Operating Ideas For Small Mines

OPERATING IDEAS FOR
SMALL MINES
KOEHLER S. STOUT
MISCELLANEOUS CONTRIBUTION NO. "

MONTANA BUREAU 011' MINES AND GBOLOOY
MONTANA SCHOOL OF MINES
1956
OPERATING IDEAS FOR
SMALL MINE'S
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KOEHLER S. STOUT
"\
r MISCEIT...LANEOUS CONTRIBUTION NO. 14
\
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEQ[.DGY
MONTANA SOHOOL OF MINES
1 95(;
~.
For sale by
Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology
Room 203-B, Main Hall
Montana School of Mines
Rlttte. M_Qn]~I!_~
Price $3.00
!I
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ___________________________________ --__________________ ,. _________________________ -____ --___ -__ -_____ _ 1
Acknowledgments _______________________________________________________________ .___ . _____________ 2
Drilling ___________________________________________________________________________________________ .___ ___ _____ ___ ___ 3
Demonstrator for drill rounds _________________________________________._________________ 3
Hints on drilling with a stoper _______________________________________._________________ 4
Drilling horizontal or down-holes _________________________ ._________________ 4
Setting stoper for rapid drilling _____________________________ ._________________ 5
Drilling long holes with a stoper ___________________________ ._________________ 6
Hints on drilling with a sinker-type drill _____________________ ._________________ 6
Mexican setup _______________________________________________________________._________________ 7
Drill-plank to drill nearly horizontal holes _______ ._________________ 7
Air-leg drills __________________________________________________________________________________ 8
Steep lifters __________________________________________________________________ .. _________________ 8
Open cut drilling __________________________________________________________________________________ 9
Vehicle-mounted drills ______________________________________________ . _________________ 9
Drilling problems ___________________________________________________ . __ ..... __ ....... _.. _._._ ..... 9
Removing water from air lines ....... _......... ____ ... _. ____ ._. ________ .. _____ 9
Air saving ________________________________________________ . ____________ . ___ . __ .. _________________ 1 0
Water saving ______________________ . ___ . ________ ._____ .___ . __ . ________________.___ . _____ . ____ ... 10
Types of bits for different types of ground ... _______ ... _._. __ . ___ ._10
Drilling in soft ground with tungsten-carbide bits ____ ._ .... __ 11
Freeing stuck steel ________ . ____ . ________ . ______ ._________ .________ .. __ ... ___________ .____ 11
Welding tungsten-carbide bits on drill rods _. __ . ____ .,. _________ . __ 12
Collaring holes _____ . ______ . ___ . __ ._______ . _______________________________ .. ,. ________ . __ . __ ._13
Machine alignment ____ . ____ .___ ._. ________ . ___ ._. ____________ . ___ ._. __ ._. _______________ 13
Blasting _. ______________ . __ ._____________________ .. ______ .________________________ . ________ . _. ______________________ 14
Explosive savers ____________________________________ . _________________ -- ______ . ___ . _________________ 14
Preparing detonators __________________________ ._. ________________ . _____ . __ -.------_. ______ .... 14
Reducing misfires ____ ._._._ ....... _. ____ ._. ____ . __ ._ ... _______ .___ . ___ .... -.. ----___________ .___ .15
Rotational firing ----- _-- ---.. -- _-- _.___ .--- ______ ---- _--. __ -__ -_______ . ___________ . _____ . ___________ 15
Fuses of the same length _____ . __ ._. _____ .. ________ ... ____ . ___ .. __ ... _. ______ ... __ .16
Cutting individual fuses _____ . __ . ____ . _________ ._ .. __ ....... __ .... __ .. ____ ._ .. _._. __ 16
Timing round and cutting all fuses in one operation. _________ 16
Underground transport _. ___ . ___________ . ________________ . ________ . __________ ------__________________ 18
Track laying -___ .. ----- ---- --__ . ____ -_-- -___________________________ . _________________________________ 18
Switches -----. -- -.----------- ---- ------ ----- --- ---- --_____ --_____ --. --______________ --__ . _________________ 18
Tongue switch _____________ . ______________________________________ .. ________ .. _________________ 19
Standard railroad-type switch ---------------.------------.. -.- .... ______________ 19
Butt switch _______________________________________________ . _____ . ____________ ,,_. ____ .. _________ 19
Prefabricated switch ________________________________________ .. ___ .--__ ". _________ . ______ 19
Turnsheet _____________________________________ . ________________ -_________________________________ 19
Turntable ____________________________________________ . _________ -.. __________ . __ . _________________ 20
Car transfer ___________________________________________________ ._.-----------... __ . ______________ 20
Extending track in development headings _. ____ .. ________ . _________________ 21
Cars ________________ . __ -___ ---_ -__________ . --__ . ____ .. _. -__ --___________ -___________________ ', _________________ 21
Preparing cars to go over uneven track _. ________ . ____,____ .____________ 21
Safety chains ______________________ . ______ . __________________ . __ .. _... -____ ...,_______________ ._22
Car stop _________ . ______________ . ________ .. -. __ ._._ ------ _______ ----------. ----- ., _________________ 23
Car rerailers ______________________ .. _.. ---.--.--.------ ---' ------- .-- ------- ._________________ 23
iii.
Locomotives ________._ .. _______ A ______________ • • __ • __ • _______ • ___________ • 23 __________ •• , . - - - - _______ • _____
Trackless mining . ______________________________________ ._____ . ______________ ... _,. ____________ .. _._24

Loading __ A _______ • • • _. ___________ • _ • • • _ • • • • ___________ • ______________________________ • 26 ____ • ______ .' _ - - _. ___ • ___ • • • __
Hand loading _______ A ____ • _____ • ____________________ • _______________ • 26

____ A _. ___ • __ • _ • •' _ . - . _ _ • - __ - - __ • __
Chutes ______________ . ______ ._ .. ______________ --______ ._. _______ .. __ . ______ ... ______ .__ ..... ---______________ 26
Chutes for small mines __________________ .. _____________________ ._ .. _________________ 27
Chute gates .. ______ ._. ___________________ . _______________ ._ .. __ ... ________ .. ________________ ...27
Grizzlies ._. ___. _________ .. _. __________ . _____ . ________________ . ___________________________ -- ____ ... ________ 29
Ore loading with mucking machines ______________________ . ________________ ... __ 29
Slushers and scrapers _._. ___ . ____ . ____ ... ___ . __ ._. ______ .. _... _... ___ .. __ . ______ .. __ .. _30
Timbering . __________ .. ___ . ________ . ____________________ ...... _... --___ . _____ -. ___ .. ___ .____ .. ___ -____ . ____ . ______ 31
Level timber ___________ .. ____ ... _________ . ________________ .. _. ___ . ___ ... _____ ._ .... _. ______ . _________ .31
Shaft timber ___ .___________________ ._ ----__________________________________ . ________ ,' ______ --_________ 31
Stope timber ___ . ________________________________ . ___________________________________ . _________________ 32
Miscellaneous timber ____________________ A _ . __ • 33
_____________________________ • __________________
Crib timber -________________________ . _____ . _______ ._____________ .___ . __ . __ . _. _____ .. ___________ 33

Spiling -__________________ .________ . ____________________ . __ . ____________________ .__ .___ -----_____ . ___ 34
Simple wedge maker __________________________ . _____________________ .---______________ 34
-'
Placing head board and stull ____________________________________________________ 34
Shafts ______________________________ .. _________________________________________________________________ -____________ 35
Headframes --,- -------. _____ ----_____ -_______________ . ________ A 35
_________________________________________
Small headframe for inclined shaft ______________________________________ ._35

Vertical shaft headframe ___ . ___________________ .______ .... __ . ________ ... ___ .________ 35
Preparing to sink ___________________________________ . _._. __ . _____ .. __________ .. __ .. --.--_________ 36
Shaft sinking ______________ . ____ .__ . ------- ----__ .. _________ ._______ .. _____________ ... _. __ .--------____ 37
Drilling _________ ._ ---____ . ___ -. --_---____ .. _____ .. __ -______ .. ____ .. ____ .. ____ ... _____ . _____________ 38
Blasting _____________________ ._ .. _.-__ .. -- -. ________________ ... _.. _. __________ .. _____ . ______________ 38
Blasting shield ____________ . ________________ .----_____________________ ._ -.. _______ . __ . _______ 38
Shoveling -- -------------.. ----------. ---------_____________ . ______ . _____________ . __ .---.--_______ 39
Crosshead _______ ---___________ .39
A_A. _._ -- _________ • ______________________ • ___ • ____ • __ • ____ • _______
Lining-up shaft timber -. _____________________________________________._. ____ --_________ 39

Bearing ~ets __ 40
A' -- ----- - •• -- - - - ------------------- _________ •• -.- - -- ••• _______ •.••• __ ••• _ • ________
Safety covers for shaft __ .. _.... _________ .. ____ . ___ ..... ___ . _____ .. ______ . __ . _________ .40
Skips and cages --- ------.--. -------.-- -- --. ----- ----- ___ --- __________ -_______ .. ___ . _______ .________ 40
Safety devices .. --------- -----.-------________ --______ ----____ -. _________ -______________ . _____ 40
Safety stops for incline skips or cages --------.----.-- .. -- _____ . __ . _____ .41
Inclined cage to transport car ---------.---------.---------.---.-------.--_. ___ .41
Dumping cars directly into skips -------------.------------._- ______________ .41
Ventilation -----.------.------------------------.--- ----- ---------- --------- ---_ -____ -.------_-'. _____________ . ___ 42
Natural ventilation ----------------.------------------------ ------__ -_ -_-- -----_.. _______ .________ 42
Ventilating "bald-he,aded" raises -----------------.-----------.----_. _______________ .43
Air-inj ector blower ____ A. ------- --- -- --- ____ ._ -___ • ___ • _____ • ____ • ____ .. __ - _______________ • ______ 44
Dust control ----.-----------.----------.. -.---------- _----.------ -- -- -_------ ---______ -, __ . _. _. __________ 44
Pumping ---------------.-----------------------.---------------------------------------------.--.. -------__________ 46
Air-lift pumps ----------------- ---- --------------- --- --.-------.- -- --- -____ -- ___ --____________________ 46
Floating pump --- -------.-- ---------- ------.--. -- --- ----- --- -- ------------_ ----.... ____ . _____ .. _______ 47
Settling sumps --_______ ---------------------.- ----------------------. __ -- ---_ -- ---______ .. _. _.. ___ . _4 7
Underground (Miscellany) _. __ . ____ ._ .. ________ . ___ . _______ .. _____________ ._._. ______ .. ___________ ._49
Light-weight scaling bar . __ . ___ ._._. _______ .____________ . _______ . ________ ... __ . __ . ___________ 49
Set-up bar ________ -___________ . __ ---. _.-___ .. ________________ . ____________ ._ ...... ____ "___ . _____________ 49
Hoist mounted on car _. ___________________________ .___ .. __________ ...... ___ .__________________ 50
Tugger box for manways ___________________ .__ : _________________________ ... ________________ 50
Concrete ----- -------- ---.---.. ---... --.. -___ A •• ---. -- •• - 50
- - - - . - - - - - - - - - _ . __ A, - __ • - _. - - _'" • ____ A _ • • • • • • ____
iVA
Surface installations ..................................................................................... 52
Ore bins ................................................................................................... 52
Shovel bins ..................................................................................... 52
Regular ore bins ........................................................ ,................. 52
Slusher bins "'" ................................................. ,..... """" .............. 53
Ore bins, general ..........................................................................54
Buildings ................................................................................................ 55
Extending waste dumps ....................................................................55
Records ................................. "" ........... ,"" ............................. ,.................56
Maps "'" ................................................................................. _.................56
'Homemade equipment .............................................................. _................. 57
Air-compressors .................................................................................... 57
Hoists ........................................................................................................ 58
Scrapers .................................................................................................. 59
Homemade air-leg ................................................................................ 59
Homemade churn drill ...................................................................... 60
.Prospecting ................................................ .'.................................................... 62
Mortar and pestle ................................................................................ 62
Tracing outcrops .................................................................................... 62
Valuable constituents ..........................................................................63
Physical principles applied in mining .................................................. 64
Simple lever .......................................................................................... 64
Wheel and axle ....................................................................................64
Inclined plane ...................................................................... _._ ............... 65
Simple wedge .........................................................................................66
Pulley systems ............................................... -.................... -.. -.............. 66
Gear system ............ -......................... -............................... -.--........... -.. _.66
Friction ......... -...................... -................................................. -... -......... _... 68
Horsepower and manpower ............ -................................................. 68
Costs and cost estimation ........................................................ -................. 70
Value of the ore .................................................................................... 71
Cost of hired labor .............................................................................. 72
Development costs ............................................................................... 73
Level driving .............................................................. 0 74
•••••••••••••••••
Shafts ......................................................................... ,....... '.'.' ......... 76

Raises ............................................................... ··· .......... 0 76
•••••••••••••••••
S topes .................................................................... ·.···· .. 0 76

•• " ' . ' ••••••••••
Conclusion .................................................................................... 0 78
•••••••••••••••••
Appendix ........................................................................................................ 80
References ...................................................................................................... 81
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Plate No. 1 A. Wire frame to demonstrate types of drill rounds.
B. A method of drilling lifters with a stoper.
C. Another method of drilling lifters with a stoper. 4
2 A. Drilling sequence for rapid drilling with stoper.
B. Drilling long holes with a stoper......................... 6
3 A. Mexican setup for sinker drill. B. Plank setup
for drilling nearly horizontal holes with sinker.
C. By drilling steep lifters with air-leg drill, leg
stops are not needed. .................................................... 8
v.
C·
4 A. Truck mounted wagon drilL B. Drilling in pit
.':'
with sinker. C. Another view of the truck
mounted wagon drill. D. Drilling in pit with
air-leg. E. Self-contained compressor and drill
mounted on truck. _............................................. _. __ ........ 10
~: ..
'
5 A. Removing water from air line. B. Bits for dif-

ferent types of ground. C. Tungsten-carbide bit
for soft ground. D. Pulling stuck steel. ......... _____ . ___ 12
6 A. Wooden spacing blocks and tamping. B. Cut-
ting and preparing fuses. C. Timing fuses 3
ways. D. Lighting fuses ....... -- __ .. _____________________________ .. _14
7 A. Tongue switch. B. Standard railroad-type
switch. C. Butt switch. D. Prefabricated switch .. 18
8 A. Turn sheet. B. Turntable for small cars. C.
Track extension in face. D. Small car rerailer .. _.... 20
9 A. Standard switch. B. Turntable. C. Car trans-
fer. D_ Butt switch. E. Prefabricated switch.
F. Prefabricated switch installed. _______________________ .. ___ .. 22
10 A. Stop-board chute. B. Hand-operated over-cut
arc-gate. C. Hand-operated undercut arc-gate.
D. Undercut guillotine gate. ____________ . ______ .__________________ 26
11 A. "Chinaman" chute for loading cars. B. Grizzly
design to get large boulders out of the way. __________ 28
12 A. Chutes replaced by mucking machine. B. Sec-
tions of a slusher drift. C. Slusher pocket at
shaft. D. Remote control for slusher. ________ . ___________ 30
13 A. Folding steel chute lip. B. Stop-board chute.
C. Over-cut arc gate-steel chute bottom. D. Un-
der-cut arc gate air operated. E. Guillotine-type
steel chute. ______________ .... _________________ . ______________ ... _. ___________________ 30
14 A. One-piece drift set. B. Two-piece drift set.
C. Drift set using 8" x 8" square timber. D.
Round timber framing for drifts. ______________________________ 32
15 Framing details for a 3-compartment shaft set.. _____ 32
16 A. Post-butting stope timber (framing details). B.
Cap-butting stope timber (framing details) .. __________ .34
17 A. Crib ore-pass. B. Method of driving spiling.
C. Simple wedge maker. D. Placing stull. ____________ 34
18 Method of driving through soft and caving
ground. ________ .. _____________ ..... __________ .. ___ --__ . -. ___ -. -------------___ . ____ " .34
19 Simple 4-leg headframe for prospectors. __________________ 36
20 Small headframe for inclined shaft (dumping
details omitted). ______ ---_. ---___ -____ ----- ----- --- ------ -- -- ---- ---- _. _______ 36
21 .Woodenheadframe for small producing mine. _______ .36
22 Front view of headframe shown in Plate No. 21.. __ .36
23 A. Plan for anchoring small hoist in loose ground.
B.· Casing for. collar, of q:rill hole in wet. sh~ft.
C. Mucking pan for .shaft bottoms. D. SInkIng
crosshead. __ ~ '" ___ ; _________ ::~I_ ..... ____ -~ _______ ._. ________ -_____ --__ ... ___ -____ .... 38
vI.
24 A. Wooden headframe over shaft. B. Sinking
bucket in crosshead. C. Skip equipped with
guide shoes and dog-safety device for use in
inclined shafts. D. Gasoline engine driven hoist.
E. Scraper in 30 0 inclined shaft. _____________ .____ . _____ . ______ .40
25 A. Cage safety device. B. guides in inclined shaft.
C. Inclined cage to hold cars upright. D. Bear-
ing set for shaft timber. ______________________________________ . ________ .40
26 A. Typical ventilation setup of a small mine. B.
Air-water blast to ventilate raises. _________________________ .42
27 Injector blower. __________________________________________ . __________________ .44
28 A. Simple air-lift pump. B. Settling pond. _________________ .46
29 A. Adjustable length pry-bar. B. adjustable length
setup bar for stopes and raises. -------------------------- ______ 50
30 A. Fan and fan bag installation. B. Steel tugger-
box for carrying supplies in raises. C. special
slide-rail sections made to go around a curve
with a predetermined radius. D. Slusher-hoist
mounted on a truck for rapid movement. ________________ 50
31 A. Ore bin constructed of planks (corner detail).
B. Slusher-type ore bin. ______________________________________________ 52
32 A. Log ore-bin. B. Tires used to retard muck in
chutes. C. Waste dump trestle extension. D.
Steel ore-bin. E. Slusher and loading ramp
used in an open pit. ______________________________________________________ 54
33 Home-made air-leg (details). ______________________________________ 60
34 A. Home-made electric motor driven hoist. B.
Home-made 2-drum hoist-made from old auto-
mobile. C. Double drum and scraper for hoist
shown in "B". D. Jeep mounted diamond drill.
E. Home-made slusher bucket (craper). __________________ 60
35 Homemade churn drill. ________________________________________________ 60
36 A. Simple lever (friction neglected). B. Wheel and
axle (friction neglected). C. Inclined plane
(friction neglected). D. Simple wedge (fric-
tion neglected). E. Simple pulley system (fric-
tion neglected). F. Gear wheels. ______________________________ 64
vii.
OPERATING IDEAS FOR SMALL MINES
by
KOEHLER S. STOUT
INTRODUCTION
One of the many objectives of the Montana Bureau of Mines

and Geology is to aid the prospector and small-mine operator
in the development of their mineral deposits. Certain work
cannot be done by members of the Bureau staff such as consult-
ing engineering, report writing, map preparation, or quantitative
assaying, because these services would place the Bureau in com-
petition with private individuals or firms. The Bureau attempts
to encourage people to find and develop Montana's mineral
resources. This booklet is one part of the program to aid pros-
pectors and operators of small mines in solving some of their
prospecting, development, and mining problems.
This work supplements the booklet published in 1955, en-
titled, Practical guide for prospectors and small-mine operators
in Montana. (Stout, K. S., 1955)~. The author, in his visits to
the mining districts in Montana and other states, and by study
of current mining literature, has found many good operating
ideas which could increase the efficiency of a mining operation.
These ideas are presented in this booklet in the hope that they
may be put into practice and permit you to do your work more
easily and efficiently.
This booklet, then, is written primarily for the man who is
not technically trained in the mining industry - for the pros-
pector and small-mine operator who has learned his trade by
experience. Most of these ideas are not new to the mining in-
dustry, but individuals unfamiliar with present and past mining
*See Bibliography
OPERATING IDEAS, FOR, SMALL MINES
practice may find some of these ideas useful in solving their

problems. Often, miners become highly skilled in certain jobs,
such as stope mining or level driving; they know all the ins
and outs of their job, and they undoubtedly can offer many
work-saving suggestions for this particular job. However, in a
prospect or small mine these same men may be called upon to
perform jobs with which they are inexperienced. Perhaps this
booklet will help them better perform these unfamiliar tasks.
The author, himself a week-end prospector, former mine
operator, and teacher of mining engineering, has actually tried
with favoarble resutls, some of the ideas herein presented. He
would welcome any supplementary criticism or helpful sugges-
tions. It is sometimes surprising how some little gadget or
idea will save a large amount of time and effort; therefore, some
of you may help your brother prospector or operator by letting
us at the Bureau know your ideas and work-saving devices.
The author and the staff wish all of you prospectors and
small mine operators luck in your quest for mineral wealth.
Most large mines grew from small mines, which in turn grew
from prospects. Developing a major mineral producer is not
an easy task, but men have done it in the past, and some of
you will do it in the future.
Acknowledgments
I wish to thank the many Montana prospectors and mine
operators who opened their mines and prospects so I could
examine and tell you of their work-saving ideas and methods.
Among those on the Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology
staff to whonl lowe many thanks are Mr. Ed Sadar and Mr.
Au Ngoc Ho for the excellent job of drafting on the sketches;
Dr. J. Robert Van Pelt, Professor Walter March, Jr., Professor
William Chance, and Mr. Uuno Sahinen, all connected with the
Montana School of Mines or the Montana Bureau of Mines and
Geology, for their suggestive criticism and ideas in preparing
the text.
DRILLING 3
DRILLING
Drilling of holes for blasting purposes is an important part
-of most mining operations. The following suggestions may help
you solve some of your drilling problems.
Demonstrator for Drill Rounds

Inexperienced men often have difficulty visualizing where
the bottom of a drill hole lies with respect to the outlines of a
development heading, especially when the hole, or holes, are
not drilled parallel to the general direction of the heading. Many
mining companies use a screen frame similar to the one shown
in Plate 1, A, as an aid in teaching new men in the technique
of spacing drill holes. By representing the holes with round sticks
from 6 ft. to 8 ft. long, the operator can readily observe the
direction, spacing between the holes, and hole-bottom position
with respect to the outline of the developing heading.
Changing the direction of a hole a few degrees with re-
spect to another hole may make considerable difference in the
distance between the ends of the two holes, even though the
collars of the holes are close together. If this difference be-
tween the holes is in the cut, a round may not break.
A frame such as the one shown may be conveniently used
when the operator plans new types of drill rounds. A new
purchase of modern drilling equipment may necessitate a
change in drill round pattern, because the equipment may be
best suited to drill certain types of rounds. For example, a
stoper and an air leg can be used to drive level workings, but
for maximum efficiency, each requires a different type of
round. Prospectors in a certain area may find that building one
of these frames may be worthwhile because different drill
rounds which may be drilled with various types of equipment
can be studied. The best· type of drill round can then be ap-
plied to any particular type of working.
OPERATING IDEAS FOR SMA,LL MINES
Hints on Drilling with a Stoper

A stoper-type drill is designed to drill up-holes, that is,
holes of which the ~~bottom" is at a higher elevation than the
start or collar of the hole. The machine is not equipped with
a steel-pulling device, nor usually with a hole-blowing device,
that is, a device to force compressed air through the center of
the hollow drill steel, which causes the cuttings to be blown
out of the hole. However, the machine is quite versatile, and
many mine operators use stopers to drive horizontal develop-
ment headings such as drifts and crosscuts. (Rounds for driv-
ing horizontal development headings with a stoper are shown
in Plate 6, B, Practical Guide for Prospectors and Small-Mine
Operators in Montana. (Stout, K. S., 1955). The main difficulty
experienced with a stoper drill is in removing the steel from
down-holes after the hole has been drilled. Following are de-
scriptions which tell how to overcome this difficulty.
Drilling Horizontal or Down-Holes

(1) With a rope: If the ground is soft or fractured, the
main trouble in drilling down-holes with a stoper is that the
air leg on the machine will push so hard that drilling proceeds
too rapidly at a speed causing plugging and sticking of the
steel. Most drill operators use the leg-release button constantly,
but even then the machine will sometimes drill too fast, with a
stuck steel as a result. A proven method to overcome this dif-
ficulty follows. Tie a rope about the bottom of the stinger,
loop the other end about the handle a few times, and control
the rate of feed of the machine by playing out the rope. (See
Plate 1, B). Drill with a good head of water, feed the drill
slowly, and usually the steel can be readily pulled out.
(2) On a plank: Another method of drilling lifter holes
which gives good results is to lay the drill on a plank, as shown
in Plate 1, C. Turn the air on so that the stinger of the ma-
chine comes out. Do not rest it against any stop. You can
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. NO. 14, PLATE NO.1
Notel Frame is made of 2" X 2" timbers.

The front and back are covered
with chicken wire. The dimensions
of the frame are the same size
os the development heading, ond
the round to be drilled. One- inch
pipes ore used to demonstrate
the position of the holes.
A. WIRE FRAME TO DEMONSTRATE TYPES OF DRILL

ROUNDS.
I
B. A METH:lD OF DRILLING LIFTERS WITH A STOPER.
Drill plank-.
Cross-~ar = ':-...:
C. ANOTHER METHOD OF DRILLING LIFTERS WITH A

STOPER.
DRILLING
then regulate the speed of drilling advance by pushing the

whole machine along the plank with either your feet or hands.
This action gives a positive control over the rate of advance.
Some modern stopers now have pressure-control feeds to
the leg, so that a small pressure, which the valve will main-
tain, can be set on the leg. A machine equipped with this valve
can be readily used to drill lifters, because, after the valve is,
set at a low pressure, the machine will feed slowly.
Setting Stoper for Rapid Drilling

Miners at the Montana Phosphate Products Company mine
use a rather unusual method to increase the number of holes
drilled in a shaft. The mining cycle is so laid out that the
driller must completely drill a face 70 feet wide and 3 feet high,
in a normal 8-hour shift. One man per shift is required to
drill from 60 to 70 holes, 6 feet deep. In order to do this, the
driller must not only follow a well-designed drilling sequence
but he must also keep the machine drilling almost constantly.
The driller lays out his holes so that he can drill several holes
from one stinger position of his drill. He collars (starts) and
drills the holes with his short starter steel. After he drills the
holes with the starter steel, he takes his second steel and drills
with it in one of the holes; after drilling this hole, he takes the
second steel and starts to drill another hole. While drilling the
second hole with the second steel, he places the third steel in
the first hole drilled with the second steel. When he fin-
ishes drilling number two hole with the second steel, he just
releases the leg on the stoper (he does not shut off the ma-
chine), pulls it off the second steel and puts it on the third steel
in the first hole. While the machine is drilling, he then puts
the second steel in another hole and is ready to drill with it
when he has completed drilling with the third steel. This
pro~ess is repeated but the fourth steel is also brought into the
cycle, and sometimes an operator may, without shutting off the
6 OPERATING IDEAS FOR SMALL MINES
machine, completely drill several holes after a hole has been

drilled with the starter steel. (Refer to Plate 2, A, for a sketch
of this sequence).
The machine must be especially adapted for this type of
drilling by a reduction of the diameter of the air port which
feeds the air leg. Experimentation is about the only way to
find out what size port is needed. The release button must
release air much faster than air is supplied to the leg, or the
machine cannot be pulled from the steel.
Drilling Long Holes with a Stoper
The prospector or small-mine operator may find that in
order to increase mining efficiency, he must drill holes from
8 feet to 16 feet deep. The only equipment available may be a
stoper. Some operators have adopted the system shown in
Plate 2, B. As shown in the sketch, two ladders are placed
firmly from the muck pile to the back. A long drill plank is set
on these ladders in the proper position, and the machine is laid
on one end of the board. The long steel is inserted, and drilling
commences. When the leg or stinger on the machine is run
out (usually 18 inches), the operator pushes the stinger ahead
instead of pulling the machine back, as is normally done. The
stinger stop is then placed in the next hole, and drilling com-
mences again. This process is repeated until the length of the
steel is run out, or the length of the plank is reached. The ad-
vantage of this procedure is that only one or two lengths of' steel
are required, rather than the 18-inch-Ionger series usually neces-
sary with a stoper. It is true that this is not as efficient as an
air-leg drill; but in an emergency, or if an air leg is not avail-
able, this system works quite well.
Hints on Drilling with a Sinker-Type Drill
A sinker drill is designed priInarily to drill down-holes;
that is, the bottom of the hole is at a lower elevation than the
collar or start of the hole. However, sinkers have drilled nearly
Starter hole drilled

with starter
A. DRILLING SEQUENCE FOR RAPID DRILLING WITH

STOPER
/5/8" Hole
S_~_
1 I
-Y-
I
-~-
I
1~1
.--.1.
STOP 8 PLANK
,,®l.- I ~'.j
DETAILS
2'0lC-~1 Round steel

B. DRILLING LONG HOLES WITH A STOPER
DRILLING 7
horizontal holes with considerable success. The air-leg at-

...
tachment makes a sinker drill a versatile machine, especially
adapted to level driving; but even without this attachment,
levels can be driven with this type of machine.
Because sinker drills are usually available on the second-
hand market and are considerably cheaper than other types of
·1 drills, they ,vill probably remain a favorite with the pros-
.[ pector. Some manufacturers make drifter shells for their sink-

ers, which convert the machine to a drifter, with about the
same advantages and disadvantages of a drifter. A bar or bar
and cross arm must be used for mounting.
The hardest method used in drilling horizontal holes is by
holding the drill in a horizontal position. As the heavy ma-
chine vibrates a great deal, the person holding the drill is soon
exhausted. To overcome this difficulty, many systems have
been devised. Although none of these systems are so convenient
as the air-leg drill or jumbo, they are still easier than the method
just described.
Mexican Setup
One of the most popular methods of drilling with a sinker
drill, other than a sinker equipped with an air leg, is the so-
called "Mexican Setup". This system is shown in Plate 3, A.
Attached to the drill is a chain or hanger of some sort, the end
of which should be big enough so that it will slip over the shank
or drill end of the steel, but not large enough to go over the
collar on the steel. Thus, the steel will support the weight of
the machine. The operator can then push on the machine to
bring desired pressure on the bit to make it cut faster.
Drill-Plank to Drill Nearly Horizontal Holes
The drill-plank and ladder setup, as shown in Plate 3, B~
has been used with considerable success by some prospectors.
The plank supports the weight of the machine, and the ladders
provide convenient position stops for the plank, so that a well-
8 OPERATING IDEAS FOB SIQLL MINES
spaced round can be drilled. Also, the driller can readily move
the ladders from side to side, giving this system some flexibility.
The operator can push in the machine either by his hands or
feet. The rear ladder frequently provides a good back rest for
the drill operator so that he can push harder.
Air-Leg Drills
As mentioned previously and also in Practical Guide, (Stout,
1955, p. 37) the air-leg drill is undoubtedly the best all around
drill for the prospector, and can be used for level driving, rais-
ing, and sinking. Although the other types of machines will
probably do their specialized type of drilling better than the
air-leg drill, they usually fall down badly in work other than
that for which they were designed. If enough money is avail-
able with which to purchase a new drill, the possibilities of this
machine should be investigated. The cost, comparatively, is
also in favor of the air-leg drills. One prospector made an air
leg for his machine, which, although it does not work so well as
the commercial machines, is still much more convenient than
the Mexican setup or the plank arrangement. (See section on
home made equipment.)
Steep L.ifters
Some miners, when drilling level headings, have overcome
the problem of installing a footing for their air leg by collaring
the lifters a few inches higher which makes the angle of the
lifters steeper than they would be if drilled with another type
of machine. In this way, the leg is at such an angle that the
stop or spade at the end of the leg will seldom jump out of the
muck at the bottom of the drift. When drilling the round, this
system may require some revision, so that the lifters do not have
too much burden (rock to break) on them. Drilling these
steeper lifters usually provides another advantage in that the
holes break deep enough so that work involved in the laying
of track or placing of ties is not hampered by encountering
ridges of solid rock.
DRILLING 9
Open Cut Drilling

As suggested in Practical Guide, (Stout, 1955, p. 46), it is
sometimes advantageous in order to obtain working capital, to
mine an outcrop of a vein by open-cut methods. Sinkers and
air-leg drills can be, and are, commonly used to drill blast holes
in open cuts, as shown in Plate 4, Band D. The sinker is
mostly used for drilling down holes, whereas the air-leg drill
is used to drill nearly horizontal holes.
Vehicle-mounted Drills
Many of the larger open-pit mine operators are using self-
contained compressor-drill units. These are commonly mounted
on crawler tractors or integrated rubber-tired units. However,
one mine operator in Montana, the Minerals Engineering Co.,
has rigged a wagon drill on a %-ton anny surplus truck, which
makes a mobile and efficient unit. This unit is shown in Plate 4,
A and C. The same operator also has a compressor and drill
mounted on a heavier truck, as shown in Plate 4, E. These
units work very well and may be applicable to .smaller opera-
tions.
Drilling Problems
The following methods have been used to overcome some
of the many difficulties which miners experience in their drill-
ing operations:
Removing Water from Air Lines

When first compressed, air is very hot. Before the com-
pressed air gets to the drill, however, the heat due to compres-
sion is usually lost. This cooling action results in condensa-
tion of water in the pipe lines and receiver tanks. Frequently,
the volume of water is great enoughg to intedere with the ac-
tion of the drill. One small-mine operator faced with this prob-
lem solved it by making a tank as shown in Plate 5, A. The
baffle plate, extending about 73 of the length of the circular
11) OPERATING IDEAS FOR. SMA,LL MINES
tank, is welded in place. In width, the baffle plate is the same

dimension as the inside diameter of the tank, whose capacity is
approximately 30 gallons. The air in passing through this
tank moves slowly, cools somewhat and the water condenses
on the bottom of the tank, from whence it can be drained.
Low sags in the air line should be equipped with a drain valve,
so that the entrapped water can be drained periodically.
Air Saving
Small-mine operators generally have an insufficient air sup-
ply to operate all their compressed-air-driven equipment. The
purpose of this section is to call attention to the importance of
stopping small leaks in the compressed air system. Most mine
operators do not realize how much compressed air can be lost
through small leaks.
By theoretical calculations, a hole }4-inch in diameter in an
air line will lose per minute approximately 100 cubic feet of
free air which has been compressed to 100-pound gauge pres-
sure. This quantity of air is enough to run a medium-weight
sinker drill. A ~~-inch diameter hole will lose per minute ap-
proximately 25 cubic feet of free air which has been compressed
to 100-pound gauge pressure. Such losses seriously impair the
efficiency of a rock drill; hence, it is important to stop small
leaks.
Water Saying
The prospector or small-mine operator frequently must
haul water to his mine for drilling purposes. To reduce the
cost of hauling water, some operators put gutters on all their
buildings to catch rainwater for drilling.
Types of Bits for Different Types of Ground
Mining operations meet many different ground conditions.
The recent trend in small-diameter bits and smaller machines
for hard-rock drilling has given some excellent results in drill-
Push
with handS"--~~ta~~~""""""""""""
A.MEXICAN SETUP FOR SINKER DRILL
r-
Stull or
Setup -Ladder
bar
Push with hands or
foot _
Drill
board
B. PLANK SETUP FOR DRILLING NEARLY HORIZONTAL

HOLES WITH SINKER
hhIO~'d:S~~~!E~it.~.....__~ ....
Spade on air-leg
machine _
~_~~~~~~~J"&~----""'-·"----. .a
C. BY DRILLING STEEP LIFTERS WITH AIR-LEG DRILL, LEG
STOPS ARE NOT NEEDED.
-
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY' MISC. CONT. NO. 14, PLATE NO.4
A. TRUCK MOUNTED WAGON DRILL
B. DRILLING IN PIT WITH

SINKER
C. ANOTHER VIEW OF THE TRUCK

IMOUNTED WAGON DRILL
E. SELF-CONTAINED
COMPRESSOR AND DRILL
MOUNTED ON TRUCK
D. DRILLING IN PIT WITH AIR-LEG
DRILLING 11
ing and cost saving. However, trouble has been experienced

in drilling soft loose ground with small-diameter bits, because
the steel will stick and bind in the holes.
In the choice of bits for different types of ground, follow
this general rule: if the rock is hard, then only minimum clear-
ance is needed between the steel and sides of the hole. Chisel
bits sometimes produce excellent rsults in hard ground. If the
rock is soft or loose, better results are usually obtained if a
larger-diameter hole is drilled, allowing more clearance between
the steel and the sides of the hole. (See Plate 5, B). When
drilling in soft, talcy, or loose ground, bits with the water holes
coming out of the side usually give better results than do center-
hole bits.
Drilling in Soft Ground with Tungsten-Carbide Bits
When developing a vein with a drift or inclined shaft, pros-
pectors and small-mine operators frequently find that they have
both hard and soft ground in the same heading. The ordinary
tungsten-carbide bit works well in the hard ground, but it fre-
quently plugs in the soft ground, preventing water circulation
through the bit.
Most tungsten-carbide bits have three water holes. One
comes out at the center of the bit; the other two come out the
side of the bit. As mentioned above, side-water-hole bits usually
work much better in soft or loose ground. One operator, drilling
in soft ground, overcame plugged tungsten-carbide bits by plug-
ging the center hole with a cut-off nail, as shown in Plate 5, C.
The nail could be easily removed when hard ground was en-
countered. The nail head wore off after a few holes, but an-
other nail could be inserted. The nail must be cut off, so that
the water course to the side holes on the bit is not obstructed.
Freeing Stuck Steel
When considering the problem of fre~ing steel stuck in
the hole (stuck steel), the old saying of ~'an ounce of prevention
is worth a pound of cure", certainly applies. Do everything pos-
sible to keep from sticking the steel. There is probably no

more frustrating and exhausting work in mInIng than freeing
stuck steel. Proper bit selection, ample water, and proper drill-
ing techniques are the best cure for stuck steel, but sometimes
even these precautions go amiss.
The operator may sometimes remove stuck steel by pulling
on the machine while allowing it to run. The machine must be
equipped with a steel puller, this cannot be done with a stoper
drill. The reverse pull on the steel plus the vibration, and ro-
tation caused by the machine, may jar the steel loose. If the
steel will not rotate, the application of a wrench may loosen
the steel so that it will rotate. Care must be used, however, to
twist the steel so that the bit will not be unscrewed if threaded
type bits are used.
When all other means have failed, a set up as shown in
Plate 5, D, may produce results. A wrench is put over the steel,
the collar of which keeps the wrench from slipping off. If the
steel does not have a collar, the ordinary steel wrench will usu-
ally grip tightly enough. A scaling or pry bar can be inserted
behind the wrench and a pulling force applied. This method
works fairly well in removing stubborn stuck steel. Because of
its cost, it usually pays a small operator to attempt to recover
the steel.
Welding Tungsten-Carbide Bits on Drill Rods
The threads on tungsten-carbide bits may sometimes strip

off, rendering the bit useless. Mr. John Hand, a successful mine
operator, reports fair success in welding stripped bits to drill
rods by using stainless steel welding rods and setting the elec-
tric welder at 200 ~mperes. Such care prolongs the life of both
the bits and rods.
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC.CONT. NO.14, PLATE NO.5
Soft ground need: Hard ground:

clearance between small diameter
steel and hole. bit-- minimum
clearance.
Air in Air out
-:::::-=~ /P=::::::::=- -
1 t
-----H-Baffle plate
1 t
Water drain
1lmml~~::s55..tr"'"
\ ClearanceI
A. REMOVING WATER FROM
AIR LINE. B. BITS FOR TYPE OF GROUND
,Cut off nail to

I plug center hole
Side water
hole
Stuck steel
..
Pulling force
C. TUNGSTEN-CARBIDE BIT D. PULLING STUCK STEEL.

., FOR SOFT GROUND.
DRILLING 13
Collaring Holes
The novice drill operator frequently has trouble collaring
or starting holes. Though experience is the best teacher, some-
times a little preparatory work with a pick or pry bar will ease
the task of collaring holes. A depression in the face usually
makes collaring easier. A single drill operator sometimes finds
it necessary to hold the steel near the bit with one hand to pre-
vent its riding off the rock while regulating the throttle and feed
with the other hand. This requires considerable practice, but
a well-laid-out drill round pays off in footage broken and re-
duced powder consumption. Hence, it is profitable to collar
the holes in the correct position. If two men are in a heading,
one man can hold the bit and steel, to prevent its riding off the
rock. The man holding the steel, however, must take precau-
tions so that rock chips resulting from the drilling action will
not fly into his eyes. (Safety goggles should be worn).
Machine Alignment
One difficulty an inexperienced drill operator often en-
counters is that the machine will labor and stop rotating, a fre-
quent occurrence if the machine is in a worn condition. The
alignment of the machine and steel with the direction of the
hole is extremely important. The machine should be so posi-
tioned so that the steel does not ride on the sides of the hole
and thereby waste power.
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOG Y MISC .. CeNT. NO. 14, PLATE NO.6
Explosives Sand Stemming

-- ,"::",.:.
6 "IJ
rP'L!',34 II
"'--WOOd Spacers Wad
A. WOODEN SPACING BLOCKS AND TAMPING
Large Size
Paper Clip Fuse Reel
Fuse Cutting Board
B. CUTTING AND PRE~RING FUSES
I I ttt t 22 III 122121111 1211a
212221222222222?2214
3 I? 2 < 2 ? ? ? 2 ? 2 ? 2 C 2 ? 2 ? -I
Light single spitter with a match.
2
Cut I
2:'2?.I
jJ:
111/1 1,/2?2?????
2 :: J J / J ? / ~ r Z r
Z : z z r
3 <crire ?/2?22~r,
Light bunch spitter
Cut 2
3
r::r-('
Light primers with bunch spitter
C. TIMING FUSES :3 WAYS O. LIGHTING FUSES

BLASTING
To a prospector or small-mine operator, the cost of fuel or
power for the compressors and the cost of explosives are usually
large items. Properly drilled and loaded rounds are perhaps
the best powder and fuel savers, because maximum footage or
tonnage is produced with a minimum of effort and supplies.
Explosive Savers
Most authorities say that too much explosive is used per
drill round. They sometimes recommend spacers in the powder
charge and almost always recommend stemming. By capital-
izing on these ideas, the prospector can save up to 30 per cent
on the powder charge needed to load a drill round. Holes
loaded as shown in Plate 6, A, have produced excellent results
for many operators. The wood spacers are 6 inches long and
may be cut from I-inch lumber. The stemming may be sand
or clay, and the final wad of old newspaper or magazine paper
keeps the stemming from trickling out while the near-by holes
are exploding. The lifter holes are usually loaded full of ex-
plosives, as they help throw the muck away from the face.
The proper burden and hole spacing are more important
than the amount of explosives in the round. Usually high per
cent powder (45% to 60%) is used in hard ground to produce a
shattering effect, whereas low per cent powder (from 20% to 40%)
usually gives better results in soft ground. The low per cent
powder produces a cneaving" effect, which breaks soft ground
better than does the higher-speed shattering effect.
Preparing Detonators
For rotational firing of blast holes, it is essential that all the
fuses prepared for anyone drill round be of the proper length,
so that proper rotation or sequence of detonation of the holes
results.
One operator, Mr. Bill Hand, devised the fuse-cutting board
as shown in Plate 6, B. The roll of fuse is attached to one end
BLASTING 15
of the board, or several rolls of fuse may be attached there by

construction of a suitable roll-holding device. The free end of
the fuse is then pulled across the board and put in the clip. The
man who is making the fuses then walks back to the desired
length marked on the table, pulls the fuse tight (the other end
being held by the paper clamp), and cuts the fuse. Each fuse
cut in this manner is the same length.
Reducing Misfires
When making detonators, at least one prospector employs a

system to reduce misfires which has produced excellent results
for many years. The end of the fuse which is to go into the
cap must be cut straight across. / Then a small needle is in-
serted about %-inch into the powder train in the fuse, and the
powder is loosened a bit. (See Plate 6, B). The cap is inserted
over the fuse and crimped. Care must be used not to run the
needle out the side of the fuse. To demonstrate the difference
between the force which the fire shoots out of a fuse which has
had this treatment and one which has not, cut two short pieces
of fuse, puncture one but not the other, light both fuses at the
same time, and observe the difference between the force of the
fire shooting out the ends.
Other causes of misfires are kinked fuses, which cause the
fire in the fuse to go out; fuse not seated properly in the cap;
fuse and cap connection not waterproofed when used in wet
holes; improper position of the cap in the powder charge; and
an improper time interval between holes.
Rotational Firing
To insure proper blasting sequence, not only must the fuses
be of the proper length, but they must be lit in the proper order.
The following methods are in common use throughout the
country:
Fuses of the Same Length

If only a few holes are to be shot, then, provided the fuses
are of the same length, the operator may time the round by
lighting (spitting) the fuses with a time interval between each,
(See Plate 6, C, Method 1). Fuse burns at the rate of approxi-
mately one foot every 40 seconds; hence, it takes about 3~' sec-
onds for the fuse to burn one inch. When spitting several holes,
allow 6 or 7 seconds between spitting each fuse; then good rota-
tional firing will result. This method should not be used for
short fuses, nor where many fuses are to be spit, because the
smoke from the burning fuses thickens in a short time, and some
fuses may be missed. Also, the person spitting the fuses may
be overcome with smoke. Not over three or four fuses should
be spit in this manner.
Cutting Individual Fuses

A method commonly employed in timing rounds is shown
in Plate 6, C, Method 2. Cut 1 produces the shortest length of
fuse to the cap. The next shortest length is cut from the next
hole to be fired, as shown as cut 2 in Plate 6, C, Method 2. This
process is repeated until the entire round is timed. The holes
are usually spit in sequence, number one being spit first, num-
ber two next, and so on until the entire round is spit.
Timing Round and Cutting All Fuses in One Operation
The method shown in Plate 6, C, Method 3, is often used

because it is rapid in timing, and because it is already grouped
for ''bunch'' blasting. Time the round by taking the fuse from
the hole to go first, number one hole, and hold it firmly in one
hand. Take the fuse from the next hole to fire, number 2 in
the sketch, and make its end come approximately 2 inches back
from the end of number one fuse. Grasp both fuses firmly so
that they' do not slip out of position. Take the fuse from the
next hole to be fired, and put its end approximately 2 inches
back of the end of number two fuse. Continue this process
BLAST'ING 17
until all the fuses are bunched. (A word of caution: do not

let any of the fuses slip out of position.) Then tie all the fuses
together with a string, unraveled fuse, or friction tape tightly
enough so that they do not slip out of position. Make another
tie about 1 inch from the first. Take a sharp knife and cut all
the fuses between the two ties. The round is now timed and
ready for lighting (spitting). This round can be bunch blasted,
as shown in Plate 17, H, of Practical Guide (Stout, 1955). The
fuses may also be separated and spit individually.
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. NO. 14, PLATE NO. 7
,
" ,,
"
""
""
\', ,
\
Sliding
Plate
Tie and plate s to'/"
support switch points
B. STANDARD RAILROAD-
~----------------=-----~~
A. TONGUE SWITCH TYPE SWITCH
,
Sliding
Plate
C. BUTT SWITCH D. PREFABRICATED SWITCH

UNDERGROUND TRANSPORT
Track Laying
Often one of the most neglected, but yet important, phases

of a mining operation is the laying of good track and providing
sufficient maintenance to keep it in good condition. Track
should be well supported with ties spaced at an interval of not
over 2 feet. During installation, grade and gauge should be
carefully checked, and frequent checks for both grade and gauge
should be made after the track has been used. The ties should
be ballasted preferably with gravel, or (if gravel is unavailable)
with relatively fine mine waste. Rail is measured in terms of
pounds per yard; a- 25-pound rail is one that weighs 25 pounds
per yard.
The rails are spaced by a gauge stick, which consists of a
level with slots cut in it at the proper width for the desired
track gauge. The gauge is set over the two rails and they can
be easily spaced and aligned before spiking down. A grade
stick is usually a level from 6 to 10 feet long, with a small block
fastened on the underside or rail side of one end. The thick-
ness of this block depends on the grade. When checking grade,
the block side of the level is put down grade. The grade should
be kept from 0.5 foot to 1.0 foot for every 100 feet of track for
hand tramming, less for locomotive haulage.
Much time and effort can be saved by good track mainte-
nance. In many mines both tracks have their joints resting on
the same tie. Many authorities think the better practice is to
stagger the joints so they, the joints, do not rest on the same tie .
. Switches
The following types of switches are in general use in small

mines throughout the country. Perhaps one of these types will
help you with your switching problem.
UNDERGROUND TRANSPORT 19
Tongue Switch
Four common types of track switches are shown in Plate 7.
The one most commonly used by prospectors is the tongue
switch; it is simple to make, easy to install, and, if properly in-
stalled, will usually give good service for cars up to one ton in
capacity.
Standard Railroad-Type Switch
For larger cars and heavier rail the standard railroad-type
switch shown in Plate 7, B, and Plate 9, A, is most commonly
used. Complete switches of this type can usually be purchased
at any track dealer.
Butt Switch
Another common type is the "Butt" switch, as shown in
Plate 7, C, and Plate 9, D. The long rails can be aligned with
either the straight track or the curved track. This type of
switch can be used for both light and heavy rail.
Prefabricated Switch
For the lack of a better term, the name "Prefabricated" has
been given to the switch, illustrated in Plate 7, D, and Plate 9, F.
The elements of the switch are shown in Plate 9, E. This switch
has been used by its designer, Mr. Bill Hand, for a number of
years with excellent results.
In the installation of any type of switch, care must be exer-
cised so that (1) sufficient ties are present to support all the ele-
ments of the switch; (2) the switch is properly placed and lev-
eled to insure efficient operation; (3) the moving portions slide
over a steel plate, which insures smooth operation.
Turnsheet
Where mine operators wish to change direction of cars in
a limited space and conditions do not permit the installation
of a switch, turnsheets are often used as an aid to perform this
task. The turnsheet is usually a flat metal plate }4-inch or more
Rail bent in a circle to act as a

guide
)
I" Pin
0- ~
I I v='II_ Channel iron
jTrack gouge l
Short piece of I" pipe
. - - - - - , , L - - - - , welded
to underside to act
End of rail flattened so that car wheels
F===/==:;=== as socket for pin
will be even with top of track.
-
~'Plate
lFlattened rail endsJ
A. TURN SHEE T B. TURNTABLE FOR

SMALL CARS.
, / ' \ : Rails laying on side
Slide rails are laid on their

side and extended their PLAN VIEW
full length toward the face.
SIDE VIEW
C. TRACK EXTENSION IN D. SMALL CAR RERAILER.

FACE.
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. NO.14, PLATE NO.12
LONG -SECTION
Stope Slusher drift
" . . ~. ··,·v < ... Slusher
0.0.··.<>.0 .. . "
Y;/.~.:l '·'{2.~:t/ ~~>~:;.;/

II
Main haulage
level
Slusher
drift
CROSS-
SECTION
level
A.CHUTES REPLACED BY B. SECTIONS OF A SLUSHER

MUCKING MACHINE DRIFT
Drill hole in end of handle to
PLAN
hold airplane control co ble
CROSS - SECTION
Slusher
and slusher
pocket
Measuring pockets
for skips
C.SLUSHER POCKET AT D.REMOTE CONTROL FOR

SHAFT SLUSHER
B. STOP- BOARD CHUTE
A. FOLDING STEEL
CHUTE LIP
c.OVER-CUT ARC GATE- STEEL

CHUTE BOTTOM
D. UNDER-CUT ARC GATE

AIR OPERATED- NOTE
OVERFLOW STOP IIAq
E. GUILLOTINE- TYPE
STEEL CHUTE
in thickness. The turnsheet should be placed lower than the

top of the rail, so that the flange of the wheel will ride on the
sheet without excessive bumping or dropping when the car leaves
the end of the rails. One type of turnsheet is shown in Plate 8,
A. After the car is rolled on the sheet, the operator can turn or
swing it by applying a force to one comer of the car. Usually if
the sheet is kept damp or wetted, the car will turn easier.
Turntable
Turnsheets work fairly well with small cars, but a turn-
table is commonly used for turning larger cars. The turntable
sho'-"ll in Plate 8, B, is designed for light cars. The car is run
up on the top deck. (The stops should be placed so that the
whole unit, car and top deck, will balance on the center pin).
Then the car and top deck can be readily turned on the pivot
point. The unit is light enough to be readily transported 'about
the mine. .
The turntable shown in Plate 9, B, has been successfully
used to turn small mucking machines and 2-ton loaded cars. It
i.s of heavier construction than the one shown in Plate 8, B.
Car Transfer
The servicing of mucking machines necessitates a quick
supply of empty cars to the mucker. One method of accom-
plishing this is by the use of a car transfer, as shown in Plate
9, C. The dolly shown on the left-hand side in the picture is
pushed over the main track, where an empty car is pushed on
top. The empty car and dolly can then be transferred into the
same position that the empty dolly now occupies in the picture.
When the loaded car goes by, the dolly and empty car are
transferred over the main track, so that the empty car can then
be pushed into the main track towards .the mucker. While that
car is being loaded, another empty car can be put on the dolly
and pushed off to the side so that the loaded car can go by.
Extending Track in Development Headings

The most common method of extending rails in a develop-
ment heading is the one shown in Plate 8, C. The rails to be
extended are put on their sides, so that the crown of the rail
fits in the standing rail, as shown in the sketch. The wheel
flange then rides in the web of the rail laid on its side. As
the heading is advanced, the rails lying on their sides can be
moved ahead. When their length has been reached from the
ends of the standing rails, they can be turned up and positioned
in place.
In hand-mucked drifts, mucking sheets are commonly laid
beyond the tracks and close to the muck pile; the car then rides
on the sheets to the muck pile. Care is needed to run the car
from the sheets onto the track again.
Cars
In selecting a car, the prospector generally buys the one
which he can purchase cheaply. Most available cheap cars are
from ~ to 1 ton in capacity and usually end dumping.
When purchasing cars, thought should be given to the
wheel and axle arrangement. ~eels should ride on the axle
in bearings, because when a car goes around a curve, the out-
side wheel turns faster than the inside wheel. If the wheels are
not independent of each other, one of them must slide some-
what to get around the curve. This sliding action causes hard
pushing. In some makes of cars, the wheels are fastened to the
axle, but the axle is split in the center, so that each half can
turn independent of the other. Cars of this type give good de-
pendable service.
Preparing Cars to Go Over Uneven Track
As mentioned in the section on track, a mine should have
good track for an efficient transportation system. If the track
is uneven, one of the wheels of a four-wheel, unspringed car
may be lifted so high from the track that the flange will go over
the rail and cause a derailment. Loosening the axles on the car
body to allow about }~-inch movement may give the wheels
enough play to keep them on the rail.
Another way is to make a new mounting for one of the
two axles, whereby the axle is suspended or supported to the
car body in the middle instead of at each end, as is the usual
case. Thus the wheels can move up and down over uneven
track, permitting the car to stay on the rails much better. Larger
cars with spring suspension usually stay on the rail quite well,
because the springs allow the wheels to move up and down.
However, few, if any, small cars are spring suspended.
Safety Chains
When being dumped, cars will often overturn and go down
the chute or over the dump, requiring considerable work to get
the car back on the track. A chain or stout rope equipped with
a hook may prevent such an accident. To install the safety line,
run the empty car to the end of the. dump and put it in the
dumped position; fasten the hook over the top of the car, pull
the chain or rope safety line taut, and fasten the other end of
the safety line securely to some foundation. If the car does
start to tip, the safety line will hold the car from rolling over
the dump. As the dump is extended, more slack must be given
to the safety line.
Another method to keep cars from overturning when being
dumped is to load the bottom of the car with fine muck and
put large boulders on top, a procedure, of course, convenient
only when hand mucking. The usual cause of a car's over-
turning is that large rocks, when sliding out, jam in the car
body and thus unbalance the car. The large boulders can be
rolled from the car before it is dumped.
Car Stop
A simple car stop which can be used on the ends of a track
on a dump consists merely of a piece of chain wrapped around
the two rails. The chain can be readily moved or slid to a new
position.
So that the down grade does not become excessive, the
grade of the rails at the end of a dump must be maintained. Be-
cause of lack of support, the rails at the end of the dump fre-
quently tend to bend down. Ties, resting on timber firmly sup-
ported in the dump, should be installed near the track end.
Car Rerailers
Commercial car rerailers are made for small track sizes
commonly used in mines. One type of rerailer is shown in
Plate 8, D. The rerailer is first thrown over the rail; then the
car is pulled by the locomotive up the rerailer ramp and onto
the track. Other styles of rerailers work equally as well. The
rerailers, easily carried on the locomotive, can save much time
in placing back on the track a derailed car or locomotive.
Locomotives
When a prospect starts to produce ore, hand tramming
soon becomes too slow and expensive. Horses and mules served
for a good many years to pull ore cars underground, and in
certain places they still may be practical.
Electric locomotives are the primary types used underground
today. The storage-battery type is widespread in both large
and small mines, whereas the trolley type is used in mines
where large tonnages of ore are hauled. The battery locomotive
may be selected by a small operator, but added to the cost of
the locomotive is the cost of the battery-charging equipment.
However, normally these locomotives give years of rugged
dependable service.
The air trammer costs less in initial investment than other

locomotives, however, frequent air charges and the cost of com-
pressed air make this unit expensive to operate over long and
heavy hauls. For limited distances and for certain haulage, it
is an efficient machine.
The diesel locomotive costs somewhere between an electric
locomotive and the air locomotive. The diesel locomotive is
restricted underground to well-ventilated areas, although many
mine operators feel that, for the welfare of men underground,
ventilation should be good enough to operate diesels throughout
a mine. If the ventilation problem can be solved, diesel loco-
motives may be the best investment for an underground haulage
locomotive.
For initial prospect work and small operations, animals or
the air locomotive would probably be most practical under most
conditions. For heavy haulage, the diesel or electric locomotive
should be investigated.
Caution! Do not for any reason use gasoline engines under-
ground. Gasoline engines give off high percentages of carbon
monoxide, a very poisonous and deadly gas. Diesel engines,
properly regulated and equipped with scrubbers, do not give
off much carbon monoxide, but enough so that good ventilation
is required in underground operation.
Trackless Mining
In recent years, many mine operations have been con-
verted to trackless mining by the use of diesel trucks, diesel
tractor loaders, and shuttle cars. Also, some prospectors, when
driving short development or exploration crosscuts, have used
wheelbarrows and rubber-tired cement buggies which can move
considerable material. These conveyances save the cost and
time of installing track and cars, should the exploration work
not prove fruitful.
UNDERGROUND TRANSPORT 25
As mentioned in Practical Guide (Stout, 1955, p. 50), levels

up to 150 ft. in length can be driven without track by use of
a double drum slusher hoist. This practice, for short workings,
may save the work and cost of buying and installing track and
cars.
Another way of mucking out a large cross-section develop-
ment adit is by diesel tractors equipped with end loaders. These
tractors both shovel and carry the broken rock out of the head-
ing. The tractor should be equipped with an exhaust scrubber,
and an adequate fresh air supply must be maintained at the
working face.
26 OPERATING IDEAS FOR SMA/LL MINES
LOADING
Loading is commonly a tiresome and expensive part of a

mining operation. The following discussion may help solve
some of your loading problems.
Hand Loading
In most initial prospects, ore and waste loading is done by
hand methods. Hand loading or mucking is discussed in Prac-
tical Guide (Stout, 1955, p. 49-50). All important is the laying
of a good smooth floor that is held down by sufficient muck so
the concussion from the blast will not dislodge it.
Many shovelers, using square-point shovels when shoveling
from a floor, prefer a short-handled shovel. Good shovelers
usually lift the shovel over either shoulder without turning around
and throw the muck into the car. The car must be kept close
to the shoveler. Practice is necessary to shovel in this manner,
because the natural tendency of the shoveler is to load the
shovel, lift, turn around, and dump the load into the car. Turn-
ing around results in lost motion. Another item is important:
shovels should be kept in good shape.
Chutes
Chutes take advantage of the force of gravity to load ore
or waste into cars from excavations at a higher elevation. Proper
chute design is important because poorly designed chutes result
in high-costs, inefficiency, and accidents, whereas well-designed
chutes allow fast low-cost loading. Chutes are made of wood,
combined wood and steel, concrete, and combined concrete and
steel. Various types of gate combinations have also been tried
with success under different conditions. In large mines, the
gates are commonly activated (worked) by air cylinders. Prop-
erly designed chutes equipped with efficiently operating gates
make rapid and safe loading possible.
LOADING
Chutes for Small Mines

Wooden chutes prevail where relatively small tonnages of
are are to be loaded. Sometimes the bottom and sides are lined
with steel plates to prevent wear and help the ore slide through
the chute-mouth.
The most critical dimensions in chute construction are the
height above the car, overhang over car, and the angle of the
chute bottom (a, b, and c in Plate 10, A). These distances must
be determined from experience with the type of equipment
used and the type of are loaded. The dimensions should be
such that when the car is full the muck will not run over either
the far or near (chute) side of the car. The angle of the heaped
ore in the car must be smaller than the angle of repose of the
ore. Folding steel chute lips such as shown in Plate 13, A, B,
provide a good guide for the ore into the car. The angle of the
chute bottom for best service is commonly between 35° to 40°,
dependent somewhat on the type of are. For dry ore the angle
of the chute bottom may be less than 35° whereas for wet
sticky are, the bottom should be over 40°.
N a attempt will be made to show construction of a "stan-
dard" chute. In the early days, chutes were commonly designed
to fit the space provided for them. Modern companies design
a standard chute for their mines and remove enough ground
so that the pre-fabricated chute will fit without alterations. The
prospector prefers the first method, since he does not want to
remove more ground than necessary. However, the dimensions
discussed in the previous section should be kept in mind.
Chute Gates
The four types of gates shown in Plate 10 are those most
commonly seen in small mines, each of which, under the proper
conditions, gives good service. The advantages and disadvan-
tages of each type will be listed.
The stop-board gate chute, as shown in Plate 10, A, and
Plate 13, A, B, has some advantage: it is cheap, easy to make
28 OPERATING IDEAS FOR. SMALL MINES
and install. As far as operation is concerned, it is awkward,

clumsy, and especially dangerous to unskilled men. Numerous
ore spills result from these gates. Most larger mining companies
have devised and are using other types of chute gates.
The overcut arc gate shown in Plate 10, B, and Plate 13, C,
is becoming increasingly popular and is rapidly replacing the
stop-board type of chute gate. These gates are faster, more
efficient, safer, and more positive in muck cut-off. The main
disadvantages are that sometimes the gate cannot be closed
because of a timber or large boulder, caught under the gate,
and that it is more expensive to build and install.
The undercut-arc gate as shown in Plate 10, C, and Plate
13, D, is popular with larger mining companies. These gates
are commonly operated with air cylinders. However, the one
shown rigged up in Plate 10, C, has given good service. The
advantages of the undercut gates are positive muck cut-off
(they will close in spite of large boulders or timber), they are
efficient, safe, and they can be reinforced on the back to take
the abuse of coarse heavy ore hitting the gate. However, the
gate, when closing, will often throw boulders over the side of
the car, but this can be prevented by a backstop. The cost of
installation, too, is high.
The undercut-guillotine gate illustrated in Plate 10, D, and
Plate 13, E, possesses advantages similar to the undercut arc
gate, plus the further advantage of not throwing the muck over
the car, as frequently happens when the undercut are gate is
closed. The disadvantages are costs of installation and lack of
strength, for the gate cannot stand much abuse from coarse
muck, or it may become bent and thus hinder efficient operation.
Another type of chute sho,vn in Plate 11, A, is commonly
called a "Chinaman" chute or a stop-board chute, one of its
purposes being to catch the muck from the first three floors
of a timbered stope. The floor above the level is double lagged
with a 12-in.-wide open space left in the center of the drift,
parallel to the line of the drift. Put over this opening are small
LOADING
boards laid crosswise, which, when removed over the car, permit
the muck to run into the car below. This system is generally
not so fast as that of the other chutes, but is usually faster than
straight hand mucking.
Grizzlies
To handle are efficiently through chutes, loading pockets,
cars, and crushing machinery in a mill, the operator must fre-
quently reduce the are to a certain maximunl size. Ore sizinJ:;
is commonly done underground through a devke called a
grizzly, \vhich consists generally of heavy iron bars or rails
placed a certain distance apart to prevent the passage of large
boulders. Plate 32, B, shows the use of tires to keep C().1rse
muck from going too fast over closely spaced griz'dy rails.
Grizzly rails are usually placed at some angle from ',l)e hori-
zontal, as shown in Plate 11, B, so that the coarse boulders ,vill
roll to one end out of the way of the fine muck and thus not
interfere with the dumping process. The boulders pile up and
can later be broken. The angle of the rails ordinarily runs
from 20° to as high as 40°, though usually 25° or 30° is sufficient.
Ore Loading with Mucking Machines

In many mines mucking machines have replaced chutes
to load are from raises and stapes. Sometimes the are is just
blasted down onto the main haulage level, where it is loaded
into cars.
Since, in many mining operations are dumping in the main
haulage level is undesirable, an arrangement as shown in Plate
12, A, is used. The mucking machine operates in a short cross-
cut and loads the cars from the side. These crosscuts are
spaced from 20-ft. to 30-ft. apart along the drift and extend
from the drift to the are. To change from one crosscut to
another, the mucking machine is run onto a turn table, turned,
run onto the main haulage track, and moved to its new location.
The turntable is used again to put the machine into the cross-
so OPERATING IDEAS FOR SMALL MINES
cut. In this manner one mucking machine can service several

short crosscuts. Many mine operators maintain this system is
cheaper than loading ore through chutes.
Slushers and Scrapers

The slusher and scraper combination is probably the best
investment that a prospector can make when he buys muck
moving equipment. This combination serves in many different
ways and operating conditions. True, for level driving, the
slusher-scraper combination usually is not so efficient as a muck-
ing machine, but muck is moved much faster and cheaper than
by hand loading.
Most large mining companies employ slushers and scrapers
to handle large tonnages of ore from stopes. One arrangement
of this system is shown in Plate 12, B. Another syste"m is like
that shown in Plate 12, A, except that a slusher and scraper are
used instead of a mucking machine, and the haulage level lies
below the crosscut so that the scraper will empty directly into
the cars below without going through a chute. (See Plate 12, B.)
Slusher-skip-Ioading pockets have become popular in some
areas, especially where a moist sticky ore is handled. The
arrangement as shown in Plate 12, C, is often utilized.
Sometimes, for better vision, or for other reasons, it is
desirous to control the slusher from a remote location. Commer-
cial remote-control units are costly to purchase, and Il,1aintenance
costs are sometimes high. One mine operator rigged up a
slusher (Plate 12, D), which he could control from a distance
of IOO-ft. Airplane control cable and small airplane pulleys were
used for this system. Wherever a direction change was necessary
in the control line, small airplane pulleys were installed to
take care of the change in direction of the control cable. The
system was cheap, easy to install, simple to maintain, and very
workable. To start and stop the slusher, an air shut-off valve
near the operator can be installed; or, if an electric slusher is
used, a stop-start button can be installed close to the operator.
TIMBERING 31
TIMBERING
In some mining operations, the recent innovation of rock
bolts for ground support has replaced timber to a considerable
extent. However, since timber is available near many prospects,
it will undoubtedly serve for support at least in the initial stages
of mine development. One must keep in mind, however, that
rock bolts under proper conditions do an efficient job of sup-
porting ground. When properly placed, rock bolts give perma-
nent support, not temporary, like timber which has a tendency
to rot underground. The drift section does not have to be so
large, because room i!i not needed for timber when rock bolts
are used. Another advantage of rock bolts is to reduce fire
hazard.
Level Timber
Levels are commonly timbered in the manner shown in
Plate 14. The one piece set (Plate 14, A) is used where the
walls are good, but the ore strength is weak. The two-piece
set (Plate 14, B) is employed where the hanging wall and ore
are weak, or where the cap piece or stull, as shown in Plate
14, A, needs support against the hanging wall. Timber is saved
in these two methods, but often it takes longer to place than
the regular drift set shown in Plate 14-C.
The sill or level set (Plate 14, C) serves well where squared
or sawed timber is used underground. With this set, little
framing is required; yet the nailed-on pieces to support the set
in its proper position do a good job. The dimensions may be
changed to suit conditions.
In many prospects and small mines, however, round timber
is available, but it generally must he framed. The approximate
dimensions and method of framing (shown in Plate 14, D) are
common in small mines.
Shaft Timber
In vertical shafts and steeply dipping inclined shafts, special
shaft timber is usually precut and framed. If an inclined shaft
OPERATING IDEAS Ji'OR SMALL MINES
is not too steeply dipping, then the timber commonly used is

named like, and looks like level timber. The names for various
vertical shaft timber members are given in Plate 15.
The timber dimensions indicated in Plate 15 are for a
3-compartment shaft, with openings of 4J~-ft. by 4~-ft. in each
compartment. Center-to-center distance of the sets in the ver-
tical direction is 5-ft. These dimensions may be changed to
suit any particular case and also any size of timber.
The following caution should be noted: if the compart-
ments are not all the same size, then one wall plate must be
the mirror image of the other. For example, if the right-hand
compartment, as shown in Plate 15, were to be only 3-ft. instead
of the 4}~-ft. as shown, then the two wall plates must have the
cuts for the dividers facing each other with the proper spacing
between. If all the wall plates were cut identically, one half
of them would not fit.
H the shaft is to have more than 3 compartments, the wall
plate may have to be cut, because it will be too long to get down
the shaft and into position. This cut is so made that the joint
will be over a center post. The ends of the cut wall plates must
be framed similar to the framing cuts shown at the end of the
wall plates in the sketch. However, whereas the projection of
one piece is at the bottom, the projection of the other piece
must be at the top, so that the joint will mesh, and the wall
plate will be held firmly in position by the posts and by blocking.
Stope Timber
Although modern advances in ground support and new
techniques in mining practice have almost eliminated timber
in some stoping operations, for others timber support is still
important. Different kinds of framing are used on the ends
of timber which, when put together, keep the framework in
position. The two types of framing shown in Plate 16 have
worked successfully in various mines throughout the United
States.
TIM'BERING
Two pressures generally develop in a stope: a downward

pressure caused by heavy ore, noted by the arrow in Plate 16,
A, or a side pressure caused by weak and heavy walls, as shown
by the arrow in Plate 16, B. Frequently, both pressures are
present, but one may be stronger than the other. Timber gives
better support if the grains or fibers in the wood run parallel
to the direction of the greatest force. If the fibers run at right
angles to the force, the timber will be squashed or compressed
more readily.
Hence, we hear the term post-butting and cap-butting. Post-
butting timber (Plate 16, A) is used where the strongest pressure
is down or vertical. This type of framing is designed so that
the ends of the post will butt against one another. Although
the sketch shows squared timbers, round timbers may be framed
with these dimensions.
Ordinarily the greatest pressure, strangely enough, is wall
or side pressure; hence the timber framing illustrated in Plate
16, B, is cap-hutting to support this pressure. Although this
frame is shown on square timber, the same frame may be put
on round timber.
Other frame designs may give better service under certain
conditions, but the above two frames will give satisfactory service
in most places.
Miscellaneous Timber
Miscellaneous forms of timber are often required under-
ground for special purposes. The following discussion lists a
few of the more common types.
Crib Timber
Crib timber raises are advisable in soft heavy ground, or
where mining operations require a raise in ground that has been
mined and filled with waste material.
The crib timber framing as shown in Plate 17, A, is one
type that gives a solid crib chute. The pieces are laid on top
of one another, with no space between the adjoining timbers.
"
,QNTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CO NT. NO. 14, PLATE NO. 18
Side View Showing Top Spiling

I. Bridge 3"X a"
2. Cap 10" X 10"
3. Collar Brace S"X6 11
4. Post 10"X 10"
5. Upright Bridge 3"XS"
6. Space for spiling
7. Foot Brace 6 I XS"
S. Sill
9. Tail Piece
10. Spiling 3"Xa"
I I, Braces or Pro ps
12. Breast Boards
Plan View Showing Side Spiling
METHOD OF DRIVING THROUGH SOFT AND CAVING GROUND

Sometimes a small space is desired between each timber; so,

instead of a frame cut 2 in. deep (see sketch), only 1 in. is re-
moved from each side, leaving the horn 6 in. thick instead of
4 in., as shown in the sketch. The length of the timber depends
on the size of the opening wanted in the raise.
Spiling
Driving through soft and caving ground may necessitate
spiling. One arrangement for driving through a cave is shown
in Plate 18, which provides for both overhead and side protec-
tion. Often, however, spiling need be driven only in the over-
head. position.
The problem of driving spiling is sometimes difficult. The
operator may drive spiling by hammering with a double-jack,
a stoper, or air leg. Some ingenious miners, by different arrange-
ments, have driven spiles by butting them with mucking ma-
chines and underground locomotives. The swinging timber or
battering ram (Plate 17, B) has also proved advantageous.
Simple Wedge Maker
\Vedges are difficult to saw, but are a necessity around a
mine. A mine official, of the American Machine and Metals
Co., Trout Mining Division, designed a simple wedge-maker
which can be attached to a small saw. Many thousands of
wedges have been made with this simple device. (Note the
arrangement, Plate 17, C). The wedge holder is a piece of 4-in.
by 6-in. timber notched to hold the 2-in. by 4-in. by 12-in. piece
of timber from which the wedges are cut.
Placing Head Board and Stull
In inconvenient places, it may be difficult to place the stull
and headboard in proper position so that they can be wedged
tightly in place. Sometimes, wedging the headboard in place
causes the stull to ride off the headboard. One can overcome
this difficulty by first nailing the headboard to the stull with
one large spike as shown. (Plate 17, D) The complete unit
then can be handled quite easily and wedged tightly in place.
SJLU'TS
SHAFTS
Commonly, the most expensive part of a mine development
program is shaft sinking. To a prospector, the difficulties en-
countered are not only costly but discouraging. The following
ideas have been used by successful operators to solve a few of
the difficult shaft-sinking problems.
Headframes
When first sinking a prospect shaft, the miner needs no
elaborate headframe. The simple 4-leg headframe shown in
Plate 19 is cheap, easy and fast to make, and with 10-in. diameter
legs, 30-ft. long will safely support a 2-ton load. The slope
of the legs is usually about 45°, the ends of which should be
sunk in the top soil a short distance to help steady the frame.
Adaptations of this basic design may also be constructed to
service inclined shafts. Round timber is mostly used for this
type of construction.
Small Headframe for Inclined Shaft
Shown in Plate 20 is a headframe style often employed
over inclined shafts. Dimensions and angles may be changed
to suit different conditions. The inclined skip usually dumps
directly into a small bin, from which an ore car can carry the
material to the waste dump or to a larger ore bin. By some
modification and checking of clearances, the skip could dump
directly into a truck.
This headframe can be constructed of round or square tim-
ber of not less than IO-in. diameter or lO-in. squared timber.
The design will safely support a rope pull of several tons.
Vertical Shaft Headframe
The headframe with dimensions shown in Plates 21 and 22
has, for a number of years, functioned over a vertical shaft 500-ft.
deep. This structure, whose construction details are simple and
the building expense is small, can safely support a rope pull
of up to seven tons. Although this headframe is designed for
LSheave wheel
----- ~---- ---

SIMPLE 4-LEG HEAOFRAME FOR PROSPECTORS
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. NO.14, PLATE NO. 20
All 10" XlO" timber

-.I 4 ,- d'r,
"......,....,.
SMALL HEAOFRAME FOR INCLlNEQ SHAFT (DUMPING DETAILS OMITTED).

Stay rods
Notches
(I" deep)
~
Guide '---+++-'9' - 10"---4++-----+_'\ ,
support
...,
N
""",L.--·--- 15' - II" ,I
FRONT VIEW OF HEADFRAME SHOWN IN PLATE NO. 21

OPERA TING ID-EAS FOR SMALL MINES
a single compartment shaft, the operator may, by widening the

dimensions, aqapt it to a double compartment shaft. However,
the timbers supporting the sheave wheel uprights should then
be heavier than shown or be reinforced with steel. Note! The
headframe in Plate 24, A, is not the one that has just been
described.
In most prospects and small mines the ore is brought to
the collar of the vertical shafts, by cars, which are then wheeled
to an ore bin or waste dump. Automatic skip-dumping devices,
skips, and ore bins in the headframe give more efficient shaft
operation, but they are expensive to build, install, and maintain;
also considerable tonnage must be hoisted to pay for their
installation. Some miners have made headframes from scrap
steel pipe or steel sections which give good service.
None of these headframes described give ore-bin construc-
tion. If an ore bin is to be included in the headframe structure,
the headframe must be sturdier and higher. The design of a
headframe of greater height than these just discussed requires
more care, in order to meet safety requirements.
Preparing to Sink
The selection of a suitable shaft site is extremely important.
If the initial sinking site is to be the permanent shaft site, then
consideration must be given to the room required for surface
buildings, timber storage, waste dumps, ore bins, and other
structures.
In initial prospects the miner should give special considera-
tion to sinking on the ore outcrop, so that he may determine the
extent of the ore. If at depth the ore holds up in quantity and
quality, then a permanent shaft can be raised from the leve1
below at a better location, and the original shaft can serve
as a raise to mine the ore, as a secondary escapeway, or for
ventilation. Montana law requires that a pillar of rock or ore
25-ft. wide must be left on each side of the hOisting shaft. There-
SBAF'1'S
fore, if an inclined shaft is to serve as a hoisting shaft, it should

be located in a barren portion of the vein if possible.
Sometimes elaborate preparations are made to sink, and
often money is spent and enthusiasm expires before any actual
sinking is done. The simple headframe shown in Plate 19 can
be quickly, and cheaply built. It gives satisfactory service and
will save both money and enthuiasm. Installation of a small
hoist can also proceed quite rapidly. Large hoists must rest
on a solid concrete foundation, but smaller hoists may be an-
chored in other ways.
If the hoist is to rest on solid rock, holes can be drilled in
the rock in line with holes in the hoist frame. The hoist, after
being leveled with timber, wedges, and grouted \-vith cement,
can then be anchored with rock bolts.
If the hoist is to be set over loose material, a hole can be
dug at least 8-ft. deep, at the bottom of which is installed a
steel plate, drilled with holes to match the holes in the hoist
frame. The purpose of this plate and deep hole is to firmly
anchor the hoist. The long hold-down bolts connecting the
plate to the frame should be encased in pipe to allow some side-
play for bolt alignment.
The plate is covered with dirt and rocks packed to the level
of the ground; the hoist is installed on timber or on another plate
located over the anchor plate, so that the hoist can be leveled.
The long bolts from the hoist to the lower plate firmly anchor
the hoist. To prevent movement, the hold-down bolts may be
grouted inside the pipe. This installation is shown by a sketch
in Plate 23, A.
Shaft Sinking
Prospectors generally sink their shafts in the old way; that
is, drilling with sinker drills, mucking by hand, and using timber
for support. Adopting some of the following methods may be
helpful to you when sinking a shaft.
,=>' \ii:t-• .
.:> •
A.PLAN FOR ANCHORING SMALL B. CASING FOR COLLAR OF

HOIST-IN LOOSE GROUND DRILL HOLE IN WET SHAFT
Channel Iron
Guides ~
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.-N ..
:tf.
,I
.11111 H I III1N
"-- Bucket-<r'--' -.! ~-.---.
. .'
Bucket at bottom of i ,;
I "
shaft. Cross head :

stopped at end of :
timber. / ;l. ____ . ______ _
C. MUCKING PAN FOR SHAFT D. SINKlNG CROSSHEAD

BOTTOMS
Drilling
Drilling usually is not a problem in dry shafts. Sinker and
drifter drills are most common for shaft drilling.
Wet shafts, however, present a drilling problem, because
water carries the muck back into the hole and causes drill steel
to stick. This problem is overcome by the installation of short
sections of pipe long enough to reach above the water level.
Generally 2-in. pipe suffices. The hole is started with a 2~~-in.
diameter bit and drilled from 4 to 6-in. deep. Into this hole a
pipe is inserted. The pipe is held in position by fine muck
packed between the pipe and hole. The remainder of the hole
is then drilled with a bit small enough to fit inside the pipe.
Pipes are usually left in until the round is loaded, then removed
before blasting. (See Plate 23, B.)
Blasting
In wet shafts, electric blasting is practiced almost exclusively,
for electric caps are more resistant to water than are fuse and
caps. Electric blasting also is safer, in that everyone leaves the
shaft bottom before the blast. If electric power is not available
to blast electric caps, blasting machines may be purchased or
rented during the shaft-sinking job.
Blasting Shield
When it is necessary to carry timber close to the shaft bottom,
the bottom set, if unprotected, may be damaged by the blast.
Damage to timber can be minimized by the protection of a blast-
ing shield, which may be made of a timber shaft set bolted togeth-
er and hung in the shaft below the last timber set by chains. Be-
fore blasting, the blasting shield set is chained to the bottom set.
Because it is not a permanent installation in the shaft, no damage
is done if some of the shield set is harmed by flying rock.
When timbering, the shield may be lowered by chain blocks
to the proper position below the last set of timber, so that a new
shaft set can be installed above it. Planks thrown across the
SHAFTS
shield form a convenient working stage while the new set is

placed; as only the bucket compartment is left open, a safety
shield is formed to protect the shovelers. Instead of wood,
shields are often made of structural steel shapes and steel plate.
Shoveling
Mechanical shaft muckers of various sorts have been utilized
successfully by many mining companies. These machines, how-
ever, are expensive to install and operate; hence for the present,
the only recourse left to the small-mine operator is to muck the
shaft by hand. Mucking into a low container, being easier, the
mucking pan idea as shown in Plate 23, C, has been practiced
with considerable success by many mining companies. The
disadvantage of this system is that an auxiliary hoist is required
to lift the pan above the sinking bucket.
Crosshead
Sinking with buckets, commonly requires a crosshead, so
that the bucket, when lowered or raised, will not strike the shaft
timbers. Construction of one type of crosshead is shown in
Plate 23, D. Plate 24, B, is a picture of another type. The
crosshead rides on the regular shaft guides; but when it nears
the bottom, stops hold it from going down farther in the shaft
while the bucket descends to the bottom. When the bucket
is hoisted, the rope stops catch the top of the crosshead and
lift it also; hence, the bucket can only swing inside the crosshead,
preventing it from hooking into the shaft timber.
Lining-up Shaft Timber
In vertical shafts, proper alignment is essential for smooth
shaft operation. Blocking the timber in position is usually an
exacting and, for an inexperienced crew, a difficult task. Plumb-
bob lines are hung from each inside corner of a shaft set known
to be in alignment. Then the new set is blocked into position
so that the plumb lines are just at each corner of the set. Before
the set comes into alignment; preferably four men, one in each
corner, in proper coordination, must alternately tighten and
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CaNT. NO.14,PLATE NO. 26
- Direction of air flow
Raise
Level
A. TYPICAL VENTILATION SETUP OF A SMALL MINE
Raiset
: ~ater I~ne to
: raIse
Valves
Water valve:.-
Air valve/'"
-- Level---
--Water trap
Tee Details
e==- 3.4" Pipe

foY-End of pipe is welded shut; then
\ J . ~211 hole is drilled though weld
B. AIR - WATER BLAST TO VENTILATE RAISES
A.WOODEN HEADFRAME OVER SHAFT
B. SINKING BUCKET IN
CROSSHEAD
C. SKIP EQUIPPED WITH GUIDE SHOES

AND DOG- SAFETY DEVICE FOR USE
IN INCLINED SHAFTS
E. SCRAPER IN .30 0
D. GASOLINE ENGINE DRIVEN INCLINED SHAFT
HOIST
Ol'ERATING IDEAS FOB. SMALL MINll:S
loosen corner blocks. Then, to be held in proper position, the

set must be firmly blocked, to perform which, each man must
tighten his corner blocks in unison with the other three men.
Bearing Sets
The timbering of vertical shafts necessitates installation of
bearing sets about every 50 to 100-ft. as shown in Plate 25, D,
providing a bearing or stop for the timber in case the blocking
should give way. With no bearing sets, the timber may ride
down to the bottom of the shaft and cause considerable damage.
A bearing set also provides a good starting place to commence
hanging the timbered sets for the next 50 to 100-ft. in the sinking
cycle.
Safety Covers for Shaft
As mentioned in Section C, the blasting shield when lagged
over provides an overhead safety cover. Furthermore, a door
over the shaft should be closed before the bucket is dumped.
If any rocks should get away, they will not go down the shaft,
injuring anyone below. These simple safety precautions provide
good insurance to the men working in the shaft below.
Skips and Cages
The following items pertaining to shaft operation may be
helpful to you when planning the shaft.
Safety Deyices
The safety dog arrangement (Plate 25, A) is a simple device
to hold the skip or cage in the shaft in case of rope or engine
failure. The device works in the following manner. The dogs
and arms "A" are keyed to a shaft attached to the top of the
cage or skip in bearings which are free to rotate. The drawbar
"c" is attached to the hoisting rope; this drawbar in turn is
attached to arms ~'A" by arms ~'B". Coil springs tend to rotate
the dogs arrow-wise, making the teeth dig into the wooden
guides. However, when tension is maintained on the rope, the
teeth do not dig in, because the tension tends to rotate the dogs
SHAFTS 41
in the opposite direction and stretch the coil springs. If tension

in the rope is suddenly lessened by rope or engine failure, or
sudden stoppage of the cage, the coil springs will rotate the
shaft, causing the teeth to dig into the guides and stop the
cage or skip.
Safety Stops for Incline Skips or Cages
Numerous mechanical devices have been used which act
as safety catches in case of a rope failure on a skip or cage in
an inclined shaft. Most of these devices are not foolproof and
give considerable operating trouble. Perhaps one of the best
systems is the installation of guides in an inclined shaft (Plate
25~ B) and the use of a skip equipped with safety dogs (Plate
24, C), as practiced by the Montana Phosphate Products Co.
Equipping an inclined shaft in this manner provides one of the
best and most foolproof safety devices, although installation
cost is high. The guides and rails must be properly aligned.
These guides, however, keep the skip from derailment, a great
benefit in itseH.
Inclined Cage to Transport Car
In most mines serviced by inclined shafts, the ore or waste
must be transferred from the car into the skip. The arrange-
ment, used by the Taylor-Knapp Co., shown in Plate 25, C,
permits the loaded car to be hoisted to the surface, and thus to
save transferring the muck to the skip and from the skip into
another car at the surface.
Dumping Cars Directly Into Skips
In mines with small production it still may be advantageous
to hoist with skips rather than to hoist loaded cars. Usually,
however, the cost of installing skip pockets or slusher loading
lanes may not be warranted on a level; hence, some operators
dump the cars directly into the skips at the station. This system
works well if the hoisting cycle can be arranged so that the
skip can be at the level when cars are to be dumped.
VENTILATION
Ventilation is an extremely important, but often overlooked,
aspect of underground mining. To work effiCiently, men must
have sufficient air, with a minimum of dust and powder fumes.
Small mines without electric power work at a disadvantage,
because most ventilating equipment is driven by electric motors;
however, compressed-air-driven blowers are available which do
a good job of forcing air into working areas. Development
headings are usually driven with what is termed auxiliary ven-
tilation, which provides sufficient fresh air to the men in the
working area. A fan commonly forces fresh and dust-free air
into the headings through a fabric type of fan bag or a metallic
type of vent pipe or tube. This system is shown in Plate 30, A.
In another system of ventilation, employing a metal vent pipe,
the fan may suck the contaminated air from the headings through
the pipe. Most small-mine development headings use the for-
mer method.
Natural Ventilation
Many small mines and some large ones depend on natural
drafts for mine ventilation. The sketch, Plate 26, A, is part of
a hypothetical mine. Provision for natural ventilation requires
two openings. Air naturally flows from the colder to the warmer
column. In vertical or inclined openings cold air sinks, and
warm air rises. Hence (note Plate 26, A), if the mine tempera-
ture is 55° F. and the outside air is 80° F., then the cool air
in the raise will sink, causing (as shown) natural draft through
the mine. It is true that warm air will come into the top of
the raise, but because of contact with the rocks surrounding
the raise, the air will soon be cooled to rock temperature.
Conversely if the mine temperature is 55° F. and the out-
side temperature is 30° F., the air in the mine, being warmer
than the outside air, will rise. Thus the air currents in the
mine are reversed, and the flow will be opposite to that shown
in Plate 26, A.
VENTILATION
If the temperature of the outside air and mine air is iden-

tical, air will not flow in either direction. Consequently, mines
depending on natural ventilation sometimes have periods when
the air does move and when ventilation is lacking.
The chimney effect of a raise may influence the air cur-
rents. Sometimes the top of the raise is extended above the
ground level, and the wind blowing over the projecting raise
produces a chimney effect, which works especially well if the
air in the raise is rising. If the air is going down in the shaft,
this chimney effect is a hindrance. Air flow is controlled under-
ground by air-tight doors, as shown in Plate 26, A. Without
doors, the air would short circuit out the adit; hence, the upper
and lower workinggs would not be ventilated as shown in the
sketch.
Ventilating cBald-Headed" Raises
Raises driven without timber are usually difficult to venti..
late, because the fan bag or vent tube cannot be carried in the
raise, or, if it is used in the raise, it must be removed before
blasting. Replacing and removing this bag involves much work;
hence, other systems are generally used.
Raises are extremely dangerous unless they are ventilated,
because, after blasting, the hot air containing poisonous gases
(carbon monoxide is one) may, if not removed, stay at the top
of the raise for days.
The hookup for an air-water spray (Plate 26, B) is efficient
in ventilating bald-headed raises. The fine-water spray pro-
duced by the compressed air apparently cools the gases, causing
the hot gas and dust to settle out of the raise rapidly. Air and
water lines are commonly carried in the raise for normal raise
drilling operations. The water line is hooked into the air line
as shown in the sketch, but usually on the level before either
the air or water line enters the raise. Before blasting, the air
and water into the raise is turned off, but the air-line valve at
the top of the raise is left open. After the round has been spit
or blasted electrically, the water valve into the air line is turned
on; the air-line valve is opened, and the compressed air and
water are allowed to spray the heading. True, compressed air
used for ventilation is extremely expensive, but in this instance
it is an effective procedure. Usually, after one or two hours
of blowing, the raise is clear.
Air-Injector Blower
As noted, mines without electric power are at a disadvan-
tage in ventilating development headings. Most electrically
driven fans will do a good job of blowing air. The air-injector
blower requires no electricity. As shown in Plate 27 it is simple
to make and, for the lack of anything better, will do a fair job
of ventilating short headings. The injector blower is light in
weight, can be placed in almost any suitable location, and no
platform is necessary for installation. The compressed-air pres-
sure of the mine will operate the injector blower. With an air-
injector blower and fan bag, development headings up to 250
feet in length can be ventilated.
Dust Control
Dust control is essential in underground operations, because
dust, especially quartz dust, will produce silicosis, a disease of
the lungs. The best way to prevent this disease is, of course,
to prevent the formation of dust; but if dust is formed, it must
be carried away or diluted to safe limits with fresh air before
the men breathe it.
A good operating rule is to water down all muck piles
before and during mucking operations. Another rule is not
to collar a hole with a drill without using water. Because it
is so fine grained, dust produced by drilling is especially danger-
ous. A poor practice of many miners is to collar their holes dry,
causing large quantities of dust to be thrown in the air, even
though they drill only a short distance. The very fine is the
most harmful; hence, respirators are of doubtful value, for they
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. NO.14, PLATE NO. 27
N'
I
r BT C T0.......,'Ir----- E -----,., F1
Intake [[l:W-1!!--I-----rnJlil} Outlet
N N
-.ll
M
(v
Yi'~OZZle
pipe I
Lock nut ..... Nozzle bracket
~ !J-ollie L ~~i,
...".,..
Nozzle, Vz' standard

J.2' Pipe~leeve
welded in.
Connection to
compressed air line.
"
! I
pipe cap
Section Thru Intake End
DIAMETER A B C D E F G H I J K L M
12 inches 12 8 12 12 48 6 II~ 12 5 Y2 ~ ~32 7'32 3
8 inches 8 5 6 6 30 4 77/e 8 33;8 ,va ~32 3t32 2
6 inches 6 3 3 3 18 2 Vb
5 Va 6 2 3;32 3/32
DIMENSIONS OF INJECTOR BLOWER
Nozzle diameter: inches Ve 3Jj6 \14 3/e

Compressed air: Cu. Ft./IOOO, free air 25 44 54 100
Volume delivered thru 200-ft. 10" tube 2100 2700 3200
COMPRESS ED AIR CONSUMPTION AND VOLUME OF AI R
DELIVERED FOR VARIOUS SIZES OF NOZZLES.
•
Reproduced by permission, from "Mine Plant", by
B.F. Tillson, Rocky Mountain Fund Series, American Institute
of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, 1935.
INJECTOR BLOWER
VENTILATION 45
will not filter out all of this fine dust. Fine dust, once air-
borne, will not settle rapidly, even though it goes through a
water spray.
Therefore, the best rules for dust control are these: (1) try
every way possible to avoid making dust; and (2) if dust is in
the air, remove it from the working area by proper ventilation
before men become exposed.
PUMPING
In most mines serviced by shafts, water is present and must
be pumped. It is wise for an inexperienced man to consult a
competent engineer on pumping problems. The design of a
pumping plant must consider the proper size of pump necessary,
proper horsepower requirements of the motor, size of discharge
lines, tye of pump construction, and kind of pipelines necessary
for the type of mine water. (In many cases, if the water is
acidic, it will corrode ordinary iron or steel pipe so it becomes
useless.)
Air-Lift Pumps
The air-lift pump is probably the simplest pump that can
be readily made on the job. Unfortunately, however, it is quite
inefficient, but under certain conditions it will do the job.
The simple air lift is shown in Plate 28, A. The water
column is commonly a 3-in. or 4-in. pipe, but it can be of larger
diameter. A smaller pipe, from 1 to H~-in. in diameter is fas-
tened by clamps to the outside of the larger pipe, and the open
end of this small pipe is inserted in the end of the large one,
as shown in the sketch. The pipe is lowered into the shaft by
the addition of sections of pipe on top of the column until the
column bottom reaches the shaft bottom or an obstruction in
the shaft. Compressed air is blown in the small pipe, which
in turn lifts the water up the larger pipe by forming bubbles
and little piston-type slugs of water.
For most efficient results, the top. of the water should be
higher than one-half the length of the pipe column; i. e., the
part submerged should be over one-haH the total length. When
the submergence falls below one-half of the entire pipe length,
the efficiency falls off greatly, until the pump will almost com-
pletely stop at from 10 to 15 per cent submergence. However,
for pumping shallow shafts or for emergency jobs, air-lift pumps
perform well, and prospectors unwatering old shafts should
PUMPING 47
look into the possibility of using one. Air lifts are of many
designs but the one shown in Plate 28, A, has given good service.
Floating Pump
Unwatering flooded shafts presents a problem because of
the necessity of lowering the pump and lengthening the columns
as the water level drops. Further, power failure has sometimes
caused pumps in the shaft to become flooded. Faced with this
problem, an official of the American Machine and Metals Inc.,
Trout Mining Division, designed a floating tank with guide shoes
attached, so that the float would go down the shaft compart-
ment. The shoes and guides kept the float from overturning.
On top of this, he mounted an electric pump. The intake to
the pump extended below the float into the shaft water, and the
discharge of the pump was connected to the pipe column by a
long flexible hose. Thus, should power fail, the pump could
not be flooded, because it would rise with the ,vater leve1. As
the water level dropped, lengths were added to the pump column
when the flexible coupling got too short.
On the market now are submersible pumps, which are in-
stalled on the end of a pipe column and lowered under the
surface of the water. Some operators maintain that these pumps
give excellent results.
Settling Sumps
In the design and layout of a pumping system, omission of
the settling sump may prove to be a serious matter. Mine
water, running through workings and along drainage levels,
may carry large quantities of sand and slime, which are brought
to the station sump where they settle in the relatively still water.
Soon, they decrease the capacity of the sump. Another more
serious matter arises when sand and slimes flow into the pump,
causing its severe abrasion and rapid wear. The sump shown
in Plate 28, B, is one designed to keep sand and slime out of the
MoNTANA i3UREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. NO.14, PLATE NO 28
Cornpressed~i.tlIF=~
air -- ----
•
DETAIL
Section
> of pump
BOTTOM DETAIL
submerged
A. SIMPLE AIR-LIFT PUMP
Slusher ramp can be

. installed here _________
Sand and slimes
Partition
.~I.I
"~+Dam
4'
Settling pond
8. SETTLING POND
pump. The sump is divided into two portions, one where the
sand and slimes can settle out. From this section the water
flows over the partition into the intake portion for the pump.
The settling pond is cleaned out by a slusher while water is
temporarily directed into the clear water compartment.
The operator can incorporate many designs in pump lay-
outs, sumps, and easily cleaned settling ponds. Too often, how-
ever, he overlooks one or more of these important items until
the sump is full of mud and slime. Some mines employ settling
sumps along the haulage levels close to where the sands and
slimes come onto the level rather than direct the slimes and
sand to the station sump in ditches. In this way the ditches
can be maintained open much easier than when everything is
carried close to the shaft.
UNDERGROUND MISCELLANY 49
UNDERGROUND MISCELLANY
Adopting some of the ideas in this section may be of some

benefit to you.
Light-weight Scaling Bar
In certain mining operations, scaling bars must be of con-

siderable length to reach loose rocks in high backs. Scaling
bars made of solid steel are heavy. The bar shown in Plate 29,
A, can be of almost any length desired and gives quite satis-
factory service for both short and long lengths. The I-in. or
~4-in. couplings will screw into any threaded pipe. If the points
become dull, only the short end is brought out to be resharpened.
The steel end also may be screwed or fastened to an aluminum
pipe which is still lighter.
Set-up Bar
To set up a platform in un timbered raises or stopes some-

times requires much work when wooden stulls are used, for
the stulls must be cut to a certain length and wedged in place.
To overcome this problem, miners at the 110ntana Phosphate
Products Co. mines use an adjustable steel bar (Plate 29, B)
which can be adjusted to any length within the bars limits,
and the hinged shoe gives a wedging action. To set the bar;
the leg is adjusted to the correct length, it is positioned in place,
and the shoe is struck with an axe or hammer to tighten the
leg firmly in position.
By drilling a hole in the shoe as shown in the sketch and
inserting a ring, on which to hook the block, the operator can
also use these bars for hanging slusher tail blocks. The pulling
action on the shoe by the slusher ropes keeps the bar in position.
To remove, one must only strike the shoe with an axe or hammer
In the opposite direction, and the bar will come out of posi-
tion readily.
Hoist Mounted on Car

For easy maneuverability when the hoist has to be moved
frequently, a small slusher or tugger can be mounted on a car
or timber truck. One such arrangement, designed and used by
Mr. Bill Hand, is shown in Plate 30, D. When in use, the truck
is held down by stulls or setup bars. Slusher blocks serve to
position the ropes in the proper direction, and employment of
the remote control setup (Plate 12, D) makes the slusher or
tugger very versatile.
Tugger Box for Manways
The tugger box shown in Plate 30, B, is convenient for
hoisting explosives, machines, or other items up a manway. The
tugger box can ride in the timber slide, or in some cases on the
ladder way. To ride on the ladder way, the box must be
equipped with guide rails so that it will stay in the track formed
by the ladder rails or sides.
Concrete
The prospector is seldom concerned with concrete construc-
tion underground, but in some places it may be necessary to
pour concrete. If concrete is used for ground support where
blasting occurs, better results are obtained if the concrete is
not reinforced with steel, since the reinforcing steel bars appar-
ently set up vibrations or planes of weakness in the concrete
when explosives detonate, causing the concrete to crack and
crumble. However, reinforcing steel serves well for equipment
bases and other foundations.
Experimentation has shown that wet concrete can be trans-
ported underground through pipe lines. Sometimes the wet
concrete mixture is dropped down pipe lines by gravity; in
other cases, special concrete pumping machines pump it along
horizontal levels and up as high as 50-ft. into forms. One of
these concrete pump machines uses a plunger and valve arrange-
ment; whereas another type, called a placer, uses air pressure
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. NO. 14. PLATE NO.2 9
into couplings
<Q- --
Length of pipe to suit condition
A. ADJUSTABLE LENGTH PRY-BAR

I J2' Pipe
r ~" Slot
Ill" Hole
I"
t.:
---1
I
I
Length I
:' /"2 "P'Ipe,

S:USher bock, to
suit
.I length to
if required.
o suit
LI
~ze
~ I I
to suit conditions
~_~UPlate
"!:- \1 J'Hole
2
I~~ i o/s" Holes
-I.
Pi pe pOinte d
H·~IUSher-bIOCk ring
~~~~"::::i:6~!g:::::;;~~3;~s~:,ml~~0~d~0~r~n~a~~I~t~0~h~01~d~~:;!ged
telescope part in position. shoe
B. ADJUSTABLE LENGTH SETUP BAR FOR STOPES AND
RAISES.
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CO~n. NO. 14, PLATE NO. 30
FAN AND FAN BAG INSTALLATION

NOTE: FAN PLATFORM IS SUPPORTED
IN DRIFT BY ROCK BOLTS B. STEEL TUGGER-BOX
FOR CARRYING SUPPLIES
IN RAISES
C. SPECIAL SLlDE- RAIL D, SLUSHER-HOIST

SECTIONS MADE TO GO MOUNTED ON A TRUCK
AROUND A CURVE WITH A FOR RAPID MOVEMENT
PREDETERMINED RADIUS·
UNDERGROUND l\'[ISCELLANY 51
to move the concrete through the lines. If a small-mine operator

has much concrete work to do underground, it would certainly
be worth his time to investigate these various methods of trans-
porting concrete.
Because of limited space behind the forms, puddling or
tamping the concrete in forms underground sometimes presents
a problem Some companies use vibrators to settle the wet
concrete. Others, if steel forms are used, employ air vibrators
against the forms, to vibrate the whole mass. Other companies
have had good success in placing concrete by adding wetting
agents to the wet concrete, such addition causing the concrete
to compact and to leave a nice smooth finish on the concrete
surface when the forms are removed. Commercial wetting
agents are available on the market.
52 OPERATING IDE'AS FOR SMALL MINES
SURFACE INSTALLATIONS
Surface installations are important around any mine. Com-
monly, surface plants are too elaborate for a prospect, whereas
in other cases, the surface facilities are inadequate for the mine
as it is developed.
Ore Bins
A problem common to a successful prospector and small-
mine operator is the construction of an ore bin. Several factors
must be considered in ore bin planning, such as type of con-
struction, size, cost, and location. Construction of a suitable
are bin is usually both a time-consuming and expensive job.
Most builders of are bins try to take advantage of the force
of gravity so that the broken ore will flow into the truck; how-
ever, other types of bins will also be described here.
Shovel Bins
Shovel bins are the simplest and easiest types of bins to
construct, because usually only a floor of wood or steel is laid
down on the ground and the are dumped on top of the floor. The
ore is then hand shoveled into a truck. This system, although
representing the most work when loading trucks, may be the
best for initial prospects; for, if the are reserves are not large,
the cost in money and time of building an ore bin is saved. One
may gain an advantage by constructing a shovel bin so that the
floor is about the same height as the top of the truck body. Some
are can he easily scraped and raked into the truck body, and
the fact that shovels full of ore need not be lifted so high makes
for easier mucking.
Regular Ore Bins
Satisfactory ore bins can be made in different ways. Log
construction is frequent in timbered areas; one type of log bin
is shown in Plate 32, A. In this modern day, prefabricated
steel bins are often utilized for ore storage. A picture of a two-
A. ORE BIN CONSTRUCTED OF PLANKS (CORNER DETAIL)
.'.:;.....----
.. 0:.. '.0. •. () . • • .
-
.=::.
- -:0-----.,
-.,.
tl:-=-
- ........
---=-.
8. SLUSHER - TYPE ORE BIN

SURFACE INSTALLAT'IONS 53
compartment steel bin is shown in Plate 43, D. Bins constructed

of 2-in. planks make serviceable ore bins. Plate 31, A, shows the
corner construction of this bin. The sides are made usually of
2-in. by lO-in. or 2-in. by 8-in. planks stacked and nailed on
top of one another. Separation into compartments is usually
made with 2-in. by 4-in. or 2-in. by 6-in. planks. The materials
of construction are expensive; but because of the rapidity of
bin construction by this method and the satisfactory result, this
type of construction is popular in some areas.
The bottom of a gravity type of discharge ore bin should

slope approximately 45°, if of wood construction; or a slope of
from 35 to 40°, if the bottom of the bin is steel covered. These
slopes allow the ore to run out of the bin by gravity but not
with excessive speed. Special problems arise if the ore is wet
and sticky; a steel-lined bottom in the ore bin is almost a neces-
sity, and the slope of the bottom may have to be increased
above 45°.
Slusher Bins
Wet sticky ore gives considerable trouble in gravity flow-
discharge ore bins, because of the tendency of wet ore to pack
solidly and not flow when the gate on the bin is opened. Se-
vere winter weather makes wet ore freeze solidly in bins, some-
times necessitating blasting to remove the ore.
An ore bin of unusual construction, of which most of the

construction lies below the ground level and the ore from the
bin is loaded into trucks with a slusher and scraper, is shown
in Plate 31, B. A bin of this type, though with two compart-
ments, has been used by Mr. Joe Irving and Mr. Bob Nelson
at their Norwich mine at Butte. The bin may be constructed
more elaborately by dividing sections; hence, different types of
ore can be dumped in the bin. If necessary, a blended mixture
of ore for mill feed or shipping can be made when different
parts of the piles are slushed into the same truck.
The mine operators who have used this type of bin assert
its chief advantages are that it is cheap to build, the upkeep
is low, ore may be blended in the bin by the use of the scraper,
and wet ore does not usually freeze solidly in the bin during the
winter time.
A slusher-ramp used to load trucks in an open cut is shown
in Plate 32, E.
Ore Bins, General
When the adit level of the mine or collar of the shaft is on
a steep hill side, the top of the ore bin may be located below
the level of the adit. The ore is usually transferred by chute
from the cars to the top of the bin. Since the large chunks of
ore may gather considerable momentum, when going into the
bin, they may damage the sides. The rubber tires arranged
as shown in Plate 32, B, slow down the large boulders quite ef-
fectively. Below the tires is a grizzly where the ore is screened
or sized. At this mine, the Hand mine, the valuable portion of
the ore occurs in the finely divided portion of the mined ore,
which is saved, whereas the coarse worthless chunks are thrown
over the bin onto a waste dump.
Heavy hanging chains, hinged rails and numerous other
devices have been tried with success to slow large boulders in
chutes.
In ore bin design, the amount of broken ore that the bin
will hold is important. The volume of a bin necessary to hold
a given tonnage of ore can be calculated if the volume of a ton
of broken ore is known. One can calculate the ore reserves in a
mine by multiplying the measured volume of ore by the weight
of a unit volume of ore «in place", that is, the weight of a unit
volume of unbroken ore. This unit weight, which is different
for different types of ore, is determined by weighing all of the
ore from a carefully measured excavation, or by determining
the specific gravity of the ore. In ore bin calculations, how-
ever, it is the weight of the broken ore that must be used. One
SURFACE INSTALLATIONS 55
can readily determine this unit weight by weighing a level

truck-load of the average ore and measuring the volume of
the truck. If an ore-bin of 50-ton capacity is required, and it
is found that a level load of ore in a truck with inside body di-
mensions of 2 by 5~f by 6~f-ft. (7Hf cu. ft.) weighs 8,937 lb. net
(16 cu. ft. to the ton) the volume of the bin must be 50 times 16
or 800 cu. ft. A bin 9 ft. square (inside dimensions) with a 45°
slope (100% grade) to the bottom, and 5-ft. 4~f-in. high at the
back (short) end would hold 50 tons of this ore.
Buildings
Buildings constructed of flammable materials, should not be
placed near the mouth of the adit or the collar of the shaft.
Otherwise, smoke from accidental fires on surface may enter
the mine and endanger the workmen underground. Section
94-35-129 of the Revised Codes of Montana, 1947, relating to
quartz mining, states that buildings cannot be located closer
than 50-ft. to the mouth of any shaft or tunnel unless it is made
of fireproof material. Material which is highly flammable such
as oil and gasoline should not be stored near the mouth of the
tunnel or shaft.
Extending Waste Dumps

The extension of waste dumps sometimes becomes a prob-
lem. The track may be supported on a timber framework as
shown in Plate 32, C. Since the settling dump material seldom
affects the grade of the track, this method is usually best.
Another method consists of laying heavy timbers near the
end of the dump on firmly embedded crossties in the waste pile.
The heavy timbers are parallel to, and underlie, the rails. As
the dump is extended, the heavy timbers are inched out over
the dump, but they must be supported near the end of the dump
by firmly embedded crossties. Careful inspections are neces-
B. TIRES USED TO RE TARO MUCK IN

CHUTES
A. LOG ORE-BIN
c.WASTE DUMP TRESTLE

,EXTENSION
D. STEEL ORE- BIN
E. SLUSHER AND LOADING RAMP

USED IN AN OPEN PIT
sary, however, to insure that the rail ends are maintained at

grade; the settling waste will cause the rails to bend down, and
the car, if run on an excessive grade, may speed over the end
of the dump.
Records
State and national laws require business men to ke.ep good
good accurate records of their activities. The part-time pros-
pector should also keep records, or at least a diary, of work
done on the claim. One can realize certain tax advantages from
mining operations, but the tax authorities usually require accu-
rate records to substantiate all claims. Items which should be
recorded in a prospect are working days expended on the prop-
erty, expenses, work accomplished, any anything else of im-
portance.
Maps
Good maps are essential both to a prospect and to an oper-
ating mine. Although the work in a prospect may not be ex-
tensive, sometimes a pattern of ore deposits may present itself
when all the available information is put on a map.
For planning purposes, many mining companies now use
models of their vein systems and development workings. Var-
ious materials may be used; but balsa wood is light in weight,
easy to cut and form, easy to glue, and the finished product can
be given a coat of paint. A model presents everything in three
dimensions, which is sometimes of great benefit in determining
the attitudes of ore bodies and subsequent mining activity.
HOMEMADE.EQU~ENT 57
HOMEMADE EQUIPMENT
Mechanically inclined mine operators can make some of
their own mining equipment; however, though improvising
equipment may save money, frequently homemade equipment
may cost more to operate than commercial equipment.
In almost any piece of homemade equipment, numerous
adjustments must be made before efficiency is attained. All
of the errors in construction are impossible to foresee in the
planning stage before a piece of equipment is made. However,
one should not be alarmed with these mistakes, because even
commercial manufacturers must give their new equipment field
tests and, not infrequently, make changes before the equipment
is offered for general sale. Some successful mine operators,
however, made their start with the help of homemade and sec-
ond hand, almost junk, equipment. Enterprising people can
get surprising results with such material.
Air-Compressors
Generally, the first item that a prospector requires is an air
compressor. Many attempts have been made to convert auto-
mobile engines to compressors, a possible job, though the altera-
tions necessary are usually extensive and sometimes expensive.
As an automobile engine was not designed to be an air
compressor, the basic design of the engine must be changed
considerably. First, one must cut down, or eliminate as much
as possible, the combustion chamber space above the pistons.
The successful elimination of this space commonly requires a
completely re-designed head.
Since the valves of an automobile engine are too heavy and
slow acting for efficient air-compressor operation, redesigning
the head means redesigning the valves. Frequently, automo-
bile engines converted to compressors operate with the cam
shaft removed, the intake valves actuated by weak springs so
that the intake air will lift them; and pipes with check valves
installed in the spark plug holes, acting as the discharge valves,

all of which are connected to a common compressed-air mani-
fold. An engine converted in this manner will compress air,
but the volume compressed and pressure reached are usually
insufficient to operate a rock drill.
As mentioned previously, a special head must be rede-
signed or purchased for converting an automobile engine to an
air compressor; and, under the best of conditions, a compressor
of this type will operate only one light rock drill. Although
second-hand compressors are expensive, a prospector will prob-
ably save time and money in purchasing or renting a regular
commercial air compressor.
Hoists
Homemade hoists have been more successfully made than

compressors. A hoist stand, drum, and bearings are acquired
initially, and an automobile engine is adapted so that it can
be used to drive the hoist. The gasoline engine usually has an
attached transmission assembly, from which the drive shaft is
commonly conected to the gear on the hoist with another gear,
gear assembly, or in some cases, by a chain drive. A hoist
driven with a gasoline engine is shown in Plate 24, D. (p. 40).
An unusual type of gasoline engine-driven hoist is shown in
Plates 34, Band C. The drums shown in C fit on one axle of
the hoist body shown in B. The differential assembly must be
locked in the rear axle assembly. The reverse and forward mo-
tions of the drums are controlled by the gear shift levers on the
two transmissions. In action, this hoist is similar to a double-
drum slusher. The bucket can be dragged back and forth.
The operator who designed and operated this hoist, Mr. Fred
Platt, reported its work as satisfactory. Perhaps, a device simi-
lar to the hoist arrangement shown could be adapted to open-
cut work, stripping overburden, or placer operations.
HOMEMADE EQUIPMENT 59
Scrapers
Scrapers (buckets used with slushers) can be fabricated in

a shop, although those supplied by commercial manufacturers
are often superior in operation. One type of scraper which will
work equally well in either the regular or inverted position is
shown in Plate 34, E. The entire bucket, of all-welded con-
struction, is made from ~f-in. and }4-in. steel plate.
Homemade Air-Leg
After viewing commercial air-leg drills, one prospector de-

cided he could build one himself. His efforts were well re-
warded, as he saved considerable money in the initial invest-
ment; too, the service performed by the leg has been satisfactory.
True, this leg does not have all the features of commercial inte-
grated units; but when attached to a sinker drill it usually is
much easier to work with than the so-called «Mexican Set Up"
or other methods described earlier in this booklet.
Details of its construction are shown in Plate 33. The cylin-
der is made of 2-in. regular steel pipe, chosen so that the ridge,
where it is welded together, is fairly smooth on the inside of
the pipe. The piston rod is I-in. pipe, all of whose fittings
shown on Plate 33 are standard pipe fittings. The spacers for
the leathers are of brass, but probably some other material
would do. The spacers should be large enough in diameter so
that they just go inside the cylinder and cup leathers. On the
end of the cylinder, the short length of B4-in. pipe becomes a
stop for the piston stem so that it will not come out of the
cylinder too far. The length of Bf-in. pipe in the leg described
is 4}4-in. long. The 2-in. to B4-in. bushing must be chosen so
that the H4-in. piece of pipe can be screwed into the back side
of the bushing. The I-in. pipe used for the piston stem will
go just inside this B4-in. pipe, which acts as a guide bushing.
Several legs of this general construction have been made.
The control valve can be placed to suit the operator. One oper-
OPERA.TING IDEAS FOR SMALL MINES
ator likes the control valve on the back of the machine; an-
other prefers the valve attached to the leg. The valve shown
in the sketch is not so smooth operating as the commercial pres-
sure-regulating type; however, after the driller gets accustomed
to the action of the valve, the machine's position can be closely
controlled.
If a prospector builds one of these legs for his sinker drill,
and is unfamiliar with the operation of an air-leg drill, he will
probably encounter much difficulty before the drill operates
satisfactorily. However, with practice and patience, one can
become proficient in drilling with this machine. Note! Per-
mission was granted by Mining World Magazine to give the
above description of the homemade Air Leg.
Homemade Churn Drill
The following description of a homemade churn drill may
be of interest to some prospectors. The article and drawing
(Plate 35) are reproduced, by permission, from the November
1954, issue of the Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. 155,
No. 11.
"Small Churn Drill Outfit"
"Wm. H. Gaines of Wenatchee, Wash., submits this design
for a small churn drill which was used to explore several de-
posits in Chelan County, Wash. It is capable of drilling homo-
genous structures to a depth of about 75-ft., depending on rock
formations, and conditions.
·<Note in particular the 54-in. single leaf truck spring which
produces quite a rebound when the steel drops, and keeps the
cutting face of the bit free from impacted sediment. The drill
is operated at 60 drops per min., and through a height of 10 to
16-in. The rig is so constructed that it is portable for short
moves, or dismantled for long. moves. On some hard holes, the
Timken bit attached to the steel had a tendency to disengage
while in the hole. This was remedied by tack-welding the bit
Note: Bracket to hold drill has

114'-2" Bushing '" I" Nipple with bracket
to be designed for each individual
, / '\. welded on.
drill.
·
I~" P Ipe-
~ Weld air --~--
t' h -
Ig t I I,," - I"B us h'Ing
/4
I ",/
2"COU~qJ I"Tee --S-~-

I"
Y4 I
Pipe for
Hose to leg
"t I'! air hose
~"or %' Stop I Handle can be

and waste designed and
valve~
I put on pipe
To machin7
14 Tee
:3" •
II"
-~
If
I 54" 55"
,
I,
I,
Washer welded
to pipe,2"OD
/
~ 2" Coupling
8 1"-2" Bushing
cups~
I± I"
•
, / 2" Leather
XI
. -,?-Y2 Brass"
spacers,2 QO
..AfT--1" Pipe welded to point '
... '\I
i . .
cP L Coupling
Spade welded to I pipe
HOME· MADE AIR-LEG (DETAILS)

B. HOME-MADE 2-DRUM HOIST-MADE

FROM OLD AUTOMOBILE
A. HOME-MADE ELECT
MOTOR DRIVEN HOIST
C. DOUBLE DRUM AND SCRAPER FOR

HOIST SHOWN IN "B"
D. JEEP MOUNTED
DIAMOND DRIL L E. HOME-MADE SLUSHER BUCKET
..
(SCRAPER)
MONTANA BUREAU OF MINES AND GEOLOGY MISC. CONT. 14, PLATE NO.35
I
1/2- in.
-'--11
I
I
1
I
I
I,
round steel : . 4x4in., 16ft long

I
I
I
I
/
I
I
I 2x4-in.
I
I 16ft. long
I
I
I
I
I
Guide --+-I~~
--
L {)
54in. Ratchet levers

_ -:--:-b /
2xlOin.
~I
2 V2-in. / 1/2 - HP Engine

Timken bit
Reproduced, by perm ission from Engineering a Mining Journal, Vol. 155, No. II, Nov. 1954.
HOMEMADE CHURN DRILL

HOMEMADE EQUIPMENT 61
to the steel. The tack-welds could be sawed through with a

hack saw for bit change. Power for the churn drill is supplied
hy a }~-hp. gasoline engine.
HThe side view of the drill shown in Plate 35 reveals other
operating principles including the pitman action and method
of feeding and reeling cable."
PROSPECTING
Locating ore is the intent and hoped-for result of all pros-

pecting. The following items may be of some help in locating
and estimating the value of an outcrop.
Mortar and Pestle

The gold pan is an essential part of a prospector's equip-
ment; a mortar and pestle is likewise desirable. Chunks of
promising-looking rock can be broken, crushed and ground in
the mortar for panning; most ore must be crushed and ground
to a fine powder before results can be expected by panning.
Panning a pulverized sample will usually tell one whether
heavy minerals are present.
Tracing Outcrops
Outcrops of veins are sometimes difficult to trace. Dif-
ferent methods have been used successfully in different areas.
Sometimes, because a vein outcrop has a moisture content dif-
ferent from that of the surrounding country rock, the vegeta-
tion over the vein may slightly vary in color or composition. This
difference may be noted more realily from an airplane or by
observation of aerial photographs, for sometimes the differ-
ence is more pronounced from a distance than at close range.
One prospector, Mr. John Hand, offers this bit of advice:
get up early in the morning and be at the property just when
the sun is coming over the mountains. If, when trying to lo-
cate the outcrop, you keep your back to the sun, often times the
outcrop can be traced by the difference in the reflected rays of
the sun between the vein outcrop and country rock. The out-
crop line should be staked at once, as the color difference will
not be spotted when the sun reaches some height in the sky.
This prospector also advises that one should get a good night's
rest before doing this sort of work.
PROSPECTING 63
Valuable Constituents
It is sometimes difficult to estimate the amount of valuable

constituents present in a face of ore. When looking at a face
where the valuable constituents can be easily identified, one
can rapidly estimate the valuable content as follows.
The device used is a screen of equal squares. if one knows
the total number of squares in the screen and counts the num-
ber of squares which the mineral occupies when held up to
the face, he can estimate the percentage of volume by dividing
the number of squares covered by the mineral by the total
number of squares and by multiplying that answer by 100 to
get the percent of mineral. An example of this is as follows:
Suppose a ~~-in. mesh screen is used, which is 12-in. by 12-in. on
a side for a total of 48 x 48 = 2,304 squares or spaces. Assume
the mineral is covered by 84 spaces. The percentage of mineral
84
by volume would be x 100 about 3.65 per cent. If
2,304
the ore minerals are 1.5 times heavier than the waste material,
the percent of ore by weight would be about 5.37 per cent,
84 x 1.5 x 100 12600

obtained from - - - - - - - - - - - - - - = ---- = 5.37 per cent.
(2304 - 84) + (84 x 1.5) 2346
This method of course is only approximate, but the wire mesh,

for ore minerals easily distinguished, gives a rapid estimation
procedure. Frequently, an operator without experience will
far overestimate the mineral content in a vein. Operators some-
times employ this practice when checking a face containing
fluorescent minerals with an ultraviolet lamp (black light).
OPERATING IDEAS FOR SMA.LL MINES
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES APPLIED IN MINING
Certain physical principles can sometimes be applied to

good advantage in mining operations. Most operators apply
the simple principles of physics almost instinctively, although
they may have had no formal training in physics. The follow-
ing physical principles are found in almost every elementary
physics book, hut usually the description is more detailed than
the description given in this booklet.
Simple Lever
Almost everyone has used the simple lever. The common
scaling bar for scaling rocks in a mine is an excellent example
of the simple lever. Plate 36, A, shows a diagram of a simple
lever with the mathematical expression which is used to solve
lever problems. The law states that the weight times its lever
arm (Lw) equals force times its lever arm (Lf) (Friction neg-
lected). Suppose W weighs 300-lb., Lw is 6-ft. How much
force (F) is required to life the weight? By substituting and
WxLw 300x2
solving the equation, we get F = ----- IOO-II.
Lf 6
Actuallv. more than IOO-Ib. of force must be supplied to ovt.....,.·

come friction. When solving an equation such as this, be sure
all measurements are in the same units, that is, either all in
inches or all in feet.
Wheel and Axle
The wheel and axle were utilized extensively by prospect-
ors for their windlasses and horsewhims, with which ore was
pulled from. shallow shafts. Windlasses are still somewhat em-
ployed today. The windlass, wheel and axle, is a modified ap-
plication of the simple lever. A wheel and axle, w~th the formu-
las for calculation, is shown in Plate 36, B. The distance Lf
/\ F x Lf =W x Lw
Fulcrum
or
F x Lf = W x Lw or F = W x Lw F =W x Lw
Lf Lf
A.SIMPLE LEVER (FRICTION B.WHEEL AND AXLE

NEGLECTED) (FRICTION NEGLECTED)
~______...:..:w_~~¥-_ F __ T~[W]
L D t L L ,I
F x L =WxH or F=W x H 'F x L = W x T or F = W x T
L L
~----------------
C.INCLINED PLANE (FRICTION D. SIMPLE WEDGE (FRICTION
NEGLECTED) NEGLECTED)
N ~ number of ropes
supporting the
moving load
F x N = W
F
In this example:
F= W- Driving Gear
4 Number
of teeth N Driven Gear
Length H x N = length L
Number
Length H = length L of teeth D
.N
F x D =W x N or F =W x N
D
L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i SI = Speed- driver S2= Speed-driven

E.SIMPLE PULLEY SYSTEM
(FRICTION NEGLECTED) F. GEAR WHEELS
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 61S
shown in the sketch may be the length of a crank arm for a

windlass, and the distance Lw is the radius of the hoisting drum.
Assume that the distance Lf is 18-in. (1.5 ft.) and that the
distance Lw is 3-in. (0.2.5 ft.). If the ore, bucket, and rope
weight 300-lb., how much force F must be applied to the
crank handle to hoist this load? Substituting in the equation,
WxLw 300-lb. x 3-in.
F --------- = 50-lb., or if the distance is in
Lf 18-in.
300-1b. x O.25-ft.
feet, F = ---------- = 50-lbs. Note: Do not mix the
1.5-ft.
units feet and inches. Use either one or the other. Slightly
more than 50-lb. would be required to lift the ore, rope, and
bucket, because the force due to friction must also be overcome.
Inclined Plane
The inclined plane is especially handy on which to roll
heavy barrels or to slide machinery from a lower to a higher
level. Plate 36, C, shows a barrel being rolled up an inclined
plane. Suppose one wished to roll a barrel of gasoline weigh-
ing approximately 400-lb. onto a platform 3-ft. higher than the
truck bed. If the length of the planks required to support the
load is 12-ft., the force required to roll the barrel up the in-
cline can be solved by substituting in the equation:
W x H 400-1b. x 3-ft.
F = - - - - =-------- = 100-lb.
L 12-ft.
Slightly over 100-lb. force would have to be exerted to overcorne
friction. If the barrel were slid along instead of rolled on the
planks, much more than 100-lb. of force would have to be applied
to overcome this added friction resulting from the sliding action
of the barrel.
Simple Wedge
Wedges are used to a great extent in underground mining
for tightening timber in place. A wedge is capable of exerting
a tremendous force. Wedges are also used to level machinery
and buildings around a mine. The formula for wedge calcula-
tions is given in the sketch, but these calculations are unneces-
sary in a mine. Wedges are pounded with an axe or hammer
until the timber is tightly in place or the machinery or build-
ing is leveled up.
Pulley Systems
A pulley system, with formulas is shown in Plate 36, E. A
simple way to work a pulley problem is to count the number
of ropes which directly support the moving load. The ropes
must be parallel or nearly so. This number is called N in the
sketch. An example of solving a pulley problem is as follows:
It is necessary to lift a weight of 500-1b. A pulley arrangement
is used similar to the one shown in Plate 36, E, with 4 ropes
supporting the mavin gload. How much force (F) is required
to lift the load? Substituting in the equation,
W 500-1b.
F 125-lb.
N 4
(More than 125-lb. will be required, to overcome friction.) Some-
times the length (L) of the rope to be run out must be known
when a load is raised. Suppose the load is to be lifted 5-ft.;
how far out will the rope extend? Solving and substituting in
the equation,
Length L = length H x N = 5 x 4 = 20-ft.
Gear System
A gear system is shown in Plate 36, F. Usually what is
wanted in calculating gear systems is the respective speeds in
revolutions per minute of the two gears and the pulling force
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 67
at the teeth of the gears. Since these teeth must mesh for gear
operation, the number of teeth in each gear should be counted.
In the illustration, N == number of teeth in the driver or small
gear, and D is the number of teeth in the large or drive gear.
If W, the resistance on the teeth of the large gear, is known
we can calculate F, the force at the teeth of the small gear, by
substituting in the formulas. An example is as follows:
W== 400 lb. W xN 400-lb. x 10
N == 10, F == ---- == -,------- == 80 lb.
n == 50, n 50
If the speed of the driving gear is 1200 rpm (revolutions per
1200rpmx 10
minute), the speed of the driven gear == - - - - - - - - 240
50
rpm. One thing must be kept in mind: the driver and driven
gear turn in opposite directions.
Chain drives serve to a great extent in power transmission
systems; the formulas for calculation are similar to those for
meshing gears. The number of teeth on each sprocket must
be known; by substituting known quantities in the gear formu-
las, both force and speed of the sprocket wheels can be cal-
culated. With chain drive, the driver and driven shafts turn in
the same direction, a fact also true of V-belt or flat-belt drives,
unless the belts are purposely rigged for reverse driving.
V-belts and flat belts are employed to transmit power.
When selecting a V-belt drive, one should consult handbooks
dealing with their selection or obtain competent advice. This
advice holds true for flat-belt selection. Usually, the speed
ratio between the driven and driving shaft must be determined,
such determination made by proper substitution in the follow-
ing formula: revolutions per minute of driving pulley times its
diameter equals revolutions per minute of driven pulley times
its diameter. Thus, if a motor, equipped with a 9-in.-diameter

pulley, turns at 1800 rpm, how many revolutions per minute is
the driven pulley turning if it is 3-6-in. in diameter?
1800 x 9 = 36 x rpm of driven pulley.
1800 x 9
RPM of driven pulley == ----- == 450.
36
Friction
Friction is always present in any mechanical machine,
and it always works against or opposes the applied force.
Hence the reason for the statement, more force is required
CC
than theoretically calculated because the force of friction must

be overcome". Friction varies greatly dependent upon the com-
position of the material, temperature, and condition of rubbing
surfaces. The extra force required to overcome friction varies
from 10 to 90 per cent more than the calculated force. Rolling
friction, (an example is to roll a barrel up an inclined ramp) is
equal to from 10 to 20 per cent of the calculated force; but if
the friction is sliding, the opposing force due to friction lies
in a range from 30 to 90 per cent more than the calculated
force. Of course, these are general statements, and the condi-
tions under which these items operate depend on the materials
and surfaces used.
Heat is generated by friction, and the elimination of this
heat constitutes a problem. Proper bearings and lubrication
reduce friction so that less heat is evolved.
Horsepower and Manpower
A foot-pound of work means that a weight of one pound
is lifted a distance of one foot. One horsepower is defined as
33,000 ft.-lb. of work per minute. An average man can only
sustain about 2500 ft.-Ibs. of work per minute or he only de-
33,000
velops about - - - - - == 0.076 or 1/13 hp.
2500
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES 89
Electric motors, gas, and diesel engines will develop a

horsepower output in various ranges. Electrical and mechanical
power, compared with manpower, is extremely cheap. For
example, from our calculations, a man would have to work
about H~ working days to develop one hp.-hr. of work. A
horse could develop 8 hp.-h. of work in one day, but a 10-hp.
electric motor could develop 80 hp.-hr. of work in one day.
A man's wages are approximately $15.00 per day, or that one
hp.-hr. of work developed by the man would cost $22.50. In
Montana, dependent on the location and amount used, electric
power can be purchased for as low as $0.01 per kw.-hr. One
kw.-hr. is about 1.3 hp.-hr. Hence, a tremendous difference
in cost is noted. True, equipment costs money, and men must
operate this equipment; but with the tremendous difference in
costs per hp.-hr., one can readily see that mechanization is
essential. It is also true that the full power of a machine is
seldom used all the time, except in a pump or some other piece
of equipment where full power is being utilized, but even if
the machine is developing its power only 10% of the time, the
output of the machine in hp.-hr. is still cheaper than com-
parative manpower.
Naturally, mining requires manpower, but with both equip-
ment and men advantageously used, lower-grade ore bodies may
be worked at a profit, which, in time, will extend the life of
a mine.
COSTS AND COST ESTIMATION

The costs of prospecting and mining are influenced by so
many variables and unforseen items that a general cost esti-
mation or average cost estimation is not too reliable. However,
as a prospector would prefer to know average cost figures on
certain mining jobs, an attempt will be made here to give some
average figures and how production of ore influences costs.
The prospector rna y usually hire a bulldozer within the
range of from $10.00 an hour for light machines to $16.00 an
hour for heavy machines. If the prospecting job is a short one,
the cost of transporting the bulldozer to the job may also be
added to the quoted hourly rate. A bulldozer will move a large
tonnage of material, if digging conditions are good, at a low
unit cost.
If trenching is done by hired hand labor, the cost of remov-
ing one yard of dirt will vary from $2.00 to $4.00 per yard,
provided no large boulders are encountered. The estimated
cost just given will depend on manpower and conditions.
Drilling costs are difficult to estimate. If the area is known,
a fair cost figure per foot of hole drilled may be estimated. For
holes up to 300-ft. in depth in unknown country, the contract
costs for diamond drilling will probably vary from $6 to $12
per foot, with extra charges for hole cementation, and other
difficulties encountered.
Churn-drilling costs for shallow holes may fall within the
range quoted for diamond-drilling costs. If percussion air drills
can be used with extension steel, then holes up to 50-l00-ft. may
be drilled within the range of from $1.00 to $2.00 per foot in
normal drilling ground. The number of holes and footage of
the holes will influence the contract price considerably on all
drilling methods mentioned.
...
COSTS AND COST ESTIMATION 71
Value of the Ore
When assay returns come back on samples of ore, the

operator can calculate the value of the ore by figuring the
pounds or ounces of valuable material present and multiplying
this figure by the current market price for the metal. (One
per cent means the ore contains 20-1b. of metal per ton; two per
cent means the ore contains 40-lb. of metal per ton.) However,
a smelter or commercial mill does not recover all of the metal,
and mill or smelter operators make a deduction on the assay
to cover the losses incurred in the mill or smelter operation.
Since deductions are made in various ways by individual mill or
smelter operators, a mill or smelter schedule should be obtained
to show schedule of payment on metals. Usually, to cover these
losses, a mill or smelter will deduct somewhere between 5 to
20 per cent of the total value of the ore. Included in this figure
may be freight and marketing costs. The above figure,· again
is a general one; the exact figure for a certain type of ore must
be obtained from the mill or smelter.
Smelters also exact various penalties if ores contain certain
metals detrimental to the smelting or milling process. For
example, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, and silica are commonly
penalized in a lead smelter. Hence, the ore should be tested
by the mill or smelter prior to shipment. Because some plants
can handle certain metals better than others, a plant which can
best handle your ore must be found.
In addition, the smelter or mill also exacts a treatment
charge per ton of ore, varying according to the metal content
and other constituents. Sampling and assaying costs are other
expenses usually borne by the ore producer.
Certain minimums of metallic content in an ore are not
paid for by a smelter. Most smelters do not pay for less than
0.03-oz. gold per ton, and there are commonly minimums on
silver and other metals.
Taking a hypothetical case, assume that a lead-gold-silver

are is calculated to have a gross value of $30.00 per ton at cur-
rent metal prices. Assuming a 20 per cent deduction resulting
from refining losses, taxes, bullion freight, and penalties, the
value of the are is $30.00-(30.00 x .20)==$30.00-$6.00==$24.00.
Assume the smelting charge is $6.00 per ton; left is ($24.00-
$6.00)==$18.00 for the net value of the ore. As the ore must
be transported to the smelter, haulage or shipping costs must
be considered. Once again these costs vary widely, dependent
on whether the are is shipped by rail or truck, but for estimation
purposes a figure ranging from 3 to 10 cents per ton mile may
be used. Assuming that the mine is 100 miles from the smelter,
and the shipping rate is 6 cents per ton-mile, the cost to transport
the are to the smelter would be approximately $6.00 per ton.
Hence, the value of the calculated $30.00 per ton are is now
reduced to $12.00 per ton are at the mine. Under favorable
mining conditions, ore worth $12.00 a ton at the mine may be
produced from underground operations at a small profit. How-
ever, ore can seldom be mined at $12.00 per ton if ground con-
ditions are poor, or if the vein is narrow and spotty in metal
content.
Cost of Hired Labor

The average rate of pay to underground miners differs in
different districts in Montana, but the present average figure
ranges from $14.00 to $16.00 per shift. Besides wages (for
convenience in calculating, a rate of $15.00 per shift will be
used), the employer has additional costs. If the man works
over 40-hr. per week, the federal law requires overtime payment
at the rate of H~ times the base pay. If miners work 6 days per
week, this overtime rate must be calculated in the total cost.
Various insurances and taxes are figured on the payroll wage
and not the base pay. In Montana they are calculated as fol-
lows (for a miner earning $15.00 per shift):
'.
COSTS AND OOST ESTIMATION 78
Day's wage __________________________________________________________________________________ $15.00

Overtime for one shift per week at B~ times
base rate== 1.5x~x1/6 _______________________________ _________ __ _____________ ___ 1.25
Calculated payroll wage per day ____________________________________________ $16.25

Payroll Insurance and Taxes:
Old Age and Survivors Ins.-2%x16.25 __________________________ .33
Federal Unemployment Tax:
0.3%x16.25 (only required if more than
8 men are employed) ________________________________________________ .05
Industrial Accident Insurance:
8%x16.25 (underground workers) ____________________________________ 1.30
(5%x16.25 for surface mine workers)
State Unemployment Taxes:
2.7%x16.25 _______________ ________________________________ __ ___ ________________________ .44
Total cost per day to employer ________________________ $18.37

Hence, observing the above calculations, we note that the
cost to the employer of hiring a man for underground work is
approximately 13 per cent more than the calculated' payroll
wage. Added to this 13 per cent is the cost of accounting
and bookkeeping, which must be done by the employer, so that
these records, and records of withholding taxes for both federal
and state, can be kept accurately.
Development Costs
Operating mines with past records can base their future
expenses on past operating costs. However, a prospector or
small operator just starting out in a mining venture does not
have past operating costs to guide him.
Another question to be considered in developing a mine is-
just what do the costs cover? Are the costs just the direct costs,
such as manpower, powder, and supplies, for each development
heading? Does the cost include all the overhead, such as capital
equipment, compressors, buildings, supervision services, interest
and taxes? The total cost must include everything, which is

difficult to estimate. In an initial prospect, if the program is
unsuccessful, then all capital items must be clJ.arged off to the
development headings. However, if the development is suc-
cessful, the equipment is useful for a much longer time, and
the cost per foot of development heading is reduced.
Another question to be considered in cost is: Are the devel-
opment headings being advanced by miners on a day's pay rate,
or are they being paid a contract footage, volume, or tonnage
rate? Obviously, men will advance a heading faster or mine
more tonnage when they are on a contract rate rather than on
a day's pay rate. Hence, the day's pay rate or contract rate
should be considered.
Level Driving
Two examples may help you to determine drifting costs.
Suppose two miners are on base pay, 6 days per week, and they
are driving a drift of 5 x 7 feet, untimbered cross section. Hence,
the wages (to employer) for these two miners are 18.37 x 2 ==
$36.74 per day.
Labor varies from 40% to 70% of the total cost of mining,
the remaining costs including direct supplies, overhead, etc.
Taking an average figure of labor, 50% of an untimbered head-
ing, the following table may help to arrive at drift costs. Usually
another man is required to tram and do other chores.
Ft. of No. of Labor Cost Total Cost Est. Cost/ft.
advance/shift men Req. (multiply labor
cost by 2)
3 2 $36.74 $ 73.48 $24.50
5 2 36.74 73.48 14.70
3 3 55.11 110.22 36.75
5 3 55.11 110.22 22.05
If the contract system is used, the following table may help
arrive at drifting cost figures. In this table, it is assumed the
contract labor rate is $10.00 per foot of advance. Note that
this figure is not standard; the price varies widely, dependent
upon conditions.
COSTS AND OOST ESTIMATION
Supply Cost
Contract Est. equal
Ft. of adv. labor Labor cost to contract Total Est. cost
per shift No. men cost to employer labor cost Cost per foot
3 2 $ 30.00 $ 33.90 $ 30.00 $ 63.90 $ 21.30
5 2 50.00 56.50 50.00 106.50 21.30
3 3 45.00* 50.85 30.00 80.85 26.95
5 3 50.00 56.50 50.00 106.50 21.30
(2 contract 50.00)
5 (1 days pay 15.00) 73.45 50.00 123.45 24.70
*The minimum day's rate wage is usually paid if the contract rate
is below this figure. Hence, the cost is $45.00, even though a 3-ft.
advance was made.
These examples show how the two systems work (day's pay
vs. contract) and how various factors enter the picture. The
more footage driven per man shift usually lowers the cost per
foot of level driving, although the table on estimated contract
rates does not bring out this fact. An argument against the
preceding statement is that cost of supplies per foot of level
is constant; i.e., each foot of level takes so much rail, pipe, spikes,
ties, and other supplies. This is true, but overhead, cost of
supervision, rent on equipment, payment on loans, and other
fixed costs continue whether or not a foot of level is driven;
consequently the more footage driven, the less the cost per foot.
On paper, the contract system may not look as good, because
the cost apparently does not reduce as footage is increased.
Actually, costs do decrease, because the cost of overhead is
decreased for each additional foot driven per man shift. Men
will ordinarily work much harder when they have an incentive
to make more money. Hence, with good equipment provided,
miners may only advance a level H~-ft. per man shift, in a day's-
pay drift whereas in a contract drift, the miners may advance
the level 2}~-ft., or more, per man shift. An additional man on
day's pay increases the cost per foot, as shown in the last exam-
ple; but if this day's pay man, or men, can help in several
development headings, the cost to each heading is decreased.
As mentioned previously, these examples are for no char-

acteristic mine. The figures may be nearly average, but the
main purpose of the preceding examples is to show how costs
may be estimated. Conditions vary so much between mines,
and sometimes even in the same mine, that a definite formula
cannot be devised to estimate costs. Usually, however, the more
footage driven per man-shift, the cheaper the level or develop-
ment heading. The contract system of so much per unit cus-
tomarily results in more work per man shift.
Shafts
Progress in a shaft may be estimated and the costs calculated
similar to the example on drifting. Shaft-sinking costs are usually
high, and any adverse condition encountered will increase costs
greatly. The water problem is generally ever present. More
service men ar requird, such as hoistmen and top men; so the
labor force is greater than in a level driving program.
Raises
Raises are calculated in the same manner as shafts and
levels; costs are proportional to rate of advance. If timber is
used in a raise, however, the cost of supplies may exceed the
cost of labor, e.g., labor 40%, supplies 60%.
Stopes
The calculation and estimation of mining costs, must con-
sider many matters; mining methods, ground, width of vein, dip
of vein, support required, etc. As a result, unless conditions
are known, an estimate of a mining cost is of little value.
Usually narrow veins cost more to mine than do wide veins;
so, too, veins requiring timber for support when mined are more
expensive than untimbered veins when mined. An estimate of
costs may once again be made on production.
A timbered method of mining may produce about 2 tons of
ore per man shift. (The total number of men employed at the
mine, both surface and underground, are counted in this figure.)
COSTS AND COST ESTIM..4.TION 11
Hence, if labeor costs $18.37 per shift, the mInIng labor cost
would be $9.19 per ton. Assuming labor to be about 50 per cent
of a timbered system of mining, the cost to produce a ton of ore
is about $18.38. If production can be increased per man shift,
the cost of producing are per ton will drop. In mines with wide
veins and in which high-production mining methods can be
employed, the tons-per-man shift figure may be as high as 8 or
.~ 10 tons. In most small mines, however, from H~ to 5 tons per
man shift is a fair average.
CONCLUSION
Efficient management can reduce costs considerably. By

the examples shown, an unnecessary or nonproductive man can
appreciably raise costs in a small operation. Hence, manpower
requirements must be chosen with care.
A well-planned work program is essential for efficient opera-
tion. Plans should be made in advance, so that each man has
a job when he completes the one he is doing. Of course, the
jobs should be productive; that is, a man's work should always
be toward some aspect of production.
Good equipment kept in good repair is necessary for an
efficient operation. Much money and time can be lost by men
working with antiquated equipment, too often subject to break-
down and costly repairs. Losing one blast in one heading in
a 5-day work-week will increase the cost per foot of that heading
by about 10 per cent. Poor track, and consequently derail-
ments, may cause men to lose 2 hr. out of a productive day.
and so appreciably increase the cost of that tramming operation.
Hence, good equipment and good maintenance ultimately pay
off.
Development headings into the best ore horizons (geolog-
ically) should be encouraged; therefore every mine operator
should hire a good consulting engineer or geologist to advise
him on the best and most favorable ore horizons. The services
of these men are expensive, but driving 100 ft. of drift in an
unfavorable direction at from $25.00 to $30.00 per foot is also
an expensive undertaking.
Mining, like running a store or service station, is a business.
You must make money to stay in business; so you must make
money to continue operating a mine. Good practices and prin-
ciples apply to mining as to other businesses. Too, the mining
industry is regulated by state and local laws, which in some
cases may restrict some of your plans and actions.
CONCLUSION 79
This little booklet was written to help you, the prospector

and operator of a small mine; most of these ideas presented here
have been observed in practice by the writer, and, it is hoped,
may be of value to you. Probably most of them are not new to
you, but may serve to refresh your memory which in turn may
suggest new ideas and innovations.
-0-
\
APPENDIX
Addresses of Companies mentioned in text
American Machine and Metals Inc.
Trout Mining Division
Philipsburg, Montana.
Mr. John Hand
Hand Mine
Argenta, Montana.
Minerals Engineering Co.
Box 94
Glen, Montana.
Montana Phosphate Products Co.
Garrison, Montana.
Norwich Mine
Mr. J. Irving & Mr. Bob Nelson
43 Hirbour Bldg.
Butte, Montana.
Mr. Fred Platt
Blacksmith Mine
Townsend, Montana.
The Taylor-Knapp Co.
Philipsburg, Montana.
REFERENCES 81
REFERENCES
1. Beringer, Bernard, 1947, Underground practice in mining, 3d
ed., Mining Publications, Ltd., Salisbury House, London E.C. 2.
2. E&MJ Staff, Operating ideas: Enginering and Mining Journal.
Vol. 155, No. 11, Nov. 1954.
3. Higham, S., 1951, An introduction to metalliferous mining,
Charles Giffin & Co. Ltd., 42 Drury Lane, London W. C. 2.
4. Jackson & Hedges, 1939, Metal mine practice: U. S. Bureau
of Mines, Bull. 419.
5. Krumlauf, H. E., 1954, Exploration and development of small
mines: Arizona Bureau of Mines, Mineral Tech. Series, No. 48,
Bulletin No. 164, University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.
6. Mining (four textbooks), Canadian Legion Educational Services,
Ottawa, Canada.
7. Peele, Robert, 1952, Mining engineers' handbook, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., New York, N. Y.
8. Sanders, W. E., and others, 1907, Mine timbering, Hill Publish-
ing Co., New York, 1907.
9. Spalding, Jack, 1953, Mining tips and gadgets, Mining Publica-
tions Ltd., Salisbury House, London E. C. 2.
10. Stout, K. S., 1955, Practical Guide for Prospectors and Small-
Mine Operators in Montana: Misc. Cont. No. 13, Montana
Bureau of Mines and Geology, Butte. Mont.
11. Tillson, Benjamin F., 1938, Mine plant, American Institute of
Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, New York.
,
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OPERATING IDEAS FOR

MISCELLANEOUS CONTRIBUTION NO. "

r MISCEIT...LANEOUS CONTRIBUTION NO. 14

Trackless mining . ______________________________________ ._____ . ______________ ... _,. ____________ .. _._24

Hand loading _______ A ____ • _____ • ____________________ • _______________ • 26

Crib timber -________________________ . _____ . _______ ._____________ .___ . __ . __ . _. _____ .. ___________ 33

Small headframe for inclined shaft ______________________________________ ._35

Lining-up shaft timber -. _____________________________________________._. ____ --_________ 39

Shafts ......................................................................... ,....... '.'.' ......... 76

S topes .................................................................... ·.···· .. 0 76

5 A. Removing water from air line. B. Bits for dif-

One of the many objectives of the Montana Bureau of Mines

practice may find some of these ideas useful in solving their

Demonstrator for Drill Rounds

Hints on Drilling with a Stoper

Drilling Horizontal or Down-Holes

Notel Frame is made of 2" X 2" timbers.

A. WIRE FRAME TO DEMONSTRATE TYPES OF DRILL

B. A METH:lD OF DRILLING LIFTERS WITH A STOPER.

C. ANOTHER METHOD OF DRILLING LIFTERS WITH A

then regulate the speed of drilling advance by pushing the

Setting Stoper for Rapid Drilling

machine, completely drill several holes after a hole has been

Starter hole drilled

A. DRILLING SEQUENCE FOR RAPID DRILLING WITH

2'0lC-~1 Round steel

horizontal holes with considerable success. The air-leg at-

.[ pector. Some manufacturers make drifter shells for their sink-

Open Cut Drilling

Removing Water from Air Lines

tank, is welded in place. In width, the baffle plate is the same

A.MEXICAN SETUP FOR SINKER DRILL

B. PLANK SETUP FOR DRILLING NEARLY HORIZONTAL

A. TRUCK MOUNTED WAGON DRILL

B. DRILLING IN PIT WITH

C. ANOTHER VIEW OF THE TRUCK

ing and cost saving. However, trouble has been experienced

sible to keep from sticking the steel. There is probably no

The threads on tungsten-carbide bits may sometimes strip

Soft ground need: Hard ground:

,Cut off nail to

C. TUNGSTEN-CARBIDE BIT D. PULLING STUCK STEEL.

Explosives Sand Stemming

A. WOODEN SPACING BLOCKS AND TAMPING

B. CUTTING AND PRE~RING FUSES

I I ttt t 22 III 122121111 1211a

C. TIMING FUSES :3 WAYS O. LIGHTING FUSES

of the board, or several rolls of fuse may be attached there by

When making detonators, at least one prospector employs a

Fuses of the Same Length

Cutting Individual Fuses

The method shown in Plate 6, C, Method 3, is often used

until all the fuses are bunched. (A word of caution: do not

C. BUTT SWITCH D. PREFABRICATED SWITCH

Often one of the most neglected, but yet important, phases

The following types of switches are in general use in small

Rail bent in a circle to act as a

lFlattened rail endsJ

A. TURN SHEE T B. TURNTABLE FOR

, / ' \ : Rails laying on side

Slide rails are laid on their

full length toward the face.

C. TRACK EXTENSION IN D. SMALL CAR RERAILER.

Trackless mining . ____________________________________ ._ . ____________ ... _,. ____________ .. _._24

Hand loading _____ A • _ • ____ • _ • 26

Crib timber -______________________ . _ . _ ._______ ._ . . . _. _ .. _______ 33

Lining-up shaft timber -. _____________________________________________._. --_____ 39