Taking relationships to the bottom line

733 Heights Blvd. Houston, Texas 77007 800.306.2970 713.802.1761 Houston 713.869.0680 Fax www.gc3.com

BASIC CONCEPTS OF COOLING TOWER OPERATION

Cooling water passes through heat exchange equipment where the water picks up heat from the process. The water then returns to the cooling tower where the heat is removed by evaporation and the water is again circulated through the system. A general diagram of a typical open circulating cooling water system is shown. Understanding cooling tower operation requires a knowledge of certain basic concepts as discussed below: Circulation Rate is the total amount of water circulated throughout the cooling water system, expressed in gpm. Supply Water is the cold water in the cooling tower basin circulated to the heat exchangers. Return Water is the hot water coming back to the cooling tower after passing through the heat transfer equipment. Temperature Difference ( T) is calculated by subtracting the supply water temperature from the return water temperature. Evaporation Rate is the amount of water lost due to evaporation of the return water over the cooling tower. Cycles of Concentration. In theory, the water evaporated from the cooling tower is pure, containing no dissolved solids. If no other water was removed from the system, other than by evaporation, the solids would continue to concentrate until their solubility was exceeded, resulting in scale and deposition. The number of times the cooling water can be circulated before it becomes saturated with these scale forming ions is said to be cycles of concentration. Therefore, the amount of these scale-forming ions is controlled by bleeding off a portion of the circulation water. This is known as blowdown.

Copyright 2000

GC3 Specialty Chemicals, Inc.

Taking relationships to the bottom line

733 Heights Blvd. Houston, Texas 77007 800.306.2970 713.802.1761 Houston 713.869.0680 Fax www.gc3.com

Blowdown Rate is the amount of water lost from the cooling water system for all reasons, except evaporation. Blowdown may either be controlled (control valve) or uncontrolled (pump seal leaks, etc.). Make-up Water refers to the water that must be added to the cooling water system to replace the water lost through evaporation and blowdown.

TYPICAL EVAPORATIVE COOLING TOWER

Typical Evaporative Cooling Tower

Air Out Mist Eliminators Water In Drift Eliminators Fan Distribution Deck

Packing

Air In

Air In

Circulation Pump

Sump

Copyright 2000

GC3 Specialty Chemicals, Inc.

Taking relationships to the bottom line

733 Heights Blvd. Houston, Texas 77007 800.306.2970 713.802.1761 Houston 713.869.0680 Fax www.gc3.com

BASIC WATER CHEMISTRY

The following list describes many of the key properties of cooling water and their impact on heat exchange equipment. Suspended Solids is a measure of undissolved material in the water. Suspended solids include materials such as fine sand, silt, clay, decayed vegetation, algae, and other microorganisms. These solids can cause deposits in heat exchange equipment. Turbidity is an indirect measure of suspended solids. Turbidity measures the clarity of the water by determining the amount of light that passes through a water sample. The most common measuring device for turbidity is a nephelometer. It measures the intensity of a light beam as it passes through the water sample. Turbidity is then reported in NTU's, Nephelometric Turbidity Units. In many cases, 1 NTU is equal to 1 ppm of suspended material. Dissolved Solids is a measure of the total amount of dissolved matter, determined by evaporation. Dissolving salt or sugar in water is an example of dissolved solids. You can't see it, but you know it's there. Conductivity is a measure of a solution (cooling water) to pass an electric current (conduct electricity). Current is carried by inorganic solids, such as, sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), chloride (Cl), and hydroxide (OH) ions. Conductivity is an indirect measure of the dissolved solids in the water. The basic unit of measure for conductivity is the siemens (or mho) which is the reciprocal of the ohm in the resistance measurement. pH indicates the relative acidity or basicity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14, with 0 representing maximum acidity and 14 maximum basicity. Control of pH is critical for efficient cooling water operation. If the pH drops below the recommended range, the chance for corrosion increases. As the pH goes above the desired range, the chance for scale formation increases.

Copyright 2000

GC3 Specialty Chemicals, Inc.

Taking relationships to the bottom line

733 Heights Blvd. Houston, Texas 77007 800.306.2970 713.802.1761 Houston 713.869.0680 Fax www.gc3.com

Alkalinity, by definition, is the ability of a solution to absorb (or neutralize) acid. Alkalinity consists of bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO3=), and hydroxide (OH-), expressed as an equivalent amount of CaCO3. As an overview, alkalinity in water forms when rain falls through the atmosphere and absorbs carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid: H2O (l) + CO2 (g) H2CO3 carbonic acid

2H2CO3 + CaO carbonic + limestone acid alkalinity Ca(HCO3)2 + H2SO4 calcium + sulfuric bicarbonate acid alkalinity

Ca(HCO3)2 + H2O calcium bicarbonate

H2O + CO2 + CaSO4

Alkalinity and pH are related, but that relationship differs for each water source. However, since the two are related, pH is used to control the cooling water alkalinity because pH control technology is well established and reliable. Alkalinity control is extremely important for preventing scale formation. Hardness refers to the amount of calcium and magnesium minerals present in the water. Iron comes from rain water containing carbon dioxide that dissolves iron from minerals in the ground. Suspended iron particles in the form of clay may also be found in the plant makeup water. Iron in the raw water is removed by clarification to less than 0.05 ppm before going to the plant cooling towers. Iron levels in cooling water above 3 ppm increase the potential for fouling and corrosion. Iron levels above 3 ppm with high levels of orthophosphate (above 8 ppm) react to form iron phosphate which easily precipitates on heat transfer surfaces.

Copyright 2000

GC3 Specialty Chemicals, Inc.

Taking relationships to the bottom line

733 Heights Blvd. Houston, Texas 77007 800.306.2970 713.802.1761 Houston 713.869.0680 Fax www.gc3.com

Cycles of Concentration. As water is returned to the cooling tower, the heat in the water is released through vaporization in the tower. The hot water vapor coming out of the top of the tower does not carry any dissolved solids. If no other water is lost from the system, then the solids begin to concentrate in the circulating water. If this cycle of concentrating the dissolved solids continues without any control, deposit problems will occur.

Copyright 2000

GC3 Specialty Chemicals, Inc.

Taking relationships to the bottom line

733 Heights Blvd. Houston, Texas 77007 800.306.2970 713.802.1761 Houston 713.869.0680 Fax www.gc3.com

COOLING WATER PROBLEMS

In general, three problems exist in cooling water systems if not treated and controlled properly. 1. CORROSION During the manufacture of metals, such as mild steel for heat exchanger tubes, oxygen is removed from the natural iron ore. Cooling water provides an ideal environment for the metal to convert back to its original metal oxide state, this process is called corrosion. Corrosion can be characterized as general, pitting, or galvanic. General - uniform metal loss across the surface. Pitting - Small, localized areas of corrosion that can perforate the metal surface in a short period of time causing equipment failure. Galvanic - Corrosion due to the contact of two different metals, such as the admiralty tubes (copper) and mild steel (iron) tube sheets in the primary condensers. Water characteristics that affect corrosion are: Oxygen or other dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulfide. Dissolved and suspended solids. Acidic anions - in particular ClpH and alkalinity. Water velocity and temperature.

Copyright 2000

GC3 Specialty Chemicals, Inc.

Taking relationships to the bottom line

733 Heights Blvd. Houston, Texas 77007 800.306.2970 713.802.1761 Houston 713.869.0680 Fax www.gc3.com

Microbiological activity.

2.

SCALE Impurities in the water, such as calcium and magnesium hardness, can precipitate in heat transfer equipment. Scale formation is dependent on: Temperature. pH and alkalinity Amount of scale-forming minerals. Influence of other dissolved solids - in particular silica and sulfates..

Some salts, such as calcium carbonate and tricalcium phosphate, are inversely soluble with temperature and pH (alkalinity). That is, as temperature and/or pH increase, the minerals want to come out of the water and form a scale. Scale formation can be controlled by: Limiting the amount of the scale-forming minerals, such as calcium, in the cooling water system. Feeding acid or softening water to keep the salts dissolved. Treating with chemicals designed to prevent scale.

3.

FOULING Suspended solids, such as dirt, sand, corrosion products, and microbiological masses can cause deposits that may degrade heat transfer performance. This type of deposition is called fouling.

Copyright 2000

GC3 Specialty Chemicals, Inc.