AL-HARAM AL-SHARIF, JERUSALEM MONDAY, 8 OCTOBER 1990" (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 0/ C6AA06BDFB5B5453052566DB0055512F). UN. October 8, 1990. . Retrieved April 12, 2012. [29] "Judge Blames Israeli Police In Killing Of Palestinians" (http:/ / articles. sun-sentinel. com/ 1991-07-19/ news/ 9101260807_1_criminal-charges-killings-ezra-kama). Sun Sentinel. July 19, 1991. . Retrieved April 12, 2012. [30] "2000: 'Provocative' mosque visit sparks riots" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ onthisday/ hi/ dates/ stories/ september/ 28/ newsid_3687000/ 3687762. stm). BBC. April 12, 2012. . Retrieved April 12, 2012. [31] Preservation of the Holy Places Law (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Peace Process/ Guide to the Peace Process/ Protection of Holy Places Law), 1967. [32] Jerusalem - The Legal and Political Background (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Peace Process/ Guide to the Peace Process/ JerusalemLegal and Political Background), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Israel. [33] Nadav Shragai, Three Jews expelled from Temple Mount for praying (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=335211& contrassID=2& subContrassID=1& sbSubContrassID=0& listSrc=Y). [34] " Heavy security around al-Aqsa (http:/ / english. aljazeera. net/ news/ middleeast/ 2009/ 10/ 200910572553875419. html)," Al Jazeera English, October 5, 2009. [35] " PROTECTION OF CIVILIANS 16 29 SEPTEMBER 2009 (http:/ / www. ochaopt. org/ documents/ ocha_opt_protection_of_civilians_weekly_report_2009_09_29_english. pdf)", UNITED NATIONS Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs occupied Palestinian territory. [36] http:/ / news. yahoo. com/ palestinians-flock-jerusalem-israeli-restrictions-eased-152403694. html [37] Photograph of the northern wall area (http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ 43e. jpg) [38] Wilson's map of the features under the Temple Mount (http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ map. gif) [39] Kaufman, Asher (May 23, 1991). "The Temple Site" (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ jpost/ access/ 99716364. html?dids=99716364:99716364& FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT& date=May+ 12,+ 1991& author=Asher+ Kaufman& pub=Jerusalem+ Post& edition=& startpage=13& desc=THE+ TEMPLE+ SITE) (Abstract). The Jerusalem Post: p.13. . Retrieved March 4, 2007. "The most important findings of the superposition of the Second Temple on the Temple area are that the Dome of the Rock was not built on the site of the Temple, and that the Temple was taper-shaped on the western side, a form hitherto unknown to the scholars." [40] "Researcher says found location of the Holy Temple" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3362927,00. html). Ynetnews. February 9, 2007. . Retrieved March 4, 2007. "Archaeology Professor Joseph Patrich uncovered a large water cistern that points, in his opinion, to the exact location of the altar and sanctuary on the Temple Mount. According to his findings, the rock on which the Dome of the Rock is built is outside the confines of the Temple." [41] Under the Temple Mount (http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ 48c. jpg) [42] Tuvia Sagiv, Determination of the location of the Temple (http:/ / www. templemount. org/ sagiv2/ index. html) [43] Photograph of the inside of the Golden Gate (http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ 38g. jpg) [44] image of the double gate passage (http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ 45o. jpg) [45] Photograph of King Solomon's Stables (http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ 46e. jpg) [46] Photograph of one of the chambers under the Triple Gate passageway (http:/ / www. campsci. com/ museum/ images/ 47a. jpg) [47] See "The Washington Post, Opinion Columns, July 17, 2000 Protect the Temple Mount by Hershel Shanks [48] Policeman Assaulted Trying to Stop Illegal Temple Mount Dig - Jewish World - Israel News - Arutz Sheva (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ News/ News. aspx/ 123525)

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[49] Jerusalem's Temple Mount Flap (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 0003/ newsbriefs/ flap. html) [50] Waqf Temple Mount excavation raises archaeologists' protests - Haaretz - Israel News (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 880761. html) [51] Jacqueline Schaalje, Special: The Temple Mount in Jerusalem (http:/ / www. jewishmag. com/ 42mag/ templemount/ templemount. htm). [52] Violent clashes at key Jerusalem mosque on 'day of anger' (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ world/ middle_east/ article1358753. ece), timesonline, accessdate=5 May 2009 [53] Mayor halts Temple Mount dig (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 548443. stm), BBC, accessdate = 5 May 2009 [54] Temple Mount destruction stirred archaeologist to action, February 8, 2005 | by Michael McCormack, Baptist Press (http:/ / www. bpnews. net/ BPnews. asp?ID=20094) [55] Esther Hecht, Battle of the Bulge (http:/ / www. archaeology. org/ 0207/ newsbriefs/ templemount. html) [56] Jerusalem Post (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull& cid=1084935859481) [57] On-the-Spot Report from the Kotel Womens Section Construction (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ news. php3?id=57924) [58] Fendel, Hillel (February 7, 2007). "Jerusalem Arabs Riot, Kassams Fired, After Old City Excavations" (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ news. php3?id=121064). Arutz Sheva. . Retrieved February 7, 2007. [59] Weiss, Efrat (February 7, 2007). "Syria slams Jerusalem works" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3362024,00. html). Yedioth Ahronoth. . Retrieved February 7, 2007. "Israeli excavation works near the al-Aqsa mosque in the holy city of Jerusalem have led to a dangerous rise in Middle East tensions and could derail revival of Arab-Israeli peace talks... what Israel is doing in its practices and attacks against our sacred Muslim sites in Jerusalem and al-Aqsa is a blatant violation that is not acceptable under any pretext" [60] Fendel, Hillel (September 9, 2007). "Silence in the Face of Continued Temple Mount Destruction" (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ News/ News. aspx/ 123622). Arutz Sheva. . Retrieved 2007-09-07. [61] Rapoport, Meron (July 7, 2007). "Waqf Temple Mount excavation raises archaeologists' protests" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 880761. html). Haaretz. . Retrieved 2007-07-11. [62] Teible, Amy (August 31, 2007). "Jerusalem Holy Site Dig Questioned" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ worldlatest/ story/ 0,,-6887208,00. html). The Guardian. . Retrieved 2007-09-07. [63] Al-Ahram: "Revoking the death warrant" (http:/ / weekly. ahram. org. eg/ 2001/ 543/ fo2. htm) [64] Babylonian Talmud Yoma 54b [65] http:/ / www. torah. org/ features/ israelmatters/ eye. html# [66] Toledot 25:21 [67] 2 Samuel 24:1825 [68] Genesis Rabba 79.7: "And he bought the parcel of ground, where he had spread his tent...for a hundred pieces of money." Rav Yudan son of Shimon said: This is one of the three places where the non-Jews cannot deceive the Jewish People by saying that they stole it from them, and these are the places: Maarat HaMachpela, the Temple and Joseph's burial place. Maarat HaMachpela because it is written: And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, (Genesis, 23:16); the Temple because it is written: So David gave to Ornan for the place, (I Chronicles, 21:26); and Joseph's burial place because it is written: And he bought the parcel of ground...Jacob bought Shechem. (Genesis, 33:19)." See also: Kook, Abraham Issac, Moadei Hare'iya, pp. 413415. [69] Karen Armstrong (29 April 1997). Jerusalem: one city, three faiths (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v5_ZAAAAMAAJ). Ballantine Books. p.229. . Retrieved 25 May 2011. [70] Sefer ha-Charedim Mitzvat Tshuva, Chapter 3; Shu"t Minchas Yitzchok, vol. 6 [71] Hebrew language site (http:/ / www. gideon. 022. co. il) [72] Shaarei Teshuvah, Orach Chaim 561:1; cf. Teshuvoth Radbaz 691 [73] Moshe Sharon. "Islam on the Temple Mount" Biblical Archaeology Review July/August 2006. p. 3647, 68. "Immediately after its construction, five Jewish families from Jerusalem were employed to clean the Dome of the Rock and to prepare wicks for its lamps" [74] The Kaf hachaim (Orach Chaim 94:1:4 citing Radvaz Vol. 2; Ch. 648) mentions a case of a Jew who was forced onto the Temple Mount. [75] Lapidoth, Ruth E.; Moshe Hirsch (1994). The Jerusalem Question and Its Resolution: Selected Documents. Jerusalem: Martinus Nijhoff. p.542. ISBN0-7923-2893-0. [76] Hassner, Ron E., "War on Sacred Grounds," Cornell University Press (2009), pp.113-133 [77] Rabbis who support this opinion include: Mordechai Eliyahu, former Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel; Zalman Baruch Melamed, rosh yeshiva of the Beit El yeshiva; Eliezer Waldenberg, former rabbinical judge in the Rabbinical Supreme Court of the State of Israel; Avraham Yitzchak Kook, Chief Rabbi of Palestine ( Mikdash-Build (Vol. I, No. 26) (http:/ / www. kadosh. co. il/ mkdsh026. html)); Avigdor Nebenzahl, Rabbi of the Old City of Jerusalem. [78] These rabbis include: Rabbis Yona Metzger (Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Shlomo Amar (Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Ovadia Yosef (spiritual leader of Sefardi Haredi Judaism and of the Shas party, and former Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Eliyahu Bakshi-Doron (former Sefardi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Shmuel Rabinowitz (rabbi of the Western Wall); Avraham Shapiro (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel); Shlomo Aviner (rosh yeshiva of Ateret Cohanim); Yisrael Meir Lau (former Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel and current Chief Rabbi of Tel Aviv). Source: Leading rabbis rule Temple Mount is off-limits to Jews (http:/ / www. templeinstitute. org/ archive/ 25-01-05. htm) [79] These rabbis include: Yaakov Yisrael Kanievsky ( Thoughts on the 28th of Iyar - Yom Yerushalayim (http:/ / chareidi. shemayisrael. com/ archives5763/ bamidbar/ ojerslm. htm)); Yosef Sholom Eliashiv ( Rabbi Eliashiv: Don't go to Temple Mount (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3787113,00. html)) [80] Yoel Cohen, The political role of the Israeli Chief Rabbinate in the Temple Mount question (http:/ / www. jcpa. org/ jpsr/ s99-yc. htm)

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[81] Yated Ne'eman article (http:/ / chareidi. shemayisrael. com/ aharbaybmd67. htm) [82] Haaretz (http:/ / www. haaretz. co. il/ hasite/ pages/ ShArtPE. jhtml?itemNo=720008& contrassID=2& subContrassID=4& sbSubContrassID=0) [83] http:/ / www. templeinstitute. org/ birds_eye. htm [84] http:/ / www. qurandislam. com/ coran/ trans/ ?currSura=17& currAya=1& currTrans=tafsir_en_sahih [85] http:/ / haditsbukharionline. blogspot. ca/ 2010/ 11/ merits-of-helpers-in-madinah-ansaar. html [86] "The Farthest Mosque must refer to the site of the Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem on the hill of Moriah, at or near which stands the Dome of the Rock... it was a sacred place to both Jews and Christians... The chief dates in connection with the Temple in Jerusalem are: It was finished by Solomon about 1004 BCE; destroyed by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar about 586 BCE; rebuilt under Ezra and Nehemiah about 515 BCE; turned into a heathen idol temple by one of Alexander the Great's successors, Antiochus Epiphanes, 167 BCE; restored by Herod, 17 BCE to 29; and completely razed to the ground by the Emperor Titus in 70. These ups and downs are among the greater signs in religious history." (Yusuf Ali, Commentary on the Koran, 2168. [87] "The city of Jerusalem was chosen at the command of Allah by Prophet David in the tenth century BCE. After him his son Prophet Solomon built a mosque in Jerusalem according to the revelation that he received from Allah. For several centuries this mosque was used for the worship of Allah by many Prophets and Messengers of Allah. It was destroyed by the Babylonians in the year 586 BCE., but it was soon rebuilt and was rededicated to the worship of Allah in 516 BCE. It continued afterwards for several centuries until the time of Prophet Jesus. After he departed this world, it was destroyed by the Romans in the year 70 CE." (Siddiqi, Dr. Muzammil. Status of Al-Aqsa Mosque (http:/ / www. islamonline. net/ servlet/ Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/ FatwaE/ FatwaE& cid=1119503544626), IslamOnline, May 21, 2007. Retrieved July 12, 2007.) [88] "Early Muslims regarded the building and destruction of the Temple of Solomon as a major historical and religious event, and accounts of the Temple are offered by many of the early Muslim historians and geographers (including Ibn Qutayba, Ibn al-Faqih, Mas'udi, Muhallabi, and Biruni).

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Fantastic tales of Solomon's construction of the Temple also appear in the Qisas al-anbiya', the medieval compendia of Muslim legends about the pre-Islamic prophets." (Kramer, Martin. The Temples of Jerusalem in Islam (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ Peace+ Process/ Guide+ to+ the+ Peace+ Process/ The+ Temples+ of+ Jerusalem+ in+ Islam.htm), Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, September 18, 2000. Retrieved November 21, 2007.)
"While there is no scientific evidence that Solomon's Temple existed, all believers in any of the Abrahamic faiths perforce must accept that it did." (Khalidi, Rashid. Transforming the Face of the Holy City: Political Messages in the Built Topography of Jerusalem, Bir Zeit University, November 12, 1998.) [89] A Brief Guide to al-Haram al-Sharif, a booklet published in 1925 (http:/ / www. templeinstitute. org/ 1925-wakf-temple-mount-guide. pdf) (and earlier) by the "Supreme Moslem Council", a body established by the British government to administer waqfs and headed by Hajj Amin al-Husayni during the British Mandate period, states on page 4: "The site is one of the oldest in the world. Its sanctity dates from the earliest (perhaps from pre-historic) times. Its identity with the site of Solomon's Temple is beyond dispute. This, too, is the spot, according to universal belief, on which 'David built there an altar unto the Lord, and offered burnt offerings and peace offerings.'(2 Samuel 24:25)" "The Rock was in the time of Solomon the son of David 12 cubits high and there was a dome over it...It is written in the Tawrat [Bible]: 'Be happy Jerusalem,' which is Bayt al-Maqdis and the Rock which is called Haykal." al-Wasati, Fada'il al Bayt al-Muqaddas, ed. Izhak Hasson (Jerusalem, 1979) pp. 72ff. [91] "Arabs Vandalize Judaism's Holiest Site" (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ News/ News. aspx/ 79391). Arutz Sheva. March 31, 2005. . Retrieved July 11, 2007. [92] Rightist MK Ariel visits Temple Mount as thousands throng Wall (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 772340. html) [93] Wagner, Matthew (October 10, 2006). Rabbis split on Temple Mount synagogue plan (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ ShowFull& cid=1159193411784). The Jerusalem Post. [94] The Times, October 14, 2006 (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ article/ 0,,251-2403700,00. html/ ) [95] Ynetnews (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3399356,00. html) [96] Haaretz (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 859573. html) [97] Sela, Neta (May 16, 2007). "Rabbi Shapira forbids visiting temple Mount" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3400750,00. html). Ynet. . Retrieved May 17, 2007. [98] Kyzer, Liel (October 25, 2009). Israel Police battle Arab rioters on Temple Mount; PA official arrested (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 1123399. html). Haaretz. [99] Arrests at holy site in Jerusalem (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ middle_east/ 8324539. stm). BBC News. October 25, 2009. [100] Jerusalem holy site stormed (http:/ / www. straitstimes. com/ Breaking+ News/ World/ Story/ STIStory_446454. html). The Straits Times. October 25, 2009. [101] Clashes erupt at Aqsa compound (http:/ / english. aljazeera. net/ news/ middleeast/ 2009/ 10/ 20091025154543922901. html). Al Jazeera. October 25, 2009. [102] Israel National News 15 July, 2010 (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ News/ News. aspx/ 138655) [103] http:/ / www. dannydanon. com/ eng/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=68:mk-danny-danon-visits-temple-mount& catid=1:latest& Itemid=2

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338

Bibliography
Books Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William; Davies, William David; Sturdy, John. The Cambridge History of Judaism, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-24377-7 Gonen, Rivka. Contested Holiness, KTAV Publishing House, 2003. ISBN 0-88125-799-0 Ha'ivri, David. Reclaiming the Temple Mount, HaMeir L'David, 2006 ISBN 965-90509-6-8 Hassner, Ron E., "War on Sacred Grounds," Cornell University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-8014-4806-5 Lundquist, John. The Temple of Jerusalem, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN 0-275-98339-0 Benjamin Mazar: The Mountain of the Lord. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1975. ISBN 0-385-04843-2 Negev, Avraham & Gibson, Shimon. Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 0-8264-8571-5

External links
New Evidence of the Royal Stoa and Roman Flames (http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article. asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=36&Issue=2&ArticleID=10) Biblical Archaeology Review Virtual Walking Tour of Al-Haram Al-Sharif ("The Noble Sanctuary") (http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/ issue/200901/#) Mount Salvage Operation (http://templemount.wordpress.com#Temple)

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Western Wall
Western Wall

Shown within Old Jerusalem

Alternatename Wailing Wall Location Coordinates Height Jerusalem 314636N 351403E exposed: 62 feet (19m) History Builder Material Founded Herod the Great Limestone 19 BCE mid 1st century CE Site notes Condition preserved

The Western Wall, Wailing Wall or Kotel (Hebrew: , translit.: HaKotel HaMa'aravi; Ashkenazic pronunciation: Kosel; Arabic: , translit.: 'i Al-Burq, translat.: The Buraq Wall) is located in the Old City of Jerusalem at the foot of the western side of the Temple Mount. It is a remnant of the ancient wall that surrounded the Jewish Temple's courtyard, and is arguably the most sacred site recognized by the Jewish faith outside of the Temple Mount itself. Just over half the wall, including its 17 courses located below street level, dates from the end of the Second Temple period, commonly believed to have been constructed around 19 BCE by Herod the Great, but recent excavations indicate that the works were not finished during Herod's lifetime. The remaining layers were added from the 7th century onwards. The Western Wall refers not only to the exposed section facing a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter, but also to the sections concealed behind structures running along the whole length of the Temple Mount, such as the Little Western Walla 25ft (8m) section in the Muslim Quarter. It has been a site for Jewish prayer and pilgrimage for centuries; the earliest source mentioning Jewish attachment to the site dates back to the 4th century. From the mid-19th century onwards, attempts to purchase rights to the wall and its immediate area were made by various Jews, but none were successful. With the rise of the Zionist movement in

Western Wall the early 20th century, the wall became a source of friction between the Jewish community and the Muslim religious leadership, who were worried that the wall was being used to further Jewish nationalistic claims to the Temple Mount and Jerusalem. Outbreaks of violence at the foot of the wall became commonplace and an international commission was convened in 1930 to determine the rights and claims of Muslims and Jews in connection with the wall. After the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the wall came under Jordanian control and Israelis were barred from the site for 19 years until Israel captured the Old City in 1967.

340

Etymology
Jews may often be seen sitting for hours at the Wailing-place bent in sorrowful meditation over the history of their race, and repeating often times the words of the Seventy-ninth Psalm. On Fridays especially, Jews of both genders, of all ages, and from all countries, assemble in large numbers to kiss the sacred stones and weep outside the precincts they may not enter. Charles Wilson, 1881. (Picturesque Palestine, vol. 1, p. 41).
[1]

Early Jewish texts referred to a western wall of the Temple,[2] but there is doubt whether the texts were referring to todays Western Wall or to another wall which stood within the Temple complex. The earliest clear Jewish use of the term Western Wall as referring to the wall visible today was by the 11th-century Ahimaaz ben Paltiel. The name Wailing Wall, and descriptions such as "wailing place" appeared regularly in English literature during the 19th century.[3][4][5] The name Mur des Lamentations was used in French and Klagemauer in German. This term itself was a translation of the Arabic el-Mabka, or "Place of Weeping," the traditional Arabic term for the wall.[6][7] This description stemmed from the Jewish practice of coming to the site to mourn and bemoan the destruction of the Temple. During the 1920s with the growing Arab-Jewish tensions over rights at the wall, the Arabs began referring to the wall as al-Buraq. This was based on the tradition that the wall was the place where Muhammad tethered his miraculous winged steed, Buraq.

Location and dimensions

The Western Wall commonly refers to a 187 foot (57 m) exposed section of ancient wall situated on the western flank of the Temple Mount. This section faces a large plaza and is set aside for prayer. In its entirety, however, the above ground portion of the Western Wall stretches for 1,600 feet (488m), most of which is hidden behind residential structures built along its Panorama of the Western Wall with the Dome of the Rock (left) and al-Aqsa mosque (right) in the background length. Other revealed sections include the southern part of the Wall which measures approximately 80 metres (262ft) and another much shorter section known as the Little Western Wall which is located close to the Iron Gate. The wall functions as a retaining wall, built to support the extensive renovations that Herod the Great carried out around 19 BCE. Herod expanded the small quasi-natural plateau on which the First and Second Temples stood into the wide expanse of the Temple Mount visible today. At the Western Wall Plaza, the total height of the Wall from its foundation is estimated at 105 feet (32m), with the exposed section standing approximately 62 feet (19m) high. The Wall consists of 45 stone courses, 28 of them above ground and 17 underground.[8] The first seven visible layers are from the Herodian period. This section of wall is built from enormous meleke limestone stones, possibly quarried at either Zedekiah's Cave[9] situated under the Muslim Quarter of the Old City or at Ramat Shlomo[10] 4 kilometres (2.5mi) northwest of the Old City. Most of them weigh between 2 and 8 short tons (1.8 and 7.3 t) each, but others weigh even more, with one extraordinary stone located in the northern section of Wilson's Arch measuring 13 metres (43ft) and weighing approximately 570 short tons (520t). Each of these stones is surrounded by fine-chiseled borders. The margins themselves measure

Western Wall between 5 and 20 centimetres (2 and 8 in) wide, with their depth measuring 1.5 centimetres (0.59in). In the Herodian period, the upper 10 metres (33ft) of wall were 1 metre (39in) thick and served as the other wall of the double colonnade of the plateau. This upper section was decorated with pilasters, the remainder of which were destroyed at the beginning of the 7th century when the Byzantines reconquered Jerusalem from the Persians and their Jewish allies in 628.[11] The next four layers were added by Umayyads in the 7th century. The next fourteen layers are from the Ottoman period and their addition is (most likely mistakenly) attributed to Sir Moses Montefiore who in 1866 arranged that further layers be added for shade and protection from the rain for all who come to pray by the holy remnant of our Temple. The top three layers were placed by the Mufti of Jerusalem before 1967.[12]

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History
Construction 19 BCE
According to the Tanakh, Solomon's Temple was built atop the Temple Mount in the 10th century BCE and destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, and the Second Temple completed and dedicated in 516 BCE. Around 19 BCE Herod the Great began a massive expansion project on the Temple Mount. In addition to renovating and enlarging the Temple, he artificially expanded the platform on which it stood, resulting in an enlarged enclosure. Today's Western Wall formed part of the retaining perimeter wall of this platform. In 2011, Israeli archaeologists announced the discovery of Roman coins minted well Engraving, 1850 after Herod's death found under the massive Meleke foundation stones in the southern section of the wall inside a ritual bath which predates the construction of the renovated Temple Mount complex and was filled in to support the new walls.[13] This indicates that Herod did not build the entire wall and that construction was not close to being complete when he died. The finds confirms the description by historian Josephus Flavius, which state that constructions were finished only during the reign of King Agrippa II, Herods great-grandson.[14] Herod's Temple was destroyed by the Roman Empire, along with the rest of Jerusalem, in 70 CE, during the First Jewish-Roman War.

Roman Empire and rise of Christianity 100500 CE

In the early centuries of the Common Era, after the Roman defeat of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 135 CE, Jews were banned from Jerusalem. There is some evidence that Roman emperors in the 2nd and 3rd centuries did permit them to visit the city to worship on the Mount of Olives and sometimes on the Temple Mount itself.[15] When the empire became Christian under Constantine I, they were given permission to enter the city once a year, on the ninth day of the month of Av, to lament the loss of the Temple at the wall.[16] The Bordeaux Pilgrim, written in 333 CE, suggests that it was probably to the perforated stone or the Rock of Moriah, "to which the Jews come every year and anoint it, bewail themselves with groans, rend their garments, and so depart". This was because an Imperial decree from Rome barred Jews from living in Jerusalem. Just once per year they were permitted to return and bitterly grieve about the fate of their people. Comparable accounts survive, including those by the Church Father, Gregory of Nazianzus and by Jerome in his commentary to Zephaniah written in 392 CE. In the 4th century, Christian sources reveal that the Jews encountered great difficulty in buying the right to pray near the Western Wall, at least on the 9th of Av.[15] In 425 CE, the Jews of the Galilee wrote to Byzantine empress Aelia Eudocia seeking permission to pray by the ruins of the Temple. Permission was granted and they were officially permitted to resettle in Jerusalem.[17]

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Middle Ages 5001500

There are several Jewish authors of the 10th and 11th centuries, e.g., Aaron ben Mer, Samuel ben Paltiel, Solomon ben Judah and others, who write about the Jews resorting to the Western Wall for devotional purposes.[18][19] The Scroll of Ahimaaz, written in 1050 CE, distinctly describes the Western Wall as a place of prayer for the Jews.[20] Shortly before the Crusader period a synagogue stood at the site.[21] Jewish pilgrim Isaac Chelo (1334), writes of an Arab king who conquered Palestine from the Christians. (He possibly refers to the capture of Jerusalem by Umar in 637.) The king had made an oath that should he succeed in conquering Jerusalem, he would restore the ruins of the Temple. After his victory, he sought out the ruins, but they had been hidden beneath heaps of rubbish. An old man approached the king saying "I will tell you where the Temple lies, but I want you to swear that you will leave us the Western Wall." After promising, the king was shown where the ruins lay buried. The king ordered the place be cleared and "built a magnificent mosque and left the Western Wall for the Jews, who resorted there to pray."[22] Chelo also noted that "It is this Western Wall which stands before the temple of Omar ibn al Khattab, and which is called the Gate of Mercy. The Jews resort thither to say their prayers, as Rabbi Benjamin has already related. Today, this wall is one of the seven wonders of the Holy City."[23] He refers to Benjamin of Tudela who, during the late Crusader Period in around 1167 CE, wrote that "In front of this place is the Western Wall, which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies. This is called the Gate of Mercy, and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court".[24] Shortly after the Siege of Jerusalem, in 1193, Saladins son and successor al-Afdal established the land adjacent to the wall as a charitable trust. It was named after an important mystic Abu Madyan Shu'aib and dedicated to Moroccan settlers who had taken up residence there. Houses were built only 4 metres (13ft) away from the wall.[25] The first mention of the Islamic tradition that Buraq was tethered at the site is from the 14th century. A manuscript by Ibn Furkah, (d. 1328), refers to Bab al-Nab, an old name for a gate along the southwestern wall of the Haram al-Sharif.[26] Rabbi Obadiah of Bertinoro writing in 1488, states "the Westen Wall, part of which is still standing, is made of great, thick stones, larger than any I have seen in buildings of antiquity in Rome or in other lands."[27]

Ottoman period 15171917

In 1517, the Turkish Ottoman Empire under Selim I conquered Jerusalem from the Mamluks who had held it since 1250. The Ottomans had a benevolent attitude towards the Jews, having welcomed thousands of Jewish refugees who had recently been expelled from Spain by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile in 1492. Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent was so taken with Jerusalem and its plight that he ordered a magnificent fortress-wall built around the entire city, today's Old City wall. There are various accounts of Suleiman's efforts to locate the Temple's ruins. Rabbi Eliezer Nachman Puah, (ca. 1540), relates: I have been told that in the day of Sultan Suleiman the site of the Temple was not known and the Sultan had every corner of Jerusalem Wailing Wall, Jerusalem, by Gustav searched for it. One day the man in charge of the work, despairing Bauernfeind (19th century). after much searching and inquiring in vain, saw a woman coming with a basket of rubbish and filth upon her head. He asked her: What are you carrying on your head? And she replied: Rubbish. And to where are you carrying it? To such and such a place. Where do you live?

Western Wall In Bethlehem. Is there no dunghill between Bethlehem and this place? It is a tradition among us that whoever takes a little rubbish to that place performs a meritorious act. The curiosity of the officer was aroused and he commanded a great number of men to remove the rubbish from that place...and the holy site was revealed. When the Sultan learned of this, he rejoiced greatly and ordered the place to be swept and sprinkled and the Western Wall washed with rosewater...[22] In the second half of the 16th century, Suleiman the Magnificent gave the Jews rights to worship at the Western Wall and had his court architect Mimar Sinan build an oratory for them there.[28][29] In 1625 arranged prayers at the Wall are mentioned for the first time by a scholar whose name has not been preserved. Rabbi Gedaliah of Semitizi, who went to Jerusalem in 1699, writes that scrolls of the Law were brought to the Wall on occasions of public distress and calamity.[30] Over the centuries, land close to the Wall became built up. Public access to the Wall was through the Moroccan Quarter, a labyrinth of narrow alleyways. In May 1840 a firman issued by Ibrahim Pasha forbade the Jews to pave the passageway in front of the Wall. It also cautioned them against raising their voices and displaying their books there. They were, however, allowed to pay visits to it as of old.[19] Rabbi Joseph Schwarz writing in the mid-19th century records: This wall is visited by all our brothers on every feast and festival; and the large space at its foot is often so densely filled up, that all cannot perform their devotions here at the same time. It is also visited, though by less numbers, on every Friday afternoon, and by some nearly every day. No one is molested in these visits by the Mahomedans, as we have a very old firman from the Sultan of Constantinople that the approach shall not be denied to us, though the Porte obtains for this privilege a special tax, which is, however, quite insignificant.[31] Over time the increased numbers of people gathering at the site resulted in tensions between the Jewish visitors who wanted easier access and more space, and the residents, who complained of the noise.[19] This gave rise to Jewish attempts at gaining ownership of the land adjacent to the Wall. In the late 1830s a wealthy Jew named Shemarya Luria attempted to purchase houses near the Wall, but was unsuccessful,[32] as was Jewish sage Abdullah of Bombay who tried to purchase the Western Wall in the 1850s.[33] In 1869 Rabbi Hillel Moshe Gelbstein settled in Jerusalem. He arranged that benches and tables be brought to the Wall on a daily basis for the study groups he organised and the minyan which he led there for years. He also formulated a plan whereby some of the courtyards facing the Wall would be acquired, with the intention of establishing three synagogues one each for the Sephardim, the Hasidim and the Perushim.[34] He also endeavoured to re-establish an ancient practice of guards of honour, which according to the mishnah in Middot, were positioned around the Temple Mount. He rented a house near the Wall and paid men to stand guard there and at various other gateways around the mount. However this set-up lasted only for a short time due to lack of funds or because of Arab resentment.[30] In 1874, Mordechai Rosanes paid for the repaving of the alleyway adjacent to the wall.[35]

343

Photograph of the Western Wall, 1870

In 1877 the Mufti of Jerusalem accepted a Jewish offer to buy the Moroccan Quarter, but a dispute within the Jewish community prevented the agreement from going ahead.[21] In 1887 a promising attempt was made by Baron Rothschild who conceived a plan to purchase and demolish the Moroccan Quarter as "a merit and honor to the Jewish People."[36] The proposed purchase was considered and approved by the Ottoman Governor of Jerusalem,

Western Wall Rauf Pasha, and by the Mufti of Jerusalem, Mohammed Tahir Husseini. Even after permission was obtained from the highest secular and Muslim religious authority to proceed, the transaction was shelved after the authorities insisted that after demolishing the quarter no construction of any type could take place there, only trees could be planted to beautify the area. Additionally the Jews would not have full control over the area. This meant that they would have no power to stop people from using the plaza for various activities, including the driving of mules, which would cause a disturbance to worshippers.[36] Other reports place the scheme's failure on Jewish infighting as to whether the plan would foster a detrimental Arab reaction.[37] In 1895 Hebrew linguist and publisher Rabbi Chaim Hirschensohn became entangled in a failed effort to purchase the Western Wall and lost all his assets.[38] Even the attempts of the Palestine Land Development Company to purchase the environs of the Western Wall for the Jews just before the outbreak of World War I never came to fruition.[33] In the first two months following the Ottoman Empires entry into the First World War, the Turkish governor of Jerusalem, Zakey Bey, offered to sell the Moroccan Quarter, which consisted of about 25 houses, to the Jews in order to enlarge the area available to Jews' Wailing Place, Jerusalem, 1891 them for prayer. He requested a sum of 20,000 which would be used to both rehouse the Muslim families and to create a public garden in front of the Wall. However, the Jews of the city lacked the necessary funds. A few months later, under Muslim Arab pressure on the Turkish authorities in Jerusalem, Jews became forbidden by official decree to place benches and light candles at the Wall. This sour turn in relations was taken up by the Chacham Bashi who managed to get the ban overturned.[39] In 1915 it was reported that Djemal Pasha closed off the wall to visitation as a sanitary measure.[40] Firmans issued regarding the Wall
Year Issued by Content Official recognition of the right of Jews to pray by the Wall. [28][29]

344

c.1560 Suleiman the Magnificent 1840 Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt

Forbidding the Jews to pave the passage in front of the Wall. It also cautioned them against raising their voices [19] and displaying their books there. They were however allowed to pay visits to it as of old. Of the same bearing and likewise to two others of 1893 and 1909. [19]

1841* Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt 1889* Abdul Hamid II

That there shall be no interference with the Jews' places of devotional visits and of pilgrimage, that are situated [19] in the localities which are dependent on the Chief Rabbinate, nor with the practice of their ritual. Confirming firman of 1889. Confirming firman of 1889. [19] [19] [19]

1893* 1909* 1911 Administrative Council of the Liwa

Prohibiting the Jews from certain appurtenances at the Wall.

* These firmans were cited by the Jewish contingent at the International Commission, 1930, as proof for rights at the Wall. Muslim authorities responded by arguing that historic sanctions of Jewish presence were acts of tolerance shown by Muslims, who, by doing so, did not concede any positive rights.[41]

Western Wall

345

British rule 191748

In December 1917, British forces under Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem from the Turks. Allenby pledged "that every sacred building, monument, holy spot, shrine, traditional site, endowment, pious bequest, or customary place of prayer of whatsoever form of the three religions will be maintained and protected according to the existing customs and beliefs of those to whose faith they are sacred".[42] In 1919 Zionist leader Chaim Weizmann, anxious to enable Jews to Jewish Legion soldiers at the Western Wall after access their sacred site unmolested, approached the British Military British conquest of Jerusalem, 1917 Governor of Jerusalem, Colonel Sir Ronald Storrs, and offered between 75,000[43] and 100,000[44] (approx. 5m in modern terms) to purchase the area at the foot of the Wall and rehouse the occupants. Storrs was enthusiastic about the idea because he hoped some of the money would be used to improve Muslim education. Although optimistic at first, negotiations broke down after strong Muslim opposition.[44][45] Storrs wrote two decades later: "The acceptance of the proposals, had it been practicable, would have obviated years of wretched humiliations, including the befouling of the Wall and pavement and the unmannerly braying of the tragi-comic Arab band during Jewish prayer, and culminating in the horrible outrages of 1929"[43] In early 1920, the first Jewish-Arab dispute over the Wall occurred when the Muslim authorities were carrying out minor repair works to the Walls upper courses. The Jews, while agreeing that the works were necessary, appealed to the British that they be made under supervision of the newly formed Department of Antiquities, because the Wall was an ancient relic.[29] In 1926 another abortive effort was made by Palestine Zionist Executive, Colonel F. H. Kisch, who envisaged buying the whole area adjacent to the Wall in order to create an open space with seats for aged worshippers to sit on.[44] In 1928 the Zionist Organisation reported that John Chancellor, High Commissioner of Palestine, believed that the Western Wall should come under Jewish control and wondered why no great Jewish philanthropist had not bought it yet.[46] September 1928 disturbances In 1922, a status quo agreement issued by the mandatory authority forbade the placing of benches or chairs near the Wall. The last occurrence of such a ban was in 1915, but the Ottoman decree was soon retracted after intervention of the Chacham Bashi. In 1928 the District Commissioner of Jerusalem, Edward Keith-Roach, acceded to an Arab request to implement the ban. This led to a British officer being stationed at the Wall making sure that Jews were prevented from sitting. Nor were Jews permitted to separate the sexes with a screen. In practice, a flexible modus vivendi had emerged and such screens had been put up from time to time when large numbers of people gathered to pray.

On September 24, 1928, the Day of Atonement, British police resorted to forcefully removing a screen used to separate men and women at prayer. Women who tried to prevent the screen being dismantled were beaten by the police, who used pieces of the broken wooden frame as clubs. Chairs were then pulled out from under elderly worshipers. The episode made international news and Jews the world over objected to the British action. The Chief Rabbi of the ultraorthodox Jews in Jerusalem issued a protest letter on behalf of his community, the Edah HaChareidis, and Agudas Yisroel strongly condemning the desecration of the holy site. Various communal leaders called for a general strike. A large rally was held in the Etz Chaim Yeshiva, following which an angry crowd attacked the local police

The placing of a Mechitza such as this at the wall in 1928 was the catalyst for confrontation between the Arabs, Jews and Mandate authorities

Western Wall station in which they believed the British officer involved in the fiasco was sheltering.[47] Commissioner Edward Keith-Roach described the screen as violating the Ottoman status quo that forbade Jews from making any construction in the Western Wall area. He informed the Jewish community that the removal had been carried out under his orders after receiving a complaint from the Supreme Muslim Council. The Arabs were concerned that the Jews were trying to extend their rights at the wall and with this move, ultimately intended to take possession of the Al-Aqsa Mosque.[48] The British government issued an announcement explaining the incident and blaming the Jewish beadle at the Wall. It stressed that the removal of the screen was necessary, but expressed regret over the ensuing events.[47] A widespread Arab campaign to protest against presumed Jewish intentions and designs to take possession of the Al Aqsa Mosque swept the country and a "Society for the Protection of the Muslim Holy Places was established.[49] The Vaad Leumi responding to these Arab fears declared in a statement that "We herewith declare emphatically and sincerely that no Jew has ever thought of encroaching upon the rights of Moslems over their own Holy places, but our Arab brethren should also recognise the rights of Jews in regard to the places in Palestine which are holy to them."[48] The committee also demanded that the British administration expropriate the wall for the Jews.[50] From October 1928 onward, Mufti Amin al-Husayni organised a series of measures to demonstrate the Arabs' exclusive claims to the Temple Mount and its environs. He ordered new construction next to and above the Western Wall.[51] The British granted the Arabs permission to convert a building adjoining the Wall into a mosque and to add a minaret. A muezzin was appointed to perform the Islamic call to prayer and Sufi rites directly next to the Wall. These were seen as a provocation by the Jews who prayed at the Wall.[52][53] The Jews protested and tensions increased. A British inquiry into the disturbances and investigation regarding the principle issue in the Western Wall dispute, namely the rights of the Jewish worshipers to bring appurtenances to the wall, was convened. The Supreme Muslim Council provided documents dating from the Turkish regime supporting their claims. However, repeated reminders to the Chief Rabbinate to verify which apparatus had been permitted failed to elicit any response. They refused to do so, arguing that Jews had the right to pray at the Wall without restrictions.[54] Subsequently, in November 1928, the Government issued a White Paper entitled "The Western or Wailing Wall in Jerusalem: Memorandum by the Secretary of State for the Colonies", which emphasised the maintenance of the status quo and instructed that Jews could only bring those accessories which had been permitted in Turkish times. A few months later, Haj Amin complained to Chancellor that Jews were bringing benches and tables in increased numbers to the wall and driving nails into the wall and hanging lamps on them.[55]

346

Western Wall 1929 Palestine riots In the summer of 1929, the Mufti ordered an opening be made at the southern end of the alleyway which straddled the Wall. The former cul-de-sac became a thoroughfare which led from the Temple Mount into the prayer area at the Wall. Mules were herded through the narrow alley, often dropping excrement. This, together with other construction projects in the vicinity, and restricted access to the Wall, resulted in Jewish protests to the British, who remained indifferent.[54] On August 14, 1929, after attacks on individual Jews praying at the Wall, 6,000 Jews demonstrated in Tel Aviv, shouting The Wall is ours. The next day, the Jewish fast of Tisha B'Av, 300 youths raised the Zionist flag and sang the Zionist anthem at the Wall.[50] The day after, on August 16, an organized mob of 2,000 Muslim Arabs descended on the Western Wall, injuring the beadle and burning prayer books, liturgical fixtures and notes of supplication. The rioting spread to the Jewish commercial area of town, and was followed a few days later by the Hebron massacre.[56]

347

British police post at the entrance to the Western Wall, 1933

1930 international commission In 1930, in response to the 1929 riots, the British Government appointed a commission "to determine the rights and claims of Muslims and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall". The League of Nations approved the commission on condition that the members were not British. The Jews requested that the Commission take the following actions: To give recognition to the immemorial claim that the Wailing Wall is a Holy Place for the Jews, not only for the Jews in Palestine, but also for the Jews of the whole world. To decree that the Jews shall have the right of access to the Wall for devotion and for prayers in accordance with their ritual without interference or interruption. To decree that it shall be permissible to continue the Jewish services under the conditions of decency and decorum characteristic of a sacred custom that has been carried on for many centuries without infringement upon the religious rights of others. To decree that the drawing up of any regulations that may be necessary as to such devotions and prayers, shall be entrusted to the Rabbinate of Palestine, who shall thus re-assume full responsibility in that matter, in discharge of which responsibility they may consult the Rabbinate of the world. To suggest, if the Commissioners approve of the plan, to the Mandatory Power that it should make the necessary arrangements by which the properties now occupied by the Moghrabi Waqf might be vacated, the Waqf authorities accepting in lieu of them certain new buildings to be erected upon some eligible site in Jerusalem, so that the charitable purpose, for which this Waqf was given, may still be fulfilled. The Commission noted that 'the Jews do not claim any proprietorship to the Wall or to the Pavement in front of it (concluding speech of Jewish Counsel, Minutes, page 908).' David Yellin testifying before the commission stated: Being judged before you today stands a nation that has been deprived of everything that is dear and sacred to it from its emergence in its own land the graves of its patriarchs, the graves of its great kings, the graves of its holy prophets and, above all, the site of its glorious Temple. Everything has been taken from it and of all the witnesses to its sanctity, only one vestige remains one side of a tiny portion of a wall, which, on one side, borders the place of its former Temple. In front of this bare stone wall, that nation stands under the open sky, in the heat of summer and in the rains of winter, and pours out its heart

Western Wall to its God in heaven.[54] The Commission concluded that the wall, and the adjacent pavement and Moroccan Quarter, were solely owned by the Muslim waqf. However, Jews had the right to "free access to the Western Wall for the purpose of devotions at all times", subject to some stipulations that limited which objects could be brought to the Wall and forbade the blowing of the shofar, which was made illegal. Muslims were forbidden to disrupt Jewish devotions by driving animals or other means.[19] Yitzchak Orenstein, who held the position of Rabbi of the Kotel, recorded in April 1930 that Our master, Rabbi Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld came to pray this morning by the Kosel and one of those Members of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry at the Western Wall, 1946 present produced a small chair for the Rav to rest on for a few moments. However, no sooner had the Rav sat down did an Arab officer appear and pull the chair away from under him.[47] During the 1930s, at the conclusion of Yom Kippur, young Jews persistently flouted the shofar ban each year and blew the shofar resulting in their arrest and prosecution. They were usually fined or sentenced to imprisonment for three to six months.

348

Jordanian rule 194867

During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Old City together with the Wall was occupied by Jordan. Article VIII of the 1949 Armistice Agreement provided for Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall. However for the following nineteen years, despite numerous requests by Israeli officials and Jewish groups to the United Nations and other international bodies to attempt to enforce the armistice agreement, Jordan refused to abide by this clause. Neither Israeli Arabs nor Israeli Jews could visit their holy places in the Jordanian territories.[57][58] An exception was made for Christians to participate in Christmas ceremonies in Bethlehem.[58] Some sources claim Jews could only visit the wall if they traveled through Jordan (which was not an option for Israelis) and did not have an Israeli visa stamped in their passports.[59] Only Jordanian soldiers and tourists were to be found there. A vantage point on Mount Zion, from which the Wall could be viewed, became the place where Jews gathered to pray. For thousands of pilgrims, the mount, being the closest location to the Wall under Israeli control, became a substitute site for the traditional priestly blessing ceremony which takes place on the Three Pilgrimage Festivals.[60] "Al Buraq (Wailing Wall) Rd" sign During the Jordanian occupation of the Old City, a ceramic street sign in Arabic and English was affixed to the stones of the ancient wall. Attached 3 metres (9.8ft) up, it was made up of eight separate ceramic tiles and said Al Buraq in Arabic at the top with the English "Al-Buraq (Wailing Wall) Rd" below. When Israeli soldiers arrived at the wall in June 1967, one attempted to scrawl Hebrew lettering on it.[61] The Jerusalem Post reported that on June 8, Ben-Gurion went to the wall and "looked with distaste" at the road sign; "this is not right, it should come down and he proceeded to dismantle it.[62] This act signaled the climax of the capture of the Old City and the ability of Jews to once again access their holiest sites.[63] Emotional recollections of this event are related by David ben Gurion and Shimon Peres.[64]

Western Wall

349

Israeli rule 1967present

Following Israel's victory during the 1967 Six-Day War, the Western Wall came under Israeli control. Yitzchak Rabin, fifth Prime Minister of Israel, described the moment Israeli soldiers reached the Wall: There was one moment in the Six-Day War which symbolized the great victory: that was the moment in which the first paratroopers under Gur's command reached the stones of the Western Wall, feeling the emotion of the place; there never was, and never will be, another moment like it. Nobody staged that moment. Nobody planned it in advance. Nobody prepared it and nobody was prepared for it; it was as if Providence had directed the whole thing: the paratroopers weeping loudly and in pain over their comrades who had fallen along the way, the words of the Kaddish prayer heard by Western Wall's stones after 19 years of silence, tears of mourning, shouts of joy, and the singing of "Hatikvah".[65] Forty-eight hours after capturing the wall, the military, without explicit government order, hastily proceeded to demolish the entire Moroccan Quarter which stood 4 metres (13ft) from the Wall. The Sheikh Eid Mosque, which was built over one of Jerusalem's oldest Islamic schools, the Afdiliyeh, named after one of Saladin's sons, was pulled down to make way for the plaza. It was one of three or four that survived from Saladin's time.[66] 650 people consisting of 106 Arab families were ordered to leave their homes at night. When they refused, bulldozers began to demolish the structures, causing casualties. One old woman was buried under the houses as the bulldozer razed the area.[67][68][69][70] According to Eyal Weizman, Chaim Herzog, who later became Israel's sixth president, took much of the credit for the destruction of the neighbourhood: When we visited the Wailing Wall we found a toilet attached to it ... we decided to remove it and from this we came to the conclusion that we could evacuate the entire area in front of the Wailing Wall ... a historical opportunity that will never return ... We knew that the following Saturday, June 14, would be the Jewish festival of Shavuot and that many will want to come to pray ... it all had to be completed by then.[71] The narrow pavement, which could accommodate a maximum of 12,000 per day, was transformed into an enormous plaza which could hold in excess of 400,000.[72] The dusty plaza stretched from the wall to the Jewish Quarter. The section of the Wall dedicated to prayers was extended southwards to double its original length, from 28 to 60 metres (92 to 200 ft), while the 4 metres (13ft) space facing the Wall grew to 40 metres (130ft). The small, approximately 120 square metres (1,300sqft) pre-1967 area in front of the wall grew to 2,400 square metres (26,000sqft), with the entire Western Wall Plaza covering 20,000 square metres (4.9acres).[73] The new plaza created in 1967 is used for worship and public gatherings, including Bar mitzvah celebrations and the swearing-in ceremonies of newly full-fledged soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces. Tens of thousands of Jews flock to the wall on the Jewish holidays, and particularly on the fast of Tisha B'Av, which marks the destruction of the Temple and on Jerusalem Day, which commemorates the reunification of Jerusalem in 1967 and the delivery of the Wall into Jewish hands.

Western Wall Robinson's Arch At the southern end of the Western Wall, Robinson's Arch along with a row of vaults once supported stairs ascending from the street to the Temple Mount.[74] Because it does not come under the direct control of the Rabbi of the Wall or the Ministry of Religious Affairs, the site has been opened to religious groups that hold worship services that would not be approved by the Rabbi or the Ministry in the major men's and women's prayer areas against the Wall.[74] The need for such an area became apparent when in in 1989, after The remains of Robinson's Arch above excavated repeated attacks by haredim, activists belonging to a group called remnants of the ancient street below. Women Of The Wall petitioned to secure the right of women to pray at the wall without restrictions. Ultimately, in 2003 Israel's Supreme Court disallowed any women from reading publicly from the Torah or wearing traditional prayer shawls at the plaza itself, but instructed the Israeli government to prepare the site of Robinson's Arch to host such events.[75] The site was inaugurated in August 2004 and has since hosted services by Reform and Conservative groups, as well as services by the Women of the Wall. In November 2010, the government approved a NIS 85m ($23m) scheme to improve access and infrastructure at the site.[76] The Isaiah Stone, located under Robinson's Arch, has a carved inscription in Hebrew from Isaiah 66:14: "( And when ye see this your heart shall rejoice and your bones shall flourish like an herb").

350

Replica of the verse carved in the Isaiah Stone

Wilson's Arch In 2005, the Western Wall Heritage Foundation initiated a major renovation effort under Rabbi-of-the-Wall Shmuel Rabinovitch. Its goal was to renovate and restore the area within Wilson's Arch, the covered area to the left of worshipers facing the Wall in the open prayer plaza, in order to increase access for visitors and for prayer.[77][78] The restoration to the men's section included a Torah ark that can house over 100 Torah scrolls, in addition to new bookshelves, a Torah Ark inside men's section of Wilson's Arch library, heating for the winter, and air conditioning for the summer.[77] A new room was also built for the scribes who maintain and preserve [77] the Torah scrolls used at the Wall. New construction also included a women's section,[79] overlooking the men's prayer area, so that women could use this separate area to "take part in the services held inside under the Arch" for the first time.[80] On July 25, 2010, a Ner Tamid, an oil-burning "eternal light," was installed within the prayer hall within Wilson's Arch, the first eternal light installed in the area of the Western Wall.[81] According to the Western Wall Heritage

Western Wall Foundation, requests had been made for many years that "an olive oil lamp be placed in the prayer hall of the Western Wall Plaza, as is the custom in Jewish synagogues, to represent the menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem as well as the continuously burning fire on the altar of burnt offerings in front of the Temple," especially in the closest place to those ancient flames.[81] A number of special worship events have been held since the renovation. They have taken advantage of the cover, temperature control,[82] and enhanced security.[83] However, in addition to the more recent programs, one early event occurred in September 1983, even before the modern renovation. At that time U.S. Sixth Fleet Chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff was allowed to hold an unusual interfaith servicethe first interfaith service ever conducted at the Wall during the time it was under Israeli controlthat included men and women sitting together. The ten-minute service included the Priestly Blessing, recited by Resnicoff, who is a Kohen. A Ministry of Religions representative was present, responding to press queries that the service was authorized as part of a special welcome for the U.S. Sixth Fleet.[84][85] Rabbis of the wall After the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, Rabbi Yehuda Meir Getz was named the overseer of proceedings at the wall.[86] After Rabbi Getz's death in 1995, Rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz was given the position.[87]

351

Asst. U.S. Sixth Fleet Chaplain Rabbi Arnold Resnicoff leads an unusual interfaith service.

Theology and ritual

Judaism
In Judaism, the Western Wall is venerated as the sole remnant of the Holy Temple. It has become a place of pilgrimage for Jews, as it is the closest permitted accessible site to the holiest spot in Judaism, namely the Even ha-shetiya or Foundation Stone, which lies on the Temple Mount. According to one rabbinic opinion, Jews may not set foot upon the Temple Mount and doing so is a sin punishable by Kareth. While almost all historians and archaeologists and some rabbinical authorities believe that the rocky outcrop in the Dome of the Rock is the Foundation Stone,[88] some rabbis say it is located directly opposite the "Jews' Place of Wailing, 1844". (1860 engraving) exposed section of the Western Wall, near the El-kas fountain.[89] This spot was the site of the Holy of Holies when the Temple stood. Jewish tradition teaches that the Western Wall was built by King Solomon and that the wall we see today is built upon his foundations, which date from the time of the First Temple.[90] Jewish midrashic texts compiled in Late Antiquity refer to a western wall of the Temple which would never be destroyed.[2] Some scholars were of the opinion that this referred to a wall of the Temple itself which has long since vanished. Others believed that the wall still stood and was actually a surviving wall of the Temple courtyard. However, today there is no doubt that the wall is the western retaining wall of the Temple Mount and the Midrash refers to the Temple in its broader sense, that is, the Temple Mount.[12] Jewish sources teach that when Roman Emperor Vespasian ordered the destruction of the Temple, he ordered Pangar, Duke of Arabia, to destroy the Western Wall. Pangar however could not destroy the wall because of God's promise that the Wall will never be destroyed. When asked by Titus why he did not destroy it, Pangar replied that it would stand as a reminder of what Titus had conquered. He was duly executed.[91] There is a tradition that states that when water starts trickling through the stones of the Wall, it is a signal of the advent of the

Western Wall Messiah.[92] Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Kaindenover discusses the mystical aspect of the Hebrew word kotel when discussing the significance of praying against a wall. He cites the Zohar which writes that the word kotel, meaning wall, is made up of two parts: "Ko", which has the numerical value of Gods name, and "Tel", meaning mount, which refers to the Temple and its Western Wall.[93] Jewish sources, including the Zohar, write that the Divine Presence rests upon the Western Wall.[94] The Midrash quotes a 4th century scholar: Rav Acha said that the Divine Presence has never moved away from the Western Wall.[95] 18th century scholar Jonathan Eybeschutz writes that after the destruction of the Temple, God removed His Presence from His sanctuary and placed it upon the Western Wall where it remains in its holiness and honour.[96] It is told that great Jewish sages, including Isaac Luria and the Radvaz, experienced a revelation of the Divine Presence at the wall.[97] Prayer at the Wall The sages state that anyone who prays in the Temple in Jerusalem, it is as if he has prayed before the throne of glory because the gate of heaven is situated there and it is open to hear prayer.[98] Jewish Law dictates that when Jews pray the Silent Prayer, they should face towards Jerusalem, the Temple and ultimately the Holy of Holies,[99] as all of Gods bounty and blessing emanates from that spot.[90] According to the Mishna, of all the four walls of the Temple Mount, the Western Wall was the closest to the Holy of Holies,[100] and therefore that to pray by the Wall is particularly beneficial.[90] Rabbi Women at prayer, early 20th century Jacob Ettlinger writes "since the gate of heaven is near the Western Wall, it is understandable that all Israel's prayers ascend on high there...as one of the great ancient kabbalists Rabbi Joseph Gikatilla said, when the Jews send their prayers from the Diaspora in the direction of Jerusalem, from there they ascend by way of the Western Wall."[30] A well-known segula (efficacious remedy) for finding one's mate is to pray for 40 consecutive days at the Western Wall.[101] This practice was apparently conceived by Rabbi Yisroel Yaakov Fisher.[102] According to some, by Late Antiquity the privileged site of Jewish prayer in Jerusalem was located on the Mount of Olives and only towards the end of the Middle Ages did Jews gradually begin to congregate instead at the Western Wall for their prayers, authorized to do so by the waqf authorities.[103] Indeed, most historians believe that the Western Wall became a popular prayer area only after the Ottoman conquest of Jerusalem in 1517. There are, however, recorded instances of the wall being used as a place of prayer before the Ottoman period. The Scroll of Ahimaaz, a historical document written in 1050 CE, distinctly describes the Western Wall as a place of prayer for the Jews.[104] In around 1167 CE during the late Crusader Period, Benjamin of Tudela wrote that "In front of this place is the Western Wall, which is one of the walls of the Holy of Holies. This is called the Gate of Mercy, and hither come all the Jews to pray before the Wall in the open court".[24] In 1334, Jewish traveller Isaac Chelo wrote: "It is this Western Wall which stands before the temple of Omar ibn al Khattab, and which is called the Gate of Mercy. The Jews resort thither to say their prayers, as Rabbi Benjamin has already related. Today, this wall is one of the seven wonders of the Holy City."[23] In 1625 "arranged prayers" at the Wall are mentioned for the first time by a scholar whose name has not been preserved.[19] Scrolls of the Law were brought to the Wall on occasions of public distress and calamity, as testified to in a narrative written by Rabbi Gedaliah of Semitizi who went to Jerusalem in 1699.

352

Western Wall

353

The Wailing Wall in the ruins of the Jerusalem Temple, E. Berninger, Gartenlaube 1879.

"On Friday afternoon, March 13, 1863, the writer visited this sacred spot. Here he found between one and two hundred Jews of both sexes and of all ages, standing or sitting, and bowing as they read, chanted and recited, moving themselves backward and forward, the tears rolling down many a face; they kissed the walls and wrote sentences in Hebrew upon them... The lamentation which is most commonly used is from Psalm 79:1 "O God, the heathen are come into Thy inheritance; Thy holy temple have they defiled." Rev. James W. Lee, 1863. (Earthly Footsteps of the Man of Galilee, p.147)
[1]

The writings of various travellers in the Holy Land, especially in the 18th and 19th centuries, tell of how the Wall and its environs continued to be a place of devotion for the Jews.[19] Isaac Yahuda, a prominent member of the Sephardic community in Jerusalem recalled how men and women used to gather in a circle at the Wall to hear sermons delivered in Ladino. His great-grandmother, who arrived in Palestine in 1841, used to go to the Western Wall every Friday afternoon, winter and summer, and stay there until candle-lighting time, reading the entire Book of Psalms and the Song of Songs...she would sit there by herself for hours."[105] The Kaf hachaim records that Ashkenazim and Sephardim were accustomed to walking through the streets and markets of the Old City wearing their tallit and tefillin on their way to pray by the Western Wall.[106] Throughout the ages, the Wall is where Jews have gathered to express gratitude to God or to pray for divine mercy. On news of the Normandy landings on June 6, 1944 thousands of Jews went to the Wall to offer prayers for the success of His Majestys and Allied Forces in the liberation of all enemy-occupied territory.[107] On October 13, 1994, 50,000 gathered to pray for the safe return of kidnapped soldier Nachshon Wachsman.[108] August 10, 2005 saw a massive prayer rally at the Wall. Estimates of people protesting Israel's unilateral disengagement plan ranged from 50,000 to 250,000 people.[109] Every year on Tisha B'Av large crowds congregate at the Wall to commemorate the destruction of the Temple. In 2007 over 100,000 gathered.[110] During the month of Tishrei 2009, a record 1.5 million people visited the site.[111] Mourning the Temple's Destruction According to Jewish Law, one is obligated to grieve and rend one's garment upon visiting the Western Wall and seeing the desolate site of the Temple.[112] Bach (17th century) explicitly mentions the "Kotel ha-Ma'aravi" when expounding how one could encounter the ruins of the Temple before the ruins of Jerusalem.[113] Today, some scholars are of the view that rending one's garments is not applicable since Jerusalem is under Jewish sovereignty. Others disagree, citing that the Temple Mount itself is controlled by the Muslim waqf and the State of Israel has no power to remove the mosques which sit upon it.

Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall, 1970s.

Western Wall Furthermore, the mosques' very existence on the site of the Temple should increase one's feeling of distress. If one hasnt seen the Wall for over 30 days, in order to avoid tearing one's shirt, the custom is to visit on the Sabbath, including Friday afternoons, or Saturday evenings if dressed in Sabbath finery, or on festivals.[114] A person who has not seen the Wall within the last 30 days should recite: "Our Holy Temple, which was our glory, in which our forefathers praised You, was burned and all of our delights were destroyed".[115] The Bach cites Likutim which instructs that "when one sees the Gates of Mercy which are situated in the Western Wall, which is the wall King David built, he should recite: Her gates are sunk into the ground; he hath destroyed and broken her bars: her king and her princes are among the nations: the law is no more; her prophets also find no vision from the Lord" Book of
Lamentations 2:9

354

Prayer notes There is a much publicised practice of placing slips of paper containing written prayers into the crevices of the Wall. The earliest account of this practice is recorded in Sefer Tamei Ha-minhagim Umekorei Ha-dinim and involves Rabbi Chaim ibn Attar, (d. 1743).[116] More than a million notes are placed each year[117] and the opportunity to e-mail notes is offered by a number of organisations.[118] It has become customary for visiting dignitaries to place notes too.[119][120] Sanctity of the Wall There is much debate among Jewish codifiers about whether it is permitted to place one's fingers inside the cracks of the Wall. Those who warn against such Slips of paper containing prayers in action hold that the breadth of the Wall constitutes part of the Temple Mount the cracks of the Wall itself and therefore retains holiness. Others hold that the Wall stands outside the given measurements of the Temple area and therefore there is no concern about inserting one's fingers into the crevices.[121] In the past, visitors, based upon various scriptural verses, would drive nails into the cracks and paint their Hebrew names on the Wall. These practices stopped after rabbinic consensus determined that such actions compromised the sanctity of the Wall.[30] Another practice also existed whereby pilgrims or those intending to travel abroad would hack off a chip from the Wall or take some of the sand from between its cracks as a good luck charm or memento. In the late 19th century the question was raised as to whether this was permitted and a long responsa appeared in the Jerusalem newspaper Havatzelet in 1898. It concluded that even if according to Jewish Law it was permitted, the practices should be stopped as it constituted a desecration.[30] More recently the Yalkut Yosef rules that it is forbidden to remove small chips of stone or dust from the Wall, although it is permissible to take twigs from the vegetation which grows in the Wall for an amulet, as they contain no holiness.[122] Cleaning the stones is also problematic from a halachic point of view. Blasphemous graffiti once sprayed by a tourist was left visible for months until it began to peel away.[123] Many contemporary poskim rule that the area in front of the Wall has the status of a synagogue and must be treated with due respect.[90] As such, men and married women are expected to cover their heads upon approaching the Wall, and to dress appropriately. When departing, the custom is walk backwards away from the Wall.[90] On Saturdays, it is forbidden to enter the area with electronic devices, including cameras, which infringe on the sanctity of the Sabbath.

Western Wall

355

There was once an old custom of removing one's shoes upon approaching the Wall. A 17th century collection of special prayers to be said at holy places mentions that upon coming to the Western Wall one should remove his shoes, bow and recite....[30] Rabbi Moses Reicher wrote that it is a good and praiseworthy custom to approach the Western Wall in white garments after ablution, kneel and prostrate oneself in submission and recite This is nothing other than the House of God and here is the gate of Heaven. When within four The faithful remove their shoes upon cubits of the Wall, one should remove their footwear.[30] Over the years the approaching the Wall, c1880 custom of standing barefoot at the Wall has ceased, as there is no need to remove one's shoes when standing by the Wall, because the plaza area is outside the sanctified precinct of the Temple Mount.[122] In the past women could be found sitting at the entrance to the Wall every Sabbath holding fragrant herbs and spices in order to enable worshipers to make additional blessings. In the hot weather they would provide cool water. The women also used to cast lots for the privilege of sweeping and washing the alleyway at the foot of the Wall.[30]

Islam
Until the 1920s, Muslims referred to the Wall as El-Mabka the place of wailing". They then began calling it the Al-Buraq Wall.[124] Muslims maintain that the Wall is an Islamic endowment[125] site based on two factors: The first is the association of the Wall in the Isra and Mi'raj; some sources identify the Western Wall as the place where the Islamic prophet Muhammad tethered his winged steed, Buraq. The tradition is first referred to in a manuscript by Ibn Furkah (d. 1328) stating that Buraq was tethered outside Bab al-Nab, an old name for a gate along the southwestern wall of the Haram al-Sharif at the very spot presently known as Al-Buraq. Other sources which referred to this tradition date from the 19th century and include the 1840 deliberation refusing the Jews the right to pave the area in front of the wall and the map of Jerusalem by Wilson (1865) that names the area around the Wailing Wall Hosh al-Buraq.[26] The second factor is the claim that it is waqf property and a part of the Noble Sanctuary. Shmuel Berkowitz,[126] in his book "The Wars over the Holy Places", suggests that Muslim attribution of holiness to the Western Wall began only in the last 100 years. He suggests this from the fact that official guides published by the Waqf in 1914, 1965, and 1990 do not attribute holiness to the wall and the entry "al-Buraq" in the Encyclopedia of Islam does not make the connection either.[127]

Christianity
Some scholars believe that when Jerusalem came under Christian rule in the 4th century, there was a purposeful "transference" of respect for the Temple Mount and the Western Wall in terms of sanctity to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, while the sites around the Temple Mount became a place to dump garbage for Christians.[128] However, the actions of many modern Christian leaders, including Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI, who visited the Wall and actually left prayer messages in its crevices, has symbolized for many Christians a restoration of respect and even veneration for this ancient religious site.[128] Some Christian Zionists go further, claiming that the Third Temple must be rebuilt as part of the groundwork for the Second Coming.[129] A small group of extremists even advocate the destruction of the Muslim Dome of the Rock to hasten the new Temple construction.[129]

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356

Views
Jewish
Most Jews, religious and secular, consider the wall to be important to Judaism since it was originally built to hold the Second Temple. They consider the capture of the wall by Israel in 1967 as a historic event since it restored Jewish access to the site after a 19 year gap.[130] There are, however, some haredi Jews who hold opposing views. Most notable are the adherents of the Satmar hasidic sect who retain the views espoused by rabbi Joel Teitelbaum who would not approach the Wall.
A Jew praying at the Western Wall

Israeli

A poll carried out in 2007 by the Jerusalem Institute for Israel Studies indicated that 96% of Israeli Jews were against Israel relinquishing sovereignty of the Western Wall.[131] During a speech at Israel's Mercaz HaRav yeshivah on Jerusalem Day in 2009, Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu declared: "The flag that flies over the Kotel is the Israeli flag... Our holy places, the Temple Mount will remain under Israeli sovereignty forever."[132]

Muslim
In December 1973, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia stated that Only Muslims and Christians have holy places and rights in Jerusalem. The Jews, he maintained, had no rights there at all. As for the Western Wall, he said, Another wall can be built for them. They can pray against that".[133] Raed Salah, leader of the northern branch of the Islamic Movement in Israel wrote that: "The Western Wall all its various parts, structures and gates are an inseparable part of the al-Aqsa compound...The Western Wall is part of Al-Aqsa's western tower, which the Israeli establishment fallaciously and sneakily calls the 'Wailing Wall'. The wall is part of the holy al-Aqsa Mosque".[134]

Western Wall and Dome of the Rock.

Palestinian
According to the Palestinian National Authority, the Jews did not consider the Wall as a place for worship except after the Balfour Declaration was issued in 1917.[135] PA-appointed Mufti of Jerusalem, Sheikh Ekrima Sa'id Sabri, believes that the Wall belongs to the Muslims alone.[136] In 2000 he related that No stone of the Al-Buraq wall has any relation to Judaism. The Jews began praying at this wall only in the nineteenth century, when they began to develop [national] aspirations. A year later he stated: There is not a single stone in the Wailing Wall relating to Jewish History. The Jews cannot legitimately claim this wall, neither religiously nor historically. The Committee of the League of Nations recommended in 1930, to allow the Jews to pray there, in order to keep them quiet. But by no means did it acknowledge that the wall belongs to them.[137]

Western Wall Interviewed by German magazine Die Welt, January 17, 2001 In 2006, Dr. Hassan Khader, founder of the Al Quds Encyclopedia, told PA television that the first connection of the Jews to the Wall is "a recent one which began in the 16th century...not ancient...like the roots of the Islamic connection".[138] In November 2010, an official paper published by the PA Ministry of Information denied Jewish rights to the Wall. It stated that "Al-Buraq Wall is in fact the western wall of Al-Aksa Mosque" and that Jews had only started using the site for worship after the 1917 Balfour Declaration.[139] Yitzhak Reiter writes that "the Islamization and de-Judaization of the Western Wall are a recurrent motif in publications and public statements by the heads of the Islamic Movement in Israel."[140]

357

Egyptian
Egyptian Minister of Waqfs, Mahmoud Hamdi Zakzouk, has asserted that the Western Wall is not a Jewish holy site. Another high ranking Egyptian Muslim authority, Mufti Nasr Fradid Wassel, has decreed that the Western Wall remain an Islamic endowment forever, explaining that it is a part of the western wall of the Al-Aqsa Mosque. He added that the Wall would belong to Muslims all over the world "until the end of earth" and that it is religiously forbidden for Muslims to refer to Buraq Wall as the Wailing Wall.[125]

American
While recognizing the difficulties inherent in any ultimate peace agreement that involves the status of Jerusalem, the official position of the United States includes a recognition of the importance of the Wall to the Jewish people, and has condemned statements that seek to "delegitimize" the relationship between Jews and the area in general, and the Western Wall in particular. For example, in November 2010, the Obama administration "strongly condemned a Palestinian official's claim that the Western Wall in the Old City has no religious significance for Jews and is actually Muslim property." The U.S. State Department noted that the United States rejects such a claim as "factually incorrect, insensitive and highly provocative."[141]

References
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[12] Horovitz, Ahron (2001). Jerusalem: Footsteps Through Time. Jerusalem: Feldheim. [13] Coin discovery sheds new light on sacred Jerusalem site (AP) (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 45419597/ ns/ technology_and_science-science/ t/ coin-discovery-sheds-new-light-sacred-jerusalem-site/ ) [14] "Building the Western Wall: Herod Began it but Didnt Finish it" (http:/ / www. antiquities. org. il/ about_eng. asp?Modul_id=14). Israel Antiquities Authority. . Retrieved November 23, 2011. AP (November 23, 2011). "Ancient coins found in Jerusalem shed new light on construction of holy compound" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ world/ middle-east/ ancient-coins-found-in-jerusalem-shed-new-light-on-construction-of-holy-compound/ 2011/ 11/ 23/ gIQAJ38enN_story. html). Washington Post. . Retrieved November 25, 2011. [15] Neusner, Jacob (2001). "Judaism and the Land of Israel". Understanding Jewish Theology. Global Academic Publishing. pp.g. 79. ISBN1-58684-090-8. [16] Harman, Graham (2008). "The Holiness of the Holy Land". A History of Palestine. Princeton University Press. pp.g.24. ISBN0-691-11897-3. [17] Gold, Dore (2007). The Fight for Jerusalem. Regnery. pp.g.56. ISBN1-59698-029-X. [18] David M. Gitlitz & Linda Kay Davidson Pilgrimage and the Jews (Westport: CT: Praeger, 2006)42-. [19] Lfgren, Eliel; Barde, Charles; Van Kempen, J. (December 1930). Report of the Commission appointed by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with the approval of the Council of the League of Nations, to determine the rights and claims of Moslems and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall at Jerusalem (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ unispal. nsf/ 9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/ 59a92104ed00dc468525625b00527fea?OpenDocument) (UNISPAL doc A/7057-S/8427, February 23, 1968) [20] Koren, Zalman. "The Temple and the Western Wall" (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ library/ article. asp?id=84). Western Wall Heritage Foundation. . Retrieved December 16, 2007. [21] Gilbert, Martin (1977). "The 'Wailing Wall' Under Ottoman rule 15171917". Jerusalem Illustrated History Atlas. London: Board of Deputies of British Jews. pp.g.31. ISBN0-905648-04-8. [22] Vilnay, Zev (2003). "How the Wall was discovered". Legends of Palestine. Kessinger Publishing. pp.612. ISBN0-7661-4128-4. [23] Adler, Elkan Nathan; David, Judah (2004). "The Roads from Jerusalem, by Isaac ben Joseph ibn Chelo (1334)". Jewish Travellers. Routledge. pp.g.131. ISBN0-415-34466-2. [24] Adler N. M. (1927) The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela London; pages 222223. [25] Harman, Graham (2008). "The Mufti and the Wailing Wall". A History of Palestine. Princeton University Press. pp.g.225. ISBN0-691-11897-3. [26] Ricca, Simone (2007). "Notes to Chapter One". Reinventing Jerusalem. I.B.Tauris. pp.g. 212. ISBN1-84511-387-X. [27] Yaakov Dovid, Shulman (1992). "A Letter to My Father". Pathway to Jerusalem. USA: CIS Publishers. pp.g. 59. ISBN1-56062-130-3. [28] Armstrong, Karen (April 16, 2001). "Islam's Stake" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ 2001/ jerusalem/ islam. html). TIME. . Retrieved October 8, 2008. "In the 16th century, Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent permitted the Jews to make the Western Wall their official holy place and had his court architect Sinan build an oratory for them there." [29] Gonen, Rivka (2003). Contested Holiness. KTAV Publishing House. pp.g. 135137. ISBN0-88125-799-0. "It is possible that official recognition of the right of Jews to pray by the Wall was granted already in the second half of the sixteenth century by a firman (official decree) issued by Suleiman the Magnificent. This firman may have been related to the efforts of the Ottoman ruler to lure Jews to Palestine as a counterbalance to the Arab population, which had rebelled against the new rulers, who were Turkish rather than Arabs."" [30] Ben Dov, Meir; Naor, Mordechai; Aner, Ze'ev (1983). "IV: Sanctity, Law and Customs". The Western Wall. Israel: Ministry of Defence Publishing House. pp.g.8397. ISBN965-05-0055-3. [31] Schwarz, Joseph (1850). "Moriah, The Temple Mount" (http:/ / www. jewish-history. com/ Palestine/ moriah. html). Descriptive Geography and Brief Historical Sketch of Palestine. Philadelphia: A. Hart. . [32] Rossoff, Dovid (1998). "The Era of Suffering: 18001840". Where Heaven Touches Earth. Jerusalem: Guardian Press. pp.g.186. ISBN0-87306-879-3. [33] Baruch, Yuval. The Mughrabi Gate Access the Real Story (http:/ / www. antiquities. org. il/ article_Item_eng. asp?sec_id=17& sub_subj_id=468). Israel Antiquities Authority [34] Rossoff, Dovid (1998). "Bound Within the Walls: 18401870". Where Heaven Touches Earth. Jerusalem: Guardian Press. pp.g.231. ISBN0-87306-879-3. [35] Fred Skolnik; Michael Berenbaum (2007). Encyclopaedia Judaica: Ra-Sam (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Gj8OAQAAMAAJ). Macmillan Reference USA in association with the Keter Pub. House. p.422. ISBN978-0-02-865945-9. . 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[40] The Advocate: America's Jewish journal (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=s1ccAQAAMAAJ). 1915. p.638. . Retrieved January 3, 2012. "According to a report in the Jaffa Hebrew weekly, Hapoel Hazair, the Commander of the Turkish Army, Djemal Pasha, has ordered a barricade to be placed across the approach to the Wailing Wall to prevent this place from being visited by Jews. The order is said to be based on sanitary grounds." [41] "REPORT of the Commission appointed by His Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with the approval of the Council of the League of Nations, to determine the rights and claims of Moslems and Jews in connection with the Western or Wailing Wall at Jerusalem" (http:/ / unispal. un. org/ UNISPAL. NSF/ 9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/ 59a92104ed00dc468525625b00527fea?OpenDocument). United Nations. December 1930. . Retrieved December 20, 2009. [42] Janin, Hunt (2002). 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[49] Kayyl, Abd al-Wahhb (1978). "The Lull: 19231929". Palestine: A Modern History. Routledge. pp.g. 139. ISBN0-85664-635-0. [50] Ovendale, Ritchie (2004). "British Paramountcy over Arabs and Zionists". The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Wars. Pearson Education. pp.g.71. ISBN0-582-82320-X. [51] Dershowitz, Alan (2003). "5: Were the Jews Unwilling to Share Palestine?". The Case For Israel. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. pp.g.43. ISBN0-471-46502-X. [52] Ovendale, Ritchie (2004). "The "Wailing Wall" Riots". The Origins of the Arab-Israeli Wars. Pearson Education. pp.g.71. ISBN0-582-82320-X. "The Mufti tried to establish Muslim rights and the Jews were deliberately antagonised by building works and noise." [53] Harman, Graham (2008). "The Mufti and the Wailing Wall". A History of Palestine. Princeton University Press. pp.g.230. ISBN0-691-11897-3. 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Western Wall
[67] Ari Shavit, 'Jerusalem-born thinker Meron Benvenisti has a message for Israelis: Stop whining,' (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ weekend/ magazine/ jerusalem-born-thinker-meron-benvenisti-has-a-message-for-israelis-stop-whining. premium-1. 469447) at Haaretz, 11 October 2012. [68] Gershom Gorenberg, The End of Days: Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount. Oxford Univerity Press, 2002 p.102. [69] Henry Cattan, The Palestine Question, Taylor & Francis, 1988 p.256. [70] Joost R. Hiltermann, 'Teddy Kollek and the Native Question,' in in Annelies Moors, Toine van Teeffelen, Sharif Kanaana, Ilham Abu Ghazaleh (eds.) Discourse and Palestine: Power, Text and Context, (http:/ / books. google. com. au/ books?id=FsjgmSPiWvsC& pg=PA55) Het Spinhuis, 1995 pp.55-65, p.55-6 [71] Weizman, Eyal (2007). Hollow Land. London: Verso. pp.g.38. ISBN978-1-84467-125-0. [72] Benvenisti, Meron (1998). "Hollowed Ground". City of Stone: The Hidden History of Jerusalem. University of California Press. pp.g.82. ISBN0-520-20768-8. [73] Ricca, Simone (Summer 2005). "Heritage, Nationalism and the Shifting Symbolism of the Wailing Wall; June 1967: Erasing The Past" (http:/ / www. jerusalemquarterly. org/ ViewArticle. aspx?id=104). Institute of Jerusalem (Palestine) Studies. . [74] Jewish Virtual Library (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ Archaeology/ Robinsons_Arch. html), retrieved March 26, 2011. [75] Nathan-Kazis, Josh (February 5, 2010). "Embassy Letter on Kotel Rubs Salt in the Wound" (http:/ / www. forward. com/ articles/ 124477/ ). The Jewish Daily Forward (New York, New York). . Retrieved July 13, 2010. [76] Israel approves $23 million plan to renovate near Western Wall (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ news/ national/ israel-approves-23-million-plan-to-renovate-near-western-wall-1. 325927), Haartez, (November 21, 2010). [77] English.thekotel.org TheKotel.org (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ today/ article. asp?ArticleID=3), retrieved March 11, 2011. [78] iaa-conservation.org (http:/ / www. iaa-conservation. org. il/ Projects_Item_eng. asp?id=49& subject_id=10& site_id=3), retrieved March 11, 2011. [79] The Kotel, note about May 25, 2006. (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ today/ Event. asp?EventId=803& CatId=2), retrieved March 11, 2011. [80] English.TheKotel.org (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ today/ Event. asp?EventId=628& CatId=4), retrieved March 24, 2011. [81] Thekotel.org, note for July 25, 2010 (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ today/ Event. asp?EventId=2715& CatId=4), retrieved March 12, 2011. [82] The Kotel.org, note on February 3, 2006. (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ today/ Event. asp?EventId=131& CatId=4), retrieved March 13, 2011. [83] TheKotel.org, Lag B'omer 2009 (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ today/ article. asp?ArticleID=80), retrieved March 13, 2011. [84] Jerusalem Post, Sep 5, 1983, and Jerusalem Post International Edition, Sep 1117, 1983, "U.S. Navy Chaplain Conducts Western Wall Interfaith Litany" [85] St Petersburg Times (http:/ / www. sptimes. com/ News/ 122901/ news_pf/ NorthPinellas/ Lion__lamb_reside_in_. shtml), retrieved March 25, 2011 [86] "Obituaries: Yehuda Meir Getz, Western Wall's Rabbi, 71" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=990CE5D7143CF936A1575AC0A963958260& sec=& spon=). New York Times. September 25, 1995. . Retrieved October 7, 2008. [87] "Rabbi Shmuel Rabinowitz" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071012053418/ http:/ / www. aleh. org/ eng/ staff. asp?SID=6). ALEH. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. aleh. org/ eng/ staff. asp?SID=6) on October 12, 2007. . Retrieved October 7, 2008. [88] Radbaz Responsa 691: "Under the dome on the Temple Mount, which the Arabs call El-Sakhrah, without a doubt, is the location of the Foundation Stone."; Ya'ari, Avraham: Igrot Eretz Yisrael by Obadiah ben Abraham, Ramat Gan 1971: "I sought the place of the Foundation Stone where the Ark of the Covenant was placed, and many people told me it is under a tall and beautiful dome which the Arabs built in the Temple precinct." [89] Sternbuch, Moishe Teshuvos Ve-hanhagos Vol. 3, Ch. 39: In truth they have erred, thinking that the stone upon they built their dome was in fact the Foundation Stone, however, most possibly, the Stone is located further to the south in the open space opposite the exposed section of the Western Wall. [90] Frishman, Avraham; Kum Hisalech Bearetz, Jerusalem 2004 [91] Lamentations Rabbah 1:32 [92] Bishop, Patrick (July 4, 2002). "Western Wall 'leak' prompts speculation" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ middle_east/ 2093501. stm). BBC. . [93] Kav ha-Yashar Ch. 50 [94] Zohar Mishpatim 116 [95] Exodus Rabbah 2:2 [96] Ya'arot Devash Vol. 1, Ch. 4 [97] See also Kav ha-Yashar Ch. 93 and Shem Ha-gedolim for a similar account with Rabbi Avraham Ha-levi of Safed. [98] Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer 35 [99] Kitzur Shulchan Aruch 18:10. The Kaf hachaim (Orach Chaim 94:1:4 citing Radvaz Vol. 2; Ch. 648) rules that if a Jew was forced onto the Temple Mount and the time of prayer arrived while hes standing between the Western Wall and the place of the Holy of Holies, "he should pray facing towards the Holy of Holies even though his back will be facing the Western Wall." [100] Middot 2:1 [101] Kiel, Dvora (2007). When the Time is Right: Manifestations of Divine Providence in everyday life (http:/ / books. google. co. il/ books?id=peGw2sZVN5QC& pg=PA486& dq=kabbalistic+ segulah& hl=en& sa=X& ei=uTJmT_iDEsnS0QWdgc2wCA& redir_esc=y#v=onepage& q=segulah& f=false). Feldheim Publishers. p.486. ISBN965-7371-29-5. .

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[102] "Origin of the 40 Days" (http:/ / westernwallprayers. org/ aboutwwp/ originofthe40days. html). westernwallprayers.org. 2012. . Retrieved 18 March 2012. [103] Henry Laurens, La Question de Palestine, Fayard, Paris, 2002 vol.2 p.157 [104] "The Western Wall Plaza" (http:/ / english. thekotel. org/ content. asp?back=1& id=48). Western Wall Heritage Foundation. . Retrieved October 19, 2008. [105] Deutsch, Nathaniel (2003). "In the Holy Land". The Maiden of Ludmir. University of California Press. pp.g.199. ISBN0-520-23191-0. [106] Kaf hachaim Orach Chaim 94 [107] Gilbert, Martin (1996). "The Second World War, 19391945". Jerusalem in the Twentieth Century. London: Chatto & Windus. pp.g.167. ISBN0-7011-3070-9. [108] Gilbert, Martin (1996). "Towards the Twenty-First Century". Jerusalem in the Twentieth Century. London: Chatto & Windus. pp.g.353. ISBN0-7011-3070-9. [109] Marciano, Ilan (August 10, 2005). "70,000 protest pullout at Western Wall" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3125587,00. html). Ynet. . Retrieved December 26, 2007. [110] Ratzlav-Katz, Nissan (July 23, 2007). "100,000 Jews At Western Wall for Tisha B'Av 5767" (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ News/ News. aspx/ 123174). Arutz Sheva. . Retrieved December 26, 2007. [111] Judith Weil. "Kosel Visitors record", Jewish Tribune, October 22, 2010. [112] Moed Katan 26a; Orach Chaim 561; Yoreh Deah 340 [113] Bayit Chadash Orach Chaim 561. (He contends that the city itself is in such a state of disrepair that once a person has reached the hills surrounding Jerusalem, he can immediately view the Western Wall) [114] Minchas Shlomo Vol. 1, Ch. 73. See also: Tearing keriah for Jerusalem (http:/ / www. rjconline. org/ hib52. htm); Ask the Rabbi: Kosel Keriah (http:/ / www. ksy. org. il/ AskTheRabbi. asp?QID=89) [115] Epstein, Donneal. Halachos for the Traveler (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fltQaoNFXX4C& pg=PA70& dq=Halachos+ for+ the+ Traveler+ "Our+ Holy+ Temple,+ which+ was+ our+ glory,+ in+ which+ our+ forefathers+ praised+ You"& hl=en& ei=migvTc-BNdOq4AbFg7XLCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false), Feldheim 2000, Pg. 70. ISBN 1-58330-439-8. [116] Sperling, Avraham Yitzchak (1999). Sefer Tamei Ha-minhagim Umekorei Ha-dinim; Inyanei Hilula DRashbi, p. 270. Jerusalem: Shai Le-morah Publishing. [117] "Obama's Private Prayer 'Leaked'" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ world/ article/ 0,8599,1826734,00. html). Time. July 25, 2008. . Retrieved August 19, 2009. [118] Starr, Joyce Shira (1995). Faxes and Email to God: At the Western Wall of Jerusalem. iUniverse. ISBN978-1-893652-37-8. [119] "Letter Placed by Pope John Paul II at the Western Wall" (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ MFAArchive/ 2000_2009/ 2000/ 3/ Letter Placed by Pope John Paul II at the Western). Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel). . Retrieved October 7, 2008. [120] McGirk, Tim (July 25, 2008). "Obama's Private Prayer Leaked" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ world/ article/ 0,8599,1826734,00. html). Time Magazine. . [121] See Avnei Nezer Yoreh Deah 450 [122] Yosef, Ovadia (1990). "Laws of Kotel HaMa'aravi". Yalkut Yosef. Jerusalem. Vol. 2; pg.278282. [123] Shragai, Nadav (October 5, 2006). "Western Wall rabbi forbids proposed burning of prayer notes" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 770030. html). Haaretz. . Retrieved December 16, 2007. [124] Halkin, Hillel (January 12, 2001). ""Western Wall" or "Wailing Wall"?" (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ History/ wallname. html). Jewish Virtual Library. . Retrieved October 5, 2008. [125] "Jews Have No Legitimate Claim to Al-Buraq Wall" (http:/ / www. islamonline. net/ servlet/ Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/ FatwaE/ FatwaE& cid=1119503543546). IslamOnline. May 8, 2004. . Retrieved February 8, 2010. [126] Shragai, Nadav (July 11, 2006). "Temple Mount not listed in the Land Registry" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArt. jhtml?itemNo=734702). Haaretz. . Retrieved June 24, 2008. [127] Shragai, Nadav, Ha'aretz, January 19, 2001 based on "The Wars over the Holy Places" by Berkowitz, Shmuel [128] USCatholic.org (http:/ / www. uscatholic. org/ church/ 2009/ 08/ sensitivity-training?page=0,1), retrieved March 27, 2011. [129] cc-vw.org (http:/ / www. cc-vw. org/ articles/ temple. htm), retrieved March 27, 2011. [130] Wein, Berel. Triumph of Survival; Section VIII The Modern Jew 19581988, pg. 451. [131] Shargai, Nadav (May 14, 2007). "Poll: 96% of Israeli Jews won't give up Western Wall for peace" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ spages/ 858755. html). Haaretz. . Retrieved March 4, 2008. [132] Ben Gedalyahu, Tzvi (May 22, 2009). IsraelNationalNews.com "Bibi Rejects Obama's 'UN Flag at Kotel'; Star of David to Remain" (http:/ / www. israelnationalnews. com/ News/ News. aspx/ 131506). Arutz 7. IsraelNationalNews.com. Retrieved November 25, 2011. [133] Wasserstein, Bernard (2001). "Annexation". Divided Jerusalem. London: Profile Books. pp.g.233. ISBN1-86197-333-0. [134] Nahmias, Roee (February 18, 2007). "Sheikh Salah: Western Wall belongs to Muslims" (http:/ / www. ynetnews. com/ articles/ 0,7340,L-3366266,00. html). Ynet. . Retrieved December 7, 2007. [135] "Alburaq Revolution" (http:/ / nakba. sis. gov. ps/ english/ British-mandate/ Alburaq Revolution. html). Palestinian National Authority. . Retrieved December 7, 2007. [136] On Jewish rights to the Western Wall in Jerusalem (http:/ / iris. org. il/ quotes/ quote49. htm), Voice of Palestine, June 12, 1998.

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[137] "Arab Leaders Deny Jewish History on The Temple Mount" (http:/ / www. adl. org/ Anti_semitism/ arab/ temple_denial. asp). ADL. August 6, 2003. . Retrieved December 7, 2007. [138] Klein, Aaron (October 20, 2006). "'Western Wall really a post for Muhammad's horse'" (http:/ / www. worldnetdaily. com/ news/ article. asp?ARTICLE_ID=52528). World Net Daily. . Retrieved December 7, 2007. [139] Khaled Abu Toameh. Jews have no right to Western Wall, PA 'study' says (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Israel/ Article. aspx?id=196329), Jerusalem Post, (November 22, 2010). [140] Yitzhak Reiter (2008). Jerusalem and its role in Islamic solidarity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=20rYAAAAMAAJ). Palgrave Macmillan. p.57. ISBN978-0-230-60782-8. . Retrieved June 10, 2011. [141] Cleveland.com (http:/ / www. cleveland. com/ world/ index. ssf/ 2010/ 11/ us_condemns_palestinian_claim. html), retrieved March 27, 2011.

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External links
The Western Wall Heritage Foundation (http://english.thekotel.org/default.asp) Jewish Virtual Library: The Western Wall (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/walltoc. html) Chabad.org: The Shofar and the Wall, 1930 (http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=2246) Historic radio broadcast of the capture of the wall by the Israel Defense Forces on June 7, 1967 (http://isracast. com/Transcripts/060605a_trans.htm) Photographs Wailing Wall to Western Wall (1960s) (http://lifeintheholyland.com/wailing_wall_1960s.htm) Photographs of the Western Wall (Summer 2007) (http://www.ianandwendy.com/Israel/Jerusalem/ Western_Wall/slideshow.htm) Western Wall virtual tour (December 2007) (http://3disrael.com/jerusalem/kotel.cfm) Western Wall on Google Street View (http://maps.google.com/maps?q=jerusalem&hl=en&ll=31.776611,35. 234045&spn=0.004661,0.007682&sll=40.713956,-75.322266&sspn=33.880079,62.929688& hnear=Jerusalem,+Israel&t=m&z=17&layer=c&cbll=31.776673,35.234031& panoid=_UuBKNcQsc4lxDfjebqb4w&cbp=12,79.7,,0,-6.91)

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Mount Zion
Mount Zion (Hebrew: , Har Tsiyyon; Arabic: , Jabel Sahyoun) is a hill in Jerusalem just outside the walls of the Old City.

Etymology
The etymology of the word Zion (iyyn) is uncertain.[1][2] [3] Mentioned in the Bible in the Book of Samuel (2 Samuel 5:7) as the name of the Jebusite fortress conquered by King David, its origin likely predates the Israelites.[1][2] If Semitic, it may be derived View of Mount Zion from Mount of Olives from the Hebrew root ''iyyn ("castle") or the Arabic root iyya ("dry land") or the Arabic an ("protect" or "citadel").[2][3] It might also be related to the Arabic root ah ("ascend to the top") or uhhay ("tower" or "the top of the mountain").[3] A non-Semitic relationship to the Hurrian word eya ("river" or "brook") has also been suggested.[3] Sayhun (Arabic: ,ahyn or ihyn) is the word for Zion in Arabic and Syriac.[4] A valley called Wdi Sahyn (wadi being the Arabic for "valley") seemingly preserves the name and is located approximately one and three-quarter miles from the Old City of Jerusalem's Jaffa Gate.[4] The phrase Har Tzion appears nine times in the Tanakh.[5] It is spelled with a Tzadi and not Zayin.[6]

History
According to the Book of Samuel, Mount Zion was the site of the Jebusite fortress called the "stronghold of Zion" that was conquered by King David, becoming his palace and the City of David.[7]

Derekh Ha'Apifyor (Pope's Way) leading up to Mount Zion, so named by the Israeli government in honor of Pope Paul VI's historic visit to Israel in 1964

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Sometime after the construction of King Solomon's Temple, Mount Zion referred to the Temple Mount. It is mentioned in the Book of Isaiah (60:14), the Book of Psalms, and the first book of the Maccabees (c. 2nd century BC).[7] Just before the Roman conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Second Temple, Josephus described Mount Zion as a hill across the valley to the west.[7] Thus, the western hill extending south of the Old City came to be known as Mount Zion, and this has been the case ever since.[7]
Cable car to Mount Zion

In 1948, Mount Zion was linked to the Yemin Moshe neighborhood in West Jerusalem via a narrow tunnel. During the war, an alternative was needed to evacuate the wounded and transport supplies to soldiers on Mt. Zion. A cable car capable of carrying a load of 250 kilos was designed for this purpose. The cable car was only used at night and lowered into the valley during the day to escape detection. The ride from the Israeli position at the St. John Eye Hospital to Mount Zion took two minutes. Mount Zion was conquered by the Harel Brigade on May 18, 1948.[8] Between 1948 and 1967, when the Old City was under Jordanian occupation, Israelis were forbidden access to the Jewish holy places. Mount Zion was a designated no-man's land between Israel and Jordan.[9] Mount Zion was the closest accessible site to the ancient Jewish Temple. Until East Jerusalem was captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, Israelis would climb to the rooftop of David's Tomb to pray.[10] The winding road leading up to Mount Zion is known as Pope's Way (Derekh Ha'apifyor). It was paved in honor of the historic visit to Jerusalem of Pope Paul VI in 1964.[9]

Biblical references
The Tanakh reference to Har Tzion (Mount Tzion) that identifies its location is derived from the Psalm 48 composed by the sons of Korah, i.e. Levites, as "the northern side of the city of the great king", which Radak interprets as the City of David "from the City of David, which is Zion (1 Kings 8:1-2; 2 Chron. 5:2)".[11] 2 Samuel 5:7 also reads, "David took the strong hold of Zion: the same is the city of David," which identifies Mount Tzion as part of the City of David, and not an area outside today's Old City of Jerusalem. Rashi identifies the location as the source of "joy" mentioned in the Psalm as the Temple Courtyard, the location of atonement offerings in the northern part of the Temple complex.[12]

Legends
According to local legend, the two engineers who planned the restoration of the Old City walls in 1538 mistakenly left Mt. Zion and King Davids tomb outside the walls. The Turkish sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, was so enraged that he had the two put to death.[13]

View of Mount Zion from the Mount Zion Hotel

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Landmarks
Important sites on Mount Zion (as currently defined) are Dormition Abbey, King David's Tomb and the Room of the Last Supper. Most historians and archeologists today do not regard "David's Tomb" there to be the actual burial place of King David. The Chamber of the Holocaust (Martef HaShoah), the precursor of Yad Vashem, is also located on Mount Zion. Another place of interest is the Catholic cemetery where Oskar Schindler, a Righteous Gentile who saved the lives of 1,200 Jews in the Holocaust, is buried.[14] Notable burials in the Protestant cemetery on Mt. Zion include the architect Conrad Schick.

Archaeology
In 1874, an Englishman, Henry Maudsley, discovered a large segment of rock Oskar Schindler's grave on Mount scarp and numerous ancient dressed stones on Mount Zion that were believed to Zion be the base of Josephus's First Wall. Several of these stones were used to construct a retaining wall outside the main gate of the Bishop Gobat school (later known as the American Institute of Holy Land Studies and Jerusalem University College).[15] Archaeological excavations on the eastern hill south of the Old City uncovered an Iron Age building that has led to a theory that this was the original location of Mount Zion.[7]

References
[1] Terry R. Briley (2000). Isaiah, Volume 1 - The College Press NIV commentary: Old Testament series (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eq5gFlzMxQgC& q=zion+ etymology& dq=zion+ etymology). College Press. p.49. ISBN0-89900-890-9, 9780899008905. . [2] Tremper Longman, Peter Enns (2008). Tremper Longman, Peter Enns. ed. Dictionary of the Old Testament: wisdom, poetry & writings, Volume 3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kE2k36XAkv4C& pg=PA936& dq=zion+ etymology#v=onepage& q=zion etymology& f=false) (Illustrated ed.). InterVarsity Press. p.936. ISBN0-8308-1783-2, 9780830817832. . [3] Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1982). Geoffrey W. Bromiley. ed. International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J Volume 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C& pg=PA1006& dq=zion+ etymology#v=onepage& q=zion etymology& f=false) (Revised ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p.1006. ISBN0-8028-3782-4, 9780802837820. . [4] Palestine Exploration Fund (1977). Palestine exploration quarterly (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ct=result& id=nodAAQAAIAAJ& dq=sahyun+ zion& q="+ it+ means+ "sunny,"+ and+ the+ proper+ equivalent+ in+ Arabic+ or+ in+ Syriac,+ according+ to+ this+ same+ authority,+ is+ Sahyun"). Published at the Fund's Office. p.21. . [5] The Responsa Project: Version 13, Bar Ilan University, 2005 [6] Kline, D.E., A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language for readers of English, Carta Jerusalem, The University of Haifa, 1987, pp.XII-XIII [7] Bargil Pixner (2010). Rainer Riesner. ed. Paths of the Messiah (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=bvhA6IE4VqgC& pg=PA321& dq=zion+ canaanite#v=onepage& q=zion canaanite& f=false). Ignatius Press. pp.320322. ISBN0-89870-865-6, 9780898708653. . [8] Mt. Zion Cable Car (http:/ / www. gemsinisrael. com/ e_article000003947. htm) [9] Bar-Am, Aviva. "On the spot" (http:/ / fr. jpost. com/ servlet/ Satellite?cid=1176152836357& pagename=JPost/ JPArticle/ Printer). Jerusalem Post. . Retrieved 2007-10-23. [10] Jerusalem Divided: The Armistice Regime, 1947-1967, Raphael Israeli, Routledge, 2002, p. 6 [11] Ronald L. Eisenberg, The streets of Jerusalem: who, what, why, Devora Publishing, 2006, p.169 [12] Menachem Davis, ed., The Book of Psalms, Mesorah Publications, New York, 2001, p.128 [13] Bible sites: Mount Zion (http:/ / www. ctsp. co. il/ LBS pages/ LBS_mt_zion. htm) [14] Rubinstein, Danny. "A sign points to the grave" (http:/ / www. haaretz. com/ hasen/ pages/ ShArtStEngPE. jhtml?itemNo=883869& contrassID=2& subContrassID=4& title='A sign points to the grave '& dyn_server=172. 20. 5. 5). Haaretz.com. . Retrieved 2007-10-23. [15] Jerusalem's Essene Gateway (http:/ / www. centuryone. org/ essene. html)

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Cenacle
The Cenacle (from Latin cenaculum), also known as the "Upper Room", is the site of The Last Supper. The word is a derivative of the Latin word cena, which means dinner. In Christian tradition, based on Acts 1:13,[1] the "Upper Room" was not only the site of the Last Supper (i.e. the Cenacle), but the usual place where the Apostles stayed in Jerusalem, and according to the Catholic Encyclopedia[2] "the first Christian church".

A view of the "Cenacle" in the building on Mount Zion as it exists today

Thus the Cenacle is considered the site where many other events described in the New Testament took place,[3][4] such as: the Washing of the Feet[5] some resurrection appearances of Jesus[6][7][8] the gathering of the disciples after the Ascension of Jesus[9] the election of Saint Matthias as apostle[10] the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the disciples on the day of Pentecost[11]

The site
Since at least the fourth century CE a structure identified as the Cenacle, the site of the Last Supper, has been a popular Christian pilgrimage site on Mount Zion in Jerusalem. It is documented in the narratives of many early pilgrims such as Egeria, who visited it in 384.[12] The building has experienced numerous cycles of destruction and reconstruction, culminating in the Gothic structure which stands today. While the term Cenacle refers only to the Upper Room, the site is connected to other sites of interest, including a large cenotaph-sarcophagus located on the lower level of the same building, said first by 12th century Crusaders to be the tomb of King David. However, most scholars consider this attribution to be incorrect; 1 Kings 2:10[13] says that David was buried in the City of David, an area of Jerusalem geographically disparate from Mount Sion. The Cenacle is also connected to the Church of the Dormition.

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History
The early history of the Cenacle site is uncertain; scholars have made attempts at establishing a chronology based on archaeological evidence and historical sources. Biblical archaeologist Bargil Pixner[14] offers these significant dates and events in the building's history. The original building was a synagogue later probably used by Jewish Christians. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, the building was spared during the destruction of Jerusalem under Titus (AD 70),[15] though Pixner thinks it was likely rebuilt right after the war, and claims three walls of that structure are still extant: the North, East and South walls of the present King David's Tomb. Roman emperor Theodosius I built an octagonal church (the "Theodosian Church" or "Holy Zion Church") aside the synagogue (that was named "Church of the Apostles"). The Theodosian Church, probably started on 382 AD, was consecrated by John II, Bishop of Jerusalem on 394 AD. Some years later, c. 415 AD, Bishop John II enlarged the Holy Zion Church transforming it in a large rectangular basilica with five naves, always aside the Church of the Apostles. This building was later destroyed by Persian invaders in 614 A view of The Cenacle as it exists today. AD and shortly after partially rebuilt by patriarch Modestus. In 1009 AD the church was razed to the ground by the Muslim caliph Al-Hakim and shortly after replaced by the Crusaders with a five aisled basilica named for "Saint Mary". It is thought that the Cenacle occupied a portion of two aisles on the right side of the altar.[16] While the church was destroyed sometime after 1219, the Cenacle was spared.[16] In the 1340s, it passed into the custody of the Franciscan Order of Friars, who maintained the structure until 1552, when the Ottoman Empire took possession of it. After the Franciscan friars' eviction, this room was transformed into a mosque, as evidenced by the mihrab in the direction of Mecca and an Arabic inscription prohibiting public prayer at the site. Christians were not officially allowed to return until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.

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Architecture
Scholars offer wide-ranging dates and builders for the surviving Gothic-style Cenacle. Some believe that it was constructed by Crusaders just before Saladins conquest of Jerusalem in 1187, while others attribute it to Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, after he arrived in the city in 1229. Still others hold that it was not built in this form until the Franciscans acquired the site in the 1330s.[17] Scarce documentation and disturbed structural features offer little strong support for any of these dates.[18] In its current state, the Cenacle is divided into six rib-vaulted bays. The bays are supported by three freestanding columns which bilaterally divide the space, as well as six pillars flanking the side walls. While the capital of the westernmost freestanding column is flush with the Cenacles interior wall, the column shaft itself is completely independent of the wall, leading scholars to consider the possibility that this wall was not original to the building.[19]

Another view of the cenacle today

An analysis of the column and pillar capitals offers clues, but not a solution, to the mystery of the current buildings origin. The Corinthianesque capital between the second and third bays of the Cenacle is stylistically indicative of multiple geographical regions and chronological periods. This capitals spiky leaves, which tightly adhere to the volume of the column before erupting into scrolls, are in congruence with common outputs of the 12th century sculpture workshop at the Temple site in Jerusalem in the last years before Saladins conquest in 1187.[20] The workshop also frequently utilized drilling as an ornamental device. The Jerusalem workshop included artists from diverse regions in the West, who brought stylistic traits with them from their native countries. The workshop produced sculpture for many Crusader projects and other structures, such as the al-Aqsa mosque. This comparison allows for the support of the 12th century date of the Cenacle. There are also, however, similar capitals which originated in workshops in southern Italy, a draw for scholars who wish to associate the building with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and the Sixth Crusade in 1229. Examples can be seen in the Romanesque cathedral in Bitonto, a small city near Bari, in southern Italy, and on column supports of the pulpit in the Pisa Baptistery, carved by Apulian-born sculptor Nicola Pisano around 1260. The capitals of the freestanding columns are not identical. The capital between the first and second bays seems either severely weathered or shallowly carved, and its volume is a marked contrast from the others. It rises from the shaft in a straight cylinder, rather than in an inverted pyramid, and then flares only just before it intersects with the abacus. The third capital, which now flanks the Cenacles western wall, is also unique among the three. It is not decorated with a floral motif, rather, scrolling crockets spring from the base of the volume. Enlart has proposed a comparison to buildings constructed by Frederick II in Apulia.[21] Analysis of these column capitals does not yield significant evidence to link them to the 14th century and a potential Franciscan construction, nor does it definitively date them to the 12th or 13th century. The building remains a frustrating, but intriguing, mystery.

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Other sites
The Syriac Orthodox Church monastery of Saint Mark near the Armenian Quarter, in the Old City of Jerusalem, is sometime considered as alternative place for the cenacle.[22]

References
Notes
[1] 1:13 [2] Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (A.D. 711099) (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08355a. htm): "During the first Christian centuries the church at this place was the centre of Christianity in Jerusalem, "Holy and glorious Sion, mother of all churches" (Intercession in "St. James' Liturgy", ed. Brightman, p. 54). Certainly no spot in Christendom can be more venerable than the place of the Last Supper, which became the first Christian church." [3] "The Cenacle" (http:/ / www. christusrex. org/ www1/ ofm/ pope/ 10GPen/ 12/ 12GPsh05. html). Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. . Retrieved 20 June 2009. [4] "The Coenaculum" (http:/ / www. goisrael. com/ Tourism_Eng/ Tourist+ Information/ Christian+ Themes/ Details/ The+ Coenaculum+ + + chr. htm). www.goisrael.com. Israel Ministry of Tourism. . Retrieved 20 June 2009. [5] 13:411 [6] 16:14 [7] 24:33 [8] John20:19 [9] Acts1:13 [10] Acts1:15 [11] Acts2:14 [12] Denys Pringle, The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem. Vol. 3. The City of Jerusalem (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007). [13] Kings12:10 [14] Bargil Pixner, The Church of the Apostles found on Mount Zion, Biblical Archaeology Review 16.3 May/June 1990 (http:/ / www. centuryone. org/ apostles. html) [15] Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (A.D. 711099) (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08355a. htm): "Epiphanius (d. 403) says that when the Emperor Hadrian came to Jerusalem in 130 he found the Temple and the whole city destroyed save for a few houses, among them the one where the Apostles had received the Holy Ghost. This house, says Epiphanius, is "in that part of Sion which was spared when the city was destroyed" therefore in the "upper part ("De mens. et pond.", cap. xiv). From the time of Cyril of Jerusalem, who speaks of "the upper Church of the Apostles, where the Holy Ghost came down upon them" (Catech., ii, 6; P.G., XXXIII), there are abundant witnesses of the place. A great basilica was built over the spot in the fourth century; the crusaders built another church when the older one had been destroyed by Hakim in 1010. It is the famous Coenaculum or Cenacle now a Moslem shrine near the Gate of David, and supposed to be David's tomb (Nebi Daud)."; Epiphanius' Weights and Measures at tertullian.org (http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ fathers/ epiphanius_weights_03_text. htm#C13).14: "For this Hadrian..." [16] Pringle 262 [17] Hugh Plommer has written in favor of a date prior to 1187. See The Cenacle on Mount Sion,. in Crusader Art in the Twelfth Century, edited by Jaroslav Folda (Oxford: B.A.R., 1982) pp. 139166. Camille Enlart supports a date after 1229. See Les monuments des croiss dans le royaume de Jrusalem; architecture religieuse et civile (Paris: P. Geuthner, 1925). Peter Fergusson believes that the structure dates from the 12th century but was heavily modified by the Franciscans in the 14th century. See The Refectory at Easby Abbey: Form and Iconography. In The Art Bulletin, Vol. 71, No. 3 (Sep., 1989), pp. 334351. The Franciscans themselves take credit for the building. See Fr. Eugene Hoade, Guide to the Holy Land (Jerusalem: Franciscan Printing Press, 1971). [18] Pilgrimage accounts are vague. See the accounts of Daniel the Abbot and John of Werzberg in Jerusalem Pilgrimage 10991185, edited by John Wilkinson, Joyce Hill, and William H. Ryan (London: Hakluyt Society, 1988). Each describes the Cenacle simply as an upper room with no precise architectural consideration. [19] Plommer 169 [20] See Zehava Jacoby, The Workshop of the Temple Area in Jerusalem in the Twelfth Century: its Origin, Evolution, and Impact, Zeitschrift fr Kunstgeschichte, 45 Bd., H. 4 (1982), 325394. Drilling is discussed on 362. [21] Enlart 258. [22] "Saint Mark's Syrian Orthodox Church" (http:/ / www. goisrael. com/ Tourism_Eng/ Tourist+ Information/ Christian+ Themes/ Details/ Saint+ Marks+ Syrian+ Orthodox+ Church+ + chr. htm). www.goisrael.com. Israel Ministry of Tourism. . Retrieved 20 June 2009.

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External links
"Church of the Apostles found on Mt. Zion" (http://www.centuryone.org/apostles.html) article from the May/June 1990 issue of Biblical Archaeological Review The Judeo-Christian Synagogue and the Tomb of David (http://www.centuryone.org/davtomb.html) The Development of the Judeo-Christian Synagogue (http://www.centuryone.org/aposjcsdev.html)

David's Tomb
King David's Tomb (Hebrew: ) is a site traditionally viewed as the burial place of David, King of Israel. It is located on Mount Zion in Jerusalem, near the Hagia Maria Sion Abbey. The tomb is situated in a ground floor corner of the remains of the former Hagia Zion, a Byzantine church; the upper floor of the same building has traditionally been viewed as the Cenacle of Jesus. The building is now part of the Diaspora Yeshiva.

History
The tomb is located in a corner of a room situated on the ground floor remains of the former Hagia Zion a ancient house of worship; the upper floor of the same building has traditionally been viewed as the Cenacle of Jesus. In 1335, the ancient synagogue and church became a Franciscan monastery, but, due to tensions with the Greek Orthodox Patriarch, the monastery was closed in 1551 and ownership of the site was transferred to a Muslim family. The site was apparently not King David's Tomb. viewed as David's Tomb until the 12th century. According to Benjamin of Tudela, writing about 1173, the tomb was discovered during repairs to the church; the motivation for it being declared to be the tomb of David is uncertain. It is impossible to verify whether the tomb is original to the location, as crusaders removed the tomb from its earlier context, and placed within it a stone sarcophagus, newly built for the purpose; the sarcophagus now rests over a 14th century floor. After the 1948 ArabIsraeli War, it fell on the Israel side of the Green Line. Between 1948 and 1967 the Old City was occupied by Jordan, which barred entry to Jews even for the purpose of praying at Jewish holy sites. The closest accessible site to the site of the ancient Jewish Temple was Mount Zion. Jewish pilgrims from around the country and the world went to David's Tomb and climbed to the rooftop to pray.[1] Since 1949, a blue cloth, with basic modernist ornamentation, has been placed over the sarcophagus. The images on the cloth include several crown-shaped Rimmon placed over Torah scrolls, and a violin, and the cloth also features several pieces of text written in Hebrew. The building is now part of the Diaspora yeshiva.

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Question of authenticity
The contents of the sarcophagus have not yet been subjected to any scientific analysis, to determine their age, former appearance, or even whether there is actually still a corpse there. The authenticity of the site has been challenged on several grounds. According to the Bible, David was actually buried within the City of David together with his forefathers;[2] by contrast, the 4th century Pilgrim of Bordeaux reports that he discovered David to be buried in Bethlehem, in a vault that also contained the tombs of Ezekiel, Jesse, Solomon, Job, and Asaph, with those names carved into the tomb walls.[3] The genuine David's Tomb is unlikely to contain any furnishings of value; according to the first century writer Josephus, Herod the Great tried to loot the tomb of David, but discovered that someone else had already done so before him.[4] Archaeologists, doubting the Mount Zion location and favouring the biblical account, have since the early 20th century sought the actual tomb in the City of David area. In 1913, Raymond Weill found eight elaborate tombs at the south of the City of David,[5] which archaeologists have subsequently interpreted as strong candidates for the burial locations of the former kings of the city;[6] Hershel Shanks, for example, argues that the most ornate of these (officially labelled T1) is precisely where one would expect to find the burial site mentioned in the Bible.[7] Among those who agree with the academic and archaeological assessment of the Mount Zion site, some believe it actually is the tomb of a later king, possibly Manasseh, who is described in the Hebrew Bible as being buried in the Garden of the King rather than in the City of David like his predecessors.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Jerusalem Divided: The Armistice Regime, 1947-1967, Raphael Israeli, Routledge, 2002, p. 6 Kings12:9 Itinerarium Burdigalense (http:/ / soltdm. com/ sources/ mss/ ib/ ib. htm) 598:4-6 Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, 16:7:1 Kathleen Kenyon, Archaeology in the Holy Land (1985), p. 333. Hershel Shanks, Biblical Archaeology Review, January/February 1995, p. 64. Hershel Shanks, Biblical Archaeology Review, January/February 1995, p. 64.

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Israel Museum
The Israel Museum, Jerusalem

Established Location

1965 Jerusalem, Israel

Coordinates 314621N 351216E Type Visitors Director Website Art and history More than one million in one year (2011) James S. Snyder [2] [1]

The Israel Museum (Hebrew: , ,Muze'on Yisrael) was founded in 1965 as Israel's national museum. It is situated on a hill in the Givat Ram neighborhood of Jerusalem, near the Bible Lands Museum, the Knesset, the Israeli Supreme Court, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Among the unique objects on display are a carved female figurine considered the oldest artwork in the world; the interior of a 1736 synagogue from Suriname; necklaces worn by Jewish brides in Yemen; a mosaic Islamic prayer niche from 17th-century Persia; and a nail attesting to the practice of crucifixion in Jesus time.[3] An urn-shaped building on the grounds of the museum, the Shrine of the Book, houses the Dead Sea Scrolls and artifacts discovered at Masada.

History
Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek was the driving spirit behind the establishment of the Israel Museum, one of the leading art and archaeology museums in the world. The Museum houses works dating from prehistory to the present day in its Archaeology, Fine Arts, and Jewish Art and Life Wings, and features extensive holdings of biblical and Land of Israel archaeology.[4] Since its establishment in 1965, the Museum has built up a collection of nearly 500,000 objects, representing a broad sample of world material culture.[5] James S. Snyder, former Deputy Director of the Museum of Modern Art in New York, was appointed director of the museum in 1997.[6] From 1965, the museum was housed in a series of masonry buildings designed by the Russian-born Israeli architect Alfred Mansfeld. A 100-million dollar campaign to renovate the museum and double its gallery space was completed in July 2010.[7] The wings for archaeology, the fine arts, and Jewish art and life were completely rebuilt and the original buildings were linked through a new entrance pavilion. The passageways that connect between the buildings and five new pavilions were designed by James Carpenter. [8] The museum covers nearly 50,000sq. meters and attracts 800,000 visitors a year, including 100,000 children who visit and attend classes in its Youth Wing.[9]

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Archaeology Wing
The Samuel and Saidye Bronfman Archaeology Wing tells the story of the ancient Land of Israel, home to peoples of different cultures and faiths, using unique examples from the Museums collection of Holy Land archaeology, the foremost holding in the world. Organized chronologically, from prehistory through the Ottoman Empire, the transformed wing presents seven chapters of this archaeological narrative, weaving together momentous historical events, cultural achievements, and technological advances, while providing a glimpse into the everyday lives of the peoples of the region. This narrative is supplemented by thematic groupings highlighting aspects of ancient Israeli archaeology that are unique to the regions history, among them Hebrew writing, glass, and coins. Treasures from neighboring cultures that have had a decisive impact on the Land of Israel such as Egypt, the Near East, Greece and Italy, and the Islamic world are on view in adjacent and connecting galleries. A special gallery at the entrance to the wing showcases new findings and other temporary exhibition displays. Highlights on view include: "House of David inscription (9th century BCE), A comparative display of two shrines (8th7th century BCE), The Heliodorus Stele (178 BCE), Royal Herodian bathhouse (1st century BCE), Hadrians Triumph: Inscription from a triumphal arch (136 CE), Gold-glass bases from the Roman Catacombs (4th century CE).[10]

Shrine of the Book

The Shrine of the Book houses the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest biblical manuscripts in the world, as well as rare early medieval biblical manuscripts. The scrolls were discovered in 194756 in 11 caves in and around the Wadi Qumran. An elaborate planning process of seven years led to the building's eventual construction in 1965 which was funded by the family of David Samuel Gottesman, the Hungarian migr, the philanthropist who had purchased the scrolls as a gift to the State of Israel.[11]

Shrine of the Book

The building consists of a white dome over a building located two-thirds below the ground. The dome is reflected in a pool of water that surrounds it. Across from the white dome is a black basalt wall.[12] The colors and shapes of the building are based on the imagery of the Scroll of the War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, whereas the white dome symbolizes the Sons of Light and the black wall symbolizes the Sons of Darkness. The interior of the shrine was designed to depict the environment in which the scrolls were found.[13] There is also a permanent display on life in the Qumran, where the scrolls were written.[13] The entire structure was designed to resemble a pot in which the scrolls were found.[12] The shrine was designed by Armand Bartos and Frederick Kiesler, and was opened in 1965.[12] As the fragility of the scrolls makes it impossible to display all on a continuous basis, a system of rotation is used. After a scroll has been exhibited for 36months, it is removed from its showcase and placed temporarily in a special storeroom, where it "rests" from exposure. The museum also holds other rare ancient manuscripts and displays The Aleppo Codex, which is from the 10th-century and is believed to be the oldest complete Bible in Hebrew.[13]

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Second Temple Model

Adjacent to the Shrine is the Model of Jerusalem in the Second Temple Period, which reconstructs the topography and architectural character of the city as it was prior to its destruction by the Romans in 66 CE, and provides historical context to the Shrines presentation of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Originally constructed on the grounds of Jerusalems Holyland Hotel, the model, which includes a replica of Herod's Temple, is now a permanent feature of the Museums 20-acre (81,000m2) campus.[14]

Fine Arts Wing

Second Temple model at Israel Museum

The Edmond and Lily Safra Fine Arts Wing reflects the wide-ranging, interdisciplinary nature of the Museums collections, encompassing works of art from across the ages in Western and non-Western cultures. The wing has been reorganized to highlight connections among works from its diverse curatorial collections, which include: European Art; Modern Art; Contemporary Art; Israeli Art; the Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas; Asian Art; Photography; Design and Architecture; and Prints and Drawings. Installations are organized to underscore visual affinities and shared themes and to inspire new insight into the arts of different times and places, as well as an appreciation of the common threads of human culture. The reconfigured wing includes the Museums first permanent galleries for Israeli art; more than doubled gallery space for the Museums extensive collections in modern art; providing meaningful connecting points between Western and non-Western holdings; and a full 2,200-square-meter (7,200-square-foot) gallery floor devoted to changing displays from the Museums collection of contemporary art. Highlights newly on view include: The Noel and Harriette Levine Photography Collection, The Jacques Lipchitz Collection, Gustave Courbet, Jura Landscape with Shepherd and Donkey (ca. 1866), Alberto Giacometti, Diego in the Studio (1952), Ohad Meromi, The Boy from South Tel Aviv (2001).[10]

European, Modern and Israeli art

The Israel Museum holds a large collection of paintings representing a wide range of periods, styles, subjects and regions of origin. Painters in the collection include such international figures as Rembrandt, Marc Chagall and Camille Pissarro as well as such Israeli and Jewish artists as Abel Pann and Reuven Rubin.[15] The Israel Museums commitment to Israeli art is central to the Museums mission. As Israels national museum, it plays a major role in preserving Israels artistic heritage by collecting works by Israeli artists - in Israel and abroad - and by The Death of Adonis, ca. 1614 by Peter Paul encouraging Israels artists to develop in their careers. The Museums Rubens Israeli Art collection spans the late 19th century through today, and it reflects the evolution of Israels cultural history in the visual arts. The Information Center for Israeli Art provides scholars and the interested public with comprehensive archival information on several thousand Israeli artists, including biographical notes, press materials, videos, photographs and other forms of documentation.

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Wing for Jewish Art and Life

The Jack, Joseph, and Morton Mandel Wing for Jewish Art and Life presents the material culture of Jewish communities worldwide, from the Middle Ages to the present day, and is conceived to provide a view of Jewish life that integrates both its sacred and its secular dimensions. Showcasing the aesthetic value of objects as well as their social and historical significance, the comparative display unfolds in five themes that highlight the individual and the communal, the sacred and the mundane, and the heritage of the past, and the creative innovations of the present. The reconfigured wing includes a new Synagogue Route, A Dayenu from Birds' Head Haggada Birds' unique to the Israel Museum, containing four synagogue interiors from Southern Germany, c. 1300 Scribe: Menahem the continents of Europe, Asia, and the Americas; a dramatic Parchment introductory display focusing on the Jewish life cycle that features singular treasures from the collections relating to the ritual ceremonies of birth, marriage, and death; a new gallery space to showcase the Museums holdings of rare illuminated manuscripts; and the integration of works of contemporary art and Judaica.[10] Highlights on view include: Maimonides Mishne Torah (15th century), Zedek-ve-Shalom Synagogue (18th century), the newly restored Fishach sukkah (19th century), Burial society (hevra kadisha) carriage from Hungary (19th century), Ogadro necklace and bracelets from Izmir, Turkey (late 19th century), a Mans hooded cape (akhnif) from the Atlas Mountains (late 19thearly 20th centuries).

Art Garden
The Billy Rose Art Garden is a 20-dunam garden featuring modern and abstract sculptures. The Art Garden, designed for the original campus by Japanese-American sculptor Isamu Noguchi, is counted among the finest outdoor sculpture settings of the 20th century. An Oriental landscape combined with an ancient Jerusalem hillside, the garden serves as the backdrop for the Israel Museums display of the evolution of the modern western sculptural tradition. On view are works by modern masters including Jacques Lipchitz, Henry Moore, Claes Oldenburg, Pablo Picasso, Auguste Rodin, and David Smith, together with more recent site-specific commissions by such artists as Magdalena Abakanowicz, Mark Dion, James Turrell, and Micha Ullman.[10]

Robert Indiana's Love sculpture

Youth Wing
The Ruth Youth Wing for Art Education, was opened in 1966. It is unique in its size and scope of activities, presents a wide range of programming to more than 100,000 schoolchildren each year, and features exhibition galleries, art studios, classrooms, a library of illustrated childrens books, and a recycling room. Special programs foster intercultural understanding between Arab and Jewish students and reach out to the wide spectrum of Israels communities. The wing combines annual original artworks of Israeli and international artists, with educational activities. There are also a variety of workshops for children and adults.[16]

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Rockefeller Archaeological Museum and the Ticho House

In addition to the extensive programming offered on its main campus, the Israel Museum also operates two off-site locations: the Rockefeller Archaeological Museum that opened in 1938 for the display of artifacts unearthed mainly in the excavations conducted in Mandate Palestine, in the 1920s and 1930s;[17] and Ticho House, which offers an ongoing program of exhibitions by younger Israeli artists in a historic house and garden setting.[18]

Management
Funding
The Israel Museum receives only 10% to 12% of its operating budget from State and Municipal sources. The Israeli government provides varying amounts of funds each year. The institution must raise 88% of its yearly operating budget, all of its $150 million endowment[19] and $100 million for its recent capital project, while paying 17.5% VAT as well as real-estate taxes on the campus property. The most active of the international support groups of the museum, the American Friends of the Israel Museum raised $270 million in cash, of which $47 million is in endowment funds, and donated $210 million in art from 1972 to 2008. In 2009, the Israel Museum received $12m from the Edmond J. Safra Philanthropic Foundation, towards the renovation, reinstallation and endowment of its fine arts wing, which will be renamed after Edmond and Lily Safra.[20]

Attendance
As of 2010, attendance is about 500,000 per year.[19]

References
[1] "Israel Museum Welcomes One Millionth Visitor Since Inauguration of Renewed Campus" (http:/ / www. english. imjnet. org. il/ htmls/ page_2748. aspx?c0=16098& bsp=12729). August 21, 2011. . Retrieved April 13, 2012. [2] http:/ / www. english. imjnet. org. il [3] A Haven National and Universal, [[New York Times (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 07/ 14/ arts/ design/ the-israel-museum-in-jerusalem-renewed. html?pagewanted=all& _r=0)]] [4] A Haven National and Universal, [[New York Times (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2012/ 07/ 14/ arts/ design/ the-israel-museum-in-jerusalem-renewed. html?pagewanted=all& _r=0)]] [5] "Search the Israel Museum Collections" (http:/ / www. imj. org. il/ / imagine/ collections/ index. asp). Imj.org.il. . Retrieved 2012-09-19. [6] Kleiman, Shelley (March 22, 2003). "Museum and Vision" (http:/ / www. mfa. gov. il/ MFA/ MFAArchive/ 2000_2009/ 2003/ 5/ Museum and Vision). Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. . Retrieved May 6, 2009. [7] Bronner, Ethan (July 20, 2010). "Cleaning Up Intersection of Ancient and Modern" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 07/ 21/ arts/ design/ 21museum. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved December 14, 2010. [8] Transparency Is Only the Beginning, [[New York Times (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 08/ 01/ arts/ design/ 01carpenter. html?pagewanted=all)]] [9] Hazan, Susan. "The Israel Museum and the Electronic Surrogate" (http:/ / www. cultivate-int. org/ issue5/ israel/ index. html). Cultivate Interactive. . Retrieved May 6, 2009. [10] "About The Israel Museum, Jerusalem" (http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ File:IMJ_BACKGROUND_-_Institution_and_Collections. doc. pdf) (PDF). Israel Museum, Jerusalem. . Retrieved January 1, 2012. [11] Nemy, Enid (October 2, 1997). "Esther G. Gottesman, 98, Zionist With Role in Scrolls Acquisition" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1997/ 10/ 02/ nyregion/ esther-g-gottesman-98-zionist-with-role-in-scrolls-acquisition. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved May 6, 2009. [12] Muschamp, Herbert (August 19, 2001). "A Surrealist And the Widow Who Keeps The Flame" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2001/ 08/ 19/ arts/ art-architecture-a-surrealist-and-the-widow-who-keeps-the-flame. html?sec=& spon=& pagewanted=2). The New York Times. . Retrieved May 6, 2009. [13] "Israel Museum, Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. sacred-destinations. com/ israel/ jerusalem-israel-museum. htm). Sacred Destinations. . Retrieved May 6, 2009. [14] "Model of Jerusalem from the late second Temple era" (http:/ / www. huliq. com/ 2430/ model-of-jerusalem-from-the-late-second-temple-era). Huliq News. . Retrieved May 6, 2009. [15] Rachum, Stephanie (November 1, 2006). Impressionist and Post-Impressionist Painting and Sculpture in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN978-0-8109-5738-1.

Israel Museum
[16] "The Israel Museum, Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. israel-travel-center. com/ attractions_israel-mseuml. html). Israel Travel Center. . Retrieved May 6, 2009. [17] "Rockefeller Archaeological Museum" (http:/ / www. english. imjnet. org. il/ htmls/ page_1684. aspx?c0=15160& bsp=14162). The Israel Museum. . [18] "Ticho House" (http:/ / www. english. imjnet. org. il/ htmls/ page_1712. aspx?c0=15183& bsp=14296). The Israel Museum. . [19] Rachel Somerstein (February 16, 2010), Better than Bilbao? (http:/ / www. artinfo. com/ news/ story/ 33815/ better-than-bilbao/ ) ARTINFO. [20] Charmaine Picard (May 20, 2009), Israel Museum receives $12m from Safra foundation (http:/ / www. theartnewspaper. com/ article. asp?id=17337) The Art Newspaper.

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External links
(English) Official website (http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/) (Hebrew) Official website (http://www.imjnet.org.il/) (Arabic) Programs and Events Languages ( http://www.english.imjnet.org.il/htmls/page_733. aspx?c0=14234&bsp=14210)

City of David
The City of David (Hebrew: , Ir David; Arabic: ) is the oldest settled neighborhood of Jerusalem and a major archaeological site due to recognition as biblical Jerusalem. It is a narrow ridge running south from the Temple Mount. It was a walled city in the Bronze Age and, according to tradition, it is the place where King David built his palace and established his capital. The City of David was naturally defended by the Tyropoeon Valley on its west, the Hinnom valley to the south, and the Kidron Valley on the east; although over time the once-steep valley to the west has been largely filled in. In the ancient pred-Israelite period, the City of David was separated from the Temple Mount by the Ophel, an uninhabited area which became the seat of government under Israelite rule.[1] During the reign of Hezekiah, the walls of the city were expanded westward, enclosing a previously unwalled suburb in the area now known as the Old City of Jerusalem, west of the Temple Mount.

City of David, Holyland Model of Jerusalem

Although there is currently both Muslim and Jewish housing in the area, archeological digs are ongoing under many of the homes and it is proposed to make the entire ridge into an archaeological park.

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Tourist inside Hezekiah's tunnel 2010

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Archaeology
Nahal Kidron, which separated the Ophel from today's Old City, lies hidden beneath the debris of centuries. Archaeological exploration of the area began in the nineteenth century. The area includes several sites of archaeological interest, notably Hezekiah's tunnel (a water supply system, where the Siloam inscription was found), Warren's shaft (an earlier structure, postulated by some to have been a water supply system), and the Pool of Siloam (the presently extant Byzantine-era pool, and the recently discovered Second Temple-period pool). All of these water supply systems drew their water from the Gihon Spring which lies on the Ophel's eastern slope, and is generally considered the reason that the City was built at this location.[1] The site of the Gihon Spring and Pool of Siloam are incorporated in an archaeological park open to the public. Visitors can wade through Hezekiah's Tunnel, through which the waters of the ancient spring still flow.[2] The earliest excavations were undertaken by Charles Warren in 1867; there have been numerous excavations since and several digs are currently underway. Complete lists of the Ottoman Era digs [3], British Mandate era digs [4], Jordanian era digs [5] and of the early Israeli era digs [6] are available at the website of the Israel Antiquities Authority.
Part of the Large Stone Structure identified by some archaeologists with the remains of King David's Palace.

Chalcolithic (45003500 BCE)

Chalcolithic remains include bits of pottery found in clefts in the bedrock by Macalister and Duncan.[7] The expedition also discovered a number of artifices cut into the bedrock. These included places where the rock had been smoothed and others where it had been cut to form flow channels. There were also several groups of small basins, sometimes called cupmarks, cut into the bedrock. These are assumed to have been used for some form of agricultural processing. Macalister and Duncan speculated that they were used in olive oil processing.[7] Edwin C. M. van den Brink, who notes that similar carved basins have been found at Beit Shemesh and near Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut speculates that they may have been created by repeated grinding and crushing activity, such as the grinding of grain or the crushing of olives.[8] Eilat Mazar speculates that they were used to collect rainwater.[1]

Early Bronze Age (35002350 BCE)

Pieces of pottery.

Middle Bronze Age (20001550 BCE)

Middle Bronze Age Jerusalem is mentioned several times in Egyptian texts from the 19th-18th centuries BCE.[9] It is mentioned in this era in the biblical story of Melchizedek.(Genesis 14:18-20) In this period the city is sufficiently large and powerful to construct a "massive" stone wall to defend its water supply, the Gihon Spring, by protecting the vulnerable passage from the top of the hill to the spring tower below.[10]

City of David

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Late Bronze Age (15501200 BCE)

Pottery and bronze arrowheads dating form this period have been found.[1] In 2010, a fragment of a clay tablet dating form the 14th century BCE was uncovered, making it the oldest written document yet uncovered in Jerusalem. It is dated by the writing it bears, in an ancient Akkadian cuneiform script. The text was deciphered by graduate student Takayoshi Oshima working under professor Wayne Horowitz. According to Horowitz, the quality of the writing indicates that this was a royal inscription, apparently a letter from the a king of Jerusalem to the pharaoh in Egypt.[11] Professor Christopher Rollston points out that there is no mention of any personal names or titles and no place names in the document. He notes that the quality of the script is good but that this does not show that it is "international royal correspondence." He also suggests that caution should be taken before positing a definite date as it is not a stratified find, having been discovered after excavation in a 'wet sieving' process.[12]

Iron Age I (1200980/70 BCE)

Jebusite city. A city wall dating to no later than the twelfth century BCE has been uncovered, and neither its existence nor the existence of a fortified city at that date is in dispute. On one side of the controversy are those who maintain the plausibility or validity of the biblical account of a conquest by troops under King David who, as described in the Bible, capture the city not only by breaching the walls,[13] but also by climbing upwards through the ancient water system at the Gihon Spring.[14] The supposition is that the Israelites continued to use the intact Jebusite walls and extended the city northward, under king Solomon, to include the Temple Mount.[15]

Jebusite city wall.

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Iron Age IIa (1000900 BCE)

The period of the tenth and ninth centuries BCE, corresponding to the biblical Kings David and Solomon, has been the subject of an intense scholarly dispute, as well as of ongoing archaeological investigations.[16] The 2005 discovery by archaeologist Eilat Mazar of a Large Stone Structure, which she dated to the tenth century BCE, would be evidence of buildings in Jerusalem of a size appropriate to the capital of a centralized kingdom at that time. Others, most notably Israel Finkelstein of Tel Aviv University, argue that the structure could, for the most part, be from the much later Hasmonean period.[17] However, new evidence continues to emerge from the dig. Mazar's date is supported by 10th century imported luxury goods found within the large Stone Structure, including two Phoenician-style ivory inlays once attached to iron objects, comparable objects found in a Phoenician tomb at Achziv suggest that they may have decorated a sword handle.[18] A quantity of luxury round, carinated bowls with red slip and hand burnishing support both the tenth century date and a sophisticated, urban lifestyle.[19] A bone has been radiocarbon dated by Elisabetta Boaretto at the Weizmann Institute, showing a probability date between 1050 and 780 BCE.[19] A large section of a "delicate and elegant" Black-on-red jug, also found in the structure, is of a kind dated to the second half of the tenth century BCE.[20][21]

Stepped Stone Structure (Millo).

In 2010 Mazar announced the discovery of what Mazar believed to be a 10th-century BCE city wall. According to Mazar, ""It's the most significant construction we have from First Temple days in Israel," and "It means that at that time, the 10th century, in Jerusalem there was a regime capable of carrying out such Sign at the center of Hezekiah's Tunnel construction." The 10th century BCE is the period the Bible describes as the reign of King Solomon. Aren Maeir, an archeology professor at Bar Ilan University, said he has yet to see evidence that the fortifications are as old as Mazar claims.[22] Necropolis

City of David

382 The elaborate rock-cut tombs of the Israelite period, dating from the 9th to the 7th centuries BCE are found on the ridge on the far side of the Kidron Valley in and under the Arab village of Silwan.[23] These are large, elaborate tombs of finely-cut stone,such as could only have been built by the highest-ranking members of a wealthy society. According to David Ussishkin, "here ministers, nobles and notables of the kingdom of Judah were buried."[23]

The architecture of the tombs and the manner of burial is different "from anything known from contemporary Palestine. Elements such as Remnants of the Tomb of Pharaoh's daughter entrances located high above the surface, gabled ceilings, straight ceilings with a cornice,13 trough-shaped resting-places with pillows, above-ground tombs, and inscriptions engraved on the facade appear only here."[23] However, the stone benches were carved with headrests in a style borrowed from Egyptian Hathor wig.[24] Ussishkin believes that the architectural similarity to building styles of the Phoenician cities validates the biblical description of Phoenician influence on the Israelite kingdoms, but speculates that some or all of the tombs may have been built by Phoenician aristocrats living in Jerusalem.[23] Although only three partial inscriptions survive, the paleography makes the dating certain [23] and they suffice for most archaeologists to identify one tomb with the Biblical Shebna, steward and treasurer of King Hezekiah.[25]

Iron Age IIIb (8th century 586 BCE)

This is the period that corresponds to the biblical Kings Hezekiah through Josiah and the destruction of the Kingdom of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar II. King Hezekiah secured the city's water supply against siege by digging the Hezekiah Tunnel through bedrock and covering over all signs of the Gihon Spring and the fortifications that had surrounded it in earlier periods. He built the Pool of Siloam as a water reservoir. Hezekiah then surrounded the new reservoir and the city's burgeoning western suburbs with a new city wall.[26][27]

Babylonian and Persian periods (586322 BCE)

Two bullae in the neo-Babylonian style, one showing a priest standing beside an altar to the gods Marduk and Nabu.[28] A polished, black, stone Scaraboid seal showing a "Babylonian cultic scene" of two bearded men standing on each side of an altar dedicated to the Babylonian moon god Sin. The scaraboid is understood to have been produced in Babylonia, with space left below that altar for a personal name. In that space are Hebrew letters that Peter van der Veen has read as the name Shelomit.[29]

Hasmonean and Herodian periods (167 BCE 70 CE)

Major archaeological finds include the Pool of Siloam, the Jerusalem pilgrim road, the palace of Queen Helena of Adiabene and the Jerusalem Water Channel. Active Roman-era excavations are also underway at the Givati Parking Lot dig site.[30]

New Testament references for the City of David being Bethlehem

Jesus birth in Bethlehem also called City of David Luke 2:4 And Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, unto the city of David, which is called Bethlehem; (because he was of the house and lineage of David:) Luke 2:11 For unto you is born this day in the city of David a Saviour, which is Christ the Lord.

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Byzantine and early Islamic Periods (3241099 AD)

Byzantine era mansion called the House of Eusebius.[31]

Modern period
Mid-19th century photographs taken by Scotsman James Graham (photographer) (185357) show the ridge of Ir David as being devoid of housing. It is terraced and planted, apparently, with olive trees.[32] Modern settlement on the ridge began in the City of David in 1873-1874, when the Meyuchas family, a Jewish rabbinical and merchant family that had lived in Jerusalem since their expulsion from Spain, moved a short distance outside the city walls to a house on the ridge.[33] During the latter stages of the Mandate era the nearby Arab village of Silwan expanded up the ridge of the City of David. After the 1948 ArabIsraeli Ir David and the Mount of Olives War, the whole area fell on the eastern side of the Green Line under Jordanian control. Arab families continued to live on the ridge of the City of David and to build houses there after 1967. From 1968 to 1977 the Israel Exploration Society started the first excavations at the Ophel, lead by Benjamin Mazar and Eilat Mazar.[34]

Controversy
The right to control both the archaeological and the residential aspects of the City of David is hotly contested by Israelis and Palestinians.[35] There is a proposal to turn most of the area into an archaeological park,[36] and to restore a part of the Kidron Valley currently occupied by Palestinians as a park to be called the Garden of the King.[37]

References
[1] Mazar, Eilat, Excavations at the Summit of the City of David, Preliminary Report of Seasons 2005-2007, Shoham, Jerusalem and New York, 2009, p. 21. [2] Archaeology and the City of David, Rick Sherrod, Good News: A Magazine of Understanding, (http:/ / www. gnmagazine. org/ issues/ gn05/ cityofdavid. htm) [3] http:/ / www. archpark. org. il/ excavations1a. shtml [4] http:/ / www. archpark. org. il/ excavations1b. shtml [5] http:/ / www. archpark. org. il/ excavations1c. shtml [6] http:/ / www. archpark. org. il/ excavations1d. shtml [7] Macalister, R.A. and Duncan, J.G., Excavations on the hill of Ophel, Jerusalem, 1923-1925; being the joint expedition of the Palestine Exploration Fund and the 'Daily Telegraph', London, 1926. [8] Edwin C. M. van den Brink, "A New Fossil Directer of the Chalcolithic Landscape in the Shephelah and the Samarian and Judaean Hill Countries: Stationary Grinding Facilities in Bedrock", IEJ 58.1 (2008), pp.1-23. [9] Mazar, Eilat, Excavations at the Summit of the City of David, Preliminary Report of Seasons 2005-2007, Shoham, Jerusalem and New York, 2009, p. 23. [10] 'Massive' ancient wall uncovered in Jerusalem (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2009/ WORLD/ meast/ 09/ 04/ israel. wall. discovered/ index. html) [11] (http:/ / www. jidaily. com/ uOZ/ e)"Oldest written document ever found in J'lem," Hartman, July 12, 2010, Jerusalem Post. [12] Rollston, Christopher. "Rollstons Reflections on the Fragmentary Cuneiform Tablet from the Ophel: A Critique of the Proposed Historical Context" (http:/ / www. rollstonepigraphy. com/ ?p=90). . Retrieved 15 July 2010. [13] I Kings 11:27 and I Chronicles 11:8 [14] II Samuel 5:8 [15] I Kings 9:15

City of David
[16] Rachel Ginsberg (2009-06-29). "The world of archeology is rocked by evidence of King David's palace unearthed in Jerusalem" (http:/ / www. aish. com/ jw/ j/ 48961251. html). Aish.com. . Retrieved 2009-06-29. [17] Israel Finkelstein, Ze'ev Herzog, Lily Singer-Avitz and David Ussishkin (2007), Has King David's Palace in Jerusalem Been Found? (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ humanities/ archaeology/ info/ TA34-2_King_David. pdf), Tel Aviv: Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, 34(2), 142-164 [18] Mazar, Eilat, Excavations at the Summit of the City of David, Preliminary Report of Seasons 2005-2007, Shoham, Jerusalem and New York, 2009, pp. 52-3. [19] Mazar, Eilat, Excavations at the Summit of the City of David, Preliminary Report of Seasons 2005-2007, Shoham, Jerusalem and New York, 2009, p. 52. [20] Color photo in Mazar, Eilat, Excavations at the Summit of the City of David, Preliminary Report of Seasons 2005-2007, Shoham, Jerusalem and New York, 2009, p. 53. [21] Herzog, H. and Sinver-Avitz, L., Redefining the Center: The Emergence of State in Judah, Tel Aviv, 31/2, 2004, pp. 209-44. [22] Jerusalem city wall dates back to King Solomon, Jerusalem Post, Fe. 23, 2010, (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Israel/ Article. aspx?id=169388) [23] The Necropolis from the Time of the Kingdom of Judah at Silwan, Jerusalem, David Ussishkin, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 33, No. 2 (May, 1970), pp. 33-46, [24] Joffe, Alexander, The Rise of Secondary States in the Iron Age Levant, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 45, No. 4, 2002, pp. 425-467. [25] "Ancient Jerusalem's Funerary Customs and Tombs: Part Two, L. Y. Rahmani, The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 44, No. 4 (Autumn, 1981), pp. 229-235. [26] Jerusalem: an archaeological biography, Hershel Shanks,Random House, 1995, p. 80. [27] Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem: The finds from areas A, W and X-2 : final report Volume 2 of Jewish Quarter Excavations in the Old City of Jerusalem: Conducted by Nahman Avigad, 1969-1982, Nahman Avigad, Hillel Geva, Israel Exploration Society, 2000. [28] Mazar, Eilat, Excavations at the Summit of the City of David, Preliminary Report of Seasons 2005-2007, Shoham, Jerusalem and New York, 2009, pp. 77-8. [29] Mazar, Eilat, Excavations at the Summit of the City of David, Preliminary Report of Seasons 2005-2007, Shoham, Jerusalem and New York, 2009, pp. 78-9. [30] "2,000 year-old cameo found in Jerusalem," (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Israel/ Article. aspx?id=186462) Aug. 30, 2010, Jerusalem Post. [31] Macalister, R.A. and Duncan, J.G., Excavations on the hill of Ophel, Jerusalem, 1923-1925 being the joint expedition of the Palestine Exploration Fund and the 'Daily Telegraph', London, 1926. [32] Photos available in "Picturing Jerusalem, James Graham and Michael Diness, photographers", ed. Nissan N. Perez, Israel Museum, 2007. p. 31 and others. [33] Yemin Moshe: The Story of a Jerusalem Neighborhood, Eliezer David Jaffe, Praeger, 1988, p. 51 [34] Excavations on the South of the Twemple mount. The Ophel od Biblical Jerusalem, Qedem. Monographs of the Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , No. 29, 1989 ISSN 0333-5844 [35] Ahdaf Soueif writes on Ir David's settling of Silwan in the Guardian (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2010/ may/ 26/ jerusalem-city-of-david-palestinians-archaeology) [36] http:/ / www. archpark. org. il/ about_gen. shtml [37] id=168833 (http:/ / www. jpost. com/ Israel/ Article. aspx?) Gan Hamelech residents wary of Barkats redevelopment plan, Abe Selig, Feb. 16, 2010, Jerusalem Post.

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External links
City of David (http://www.cityofdavid.org) From Shiloah to Silwan project (http://www.alt-arch.org) Shady Dealings in Silwan: An Ir Amim Report (http://www.ir-amim.org.il/Eng/_Uploads/dbsAttachedFiles/ Silwanreporteng.pdf) Did I Find King David's Palace? (http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/king-davids-palace.asp) Biblical Archaeology Review The Dig Dividing Jerusalem: Ahdaf Soueif writes on Silwan in the Guardian (http://www.guardian.co.uk/ world/2010/may/26/jerusalem-city-of-david-palestinians-archaeology)

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Garden Tomb
The Garden Tomb (also known as Gordon's Calvary),[1] located in Jerusalem, outside the city walls and close to the Damascus Gate, is a rock-cut tomb considered by some to be the site of the burial and resurrection of Jesus, and to be adjacent to Golgotha,[2] in contradistinction to the traditional site for thesethe Church of the Holy Sepulchre. There is no mention of the Garden Tomb as the place of Jesus's burial before the nineteenth century.

Motivation and discovery

The front of the Garden Tomb

During the nineteenth century some doubts were raised concerning the authenticity of the traditional site, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre: Prior to Constantine's time, the site was a temple to Aphrodite, built by Hadrian.[3] Archaeology suggests that the exact location claimed for the tomb would have been within Hadrian's Temple, or likely to have been destroyed under the temple's heavy retaining wall.[4][5] The temple's location complies with the typical layout of Roman cities (i.e. adjacent to the Forum, at the intersection of the main north-south road with the main east-west road), rather than necessarily being a deliberate act of contempt for Christianity. A spur would be required for the rockface to have included both the alleged site of the tomb and the tombs beyond the western end of the church. First century Jewish leaders condemn the idea of burial to the west of the city,[6] a condemnation archaeologically corroborated by the locations of the known ancient Jewish graves.[7] The site is currently within the Old City walls, and due to the heights of the terrain, it would be dangerous and unlikely, from a town-defense point of view, for the walls to have previously been east of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[8] The tombs west of the site are believed to date from the first century, indicating that the site was outside the city at that time, although they could date from centuries prior to that.[9]

Due to these issues, several nineteenth century scholars had rejected the traditional site's validity. Additionally many Protestants have often opposed the traditional location simply because it has previously received support from Roman Catholic Church, and is sited within an environment which is not low church.[10] Many of these concerns were aired in the time of Major-General Charles George Gordon, CB, and it is surmised that he, a Protestant, was motivated by them to look elsewhere. In 1883, near to the Damascus Gate, General Gordon found a rocky escarpment (now situated just behind a bus station), which from several angles resembled the face of a skull; since one of the possible etymologies for Golgotha is the Aramaic word for skull, and may refer to the shape of the place, Gordon concluded that the rocky escarpment was likely to have been Golgotha. Prior to Gordon, this possibility had also been suggested by Colonel Conder in 1870 (an associate of Lord Kitchener),[11] by Fisher Howe in 1871,[12] and by the German scholar Otto Thenius in 1842.[13]

Garden Tomb The Church of the Holy Sepulchre has its tomb just a few yards away from its Golgotha, corresponding with the account of John the Evangelist: "Now in the place where he was crucified there was a garden; and in the garden a new sepulchre, wherein was never man yet laid." KJV (John19:41). In 1869 a number of tombs had also been found near Gordon's Golgotha, and Gordon concluded that one of them must have been the tomb of Jesus. John also specifies that Jesus' tomb was located in a garden;[14] consequently, an ancient wine press and cistern have been cited as evidence that the area had once been a garden, and the somewhat isolated tomb adjacent to the cistern has become identified as the Garden Tomb of Jesus. This particular tomb also has a stone groove running along the ground outside it, which Gordon argued to be a slot that once housed a stone, corresponding to the biblical account of a stone being rolled over the tomb entrance to close it.

386

A view of the Garden Tomb from the 1930s

Wide view of the escarpment, the picture in the foreground is a historical photograph (1880) of the same rock face

Close up image of the rocky escarpment, showing one possible view of a skull shape

Close up image of an adjacent part of the rocky escarpment, showing another possible skull shape

Inside the tomb

Inside the tomb

Inside the tomb

Archaeological investigations and critical analysis

Golgotha
Besides the skull-like appearance, there are a few other details put forward in favor of the identification as Golgotha. The location of the site would have made executions carried out there a highly visible sight, to people using the main road leading north from the city; the presence of the skull-feature in the background would have added to the deterrent effect. Additionally, Eusebius comments that Golgotha was in his day (the fourth century AD) pointed out "north of Mount Zion."[15] Although the Garden Tomb's Golgotha is, like the Holy Sepulchre Church, north of the hill currently referred to as Mount Zion, the hill has only had that name since the Middle Ages; previously Mount Zion referred to the Temple Mount itself, which is due East of the traditional site, but south south east of the Garden Tomb.

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The tomb
The earliest detailed investigation of the tomb itself was a brief report prepared in 1874 by Conrad Schick, a Swiss antiquarian, but the fullest archaeological study of the area has been the seminal investigation by Gabriel Barkay, professor of Biblical archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and at Bar-Ilan University, during the late twentieth century. The tomb has two chambers, the second to the right of the first, with stone benches along the sides of each wall in the second chamber, except the wall joining it to the first, and along the back wall of the first chamber; the benches have been heavily damaged but are still discernible.[16] The edge of the groove outside the tomb has a diagonal edge, which would be unable to hold a stone slab in place (the slab would just fall out);[16] additionally, known tombs of the rolling-stone type use vertical walls on either side of the entrance to hold the stone, not a groove on the ground.[16] Barkay concluded that: The waterproofing on the cistern is of the type used by the Crusaders, and the cistern must date to that era[16] The groove was a water trough, built by the 11th century Crusaders for donkeys/mules[16] The cistern was built as part of the same stable complex as the groove[16] The design of the interior of the tomb is typical of the 8th-7th centuries BC, and fell out of use later.

Reception
Due to the archaeological issues the Garden Tomb site raises, several scholars have rejected its claim to be Jesus' tomb. However, despite the archaeological discoveries, the Garden Tomb has become a popular place of pilgrimage among Protestants. Mormon leaders have not formally committed to the identification, but the Garden Tomb has been the most favored candidate site among church leaders.[17][18] Though acceptance of the validity of the traditional site, at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, is not a tenet of faith for any major Christian denomination, many Catholic and Orthodox Christians ignore the potential of the Garden Tomb, and hold fast to the traditional location. One unquestionable virtue of the site is that it is far more similar to the scene that would have been experienced at the time than the Church of the Holy Sepulchre presents; for that reason it is worth a visit, whether or not it is actually the site concerned.

References
[1] Losch, Richard (2005). The Uttermost Part of the Earth: A Guide to Places in the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: W.B. Eerdmans. p.64. ISBN978-0-8028-2805-7. [2] The Garden Tomb (http:/ / www. gardentomb. com/ information. php) [3] Eusebius Pamphilius, Life of Constantine (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ fathers2/ NPNF2-01/ Npnf2-01-29. htm#P7646_3165242) [4] Virgilio Corbo, The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (1981) [5] Dan Bahat, Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?, in Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 1986 [6] Baba Batra 25a [7] Ephraim Stern, (editor), New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, 1993 [8] Colonel Claude R. Conder, The City of Jerusalem (1909), (republished 2004); for details about Conder himself, see Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener#Survey of Western Palestine [9] Rachel Hachlili, (2005) Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period [10] International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, entry on Jerusalem. [11] Claude R. Conder, The City of Jerusalem (1909), (republished 2004). [12] William Steuart McBirnie, The Search for the Authentic Tomb of Jesus (1975). [13] Bill White, A Special Place: The Story of the Garden Tomb (1989). [14] John19:41 [15] Eusebius, Onomasticon, 365. [16] Gabriel Barkay, The Garden Tomb, published in Biblical Archaeology Review March/April 1986.

Garden Tomb
[17] John A. Tvedtnes, "The Garden Tomb" (http:/ / lds. org/ ensign/ 1983/ 04/ the-garden-tomb?lang=eng& query=garden+ tomb), Ensign, Apr. 1983. [18] "Bible Photos: Garden Tomb" (http:/ / lds. org/ scriptures/ bible-maps/ photo-14?lang=eng), lds.org. The caption states, "This is a traditional site of the Saviors burial. Several modern prophets have felt that the Saviors body was laid in this garden tomb."

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External links
Official Website (http://www.gardentomb.org/) Site with many links associated with the Garden tomb (http://www.bibleplaces.com/gardentomb.htm)

Calvary
For alternative meanings, see: Calvary (disambiguation), Mount Calvary (disambiguation), and Golgotha (disambiguation). Calvary or Golgotha /l/ was, according to the Gospels, a site immediately outside Jerusalems walls where Jesus was crucified. Golgotha is the Greek transcription in the New Testament of an Aramaic term that has traditionally been presumed to be Glgalt (but see below for an alternative). The Bible translates the term to mean place of [the] skull, which in Greek is (Kraniou Topos), and in Latin is Calvariae Locus, from which the English word Calvary is derived.

Traditional site of Golgotha, within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

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Biblical references and etymology

Golgotha is referred to in early writings as a hill resembling a skullcap located very near to a gate into Jerusalem. A spot there is called Golgotha, - of old the fathers' earlier tongue thus called its name, "The skull-pan of a head".[1] Since the 6th century it has been referred to as the location of a mountain,[2] and as a small hill since 333.[3] The Gospels describe it as a place near enough to the city that those coming in and out could read the inscription 'Jesus of Nazareth - King of the Jews'[4] . When the King James Version was written, the translators used an anglicised version Calvary of the Latin gloss from the Vulgate (Calvari), to refer to Golgotha in the Gospel of Luke, rather than translate it; subsequent uses of Calvary stem from this single translation decision. The location itself is mentioned in all four canonical Gospels: Mark: And they brought him to the place called Gol'gotha (which means the place of a skull).[5] Matthew: And when they came to a place called Gol'gotha (which means the place of a skull).[6] Luke: And when they came to the place which is called The Skull, there they crucified him, and the criminals, one on the right and one on the left.[7] John: So they took Jesus, and he went out, bearing his own cross, to the place called the place of a skull, which is called in Hebrew Gol'gotha.[8] The place of a skull etymology is based on the Hebrew verbal root g-l-l, from which the Hebrew word for skull, (gulggolet),[9] is derived. A number of alternative explanations have been given for the name. It has been suggested that the Aramaic name is actually Gol Goatha, meaning mount of execution, possibly the same location as the Goatha mentioned in a Book of Jeremiah passage,[10] The altar at the traditional site of Golgotha. describing the geography of Jerusalem[3] An alternative explanation is that the location was a place of public execution, and the name refers to abandoned skulls that would be found there,[11] or that the location was near a cemetery, and the name refers to the bones buried there.[3] In some Christian and Jewish traditions, the name Golgotha refers to the location of the skull of Adam.[2] A common version states that Shem and Melchizedek traveled to the resting place of Noah's Ark, retrieved the body of Adam from it, and were led by Angels to Golgotha described as a skull-shaped hill at the centre of the Earth, where also the serpent's head had been crushed following the Fall of man. This tradition appears in numerous older sources, including the Kitab al-Magall, the Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan, the Cave of Treasures, and the writings of Patriarch Eutychius of Alexandria. It is also suggested that the location's landscape resembled the shape of a skull, and gained its name for that reason.[3]

The altar at the traditional site of Golgotha. Pilgrims are bowing down to kiss the star which marks the traditional spot where the Cross of Jesus was planted.

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Traditional location

Pilgrims queue to touch rock of Calvary in Chapel of the Crucifixion Disc marking traditional place, under the altar, where Jesus' cross stood.

The traditional location of Golgotha derives from its identification by Helena, the mother of Constantine I, in 325. A few yards nearby, Helena also identified the location of the Tomb of Jesus and claimed to have discovered the True Cross; her son, Constantine, then built the Church of the Holy Sepulchre around the whole site. In 333, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux, entering from the east described the result:

The Holy Sepulchre (1) in the Christian Quarter of Jerusalem.

On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault [crypta] wherein his body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica; that is [12] to say, a church of wondrous beauty.

In Naznie Garibian de Vartavan's doctoral thesis, now published as La Jrusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrtiens de lArmnie. Mthode pour ltude de lglise comme temple de Dieu, she concluded, through multiple arguments (mainly theological and archaeological), that the true site of Golgotha was precisely at the vertical of the now buried Constantinian basilica's altar and away from where the traditional rock of Golgotha is situated.[13] The plans published in the book indicate the location of the Golgotha within a precision of less than two meters, below the circular passage situated a metre away from where the blood stained shirt of Christ was traditionally recovered and immediately before the stairs leading down to "St. Helena's Chapel" (the above mentioned mother of Emperor Constantine), alternatively called "St. Vartan's Chapel".

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The temple to Aphrodite

Prior to Helena's identification, the site had been a temple to Aphrodite. Constantine's construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure, and the Rotunda and cloister (which was replaced after the 12th century by the present Catholicon and Calvary chapel) roughly overlap with the temple building itself; the basilica church which Constantine built over the remainder of the enclosure was destroyed at the turn of the 11th century, and has not been replaced. Christian tradition justifies this re-use by claiming that the location had originally been a Christian place of veneration, but that Hadrian had deliberately buried these Christian sites and built his own temple on top, on account of his alleged hatred for Christianity.[14] There is certainly evidence that just 30 years after Hadrian's temple had been built, Christians associated it with the site of Golgotha; Melito of Sardis, a late 2nd century bishop in the region, described the location as in the middle of the street, in the middle of the city,[15] which matches the position of Hadrian's temple within the late 2nd century city.

Jerusalem after being rebuilt by Hadrian. Two main east-west roads were built rather than the typical one, due to the awkward location of the Temple Mount, blocking the central east-west route.

However, Hadrian's temple had actually been located there simply because it was the junction of the main north-south road (which is now the Suq Khan-ez-Zeit, etc.) with one of the two main east-west roads (which is now the Via Dolorosa), and directly adjacent to the forum (which is now the location of the (smaller) Muristan); the forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north-south road with the (other) main east-west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street). The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east-west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Russian Mission in Exile).

Questions of the location in relation to the city walls

The New Testament describes the crucifixion site, Golgotha, as being "near the city" (John 19:20), and "outside the city wall" (Heb. 13:12). The traditionally identified location is in the heart of Hadrian's city, well within Jerusalem's Old City Walls; there has therefore been some questioning of the legitimacy of the traditional identification on these grounds. Some defenders of this tradition have responded by citing Jewish history of the wall, that the city had been much narrower in Jesus' time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (4144) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well. In 2003, Professor Sir Henry Chadwick (former Dean of Christ Church, Oxford) argued that when Hadrian's builders replanned the old city, they "incidentally confirm[ed] the bringing of Golgotha inside a new town wall."[16]

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Some Protestant advocates of an alternative site claim that a wall would imply the existence of a defensive ditch outside it, so an earlier wall couldn't be immediately adjacent to the Golgotha site, which combined the presence of the Temple Mount would make the city inside the wall quite thin; essentially for the traditional site to have been outside the wall, the city would have had to be limited to the lower parts of the Tyropoeon Valley, rather than including the If the western city wall was originally to the east of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, then the defensively advantageous western hill. Since these geographic western hill, on which it is sited, would have been considerations imply that not including the hill within the walls would advantageous to an enemy be willfully making the city prone to attack from it, some scholars, including the late 19th century surveyors of the Palestine Exploration Fund, consider it unlikely that a wall would ever have been built which would cut the hill off from the city in the valley;[17] archaeological evidence for the existence of an earlier city wall in such a location has never been found. In another viewpoint, in 2007 Dan Bahat, the former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem and Professor of Land of Israel Studies at Bar-Ilan University, stated that "Six graves from the first century were found on the area of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. That means, this place [was] outside of the city, without any doubt".[18] The dating of the tombs is based on the fact that they are in the kokh style, which was common in 1st century; however, the kokh style of tomb was also common in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC.[19]

The rockface
During 19731978 restoration works and excavations inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and under the nearby Muristan, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white Meleke limestone was struck;[20] surviving parts of the quarry to the north-east of the chapel of St. Helena are now accessible from within the chapel (by permission). Inside the church is a rock, about 7m long by 3m wide by 4.8m high,[20] that is traditionally believed to be all that now remains visible of Golgotha; the design of the church means that the Calvary Chapel contains the upper foot or so of the rock, while the remainder is in the chapel beneath it (known as the tomb of Adam). Virgilio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, present at the excavations, suggested that from the city the little hill (which still exists) could have looked like a skull.[21]

The Rock of Golgotha inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

During a 1986 repair to the floor of the Calvary Chapel by the art historian George Lavas and architect Theo Mitropoulos, a round slot of 11.5cm diameter was discovered in the rock, partly open on one side (Lavas attributes the open side to accidental damage during his repairs);[22] although the dating of the slot is uncertain, and could date to Hadrian's temple of Aphrodite, Lavas suggested that it could have been the site of the crucifixion, as it would be strong enough to hold in place a wooden trunk of up to 2.5m height (among other things).[23][24] The same restoration work also revealed a crack running across the surface of the rock, which continues down to the Chapel of Adam;[22] the crack is thought by archaeologists to have been a result of the quarry workmen encountering a flaw in the rock.[25]

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Based on the late 20th century excavations of the site, there have been a number of attempted reconstructions of the profile of the cliff face. These often attempt to show the site as it would have appeared to Constantine. However, as the ground level in Roman times was about 45 feet lower and the site housed Hadrian's temple to Aphrodite, much of the surrounding rocky slope must have been removed long before Constantine built the church on the site. The height of the Golgotha rock itself would have caused it to jut through the platform level of the Aphrodite temple, where it would be clearly visible. The reason for Hadrian not cutting Profile based on attempted reconstruction by a German documentary. the rock down is uncertain, but Virgilio Corbo suggested that a statue, probably of Aphrodite, was placed on it,[26] a suggestion also made by Jerome. Some archaeologists have been suggested that prior to Hadrian's use, the rock outcrop had been a nefesh - a Jewish funeral monument, equivalent to the stele.[27]

Pilgrimages to Constantine's Church

The Itinerarium Burdigalense speaks of Golgotha in 333: "... On the left hand is the little hill of Golgotha where the Lord was crucified. About a stone's throw from thence is a vault (crypta) wherein His body was laid, and rose again on the third day. There, at present, by the command of the Emperor Constantine, has been built a basilica, that is to say, a church of wondrous beauty,"[28] Cyril of Jerusalem, a distinguished theologian of the early Church, and eyewitness to the early days of Constantine's edifice, speaks of Golgotha in eight separate passages, sometimes as near to the church in which he and his Icon of Jesus being led to Golgotha, 16th century, listeners were assembled:[29] "Golgotha, the holy hill standing above us Theophanes the Cretan (Stavronikita Monastery, Mount Athos). here, bears witness to our sight: the Holy Sepulchre bears witness, and the stone which lies there to this day."[30] And just in such a way the pilgrim Egeria often reported in 383: " the church, built by Constantine, which is situated in Golgotha ",[31] and also bishop Eucherius of Lyon wrote to the island presbyter Faustus in 440: "Golgotha is in the middle between the Anastasis and the Martyrium, the place of the Lord's passion, in which still appears that rock which once endured the very cross on which the Lord was.",[32] and Breviarius de Hierosolyma reports in 530: "From there (the middle of the basilica), you enter into Golgotha, where there is a large court. Here the Lord was crucified. All around that hill, there are silver screens."[33] (See also: Eusebius in 338[34]).

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Alternative locations
In 188283, Major-General Charles George Gordon proposed a different location. The location, which some Protestants call the Garden Tomb, is beneath a cliff which contains two large sunken holes, which Gordon regarded as resembling the eyes of a skull; he and a few others before him believed that the skull-like appearance would have caused the location to be known as Golgotha. The Garden Tomb contains several ancient burial places, although pottery and archaeological findings in the area have been dated to the 7th century BC, so the site would have been abandoned by the 1st century.[35] Rocky escarpment that some claim to resemble the face of a skull, Eusebius comments that Golgotha was in his day (the located northwest of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, near the Garden Tomb which had never been recognized by any church. In 4th century) pointed out north of Mount Zion.[36] the foreground is an 1880 photograph of the same rock face. Although the hill currently referred to as Mount Zion is indeed south of the traditional site for Golgotha, it has only had that name since the Middle Ages, and previously 'Mount Zion' referred to the Temple Mount itself. The Garden Tomb is north of both. Another alternate location has been proposed by Rodger Dusatko, a missionary in Germany. He claims that the location of Golgotha is just outside the Lion's gate [37]; a hill which has the appearance of the skull-pan of a head.

All four Gospels use the Greek word 'Kranion' to describe the place where Jesus was crucified. Different than Skufion (skull), Kranion is referring to the upper part of the skull, or the skull-pan. The Gospels testify that as Jesus died the temple curtain was rent in two, witnessed[38] by the Centurion and those with him.[39] and the veil of the sanctuary was rent in two, from top to bottom, and the centurion who was standing over-against him, having seen that, having so cried out, he yielded the spirit, said, `Truly this man was Son of God.' Mk 15,38-39 Youngs Literal Translation Also the earliest Gospel harmony, the Diatessaron of Tatian (160175 AD) refers to this incident which those standing on Golgotha witnessed. And immediately the face of the door of the temple was rent into two parts from top to bottom... And the officer of the footsoldiers, and they that were with him who were guarding Jesus, when they saw the earthquake, and the things which came to pass, feared greatly, and praised God, and said, This man was righteous; and, Truly he was the Son of God. And all the multitudes that were come together to the sight, when they saw what came to pass, returned and smote upon their breasts. Diatessaron 52,2 The face of the door is referring to the outer curtain of the temple before the temple door, not the two curtains within the temple before the holy of holies. In the temple standing during Jesus' life, there were two curtains separating the

Calvary holy of holies, called the debir.[40] If the two curtains of the debir had ripped, it would not have been seen by anyone standing about Jesus and therefore it could not be testified to, that it ripped at the moment when Jesus died. It would have been possible for those with good eyesight to have seen the curtain rip from the mount of Olives, over seven hundred meters away. But from this hill just outside the temple area everyone gathered there would have wittnessed it. The Gospel of John refers to Golgotha as being very near the city, so near that all who passed by could read the inscription[19:20]. Considering also the prophecy in Psalms 69:12[69:12], his place of crucifixion would have been near enough to the gate that Jesus could hear what the people were saying about him there. And just as Eusebius comments in Onomasticon, this is the hill outside Jerusalem that lies north of the ancient Mount Zion. Golgotha. Place of the skull where the Christ was crucified. It is pointed out in Jerusalem north of Mt. Zion. Eusebius Onomasticon Section C The Gospels.

395

View of the Lion's Gate from the top of Golgotha. This is the location of the earlier Sheep Gate near the Roman Quarters of Jerusalem. The street Via Dolorosa leads to this gate. (Neh 3,1,32 and John 5,2)

View of the priest as he sprinkled the blood towards the entrance of the temple. His view went directly over Golgotha.

Map showing alternate locations of Golgotha. In ancient times the southern city wall extended until Hezekiah's Tunnel.

Organized tours
Organized tours are arranged by The Holy Land Tours [41] every Saturday morning including transportation from Tel Aviv. The tour pass thru the all 14 stations which Jesus passed: the conviction, the flogging and the force of the cross, the first fall, the meeting with the mother Miriam, Simon helps Jesus to carry the cross, Veronica wipes dry Jesus face, the second fall, Jesus speaks to the girls of Jerusalem, the third fall, the clothes distribution, the nailing to the cross, the crucifying, the lowering from the cross, the sepulcher and the revival.

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Other uses of the name

The name Calvary often refers to sculptures or pictures representing the scene of the crucifixion of Jesus, or a small wayside shrine incorporating such a picture. It also can be used to describe larger, more monumentlike constructions, essentially artificial hills often built by devotees, especially a tradition in Brittany in France of large stone monuments. Churches in various Christian denominations have been named Calvary. The name is also sometimes given to cemeteries, especially those associated with the Roman Catholic Church. Two Catholic religious orders have been dedicated to Mount Calvary. Several places worldwide have been named after it; including the town Kalvarija in Lithuania and towns Gra Kalwaria and Kalwaria Zebrzydowska in Poland. In the 18th and early 19th centuries at Oxford and Cambridge universities the rooms of the heads of colleges and halls were nicknamed golgotha. Apart from the obvious pun on the place of skulls (i.e. heads), this was also due to the punishments that students received in these rooms.[42]

Golgotha (Crucifixion icon), Orthodox Cathedral in Vilnius.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, a Golgotha is a representation (icon) of the crucified Jesus, often with the Theotokos (Mother of God) and John the Beloved Disciple standing to either side. This is used during Holy Week, especially during the Matins of Great Friday (Good Friday). During the rest of the year, it may stand in the nave of the church, off to one side, and will be the place where Pannikhidas (memorial services) will be chanted.

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Ante-Nicene Fathers Volume 4 - Five Books in Reply to Marcion Book 2 "Mount Calvary" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 03191a. htm). Vol. III. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1908. . Catholic Encyclopedia, Golgotha John19:20 Mark15:22 Matthew27:33 Luke23:33 John19:17 Lande, George M. (2001) [1961]. Building Your Biblical Hebrew Vocabulary Learning Words by Frequency and Cognate (http:/ / www. sbl-site. org/ publications/ ICI_Resources_Biblical_study. aspx). Resources for Biblical Study 41. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. p.115. ISBN1-58983-003-2. . [10] Jeremiah31:39 [11] Catholic Encyclopedia, Golgotha [12] Itinerarium Burdigalense, pages 593, 594 [13] Garibian de Vartavan, N. (2008). La Jrusalem Nouvelle et les premiers sanctuaires chrtiens de lArmnie. Mthode pour ltude de lglise comme temple de Dieu. London: Isis Pharia. ISBN0-9527827-7-4. [14] Eusebius, Life of Constantine, 3:26 [15] Melito of Sardis, On Easter [16] Chadwick, H. (2003). The Church in Ancient Society: From Galilee to Gregory the Great. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.21. ISBN0-19-926577-1. [17] Colonel Claude R. Conder, The City of Jerusalem (1909), (republished 2004); for details about Conder himself, see Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener#Survey of Western Palestine [18] Dan Bahat in German television ZDF, April 11, 2007 (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071022135746/ http:/ / zdf. de/ ZDFde/ inhalt/ 17/ 0,1872,5262833,00. html) [19] Rachel Hachlili, (2005) Jewish Funerary Customs, Practices and Rites in the Second Temple Period [20] Hesemann, Michael (1999). Die Jesus-Tafel. Freiburg. p.170. ISBN3-451-27092-7. (German)

Calvary
[21] Hesemann 1999, p.170: "Von der Stadt aus mu er tatschlich wie eine Schdelkuppe ausgesehen haben," and page 190: a sketch; and page 172: a sketch of the geological findings by C. Katsimbinis, 1976: "der Felsblock ist zu 1/8 unterhalb des Kirchenbodens, verbreitert sich dort auf etwa 6,40 Meter und verluft weiter in die Tiefe"; and page 192, a sketch by Corbo, 1980: Golgotha is distant 10 meters outside from the southwest corner of the Martyrion-basilica [22] George Lavas, The Rock of Calvary, published (1996) in The Real and Ideal Jerusalem in Jewish, Christian and Islamic Art (proceedings of the 5th International Seminar in Jewish Art), pages 147-150 [23] Hesemann 1999, pp. 171-172:"....Georg Lavas and ... Theo Mitropoulos, ... cleaned off a thick layer of rubble and building material from one to 45 cm thick which covered the actual limestone. The experts still argue whether this was the work of the architects of Hadrian, who aimed thereby to adapt the rock better to the temple plan, or whether it comes from 7th century cleaning....When the restorers progressed to the lime layer and the actual rock....they found they had removed a circular slot of 11.5 cm diameter". [24] Vatican-magazin.com, Vatican 3/2007, page 12/13; Vatican 3/2007, page 11, here page 3 photo No. 4, quite right (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20110717185434/ http:/ / www. vatican-magazin. com/ archiv/ 2007/ 03-2007/ titel. pdf), photo by Paul Badde: der steinere Ring auf dem Golgothafelsen. [25] Holyplacesinisrael.com (http:/ / www. holyplacesinisrael. com/ church_holy_sepulchre. html) [26] Virgilio Corbo, The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem (1981) [27] Dan Bahat, Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?, in Biblical Archaeology Review May/June 1986 [28] THE ANONYMOUS PILGRIM OF BORDEAUX pages 593 and 594 (http:/ / www. christusrex. org/ www1/ ofm/ pilgr/ bord/ 10Bord07bJerus. html#Golgotha) [29] St. Cyril of Jerusalem, page 51, note 313 (http:/ / www. pravoslavnaolomouc. cz/ ZIP/ OTCO/ PNC/ PN7. PDF) [30] Cyril, Catechetical Lectures, year 347, lecture X, page 160, note 1221 (http:/ / www. pravoslavnaolomouc. cz/ ZIP/ OTCO/ PNC/ PN7. PDF) [31] Iteneraria Egeriae (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ m/ mcclure/ etheria/ etheria. htm) [32] Letter To The Presbyter Faustus (http:/ / homepages. luc. edu/ ~avande1/ jerusalem/ sources/ eucherius. htm), by Eucherius. "What is reported, about the site of the city Jerusalem and also of Judaea"; Epistola Ad Faustum Presbyterum. "Eucherii, Quae fertur, de situ Hierusolimitanae urbis atque ipsius Iudaeae." Corpus Scriptorum Eccles. Latinorum XXXIX Itinera Hierosolymitana, Saeculi IIIIVIII, P. Geyer, 1898 [33] Whalen, Brett Edward, Pilgrimage in the Middle Ages, page 40, University of Toronto Press, September 2011, ISBN 978-1-4426-0199-4; Iteneraria et alia geographica, Corpus Christianorum Series Latina, vol. 175 (Turnhout, Brepols 1965), pages 109-112 [34] Vita Constantini III, 35, Description of the Atrium and Porticos (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ schaff/ npnf201. iv. vi. iii. xxxv. html) [35] Gabriel Barkay, The Garden Tomb, published in Biblical Archaeology Review March/April 1986 [36] Eusebius, Onomasticon, 365 [37] http:/ / www. golgotha. eu/ [38] and the sun was darkened, and the vail of the sanctuary was rent in the midst,... And the centurion having seen what was done, did glorify God, saying, `Really this man was righteous;' Lk 23,45,47 [39] and lo, the vail of the sanctuary was rent in two from top unto bottom, and the earth did quake, and the rocks were rent,.. And the centurion, and those with him watching Jesus, having seen the earthquake, and the things that were done, were exceedingly afraid, saying, `Truly this was God's Son.' Matt 27,51,54 YLT [40] There were thirteen curtains in the second Temple, seven corresponding to the seven gates, one for the entrance to the Hekal, one for the entrance to the Ulam, two [at the entrance] to the Debir and two [above them and] corresponding to them in the upper storey. Babyl. Talmud Mas. Kethuboth 106a [41] http:/ / www. viadolorosatour. freehomepage. com/ [42] Amhurst, Nicholas (1726). Terr filius: or the secret history of the university of OxfordWikisource has information on "Terr filius: or the secret history of the university of Oxford". R. Francklin. p.59[scan]Wikisource has information on "Terr-filius: or, the Secret History of the University of Oxford/Terr Filius No. XI".

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File:Flag of Israel.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of the Flag of the State of Israel of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. The color of the Magen David and the stripes of the Israeli flag is not precisely specified by the above legislation. The color depicted in the current version of the image is typical of flags used in Israel today, although individual flags can and do vary. The flag legislation officially specifies dimensions of 220 cm 160 cm. However, the sizes of actual flags vary (although the aspect ratio is usually retained). File:Emblem of Israel.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Emblem_of_Israel.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: , based on national symbol. File:LocationIsrael.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LocationIsrael.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Vardion File:Increase2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Increase2.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Sarang File:Speaker Icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, Tehdog, 2 anonymous edits File:Leningrad Codex Carpet page e.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leningrad_Codex_Carpet_page_e.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Shmuel ben Ya'akov File:Vista general de Masada.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vista_general_de_Masada.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was .at he.wikipedia File:Arch of Titus Menorah.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arch_of_Titus_Menorah.png License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: derivative work: Steerpike (talk) Arc_de_Triumph_copy.jpg: user: File:Herzl-balcony.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herzl-balcony.jpg License: anonymous work Contributors: E.M. 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File:PikiWiki Israel 4023 The Tel Aviv Performing Arts Center.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PikiWiki_Israel_4023_The_Tel_Aviv_Performing_Arts_Center.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: shifra Levyathan File:Israel Philharmonic Orchestra.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Israel_Philharmonic_Orchestra.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Yeugene File:Jerusalem Schrein des Buches BW 1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem_Schrein_des_Buches_BW_1.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Berthold Werner File:Chocolate-vanilla cream sufganiyot.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chocolate-vanilla_cream_sufganiyot.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Yoninah File:Ramat Gan Stadium.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ramat_Gan_Stadium.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was NYC2TLV at en.wikipedia File:PikiWiki Israel 3120 Ein Hahoresh.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PikiWiki_Israel_3120_Ein_Hahoresh.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hebrew languageHebrew: File:Openstreetmap logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Openstreetmap_logo.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: OpenStreetMap File:PikiWiki Israel 20386 Cities in Israel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PikiWiki_Israel_20386_Cities_in_Israel.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Lilach Daniel File:Tel Aviv flag.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tel_Aviv_flag.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Municipality of Tel Aviv Yafo File:TelAvivEmblem.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TelAvivEmblem.svg License: unknown Contributors: Drork file:Israel location map.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Israel_location_map.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: NordNordWest File:Red pog.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Jaffa port 1906-3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jaffa_port_1906-3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Breen, A. 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File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: unknown Contributors: -xfiFile:Flag of Moldova.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Moldova.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Nameneko File:Flag of Germany.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Poland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter File:Flag of South Korea.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various File:Flag of Italy.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Zscout370 File:Flag of Greece.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) File:Flag of Brazil.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Flag of Argentina.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Government of Argentina (vector graphics by Dbenbenn) File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 Recode by cs:User:-xfi- (code), User:Shizhao (colors) File:Flag of Austria.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Hungary.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Serbia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Serbia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: sodipodi.com File:Flag of Spain.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie File:Jerusalem infobox image.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem_infobox_image.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Chesdovi File:Flag of Jerusalem.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Jerusalem.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Jppsche File:Jerusalem-coat-of-arms.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem-coat-of-arms.svg License: unknown Contributors: File:Jerusalem WBIL.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem_WBIL.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Michael Netzer based on map by Ynhockey File:Jebusite Jerusalem.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jebusite_Jerusalem.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Darko Tepert Donatus File:Ercole de Roberti Destruction of Jerusalem Fighting Fleeing Marching Slaying Burning Chemical reactions b.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ercole_de_Roberti_Destruction_of_Jerusalem_Fighting_Fleeing_Marching_Slaying_Burning_Chemical_reactions_b.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Mattes, Misa123a, Morgan Riley, Queeg File:TempmtS.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TempmtS.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: en:User:Gilabrand File:1099jerusalem.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1099jerusalem.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:DavtowerS.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DavtowerS.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: en:User:Gilabrand File:Ben Zakai.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ben_Zakai.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Chesdovi, FLLL, Netanel h, Orrling, Tamarah, Ulf Heinsohn, 1 anonymous edits File:Allenby enters Jerusalem 1917.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Allenby_enters_Jerusalem_1917.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Copyright, U. & U. 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File:Jerusalem Great Synagogue05.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem_Great_Synagogue05.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Martin Vines, Montreal |MartinVMtl]] File:Shaaey old.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shaaey_old.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Sir kiss File:Old city walls and mamilla ave. at night - as seen from "Rooftop" restauran - Jerusalem, Israel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_city_walls_and_mamilla_ave._at_night_-_as_seen_from_"Rooftop"_restauran_-_Jerusalem,_Israel.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Navot Miller File:HadarS.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HadarS.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Gilabrand at en.wikipedia File:Hotzvimview.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hotzvimview.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Gilabrand File:TechnologyGarden.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TechnologyGarden.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Eran, Little Savage, Ori~, Orrling File:Jerusalem Entrance Bridge.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem_Entrance_Bridge.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Hovev File:KiryatMoshe1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:KiryatMoshe1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: MitigationMeasure File:Jersualem-CBS.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jersualem-CBS.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User IgKh on en.wikipedia File:NationalAcadamy1409.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NationalAcadamy1409.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User: File:Skopusberg mit Universitaet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skopusberg_mit_Universitaet.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Crux, Milan.sk File:Du-leshoni-2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Du-leshoni-2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jukov File:Academy of the Hebrew Language.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Apdency, Epson291, Orrling, 1 , anonymous edits File:Teddy Kollek Stadium - Inside.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Teddy_Kollek_Stadium_-_Inside.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Little Savage File:Jerusalem Tomb of David BW 1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem_Tomb_of_David_BW_1.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Berthold Werner File:Flickr - Israel Defense Forces - Life of Lt. 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File:Diadochen1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diadochen1.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Captain_Blood File:Banias - Temple of Pan 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banias_-_Temple_of_Pan_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:EdoM File:Palestine after Herod.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palestine_after_Herod.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Alorkezas Image:Hermonsnow.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hermonsnow.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Almog File:Red triangle with thick white border.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_triangle_with_thick_white_border.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Anomie File:Hermon.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hermon.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amit Moscovich Image: Jordan River Bushy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jordan_River_Bushy.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Bcrawford92 at en.wikipedia Image: JordanRiver en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JordanRiver_en.svg License: UN map Contributors: Amirki, Interiot, Kordas, Orrling, Timeshifter File:JordanAbbud.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JordanAbbud.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Netanel h, TheRealHuldra File:Dore joshua crossing.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dore_joshua_crossing.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Shakko, Tomisti, Wst File:Baptism Site.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Baptism_Site.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Cybjorg File:Aerial jordan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aerial_jordan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: David Shay, Edward, Gryffindor, Ilmari Karonen, JuTa, Tietew, Timeshifter File:Jordan River.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jordan_River.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: User:Cybjorg File:Yarden 0182.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yarden_0182.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Beivushtang at en.wikipedia File:Yarden 034PAN2.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yarden_034PAN2.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was Beivushtang at en.wikipedia File:Hayarden.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hayarden.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Heimobich, Ineffable3000, YellowMonkey File:Jordan River in spring.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jordan_River_in_spring.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Photo by beivushtang http://www.pbase.com/beivushtang File:BnotYaakovBridge.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BnotYaakovBridge.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Wilson44691 File:Roman street in Bet She'an National Park, Israel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roman_street_in_Bet_She'an_National_Park,_Israel.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Mark10:43 File:Bet Shean COA.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bet_Shean_COA.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Unknown ,reworked by User:Kippi70 File:BetShe'an - an ancient house of Egyptian governor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BetShe'an_-_an_ancient_house_of_Egyptian_governor.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: A.Sobkowski Abraham File:Thedecapolis.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thedecapolis.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Nichalp File:Overview of Theater Beit Shean Israel.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Overview_of_Theater_Beit_Shean_Israel.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Mlogic File:Bet She'an hypocaust.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bet_She'an_hypocaust.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Daniel Tzvi File:Beyt-Shean-old-city-706.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beyt-Shean-old-city-706.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Bukvoed File:PikiWiki Israel 7273 quot;. jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PikiWiki_Israel_7273__quot;.___jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: File:PikiWiki Israel 2358 Geography of Israel . 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File:Flag of Jordan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Jordan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp File:Flag of Palestine.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Palestine.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Orionist, previous versions by Makaristos, Mysid, etc. File:Dead Sea Galilee.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dead_Sea_Galilee.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: BasilCourt, Interiot File:Dead Sea-18.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dead_Sea-18.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ian and Wendy Sewell File:SaltCementedPebblesDeadSea.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SaltCementedPebblesDeadSea.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Wilson44691 File:Dead Sea Halite View 031712.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dead_Sea_Halite_View_031712.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Wilson44691 File:Halite Dead Sea Beach Pebbles.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Halite_Dead_Sea_Beach_Pebbles.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Wilson44691 File:Dead_Sea_Panorama.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dead_Sea_Panorama.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Idan Abutbul File:Deadsea_panorama.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deadsea_panorama.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Arwcheek at en.wikipedia File:Northern dead sea panorama.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Northern_dead_sea_panorama.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Someone35 File:Panorama of the Dead sea from Mount Sdom.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panorama_of_the_Dead_sea_from_Mount_Sdom.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Someone35 File:Dead Sea Sunrise.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dead_Sea_Sunrise.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Grauesel File:World's lowest point (1971).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:World's_lowest_point_(1971).jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Dieter Manske (contact through Magnus Manske) File:MountSodom061607.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MountSodom061607.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Wilson44691 File:Turkish trenches at Dead Sea2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turkish_trenches_at_Dead_Sea2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Whiting, John D. 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File:7Q4.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:7Q4.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: John Belushi File:Temple Scroll.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Temple_Scroll.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Lindert File:View of the Dead Sea from a Cave at Qumran.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:View_of_the_Dead_Sea_from_a_Cave_at_Qumran.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Eagletennis, Svajcr File:IronGallDSS.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IronGallDSS.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Eagletennis File:7Q6-1,2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:7Q6-1,2.png License: Public Domain Contributors: John Belushi File:Qumran pottery.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qumran_pottery.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Eagletennis File:Najib Albina Photo Lab.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Najib_Albina_Photo_Lab.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: PAM (Life time: N/A). 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File:Sign at entrance to Temple .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sign_at_entrance_to_Temple_.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Ariely, Leifern, Man vyi, Peter17, Ranveig, Saga City, WhisperToMe, 2 anonymous edits File:Al-Aqsa05.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Al-Aqsa05.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Wilson44691 at en.wikipedia File:Jerusalem BW 1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jerusalem_BW_1.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Berthold Werner Image:Westernwall2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Westernwall2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Golasso File:Klagemauer.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Klagemauer.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Germany Contributors: Sheepdog85 File:Kotel engraving 1850.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kotel_engraving_1850.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rabbi Joseph Schwarz. 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