Briefing Paper

Ageing of Medium Voltage Cables

Grard Platbrood, Blandine Hennuy - Laborelec Available online March 2009

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1. Introduction
Cables are important components in the transportation and distribution of electricity. Due to the increased need for power, but also because overhead power lines are often replaced by (underground) power cables in densely populated areas, the importance of power cables has grown over the years. Successful asset management, in particular determining the residual lifetime of installed cables, relies heavily on the use of information coming from a variety of sources including the operating managers, the manufacturers, the maintenance managers, the repairers and the technical experts (who perform on-site electrical measurements and material analyses). This often results in a very complex decision making process, based on vast amounts of information that must be considered in the context of a technical, economic and societal framework. For the technical evaluation of the condition of a cable, a lot of expertise is needed. Knowing the failure mechanisms and ageing processes is mandatory in order to choose the right testing procedures. Also the interpretation of the measurements and laboratory analysis is difficult, especially for complex degradation mechanisms such as the growth of water trees in polyethylene, which remains a subject for debate.

2. Technology
Medium voltage electrical power cables are composed of a low resistance conductor (aluminium or copper) to carry the current, semiconductor and insulation (impregnated paper or polymeric), screening and various layers

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(metal and/or polymeric sheath) to provide mechanical protection and provide protection against moisture. Two different types of medium voltage cables are mainly used: Paper Insulated Lead Covered and Polyethylene cables. The cable can be a single-core cable or a three-core belted cable.

2.1. PILC

Paper-insulated lead-covered (PILC) cables (widely used in urban underground network systems) are made of copper or aluminium conductors wrapped with paper, impregnated with dielectric fluid. The cable is jacketed with a lead covering and may also have a plastic or jute with tar outer jacket. They are no longer produced.

Mainly installed after World War II, they currently reach their end of life. Nowadays there remains several thousands of km of PILC cables and it is therefore important to assess the condition of these cables. In order to maintain a reasonable lifetime the temperature of the paper should stay below 65C. These cables are progressively replaced by polymeric insulated cables that can withstand a higher temperature.
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2.2. XLPE

Extruded insulations such as cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) were first used as insulation of medium voltage distribution cables in the sixties in place of the PILC cables. Although XLPE has a high electrical breakdown strength, a low dielectric constant and low dielectric losses, it suffers from the phenomenon of water treeing that reduces drastically its lifetime (see 3.2). In order to solve this problem, manufacturers of polyethylene have developed different solutions. Copolymer has historically been used in Europe. XLPE with water tree retardant (WTR) additive is mainly used in the U.S. In order to maintain a reasonable lifetime the temperature of the polyethylene should stay below 90C. 2.3. EPR

Ethylene propylene rubber is another type of polymer. It presents more important dielectric losses and therefore is not widely used. Rubber is commonly used for appliance cords, portable cords, conductor leads, and portable cables.

3. Ageing
It has been demonstrated by practical work that besides the theory of electron generation and removal other many secondary processes, which interact with and even supersede the electronic one, are the cause of breakdown. The following effects must be considered: heating effect, compression forces, treeing and electrochemical reactions with the environment. [3]

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Electrical insulation is designed to withstand electrical, mechanical and thermal stresses for at least 25 years. The power cable insulation is mostly organic and susceptible to a deterioration in physical properties when stressed. This is particularly the case with thermal stress. To assess the lifetime of an insulation, accelerated thermal test are performed. Most materials are complex in their chemical composition and their thermal behaviour. Several physical processes like softening, melting or crystallisation may affect properties. The most common deterioration on routes involve oxygen. Oxidation will increase conductivity and dielectric losses. It will dramatically alter mechanical properties. Thermal endurance testing makes direct use of the empirical relationship commonly attributed to Arrhenius which relates the rate of a thermally activated chemical reaction (k) to the inverse of absolute temperature : k = A exp(-E/kT) where E = activation energy and A = rate factor. In solids A is strictly temperature, volume and entropy dependent. An empirical equation relates life to temperature in degrees, based in experience on thermal degradation of transformer paper : = A exp(-BT) where A,B = constant characteristic of the material. This equation provides a platform for the 10 degree rule i.e. that the thermal life of insulation is halved fo each increase of 10C or doubled for each 10C decrease in temperature.[3] As explained the cables are ageing but in the field the main observed causes of degradations are mechanical aggression and the weakest points are often the joints and terminations.

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3.1. PILC The main causes of ageing of paper cables [1] are:
thermal degradation related to an excessive conductor current partial discharges, i.e. electrical discharges that do not bridge the entire

insulation but nevertheless degrade the insulation material and finally can lead to a breakdown between the phase and the earth of a power cable aggression by the environment (humidity, vibrations, acidity of the soil, ...) transient over-voltages. The first barrier to environmental aggression is the lead sheath. Four categories of degradations can be found: fatigue cracking, extrusion defects, fracture associated with internal pressure and corrosion. When the lead sheath is cracked, it does not play its role anymore and therefore moisture and impurities can impregnate the paper and reduce its insulating properties. The paper is mostly degraded by thermal effect. The temperature of the paper is directly related to the electrical losses in the cable and to the ability of the environment to drain the heat (thermal resistivity of the soil, presence of other cables). 3.2. Polyethylene

The main causes of ageing of polymeric cables [2] are:

thermal degradation (leading namely to consumption of antioxidant) partial discharges due to manufacturing imperfections or to mechanical damage water trees, i.e. tree-like micro-cracks that grow from defects when the insulation is subjected to electrical stress and moisture (more details are given in chapter 5) aggression by the environment. Losses
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As already mentioned the electrical losses are directly responsible for the heating of the insulation and are therefore an important parameter when considering the residual lifetime of a cable. It has been demonstrated that the thermal resistivity of the soil is one of the important parameters when determining the ampacity of a cable (i.e. the maximum admissible current). Therefore an analysis of the soil is sometimes required in order to assess its thermal properties. The losses can be divided in three categories. Conductor losses: they are produced by the transportation of the current in a conductor. These losses are function of the type of conducting material (copper or aluminium), the section of the conductors, the temperature of the material (depending on the global losses and the environmental conditions) and of course the transmitted current. Some additional losses due to the use of alternating currents are to be taken into account: skin and proximity effects. Dielectric losses: they are related to the capacitance, the frequency, the phase voltage and the dissipation factor of the insulating material. They are also function of the temperature and the degradation level of the insulating material (moisture content, presence of partial discharges). These losses are related to three different physical phenomena: leakage current (independent of frequency), dielectric hysteresis (only present with AC voltage) and partial discharges. For medium voltage cables the dielectric losses are generally small in comparison with the conductor losses.

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Sheath losses: they are due to the current induced in the sheath by the current in the conductor of the cable and possible other cables in close proximity. A part of these losses is related to the sheath bonding. Simulation softwares allow to rapidly and accurately define the relation between the load profile of a cable and its temperature profile considering all the parameters like soil resistivity, proximity of other cables or heating sources and burying depth. Additional losses due to harmonic content: in first approximation, we can consider that losses inside the dielectric material is proportional to the frequency and to the square of the voltage [5]. In medium voltage distribution networks the voltage harmonics content is limited by the standards EN 50160 [4]. With the limit of the standards the additional losses inside the dielectric stay about 10% of the losses caused by the fundamental, which are generally relatively low in regards of the other losses. Non-linear loads induce current harmonics flowing through the conductor. These harmonics are responsible for extra-losses and therefore for an increase of the temperature. The underground system must be dimensioned to carry the total rms current.

4. Cable assessment
A large part of Paper Insulated Cables, mainly installed 40 to 60 years ago, are still in service. They have reached and even exceeded their designed lifetime. On the other hand the first generation of polymeric cables are degraded by unexpected water trees phenomenon. Therefore

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the assessment of the condition of the cable is an important and current challenge. Many studies demonstrated that one diagnostic method is not sufficient to assess the condition of cable insulation. The final decision (complete or partial replacement, curing or further use) should be based on the combination of different measurement results and analyses of the failures. The correct interpretation of these results must be based on a solid experience and knowledge of the degradation processes . This assessment can be realized by means of various measurements on-site (non-destructive electrical measurements) and in the laboratory (destructive testing). 4.1. On-site

A wide range of methods are available to measure the degradation level of the cable on-site. In order to apply the correct techniques, the maturity of each technique (depending among others on the availability of databases and interpretation models), its effectiveness and its applicability must be evaluated. The most commonly applied on-site measurement techniques are:

Dissipation factor (also called tan d):

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it is defined as the resistive current divided by the capacitive current flowing through the insulation material. An aged cable will show higher dissipation factor than a new one and so the value of the dissipation factor is an indication of the global degradation of the insulation. To perform the measurement, an AC high voltage is applied between the screen and the conductor and the injected current is measured. The test is often performed at Very Low Frequency (0.1Hz) in order to reduce the size of the power source (the injected reactive power is proportional to the frequency). The values of the dissipation factor at different voltage levels provide an image of the global degradation of the insulation. A reference for the interpretation is required and can be provided by a comparison with adjacent phases or with a library built on previous measurements. Electrical measurement of partial discharges: Some types of degradation lead to the apparition of partial discharges. To measure the discharges a high voltage is applied to the cable. The measurements can be performed on-line or off-line. The advantages of the off-line measurements are a lower noise level, the possibility to increase the voltage and easier location whilst on-line measurements do not require a separate power source to energize the cable. These discharges lead to high-frequency signals that travel along the cable at a known speed (depending on the type of the cable). At the end of the cable, the discharges are reflected, which allows the location of the weak points. Polarization index: it is a good additional source of information on the degradation status of a cable. The evolution of the insulation resistance over time is measured by applying a DC voltage to the insulation of the cable. External sheath test: the sheath is the first barrier for the environmental contaminants (water, acidity). Its integrity can be checked by measuring the resistance between the screen and the earth.

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The combination of these four on-site measurements gives a good idea of the degradation of the cable. Some other techniques are available, such as acoustic measurements of partial discharges, dielectric spectroscopy, recovery voltage techniques but they are not so widely used on-site. 4.2. In the laboratory
4.2.1. Visual inspection and material analyses

The examination of the different layers of the cables, in particular the main insulation layer (paper or polyethylene), is useful to determine the condition of the cable. The first analyse to be performed is visual inspection. It requires a good deal of experience to detect all the ageing signs (traces of water, corrosion, mechanical damages, presence of gas bubbles or wax in paper insulated cables). In addition some material analyses can assess the degree of degradation of the insulation. The cables or joints are often analysed after a breakdown in order to evaluate the global degradation and help in the decision process (replacement or further use). Moisture content. Water affects the electrical properties of the insulation. An increase of moisture normally enhances the dissipation factor and decreases the dielectric strength of the insulation. Karl-Fisher titration enables to measure the quantity of water in the paper or in the polyethylene. Total acidity. It is used to assess the degradation of the oil for paper insulated cables. Degree of polymerisation of the paper. It gives a good indication of the thermal degradation of the paper.
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Differential Scanning Calorimetry, Infra-Red Spectroscopy, X-Ray Diffraction. These are some of the useful techniques to assess the quality and the degradation of polymeric materials. Water trees visualization. In order to visualize the water trees in the insulation, thin slices are taken using a microtome, dyed with methylene blue and observed with a microscope.
4.2.2. Electrical measurements

If the received sample is long enough, some electrical measurements can be performed in laboratory: partial discharges measurements, dielectric spectroscopy, dielectric strength, DC resistance. The combination of electrical measurements and material analyses allows a complete understanding of the ageing process and is useful for further investigation on site.

5. Water tree ageing

Among the already mentioned degradation mechanisms, water treeing is certainly the most studied but nevertheless also the less understood mechanism. Water trees grow from defects contaminants (ions), protrusions or voids - when the insulation is subjected to electrical stress and moisture. Water trees lower the dielectric strength and have caused a large number of failures of cables in service, particularly in older vintage cables that have higher levels of defects than more recent cables. But also cables produced in more recent years, namely cables with copolymer insulation or with addition of water tree retardant, may be susceptible to water tree degradation.

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The phenomenon was first published in the late sixties. The discovery was made in the USA. The literature [2] shows that these develop through changes to the physical and chemical factors leading to charge transportation and storage effects, resulting in an increase of the local electric field. This electric field induces electro-dynamic forces at interfacial boundary layers. Impurities at the inner semiconductor layer are often starting points of vented water trees which may eventually convert into an electrical tree. Changes in the bulk properties of the material resulting from cracking of the amorphouscrystalline regions can lead to micro-voids. Electrical failure usually occurs when an electrical tree initiates from a water tree and bridges the insulation or by thermal runaway when a water tree that bridges the insulation reaches a sufficiently high conductivity. Therefore, the estimation of water trees resistance and lifetime of cable insulations represents an important issue for cable owners all over the world. Unfortunately there exists no theoretical or practical model integrating all the parameters to give a cable lifetime determination. Accelerated tests exist on flat samples with defects created artificially by abrasive paper or on a bulk sample using needles, but they cannot account for all the influencing parameters on real cables. This incited Laborelec to develop a new method of accelerated aging at high frequency and high voltage on samples of real cables. The very short time necessary to let water trees grow with this technique allows its use for decision making not only for maintenance but also for purchase.
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References [1 ] Members of WG 21.05 ; Diagnostic methods for HV paper cables and accessories ELECTRA N.176 February 1998 [2] L.A. Dissado and J.C. Fothergill; Electrical degradation and breakdown in polymers, Published by Peter Peregrinus for the IEE,1992. [3] A Bradwell; Electrical Insulation, Published by Peter Peregrinus for the IEE,1983. [4] EN 50160 Voltage characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution systems; European Standard, version 1999. [5] Wildi and Sybille; Electrotechnique Published by de boek 2005. [6] S. Y. King and N.A. Halfter; Underground Power Cables Published by Longman 1982. [7] G.F. Moore; Electric Cables Handbook Published by Blackwell 1997

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