1

CONTENTS PART I 1. BASIC AERODYNAMICS

PART II 2. METEOROLOGY

PART III 3. NAVIGATION

PART I BASIC AERODYNAMICS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

DEFINITIONS FLAPPING TO EQUALITY HOOKS JOINT EFFECT DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT TAIL ROTOR DRIFT TAIL ROTOR ROLL LOSS OF TAIL ROTOR EFFECTIVENESS GROUND CUSHION RECIRCULATION FLARE AND ITS EFFECTS DANGEROUS CURVES BLADE SAILING LIMITS OF RPM ADVANCE ANGLE POWER REQUIREMENT

DEFINITIONS 1. Maximum All Up Weight. The maximum weight at which the aircraft is permitted to fly within normal design restrictions. Found in the LIMITATIONS section of the Aircrew Manual. 2. All Up Weight (auw). The actual weight of the aircraft at any given time. AUW must not be greater than MAUW. 3. Basic Weight. The actual weight of the aircraft with its basic equipment including oil, hydraulic fluid, fire extinguishers, first aid pack, etc, but excluding specific role equipment, fuel and crew. Found in the documents of the aircraft. 4. Variable Load. Items, which may vary from sortie to sortie but are not expendable on flight, e.g.: crew and role equipment (winch). 5. Expendable Load. and other Items such as fuel, oil, which may be weapons cargo/stores

airdropped, including parachutists.

6. 7.

Payload.

The total load of passengers/cargo

actually carried in the aircraft. Operating Weight (Role operating weights The sum of basic weight and variable excluding fuel).

load which when subtracted from MAUW provides your LIFTING CAPACITY. Lifting Capacity determines the compromise between expendable load and payload.

FLAPPING TO EQUALITY 1. Definition. Moving the cyc stick does not alter the total rotor thrust but simply changes the disc att. This is achieved by the blades flapping to equality when the cyc pitch is applied the flapping to blades can be defined as angular movement of blades above and below the plan of hub. 2. Suppose a hel is hovering in ideal wind conditions and one of its blade is having an angle of attk 6.

3.

Now we mov the cyc stick to fwd posn. This mov

of cyc will decrease the blade pitch and this decrease in

AOA of blade is due to mechanical linkages or due to con orbit. Here we consider that RAF remain unchanged this reduction in pitch will reduce both the blades AOA and rotor thrust, and when the rotor thrust is reduce therefore lift of the blade will reduce so the blade will not be able to maint its original horizontal flight and will definitely begin to flap down.

4.

Now when the blade is falling down there will be

some flow which is coming up we call it up flow. Now this up flow will be resisting the induced flow and causing its reduction till its AOA is reached to 6, and

blade thrust will return to its original value and the blade will continue to follow the new path required to keep the AOA constant.

Thus cyc pitch will alter the plane in which the blade is rotating but AOA remains unchanged. 5. The reverse takes place when a blade experiences an increase in AOA when the cyc stick is mov aft.

HOOKS JOINT EFFECT 1. Definition. Hooks joint effect is defined as the mov of blade to reposition itself relative to the other blades when the cyclic stick is applied. 2. Explanation a. GM, today we will be studying a very important cause of dragging of main rotor blade that is Hook Joint Effect. Before we see what is Hook Joint Effect. Let us see what is dragging. Dragging is the ability or freedom given to each blade to lead or lag independently of the other blade. The causes of dragging are periodic drag changes, Effect. changing posn of CG relative to the hub and Hook Joint

Original Tip Path Plane Tip Path Plane B Shaft Axis C A C Shaft B Axis A

New Tip Path Plane

Figure 36 Hooks Joint Effect

b.

Now let us consider a four bladed rotor system is rotating in POR. If the cyclic stick is maint at neutral posn, the blades will maint track as shown in fig if viewed from above.

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3.

Now if the cyc is moved fwd the disc will tilt in

the fwd dir and if still viewed from above. Now the blade A would have increased its radius from the center of the hub where as the blade C would have decreased it radius relative to the center of hub. 4. Consider the law of conservation of angular momentum that is M = m Vr where m is the mass of the blade V is rotational velocity and r is the radius of the blade. Now when ever the blade is having closer dist i.e. (radius) to maint the momentum constant velocity V has to be increased. 5. As the blade C increases its Vr and blade A decreases its Vr the blade B, D would try to gain their original path and while doing so blade B would try to speed up as the blade C has an increased Vr and blade D would try to slow down as blade a has low velocity. It can be seen, that the blade which is moving with high V, has a tendency to lead and the blade moving with less V has a tendency to lag in their planes of rotation.

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DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT SYMMETRY OF LIFT 1. Definition. A structure that allows an object being divided by a point or line or plane into two or more parts exactly similar in size and shape and in position relatively to the divided point. 2. Still Air Condition. Let us consider for a moment that the helicopter is hovering in still air condition, the rotor thrust produced by each blade will be uniform. The speed of RAF over each blade will be equal to the speed of rotation of each blade irrespective of its position throughout the blades 360 degree of travel. Therefore it can be said that the RAF for each blade is Vr, that is rotational velocity of the blade. In this condition where all the factors affecting the lift are constant, the blades will experience same lift throughout their 360 degree of travel.

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DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT 3. Suppose the condition has changed and the helicopter is now facing into the wind, with a velocity of Vw, during hover. Half of the time the blade will be moving into the wind and for the remainder time it will be moving along the wind. The disc can therefore be divided into two halves, one half being the advancing side, and the other retreating side.
Wind

V r Vw V r

RAF

Vw V r

V r

Vw = Wind Velocity

4.

When the rotor blade starts moving from point A

towards advancing side, as it moves the RAF will start

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increasing and a component of wind velocity will also start supplementing the rotational velocity Vr. The RAF will attain its maximum value of (Vr+VW) when the blade reaches point B. As the blade continues to rotate the value of Vw will start decreasing. Once the blade reaches point C the value of Vw will again be Vr. 5. From point C as the blade moves forward it enters the retreating side where the wind Vw is acting along rotational velocity Vr, and partially canceling the effect of Vr. As the blade is advancing on the retreating side the value of RAF will keep on reducing by an amount Vw and will reach its lowest value of (Vr-VW)once it reaches 90 degrees on the retreating side that is at point D. 6. If no change takes place in blades attitude than the advancing blade at point B will produce lift L = CL 1/2 (Vr+Vw)2 S and the retreating blade at point D will produce L = CL (Vr-Vw)2 S. The value of lift on advancing side being more than the retreating side. This

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condition where one side of the disc produces more lift than the other is known as dissymmetry of lift.

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TAIL ROTOR DRIFT 1. If a fuselage is being turned by a couple yy about a point x the rotation will stop if a couple zz of equal value pulls it in the opposite direction. 2. The rotation will also stop if a single force zz was used to produce a moment equal to the couple yy but there would now be a side force on the pivot point x. 3. The tail rotor of a helicopter produces a moment to overcome the couple arising from torque reaction which in turn causes a side pull on the pivot point or axis of rotation of the main rotor. This sideward force produces a movement known as tail rotor drift and unless corrected, it would result in the helicopter moving sideways over the ground.
Z Y Y Y

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4.

Correction for Tail Rotor Drift.

Main

rotor

thrust is offset to produce a side thrust to correct for tail rotor drift. This is achieved either automatically through design or by the pilot tilting the disc in required direction. 5. Implication. Implication of TR drift can be during under well understood if we carefully monitor the flying techniques a. of Schweizer helicopter mentioned phases of its operation :During normal hover the cyclic stick has to be placed slightly left, it is because of the drift corrective force. b. Once carrying out hovering auto we have to ease the cyclic towards right to avoid hel drift towards left, it is because the engine torque during auto is no more there and correspondingly the drift corrective force will finish.

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TAIL ROTOR ROLL 1. As the tail rotor roll is by-product of tail rotor drift, the drift corrective force acts at the main rotor hub center, in this situation tail rotor thrust is in the opposite direction. If the tail rotor is mounted below the horizontal level of the main rotor hub, a couple is formed between tail rotor thrust and tail rotor drift correcting force. 2. 3. This rolling couple causes the helicopter to hover Compensation. The tail rotor roll can be one wheel low. compensated by mounting it in level with main rotor hub. This is achieved by :a. b. Cranking the fuselage to the level of main rotor hub. Fitting tail rotor to a pylon to raise it to the level of main rotor hub.

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Total Rotor Thrust

Tail Rotor Drift Correcting Force

Rolling Couple Tail Rotor Thrust

Weight

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LOSS OF TAIL ROTOR EFFECTIVENESS 1. Unanticipated right yaw or loss of tail rotor

effectiveness (LTE) has been determined to be a contributory factor in a number of accidents. In most cases inappropriate or late corrective actions may have resulted in the development of uncontrollable yaw. These mishaps have occurred at low altitude, low airspeed flight region while manoeuvring, on final approach to a landing, or during nap of the earth tactical terrain flying. Severity of this problem depends upon the characteristics of tail rotor or simply the resultant airflow pattern on tail because of various in-flight manoeuvres. In this article we will restrict ourselves to anti-clockwise rotating main rotor helicopters, in which tail rotor thrust is towards the right side. 2. Effects on Anti Torque System. a. Some important effects on anti-torque system :Tail rotor thrust is the result of application of anti-torque pedal. If the thrust is more

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than required to counter main rotor, required to counter main rotor, required to counter main rotor, the helicopter will yaw or turn to the left about the vertical axis and vice versa. The environments operate vary in the which thrust helicopters

requirement, because of constantly changing wind direction and velocity due to main rotor vortices. b. c. Certain relative wind directions are more likely to cause tail rotor. Manoeuvring helicopter at low altitude and high power setting, needs a greater tail rotor thrust as measured by its cross-wind / sideward flight capability. Higher sideward flight capability translates directly into greater protection from LTE. 3. Conditions / Manoeuvres Conducive to LTE a. Low Airspeed.

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b. c. d. e. f. g.

Cross weight and density altitude. Power droop. Right sideward taxi. Right hover turn. Left sideward taxi. Preventive Measures (1) Plan approaches to avoid high rates of descent that in turn, will require sharp power pulls to stop. (2) When manoeuvring between hover and 30 knots :(a) Avoid tailwinds. If loss of translational lift occurs, it will result in an increased high power additional requirement. (b) Avoid out of ground effect (OGE) hover and high power demand and an anti-torque

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demand situations, such as low speed downwind turns. (c) Be aware that if a considerable amount of left pedal is being maintained a sufficient amount of left pedal may not be available (d) (e) to counteract an unanticipated right yaw. Stay vigilant to power and wind conditions. Avoid right pedal turns at low altitudes settings. h. Recommended Recovery Techniques (1) If a sudden unanticipated right yaw occurs, pilot should perform the following :(a) Apply full left pedal and cyclic simultaneously move and high power

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forward to increase speed. If altitude permits, reduce power. (b) As recovery is effected, adjust controls for normal forward flight. (c) If the rotation can not be stopped and ground contact is imminent, an autorotation may be the best course of action. The pilot should maintain full left pedal until rotation stops, then adjust to maintain heading.

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GROUND CUSHION 1. Gen. GM in free air the resistance opposing the mov of air being induced to flow down ward from the MR disc is simply resisted by the surrounding air.

2.

However in hover close to gr, the gr will also resist

the induced flow this addl resistance being max when hovering just above the surface. The down wash from rotor is deflected by the gr into a flow radiating out word from the hel and is dissipated against the surrounding air. 3. Now at the same time same down wash is deflect inward underneath the hel belly. This is brought to rest forming a dome of stagnate air, or slow moving air. This

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done of stagnate air dead air or gr cushion slightly inc pr and causes a reduction in induced flow. 4. Comparison between Hovering in and Out of The dir of flow relative to blade changes, Ground.

increasing AOA thereby the same AOA can be maint in gr eff (IGE) with less coll pitch and power than req for OGE. This reduction is power is possible because of reduction in rotor drag. a. Factors Eff the Gr Cushion
a.

Ht of Hel. Hovering above the gr (the eff disappears at a ht equal to approx there quarter of disc). The Nature of Gr. dissipates the cushion. The slop of the Gr. uneven gr cushion. Wind. wind. Rough Produces gr an

b.

c.

d.

The cushion is displaced down

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GROUND RESONANCE 1. Ground resonance can be defined as being a vibration of large amplitude resulting from a forced or self-induced vibration of a helicopter in contact with or resting upon the ground. The pilot will recognize ground resonance from a rocking motion or oscillation of the fuselage and, if early corrective action is not taken, the amplitude can increase to the point where it will be uncontrollable and the helicopter will roll over. 2. Causes of Ground Resonance. The initial vibration which causes ground resonance can already is present in the rotor head being fore the helicopter comes into contact with the ground. Ideally the disc should have its centre of gravity over the centre of rotation, but it for any reason its position is displaced, a wobble will develop, the effect being similar to an unbalanced flywheel rotating at high speed. Ground resonance can also be induced by the undercarriage being in light contact with the ground, particularly if the frequency of

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oscillation of the oleos and/or tyres is in sympathy with the rotor head vibration. a. Rotor Head Vibration. Rotor vibration can be caused by: (1) Blades Balance. correctly of Unequal Blades weighed Weight should and or be head

balanced

during manufacture, but flight in icing conditions can cause imbalance due to the uneven accumulation of ice on the rotor blades. Moisture absorption or blade damage can also be a caused of imbalance. (2) Faulty Drag Dampers. With a three bladed rotor system the blades should be equally spaced 120 apart. If a damper is sticking or is allowing uneven spacing of the blades, the centre of gravity of the rotor will be

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displaced away from the axis of rotation. (3) Faulty Tracking. A rotor, which is greatly out of track, may set up an unbalance condition, which will be transmitted through the helicopter. This type of imbalance usually results in nothing more than a rough helicopter and a beat in the cyclic stick. However, if enough track imbalance exists, it is possible that a combination of factors may be encountered that would result in ground resonance being induced. b. Fuselage Vibration. can be caused by: (1) Mislanding aggravated by continuous lateral movement of the cyclic stick. Fuselage vibration

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(2) (3) 3.

A taxying take-off, or run-on landing, over rough or uneven ground. Incorrect or unequal tyre pressures.

Recovery Action. The more appropriate of the a. Take-off immediately if take-off rotor rpm are available. Rotor rpm should always be maintained in the operating range until the final landing has been completed. b. Shut down immediately if take-off Rrpm are not available, or if take-off is not practicable; i.e. lower pitch lever, reduce power, apply rotor brake and wheel brakes

following actions must be taken:

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RECIRCULATION 1. Introduction. Not necessary that whenever helicopter is hovering near the ground that you can get ground effect. As we know that some of the factors which restrict in forming the component of dead air underneath the aircraft. So instead of assisting the helicopter to hover, whenever such situation arises more power is required to hover IGE than OGE. 2. Recirculation. Whenever a helicopter is hovering near the ground, some of the air passing through the disc is recirculated and it would appear that the recirculated air increases speed as it passes through the disc a second time. The local increase of induced flow near the tips give rise to a loss of RT. Some recirculation is always taking place but over a flat, even surface the loss of rotor thrust due to recirculation is more than compensated for by the ground cushion effect. If a helicopter is hovering over tall grass or a similar surface the loss of lift due to recirculation will increase

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and, in some cases, the effect will be greater than the ground cushion.

3.

When this situation arises, more power and

collective pitch is required to hover near the ground than to hover in free air. Recirculation will increase when any obstruction on the surface, or near where the helicopters is hovering, prevents the air from flowing evenly away. 4. Correction for Tail Rotor Drift. Main rotor thrust is offset to produce a side thrust to correct for tail rotor drift. This is achieved either automatically through design or by the pilot tilting the disc in required direction.

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5.

Implication.

Implication of TR drift can be

well understood if we carefully monitor the flying

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FLARE AND ITS EFFECTS 1. Definition. Tilting the disc in the opposite direction of helicopter flight.
Total Rotor Thrust

Total Rotor Thrust Thrust Parasite Drag Pitch Up

Thrust Parasite Drag

2.

Thrust Reversal. Figure

1a

represents

helicopter in normal forward flight and figure 1b represents a helicopter in forward flight with the pilot executing a flare. By tilting the disc away form the direction in which helicopter is traveling the thrust component of the TRT will now act in the same direction as the fuselage parasite drag, causing the helicopter to slow down very rapidly. The fuselage will respond to this rapid deceleration by pitching up, because reverse thrust

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is now being applied while parasite drag decreases. If the pilot takes no corrective action, the disc will tilt back further still, causing an even greater deceleration. 3. Increase in TRT. Another effect of tilting the disc while the helicopter is moving forward is to change the airflow relative to the disc. As we know, a component of the horizontal airflow, due to the helicopter forward movement, is passing through the disc at right angles to the POR in the same dir as induced flow. When the disc is flared, a component of the horizontal airflow will oppose the induced flow and the changed direction of the airflow relative to the blade will cause an increase in angle of attack and therefore an increase in TRT (Figure 2a, 2b).
Induced Flow Vr
RA F

Rotor Thrust

Component of Horizontal Airflow Rotor Thrust

RAF

Tip Path Plane b Flare Induced Flow Vr

Tip Path Plane

Component of Horizontal Airflow

a Forward Flight

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If no corrective action is taken, the hel will climb. Collective pitch must therefore be reduced if constant height is to be maintained. 4. Increase in Rotor Rrpm. Unless power is reduced when collective pitch is reduced to maintain height, the Rrpm will rise. They will also increase rapidly in the flare for two other reasons :a.

Conservation of Angular Momentum. The increase in TRT will cause the blades to cone up. The radius of the blades CG from the Axis of rotation (AOR) decreases and the blades rotational velocity will automatically rise. Power must therefore be reduced to keep Rrpm constant. Reduction in Rotor Drag. Rotor drag

b.

is reduced in the flare because the total reaction moves closer, towards AOR as a result of the changed direction of the RAF.

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In figures 3a and 3b, lift and drag vectors have been used to position the total reaction and to show that in the flare, even allowing for a work lift / induced drag ratio as a result of a greater angle of attack, forward so reducing the rotor drag. Since engine power is being used to match the rotor drag for a given Rrpm, any decrease in the drag will require a reduction in power to maintain constant rotor rpm.

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Axis of Rotation Rotor Thrust Lift Drag Total Reaction Rotor Drag RAF Tip Path Plane b. Flare Axis of Rotation Rotor Thrust Lift Drag Total Reaction Rotor Drag RAF Tip Path Plane b. Flare a. Forward Flight Axis of Rotation Drag Lift Rotor Thrust Total Reaction Rotor Drag a. Forward Flight Axis of Rotation Drag Lift Rotor Thrust Total Reaction Rotor Drag

Tip Path Plane RAF

Tip Path Plane RAF

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DANGEROUS CURVES 1. The establishment of fully developed autorotation,

following an engine failure, will involve a loss of height. This loss of height will vary, depending upon the air speed at the time of the engine failure. In the hover, or at low forward speed, the loss of height necessary to establish full autorotation will be considerable as it will be necessary to lower the lever fully to restore rotor rpm. At high forward speed it may be possible to flare the aircraft before lowering the lever, which will help to restore the rotor rpm and may even result in a gain of height. However, as speed is reduced it will be necessary to lower the lever to prevent the rotor rpm from falling again. If the engine failure occurs at or about the minimum power speed some height will be lost in establishing full autorotation, but it will be much less than that lost when in the hover. For these reasons the helicopter should not be kept in the hover between approximately 10 ft and 400 ft AGL for any period

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longer than is absolutely necessary, and flight within the avoid area should be kept to a minimum. The relevant aircraft Aircrew Manual should be consulted for specific techniques. Fig 1 shows a typical helicopter avoid area diagram.
500 400 Height (Feet) 300 200 100 10 10 20 30 40 50 Air Speed (knots) 60 Avoid Area

Figure 1 Typical Autorotation Avoid Area

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BLADE SAILING 1. A condition known as blade sailing can occur when the rotor is starting up or slowing down in strong wind conditions, particularly if the wind is strong and gusting. With hel facing into wind, the adv blade experiences an inc in lift and will flap up excessively due to the low centrifugal force, reaching its max retreating side it experiences a sudden loss of lift and will flap down rapidly, flex and reach its lowest position to the rear of hel i.e. over the tail cone. There is a danger of the blade striking the tail cone. Now due to poor stick response and low Rrpm, it is almost impossible to control blade sailing. The effects can be minimized by following methods :a. b. Displace the stick fwd and slightly into wind. Face the hel slightly out of the wind so that lowest pt of blade passes sideways.

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c. d.

Slow down rotor quickly by applying brakes on shut down. During start up engage rotor at a faster rate than normal.

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LIMITS OF RPM 1. Gen. We know that max Rrpm are ultimately governed by design considerations, but in prac may be restricted by such factors as max eng rpm in the piston engine or Txmn limitation in gas turbine eng. 2. Before discussing the limits of Rrpm let us revise Lift. It is the force produced by an aerofoil that is perpendicular to RAF.
b.

certain terms :a.

Centrifugal Force (CFF). away from the AOR.

It

is

the

force which tends to pull a rotating body Centripetal Force. It is the force that

c.

counter acts centrifugal force by keeping an object a certain radius from the axis of rotation. 3. Consider when the rotor blades are at rest they drop due to their weight and span. When the rotor system

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begins to turn, the blade starts to rise from the static posn because of the centrifugal force. 4. As the hel develops lift during take off and flight the blades rise above the straight out posn and assume a coned posn amount of conning depends on Rrpm, gross wt and G forces experienced during flt. 5. Excessive conning can cause undesirable stresses on the blade and a decrease of total lift because of a decrease in effective disc area. Let us consider the resultant of lift and centrifugal force. 6. The vertical force is lift produce when the blade

assume positive angle of attack. The horizontal force is caused by the centrifugal force due to rotation. Since one end of blade is att to the rotor shaft it is not free to move. The other end can mov and will assume a posn that is the resultant of forces acting on it, and the blade posn is coned as a resultant.

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7.

Limits of Rrpm. As

the

centrifugal

action

through Rrpm gives a measure of control of the conning angle, provided the Rrpm are kept above the specified minimum, the conning angle will always be within the safe operating limit. There will always be upper limits to the Rrpm due to engine or transmission consideration and end loading stresses where the blade is att to the rotor head. Rrpm limitation will be found in the relevant Air crew manual.

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ADVANCE ANGLE 1. As we have seen that blade flapped position will always be 90 degree out of phase with control orbit and blade reaches its highest and lowest point 90 degree later than where it experiences the maximum and minimum increase and decrease of cyclic pitch so if the control orbit tilts in the same direction as cyclic stick is being moved and as a result of change in cyclic pitch the rotor disc tilts 90 degree out of phase with the control orbit, then the disc will always be tilting 90 degree ahead of the cyclic stick application. Unless compensated by some way, moving the cyclic stick forward will cause the helicopter to move sideways. This can be over come by following. a. To arrange the blade to receive the max alteration in cyclic pitch change 90 degree before the blade is over highest and lowest point over the control orbit.

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b.

The control orbit tilts 45 degree out of phase with stick movement so 45 degree advance angle is needed only to compensate for phase lag.

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Advance Angle 45 O Blade High +2 -2 O O 45

Blade Low Advance Angle 90

Blade High

+2

Blade Low

O -2

Control Orbit Tilt Axis 45 +2

Control Orbit Tilt Axis O

O Control Orbit Tilt Axis -2 Stick Right

Stick Right

Figure 45 90 Advance Angle

Figure 46 45 Advance Angle

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POWER REQUIRED Parasite Power 1. Parasite power is the power required overcoming the drag of the fuselage when the helicopter is in straight and level flight. If the drag is calculated for a given speed and that speed is doubled, the drag will increase four times but the power required to overcome this rise in drag will increase eight times. The curve produced by plotting parasite power against forward speed will have a zero value when the helicopter is in the still-air hover but will rise progressively steeply as speed increases (see Fig 1).

=
Power (Drag x Velocity) Rotor Profile Power Parasite Power TAS

Total Power Required

Induced Power

Figure 1 Power Curves

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Rotor Power 2. If a helicopter is hovering in still air, the total rotor thrust being produced will be equal to the weight. Within limits, depending upon the type of helicopter, this total rotor thrust can be produced from a wide variation of collective pitch settings and rotor rpm (Rrpm), but the drag, and therefore the power, will vary with each combination, and only one combination will minimum rotor drag. The power needed to drive the rotor can therefore be considered from two aspects: a. The power related to a variation in the value of pitch or drag coefficient (CD0: this is rotor profile power. b. The power related to a change in pitch or Cd for a constant rotational velocity; this is induced power. Rotor Profile Power 3. The Cd of a rotor blade will vary with collective pitch setting, but will remain constant and have its

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minimum value when the collective pitch is minimum. For a given will vary only with the changes in Rrpm and air density. However, whenever the main rotor is turning, ancillary equipment, associated drive shafts and the tail rotor will also be absorbing power, the power absorption varying mainly with the velocity of the main rotor. All these power requirements are included in calculating rotor profile power so that rotor profile power can be defined as being the power required to maintain a given Rrpm when the collective pitch is minimum and to overcome the drag of ancillary equipment, associated drive shafts and the tail rotor the rotor profile power curve will start at a position on the vertical axis o the graph at Fig 1 depending upon the Rrpm selected and the air density. Assuming a constant value of CD, as forward speed increases the power required maintaining this Rrpm will increase. This increased power requirement is because in forward flight the increase in drag of the

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advancing blade will be greater than the decrease in drag of the re-treating blade.

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PART II METEOROLOGY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. MET ORG / OBSERVATORIES IN

PAKISTAN LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE WINDS AND ITS CAUSES LOCAL WINDS VISIBILITY TURBULENCE PRECIPATION THUNDER STORMS FOG FORMATION ICE FORMATION WEATHER IN THE MOUNTAINS EFFECT OF FLYING CONDITIONS IN LOW PRESSURE AND HIGH PRESSURE

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MET ORG / OBSERVATORIES IN PAKISTAN 1. Introduction. Met is the branch of science which deals with the earths atmosphere and physical process. Imagine that even the most modern ac today are dependent on this branch of Aviation. Every military mission planning includes deliberate MET planning including minutest details to ensure success of mission. 2. Function of MET Organizations. a. b. These are designed to fulfill 2 main functions :Record and report information of past and present weather. To forecast future development of weather through :(1) (2) Network of weather observations. System of rapid communication for collection information. (3) A central forecast office. and dissemination of

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(4) 3.

System of local Met office in assisting provision of information. There

Main Types Observatories in Pakistan.

are 6 different types of main observatories available in Pakistan:a. b. c. d. e. f. 4. Surface observatory. Pilots balloon observatory. Radar wind observatory. Radio sonde. Radar station. Satellite weather picture. There are 3

Categories of Met Offices.

categories, details as follows :a. Cat I (1) (2) Established airfield. Maintain watch. a constant forecasting at main operational

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(3) (4) b.

Supply of Met information, briefing to Avn personnel. Provides guidance to Cat II & III offices of Met.

Cat II (1) (2) (3) Situated close to main operational airfd. Maintain restd watch. (Upto 100 units). Prepare enroute wx forecast under guidance of Cat I.

c.

Cat III (1) (2) (3) Situated at a base which does not have routine operational commitment. Supply Met info on request basis received from cat I/II. Brief / Debrief aircrew on operational occasions.

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(4) 5.

Maintains record of local as well as out station weather information.

Conclusion. The weather info is provided to help

air crew to plan and operate with max efficiency. To extract the fullest benefit from met service one must acquire a good working knowledge of the all physical activities atmosphere.

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LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE 1. Gen. The atmosphere in which we are living consists of various gases, i.e., 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and 1% other gases. Besides these gases some other items like water vapors are also present in the atmosphere and play a significant role in formation and development of various weather phenomena. Particles of dust smoke etc. are also available in the atmosphere. 2. Let us see that how far particles can go, what is temperature and height and how the weather in the upper layer would be. 3. Division of Atmosphere. a. Troposphere. Atmosphere is divided into following layers:It extends from ground to 6 miles where temperature is constantly decreasing with the increase in height. b. Stratosphere. It extends from 6 miles to 22 miles where temperature is initially decreasing and then increase with height.

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c.

Mesosphere.

Extends from 22 miles to

50 miles. Temperature initially increases with height and then reduces to 130C. d. Thermosphere. increase in height. 4. Conclusion. Besides gases atmosphere also contains a small but very variable amount of invisible water vapor which causes many weather changes like formation of clouds fog, rain and snow. Height is 50 to 70 miles where temperature constantly increases with

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WINDS AND ITS CAUSES 1. Gen. We in Pakistan have a variety of terrain, starting from snow covered peaks to the barren deserts and long coastal areas. We being army pilots have to operate over every type of terrain. The Wx phenomenon are going to be different at different types of terrain. Every terrain has its own peculiarities. So we can not generalize the weather throughout the country. 2. There are certain local Wx phenomenon in certain parts of the country e.g. if you fly in the Northern Area in the morning the winds are going to be different than if you plan in the afternoon. The same way there are certain valleys where you experience generally isolated build up and strong wind through out the year. The same way if you are close to the coastal areas the wx phenomenon is going to change in the morning and in the afternoon. 3. Causes of Wind a. b. Pressure variation. Rotation of the earth.

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c. d. 4.

Diurnal variation of surface wind. Different land surfaces. At any given level in the

Pressure Variation.

atmosphere the barometric pressure is everywhere the same, there will be no isobars, no pressure gradient, and consequently no wind. When there is a pressure gradient, however, there will be an initial tendency for the air to flow across the isobars in the direction from high to low pressure, but the resultant flow will be almost parallel to the isobars. 5. Rotation of the Earth. We have seen that when air begins to move horizontally it blows from high to low pressure, but that after the motion has continued for some time the flow tends to be along the isobars, with low pressure on the left in the northern hemisphere. This apparent deviation to the right of the direction we should expect the air to follow is a relative effect, being due to the fact that we measure the motion relative to the rotating earths surface.

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6.

Diurnal Variation of Surface Wind. There is a

fairly regular change of wind in each 24 hours: it veers and increases by day, reaching its greatest strength in the afternoon, and then backs and decreases, with a minimum strength about dawn. This sequence is known as the diurnal variations of wind. The normal diurnal variation of wind over land in the surface frictional layer in the northern hemisphere may be summarized as follows :a. b. Surface winds normally veer and increase by day, but back and decrease at night. Above the surface, at say 2,000 ft., the wind normally backs and decreases by day, but veers and increases at night. 7. The diurnal variation of surface wind over land is especially significant to aircrew because of the important part it can play in helping the formation of very low cloud or fog at night and leading to its dispersal by day. The diurnal effect over the sea is very small.

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8.

Different Land Surfaces.

layer

owing

mainly to the nature of the local topography, abnormal surface winds are regularly observed in particular localities. Land and sea breezes are a case in point: other important examples are :a. b. c. 9. Valley winds. Katabatic winds. Anabatic winds. Wind are of major importance to

Conclusion.

aircrew. At every take off and landing a pilot must take in considerations the direction, speed and its gustiness for safe operations.

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LOCAL WINDS 1. Gen. Winds at the surface is normally closely related to the geostrophic wind in the free atmosphere above friction later owing mainly to the nature of the local topography, abnormal surface winds are regularly observed in particular localities. 2. Types of Local Winds a. Land and Sea Breeze. Consider two columns of air initially of the same temperature and with same atmospheric pressure at pt C and D. Imagine that column AC is over land and BD on Sea and the Sun just arisen. Soon the air over the land will become warmer than that over the sea. The air in column AC will expand and so the qty of air above A will increase and hence the pressure at A will become greater than B. Air will start to blow from A to B. As soon as this happens, the amount of air above C

65

will be depleted and above D augmented, so the surface air pressure at C will begin to fall, and that at D to rise. With lower pressure now at C than at D, air will begin to flow from sea to land, a sea breeze will set in. b. Valley Winds. A wind blowing against a mountain has more speed as in a river large rock blocking the stream. If a barrier is broken by a narrow gap the stream flows at increased speed through the channel. Similarly if a mountain barrier is broken by a valley, the wind tends to blow along the direction of valley at a speed greater than neighboring region on other side. In valley the strongest winds are likely to be along the general dir of valley. c. Katabatic Winds. When land is cooled by radiation during a clear night, air in contact

66

with the ground is also cooled and in consequence its density increases. If the land is sloping, the denser air tends to flow down the slope and the air movement is known as a katabatic wind. d. Anabatic Winds. The opposite phenomenon of air moving up the slopes of valley when the land is warmed on a sunny day is known as an anabatic but effect is generally slight. 3. Conclusion. The local winds phenomenon is significant mostly in mountainous terrain and coastal areas. So when planning in to a mountainous area, you must consider the prevailing phenomena and must consult the pilots who have operated in that area.

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VISIBILITY 1. Definition. Met visibility is defined as the greatest horizontal distance at which an objects can be seen and recognized by an observer with normal sight and under conditions of ordinary daylight. 2. Factors Effecting Visibility. The distance at which one can see the objects by day, or lighted objects at night depends on many factors, of which the most important are :a. b. c. d. e. f. 3. Geography i.e. presence of surrounding objects. Amount of smoke mist or haze in the air. Color, brightness and size of the object. Color and brightness of the background. Sensitivity of the observers vision. Transparency of any window, windscreen, etc, through which the observer looks. Measurement of Visibility by Day. A met observer estimates horizontal visibility with the help of

68

suitable objs at known distances. Visibility objs should be dark in color with a lt back gr. For distances over 10 miles, hills, are usually the only suitable objs. 4. Causes of Poor Visibility. a. b. soot. Visible moisture in the form of cloud, precipitation, spray, fog or mist, consisting of water droplets or ice crystal. 5. Effect of Sun or Moon on Visibility a. The distance at which objects can be recognized may also vary with the direction of viewing in relation to the position of the sun or moon. b. Observe having his back towards the sun would be able to see at longer dist then another observer who is looking towards the sun. It is due to :Solid particles such as dust, sand, smoke or

69

c.

Opposite happens in case of moon light as the visibility increases towards There the are moonlight and away from it.

6.

Oblique Visibility is Effected By.

few limiting factors for the observer sitting in the ac or in other words visibility from the ac is hampered due to some factors which are :a. b. c. 7. Curvature of the earth. Mist / Fog above the surface of the earth. Height of the observes. Terms like good,

Descriptive Terms.

moderate and poor are usually applied to definite ranges of visibility, which are :Visibility Less than 44 Yards 44-220 Yards 220-440 Yards 440-1100 Yards 1100-2200 Yards Description Dense Fog Thick Fog Fog Moderate Fog Mist

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1.0 5.0 NM 2.0 5.0 NM 5-11 NM 11-22 NM Over 22 NM Visibility 8. Conclusion.

Poor Visibility Moderate Good Visibility Very Good Excellent Despite improvements in blind

flying equipment, visibility remains one of the most important weather items affecting air operations. While planning air operation all the factors effecting visibility must be catered for to ensure safety of men and materiel.

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TURBULENCE 1. Gen. It has assumed increasing importance to all pilots during the last few years because of high speed aircraft. Previously it had meant no more than physical discomfort. Now a days the pilot must bear in mind the structural stresses placed on the aircraft by the turbulence. 2. Types of Turbulence a. Clear Turbulence. This type of turbulence is not necessarily associated with clouds and is often difficult to forecast. It occurs at high altitude and its height band is very shallow. b. Thermal Turbulence. The steep lapse rate result from thermal effect. These are found in unstable air. These are usually most noticeable at low altitude. c. Ground Turbulence. These type are specially noticeable in the leeward of hills,

72

woods and large building. These are likely to be severe, and strong downdraft may endanger ac flying very close to ground. These types may produces a thin layer of clouds. d. Turbulence due to Mountains. In addition to ground turbulence and irregular vertical convection current over mountains, the disturbance of the airflow by a mountain range may upset a regular flow pattern waves. These may be experienced to a considerable height above the crest of a mountain and may persist for many miles down wind. Pilot will experience this most when he is flying leeward side of mountain. Pilot should be more careful while flying in these areas. 3. Effect of Speed. Speed is the most important factor when flying in turbulence. As an ac enters updraft

73

the loading on the wings suddenly increases until upward motion of the ac is adjusted to that of surrounding updrafts. If airspeed is low the effect of turbulence will be less. 4. Flying Technique Turbulent Weather. The main req is to keep the ac on a fairly even keel by the moderate use of cons. Aim should be to allow the ac to ride the bumps rather than to fight them. Rough handling only aggravate the stresses already imposed by turbulence. 5. Conclusion. Being an aviator one should understand enough about the weather to unable air crew to asses the restrictions imposed by it.

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PRECIPATION AND ITS FORMS 1. Gen. The onset of precipitation is usually accompanied by rapid lowering of the cloud base and by reduced visibility from the cockpit. The weather deterioration of this kind poses greater threat to avn operation. 2. Types of Precipitation a. Rain. Rain consists of water drops of appreciable size up to about half an inch in diameter. In temperate latitudes rain usually originates in cloud as aggregates of ice crystals, which melt on falling below the freezing level and turn into raindrops. Hence it is quite usual of aircraft to encounter snow when flying in temperate regions at an altitude where the temperature is near or below 0C., although the precipitation reaching the ground may be in the form of rain.

75

b.

Hail. Hail consists of small lumps of ice and is too well known to need further description. Hailstones smaller than golf balls have fallen in Pakistan on rare occasions.

c.

Snow.

The ice crystals in cloud above

the freezing level may grow and interlock until they become too large to be supported by the ground without melting if the air temperature below the cloud is sufficiently low. d. e. Sleet. Sleet is defined as rain and snow falling together, or snow melting as it falls. Drizzle. Drizzle consists of water droplets so small that their individual impact on a water surface is imperceptible. It is often associated with mist or fog, and usually falls from thin layer clouds.

76

3.

Effect of Precipitation on an Ops a. Effect on Rain (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Reduction in fwd visibility. Tendency of skidding on corners or turns. In T/O, fwd flight, reduced fwd visibility. Risk of icing. In landing heavy rain will affect radio nav aids i.e. GCA Eqpt. Damage to horizontal stabilizers / tail rotor during landing when tyres throw up water. (7) b. (1) (2) Efficiency of brake. Damage to airframe of engine Effect of Hail (canopy) fwd contours. Greater speed greater is damage.

77

(3) c.

By flying above or below freezing level chances are minimized. Generally reduce visibility create and

Effect of Snow. problems (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) from

difficulties in landing, T/O, and taxiing. Before T/O remove moisture and snow. During taxing brakes less effective. May blow up in hover and whiteout. Helicopter may slip on slope. In landing hel may sink in and resonance is experienced. 4. Conclusion. Precipitation produces lot of flying hazards. All pilots must know their types and condition surrounding them.

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THUNDER STORMS 1. Gen. Thunder storms produce the most severe type of weather known to mankind. Tornadoes with winds reaching 350 mph, hailstones the size of baseballs, and extreme turbulence can result from thunder storm formation. A thunderstorm is invariably produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and is always is accompanied by lighting and thunder. Thunderstorms are a hazard for all types of flight operations since top of cumulonimbus clouds may reach as high as 75000 feet. 2. Factor Effecting Formation of Thunder Storm. Several factors must exist for the formation of a thunder storm. First, for the formation of the cumulus cloud and for its continuing build-up, some sort of lifting action may be orographic, conventional, or frontal. 3. Stage of Thunderstorm a. First Stage. There are three stages to the development of a thunderstorm. The first stage is known as the cumulus stage. The

79

main feature of this stage is the cumulus could and the updraft which may extend from near the earths surface to several thousand feet above visible cloud tops. Water droplets are vary small but grow into raindrops as the clouds build upward. Many times the raindrops remain in the liquid state even above the freezing level. These rain droplets are suspended by the currents within the clouds. b. Second Stage. The second, or mature stage is the most intense phase. It begins as rain begins to fall at the earths surface. Raindrops and ice particles, by this point, have grown to such a size that they no longer can be supported by the updrafts. The mature stage occurs approximately 10 to 15 minutes after the cloud has been built beyond the freezing level in the atmosphere.

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Occasionally, during the mature stage, a cloud may build as high as 50000 to 60000 feet, but 25000 to 30000 feet is the norm. Severe up and downdrafts occur in the mature stage. As the raindrops fall, they pull air with them and create downdrafts that may exceed 2500 feet per minute. This causes gusty winds at the surface as the downdrafts strike the earth and spread out. c. Third Stage. characterized by The dissipating stage is the collapse of the

cumulonimbus cloud. Downdrafts continue to develop and spread vertically and horizontally while updrafts weaken and finally dissipate completely. Soon the entire thunderstorm becomes an area of downdrafts. Rain decrease, then ceases, and the thunderstorm begins to dissipate. The top of the thunderstorm, at this stage, begins

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to

develop

the

characteristic

anvil

appearance with the point of the anvil in the direction of the prevailing winds. 4. Conclusion. The hazards that exist with thunder storm activity are not confirmed just to the storm area itself. But pilots flying near the storm area can also encounter its advance effects.

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FOG FORMATION 1. Gen. Fog is basically a cloud which is very near or touching the Earths surface. It consists of small water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere. They are very small (droplets) to see with the naked eyes. But they are so numerous that visibility is reduced. In short we can say it is minute droplets of water or ice suspended in the air with no visible downward motion and visibility less then 1100 yards. Various forms of fog are :2. Formation of Fog Depends Upon. a. High Relative Humidity. occur in distinct way:(1) point. (2) When the moisture is added to its dew point. When air is cooled to its dew For the fog The high formation following are the pre-requisites:humidity necessary, for fog formation can

83

b.

Wind.

Light surface wind is also

necessary wind provides a mixing action. If no wind is present the fog will likely be shallow and also to the ground, strong winds are not conducive to fog formation. It tend to break up the fog layer. c. Condensation Nuclei. Condensation nuclei, such as smoke dust and salt particles suspended in the air, provide a base around which moisture condenses. Our country is quite rich in this regard and sufficient nuclei would be present to permit fog formation. The amount of smoke particles and sulfur compound in the vicinity of industrial areas is pronounced. In such area persistent fog may occur.

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3.

Types of Fog a. b. Radiation Fog. Advection Fog. It forms as the earth Is formed when warm rapidly loses is heat on clear nights. moist air flows over a cold surface this type is found mostly along the coastal regions, where temperature of land and water differs widely. c. Up Slope Fog. through d. e. When moist air flows up cooling and by hill. As it rises the temperature. Drops adiabatic evaporation. Steam Fog. When cold air flows over water which is much warmer than air. Sea Fog. cooler seas. f. Valley Fog. During evening, cold dense air will drain down into low areas or valleys. It happens when moist air mass usually of tropical region moves slowly over

85

g.

Ice Fog. form.

When air near surface becomes

saturated in extremely cold region fog will h. 4. Smoke Fog. Around industrial city.

Fog Dissipation. Fog would tend to dissipate a. Dec in Relative Humidity. It tends to

under following conditions :dissipate when relative humidity decreases. During process water droplets evaporates or ice crystal sublimate, and moisture is no longer visible. b. Strong Wind. As it is stated above that strong wind mix the cool saturated air at the surface and warms air of the atmosphere. c. Heating Up of Atmosphere. Air which is heated as it flows down slope or by day time solar radiation evaporates fog. Most of it dissipate after sunrise.

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5.

Conclusion. Fog though is one of the cause of poor

visibility but posses greater damages since it hides the mother earth completely leaving air crew with no contact with it. Knowledge about various types will help air crew in negotiating it safely.

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ICE FORMATION 1. Gen. Ice would be a serious hazard if it forms on an aircraft in flight. With modern aircraft, icing problems rarely arise. If icing regions are encountered, they can often be crossed in few minutes or can be avoided by changing altitude, while on different aircraft deicing equipment are fitted. Nevertheless, ice formation may still sometimes cause a serious loss of aircraft performance. A knowledge of the types of ice and their modes of formation is necessary if aircrew are to take most effective option in these circumstances. 2. Types of Ice Formation a. Hoar Frost. It occurs in clear air and is easily recognized as light crystal deposits. It occurs below 0,C temperature. b. Rime Ice. It is rough white ice which forms on the windward side of trees and other exposed objects. It also occurs below 0,C temp.

88

c.

Clear Ice. It is most dangerous ice and consists of a transparent ice with a glassy surface.

d. 3.

Pack Snow. It occurs on aircraft surface due to super cooled water droplets. Early detection of icing

Dedication of Icing.

its necessary, as it may cause serious difficulties if timely action is not taken. By day it is easy to detect ice by observation of windows, LE, propellers, and aerial masts. 4. Anti Icing Eqpt a. Thermal. Hot air from engine is led to the surface to be protected, or the surface is heated electrically. b. Chemical. Alcohol spray, other deicing fluids or special non freezing oil or grease is applied to the surface of an aircraft. c. Mechanical. A pulsating rubber boot may be fixed to the surface such as LE, and

89

employs the mechanical mean to break the ice by intermittent inflation and deflation. 5. Conclusion. Forecasting of icing condition is very difficult, however endeavour should be made to a certain its presence and take timely counter measures.

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WEATHER IN THE MOUNTAINS 1. Convection and Air Mass Stability. Stable air mass conditions with negligible surface heating will temper the wind deviation effect but in conditions of unstable air mass, with strong surface heating, the vertical air currents produced will accentuate vertical deviation thus increasing up and down drafts. In addition, even when a slack wind gradient persists, a strong surface heating during the day will produce quite fresh anabatic winds, e.g. in the Aden Protectorate mountains a 40F temperature difference between valley floor and mountain top is quite common producingg slope winds of 15 knots in mid afternoon. This surface heating is often not even and results in strong thermal up currents and accompanying turbulence. 2. Cloud. Clouds of orographic origin are often found in the mountains and, dependent on temperature, may give conditions particularly dangerous to flight, e.g. frost, icing etc.

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3.

Fohn Effect.

In stable conditions another

effect of orographic cloud is to produce Fohn effect. This may mean that a landing platform upwind of the ridge would not be suitable for use. 4. Always keep in mind the possibility that through down draft or turbulence the pilot may have to break off an approach or break away from a chosen flight path and position the aircraft so that an escape route is always available. 5. Whenever possible when flying near the ground reduce speed to climbing speed. Avoid areas where down drafts are likely to be found. Should the helicopter enter a down draft, maintain climbing speed and try to counter the loss of height with power. If unable to do so then go with the down draft but maintain climbing speed. 6. Anticipate the increased wind strength that obtains near cols, crests, valleys and peaks. Where possible fly at a safe height, within reach of a reasonable landing area, and avoid crossing close to sheer faces. In the event of an

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engine failure make the best use of any available landing site to ensure that, whatever else happens, the helicopter does not roll down the mountain side.

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EFFECT OF FLYING CONDITIONS IN LOW PRESSURE AND HIGH PRESSURE 1. General. Numerous aircraft accidents have been caused directly due to failure to read the altimeter correctly. Proper use of this instruments is therefore mandatory. In flight, altimeter is one of the most important instruments which provides information for clearing obstructions, making low approaches, avoiding other traffic, and hazards. 2. Height / Pressure.Pressure decreases with increase in height. Air has weight and therefore exerts pressure known as atmospheric pressure. At any point on the surface of the earth, the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to the pressure exerted by a column of air approx. 50 miles high, and can be expressed as millibars, pounds per square inch or as the height of a column of mercury which that pressure would support. 3. Error. Altimeter has the following errors:-.

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a.

Pressure Error. This is caused due to the position of the static vents. Because of disturbance in the vicinity of the aircraft false or extra pressure is fed into the system and as a result the altimeter gives erroneous indications. This error is negligible except when flying through severe turbulence.

b.

Barometric Error.

Suppose

an

aircraft is flying at an altitude of 5000 and heading from an area of high pressure to low pressure. Once the aircraft is over low pressure area it would still indicate 5000 but would be actually lower, say 4000 only. This is so because in a low pressure area the equivalent pressure i.e. 30 in this case, will be present at a comparatively lower height. In this instance then, the altimeter would over read.

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d.

Temperature

Error.

Atmospheric

temperature and pressure vary continuously. Rarely is the pressure at sea level exactly 29.92 or the temperature +15 deg C. furthermore the lapse rate, for both prepressure and temperature, deviates from the standard. For instance on a warm day the air, having expanded, is lighter in weightt per unit volume than on a colder day, and the pressure levels are raised. Therefore, the pressure level where the altimeter will indicate 10000 will be HIGHER on a warm day than it would be under standard conditions (diagram). On a cold day the reverse would be true, and the 10000 level would be lower. e. Lag Error. The altimeter may tend to lag particularly when rapid and large changes in altitude are made. This error called

96

hysteresis or after effect will vary with the climb or descent. f. Instrument Error. Since the expansion and contraction of the wafer stack are greatly magnified, it is impossible to avoid magnifying minute irregularities. g. Blockage Error. Should the static tube or vents become blocked, pressure within the case will remain constant and the altimeter will continue to indicate the height at which it was blocked. After breaking the glass of the VVI it will give indications but with a 69 seconds lag.

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PART III NAVIGATION 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. DEFINITIONS CHOICE OF HEIGHT TO FLY MAP PREPARATION NAVIGATION PRE-REQUISITES NAVIGATION PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION FOR LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION GPS IN MOUNTAINOUS FOR AERIAL TERRAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER

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DEFINITIONS 1. Definitions a. Altitude. The vertical distance of a level, a pt, or and object considered as a pt, measured from mean sea level. b. Height. The vertical distance of a fixed pt above ground level or some specified datum other than mean sea level. c. d. Elevation. The vertical distance of a fixed pt above or below men sea level. Flight Level. Flt levels are surfaces of constant atmospheric pressure related to the standard pressure setting of 1013.2 Mb and separated by specific pressure intervals. e. Transition Altitude. The altitude in the vicinity of an airfield above which 1013.2 Mb is to be set on the altimeter. At or below the transition altitude the vertical position of an aircraft is determined with reference to

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altitude above means sea level or height above an airfd. f. Transition Level. The lowest flt level available for use above the transition altitude. Descent must not be made below the transition level without setting the appropriate QNH or QFF on the altimeter. g. QFF. QFF is the observed pressure corrected for temperature at an airfd elevation. With QFF set an altimeter will read zero height at the airfd datum. h. QNH.QNH is the observed pressure at a selected datum, corrected for temp and reduced to a mean sea level assuming that the atmosphere conforms to the ICAO standards. When set to QNH, altimeter will indicate altitude AMSL.

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CHOICE OF HEIGHT TO FLY 1. of 2. Gen. The most important pt in the technique of semicircular height there are certain other Nav is the choice of height to fly. Keeping apart the rules considerations which must be taken is account. Imp considerations for Ht to Flt a. High Gr. Ht flown above should be safe or above safety ht specially in the inst met conditions (IMC). b. AC Performance. The ht selected should be that where best performance of the ac is aval. c. Quadrant Ht. conditions. d. Wind and Weather Forecast. It is possible to take advantage of winds to avoid adverse winds by careful selection of ht. Always plan to fly quadrantal heights regardless of weather

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e.

Oxygen Condition.

Flt above 10,000 ft

requries use of oxygen an prolonged flt above 10,000 ft is dangerous due to hypoxic conditions. Do not fly in these conditions for more than 30 minutes. f. Msn Requirement. Msn requirement may dictate to fly as low as tree top. In these conditions fly as per proper low flying technique. 3. Conclusion. The factors mentioned above besides allowing air crew with the choice of height to fly ensure safe and efficient operation, hence must be given primary importance.

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MAP PREPARATION 1. Gen. When a msn is assigned carryout the pre flt procedure and select the desired map. The carryout map prep as follow :2. Imp Consideration for Map Prep a. b. c. d. Draw the tack. Calculate the bearing and distance and record these things on map. Mark the time markers after 10 interval. Mark the imp check point along the route and measure the distance from the main tack either side of the track.. e. f. g. h. Calculate time between each check pt. Mark the danger and prohibited areas. Mark the position of radio aids and mark the freq. Check the air fd and ATC frequency of each air fd.

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j. k. l. 3.

Check pt and time of entry in any con area, trg area, air fd. Study the map in detail. Fold the map properly so that the complete coverage of track is achieved.

Conclusion. The increasing complexity of air

operation using multi-navigational aids to accomplish a mission still desire the basic navigation aid Map for successful, preparation / playing of a sorties.

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NAV IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN POINTS TO REMEMBER 1. Gen. Navigation in mountains is comparatively easier than that of plains due to good visibility condition and aval of prominent land marks, important features and ref pts. However there are chances when the perspective is changed and features along a designated route appear to be different and difficult to be recognized. To over come this sit fol pts must be kept in mind while flying in mountainous terrain. 2. Points to Remember a. Loss of Attitude. Since helicopter in mountains will fly oftenly in valley so normal horizon will be deprived to the pilot, so must cross check to fly instrument specially to A/H. b. Sun into Eyes. While flying in valleys there will be a number of occasions when sun will be into your eyes which will lose

105

your perception for the depth and width of valley also denying you the visual contacts of turns and bends. In such condition if the height of the crest permits then climb and clear crest line or descend down enough and stay on the side of valley which gives you best vision. c. Hazards in Narrow Valley. While flying low in valleys must be watchful for wires and trolley cables which are normally crossing valleys. As a generally rule never fly below the road level. If possible fly down the valley than up a valley. If flying up a valley do not cross a point beyond which a 180 turn is not possible. d. Winds. Wind condition is much more severe and unpredictable than that of plains. In mountains specially in valleys stay on the lifting side i.e. In case of cross wind stay on

106

the lifting / climbing wind side of the valley. As a general rule stay on the sunny side of the valley to get up draft. e. Turbulence. Avoid turbulence zones if possible otherwise try to get out as early as possible. Once in turbulence do not flight the controls, reduce the pitch slightly to minimize stresses on transmission. f. Icing. Do not fly in icing conditions if possible avoid situations where visible icing conditions are present. g. White Out. Avoid references. h. Low Air Density. With increased altitude density of air decreases so the engine power is reduced specially it has more effects on piston engines thus giving less reserve power. So avoid maneuvers which involve entering in such condition. Keep looking around for different

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reserve power e.g. quick stop, steep tuns or abrupt pulling of collective pitch./ the rotor remains turning at same RPM so with increased altitude, higher pitch setting is required, which needs increased pitch setting of tail rotor as well, limiting pedal control and also bring main rotor retreating blade close to stalling angle.

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PRE-REQUISITES FOR AERIAL NAVIGATION 1. Gen. An air navigational map may be defined as a small scale representation of the earth and its culture. It depicts the land marks and other information useful for pilots during aerial navigation. The ability of pilots to comprehend all the details help them to accomplish the sorties with success. 2. Basic Principle of Aerial Navigation. While flying four basic principles for aerial map reading should be followed :a. Orientation. While reading the map, orientate the map in a way that the north of the map is towards the north. Only then the course lines on the map parallel the intended course lines of aircraft and objects on right and left of the course appear to the right and left of the aircraft if it is on course. b. Appreciation of Rate of Travel Over Map. For appreciation of rate of travel on

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map, the speed and scale of the map are necessary. It is worked out in pre flight planning and subsequently in the air by noting the elapsed time between two check points. c. Anticipation. Appearance of terrain varies at different altitudes. In low flying a checkpoint appears for a very short time. the vision is also restricted but because of oblique angle of sight, depth increase and detail is blurred and landmark present different appearance to that shown on map. From high altitude ground seen to appear to move very slowly. In good visibility large area can be seen and distances appear small. With sun low position, shadows are long causing strong contrast and emphasizing difference in elevation. At moon when there are no shadow, terrain appears to be flat

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broken d. 3. a. b. c. d.

clouds

may

block

the

view

completely thus hiding a check point. Appreciation of Perspective. Review all relevant information documents. Collect the meteorological forecast from meteorological office and study the forecast. Select the planning charts and maps to be used on selected route. Draw tracks and measure distances. Study the safety heights and decide the height to fly. e. f. 4. Complete the map preparation. Plan flight for alternate airfield. Pre Flight Procedure

Conclusion. Principles of aerial navigation have

been worked out over a period of time to ensure accomplishment of successful mission in different terrain / type of country.

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PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION FOR LOW LEVEL NAVIGATION 1. Gen. Some hazards to flight, even if not entirely new, assume a much greater importance in low level flight, and the crew planning such a flight must take into consideration factors which can normally be assumed negligible otherwise. Sound and deliberate planning can reduce the low level flight hazards to a great extent, some tips for pre-flight preparation are discussed in succeeding paragraphs. 2. Mission Briefing. Before a low level flight begins, and before flight planning is started, the crew must be given a clear brief on the mission, any restriction on the routing, and the flying limitations to be observed. In particular, they must be aware of the minimum height above ground they are to observe. The brief should be clear and holding no ambiguities.

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3.

Map Selection.

The routine million map should

be supplemented by a map showing larger details, map is recommended. 4. Map Study and Preparation. A thorough map study of intended area to be covered is vital. In addition, all the hazards to low level flight such as airspace reservation, airfields, relevant information should be gathered. 5. Route Selection. Within the limits imposed by a. b. c. 6. a. Is favorable as regards terrain and weather. Takes the full advantage of available map reading features. Avoids airspace reservations, other hazards. Plan as much as possible, to fly at a constant ground speed for ease in navigational calculation. b. Ensure calculating safety altitude. Flight Plan mission briefing, a route should be selected which :-

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c. d. e. f.

Obtain flight / route clearance if required. Mark and study diversions. Carryout fuel planning. Workout emergency procedures.

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GPS 1. GPS can operate in part of the World during day or

night in all weather conditions. It takes its data from satellites revolving around Earth. There are 21 satellites out of which 18 are active and 3 are reserve. Each satellite makes 2 revolutions around the earth in one day. The orbital distance over the Earth is 2000 KM. 2. Basic Components a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 3. information Satellite receiver. Computer. Display and control panel. Power supply. Antennas and cables. Rechargeable batteries with battery charge. Internal antenna. Data transfer cables. receiver and give gets three from the satellites

Principle of Operation. The

dimensional co-ordinates of the position of the ac. These

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three co-ordinates are longitude, latitude and altitude (AMSL). This information can only be given if the GPS is receiving min of four satellites. If GPS is covering three satellites then it will not give altitude information. GPS requires minimum of 3 satellites for its operation, otherwise it gives POOR GPS COVERAGE message. The satellites are synchronized among themselves and are transmitting coded pulses. The difference in time of reception from different satellites will determine the coordinates. There are two types of codes which are being sent by the satellites. P-codes. These are only used by US ARMY are not available to others, C/A codes. These codes are being used by the rest of the organizations of the World. C/A codes are precise to hundreds of meters and contain following information :a. b. c. 4. Position in three dimension. Velocity information. Time information.

Features

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a.

Feeding of way points by three different methods. (1) (2) (3) Lat / Long. Bearing Distance. By autostoring.

b. c.

Can set a route comprising of maximum 9 way points. It displays fol navigational information :(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) Bearing flown. Bearing to be flown. Elapsed time. ETA. Time to be flown to the destination. Distance covered.

d. e. f.

It can autostore any position as a way point. It allows to plan a trip including the fuel calculations / stops. It can plan vertical navigation.

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g.

It can calculation true air speed, density and ground speed alongwith wind speed and direction calculations.

h. 5. characters. a.

It gives date and time.

Operation. There are 21 keys, 3 lines, 22 Display. There are menus and pages.

From menus select the relevant page and the information is displayed on the pages. b. Flashing M. message. c. Types of Fields (1) (2) (3) (4) Alpha numeric. Numeric. Confirmation followed by question mark. Cyclic. The fields preceded by a > sign. On the top right corner of the screen means GPS wants to display a

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d. 6.

Cursor.

Indicates that on what point the

push of the key is effective. Maintenance / Checks a. b. c. If GPS has covered more than 800 n miles in OFF position then feed in present position. If the time difference is more than 20 min then feed in present GMT. Never use solvents for cleaning.

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TEN MINUTES TALK (ROTARY WING)