Imperial Japan, Part 2: Imperial Expansion

IMPERIAL JAPAN
Sino-Japanese War, Russo-Japanese War,

& Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
By William P. Litynski
Military-Industrial Complex in Imperial Japan, Part 2:
The Japanese Coloniation o! "orea, Man#huria, China, & East Asia
From the Grassy Knoll in Harbin, China:
one Gunman or Patsy!
The Assassination of Ito Hirobumi, Former Prime Minister of Japan,
by Korean Patriot Ahn Jung-geun (October !, "#$#%
"I#m $ust a patsy%&: Korean patriot Ahn Jung-geun assassinates an& 'i((s Japanese &ip(omat Ito Hirobumi, )ho ser*e& as
+esi&ent ,enera( of Korea from -ecember ", "#$. to June "/, "#$#, at the Harbin +ai()ay 0tation in Harbin, 1hina
2Manchuria3 on October !, "#$#4 (Painting5 http566)))4pennfami(y4org6K00-70A6'orean-on-stamp-.4htm(%
Japanese &ip(omat Ito Hirobumi, Prime Minister of Japan &uring the First 0ino-Japanese 8ar, (ea*es the train at the Harbin +ai()ay
0tation in Harbin, 1hina on October !, "#$#4

9eft photo5 0un:ong, the (ast ;mperor of Korea (reign, Ju(y $, "#$<=August #, "#"$% ne*er signe& the Japan-Korea Anne>ation
Treaty4
+ight photo5 Korean &ip(omat 9ee 8an-yong ("?.?-"#!% signe& the Japan-Korea Anne>ation Treaty, an une@ua( treaty in )hich
Japan forma((y anne>e& Korea, in "#"$4
Politi'al (ssassinations in Imperial Japan:
)r*ani+ed Crime!
From the Grassy Knoll in ,o-yo, Japan:
The Attempte& Assassination of 1ro)n Prince Hirohito of Japan
by a Japanese 1ommunist (-ecember <, "#A%
;mperor Hirohito of Japan, )ho sur*i*e& t)o assassination attempts, *isits the Basu'uni 0hrine in To'yo, Japan in "#A.4 A
Japanese 1ommunist name& -aisu'e Camba attempte& to assassinate then-1ro)n Prince Hirohito )ith a pisto( at the
Toranomon intersection near the -iet (Par(iament% in To'yo on -ecember <, "#AD the assassination attempt on -ecember <,
"#A )ou(& (ater be 'no)n as Toranomon Inci&ent (%4
Emperor Hirohito stopped visiting the Yasukuni Shrine in 197 after the Yasukuni Shrine custodians enshrined several
Class-A Japanese war criminals, including Imperial Japanese Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka served from !"#$-
!"#!% and former Imperial Japanese Am&assador to Fascist Ital' (oshio Shiratori served from !")*-!"#$%+ ,mperor
Akihito, the son of the late ,mperor -irohito, has not visited Yasukuni Shrine since assuming the throne in Januar'
!"*"+
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http!""###.$apan%o&us.org"-.ark-Selden/
0apan--the-'nited-States-and-Yasukuni-1ationalism--War--Histori&al-.emory-and-the-(uture-o%-the-2sia-Pa&i%i&"
3Sour&e! 4he 2sia/Pa&i%i& 0ournal5
1ro)n Prince Hirohito of Japan *isits Tainan, Tai)an in Apri( "#A4
(Photo5 http566))&b4com6image4phpEimageFi&G$%
1ro)n Prince Hirohito of Japan *isits the Tai)an ,ran& 0hrine in Taiho'u (Taipei%, Tai)an in Apri( "#A4
(Photo5 http566))&b4com6image4phpEimageFi&G$A"%
,he (ttempted (ssassination o. /mperor Hirohito o. Japan
by Korean Patriot ee 0on*-'han* 1January 2, 32425
An assassination attempt on ;mperor Hirohito of Japan by Korean in&epen&ence acti*ist 9ee Hong-chang occurre& in To'yo,
Japan on January #, "#A4 /mperor Hirohito#s son (-ihito, the rei*nin* /mperor o. Japan, 6as born in ,o-yo on
7e'ember 24, 32448 (Frontpage of French ne)spaper 9i((ustre &u petit Journa(, "#A%
Korean patriot 9ee Hong-chang (center, "#$$-"#A% is arreste& by the Japanese po(ice in To'yo, Japan on January #, "#A after
9ee attempte& to assassinate ;mperor Hirohito )ith han& grena&es4 9ee Hong-chang )as sentence& to &eath an& hange& in
prison on October "$, "#A4 9ee Hong-chang met )ith e>i(e& Korean (ea&er Kim Ku in 0hanghai in "#A"4
(0ource5 Japanese boo' I0ho)a History Jo(4!5 Manchurian Inci&entI pub(ishe& by Mainichi Ce)spapers 1ompany4%
(ssassinations o. the Prime Minister o. Japan

9eft5 Ta'ashi Hara, Prime Minister of Japan ("#"?-"#"% an& a +oman 1atho(ic, )as assassinate& (stabbe&% by KonKichi Ca'ao'a,
right-)ing rai(roa& s)itchman, at To'yo Train 0tation in To'yo, Japan on Co*ember /, "#"4
+ight5 Tsuyoshi Inu'ai, Prime Minister of Japan ("#A"-"#A%, )as assassinate& by a group of &isgrunt(e& Imperia( Japanese Ca*y
officers insi&e the Prime MinisterKs +esi&ence in To'yo, Japan on May "., "#A4
6on7i&hi 1akaoka8 seated at right inside a prisoner9s :o;8 #ho assassinated Prime .inister o% 0apan 4akashi Hara8 #as photographed in a
&ourt in 4okyo8 0apan on 2pril +<8 19** #here he is :eing tried %or assassinating the Prime .inister. With him in the :o; is Y. Hashimoto8 a
government rail#ay employee #ho is &harged #ith instigating the &rime. 4he &ourtroom in 4okyo8 #here the trial opened on .ar&h =8 #as
heavily guarded :y the poli&e. 6on7i&hi 1akaoka #as &onvi&ted8 senten&ed to prison8 and later pardoned :y Emperor Hirohito.
3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Japanese statesmen pose for a group portrait &uring the "#$s4 From (eft to right5 Tsuyoshi Inu'ai ("?..-"#A, (ater Prime
Minister%, former Finance Minister Kore'iyo Ta'ahashi ("?./-"#A!%, Prime Minister of Japan Ta'aa'i Kato ("?!$-"#!, &ie& in
office%, an& Japanese Member of Par(iament Bu'io OLa'i ("?.?-"#./%4 Inu'ai an& Ta'ahashi )ere assassinate& by mi(itary
officers4

Le%t photo! 4he ne#ly appointed War .inister o% 0apan Beneral Seishiro )tagaki 3&enter5 appears #ith Ci&e War .inister o% 0apan Beneral
Hideki 4o$o 3se&ond %rom right5 and pro/British8 pro/2meri&an 1avy .inister o% 0apan 2dmiral .itsumasa Yonai 3se&ond %rom le%t8 in :la&k
military uni%orm5 in 19+.
Aight photo! 0apanese poli&e o%%i&ers es&ort a group o% de%endants during the 4a/pa/ni )n&ident in 4ai#an in 191,.
3Sour&e! 0apanese :ook Brief History of Bandit Disturbance in Taiwan pu:lished :y Bovernment/Beneral o% 4ai#an5
,he February 29 In'ident 1February 29, 32495: )r*ani+ed Crime!
4he D(e:ruary *= )n&ident7 o&&urred in 4okyo8 0apan %rom (e:ruary *=/*98 19+=. 4he D(e:ruary *= )n&ident7 #as an attempted &oup d7etat
&ondu&ted :y radi&al8 ultranationalist o%%i&ers o% the )mperial 0apanese 2rmy. Emperor Hirohito suppressed the re:ellion :y (e:ruary *9.

Le%t photo! Soldiers setting up martial la# headEuarters in the 2kasaka distri&t during the D(e:ruary *= )n&ident7 in 4okyo8 0apan.
Aight photo! 6eisuke @kada8 a %ormer 0apanese 1avy admiral8 #as the Prime .inister o% 0apan during the D(e:ruary *= )n&ident7 and #as
targeted %or assassination. @kada es&aped assassinationF ho#ever8 he resigned as Prime .inister o% 0apan on .ar&h 98 19+=.
JapanKs 9or& Keeper of the Pri*y 0ea( Ma'oto 0aitM (, "?.?-"#A!%, *isits his c(ose frien&, Finance Minister
Kore'iyo Ta'ahashi (, "?./-"#A!% at his officia( resi&ence on February $, "#A!4 9ess than a )ee' after this
photograph )as ta'en, both men )ere assassinate& by u(tranationa(istic Army officers in the February ! Inci&ent (
%4 (0ource5 Rekishi Shashin Apri( "#A! NFebruary ! Inci&entO specia( issue%
0ource5 http566commons4)i'ime&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5Kore'iyoFTa'ahashiFan&FMa'otoF0aitoF(astFpicFtogetherFcroppe&4:pg
0ource5 http566syasinsyuu4coo(4ne4:p6sei:i6?4:pg
Soldiers o&&upy the 1agata/&ho and 2kasaka area in 4okyo during the (e:ruary *= )n&ident 3*=/*9 (e:ruary 19+=5. 1o:uaki .akino8
0apanese envoy #ho attended the Paris Pea&e ?on%eren&e in 19198 es&aped assassination attempt during the D(e:ruary *= )n&ident.7
(inan&e .inister 6orekiyo 4akahashi and Beneral 0otaro Watana:e #ere killed in the D(e:ruary *= )n&ident7.
Kinmochi 0aion:i (seate& in the bac' of an automobi(e% returns from the Imperia( Pa(ace in To'yo, Japan on May /, "#A! after
ha*ing recommen&e& Ko'i Hirota as the ne) Prime Minister of Japan4 Kinmochi 0aion:i )as the (ast sur*i*ing genr, or e(&er
statesmanD 0aion:i )as appointe& genr in "#"A4 0aion:i )as the Prime Minister of Japan on t)o separate occasions ("#$!-
"#$?, "#""-"#"%4 0aion:i (e& the Japanese &e(egation at the Paris Peace 1onference in "#"#4 0aion:i )as targete& for
assassination by u(tranationa(ist Imperia( Japanese Army officers &uring the NFebruary ! Inci&entO in February "#A!D 0aion:i
manage& to escape assassination by f(eeing his home4 0aion:i &ie& at the age of #" on Co*ember /, "#/$4
Jictims of the PFebruary ! Inci&entK
6antaro SuGuki 3survived5
Prime .inister o% 0apan
32pril 78 19H,/2ugust 178 19H,5
Brand ?ham:erlain o% 0apan
319*9/19+=5
6inmo&hi Saion$i 3survived5
30an. 78 19<=/ 0uly 1H8 19<8
2ugust +<8 1911/Ie&. *18 191*5F
Benro 3Elder Statesman5
3191+/19H<5
.akoto Saito
319+*/19+H5F
Bovernor/Beneral o% 6orea
31919/19*78 19*9/19+15F
1avy .inister o% 0apan
319<=/191H5F
Lord 6eeper o% the Privy Seal
319+,/19+=5
6orekiyo 4akahashi
319*1/19**5F
(inan&e .inister o% 0apan
3191+/191H8 191/19**8 19*78
19+1/19+H8 19+H/19+=5F
Bovernor o% the Bank o% 0apan
30une 18 1911/(e:. *<8 191+5
1ote! 6antaro SuGuki8 a %ormer )mperial 0apanese 1avy admiral8 #as severely #ounded during the D(e:ruary *= )n&ident7 yet survived the
assassination attempt. 6antaro SuGuki #as the Prime .inister o% 0apan %rom 2pril 78 19H, until his resignation on 2ugust 178 19H,. 6antaro
SuGuki opposed 0apan7s #ar #ith the 'nited States o% 2meri&a :e%ore and throughout World War )). 6orekiyo 4akahashi #as the se&ond
0apanese ?hristian to serve as the Prime .inister o% 0apan.
)mperial 0apanese 2rmy soldiers mar&h to#ard the Iiet 30apanese Parliament8 :a&kground le%t5 in 4okyo during the attempted military &oup in
(e:ruary 19+=. 4his photograph sho#s an in&ident o% the military &oup o% (e:ruary *= and *78 during a %e# hours halt o% the revolt. )t sho#s
the third regiment / part o% the insurgent group / mar&hing out o% poli&e headEuarters in 4okyo to return to their :arra&ks. 4hey are pi&tured
passing the sta%% military &ollege and the ne# Iiet :uilding looms in the :a&kground. )t is re&orded that #hen they arrived at their Euarters they
%ound them o&&upied :y loyal troops so they mar&hed :a&k and took the headEuarters :uilding o% the 4okyo .etropolitan Poli&e Iepartment
#hi&h they held %or several more days. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Prin&e (umimaro 6onoe 3right8 rear5 #at&hes Prime .inister o% 0apan 6oki Hirota delivers a spee&h on administrative poli&y :e%ore the House
o% Peers in 4okyo8 0apan on .ay *+8 19+=. 3Photo! Bettmann"?@AB)S5
(meri'an (mbassador Joseph C8 Gre6#s 7es'ription
o. the February 29 In'ident: In His )6n 6ords
NIn the ear(y morning of February ! there occurre& one of the most &ramatic an& tragic e*ents in Japanese history, permanent(y
'no)n as NThe February ! Inci&ent4O The )riter, ha*ing been persona((y an& intimate(y in touch )ith the inci&ent, its (ea&ing
figures an& its aftermath, here narrates the story in some &etai(4 On the night of the .th, Mrs4 ,re) an& I ha& gi*en at the
;mbassy a &inner for some A! guests in honor of the 9or& Keeper of the Pri*y 0ea(, former Prime Minister Jiscount A&mira(
0aito an& Jiscountess 0aito, an& among our other guests )ere A&mira( Kantaro 0uLu'i, ,ran& 1hamber(ain to the ;mperor, as
)e(( as Jiscount an& Jiscountess Ishii4 Jiscount 0aito ha& to(& me that he ha& ne*er seen a mo&ern soun&-fi(m an& in or&er to
interest the o(& gent(eman, for )hom )e ha& great affection, I ha& chosen Jictor HerbertKs fi(m Naughty Marietta )hich )as
sho)n, )ith the p(aying of its romantic music, in our sa(on after &inner4 Jiscount 0aito )as c(ear(y &e(ighte&, an& instea& of
retiring at his usua( ear(y hour he remaine& through the fi(m an& e*en for supper after)ar&s4 I sa) him off at about ha(f past
e(e*en )ith e*ery in&ication on his part of ha*ing thorough(y en:oye& the e*ening4 In the (ight of aftere*ents it has a()ays been
a source of gratification that )e ha& been ab(e to affor& Jiscount 0aito those (ast fe) hours of p(easure4 :ome .i;e hours later
he 6as assassinated at his home, an& A&mira( 0uLu'i )as shot through the chest, a )oun& from )hich fortunate(y he
reco*ere&4 On the fo((o)ing morning I )ent to the JiscountQs house to pay my respects, 'nee(ing besi&e the bo&y an& burning
incense accor&ing to Hu&&hist rites4 His )i&o) )as there, 'nee(ing at his hea&, )ith her arm in a s(ing because she a(so ha& been
machine gunne& in attempting to &efen& him4 0he (ifte& the sheet, sho)ing a sing(e bu((et ho(e through the forehea&, an& sai&5
NMy husban& )ou(& )ish me to than' you for ha*ing gi*en him such a happy (ast e*ening on earth4O 0uch are the tragic
moments of (ife )hich are ineffaceab(e from memory4 In the (ight of aftere*ents it is interesting to (oo' bac' on our first
te(egram to the -epartment )hich )as sent on February ! at "$ A4M45
The mi(itary too' partia( possession of the ,o*ernment an& city ear(y this morning an& it is reporte& ha*e assassinate&
se*era( prominent men4 It is impossib(e as yet to confirm anything4 The ne)s correspon&ents are not permitte& to sen&
te(egrams or to te(ephone abroa&4 This te(egram is being sent primari(y as a test message, to ascertain if our co&e
te(egrams )i(( be transmitte&4 1o&e room p(ease ac'no)(e&ge imme&iate(y upon receipt4
,he February 29 In'ident 6as 'arried out by a small *roup o. extremist military o..i'ers, none hi*her than the ran- o.
'aptain, 6ho 6ere dissatis.ied 6ith the restrainin* in.luen'e o. the statesmen about the /mperor8 They ha& rehearse& their
p(ans )ith so(&iers )ho, )hen ca((e& out on the morning of the !th, suppose& that the usua( routine practice )as to be
un&erta'enD surroun&ing each of the mar'e& houses, the officers entere& an& shot Jiscount 0aito, stabbe& Finance Minister
Ta'ahashi to &eath, an& shot -irector of Mi(itary ;&ucation, ,enera( Jotaro 8atanabe, an& A&mira( 0uLu'i4 The first three )ere
'i((e& outrightD A&mira( 0uLu'i reco*ere&4 ;ntering the officia( resi&ence of the Prime Minister the assassins mistoo' A&mira(
O'a&aQs brother-in-(a) 21o(one( Matsuo3 for the Premier an& shot him )hi(e the A&mira( hi& an& escape&4 ;fforts to 'i(( Prince
0aion:i an& 1ount 0hin'en Ma'ino 2former Keeper of the Pri*y 0ea(3 fai(e&D both )ere in the country at the timeD the former )as
apparent(y fore)arne&D the hote( in )hich the (atter )as staying )as set on fire, 1ount Ma'ino escaping by a rear e>it an&
c(imbing a c(iff )here his heroic gran&&aughter, Kasu'o, an& his traine& nurse sprea& their 'imonos about him for concea(ment4
The officers assigne& to the assassination of 1ount Ma'ino )ere either 'i((e& or )oun&e& by his guar&, an& it is be(ie*e& that the
so(&iers, a(though recogniLing 1ount Ma'ino on the c(iff, refuse& to shoot4 Fo((o)ing the assassinations, the insurgents too'
refuge in the officia( resi&ence of the Prime Minister an& the 0anno Hote(, ha*ing fai(e& in their intentions to capture strategic
go*ernment bui(&ingsD martia( (a) )as &ec(are& an& (oya( troops )ith tan's too' up positions in the *icinity of the Hritish an&
,erman ;mbassies )ith the intention of attac'ing the insurgents to )hom an u(timatum to surren&er ha& been sent4 As the
American ;mbassy )as in &irect (ine )ith the pro:ecte& (ine of fire, a ,enera( 0taff officer ca((e& on me an& as'e& us to
e*acuate to a p(ace of safety )hich ha& been arrange&, but I &ec(ine& the offer )ith than's, )hi(e )arning a(( members of the
staff an& their fami(ies not to e>pose themse(*es nee&(ess(y4 This &ecision )as base& on the be(ief that our e*acuation )ou(&
cause un&ue a(arm among the American community in To'yo4 8e fe(t that the ;mbassy ce((ars offere& a&e@uate protection in
case of necessity an& se*era( fami(ies in a&:acent houses came to our resi&ence for the ensuing critica( &ays an& nights )hen )e
scarce(y s(ept4 -uring that entire perio& the f(ag of the insurgents continue& to f(y from the Prime MinisterQs resi&ence4 The
atmosphere throughout the night of the ?th an& the morningR of the #th )as tense an& e*ery in&ication pointe& to the
imminence of combat, but &uring the course of the morning of the #th a re(a>ation of this tense atmosphere became noticeab(e4
The ,o*ernment )as e>erting patience an& ma'ing e*ery effort,R through ra&io broa&casts an& by &ropping (eaf(ets from
airp(anes, to persua&e the re*o(utionaries to &isban& )ithout resorting to arme& attac', an& it is significant that the (eaf(ets )ere
a&&resse& on(y to insurgent so(&iers an& not to the insurgent officers, the so(&iers being as'e& to reconsi&er their position an&
or&ere& to obey the ;mperorQs comman& to return to their barrac'sD other)ise they )ou(& be treate& as re*o(utionists an& shot4
From the )in&o)s of the chancery )e cou(& see sma(( groups of so(&iers continua((y emerging, an& at / oQc(oc' in the afternoon
of the #th it )as announce& that a(( of the re*o(ting troops ha& surren&ere& an& that norma( con&itions )ou(& be restore& at
/4"$4 -uring the )ho(e perio& of the re*o(t it )as &ifficu(t to sort out the )heat from the chaff in the great *o(ume of reports
an&
rumors that reache& us4 In&ee&, it )as not unti( the e*ening of the #th that Haron ,onsu'e Hayashi, former ,ran& Master of
1eremonies, returne& from the Pa(ace an& to(& me that Prime Minister O'a&a, )hom e*eryone be(ie*e& &ea&, )as a(i*e an&
unin:ure&4 It appeare& that his brother-in-(a), )ho some)hat resemb(e& him, ha& been 'i((e& by mista'e an& that the Premier
ha& escape& an& ha& remaine& un&erco*er since the night of the .th4 He su&&en(y announce& himse(f to the ;mperor,
)hereupon Home Minister Fumio ,oto, appointe& Acting Premier, )ith&re) from the premiership )hich )as resume& by
O'a&a4 Fe) more &ramatic inci&ents ha*e e*er occurre& in history, an& &uring the crisis there )ere outstan&ing cases of heroism
)hich nee& not be recor&e& here but )hich &eser*e their p(ace among the great e>amp(es of heroic beha*ior of a(( time4 On
March ( officia( announcement )as ma&e that one of the insurgent officers ha& committe& hara-'iri (a(though the pub(ic ha&
rather e>pecte& a(( to &o so% an& that the others ha& been &ismisse& in &isgrace from the army4 Their &ismissa( )ithout tria( )as
be(ie*e& to in&icate a more &rastic po(icy than ha& hitherto been fo((o)e& in &ea(ing )ith inci&ents of that character4 In&ee&,
se*era( of the insurgent officers )ere (ater con&emne& an& shot, perhaps the first occasion in recent times of the e>ecution of
mi(itary officers4 Our first reaction to the circumstances of the four &ays of the re*o(t )as that it might )e(( cause a re*u(sion of
fee(ing against the mi(itary an& that the fina( resu(ts might be sa(utary4O
=Turbulent Era: A Diplomatic Record of orty !ears" #$%&'#$&(, Jo(ume II by Joseph 14 ,re) ("#.%, 1hapter SSSI, p4 #?<-
##"
NIn&ee& our ,o*ernment has time an& time again, an& on(y recent(y, e>presse& its fu(( appreciation of JapanQs (egitimate interests an&
aspirations, rea(iLing that Japan, restricte& as she is in her is(an&s, must ha*e access to ra) materia(s, mar'ets for the pro&ucts of her
in&ustries an& a free f(o) of tra&e an& commerce4 Ce*erthe(ess, un(ess Japan is )i((ing to aban&on aggression by force there can be no
hope for an impro*ement in our re(ations4 <e -no6 by sad and bitter pra'ti'al experien'e that Japan=s so-'alled ">e6 )rder in
/ast (sia& and "Co-Prosperity :phere& ;isuali+e no nei*hborly relations on the basis o. re'ipro'ity and a .ree *i;e-and-ta-e
but rather an order in 6hi'h Japanese interests, or 6hat one 'on'ei;es to be her interests, are to be predominant and to be
exer'ised to the ex'lusion o. the le*itimate interests o. other 'ountries8 8e ha*e )atche& the gra&ua( but ine>orab(e e(imination of
our o)n (egitimate interests o*er these past se*era( years, our (ong-stan&ing an& patient(y-estab(ishe& business, commercia(, in&ustria(,
ban'ing an& cu(tura( interests, a(( (egitimate an& co-operati*e acti*ities, progressi*e(y ouste& first from Manchuria, an& then, in turn,
from Corth 1hina, the ports, the BangtLe, an& no) they are in process of being e>c(u&e& from In&ochina, in spite of the most
categorica( assurances an& promises that the Open -oor an& e@ua( opportunity )ou(& be scrupu(ous(y obser*e& e*ery)here4 ;*ery
Foreign Minister = especia((y Hirota, Arita, Comura = has gi*en us such promises but not one of those promises has been carrie& out4
8hyE Those promises )ere un@uestionab(y gi*en in goo& faith4 Hut the mi(itary )ou(& not permit their imp(ementation4 Japanese
arme& force has pre*ente& their imp(ementation4O
=Turbulent Era: A Diplomatic Record of orty !ears" #$%&'#$&(, Jo(ume II by Joseph 14 ,re) ("#.%, 1hapter SSSIII, p4 "A.
NOne of these fa((acies is that the American approach to affairs in ;ast Asia is boun& by a pure(y I(ega(isticI attitu&e, a conception
)hich )i&e(y pre*ai(s in this country to&ay4 8hat is meant by a I(ega(isticI attitu&eE If )e mean respect for treaties, officia(
commitments, internationa( (a), yesD that respect is an& a()ays )i(( be one of the car&ina( princip(es of American po(icy4 Hut the *ery
term Ia (ega(istic attitu&e,I as it has often been use& in my hearing in Japan, seems to imp(y a position )here one cannot see the )oo&s
for the trees, )here oneQs *ision of higher an& broa&er concepts is stu(tifie&4 9et me therefore touch brief(y on a fe) of the car&ina(
princip(es of American po(icy an& ob:ecti*es, mo(&e& to meet the re@uirements of mo&ern (ife, )hich, it is true, are fun&amenta((y
base& upon but )hich seem to me far to transcen& any pure(y I(ega(isticI approach to )or(& affairs4 The American peop(e aspire to
re(ations of peace )ith e*ery country an& bet)een a(( countries4 8e ha*e no monopo(y on this &esire for peace, but )e ha*e a *ery
&efinite con*iction that the sort of peace )hich, throughout history, has been mere(y an inter(u&e bet)een )ars is not an en*ironment
in )hich )or(& ci*i(iLation can be stab(y &e*e(ope& or, perhaps, can e*en be preser*e&4 8e be(ie*e that internationa( peace is
&epen&ent on )hat our 0ecretary of 0tate has characteriLe& as Ior&er(y processesI in internationa( &ea(ing4 The American peop(e
&esire to respect the so*ereign rights of other peop(e an& to ha*e their o)n so*ereign rights e@ua((y respecte&4 8e ha*e foun& by
e>perience that the successfu( approach to the reso(*ing of internationa( &isputes (ies not so much in mere(y abstaining from the use of
force as in abstaining from any thought of the use, imme&iate(y or e*entua((y, of the metho&s of force4 9et cynics (oo' about them an&
contemp(ate the conse@uences of resort to menacing &eman&s as a process in the con&uct of internationa( re(ationsT Is it being pure(y
N(ega(isticO to put to )ise an& practica( use the finer instincts common to a(( man'in&E ,he (meri'an people belie;e that the day is
past 6hen 6ars 'an be 'on.ined in their e..e'ts to the 'ombatant nations8 <hen national e'onomies 6ere based upon
a*ri'ulture and handi'ra.t, nations 6ere to a lar*e extent sel.-su..i'ient? they li;ed primarily on the thin*s 6hi'h they
themsel;es *re6 or produ'ed8 ,hat is not the 'ase today8 >ations are no6 in'reasin*ly dependent on others both .or
'ommodities 6hi'h they do not produ'e themsel;es and .or the disposal o. the thin*s 6hi'h they produ'e in ex'ess8 ,he hi*hly
'omplex system o. ex'han*e o. *oods has been e;ol;ed by reason o. ea'h nation=s bein* able to extra't .rom the *round or to
manu.a'ture 'ertain 'ommodities more e..i'iently or e'onomi'ally than others8 /a'h 'ontributes to the 'ommon *ood the
.ruits o. its handi6or- and the bounties o. nature8 It is this system o. ex'han*e 6hi'h has not only raised the standard o. li;in*
e;ery6here but has made it possible .or t6o or e;en three persons to li;e in 'om.ort 6here but one had li;ed in dis'om.ort
under a simple sel.-'ontained e'onomy8 >ot only the bene.its o. our ad;an'ed 'i;ili+ation but the ;ery existen'e o. most o. us
depends on maintainin* in e@uilibrium a deli'ately balan'ed and 'omplex 6orld e'onomy8 <ars are not only destru'ti;e o.
the 6ealth, both human and material, o. 'ombatants, but they disturb the .ine ad$ustments o. 6orld e'onomy8 Con.li't
bet6een nations is there.ore a matter o. 'on'ern to all the other nations8 Is there then any stu(tification through N(ega(isticO
concepts )hen )e practice ourse(*es an& urge upon others the reso(*ing of internationa( &isputes by or&er(y processes, e*en i% it )ere
on(y in the interests of )or(& economyE Ho), e>cept on the basis of (a) an& or&er, can these *arious concepts in internationa( &ea(ing
be secure&E The American peop(e be(ie*e in e@ua(ity of commercia( opportunity4 There is probab(y no nation )hich has not at one
time or other in*o'e& it4 ;*en Japan, )here American insistence on the Open -oor is cite& as the supreme manifestation of )hat is
characteriLe& as a N(ega(isticO American attitu&e e*en Japan, I say = has insiste& upon an& has recei*e& the benefits of the Open -oor
in areas other than 1hina, )here, )e are to(&, the princip(e is inapp(icab(e e>cept in a truncate& an& emascu(ate& form4 That high(y
comp(icate& system of )or(& economy of )hich I ha*e :ust spo'en is postu(ate& upon the abi(ity of nations to buy an& se(( )here they
p(ease un&er con&itions of free competition = con&itions )hich cannot e>ist in areas )here pre-empti*e rights are c(aime& an& asserte&
on beha(f of nationa(s of one particu(ar country4 I nee& har&(y say that the thoughts )hich I ha*e :ust e>presse& are of uni*ersa(
app(icabi(ity4 Another common fa((acy )hich I am constraine& to mention is the charge that the American ,o*ernment an& peop(e &o
not un&erstan& Nthe ne) or&er in ;ast Asia4O For*i;e me i. I ;ery respe't.ully ta-e issue 6ith that 'on'eption8 ,he (meri'an
Go;ernment and people understand 6hat is meant by the Ane6 order in /ast (siaA pre'isely as 'learly as it is understood in
Japan8 ,he "ne6 order in /ast (sia& has been o..i'ially de.ined in Japan as an order o. se'urity, stability and pro*ress8 ,he
(meri'an Go;ernment and people earnestly desire se'urity, stability and pro*ress not only .or themsel;es but .or all other
nations in e;ery @uarter o. the 6orld8 0ut the ne6 order in /ast (sia has appeared to in'lude, amon* other thin*s, depri;in*
(meri'ans o. their lon*-established ri*hts in China, and to this the (meri'an people are opposed8 ThereQs the story4 It is
probab(e that many of you are not a)are of the increasing e>tent to )hich the peop(e of the 7nite& 0tates resent the metho&s )hich the
Japanese arme& forces are emp(oying in 1hina to&ay an& )hat appear to be their ob:ecti*es4 In saying this, I &o not )ish for one
moment to imp(y that the American peop(e ha*e forgotten the (ongtime frien&ship )hich has e>iste& bet)een the peop(e of my country
an& the peop(e of Japan4 Hut the American peop(e ha*e been profoun&(y shoc'e& o*er the )i&esprea& use of bombing in 1hina, not
on(y on groun&s of humanity but a(so on groun&s of the &irect menace to American (i*es an& property accompanie& by the (oss of
American (ife an& the cripp(ing of American citiLensD they regar& )ith gro)ing seriousness the *io(ation of an& interference )ith
American rights by the Japanese arme& forces in 1hina in &isregar& of treaties an& agreements entere& intoQ by the 7nite& 0tates an&
Japan an& treaties an& agreements entere& into by se*era( nations, inc(u&ing Japan4 The American peop(e 'no) that those treaties an&
agreements )ere entere& into *o(untari(y by Japan an& that the pro*isions of those treaties an& agreements constitute& a practica(
arrangement for safeguar&ing- for the benefit of a(( the corre(ate& princip(es of nationa( so*ereignty an& of e@ua(ity of economic
opportunity4 The princip(e of e@ua(ity of economic opportunity is one to )hich o*er a (ong perio& an& on many occasions Japan has
gi*en &efinite appro*a( an& upon )hich Japan has fre@uent(y insiste&4 Cot on(y are the American peop(e perturbe& o*er their being
arbitrari(y &epri*e& of (ong-estab(ishe& rights, inc(u&ing those of e@ua( opportunity an& fair treatment, but they fee( that the present
tren& in the Far ;ast if continue& )i(( be &estructi*e of the hopes )hich they sincere(y cherish of the &e*e(opment of an or&er(y )or(&4
American rights an& interests in 1hina are being impaire& or &estroye& by the po(icies an& actions of the Japanese authorities in 1hina4
American property is being &amage& or &estroye&D American nationa(s are being en&angere& an& sub:ecte& to in&ignities4 If I fe(t in a
position to set forth a(( the facts in &etai( to&ay, you )ou(&, )ithout any @uestion, appreciate the soun&ness an& fu(( :ustification of the
American attitu&e4 Perhaps you )i(( a(so un&erstan& )hy I )ish to&ay to e>ercise restraint4 In short, the American peop(e, from a(( the
thorough(y re(iab(e e*i&ence that comes to them, ha*e goo& reason to be(ie*e that an effort is being ma&e to estab(ish contro(, in
JapanQs o)n interest, of (arge areas on the continent of Asia an& to impose upon those areas a system of c(ose& economy4 It is this
thought, a&&e& to the effect of the bombings, the in&ignities, the manifo(& interference )ith American rights, that accounts for the
attitu&e of the American peop(e to)ar& Japan to&ay4 For my part I )i(( say this4 It is my be(ief, an& the be(ief of the American
,o*ernment an& peop(e, that the many things in:urious to the 7nite& 0tates )hich ha*e been &one an& are being &one by Japanese
agencies are )holly needless* 8e be(ie*e that rea( security an& stabi(ity in the Far ;ast cou(& be attaine& )ithout running counter to
any American rights )hatsoe*er4 Mr4 1hairman, 9a&ies an& ,ent(emen5 I ha*e trie& to gi*e an accurate interpretation of American
pub(ic opinion, most carefu((y stu&ie& an& ana(yLe& by me )hi(e at home4 The tra&itiona( frien&ship bet)een our t)o nations is far too
precious a thing to be either ina&*ertent(y or &e(iberate(y impaire&4 It seems to me (ogica( that from e*ery point of *ie) = economic,
financia(, commercia(, in the interests of business, tra*e(, science, cu(ture an& sentiment-Japan an& the 7nite& 0tates fore*er shou(& be
mutua((y consi&erate frien&s4 In the fami(y of nations, as bet)een an& among brothers, there arise ine*itab(e contro*ersies, but again
an& again the 7nite& 0tates has &emonstrate& its practica( sympathy an& &esire to be he(pfu( to)ar& Japan in &ifficu(t times an&
moments, its a&miration of JapanQs achie*ements, its earnest &esire for mutua((y he(pfu( re(ations4 P(ease &o not misconstrue or
misinterpret the attitu&e )hich has prompte& me to spea' in the utmost fran'ness to&ay4 I am mo*e& first of a(( by (o*e of my o)n
country an& my &e*otion to its interestD but I am a(so mo*e& by *ery &eep affection for Japan an& by sincere con*iction that the rea(
interests, the fun&amenta( an& abi&ing interests of both countries, ca(( for harmony of thought an& action in our re(ationships4 Those
)ho 'no) my sentiments for Japan, &e*e(ope& in happy contacts &uring the se*en years in )hich I ha*e (i*e& here among you, )i((
rea(iLe, I am sure, that my )or&s an& my actions are those of a true frien&4 One Japanese ne)spaper @uerie&, on my return from
America )hether I ha& concea(e& in my bosom a &agger or a &o*e4 9et me ans)er that @uery4 I ha*e nothing concea(e& in my bosom
e>cept the &esire to )or' )ith a(( my min&, )ith a(( my heart an& )ith a(( my strength for Japanese-American frien&ship4 To&ay I
ha*e state& certain facts, straightfor)ar&(y an& ob:ecti*e(y4 Hut I am a(so ma'ing a p(ea for sympathetic un&erstan&ing in the interests
of the o(&, en&uring frien&ship bet)een our t)o great nations4 In a )or(& of chaos I p(ea& for stabi(ity, no) an& in the (ong future, in a
re(ationship )hich, if it can be preser+ed" can bring on(y goo& to Japan an& to the 7nite& 0tates of America4O
=Turbulent Era: A Diplomatic Record of orty !ears" #$%&'#$&(, Jo(ume II by Joseph 14 ,re) ("#.%, 1hapter SSSIII, p4 ""!-
""
Sino-Japanese War &
$o%er Re&ellion' (r)anie* Cri+e,
)mperial 0apanese 2rmy soldiers 3right5 and the British 2rmy soldiers 3le%t5 atta&k the ?hinese army in Peking during the Bo;er Ae:ellion in
19<<. 3Photo! Li:rary o% ?ongress5
From the Grassy Knoll in :han*hai, China:
The Assassination of Korean community organiLer Kim O'-'yun on March ?, "?#/

A portrait of Korean community organiLer Kim )---yun 1le.t5 )hi(e he )as (i*ing in Cagasa'i, Japan as a refugee4 Kim O'-'yun
participate& in a fai(e& coup &Ketat, forma((y 'no)n as the ,apsin 1oup, in -ecember "??/4 Kim O'-'yun f(e& Korea an& (i*e& in
Japan as a refugee from "??/ unti( "?#/4 Korean patriot Hon* Chon*-u 1ri*ht5 shot an& 'i((e& Kim O'-'yun in 0hanghai, 1hina on
March ?, "?#/4 Hritish po(ice officers in 0hanghai arreste& Korean patriot Hon* Chon*-u short(y after the assassination an&
transferre& Hon* Chon*-u to 1hinese authorities for tria(4 Ho)e*er, the 1hinese go*ernment &eci&e& to re(ease Korean patriot Hon*
Chon*-u from prison4 Hon* Chon*-u an& the corpse of Kim )---yun arri*e& in Korea on Apri( ", "?#/4
0apanese diplomats and ?hinese diplomats sign the 4reaty o% Shimonoseki at Shimonoseki8 0apan on 2pril 178 19,8 ending the (irst Sino/
0apanese War. 0apan a&Euired the island o% 4ai#an %rom ?hina and reEuired ?hina to re&ogniGe the independen&e o% 6orea. 0apan also
o:tained additional diplomati& and e&onomi& privileges8 in&luding the opening o% several ?hinese ports to 0apanese trade.
0apanese #ood:lo&k painting depi&ting the 1aval Battle o% the Yello# Sea 3Yalu Aiver5 in 6orea in the (irst Sino/0apanese War in 19H.
0apan a&Euired the island o% 4ai#an %rom ?hina %ollo#ing the (irst Sino/0apanese War and %or&ed ?hina to re&ogniGe the independen&e o%
6orea.
Japanese so(&iers fire their guns &uring the First 0ino-Japanese 8ar in "?#/4 The First 0ino-Japanese 8ar (aste& from August ",
"?#/ unti( Apri( "<, "?#.4 (0ource5 IHa'umatsu Mei:i no 0hashinI by OLa)a Kenshin, p4A/$%
4he Eight/1ation 2llian&e8 a group o% armies %rom 'nited States o% 2meri&a8 Breat Britain8 0apan8 Aussia8 Bermany8 (ran&e8 )taly8 and 2ustria/
Hungary8 make their presen&e in the (or:idden ?ity in Peking 35 during the Bo;er Ae:ellion 3also kno#n as the Bo;er 'prising8
5 in 19<<. 4he So&iety o% Aighteous and Harmonious (ists 358 :etter kno#n as the Bo;ers8 #as a se&ret so&iety %ounded in Shandong8
?hinaF the Bo;ers protested against opium trade8 %oreign intervention8 uneEual treaties8 and involuntary servitude at the hands o% %oreign
mer&hants8 diplomats8 and ?hristian missionaries. 4he governments o% the Eight/1ation 2llian&e sent their armies into Peking to suppress the
Bo;er Ae:ellion and li:erate %oreign diplomats and &ivilians #ho #ere held hostage at Legation Juarter in Peking a%ter the Bo;ers and
?hinese soldiers killed ?hristian missionaries and ?hinese ?hristian &onverts and atta&ked the Legation Juarter in Peking in early 19<<.
31ational 2r&hives5
)mperial 0apanese 2rmy soldiers pose %or the &amera a%ter e;e&uting %our ?hinese Bo;er re:els in the ?hinese &ountryside in 19<<. 3Sour&e!
2meri&an .useum o% 1atural History5
Prominent Imperia( Japanese ,o*ernment Officia(s an& Husinessmen
an& Their Occupation &uring the First 0ino-Japanese 8ar
:hB+C (o-i

Japanese Ambassa&or to
,reat Hritain ("?#/%D
Foreign Minister of
Japan ("??#-"?#",
"?#?-"#$$%
Kaoru Inoue

Japanese Minister to
Korea ("?#/-"?#.%D
Foreign Minister of
Japan ("??.-"??<%
Hirobumi ItC
!
Prime Minister of Japan
("??.-"???, "?#-"?#!,
"?#?, "#$$-"#$"%
Munemitsu Mutsu

Foreign Minister of
Japan ("?#-"?#.%
Kinmo'hi :aion$i
"#$ %&
;&ucation Minister of
Japan (Oct4 A, "?#/-
0ept4 "?, "?#!%D
Japanese Minister to
,ermany ("??<-"?#"%
,su*umi'hi :ai*C
"' ()
Minister of the Ca*y of
Imperia( Japan
("??.-"?#$, "?#A-"?#?%
Hrother of Japanese
rebe( 0aigo Ta'amori
Field Marshal Prin'e
I6ao Dyama
* +
Minister of 8ar of
Imperia( Japan
("??.-"?#", "?#-"?#!%
Prin'e ,aruhito
(risu*a6a
,-./0123
1hief of the Army
,enera( 0taff ("??.-
"???D "??#-"?#.%D
-ie& in office on
January "., "?#.
Koi'hiro Ka6ada
.4 567
,o*ernor of the
Han' of Japan
(0eptember A, "??#-
Co*ember <, "?#!%D
&ie& in office
Hisaya I6asa-i
89 :;
Presi&ent of Mitsubishi
("?#A-"#"!%
08:8 Eni;ersity o.
Pennsyl;ania
Cote5 8atanabe Kunia'i ser*e& as Finance Minister of Japan ("?#-"?#., "?#.-"?#!%
Prominent Members of 0'u(( U Hones
an& Their Occupation &uring the First 0ino-Japanese 8ar
Wilson Shannon Bissell
B.2. Yale 1=9
Postmaster Beneral o%
the 'nited States
319+/19,5
Ianiel ?. Bilman
B.2. Yale 1,*
President o% 0ohns
Hopkins 'niversity
317,/19<15
4imothy I#ight
B.2. Yale 1H9
President o% Yale
'niversity 31=/1995
0ohn William Sterling
B.2. Yale 1=H
?o/(ounder o% Shearman
K Sterling
Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM
317+/1915
0ohn Patton 0r.
B.2. Yale 17,
'.S. Senator
3Aepu:li&an Party/
.i&higan8 19H/19,5
Fusso-Japanese <ar: )r*ani+ed Crime!
0attle o. Port (rthur: Print sho)s, in the foregroun&, a +ussian batt(eship e>p(o&ing un&er bombar&ment from Japanese
batt(eshipsD a (ine of Japanese batt(eships, positione& on the right, fire on a (ine of +ussian batt(eships on the (eft, in a surprise
na*a( assau(t on the +ussian f(eet at the Hatt(e of Port Arthur (9Vshun% in the +usso-Japanese 8ar (<=>?, Nichi'Ro Sens%
on February ?-#, "#$/4 (Photo5 9ibrary of 1ongress%
Japan issue& a &ec(aration of )ar on February ?, "#$/D ho)e*er, three hours before JapanKs &ec(aration of )ar )as recei*e& by
the +ussian go*ernment in 0t4 Petersburg, the Imperia( Japanese Ca*y attac'e& the +ussian Far ;ast F(eet at Port Arthur &uring
a &aring night rai& con&ucte& by A&mira( Heihachiro Togo4 The Imperia( Japanese Ca*y engage& in another surprise attac' on
near(y A? years (ater at Pear( Harbor4 Japan ac@uire& the southern ha(f of the 0a'ha(in Is(an& from +ussia an& the 1hinese port
of Port Arthur from +ussia at the conc(usion of the +usso-Japanese 8ar4 ,he Fusso-Japanese <ar be*an on February G,
32HI and ended on :eptember J, 32HJ8
Tsesare*ich Cicho(as of +ussia (the future 1Lar Cicho(as II of +ussia% ri&es in a ric'asha) &uring his *isit to Cagasa'i, Japan in
"?#"4 Tsesare*ich Cicho(as of +ussia *isite& Kyoto, Japan in May "?#"4 Japanese poli'eman ,suda :an+C 13GJJ-3G235
attempted to assassinate ,sesare;i'h >i'holas o. Fussia 6ith a s6ord on May 33, 3G23? the assassination attempt, -no6n
as the )tsu In'ident, o''urred near Kyoto8 ,sesare;i'h >i'holas o. Fussia 6as le.t 6ith a s'ar on the ri*ht side o. his
.orehead8 ;mperor Mei:i of Japan *isite& Tsesare*ich Cicho(as of +ussia aboar& a +ussian )arship in Kobe harbor short(y
after the fai(e& assassination attempt4 1Lar Cicho(as II of +ussia assume& the throne on Co*ember ", "?#/4
(0ource5 Cagasa'i 1ity 9ibrary Archi*es%
Japanese po(iceman Tsu&a 0anLo, perpetrator of the Otsu Inci&ent

Japanese po(iceman Tsu&a 0anLM ("?..-"?#"% attempte& to assassinate Tsesare*ich Cicho(as of +ussia )ith a s)or& on May
"", "?#"D the assassination attempt, 'no)n as the Otsu Inci&ent, occurre& near Kyoto4 Tsesare*ich Cicho(as of +ussia )as (eft
)ith a scar on the right si&e of his forehea&4
Prince ,eorge of ,reece an& Tsare*ich Cicho(as A(e>an&ro*ich of +ussia ri&e in their :inri'ishas in "?#"4
Fusso-Japanese <ar: ( Je6ish Politi'al Intri*ue!
Jacob 0chiff, Ma> 8arburg, Kuhn, 9oeb U 1o4,
U Their +o(e in 0ponsoring Imperia( Japan &uring the +usso-Japanese 8ar

9eft to right5 Jacob H4 0chiff, Kore'iyo Ta'ahashi, an& Ma> 8arburg
NThe byLantine financia( intrigues of the ear(y "#$$s boun& Je)ish ban'ers tight(y to the state4 The &iatribes against Je)ish
ban'ers actua((y stoo& rea(ity on its hea&, for they &i&nKt e>p(oit ,ermany so much as ser*e its imperia( escapa&es to a fau(t4
This *ery intimacy )ith the go*ernment )ou(& ma'e it har& for them to react (ater on )hen persecution an& terror came from
the state itse(f4 The Kuhn, 9oeb connection a(so imp(icate& M4M4 8arburg in more po(itica( )or'4 )utra*ed by the po*roms
a*ainst Fussian Je6s, KJa'obL :'hi.. made it a point o. honor to .inan'e Japan in its 32HI-HJ 6ar a*ainst Fussia and e;en
paid .or distribution o. anti-'+arist propa*anda to Fussian prisoners8 In sprin* 32HI, he sho'-ed Japan#s .inan'ial
'ommissioner, 0aron Kore-iyo ,a-ahashi, by ;olunteerin* to under6rite hal. the ten-million-pound loan sou*ht by the
Imperial Japanese Go;ernment in ondon and >e6 Mor-8 This first of fi*e ma:or Kuhn, 9oeb (oans to Japan )as appro*e&
by King ;&)ar& JII at a (uncheon )ith 0chiff an& 0ir ;rnest 1asse(4 8hen Japan )as rea&y for a thir& (oan in "#$., 0chiff
thought Ce) Bor' )as saturate& )ith Japanese bon&s an& as'e& Ma> 28arburg3 to open a ,erman mar'et4 To ensure that such
a step conforme& to ,erman po(icy, Ma> remembere&, NI &i& )hat e*ery upstan&ing ban'er has to &o in such case, I )ent to the
Foreign Ministry in Her(in4O The Krupp firm ha& )arne& the Foreign Office that ,ermany )ou(& (ose munitions contracts if the
thir& Japanese (oan )ere p(ace& entire(y in Ce) Bor' an& 9on&on4 0o 7n&er-0ecretary of 0tate Arthur Wimmermann en&orse&
the mo*e an& authoriLe& Ma> to negotiate )ith Japan4 Hefore procee&ing )ith his secon& Japanese (oan, Ma> met the Kaiser
aboar& his yacht to get his officia( imprimatur4 This secon& issue )as ten times o*ersubscribe&, strengthening JapanKs han& at
the Portsmouth peace conference4 That Ma> su&&en(y manage& a ma:or strategic transaction )as a stunning achie*ement for a
firm that :ust a fe) years ear(ier ha& been a pro*incia( po)er4 Ma> o)e& this brea'through to his brothersK presence at Kuhn,
9oeb, but he ha& ab(y e>p(oite& the opportunity4 He negotiate& the first (oan in 9on&on )ith Kore'iyo Ta'ahashi, (ater Japanese
finance minister an& prime minister4 ,a-ahashi ne;er .or*ot the .a;or, later tellin* Max, i. "I ha;e distin*uished mysel. in
any 6ay in my li.e, it is, to my *reat appre'iation, due to your *ood6ill and .riendship 6hi'h you 6ere -ind enou*h to
extend to me in old times8& (.ter the 6ar 6ith Fussia, ,a-ahashi ;isited Hambur*, and in 32H9 KJa'obL :'hi.. ;isited
Japan8 :'hi.. had a rare pri;ate lun'h 6ith the Mi-ado at the Imperial Pala'e, 6here he 6as de'orated 6ith the )rder
o. the Fisin* :un8 At one &inner, he sat besi&e Ta'ahashiKs teenage &aughter, 8a'i'o, an& casua((y in*ite& her to Ce) Bor',
but Ta'ahashi too' the in*itation @uite (itera((y4 To 0chiffKs astonishment, 8a'i'o en&e& up going bac' )ith him an& (i*ing
)ith the 0chiffs for three years4O = The ,arburgs by +on 1herno), p4 ""$-"""
NHecause the House of Mitsui, an ancient Japanese &ynasty, ha& opene& a Hamburg branch, fami(y members perio&ica((y
&roppe& in on the 8arburgs4 Once Haron Mitsui came to &inner an&, as he ramb(e& on about (abor re(ations in Japanese, Ma>
mischie*ous(y (earne& o*er an& )hispere& to 1har(otte that the baron )ante& to 'no) if Ma>Ks son, ;ric, )ou(& marry his
&aughter4 On another *isit, Haron Mitsui an& his partner, Ta'uma -an, as'e& ho) the 8arburgs 'ept peace in the fami(y4 They
to(& Ma> an& 1ar( Me(chior about batt(es insi&e the Mitsui c(an an& as'e& ho) to stop them4 Ma> rep(ie& that the 8arburgs
@uarre(e& as much as any fami(y4 He an& Me(chior suggeste& that Mitsui &i*i&e its operations into separate ban'ing, shipping,
insurance, an& e>port companies, each super*ise& by a &ifferent fami(y member )ho then reporte& to a centra( firm4 In this )ay,
Ma> too' cre&it for suggesting to the Japanese the -aibatsu or cong(omerate structure that )ou(& &ominate their economy4 In
gratitu&e, Mitsui sent Ma> a )a> Japanese genera( in a cas'et4O = The ,arburgs by +on 1herno), p4 """
Hatt(e of Mu'&en5 The Imperia( Japanese Army attac' the +ussian Army &uring the Hatt(e of Mu'&en that (aste& from February $,
"#$. to March "$, "#$.4 The Imperia( Japanese Army route& the +ussian Army at the Hatt(e of Mu'&en an& occupie& the city of
Mu'&en on March "$, "#$.4
Time(ine of the +usso-Japanese 8ar (February ?, "#$/ =0eptember ., "#$.%5
February ?-#, "#$/5 Hatt(e of Port Arthur (na*a(%
Apri( A$, "#$/-May ", "#$/5 Hatt(e of Ba(u +i*er
August "$, "#$/5 Hatt(e of the Be((o) 0ea
August /, "#$/=0eptember /, "#$/5 Hatt(e of 9iaoyang (near Mu'&en=Port Arthur +ai()ay%
October .-"<, "#$/5 Hatt(e of 0haho
Ju(y A$, "#$/=January , "#$.5 0iege of Port Arthur
January .-#, "#$.5 Hatt(e of 0an&epu (Hatt(e of Hei'outai%
February 2H, 32HJNMar'h 3H, 32HJ: 0attle o. Mu-den? 7e'isi;e Japanese ;i'tory
May 2O-2G, 32HJ: 0attle o. ,sushima? 7e'isi;e Japanese ;i'tory
Cotes5 An estimate& /<,$$$ Japanese so(&iers )ere 'i((e& in actionD an estimate& .,$$$ +ussian so(&iers )ere 'i((e& in action4
Imperia( Japanese Army ,enera( Maresu'e Cogi (secon& ro), secon& from (eft% an& the +ussian Army ,enera( Anato(y Mi'hai(o*ich
0toesse( (secon& ro), secon& from right% pose for a group portrait after the surren&er of the +ussian forces in Port Arthur (Japanese5
+yo:unD 1hinese5 9ushun% on January , "#$.4 The 0iege of Port Arthur (aste& from August ", "#$/ to January , "#$.4 The Imperia(
Japanese mi(itary suffere& #/,$$$-""$,$$$ casua(ties )hi(e the +ussian mi(itary suffere& ".,$$$ casua(ties4 +ussian Army ,enera(
Anato(y Mi'hai(o*ich 0toesse( )as court-martia(e& an& sentence& to &eath in "#$? for surren&ering Port ArthurD ho)e*er, 1Lar
Cicho(as II of +ussia par&one& him in "#$# an& a((o)e& the genera( to continue his mi(itary ser*ice4
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers cross the Ba(u +i*er into Manchuria (1hina% in Apri( "#$/4 The Imperia( Japanese Army &efeate&
the +ussian Army at the Hatt(e of Ba(u +i*er in Apri( "#$/4

9eft5 The Imperia( Japanese Ca*y (<@ABCD% &efeats the +ussian Ca*y in the Hatt(e of Tsushima (EFC>% on May
<=?, "#$.4
+ight5 A&mira( Heihachiro Togo (G' HI7%, )ho )as the comman&er of the Japanese na*a( f(eet &uring the Hatt(e of
Tsushima, appears on the front co*er of the Co*ember ?, "#! e&ition of Time magaLine4
N)llustration o% a (ier&e Ausso/0apanese War BattleO :y 6yPkatsu8 .ay 19<H 3Shar% ?olle&tion8 .useum o% (ine 2rts8 Boston5.
4he )mperial 0apanese 2rmy 3)025 #as modeled a%ter the Prussian 3Berman5 army.
,enera( Maresu'e Cogi, 1omman&er of the Japanese Thir& Army, stan&s in the center facing a capture& +ussian gun cre)
outsi&e Port Arthur on January , "#$.4
K)antung (JG% Prefectura( Office in -airen (-a(ian%
-airen 1ity Ha(( in -airen (-a(ian, K%, K)antung 9ease& Territory
A *ie) of the harbor an& to)n at 9ushun (LM%, former(y Port Arthur an& +yo:un, from an o(& Japanese fortification4
Prominent Imperial Japanese Go;ernment )..i'ials and ,heir )''upation durin* the Fusso-Japanese <ar
(dmiral GonnohyCe
Mamamoto
*@ NOP
Minister of the Ca*y of
Imperia( Japan
(Co* "?#? = Jan "#$!%
JutarC Komura
5Q RS7
Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Japan
("#$"-"#$!, "#$?-"#""%
808 Har;ard 3GOG
,aro Katsura
T S7
("#$"-"#$!, "#$?-"#"",
"#"-"#"A%
:hi*eyoshi Matsuo
UVW
,o*ernor of the Han' of
Japan (October $,
"#$A-June ", "#""%
Hisaya I6asa-i
89:;
Presi&ent of Mitsubishi
("?#A-"#"!%
08:8 Eni;ersity o.
Pennsyl;ania
Field Marshal
Mi'hitsura >o+u
XY )Z
1omman&er of the
Japanese Fourth Army
3A$ June "#$/-
" January "#$!5
Field Marshal
Moshimi'hi Hase*a6a
[\. ])
1omman&er of the
Korea ,arrison Army
(0ept4 "#$/--ec4 "#$?%
Field Marshal
Masata-e ,erau'hi

Minister of the Army of
Imperia( Japan
(March <, "#$-August
A$, "#""%
(ritomo Mama*ata

1hief of the Army
,enera( 0taff
(/ -ec4 "?<? = / 0ept4
"??, "A February "??/
= -ecember "??.,
June 2H, 32HIN
7e'ember 2H, 32HJ%
I6ao Dyama

1hief of the Army
,enera( 0taff
1/ 0eptember "?? = "A
February "??/, 39 May
3G22 N 2H June 32HI, $
-ecember "#$. = ""
Apri( "#$!%
Aussian Statesmen during the Ausso/0apanese War
Count .ladimir
/ikola'evich 0amsdorf
(oreign .inister o% Aussia
319<</19<=5
C
ount .ladimir
1okovtsov
Prime .inister o% Aussia
3Sept. 18 1911/(e:. 1*8
191H5F (inan&e .inister o%
Aussia 319<H/19<,F
19<=/191H5
Count Sergei 2itte
Prime .inister o% Aussia
319<,/19<=5F
(inan&e .inister o%
Aussia 319*/19<+5F
Aussian envoy to the
Portsmouth ?on%eren&e
319<,5
3aron 4oman 4osen
Aussian .inister to 0apan
3197/198 19<+/19<H5F
Aussian 2m:assador to
the 'nited States 319<H/
19115
1ikolay .uraviev
.inister o% 0usti&e o%
Aussia 319H/19<,5
'.S. President 4heodore Aoosevelt 3&enter5 meets #ith 0apanese .inister o% (oreign 2%%airs 0utarP 6omura 3LL.B. Harvard 178 se&ond %rom
right58 0apanese .inister to the '.S. 6ogoro 4akahira 3right58 Aussian envoy .. Sergius Witte8 and Aussian 2m:assador to the '.S. Baron
Aosen at the signing o% the 4reaty o% Portsmouth in Portsmouth8 1e# Hampshire on Septem:er ,8 19<,. 0apan a&Euired Port 2rthur 3later
renamed 6#antung5 and southern portion o% Sakhalin )sland %rom Aussia in a pea&e treaty.
2meri&an8 Aussian8 and 0apanese envoys pose %or a group portrait at the Portsmouth 4reaty Ae&eption in Portsmouth8 1e# Hampshire8
'.S.2. in Septem:er 19<,. Iartmouth ?ollege is lo&ated in Hanover8 1e# Hampshire8 '.S.2.
Ba(e 7ni*ersity ,ra&uates an& Their Occupation &uring the +usso-Japanese 8ar
Ellis Henry Ao:erts
B.2. Yale 1,<
4reasurer o% the 'nited
States 3197/19<,5
Henry Waters 4a%t
B.2. Yale 1<
Partner o% ?ad#alader8
Wi&kersham K 4a%t Lla#
%irm in 1e# York ?ityM
3199/19H,5
William Ho#ard 4a%t
B.2. Yale 17
'.S. Se&retary o% War
3(e:ruary 18 19<H/
0une +<8 19<5
Beorge P. Wetmore
B.2. Yale 1=7
'.S. Senator
3A/Ahode )sland8 19,/
19<78 19</191+5
?haun&ey .. Iepe#
B.2. Yale 1,=
'.S. Senator 3A/1e#
York8 199/19115
Iavid 0osiah Bre#er
B.2. Yale 1,=
0usti&e o% the '.S.
Supreme ?ourt
319/191<5
(rank B. Brandegee
B.2. Yale 1,
'.S. ?ongressman
A/?onn.8 19<*/19<,5
(ran&is Burton Harrison
3B.2. Yale 19,
'.S. ?ongressman
3I/1e# York8 19<+/19<,8
19<7/191+5
0ohn IalGell
B.2. Yale 1=,
'.S. ?ongressman
3A/Penn.8 17/191+5
?harles 1e#ell (o#ler
B.2. Yale 17=
'.S. ?ongressman 3A/
1e# 0ersey8 19,/19115
Henry Billings Bro#n
B.2. Yale 1,=
0usti&e o% the '.S.
Supreme ?ourt
3191/19<=5
LeBaron Brad%ord ?olt
B.2. Yale 1=
0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o%
2ppeals %or the (irst
?ir&uit LBostonM
31H/191+5
William 6. 4o#nsend
B.2. Yale 171
0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o%
2ppeals %or the Se&ond
?ir&uit L1e# York ?ityM
319<*/19<75
@tto 4. Bannard
B.2. Yale 17=
President o% 1e# York
4rust ?o. 319<H/191=5
Ao:ert Weeks de (orest
B.2. Yale 17<
Beneral ?ounsel o%
?entral Aailroad o% 1e#
0ersey 317H/19*H5
Lloyd Wheaton Bo#ers
B.2. Yale 179
Beneral ?ounsel o%
?hi&ago K 1orth#estern
Aail#ay ?o. 319+/19<95
0ames .ul%ord 4o#nsend
B.2. Yale 17H
Beneral ?ounsel o% E.).
du Pont de 1emours
Po#der ?o. 319<+/191+5
0ohn William Sterling
B.2. Yale 1=H
?o/(ounder o% Shearman
K Sterling
Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM
317+/1915
2rthur 4#ining Hadley
B.2. Yale 17=
President o% Yale
'niversity 3199/19*15
?yrus 1orthrop
B.2. Yale 1,7
President o% 'niversity o%
.innesota 31H/19115
Yale 'niversity Braduates and 4heir @&&upation during the Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
Bovernment @%%i&ials!
William Ho#ard 4a%t 3B.2. 178 SKB 175 Q '.S. Se&retary o% War 3(e:ruary 18 19<H/0une +<8 19<5
Henry .. Hoyt8 0r. 3B.2. 178 SK6 175 Q Soli&itor Beneral o% the 'nited States 319<+/19<95
Ellis Henry Ao:erts 3B.2. 1,<8 SKB 1,<5 Q 4reasurer o% the 'nited States 3197/19<,5
William 4orrey Harris 3B.2. 1,5 Q '.S. ?ommissioner o% Edu&ation 319/19<=5
Her:ert 6no; Smith 3B.2. 1915 Q '.S. Ieputy ?ommissioner o% ?orporations8 '.S. Iepartment o% ?ommer&e and La:or 319<+/19<75
0ohn Breen Brady 3B.2. 17H5 Q Bovernor o% the 4erritory o% 2laska 3197/19<=5
Ci&tor H. .et&al% 3LL.B. 17=5 Q '.S. Se&retary o% ?ommer&e and La:or 319<H/19<=5F '.S. ?ongressman 3A/?ali%ornia8 199/19<H5
)r#in B. Laughlin 3B.2. 19+8 SK6 19+5 Q Se&ond Se&retary o% the 2meri&an Legation at 4okyo8 0apan 319<,/19<=5F Private Se&retary to the
'.S. .inister to 0apan 319<+/19<,5
Her:ert Wol&ott Bo#en 3B.2. 175 Q '.S. .inister to CeneGuela 319<1/19<,5
William Harrison Bradley 3B.2. 17*8 SK6 17*5 Q '.S. ?onsul in .an&hester8 England 319<+/19<,5
William Williams 3B.2. 1H5 Q '.S. ?ommissioner o% )mmigration %or the Port o% 1e# York at Ellis )sland 319<*/19<,8 19<9/191+5
.organ Ha#ley Bea&h 3B.2. 1*8 SK6 1*5 Q '.S. 2ttorney %or the Iistri&t o% ?olum:ia 319<+/19<,5
(red 4homas Iu:ois 3B.2. 17*8 SK6 17*5 Q '.S. Senator 3A8 I/)daho8 191/1978 19<1/19<75
Beorge Pea:ody Wetmore 3B.2. 1=78 SKB 1=75 Q '.S. Senator 3A/Ahode )sland8 19,/19<78 19</191+5
?haun&ey .. Iepe# 3B.2. 1,=8 SKB 1,=5 Q '.S. Senator 3A/1e# York8 199/19115
2l%red B. 6ittredge 3B.2. 1*8 LL.B. 1,5 Q '.S. Senator 3A/South Iakota8 19<1/19<95
(ran&is 1e#lands 3B.2. 1,95 Q '.S. Senator 3I/1evada8 19<+/19175
0ohn IalGell 3B.2. 1=,8 SK6 1=,5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3A/Pennsylvania8 17/191+5
4homas Hedge 3B.2. 1=78 SKB 1=75 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3A/)o#a8 199/19<75
?harles 1e#ell (o#ler 3B.2. 17=8 SKB 17=5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3A/1e# 0ersey8 19,/19115
0ohn A. 4hayer 3B.2. 1=95 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3I/.assa&husetts8 199/19<,5
(rank Bos#orth Brandegee 3B.2. 1,8 SKB 1,5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3A/?onne&ti&ut8 19<*/19<,5
(ran&is Burton Harrison 3B.2. 19,8 SKB 19,5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3I/1e# York8 19<+/19<,8 19<7/191+5
Iavid 0osiah Bre#er 3B.2. 1,=5 Q 0usti&e o% the '.S. Supreme ?ourt 319/191<5
Henry Billings Bro#n 3B.2. 1,=5 Q 0usti&e o% the '.S. Supreme ?ourt 3191/19<=5
LeBaron Brad%ord ?olt 3B.2. 1=8 SKB 1=5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o% 2ppeals %or the (irst ?ir&uit LBostonM 31H/191+5
William 6neeland 4o#nsend 3B.2. 1718 SKB 1715 Q 0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o% 2ppeals %or the Se&ond ?ir&uit L1e# York ?ityM 319<*/19<75
Beorge ?handler Holt 3B.2. 1==8 SKB 1==5 Q 0udge o% '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Southern Iistri&t o% 1e# York L1e# York ?ityM 319<+/191H5
0ames Perry Platt 3B.2. 17+8 SK6 17+5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Iistri&t o% ?onne&ti&ut 319<*/191+5
Elmer Bragg 2dams 3B.2. 1=,5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Eastern Iistri&t o% .issouri 319,/19<,5
Ed#ard B. Brad%ord )) 3B.2. 1=5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Iistri&t o% Iela#are 3197/1915
Ed#ard Beers 4homas 3B.2. 17<5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Eastern Iistri&t o% 1e# York 319/19<=5
Ao:ert W. 2r&h:ald 3B.2. 1718 SK6 1715 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the .iddle Iistri&t o% Pennsylvania 319<1/19115
Henry ?lay .&Io#ell 3B.2. 1H8 SK6 1H5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Western Iistri&t o% Cirginia 319<1/19+15
?harles (raser .a&Lean 3B.2. 1=H8 SKB 1=H5 Q 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% 1e# York 319=/19<95
2lmet (ran&is 0enks 3B.2. 17,8 SKB 17,5 Q 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% 1e# York 319/19*H5
0ohn Pro&tor ?larke 3B.2. 175 Q 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% 1e# York 319<1/19*=5
0oseph 2rthur Burr 3B.2. 1715 Q 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% 1e# York 319<H/191,5
0ohn 2l:ert .atthe#man 3B.2. 19H5 Q ?hie% 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% Ha#aii 319<H/19195
Leonard .ayhe# Iaggett 3B.2. 1H8 LL.B 175 Q ?orporation ?ounsel o% 1e# Haven8 ?onne&ti&ut 319<1/19<5
2rthur Le%%ing#ell Shipman 3B.2. 1=8 LL.B. 18 SKB 1=5 Q ?orporation ?ounsel o% Hart%ord8 ?onne&ti&ut 319<H/19<8 191</191*5
0ohn Pres&ott 6ellogg 3B.2. 1*8 SK6 1*5 Q ?orporation ?ounsel o% ?ity o% Water:ury8 ?onne&ti&ut 319=/19<98 1911/191*5
.ontgomery Hare 3B.2. 19+5 Q 2ssistant ?orporation ?ounsel %or 1e# York ?ity 319<1/19<=5
0ohn William Be&k#ith 3B.2. 195 Q 2ssistant ?orporation ?ounsel %or ?hi&ago 319<+/19115
Ao:ert Auther%ord .&?ormi&k 3B.2. 19<+8 SK6 19<+5 Q .em:er o% ?hi&ago ?ity ?oun&il 319<H/19<=5F President o% Sanitary Iistri&t o% ?hi&ago
319<,/191<5F Editor and Pu:lisher o% The Chicago Tribune
0ames Everett Wheeler 3B.2. 19*8 LL.B. 19H5 Q .em:er o% ?ity ?oun&il o% 1e# Haven8 ?onne&ti&ut 319<</19<H5
0ohn Payne Studley 3LL.B. 17,5 Q .ayor o% 1e# Haven8 ?onne&ti&ut 319<1/19<5
Homer S. ?ummings 3Ph.B. 1918 LL.B. 19+5 Q .ayor o% Stam%ord8 ?onne&ti&ut 319<</19<*8 19<H/19<=5
Ed#in (. S#eet 3B.2. 1718 SKB 1715 Q .ayor o% Brand Aapids8 .i&higan 319<H/19<=5
.orihiro )&hihara 3Ph.I. 19*5 Q .ayor o% Yokohama8 0apan 319<+/19<=5F President o% the Bank o% ?hosen at Seoul8 6orea 319<9/191,5
La#yers!
0ames .ul%ord 4o#nsend 3B.2. 17H8 SKB 17H5 Q Beneral ?ounsel o% E.). du Pont de 1emours Po#der ?ompany 319<+/191+5
Ao:ert Weeks de (orest 3B.2. 17<8 SK6 17<5 Q Beneral ?ounsel o% ?entral Aailroad o% 1e# 0ersey 317H/19*H5
Lloyd Wheaton Bo#ers 3B.2. 1798 SKB 1795 Q Beneral ?ounsel o% ?hi&ago K 1orth#estern Aail#ay ?ompany 319+/19<95
4homas 4ha&her 3B.2. 1718 SKB 1715 Q ?o/(ounder and .em:er o% Simpson8 4ha&her K Bartlett Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 317,/19195
Philip B. Bartlett 3B.2. 118 SKB 115 Q Partner o% Simpson8 4ha&her K Bartlett 319</19+15
4homas .ills Iay 3B.2. 1=8 LL.B. 18 SKB 1=5 Q .em:er o% Simpson8 4ha&her K Bartlett 319/19175
Henry Waters 4a%t 3B.2. 1<8 SKB 1<5 Q Partner o% ?ad#alader8 Wi&kersham K 4a%t Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 3199/19H,5
0ohn William Sterling 3B.2. 1=H8 SKB 1=H5 Q ?o/(ounder and .em:er o% Shearman K Sterling Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 317+/1915
0ohn 2nson Barver 3B.2. 17,8 SK6 17,5 Q Partner 31H/1915 and Senior Partner 3191/19+=5 o% Shearman K Sterling
Henry Ie(orest Bald#in 3B.2. 1,8 SKB 1,5 Q .em:er o% Lord8 Iay K Lord Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319<</19H75
?harles Wheeler Pierson 3B.2. 1=8 SKB 1=5 Q .em:er o% 2le;ander K Breen Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319<</19*95
(rederi&k 6ings:ury ?urtis 3B.2. 1H5 Q .em:er o% ?urtis8 .allet/Prevost8 ?olt K .osle Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319/19*=5
Her:ert Parsons 3B.2. 19<8 SK6 19<5 Q .em:er o% Parsons8 ?losson K .&llvaine Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319,/19*,5
?harles P. Ho#land 3B.2. 1915 Q .em:er o% .urray8 Prenti&e K Ho#land Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319<</19*15
Henry (let&her 3B.2. 195 Q .em:er o% (let&her8 Sill&o&ks K Leahy Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319<*/19*<5
2llen Wardner Evarts 3B.2. 1=95 Q .em:er o% Evarts8 ?hoate K Sherman Land prede&essor %irmsM L1e# York ?ityM 317H/19+95
4homas 4o#nsend Sherman 3B.2. 17H8 LL.B. ?olum:ia 17=5 Q .em:er o% Evarts8 ?hoate K Sherman Land prede&essor %irmsM 317,/19+15F
great/grandson o% Aoger Sherman
Businessmen and 0ournalists!
@tto 4. Bannard 3B.2. 17=8 SKB 17=5 Q President o% 1e# York 4rust ?ompany 319<H/191=5
El:ridge ?linton ?ooke 3B.2. 177F SKB 1775 Q President o% .inneapolis 4rust ?ompany 319<+/19*<5
Ao:ert .a&y Balla#ay 3B.2. 1,5 Q President o% .er&hants 1ational Bank L1e# York ?ityM 319*/19175
Ao:ert W. Huntington 0r. 3B.2. 198 SK6 195 Q President o% ?onne&ti&ut Beneral Li%e )nsuran&e ?o. 319<1/19+=5
Harry Payne Whitney 3B.2. 19H8 SKB 19H5 Q .em:er o% the :oard o% dire&tors o% Buaranty 4rust ?o. o% 1e# York 3199/19+<5
?harles .arshall Bro#n 3B.2. 1915 Q Se&retary and 4reasurer o% ?olonial Steel ?ompany LPitts:urghM 319<1/19175
?harles Hopkins ?lark 3B.2. 1718 SKB 1715 Q President and Editor/in/?hie% o% Hartford Courant 319</19*=5
William H. ?o#les 3B.2. 178 SKB 175 Q Pu:lisher o% Spokane Spokesman-Review 319+/19H=5
Ed#ard 2nthony Brad%ord 3B.2. 17+8 SK6 17+5 Q .em:er o% the sta%% o% The New ork Times 317H/19*5
?ollege 2dministrators and Pro%essors!
2rthur 4#ining Hadley 3B.2. 17=8 SKB 17=5 Q President o% Yale 'niversity 3199/19*15
6en$iro Yamaga#a 3Ph.B. 17,5 Q President o% 4okyo )mperial 'niversity 319<1/19<,8 191+/19*<5F .em:er o% House o% Peers 319<H/19*+5
William Aainey Harper 3Ph.I. 17,5 Q President o% the 'niversity o% ?hi&ago 3191/19<=5
?yrus 1orthrop 3B.2. 1,78 LL.B. 1,98 SKB 1,75 Q President o% 'niversity o% .innesota 31H/19115
2ustin S&ott 3B.2. 1=95 Q President o% Autgers ?ollege 3191/19<=5
Hora&e Bumstead 3B.2. 1=+5 Q President o% 2tlanta 'niversity 31/19<75
We:ster .erri%ield 3B.2. 1775 Q President o% 'niversity o% 1orth Iakota 3191/19<95
(rank Strong 3B.2. 1H5 Q ?han&ellor o% 'niversity o% 6ansas 319<*/19*<5
Beorge W. 6ir&h#ey 3B.2. 1795 Q Iean o% ?olum:ia La# S&hool 319<1/191<5
Beorge ?hase 3B.2. 17<8 valedi&torian5 Q Iean o% 1e# York La# S&hool 3191/19*H5
1athan Iavis 2::ott 3B.2. 1778 SK6 1775 Q Iean o% Stan%ord 'niversity La# S&hool 319H/19<75
William 4hayer Smith 3B.2. 1=<8 SKB 1=<5 Q Iean o% Iartmouth .edi&al S&hool 319=/19<95
Beorge Iutton Watrous 3B.2. 1798 LL.B. 1+5 Q Pro%essor o% La# at Yale La# S&hool 319,/19*<5
Henry Wal&ott (arnam 3B.2. 17H8 SKB 17H5 Q Pro%essor o% Politi&al E&onomy at Yale 'niversity 31</191*5
)rving (isher 3B.2. 18 Ph.I. 1918 SKB 15 Q Pro%essor o% Politi&al E&onomy at Yale 'niversity 319+/19+,5
Bustav Bruener 3B.2. 1H8 SKB 1H5 Q Pro%essor o% Berman at Yale 'niversity 319*/19*5
Ao:ert 1elson ?or#in 3B.2. 178 SKB 175 Q Pro%essor o% Berman at Yale 'niversity 3199/19++5
Horatio .&Leod Aeynolds 3B.2. 1<5 Q 4al&ott Pro%essor o% the Breek Language and Literature at Yale 'niversity 319+/19**5
?harlton .. Le#is 3B.2. 1=8 SKB 1=5 Q Emily San%ord Pro%essor o% English at Yale 'niversity 3199/19*+5
0ames W. )ngersoll 3B.2. 19*8 SKB 19*5 Q Pro%essor o% Latin at Yale 'niversity 3197/19*15
?harles (oster 6ent 3B.2. 198 Ph.I. 1915 Q Woolsey Pro%essor o% Bi:li&al Literature at Yale 'niversity 319<1/19*,5
Ed#ard Salis:ury Iana 3B.2. 17<8 SK6 17<5 Q Pro%essor o% Physi&s at Yale 'niversity 319</19175
I#ight Whitney Learned 3B.2. 17<8 Ph.I. 17+8 SKB 17<5 Q Pro%essor o% ?hinese History8 Bi:li&al 4heology8 and Breek at Ioshisha
?ollege in 6yoto8 0apan 317=/19*5
Henry 4aylor 4erry 3B.2. 1=95 Q Pro%essor o% English La# at 'niversity o% 4okyo 319H/191*5
0ohn 4rum:ull S#i%t 3B.2. 1H5 Q Le&turer on the English language in 4okyo )mperial 'niversity 319<</19*75
William Ste#art Halsted 3B.2. 17H5 Q Surgeon/in/?hie% o% 0ohns Hopkins Hospital at Baltimore 319</19**5
0ohn Louis E#ell 3B.2. 1=,8 SKB 1=,5 Q Pro%essor o% ?hur&h History and He:re# E;egesis at Ho#ard 'niversity LWash.8 I.?.M 3191/191<5
Warren 2ustin 2dams 3B.2. 1=8 Ph.I. 19,5 Q Pro%essor o% Berman at Iartmouth ?ollege 319<H/19HH5
0ohn Seymour 4ha&her 3B.2. 1778 SKB 1775 Q Pro%essor o% ?lini&al .edi&ine at ?olum:ia 'niversity 319<+/1915
Beorge E. Cin&ent 3B.2. 1,8 SK6 1,5 Q Pro%essor o% So&iology at 'niversity o% ?hi&ago 319<H/19115
Henry Her:ert Ionaldson 3B.2. 1798 SK6 1795 Q Pro%essor o% 1eurology at 'niversity o% ?hi&ago 319*/19<=5
@rganiGation E;e&utives!
(ranklin 2ugustus Baylord 3B.2. 17=5 Q Beneral Se&retary o% the Aussian Y.?2 in St. Peters:urg8 Aussia 3199/19175
4homas (. Iavies 3B.2. 1,+8 SKB 1,+5 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop %or the Epis&opal Iio&ese o% .i&higan 319/19<,5
Boyd Cin&ent 3B.2. 1=78 SK6 1=75 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop %or the Epis&opal Iio&ese o% Southern @hio 319<H/19*95
?haun&ey B. Bre#ster 3B.2. 1=8 SKB 1=5 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop %or the Epis&opal Iio&ese o% ?onne&ti&ut 3199/19*5
Ed#in Stevens Lines 3B.2. 17*8 SK6 17*5 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop %or the Epis&opal Iio&ese o% 1e#ark8 1e# 0ersey 319<+/19*75
(rederi& W. 6eator 3B.2. 1<8 LL.B. 1*8 SK6 1<5 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop %or the Epis&opal Iio&ese o% @lympia8 Wa. 319<*/19*H5
?ortlandt Whitehead 3B.2. 1=+5 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop %or the Epis&opal Iio&ese o% Pitts:urgh8 Pennsylvania 31*/19**5F Brand
?haplain o% the Brand Lodge o% Pennsylvania (ree and 2&&epted .asons 31+/19*15
Sereno I#ight 1i&kerson 3B.2. 1H,8 SKB 1H,5 Q Ae&ording Brand Se&retary o% the Brand Lodge o% .assa&husetts 311/19<5
William H. Wel&h 3B.2. 17<8 SKB 17<5 Q President o% the :oard o% dire&tors o% Ao&ke%eller )nstitute %or .edi&al Aesear&h 319<1/19+H5
Ianiel ?oit Bilman 3B.2. 1,*8 SKB 1,*5 Q President o% ?arnegie )nstitution o% Washington 319<*/19<,5F President o% the 1ational ?ivil
Servi&e Ae%orm League 319<1/19<75
Iavid 0ames Burrell 3B.2. 1=78 SK6 1=75 Q Pastor o% .ar:le ?ollegiate ?hur&h in 1e# York ?ity 3191/19*=5
Henry 2l:ert Stimson 3B.2. 1=,8 SKB 1=,5 Q Pastor o% .anhattan ?hur&h in 1e# York ?ity 319=/19175
0oseph I. Burrell 3B.2. 118 SKB 115 Q Pastor o% ?lasson 2venue ?hur&h in Brooklyn L1e# York ?ityM 319*/19195
1ote! 2::reviations %or Yale 'niversity graduates! SKB R Skull K BonesF SK6 R S&roll K 6ey
Harvard 'niversity Braduates and 4heir @&&upation during the Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
(ederal Bovernment @%%i&ials!
4heodore Aoosevelt 3B.2. 1<5 Q President o% the 'nited States 319<1/19<95
William Henry .oody 3B.2. 17=5 Q Se&retary o% the 1avy 319<*/19<H5F '.S. 2ttorney Beneral 319<H/19<=5
?harles Hallam 6eep 32.B. 1*8 LL.B. 1,5 Q 2ssistant Se&retary o% the 4reasury 319<+/19<75
Ed#in C. .organ 32.B. 19<5 Q '.S. .inister to 6orea 30une *=8 19<,/1ovem:er 178 19<,5
Ai&hard 4heodore Breener 32.B. 17<5 Q '.S. ?onsul to Cladivostok8 Aussia 319/19<,5F %irst 2%ri&an/2meri&an Harvard graduate
Aoger Sherman Breene 32.B. 19<15 Q '.S. Ci&e ?onsul to 1agasaki8 0apan 319<H/19<,5F '.S. ?onsul at Har:in8 ?hina 319<9/19115
0oseph Hodges ?hoate 3B.2. 1,*8 LL.B. 1,H5 Q '.S. 2m:assador to Breat Britain 3.ar&h =8 199/.ay *+8 19<,5
?harlemagne 4o#er 3B.2. 17*5 Q '.S. 2m:assador to Aussia 3199/19<*5F '.S. 2m:assador to Bermany 319<*/19<5
Bellamy Storer 3B.2. 1=75 Q '.S. 2m:assador to 2ustria/Hungary 319<*/19<=5
Beorge von L. .eyer 3B.2. 1795 Q '.S. 2m:assador to )taly 3(e:ruary H8 19<1/2pril 18 19<,5F '.S. 2m:assador to Aussia 319<,/19<75
0ohn W. Aiddle 3B.2. 175 Q '.S. ?onsul Beneral in Egypt 3.ar&h *8 19<H/0une 98 19<,5F '.S. 2m:assador to Aussia 319<7/19<95
Henry ?a:ot Lodge Sr. 3B.2. 1718 LL.B. 17H8 Ph.I. 17=5 Q '.S. Senator 3A/.assa&husetts8 19+/19*H5
Boies Penrose 3B.2. 115 Q '.S. Senator 3A/Pennsylvania8 197/19*15
Beorge Edmund (oss 3B.2. 1,5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3A/)llinois8 19,/191+8 191,/19195
Henry Sherman Boutell 3B.2. 17=5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3A/)llinois8 197/19115
Lu&ius 1. Littauer 3B.2. 175 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3A/1e# York8 197/19<75
2ugustus Pea:ody Bardner 3B.2. 1=5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3A/.assa&husetts8 19<*/19175
1i&holas Long#orth 3B.2. 1915 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3A/@hio8 19<+/191+8 191,/19+15
@liver Wendell Holmes 0r. 3B.2. 1=18 LL.B. 1==5 Q 0usti&e o% the '.S. Supreme ?ourt 319<*/19+*5
0ohn 6elvey Ai&hards 3B.2. 1775 Q 0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o% 2ppeals %or the Si;th ?ir&uit 319<+/19<95
(ran&is ?a:ot Lo#ell 3B.2. 17=8 LL.B. 1795 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Iistri&t o% .assa&husetts 319/19<,5
Her:ert Putnam 3B.2. 1+5 Q Li:rarian o% ?ongress 3199/19+95
Beekman Winthrop 3B.2. 1975 Q Bovernor o% Puerto Ai&o 319<H/19<75
0ohn Per&y 1ields 32.B. 198 LL.B. 19*5 Q '.S. 2ttorney %or the Iistri&t o% Iela#are 319<+/191=5
State and Lo&al Bovernment @%%i&ials!
2l%red Stedman Hart#ell 3B.2. 1,8 LL.B. 1=75 Q 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% the 4erritory o% Ha#aii 319<H/19115
0ames 4yndale .it&hell 3B.2. 1,,5 Q ?hie% 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% Pennsylvania 319<+/19<95
William ?ale: Loring 3B.2. 17*8 LL.B. 17H5 Q 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% .assa&husetts 3199/19195
Henry 1e#ton Sheldon 32.B. 1=+5 Q 0usti&e o% the Superior ?ourt o% .assa&husetts 319H/19<,5
Her:ert Parker 32.B. 19=5 Q 2ttorney Beneral o% .assa&husetts 319<1/19<,5
.ar&us ?au%%man Sloss 32.B. 19<8 LL.B. 19+5 Q 0udge o% the Superior ?ourt o% the ?ity and ?ounty o% San (ran&is&o 319<1/19<=5
2::ot Lo# .ills 32.B. 115 Q .em:er8 @regon State House o% Aep. 319<H/<,5F President8 (irst 1ational Bank o% Portland L@regonM 319<+/*75
Louis 2dams (rothingham 32.B. 19+8 LL.B. 19=5 Q .em:er 319<1/<,5 and Speaker 319<H/19<,5 o% .ass. State House o% Aepresentatives
Ao:ert Lu&e 32.B. 1*5 Q .em:er o% the .assa&husetts State House o% Aepresentatives 31998 19<1/19<5
0ames 2rnold Lo#ell 32.B. 1918 LL.B. 19H5 Q .em:er o% the .assa&husetts State House o% Aepresentatives 319<H/19<=5
Beorge Ii&kson .arkham 32.B. 115 Q .em:er o% ?ity ?oun&il o% St. Louis8 .issouri 319<1/19<,5
Ao:ert Brant 32.B. 17+8 Ph.I. 17=8 LL.B. 1795 Q 0udge o% the Pro:ate ?ourt and ?ourt o% )nsolven&y %or Su%%olk ?ounty LBostonM8
.assa&husetts 319+/19*+5
Bankers!
2ugust Belmont 0r. 32.B. 17H5 Q Head o% 2ugust Belmont K ?o.8 :ankers8 1e# York ?ity 319</19*H5
0ohn Pierpont N0a&kO .organ 0r. 32.B. 195 Q .em:er o% 0.P. .organ K ?o. 319<1/191+5
Paul 0. Sa&hs 32.B. 19<<5 Q Partner o% Boldman8 Sa&hs K ?o. 319<H/191H5
Beorge ?a:ot Lee 32.B. 19H5 Q .em:er o% Lee Higginson K ?o. 319<</&.19+5
4homas W. Lamont 32.B. 19*5 Q Se&retary8 4reasurer8 and Ci&e President o% Bankers 4rust ?ompany 319<+/19<95
Ed#ard Per&ival .erritt 32.B. 1*5 Q .em:er o% Blodget8 .erritt K ?o. L:anking %irm in BostonM 319+/191<5
Aussell Breen (essenden 32.B. 19<5 Q President and ?hairman o% 2meri&an 4rust ?ompany L:anking %irm in BostonM 319<7/19*75
Businessmen!
(rederi&k Perry (ish 32.B. 17,5 Q President o% 2meri&an 4elephone K 4elegraph ?o. L24K4M 319<1/19<75
Ao:ert 4odd Lin&oln 3B.2. 1=H5 Q President o% 4he Pullman ?o. 3197/19115
Ho#ard Elliott 3?.E. 115 Q President o% 1orthern Pa&i%i& Aail#ay ?o. 319<+/191+5
(rederi& 2. Ielano 32.B. 1,5 Q Beneral .anager at ?hi&ago o%%i&e8 ?hi&ago8 Burlington K Juin&y Aailroad ?o. 30uly 18 19<1/0an. 1<8 19<,5
?harles 1orman (ay 3B.2. 1=95 Q President o% Aemington/Sholes ?ompany Lmanu%a&turers o% type#riters in ?hi&agoM 319=/19<95
2dolphus Williamson Breen 32.B. 1=+5 Q ?o/(ounder and President o% 1ational Bis&uit ?ompany L1a:is&oM 319<,5
Hammond Lamont 32.B. 1=5 Q .anaging Editor o% New ork !vening "ost 319<</19<=5
Samuel Iennis Warren 32.B. 17,8 LL.B. 1775 Q Partner o% S.I. Warren K ?o. Lpaper manu%a&turers in BostonM 319/191<5
(iske Warren 3B.2. 1H5 Q Partner o% S.I. Warren K ?o. Lpaper manu%a&turers in BostonM 319/1915
(rederi& ?rom#ell 3B.2. 1=+5 Q 4reasurer and 4rustee o% .utual Li%e )nsuran&e ?ompany o% 1e# York
2l%red I#ight (oster 32.B. 17+5 Q Ci&e President o% 1e# England .utual Li%e )nsuran&e ?ompany 319+/19<5
?ollege 2dministrators and Pro%essors!
?harles William Eliot 32.B. 1,+5 Q President o% Harvard 'niversity 31=9/19<95
William IeWitt Hyde 3B.2. 1795 Q President o% Bo#doin ?ollege 31,/19175
Bartholome# (ran&is Bri%%in 32.B. 1995 Q President o% @ahu ?ollege LHonoluluM 319<*/19**5
Beorge Edmands .errill 3B.2. 1=95 Q President o% ?olgate 'niversity 3199/19<5
?harles (ranklin 4h#ing 3B.2.17=5 Q President o% Western Aeserve 'niversity 319</19*15
Prin&e Lu&ien ?amp:ell 32.B.1=5 Q President o% 'niversity o% @regon 319<*/19*,5
0ames Barr 2mes 3B.2. 1=8 LL.B. 17*5 Q Iean o% Harvard La# S&hool 319,/191<5
(ran&is Breen#ood Pea:ody 32.B. 1=95 Q Iean o% Harvard Iivinity S&hool 319<1/19<,5
William Lam:ert Ai&hardson 32.B. 1=H8 ..I. 1=75 Q Iean o% (a&ulty o% .edi&ine at Harvard 'niversity 3199/19<75
0oseph (ren&h 0ohnson 32.B. 175 Q Iean o% S&hool o% ?ommer&e8 2&&ounts and (inan&e at 1e# York 'niversity 319<+/19*,5
.arshall Solomon Sno# 32.B. 1=,5 Q Iean o% Washington 'niversity in St. Louis L.issouriM 317=/191*5
Horatio Stevens White 32.B. 17+5 Q Pro%essor o% Berman at Harvard 'niversity 319<*/19195
Eugene Wam:augh 32.B. 17=8 LL.B. 1<5 Q Pro%essor o% La# at Harvard 'niversity 319*/19*,5
0ohn Eliot Wol%% 32.B. 1798 Ph.I. 195 Q Pro%essor o% Petrography and .ineralogy at Harvard 'niversity 319,/19*+5
Samuel Williston 32.B. 1*8 LL.B. 15 Q Weld Pro%essor o% La# at Harvard 'niversity 319<+/19195
4heodore William Ai&hards 32.B. 1=8 Ph.I. 15 Q Pro%essor o% ?hemistry at Harvard 'niversity 319<1/19*5
Beorge (olger ?an%ield 32.B. 17,F LL.B. 1<5 Q Pro%essor o% La# at ?olum:ia 'niversity 319H/&.19195
0ames Harvey Ao:inson 32.B. 175 Q Pro%essor o% History at ?olum:ia 'niversity 319,/19195
?harles 2ugustus Strong 32.B. 1,5 Q Pro%essor o% Psy&hology at ?olum:ia 'niversity 319<+/191<5F married Bessie Ao&ke%eller8 daughter o%
0ohn I. Ao&ke%eller Sr.
0ames Lauren&e Laughlin 32.B. 17+F Ph.I. 17=5 Q Pro%essor o% Politi&al E&onomy at 'niversity o% ?hi&ago 319*/191=5
0ames Ai&hard 0e#ett 32.B. 1H5 Q Pro%essor o% 2ra:i& Language and Literature at 'niversity o% ?hi&ago 319<*/19115
Ao:ert Herri&k 32.B. 19<5 Q 2sso&iate Pro%essor o% English at 'niversity o% ?hi&ago 319<1/19<,5
Henry S&ho%ield 32.B. 178 LL.B. 19<5 Q Pro%essor o% La# at 1orth#estern 'niversity L)llinoisM 319<*/1915
(rederi&k Breen 32.B. 198 LL.B. 19+5 Q Pro%essor o% La# at 'niversity o% )llinois 319<H/&.19*5
Evarts Boutell Breene 32.B. 19<8 2... 1918 Ph.I. 19+5 Q Pro%essor o% History at 'niv. o% )llinois 3197/19*+5F :rother o% 0erome I. Breene
Wilder I#ight Ban&ro%t 32.B. 15 Q Pro%essor o% Physi&al ?hemistry at ?ornell 'niversity 319<+/19+75
William 0ulian 2l:ert Bliss 32.B. 15 Q Pro%essor o% Physi&s at 0ohns Hopkins 'niversity 319<1/19*5
Aeynolds Iriver Bro#n 32.B. 19<5 Q Pro%essor o% La# at 'niversity o% Pennsylvania 3197/19+=5
William .a&Ionald 32.B. 19*5 Q Pro%essor o% History at Bro#n 'niversity 319<1/19175
Ed#ard Everett Hale 32.B. 1+5 Q Pro%essor o% English at 'nion ?ollege 319,/19+*5
La#yers!
?harles Ho#land Aussell 32.B. 17*8 LL.B. ?olum:ia 17H5 Q .em:er o% Stetson8 0ennings K Aussell Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319H/19*15
Edmund Lin&oln Baylies 32.B. 1798 LL.B. 1*5 Q .em:er o% ?arter8 Ledyard K .il:urn Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319<H/19*=5
William 4homas 32.B. 17+8 LL.B. 17=5 Q .em:er o% 4homas8 Beedy8 Presley K Paramore Lla# %irm in San (ran&is&oM
Edgar 0udson Ai&h 32.B. 178 LL.B. 1915 Q Beneral Soli&itor o% Boston K .aine Aailroad 319<+/191,5
Hollis Aussell Bailey 32.B. 177F LL.B. 175 Q ?hairman o% .assa&husetts Board o% Bar E;aminers 319<+/19+15F Iemo&rat
?hur&h Leaders!
Ed#ard Everett Hale 3B.2. 1+95 Q ?haplain o% the 'nited States Senate 319<+/19<95
William La#ren&e 32.B. 1715 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop %or the Epis&opal Iio&ese o% .assa&husetts 319+/19*=5
Beorge 2ngier Bordon 32.B. 115 Q .inister o% @ld South ?hur&h in Boston 31H/19*75
Ed#ard ?ummings 32.B. 1+5 Q .inister o% South ?ongregational ?hur&h in Boston 319<</19*,5
2ugustus .endon Lord 32.B. 1+5 Q .inister o% (irst ?ongregational 3'nitarian5 ?hur&h in Providen&e8 Ahode )sland 319</19+15
?harles Elliott St. 0ohn 32.B. 1795 Q Se&retary o% 2meri&an 'nitarian 2sso&iation in Boston 319<</19<75
.is&ellaneous!
2ugustine Heard 3B.2. 1H75 Q '.S. .inister to 6orea 319</19+5
0utarP 6omura 3LL.B. 175 Q 0apanese .inister o% (oreign 2%%airs 319<1/19<=8 19</19115
Ed#ard H. Stro:el 3B.2. 1775 Q Beneral 2dviser to the Bovernment o% Siam L4hailandM 319<+/19<75
Ed#ard B. Ire# 3B.2. 1=+5 Q ?ommissioner o% the ?hinese )mperial .aritime ?ustoms 31=9/19<5
Henry (erdinand .errill 3B.2. 17H5 Q ?ommissioner o% the ?hinese )mperial .aritime ?ustoms 317/191=5
Ben$amin .organ Harrod 3B.2. 1,=5 Q .em:er o% Panama ?anal ?ommission 319<H/19<75F ?ity Engineer o% 1e# @rleans 31/19*5F ?hie%
State Engineer o% Louisiana 3177/1<5F .em:er o% '.S. .ississippi Aiver ?ommission 3179/19<H5
1ote! (rederi& 2. Ielano #as (ranklin Ielano Aoosevelt7s un&leF (ranklin Ielano Aoosevelt7s mother #as Sara Ielano8 the sister o% (rederi&
2. Ielano. (rederi& 2. Ielano #as :orn in Hong 6ong on Septem:er 1<8 1=+.
.
Prin&eton 'niversity Braduates and 4heir @&&upation during the Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
Bovernment @%%i&ials!
Ai&hard Wayne Parker 32.B. 1=75 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/1e# 0ersey8 19,/19118 191H/19198 19*1/19*+5
)ra Wells Wood 32.B. 1775 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/1e# 0ersey8 19<H/191+5
0oseph Holt Baines 32.B. 1=5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/West Cirginia8 19<1/19115
Ai&hmond Pearson 32.B. 17*5 Q '.S. .inister to Persia 319<+/19<75
Samuel A. Bummere 32.B. 17<5 Q '.S. ?onsul Beneral at 4angier L.oro&&oM 319/19<,5
Beorge Bray 32.B. 1,95 Q 0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o% 2ppeals %or the 4hird ?ir&uit LPhiladelphiaM 3199/191H5
0ohn Bayard .&Pherson 32.B. 1==5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Eastern Iistri&t o% Pennsylvania 3199/191*5
0ohn 0ay 0a&kson8 0r. 32.B. 1H,5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the 1orthern Iistri&t o% West Cirginia 319<1/19<,5
0oseph ?ross 32.B. 1=,5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Iistri&t o% 1e# 0ersey 3.ar&h 178 19<,/@&to:er *98 191+5F .em:er o% 1e#
0ersey State Senate 3199/19<,5
Beorge B. .&?lellan 0r. 32.B. 1=5 Q .ayor o% 1e# York ?ity 30anuary 18 19<H/Ie&em:er +18 19<95
(rank S. 6atGen:a&h 0r. 32.B. 195 Q .ayor o% 4renton8 1e# 0ersey 319<1/19<75
William (ranklin Henney 32.B. 17H5 Q .ayor o% Hart%ord8 ?onne&ti&ut 319<H/19<5
?harles 2ndre# 4al&ott 32.B. 1795 Q .ayor o% 'ti&a8 1e# York 319<*/19<=5
William S. Bummere 32.B. 17<5 Q ?hie% 0usti&e o% the Supreme ?ourt o% 1e# 0ersey 319<1/19++5
.ahlon Pitney 32.B. 1795 Q 0udge o% the Supreme ?ourt o% 1e# 0ersey 319<1/19<5
Ao:ert H. .&?arter 32.B. 1795 Q 2ttorney Beneral o% 1e# 0ersey 319<+/19<5
@thers!
Woodro# Wilson 32.B. 1795 Q President o% Prin&eton 'niversity 319<*/191<5
Winthrop .ore Ianiels 32.B. 15 Q Pro%essor o% Politi&al E&onomy at Prin&eton 'niversity 319*/19115F Pro%essor o% 4ransportation at Yale
'niversity 319*+/19H<5
William .&6i::in 32.B. 1=95 Q President o% Lane 4heologi&al Seminary in ?in&innati8 @hio 319<H/19*,5
(ranklin Spen&er Spalding 32.B. 175 Q Protestant Epis&opal Bishop o% the Iio&ese o% 'tah 319<H/191H5
William 0ames .&6ittri&k 32.B. 17=5 Q Pastor o% (irst ?hur&h in St. Louis8 .issouri 3199/191=5
William 0ames Aeid 0r. 32.B. 19+5 Q Pastor o% (irst ?hur&h in Pitts:urgh8 Pennsylvania 319<*/19H+5
Wilton .erle/Smith 32.B. 1775 Q Pastor o% ?entral ?hur&h in 1e# York ?ity 319/19*<5
Braham Lee 32.B. 195 Q ?hristian .issionary in Pyongyang8 6orea 319*/191*5
Iartmouth ?ollege Braduates and Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
?harles Ianiel 4enney 32.B. 175 Q President o% )mperial ?hinese 'niversity at 4ientsin8 ?hina 319,/19<=5F ?hinese Se&retary at 2meri&an
Legation in Peking 3.ar&h 118 19</.ar&h +18 191*5
William 0e#ett 4u&ker 32.B. 1=15 Q President o% Iartmouth ?ollege 319+/19<95
Beorge 2ugustus Bates 32.B. 17+5 Q President o% Pomona ?ollege L?laremont8 ?ali%orniaM 319<*/19<95
2l:ert Ellis (rost 32.B. 17*5 Q 4reasurer o% 'niversity o% Pitts:urgh 319*/19<95
Henry E:en Burnham 32.B. 1=,5 Q '.S. Senator 3Aepu:li&an/1e# Hampshire8 19<1/191+5
Aed%ield Pro&tor 32.B. 1,15 Q '.S. Senator 3Aepu:li&an/Cermont8 191/19<5
Iavid 0ohnson (oster 32.B. 1<5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/Cermont8 19<1/191*5
Samuel Walker .&?all 32.B. 17H5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/.assa&husetts8 19+/191+5
Samuel Leland Po#ers 32.B. 17H5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/.assa&husetts8 19<1/19<,5
?harles Juin&y 4irrell 32.B. 1==5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/.assa&husetts8 19<1/191<5
Walter Henry San:orn 32.B. 1=75 Q 0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o% 2ppeals %or the Eighth ?ir&uit LSt. LouisM 319*/19*5
?harles 2ndre# Willard 32.B. 1775 Q '.S. 4erritorial 0udge o% the Philippine )slands 319<1/19<95
(rank 1aismith Parsons 32.B. 17H5 Q ?hie% 0usti&e o% the 1e# Hampshire Supreme ?ourt 319<*/19*H5
Beorge Hut&hins Bingham 32.B. 175 Q 0usti&e o% the 1e# Hampshire Supreme ?ourt 319<*/191+5
Harry B. 4hayer 32.B. 1795 Q Ci&e President o% Western Ele&tri& ?ompany 319<*/19<5
?harles Henry 4reat 32.B. 1=+5 Q ?olle&tor o% )nternal Aevenue %or the Wall Street Iistri&t 319=/19<,5F 4reasurer o% the '.S. 319<,/19<95
Samuel Henry Hudson 32.B. 1,5 Q (irst 2ssistant ?orporation ?ounsel o% Boston 319<H/19<=5
?olum:ia 'niversity Braduates K Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
1i&holas .urray Butler 3B.2. 1*F ..2. 1+F Ph.I. 1H5 Q President o% ?olum:ia 'niversity 319<*/19H,5
(rederi& A. ?oudert 3B.2. 19<F 2... 191F Ph.I. 19H5 Q .em:er o% ?oudert Brothers Lla# %irm in 1e# York ?ityM 319,/19,,5
E.A.2. Seligman 3B.2. 179F LL.B. 1HF Ph.I. 1,5 Q .&Ci&kar Pro%essor o% Politi&al E&onomy and (inan&e at ?olum:ia 'niv. 319<H/19+15
William 4. Sa:ine 3B.2. 1,95 Q Pastor o% the (irst Ae%ormed Epis&opalian ?hur&h in 1e# York ?ity 317H/19<75
Emile Henry La&om:e 3B.2. 1=+F LL.B. 1=,5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o% 2ppeals %or the Se&ond ?ir&uit 3191/191=5
Beorge Lo&khart Aives 3B.2. 1=8 LL.B. 17+5 Q ?orporation ?ounsel o% 1e# York ?ity 319<*/19<H5
Bernard Ira&hman 3B.2. 1*8 Ph.I. Heidel:erg 1H5 Q Aa::i o% ?ongregation Si&hron Ephraim in 1e# York ?ity 319/19H,5F Pro%essor o%
Bi:le and Aa::ini&al ?odes at 0e#ish 4heologi&al Seminary o% 2meri&a 319<*/19<5
Bro#n 'niversity Braduates and Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
0ohn Hay 32.B. 1,5 Q '.S. Se&retary o% State 319/19<,5
2ugustus .iller 32.B. 1715 Q .ayor o% Providen&e8 Ahode )sland 319<+/19<,5
2rthur Le#is Bro#n 32.B. 17=5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. Iistri&t ?ourt %or the Iistri&t o% Ahode )sland 319=/19*75
(ranklin E. Brooks 32.B. 1+5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/?olorado8 19<+/19<75
0ames Burrill 2ngell 32.B. 1H95 Q President o% 'niversity o% .i&higan 3171/19<95
William H.P. (aun&e 32.B. 1<5 Q President o% Bro#n 'niversity 3199/19*95
0ohn I. Ao&ke%eller 0r. 32.B. 1975 Q 4rustee o% Ao&ke%eller )nstitute %or .edi&al Aesear&h 319<1/19,H5
2mherst ?ollege Braduates and Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
(rederi&k Huntington Billett 32.B. 17H5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3Aepu:li&an/.assa&husetts8 19+/19*,5
Beorge Pelton La#ren&e 32.B. 1<5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3Aepu:li&an/.assa&husetts8 197/191+5
Henry 4homas Aainey 32.B. 1+5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3Iemo&rat/)llinois8 19<+/19*18 19*+/19+H5
Ed#ard .urray Bassett 32.B. 1H5 Q .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3Iemo&rat/ 1e# York8 19<+/19<,5
Lu&ius (ayette ?lark Barvin 32.B. 1=*5 Q Bovernor o% Ahode )sland 319<+/19<,5
Beorge Her:ert 'tter 32.B. 1775 Q Bovernor o% Ahode )sland 319<,/19<75F Lieutenant Bovernor o% Ahode )sland 319<H/19<,5
?harles (. Stearns 32.B. 195 Q 2ttorney Beneral o% Ahode )sland 319<1/19<,5
William 2. 6ing 32.B. 175 Q 2ttorney Beneral o% ?onne&ti&ut 319<+/19<75
?ale: A. Layton 0r. 32.B. 17+5 Q Se&retary o% State o% Iela#are 319<1/19<,5
Walter Wyman 32.B. 17<5 Q Surgeon Beneral o% the 'nited States 3191/19115
Beorge Harris 32.B. 1==5 Q President o% 2mherst ?ollege 3199/191*5
Aush Ahees 32.B. 1+5 Q President o% 'niversity o% Ao&hester 319<</19+,5
William (oster Peir&e 32.B. 15 Q President o% 6enyon ?ollege L@hioM 319=/19+75
0ames Bris#old .errill 32.B. 1=+5 Q President o% (isk 'niversity L:la&k &ollege in 1ashville8 4ennesseeM 3199/19<5
Her:ert Bardiner Lord 32.B. 1715 Q Pro%essor o% Philosophy at ?olum:ia 'niversity 319<</19*15
?harles Henry Parkhurst 32.B. 1==5 Q Pastor o% .adison SEuare Pres:yterian ?hur&h in 1e# York ?ity 31</1915
Williams ?ollege Braduates and Ausso/0apanese War 319<H/19<,5
Henry Hopkins 3B.2. 1,5 Q President o% Williams ?ollege 319<*/19<5
Branville Stanley Hall 3B.2. 1=75 Q President o% ?lark 'niversity 31/19*<5
William Ball Bil:ert 3B.2. 1=5 Q 0udge o% the '.S. ?ourt o% 2ppeals %or the 1inth ?ir&uit 319*/19+15
.i&hael Ed#ard Iris&oll 3B.2. 1775 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/1e# York8 199/191+5
Beorge 1e#ell South#i&k 3B.2. 1H5 Q '.S. ?ongressman 3Aepu:li&an/1e# York8 19,/1998 19<1/19115
Ai&hard 2&hilles Ballinger 3B.2. 1H5 Q .ayor o% Seattle8 Washington 319<H/19<=5
1ote! Prominent ne#spaper pu:lisher 2illiam 4andolph -earst #as a .em:er o% the '.S. House o% Aepresentatives 3Iemo&rat/1e# York5
%rom .ar&h H8 19<+ to .ar&h +8 19<7.
1ote! 0ohn ..B. Sill8 the '.S. .inister to 6orea %rom 2pril +<8 19H until Septem:er 1+8 197 3ma$or events in&lude the (irst Sino/0apanese
War and 2ssassination o% Jueen .in58 served as the inaugural Superintendent o% the Ietroit pu:li& s&hools.
Imperia( Japanese 0ub:ugation of Korea
)mperial 0apanese 2rmy 3<@A^_D5 troops mar&h through the West Bate in Seoul8 6orea in 19<H. 4he &ity o% Seoul #as
the &apital &ity o% the 6orean Empire 3À^8 197/191<5 and the %ormer 0oseon Iynasty8 or 6ingdom o% 0oseon 3ab^8
1+9*/1975. 3Photo! Li:rary o% ?ongress5
Japanese en*oy Kuro&a Kiyota'a, )ho (ater ser*e& as Prime Minister of Japan from "??? to "??#, signs the Japan-Korea Treaty
of Amity of "?<!, a(so 'no)n as the Treaty of ,angh)a, opening Korea to Japanese tra&e, in "?<!4 The une@ua( treaty re@uire&
Korea open the ports of Husan 2Pusan3, Inchon an& 8uson to Japanese tra&e4 The une@ua( treaty a(so grante& Japanese peop(e
resi&ing in Korea e>traterritoria(ity an& other pri*i(eges4
Imperia( Japanese Army troops pose for a group portrait a(ongsi&e four ,at(ing guns they set up at a temp(e in
,angh)a, Korea in "?<! &uring the Kuro&a Mission4 The Kuro&a Mission, (e& by Kuro&a Kiyota'a, negotiate& an
une@ua( NfreeO tra&e agreement )ith Korea4

Le%t photo! Emperor B#angmu 3Bo$ong5 o% the 6orean Empire ruled 6orea %rom 1=+ to 19<7.
Aight photo! 2 photo o% 6oreans #ho died in %ighting in B#anseong Barrison during the 6orean E;pedition o% 171. 4he 'nited States 1avy
engaged in a military &ampaign8 also kno#n as the 6orean E;pedition o% 171 or Shinmiyangyo8 on and around the 6orean island o% Bangh#a
near present/day Seoul in 171. 'lysses S. Brant8 a %ormer '.S. 2rmy general during the 2meri&an ?ivil War8 #as the President o% the 'nited
States in 171. 3Sour&e o% photograph! 'lysses S. Brant ))) Photographi& ?olle&tion Aelating to the 6orean Punitive E;pedition5

Le%t photo! .em:ers o% the Provisional Bovernment o% the Aepu:li& o% 6orea8 in&luding Ir. Syngman Ahee8 pose %or a group photo on @&to:er
118 1919. 3Photo! http!""###.ahn&hangho.or.kr"site"::s":oard.phpT:o-ta:leRgroup-<1-a<1-<HK#r-idR,5
Aight photo! 2 portrait o% 2hn 0ung/geun8 the 6orean nationalist and ?hristian soldier #ho assassinated Hiro:umi )tP at the Har:in Aail#ay
Station in Har:in8 ?hina L.an&huriaM on @&to:er *=8 19<9. 2n 0ung/geun #as e;e&uted :y hanging at Port 2rthur8 ?hina L0apanM on .ar&h *=8
191<.
American Consuls to the Japanese ,mpire5
Aans%ord Stevens .iller 3B.2. ?ornell 'niversity 15 Q '.S. ?onsul Beneral in Seoul8 6orea L0apanM 3191+/19178 1919/19+<5
Ed#in Lo#e 1eville 3B.2. 'niversity o% .i&higan 19<75 Q '.S. ?onsul Beneral in 4okyo8 0apan 319*,/19*75
Beorge H. S&idmore Q '.S. ?onsul Beneral in Seoul8 6orea L0apanM 319<9/19115F '.S. ?onsul Beneral in Yokohama8 0apan 3191+/19**5
0ohn 6er Iavis Q '.S. ?onsul Beneral in London 319*/19+<5F '.S. ?onsul Beneral in Seoul8 6orea L0apanM 319+</19+H5F '.S. ?onsul
Beneral in Can&ouver8 ?anada 319+H/19+5
Bordon Paddo&k Q '.S. ?onsul Beneral in Seoul8 6orea 319<*/19<,5
8i((ar& 0traight, ;&)in Morgan, an& ,or&on Pa&&oc' pose for a portrait in 0eou(, Korea in circa "#$/4
(1o((ection5 8i((ar& -ic'erman 0traight an& ;ar(y 7404-Korea -ip(omatic +e(ations, 1orne(( 7ni*ersity 9ibrary%
(Photo5 http566)))4f(ic'r4com6photos6corne((uni*ersity(ibrary6/$#.A!"/.6%
7es'ription5 ,or&on Pa&&oc' ("?!.-"#A% )as appointe& 0ecretary of the American 9egation in 0eou( in "#$", as )e(( as Jice
an& -eputy 1onsu( ,enera(D he became 1onsu( ,enera( in "#$4 8hen the 9egation c(ose& in Co*ember "#$., his &uties as
0ecretary cease&, an& the fo((o)ing year he )as appointe& Jice 1onsu( ,enera(4 In "#$# he )ent to Manchuria as Jice an&
-eputy 1onsu(, first in Harbin an& then in Mu'&en (no) 0henyang%4 In "#"$ he began &ip(omatic ser*ice in Persia, as 1onsu( in
TabriL, an& then in Teheran4 Pa&&oc' recei*e& commen&ations for his efforts to protect foreign nationa(s in TabriL from a
succession of in*a&ing troops &uring 88I an& its aftermath4 He )as assigne& to He(gra&e in "#, an& to 1openhagen as First
0ecretary of the American 9egation4 His fina( post )as as First 0ecretary of the American ;mbassy in Paris in "#A$, from )hich
he retire& (ater that year4
4he 2ssassination o% Jueen .in o% 6orea! @rganiGed ?rimeT

2 portrait o% Jueen .in o% 6orea 3Empress .yeongseong5 3@&to:er 198 1,1Q@&to:er 8 19,5
(uneral o% Jueen .in o% 6orea 3Empress .yeongseong5 in Seoul8 6orea in @&to:er 19,. Jueen .in o% 6orea had :een
assassinated :y a group o% 0apanese thugs in Seoul8 6orea on @&to:er 8 19, due to her pro/Aussian stan&e and her desire to
esta:lish an allian&e #ith the Aussian Empire.
The a((e&ge& Japanese mur&erers of ;mpress Myeongseong (Xueen Min% pose for a group portrait in front of Hanseong 0hinbo
(Hanseong Ce)spaper% bui(&ing in 0eou(, Korea in "?#.4 Among the perpetrators inc(u&e the Japanese Minister to Korea
Jiscount Miura ,orM4 The Japanese mur&erers )ere trie& for their crime insi&e a &istrict court in HiroshimaD ho)e*er, the
Japanese mur&erers )ere ac@uitte& by the court &ue to insufficient e*i&ence4
Jiscount Miura ,orM, Japanese Minister to Korea in "?#.

An American e(ectric tram)ay (streetcar% appears outsi&e the 8est ,ate in 0eou(, Korea in circa "#$/4
(Photo5 9ibrary of 1ongress%
The Japan-Korea Treaty of "#$. (a(so 'no)n as the ;u(sa Protecti*e Treaty or Japan-Korea Protectorate Treaty% )as estab(ishe&
un&er &uress in 0eou(, Korea on Co*ember "<, "#$.4 Japanese &ip(omat Ito Hirobumi entere& Jungmyeong:eon Ha(( (abo*e% in
0eou(, Korea in Co*ember "#$. an& coerce& Korean 1abinet ministers to sign the Japan-Korea Treaty of "#$.4 The une@ua(
treaty &epri*e& Korea of its &ip(omatic so*ereignty an& ma&e Korea a protectorate (an& (ater a co(ony% of Japan4
A copy of the Japan-Korea Treaty of "#$.
A statue of Phi(ip Jaisohn (former(y 0eo Jae Pi(% ("?!/-"#."%, a Korean in&epen&ence acti*ist, me&ica( &octor, an& ne)spaper
pub(isher, an& the first Korean man to become a natura(iLe& American citiLen, appears in front of the ;mbassy of 0outh Korea in
8ashington, -414

Le%t! (ield .arshal .asatake 4erau&hi 3$ cd5 served as the %irst Bovernor Beneral o% 6orea 3@&to:er 18 191</@&to:er 98 191=5 and
served as the Prime .inister o% 0apan 3@&to:er 98 191=/Septem:er *98 1915. .asatake 4erau&hi adopted a poli&y o% NassimiliationO to#ards
the 6oreans and reEuired 6oreans to learn and speak the 0apanese language. 0apan governed 6orea as a prote&torate %rom 19<, until 191<
and as a &olony %rom 191< until the end o% World War )) in 19H,.
Aight! (ield .arshal Yoshimi&hi Hasega#a 3[\. ])5 served as the Bovernor Beneral o% 6orea %rom @&to:er 191= until 2ugust 1919.
Yoshimi&hi Hasega#a served as the ?ommander o% the 6orea Barrison 2rmy %rom Septem:er 19<H until Ie&em:er 19<. Yoshimi&hi
Hasega#a :rutally suppressed Samil )ndependen&e .ovement 3.ar&h 1st .ovement5 that developed in 6orea during and a%ter World War ).

William Ho#ard 4a%t 3le%t58 the '.S. Se&retary o% War 3and later President o% the 'nited States58 and 4aro 6atsura 3T S75 3right58 the Prime
.inister o% 0apan. 4he 4a%t/6atsura .emorandum 3&ommonly &alled the 4a%tQ6atsura 2greement5 &onsists o% notes &ontaining portions o% a
long8 &on%idential &onversation :et#een 0apanese Prime .inister 4aro 6atsura and '.S. Se&retary o% War William Ho#ard 4a%t held in 4okyo8
0apan on 0uly *78 19<,. 4a%t and 6atsura dis&ussed 2meri&a7s presen&e in the Philippines8 0apan7s eventual &oloniGation o% 6orea8 and the
:alan&e o% po#er in eastern 2sia during their meeting. 4aro 6atsura #as the Prime .inister o% 0apan on three separate o&&asions 319<1/
19<=8 19</19118 and 191*/191+5F (aro 1atsura was the 6rime Minister of Japan during the 4usso-Japanese 2ar !"$#-!"$7% and
during the Anne8ation of 1orea in !"!$+ William Ho#ard 4a%t #as the President o% the 'nited States #hen 0apan anne;ed 6orea in 191<.
7404 0ecretary of 8ar 8i((iam Ho)ar& Taft spea's )ith Japanese &ignitaries )hi(e (ea*ing the &oc' at Bo'ohama, Japan in Ju(y "#$.4
8i((iam Ho)ar& Taft an& Prime Minister Taro Katsura engage& in a Ngent(emenKs agreementO, (ater 'no)n as the Taft-Katsura
Agreement4 The Taft-Katsura Agreement *irtua((y in*a(i&ate& the 7nite& 0tates-Korea Treaty of "??4 (Photo5 9ibrary of 1ongress%

Le%t photo! Lee Wan/Yong 31,/19*=5 #as the Prime .inister o% 6orea 319<=/191<5 #ho signed the 0apan/6orea 2nne;ation 4reaty on
2ugust **8 191<. 4he 6orean diplomats #ho agreed to the anne;ation in 191< #ere under the impression that the 0apanese anne;ation o%
6orea #ould lead to a politi&al union similar to 2ustria/HungaryF the anne;ation o% 6orea #ould trans%orm 6orea into a 0apanese &olony.
Aight! Sun$ong 317H/19*=5 #as the last 6ing 3Emperor5 o% 6orea #ho governed 6orea %rom 19<7 to 191<. Sun$ong did not sign the
anne;ation treaty in 191<. 4he )mperial 0apanese government provided Sun$ong and other mem:ers o% the 6orean royal %amily a pension and
a 0apanese title o% no:ility %ollo#ing anne;ation. Sun$ong died at his pala&e in Seoul in 19*=.
4he 0apan/6orea 2nne;ation 4reaty 3<èfgh5 #as signed on 2ugust **8 191< :y the representatives o% the 6orean and 0apanese
)mperial Bovernments. 4he 0apan/6orea 2nne;ation 4reaty #ent into e%%e&t on 2ugust *98 191<8 o%%i&ially starting the period o% 0apanese
&olonial rule in 6orea. )n South 6orea8 2ugust *9 is kno#n as Nthe day o% national shame.U

Le%t! S#shi-kaimei 3ijkl5 #as a 0apanese poli&y &reated :y Beneral 0iro .inami 3mn758 the Bovernor/Beneral o% 6orea8 in 19+9 and
19H< that reEuired 6oreans living in 6orea to a:andon their 6orean name and adopt a 0apanese name. Beneral 0iro .inami #as the the
Bovernor/Beneral o% 6orea %rom 19+= to 19H*8 Bovernor/Beneral o% 6#antung Leased 4erritory %rom 19+H to 19+=8 and the 0apanese
.inister o% War 32pril 19+1/Ie&em:er 19+15 during the in%amous .ukden )n&ident in .an&huria. Beneral 0iro .inami #as tried and &onvi&ted
o% #ar &rimes at the 4okyo 4rials held a%ter World War )).
Aight! 2nnoun&ement o% the S#shi-kaimei poli&y issued :y the Iaegu &ourt in 6orea8 #ritten :ilingually in 0apanese and 6orean8 in a spe&ial
parallel style in #hi&h han$a"kan$i #ere printed only on&e and #ere UsharedU :y the hangul and kana te;ts. 4he literal meaning o% S#shi-kaimei!
U?reate a surname 3shi5 and &hange 3your5 given nameO.
A photograph of 0eou(, Korea prior to JapanKs anne>ation in "#"$
A photograph of Korean fami(ies )or'ing outsi&e their homes in 0eou(, Korea in the ear(y "#$$s
4he largest uprising against 0apanese rule o&&urred in .ar&h 1919 a%ter a %ailure o% the 6orean delegation to gain the rights o% sel%/
determination at the Cersailles ?on%eren&e %ollo#ing WW). Here university students demonstrate. 3Photo! http!""koreanhistory.in%o"$apan.htm5
2 group o% 6oreans involved in the 1919 uprising 3.ar&h (irst .ovement8 or Samil .ovement5 stand in %ront o% 0apanese $udges in 6orea
during a trial. 2n estimated 1/* million 6oreans parti&ipated in the uprising #ith some 78<<< 6oreans :eing e;e&uted.
3Photo! http!""koreanhistory.in%o"$apan.htm5
@ne o% the righteous armies9 that #ere %ormed in the early 19<<s a%ter the 0apanese o&&upation. )n 19<7 a righteous 2rmy o% 1<8<<< tried to
li:erate Seoul :ut #ere de%eated..ost o% the resisten&e armies in the south #ere hunted do#n8 #hile those in the north survived :y :eing a:le
to retreat and resupply in .an&huria and Aussia. 3Photo! http!""koreanhistory.in%o"$apan.htm5
Seoul8 6orea during 0apanese &olonial rule
@riental Ievelopment ?ompany 3Gopqrstu% in Seoul8 6orea :e%ore 19H,. 4he @riental Ievelopment ?ompany #as a 0apanese
&ompany that #as involved in the real estate sales o% 6orean %arm land. 0apanese %armers and :usinessmen living in 6orea :ene%ited %rom
the land spe&ulation #hile 6orean %armers and %ormer landlords #ere %or&ed to live as tenants and peons. 4he )mperial 0apanese government
en&ouraged 0apanese people to migrate to 6orea and live in the ma$or &ities8 in&luding Seoul8 Pyongyang8 and Pusan. 3Sour&e! 0apanese
:ook U@ld Iays o% 6orea through Pi&turesU pu:lished :y 6okusho/kankoukai5
Chosun $%bo 36orean Iaily 1e#s5 #as esta:lished in 19*< and #as suspended at least %our times :y the 0apanese )mperial government %or
pu:lishing editorials &riti&al o% the 0apanese &olonial regime in 6orea. ?hosun )l:o ne#spaper &ompany #as outla#ed :y 0apanese &olonial
authorities in 19H<.
4he 1ational Ie:t Aepayment .ovement #as a movement :y the people o% the 6orean Empire to repay their &ountry7s de:t 3primarily to the
0apanese :ankers5 through &olle&ting individual donations. 4he movement #as initiated :y Seo Sang/dong o% Iaegu8 6orea in 0anuary 19<7.
6orea7s national de:t #as an estimated 1+ million #on in 19<7. 2t the movement9s height in 19<8 leaders o% the movement had &olle&ted
19<8<<< #on.
A photo of &o)nto)n 0eou(, Korea un&er Japanese co(onia( ru(e in the ear(y "#/$s4 A sign a&*ertising Kirin Heer (
% in Japanese katagana (a(phabet% can be seen on the right4 0eou( )as 'no)n as NKei:oO from "#"$ to "#/.4
(Photo5 http566)))4s'yscrapercity4com6sho)threa&4phpEtG!""<!%
The Japanese ,o*ernment-,enera( Office in 0eou(, Korea before "#/.
(0ource5 Japanese boo' IThe ,enera( *ie) of KoreaI pub(ishe& by 1hosen-Hun'a Fu'yu Kai%
Han' of 1hosen (abvw%, (ocate& in 0eou( (former(y Kei:o%, )as the centra( ban' of Korea un&er Japanese co(onia( ru(e4 The
Han' of 1hosen )as a pri*ate(y-o)ne& corporation o)ne& an& operate& by the Japanese ban'ers4 Han' of 1hosen )as forma((y
&isso(*e& by 7404 A((ie& Occupation authorities in "#.$ an& )as rep(ace& by the Han' of Korea, the centra( ban' for the
+epub(ic of Korea4
Pyongyang, Korea un&er Japanese co(onia( ru(e
4he )mperial 0apanese government and 0apanese &orporations :rought numerous 6orean men to 0apan 3usually :y
&ons&ription5 to #ork in &oal mines and %a&tories throughout 0apan8 in&luding the southern part o% Sakhalin )sland 36ara%uto5.
4he )mperial 0apanese 2rmy &ons&ripted 3dra%ted5 6orean men and :oys during the %inal years o% World War )).
Photographs of the 1atho(ic Foreign Mission 0ociety of America, Mary'no((, Ce) Bor', "#"-"#/.4 ;ast ,ate, Pyeng Bang
2Pyongyang3, Korea, ca4 "#$-"#/$4 Photograph of N;ast ,ate of ancient )a((e& city of Pyeng Bang4O
(The Mary'no(( Mission Archi*es% http566)))4piie4com6b(ogs6n'6EpG/!??
A Mitsu'oshi &epartment store in 0eou( (Kei:o%, Korea in the "#A$s
Japanese ,o*ernor-,enera(s of Korea an& Tai)an
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Prime Minister of
Japan ("#//-"#/.%D
1(ass-A )ar crimina(D
&ie& at 0ugamo Prison
in To'yo
0u'enori Kabayama
|* }~
,o*ernor-,enera( of
Tai)an ("?#.-"?#!%D
Minister of the Ca*y
("?#$-"?#%D
;&ucation Minister of
Japan ("?#?-"#$$%
Maresu'e Cogi

,o*ernor-,enera( of
Tai)an ("?#!-"?#?%D
1omman&er of the
Japanese Thir& Army
("#$/-"#$.%D
&efeate& the +ussian
army &urnig the 0iege
of Port Arthur
,en4 ,entarM Ko&ama
S7
,o*ernor-,enera( of
Tai)an ("?#?-"#$!%
of Imperia( Japan
("#$$-"#$%
,en4 0amata 0a'uma
: FS
,o*ernor-,enera( of
Tai)an ("#$!-"#".%
An&M 0a&ayoshi
G
,o*ernor-,enera( of
Tai)an ("#".-"#"?%D
1omman&er of the
1hMsen Army in Korea
("#"A-"#".%
1ote! 2ll 0apanese names :egin #ith %irst name %irst and surname last.
JapanKs Ce) Po(icy in Korea an& Formosa
Hy +a(ston Hay&en
Foreign Affairs, March "#/
HA+OC MAKOTO 0AITO, ,o*ernor-,enera( of Korea, state& the fun&amenta( princip(es of the co(onia( po(icy of the
Japanese ;mpire in three terse sentences5 IThe economic &e*e(opment of the country must come first4 ;&ucation an& the raising
of the stan&ar&s of the peop(e )i(( fo((o)4 After)ar&s po(itica( &e*e(opment may be possib(e4I He )as &iscussing the prob(ems
of Korea, but his )or&s &escribe perfect(y the course )hich his country is fo((o)ing in e*ery co(ony o*er )hich f(oats the
banner of the +ising 0un4 Prior to "#"# this po(icy )as carrie& out by the app(ication of na'e& force4 In that year, ho)e*er, the
*e(*et g(o*e of conci(iation an& IattractionI )as s(ippe& o*er the iron han& of Japanese contro( in Formosa an& Korea, JapanQs
greatest co(onies4 The ne) metho&s by )hich these &epen&encies ha*e since been ru(e& are being c(ose(y )atche& by the
go*ernments ha*ing (arge interests in the Far ;ast4 The 7nite& 0tates in particu(ar is intereste& in this ne)est phase of Japanese
co(onia( po(icy not on(y because it has an important bearing on the genera( @uestion of peace in the Orient, but because it offers
some stri'ing contrasts )ith the po(icy )hich America has fo((o)e& in the Phi(ippine Is(an&s4
Japan ac@uire& her first (arge co(ony, Formosa, in "?#. at the en& of her *ictorious )ar )ith 1hina4 The is(an& is about the siLe
of Massachusetts an& 1onnecticut combine&4 It (ies ninety mi(es off the 1hina coast, (ess than si> hun&re& mi(es south of Japan
an& appro>imate(y t)o hun&re& mi(es north of the Phi(ippines4 The popu(ation consists of about A,.$$,$$$ 1hinese, ?$,$$$
Ma(ay aborigines an& "!$,$$$ Japanese4
The tra*e(er in Formosa is soon impresse& )ith the truth of Haron 0aitoQs statement that un&er the Japanese system the economic
&e*e(opment of the country comes first4 He sees sp(en&i& harbor )or's an& port faci(ities, *isits substantia( an& han&some pub(ic
bui(&ings that are far superior to those of most American states, an& ri&es o*er a )e(( bui(t, e>ce((ent(y e@uippe& an& efficient(y
operate& rai(roa& system4 He tra*e(s through t)o hun&re& mi(es of agricu(tura( (an& that is as intensi*e(y cu(ti*ate& as that of
He(gium, an& inspects enormous an& gro)ing in&ustria( p(ants4 8here*er he goes he obser*es a(( of the e>terna( e*i&ences of
prosperity4
If he turns to history an& statistics the in*estigator &isco*ers that this prosperity is genuine an& that )ithout @uestion it is a resu(t
of Japanese ru(e4 8hen the Japanese too' o*er Formosa its annua( imports an& e>ports amounte& to :ust a (itt(e more than $
mi((ion yenD in "#" they )ere )orth more than ?! mi((ion4 7nti( "#$. Japan annua((y subsi&iLe& the go*ernment of Formosa
to the e>tent of mi((ions of yenD for the past eighteen years the co(ony has ma&e annua( contributions to the Imperia( treasury4
The Japanese ha*e intro&uce& scientific metho&s an& abun&ant capita( into in&ustry, agricu(ture, fishing, mining, an& forestry4
They ha*e create& a mo&ern transportation system4 Abo*e a((, they ha*e estab(ishe& a ru(e of (a) maintaine& by a reasonab(y
honest an& efficient go*ernment4 ,i*en these a&*antages, )hich it ne*er ha& un&er the 1hinese ;mpire an& apparent(y cou(& not
yet e>pect as a pro*ince of the +epub(ic, the 1hinese popu(ation of Formosa has &one the rest4
The remar'ab(e economic &e*e(opment of their country un&er Japanese auspices has not, ho)e*er, escape& the bitter criticism of
the Formosan 1hinese4 JapanQs po(icy, they be(ie*e, is simp(y that of *icious e>p(oitation4 In the ear(y &ays of the occupation
they )ere robbe& of the richest (an&s in the is(an& by terror an& chicanery4 The Japanese ,o*ernment has monopo(iLe& the
pro&uction an& sa(e of camphor, tobacco, sa(t, opium, sa'e, an& other spirits, the most profitab(e Formosan in&ustries4 The
Formosans c(aim that their resources an& (abor are e>p(oite& by Japanese capita(ists, an& that the tariff (a)s gi*e Japan a
monopo(y of the mar'et an& compe( them to pay monopo(y prices4 In a )or&, it is their be(ief that the Japanese an& a fe) rich
Formosans )hose po(itica( support they ha*e purchase& are the on(y ones )ho profit by the &e*e(opment of the country4
In*estigation on the groun& (ea&s to the con*iction that there is much truth in this in&ictment4 On the other han&, there is no
&oubt that the (ot of the common man is immeasurab(y better in Formosa no) than it )as before the Japanese occupation, or
than it is in 1hina4 As for the higher c(ass Formosans, they are beginning to participate more genera((y in Japanese enterprises in
the is(an&, an& &oubt(ess )i(( obtain a (arger share of the profits4
The *isitor in Formosa a(so &isco*ers the truth of Haron 0aitoQs &ictum that e&ucation an& the raising of the stan&ar&s of the
peop(e )i(( fo((o) economic &e*e(opment4 He fin&s that Formosan cities are among the c(eanest in the Orient, that they are )e((
e@uippe& to perform a(( of the manifo(& ser*ices e>pecte& of mo&ern municipa(ities, an& that they are efficient(y manage&4 The
same praise might )e(( be gi*en to the e&ucationa( system an& to the &epartments of sanitation an& pub(ic hea(th4 In "?#.
Formosa )as :ust(y consi&ere& to be one of the most unhea(thy countries in the )or(&4 To&ay no part of the Orient has more
fa*orab(e hea(th con&itions, )hi(e a comparison of the Formosan hea(th an& me&ica( ser*ices )ith those of the Phi(ippines, for
instance, is &istinct(y to the &isa&*antage of the (atter4
IAfter)ar&s po(itica( &e*e(opment may be possib(e,I sai& Haron 0aito4 Is it possib(e in Formosa )hi(e that is(an& remains a part
of the ;mpire of Japan E The Japanese say that they hope so an& that the co(ony is no) entering this thir& an& most &e(icate
phase of its &e*e(opment4 The Formosans are s'eptica( an& point to the recor& of the past to :ustify their (ac' of faith in the
future4
For se*en years after "?#. the Japanese army practica((y ru(e& Formosa4 -uring this perio& the organiLe& resistance of the
1hinese popu(ation against their ne) so*ereign )as bro'en, ban&itry )as stampe& out, an& the sa*age aborigines )ere brought
un&er contro(4 At the en& of "#$, for the first time in its (ong history, (a) an& or&er pre*ai(e& in the IHeautifu( Is(e4I 9ife an&
property ha& become as safe there as in Japan4 The reign of the so(&ier )as fo((o)e& by the ru(e of the po(iceman4 8hen
Jiscount Ko&ama became ,o*ernor-,enera( in "#$ he gra&ua((y (imite& army acti*ity to mi(itary affairs an& e>erte& his
authority o*er the peop(e chief(y through the me&ium of a Japanese po(ice force4 Japanese as )e(( as 1hinese resi&ents in
Formosa &ec(are that the po(iceman )as a harsher an& (ess consi&erate master than the so(&ier4 Fre@uent(y he )as of a &istinct(y
(o)er type than the po(ice in Japan proper4 He he(& his 1hinese )ar&s in contempt, often spo'e their (anguage ha(ting(y or not at
a((, an& )as apt to regar& his short, b(unt s)or& as the means best fitte& for e>p(aining an& enforcing go*ernment or&inances4
These or&inances regu(ate& e*ery aspect of (ife in Formosa4 They )ere, an& are, e>treme(y ga((ing to the 1hinese popu(ation, for
the 1hinese are in&i*i&ua(ists )ho put persona( (iberty among the first of the &esi&erata of (ife4
Prior to "#$ scarce(y a trace of se(f-go*ernment cou(& be foun& in this o(&est Japanese co(ony4 The go*ernmenta( organiLation
)as, an& is, simp(e4 At the hea& of the bureaucratic hierarchy stan& the ,o*ernor-,enera( an& the -irector-,enera( of ci*i(
a&ministration4 They a&minister the go*ernment through the bureaus of the go*ernment-genera(, the go*ernors of the se*en
pro*inces, an& the chiefs of the fifty &istricts into )hich the is(an& is &i*i&e&4 A(( of these officia(s are members of the Japanese
1i*i( 0er*ice, an organiLation )hich e>hibits the usua( *irtues an& &efects of high(y traine& bureaucracies4 This hierarchy is
para((e(e& by a series of po(ice officers, &irecte& by a bureau of po(ice in the centra( go*ernment4 8ithin the to)ns an& *i((ages
the peop(e are &i*i&e& into sma(( groups, for each of )hich a nati*e hea&man is ma&e responsib(e4
In "#"# the Imperia( 1abinet too' the initia( steps to)ar&s the (ibera(iLation of this autocratic system of go*ernment4 Haron
Ken:iro -en, a &istinguishe& (ibera( statesman, became the first ci*i(ian ,o*ernor-,enera( of Formosa, an& a series of important
reforms )as un&erta'en4 8ith the chief e>ecuti*e officer of each of the po(itica( &i*isions of the is(an& )as associate& an
a&*isory counci(4 These counci(s are appointe& an& are compose& of Japanese officia(s, pri*ate Japanese resi&ents of Formosa
an& Formosan 1hinese4 Their functions are a&*isory on(y an& ob*ious(y they are comp(ete(y un&er the contro( of the
go*ernment4 Ce*erthe(ess they &o affor& an officia( channe( for the e>pression of popu(ar opinionD they may be ab(e to
inf(uence, e*en though they cannot possib(y contro(, officia( action4 In Formosa great &ifferences of opinion e>ist as to their
*a(ue4 There seems to be a genera( fee(ing, ho)e*er, that the (oca( counci(s are gi*ing the peop(e some *oice in the
a&ministration of (oca( affairs4
1oinci&ent(y )ith this e>tension of po(itica( pri*i(eges the go*ernment a&opte& the po(icy of offering to 1hinese Formosans
e&ucationa( opportunities e@ua( to those affor&e& Japanese resi&ents4 From their first &ays on the is(an& the Japanese ha&
furnishe& primary schoo(s for 1hinese as )e(( as for Japanese chi(&ren4 Instruction, ho)e*er, )as in the 1hinese (anguage, the
schoo(s often )ere inferior in @ua(ity, an& it )as on(y in e>ceptiona( cases that 1hinese chi(&ren actua((y passe& into the higher
institutions, in )hich Japanese a(one )as spo'en4 IThis is manifest(y un:ust,I sai& Haron -en4 IIt is eminent(y proper that )e
a(so grant them opportunities of e&ucation not inferior to those a*ai(ab(e to our o)n chi(&renD that )e encourage them to
&e*e(opD that )e foster men of genius in a(( )a('s of (ife, thereby increasing the resources of our country4 An& it is )ith this in
*ie) that I ha*e ma&e it possib(e for Formosans @ua(ifie& in the Japanese (anguage to enter schoo(s for Japanese chi(&ren4
;>ce((ent resu(ts ha*e a(rea&y been obtaine&, )ith inca(cu(ab(y goo& effect upon our po(icy of assimi(ation4I (The ita(ics are the
)riterQs4% As a further measure of assimi(ation )ith Japan the Imperia( 1i*i( an& 1ommercia( 1o&es ha*e recent(y been e>ten&e&
to Formosa4 A(though the &isp(acement of the o(& 1hinese (a) may cause some temporary confusion an& har&ship, yet it )i((
gi*e 1hinese Formosans many rights )hich they ha*e not hitherto possesse&, an& )i(( put them on a (ega( e@ua(ity )ith the
resi&ent Japanese4
The professe& goa( of the recent reforms in the a&ministration of the is(an& is the IFormosaniLationI of the go*ernment an&,
perhaps, its u(timate assimi(ation )ith that of Japan4 The )riter be(ie*es that this is the rea( purpose of the Japanese4 8hether
they )i(( ha*e the po(itica( sagacity an& the courage to accomp(ish it,--)hether, in&ee&, it is possib(e of accomp(ishment,--is
another matter4 T)enty-se*en years of &espotism is not a *ery sure foun&ation upon )hich to bui(& (ibera( institutions4 A (arge
number, probab(y a ma:ority, of the po(itica((y acti*e Formosans )i(( not e*en a&mit the sincerity of the go*ernmentQs intentions4
A mass meeting of Formosans resi&ing in To'yo recent(y a&opte& an& &istribute& reso(utions criticising Haron -enQs
a&ministration bitter(y4 A paragraph from this manifesto, trans(ate& into ;ng(ish by a Japanese, sets forth some of the po(itica(
grie*ances of the nationa(ists an& re*ea(s their genera( attitu&e to)ar&s the Isham reforms5I
IAccor&ing to the present system of go*ernment in Tai)an, the po)ers of ma'ing (a)s, :u&icia( an& other acts of a&ministration
are *este& in the ,o*ernor-,enera(4 It is rea((y a &espotic go*ernment4 The ,o*ernor-,enera( &oes not un&erstan& the rea( )i((
of the Formosans, )ho ha*e specia( (ife an& customs4 He &oes nothing but hoo&)in' the peop(e by estab(ishing fa(se se(f-
go*ernment, by a((o)ing Formosans into Japanese schoo(s,--not actua((y carrie& out,--an& by promu(gating &ea& (a)s a((o)ing
Formosans to become higher officia(s4 As an instance of ma(a&ministration )e point out the rigorous (a)s go*erning the
punishment of rioters, un(a)fu( &isposition of (oafers, compu(sory (abor, inter*ention in sugar cu(ti*ation an& its sa(e,
re@uisitioning of money an& (an&, etc4 Thus the go*ernment infringes upon the rights of the peop(e an& they are ab(e to &o
anything they )ant4 The a(mighty go*ernmentT 4 4 4 The (a)fu( organiLation of the Po(itica( 0ociety 1(aiming 9egis(ature in
Tai)an )as prohibite&, to the great &isappointment of Formosans )ho re(y upon the Japanese ;mpire4 The magaLine Tai)an
)as prohibite& &istribution, as it containe& artic(es by note& men of Japan on the c(aim of Formosa for a separate (egis(ature4
A,!$$,$$$ Formosans ha*e no recourse for re&ress, en&uring oppression an& humi(iation4 0uch an attitu&e of the go*ernment
on(y ten&s to pro*o'e the i((-fee(ing of the ru(e&, an& is not the one to be ta'en by )ise a&ministrators )ho )ish u(timate success
in the a&ministration of the is(an&4I
This manifesto cou(& not ha*e been issue& in Formosa4 The e>pression of pub(ic opinion there is ma&e practica((y impossib(e by
the go*ernment4 Hut Formosans in Japan, Mani(a, an& the 1hina coast cities te(( )hom they can that their peop(e )i(( ne*er
cease to resist assimi(ation, an& that 1hina )i(( not rest satisfie& unti( the Japanese are e>pe((e& from this o(& 1hinese pro*ince4
Occasiona( f(ashes in Formosa itse(f re*ea( the forces of &iscontent that are norma((y concea(e& by the Japanese machinery of
repression4 A number of stri'es of a re*o(utionary nature ha*e occurre& in the upper schoo(sD upon the occasion of the *isit of
the Prince +egent (ast Apri( .A prisoners )ho )ere in :ai( for re*o(utionary acti*ities )ere gi*en commutation in their terms of
imprisonment4 A high(y inte((igent Japanese gent(eman to(& the )riter in Formosa that, IIt is no) a race bet)een (ibera(iLation
an& re*o(ution4I
More than a @uarter of a century of &espotic Japanese ru(e in Formosa, then, has pro&uce& the fo((o)ing resu(ts5 (a) an& or&er,
economic prosperity, e(e*ate& stan&ar&s of (i*ing, )i&esprea& e&ucation, an& rising po(itica( &iscontent4 The )riter be(ie*es the
Japanese ,o*ernment rea(iLes that if it cannot so(*e the po(itica( prob(em )ith )hich it is no) face&, its remar'ab(e materia(
achie*ements in Formosa )i((, in the en&, a*ai( the ;mpire nothing4
In Korea the Japanese ha*e app(ie& the genera( po(icy an& many of the metho&s )hich they first &e*e(ope& in Formosa4 The
economic resu(ts bi& fair to be e@ua((y satisfactory, a(though the prob(em is both greater an& more comp(e>4 Co one )ho has not
seen )ith his o)n eyes )hat the Japanese ha*e &one in Korea can appreciate their tru(y remar'ab(e accomp(ishments4 +ai(roa&s,
steamship (ines, hote(s, ban's, mines, afforeste& mountain si&es, scientific agricu(tura( pro:ects, schoo(s, hospita(s, an& cities of
stone, bric' an& cement are the *isib(e pro&ucts of the mar*e(ous mechanism of co(oniLation )hich Japan has bui(t up &uring the
past generation4 Co country has e*er create& such a comp(ete, )e(( organiLe&, abun&ant(y capita(iLe& an& ab(y &irecte&
organiLation for the economic penetration an& con@uest of other (an&s4
Thus far the masses of the Korean popu(ation ha*e appreciate& the ministrations of their foreign ru(ers about as hearti(y as our
ear(y acti*ities in the 8est )ere re(ishe& by the 1rees an& the 0iou>4 Bet they are on the groun&, "<,.$$,$$$ of them4 They
possess a nationa( history, nationa( institutions, an& a nationa( consciousness that are more ancient than those of Japan herse(f4 If
they are (aLy an& &eca&ent they are a(so prou& an& stubborn4 7n(i'e the American re&s'ins they can not be brushe& asi&e, &ri*en
out, nor e>terminate&4
,he Korean rebellion o. 3232 re;ealed to the 6orld that Japan=s astonishin* material a'hie;ements in this 'olony had
been a''ompanied by a tra*i' .ailure to sol;e satis.a'torily the problem o. the *o;ernment o. the Korean people8 Cor )as
the (esson (ost upon the Japanese themse(*es4 Co sooner ha& the rebe((ion been crushe& than *igorous steps )ere ta'en to
reorganiLe the go*ernment of Korea an& to infuse a ne) spirit into its a&ministration4 An Imperia( rescript announce& that the
ob:ects of the reforms )ere Ito treat both Japanese an& Koreans as e@ua(s, an& to enab(e the peop(e of 1hosen to (i*e in peace
an& prosperity by en&o)ing them )ith an a&ministration con&ucte& on a (ibera( an& cu(tura( (ine4I The ne) ,o*ernor-,enera(
issue& a proc(amation fran'(y a&mitting the necessity of reforms an& out(ining the po(icy )hich he e>pecte& to fo((o)4 II am
&etermine&,I he &ec(are&, Ito superinten& officia(s un&er my contro( an& encourage them to put forth greater efforts to act in a
fairer an& :uster )ay, an& promote the faci(ities of the peop(e an& the unhin&ere& attainment of the peop(eQs &esires by &ispensing
)ith a(( forma(ity4 Fu(( consi&eration )i(( be gi*en to the appointment of Koreans so as to secure the right men for the right
p(aces, an& )hat in Korean customs an& o(& institutions is )orthy of a&option )i(( be a&opte& as a means of go*ernment4 I a(so
hope to intro&uce reforms in the &ifferent branches of a&ministrati*e acti*ity, an& enforce (oca( se(f-go*ernment at the proper
opportunity an& thereby insure stabi(ity for the peop(e an& enhance their genera( )e((-being4I 0e&ition, ho)e*er, )as not to be
)in'e& at, an& the proc(amation en&e& )ith this sentence5 IIf anybo&y is foun& gui(ty of un)arrantab(y refractory (anguage or
action, of mis(ea&ing the popu(ar min&, or of impe&ing the maintenance of pub(ic peace, he )i(( be met )ith re(ent(ess :ustice4I
In effect, the Japanese announce& a ne) &ea( in KoreaD but ser*e& notice that they )ou(& sti(( ma'e an& enforce the ru(es of the
game4
A (arge *o(ume )ou(& be re@uire& to &escribe a(( the reforms )hich ha*e been inaugurate& in Korea since "#"#4 A fe) of the
more important ones may be mentione&, ho)e*er, )ith the remar' that they constitute an officia( confession of the pre*ious
e>istence of con&itions in Korea against )hich e*en the most &oci(e of peop(e might ha*e been e>pecte& to re*o(t4
"4 The go*ernment has abo(ishe& (ega( &iscrimination bet)een Koreans an& Japanese in the Korean ci*i( ser*ice )ith reference
to sa(aries, pensions an& promotions, court ran', an& &ecorations4 The regu(ations (imiting the :uris&iction of Korean :u&icia(
officia(s to cases in )hich both parties )ere Koreans ha*e been rescin&e&4 Punishment by f(ogging, )hich ha& been app(icab(e
on(y to Koreans, has been abo(ishe&4 A genera( amnesty has been grante& to Koreans imp(icate& in the rebe((ion of "#"#4
4 Forma(ism an& re& tape in the con&uct of the go*ernment ha*e been great(y re&uce&4 1i*i( officia(s, sa*e in e>ceptiona( cases,
no (onger )ear uniforms4 There has been a consi&erab(e &ecentra(iLation a(( through the go*ernment, especia((y as bet)een the
centra( an& the (oca( a&ministrations4
A4 Means ha*e been pro*i&e& for the e>pression of Korean opinion4 9ea&ing men from a(( of the pro*inces are ca((e& to 0eou(
perio&ica((y for an e>change of *ie)s regar&ing the a&ministration of the country4 Inspectors, both Korean an& Japanese, are
continua((y in the fie(&, Ifor the inspection of (oca( con&itions as )e(( as for the obser*ation of popu(ar i&eas an& &esires4I The
pub(ication of a fe) ne)spapers printe& in Korean is permitte&4 The 1entra( 1ounci(, (ong inten&e& to ser*e the ,o*ernor-
,enera( as an a&*isory organ, has been reorganiLe& an& is more fre@uent(y consu(te&4
/4 The e&ucationa( system has been reorganiLe& in such a )ay as to meet, in part, the )ishes of the Koreans4
.4 The (oca( a&ministrati*e system has been reorganiLe&4 Partia((y e(ecti*e, partia((y appointi*e a&*isory counci(s ha*e been
create& in the se*era( areas of (oca( go*ernment4 A portion of the 1onfucian temp(e fun&s )hich ha& been &i*erte& to other
purposes (sto(en, the Koreans a*er% has been returne& to its former uses4 The re@uisition of (abor an& the force& &onation of (an&
for the construction of high)ays has been great(y re&uce&4
!4 The po(ice system has been reorganiLe&4 Prior to "#"# the po(ice an& the gen&armerie )ere unite& un&er one comman& an&
)ere &irecte& from the centra( go*ernment4 The t)o ser*ices ha*e been separate&, the former has been re&uce& in siLe, an& the
&irection of the (atter transferre& from the centra( to the pro*incia( go*ernments4
<4 -efinite steps ha*e been ta'en to guarantee an increase& respect for Korean usages an& customs4
In a&&ition to instituting these specific reforms the Japanese ha*e attempte& to )in the confi&ence an& the coYperation of their
Korean sub:ects by many other means4 Inf(uentia( Koreans are ta'en to Japan an& there entertaine& )ith the charming hospita(ity
of )hich the Japanese are masters4 A mo*ing picture fi(m ser*ice has been use& e>tensi*e(y to fami(iariLe Koreans )ith
Japanese (ife, an& *ice *ersa4 A specia( propagan&a office has been estab(ishe& to ac@uaint the peop(e of Korea, Japan an&
e(se)here )ith the ne) go*ernmenta( po(icy4 +epresentati*e Korean officia(s, teachers an& scientific men are fre@uent(y sent to
Japan to atten& conferences of (ea&ers in their specia( fie(&s4 0ocia( intercourse bet)een the t)o races is encourage& at e*ery
opportunity4 Jigorous efforts are being ma&e to e&ucate the rising generation in the Japanese (anguage4 Co opportunity to
emphasiLe the racia( an& cu(tura( affinity of the Koreans an& the Japanese is o*er(oo'e&, an& their common citiLenship in the
;mpire is constant(y harpe& upon4
Ob*ious(y it is &ifficu(t for an outsi&er to gauge either the sincerity or the probab(e resu(ts of such a reform program4 In&ee&,
e*en the opinions of Koreans an& of Japanese an& foreigners (ong resi&ent in Korea &iffer on these @uestions4 The )riter fe(t at
the time, an& sti(( fee(s, that the ,o*ernor-,enera(, Haron 0aito, spo'e *ery fran'(y about the purposes of his go*ernment an&
the &ifficu(ties )ith )hich he is confronte&4 After &ec(aring that economic &e*e(opment must come first, that e&ucation an&
e(e*ate& stan&ar&s of (i*ing )ou(& fo((o), an& that after)ar&s po(itica( &e*e(opment might be possib(e, he )ent on to say that
there )ere many &ifficu(ties to be o*ercome4 IThe chief of these arise from the character of the Koreans4 Many of them are
croo'e&4 They )ant Is@ueeLeI from the Japanese an& their o)n peop(e4 They are (aLy4 At present Ho(she*ist agents an& money
are stirring them up4 The +ussians, though, are c(e*er4 They &o not gi*e them too much money at once4 Of course there are many
Koreans )ho )ish to coYperate )ith us for their countryKs )e(fare4 Hut )e cannot as' too much of these men4 They are in
&anger from their o)n peop(e4 The Japanese &esire to ha*e the Koreans contente& an& happy4 8e &onQt )ant to ma'e Japanese
out of them against their )i((4 Hut for our o)n safety, )e must go*ern this country4 8e hope that in time the Koreans )i(( rea(iLe
that they nee& our assistance4 They can &o nothing by themse(*es4I These p(ain )or&s from the man )ho is the chief instrument
of Japanese ru(e in Korea are refreshing(y at *ariance )ith the fami(iar propagan&a about peace, harmony an& brotherhoo& in a
(an& )here these b(essings ha*e not e>iste& for many years4
9i'e +ome at its best, Japan sen&s first-rate statesmen to be her proconsu(s, gi*es them free rein )hi(e in their pro*inces, an&
ho(&s them to account for resu(ts4 Co co(onia( minister or &epartment in To'yo stan&s bet)een the Japanese go*ernor an& the
Imperia( 1abinet4 The 1o(onia( Hureau is mere(y a secretariat attache& &irect(y to the office of the Premier4 Its chief is not an
important or po)erfu( officia(, an& its functions are mere(y the transmitta( an& fi(ing of co(onia( papers4 JapanQs co(onia(
go*ernors are imme&iate(y responsib(e to the Premier a(one4
Among foreigners resi&ent in Korea there is much more respect for the present a&ministration than a *isitor at first supposes4 For
the bruta(ities an& stupi&ities of the past there is (itt(e but reprobation4 Hut those ;uropeans )ho themse(*es ha*e to &ea( )ith
Koreans seem inc(ine& to ta(' about the &ifficu(ties )ith )hich the go*ernment is face& as )e(( as about its shortcomings4 One
foreigner )hose opinion regar&ing Korea )ou(& be respecte& any)here spo'e substantia((y as fo((o)s5 IOne of the greatest
&ifficu(ties face& by the Japanese is in securing the coYperation of the Koreans4 Of course a (arge proportion of the popu(ation is
&etermine& ne*er to coYperate4 Hut there is, an& a()ays has been an important Japanese party among the Korean peop(e4 This
party is gro)ing rapi&(y4 Its members ha*e ma&e up their min&s to accept Japanese ru(e as ine*itab(e an& to ma'e the most of
)hate*er a&*antages are offere& by it4 Bet they seem to be unab(e to get together among themse(*es or )ith the go*ernment on
any practica( proposition4 The masses are in&ifferent, or at (east @uiescent4 The Qinte((ectua(sQ, )ho ha*e not much to (ose, are the
principa( agitators4 The troub(e )ith them is that they &o not tie up to any princip(e4 They reach for an& seiLe this panacea an&
that4 Their min&s are in a ferment but pro&uce nothing4 They &onQt 'no) )hat they )ant, but they )ant it (i'e the -e*i(4I
This same foreigner ha& recent(y returne& from a trip )hich ha& ta'en him into e*ery corner of the peninsu(a4 II foun&,I he sai&,
Ithat the Japanese are :ust as acti*e in pub(ic hea(th enterprises, e&ucationa( )or' an& other acti*ities in remote &istricts as they
are a(ong the trun' (ine rai()ay4 I *isite& schoo(s e*ery)here an& foun& them cro)&e& to capacity4 Out of A$$ or /$$ pupi(s on(y
t)enty or thirty )ou(& be Japanese chi(&ren4 The rest )ere Koreans4 The teachers )ere both Korean an& Japanese4 A fe) years
ago--before "#"#--the peop(e )ere in&ifferent or hosti(e to the schoo(s4 Co) they are eager to ha*e their chi(&ren atten&, an& the
prob(em is to ta'e care of them a((4 In recent years the 'nife has been use& pretty free(y on the Korean bu&get (ma&e in Japan%,
but the schoo( appropriations ha*e not been touche&4 In fact, (ast year )hen there )as a mi((ion an& a ha(f yen cut in the
personne( of the go*ernment that amount )as a&&e& to the e&ucationa( bu&get4I
Many other resi&ent foreigners re(ate inci&ents in their e>perience )ith the Koreans an& e>press opinions concerning these
peop(e that ta((y c(ose(y )ith those of the gent(eman :ust @uote&4 One of the most &istinguishe& of them in &iscussing the attitu&e
of the Koreans to)ar& the Japanese sai&5 IIn 3232 the 'ountry 6as a.lame 6ith hatred o. the Japanese, a hatred that 'an be
6ell understood8 Many of the causes of that bitterness ha*e been remo*e&4 The o(&er peop(e sti(( cherish it fierce(yD many
Koreans try to 'eep it a(i*e as a matter of pri&e, or of habit, or a(most of re(igion4 Bet time is )or'ing against them4 ;&ucation
an& mo&ern ci*i(iLation are )or'ing against them4 Thousan&s of Koreans )ho as a matter of course te(( you that they hate the
Japanese, get a(ong perfect(y )e(( )ith the in&i*i&ua( Japanese peop(e )ith )hom they come into &ai(y contact4 I shou(& not care
to pre&ict ho) it )i(( en&, but )e a(( 'no) that if the Japanese )ere to )ith&ra) to&ay there )ou(& be chaos tomorro)4I
For ob*ious reasons it is much easier to get the story of the Korean nationa(ists in many other parts of the Orient than in Korea4
In Manchuria an& 0iberia resi&e more than ,$$$,$$$ emigrants from the former Hermit King&om4 0ma(( groups of them are to
be foun& in many of the cities a(ong the 1hina coast an& in Japan itse(f4 The Japanese propagan&a agents *ery nai*e(y say that
the Manchurian-0iberian group, most of )hom are agricu(tura(ists, emigrate& Ion account of the &ifficu(ty of (i*ing cause& by
the e>traor&inary rise in the prices of commo&ities in recent &aysD as a matter of fact, some /.,$$$ Koreans migrate& from
1hosen to Manchuria &uring "#"#, most(y from this cause4I (The ita(ics are the )riterQs4% The p(ain fact is that most of these
peop(e aban&one& their homes an& f(e& from their nati*e country rather than en&ure Japanese ru(eD or, in many cases, because
the Japanese robbe& them of the (an& upon )hich they ha& (i*e&4 A ma:ority of the (ea&ers of the Korean party of *io(ence are
members of this group4 They hope to o*erthro) the Japanese rZgime by assassination, rebe((ion an& attac's o*er the northern
bor&er, an& they ma'e fre@uent attempts to oust their foes by these means4
)ne 'enter o. Korean nationalism is in :han*hai8 ,he APro;isional Go;ernment o. the Fepubli' o. KoreaA, 6hi'h 6as
set up there in 3232, and 6hi'h sent emissaries to the Pea'e Con.eren'e at Persailles, has no6 disinte*rated8 It has been
repla'ed, ho6e;er, by a AKorean Con*ressA 'omposed o. about 3JH members representin* the irre'on'ilables o. Korea,
Man'huria, and :iberia, as 6ell as exiles li;in* in Ha6aii and the Enited :tates8 )ne o. these irre'on'ilables *a;e the
6riter an a''ount o. the 'hara'ter and the a'ti;ities o. the ACon*ressA 6hi'h tended to 'on.irm mu'h already learnt in
Korea itsel.8 A<e ha;e been sittin* no6 .or se;eral months,A he said8 A,here are t6o main parties8 )ne o. them 6ishes to
use ;iolen'e o. e;ery sort a*ainst the Japanese8 ,he other, representin* the (meri'an Koreans and other *roups outside
o. Man'huria and :iberia, .eel that 6e 'annot 'ope 6ith Japan=s military po6er and must rely upon moderate methods
and a 'onstant appeal to 6orld opinion8 0o far no agreement has been reache& by these t)o factions4 Fee(ing bet)een them
has been bitter at times4 Our &ifficu(ties are increase& by the constant presence of spies4 8hate*er )e say, the Japanese 'no) a((
about it the ne>t &ay4 If a &oLen of us meet secret(y each one )on&ers )ho is the traitor4 Of course )e ha*e our organiLation in
Korea4 Hut Japan sti(( ru(es there by terror an& our men are constant(y being ta'en4 On(y to&ay I (earne& that one of our frien&s
)ho ha& been co((ecting &ata upon the e>tent to )hich the Koreans ha*e been &ispossesse& of their (an&s, )as arreste& as he )as
attempting to get out of the country4 Hut )e ha*e )ays of 'eeping in touch )ith our peop(e at home4 If one man is caught
another gets through4I
This Korean is confi&ent that the ne) Japanese po(icy of IattractionI )i(( fai( to )in his peop(e :ust as the former app(ication of
un&isguise& force fai(e& to sub&ue them4 I8e ha*e no fear for the (ong future,I he sai&4 IThe Korean peop(e )i(( ne*er gi*e in4
The 1Lechs he(& out for se*era( centuries4 Co) they are free4 8e can &o that, an& more4 The Japanese are a()ays &oing stupi&
things to 'eep the hatre& of our peop(e a(i*e4 They )i(( ha*e to ta'e a(( of our (an& an& &ri*e us a(( out of the country before
Korea )i(( be safe for them4 This they cannot &o4I
The more inte((igent of the Korean irreconci(ab(es pin their hopes for the future upon 1hina an& +ussia4 They regar& Japanese
supremacy in the Orient as a passing phase, a mere inci&ent in the great &rama of history4 In common )ith many 1hinese they
ho(& their o*er(or&s in contempt as )e(( as hatre&4 Ine*itab(y 1hina )i(( come into her o)n4 8hen she &oes the barbarians )i((
be bro'e utter(y4 This is )hat one hears from Mu'&en to Hata*ia4 As for +ussia, her &ay is coming too, they say4 0he &oes not
forget4
An American )ho returns to the Phi(ippines after a so:ourn in either Formosa or Korea )ou(& be (ess than human if he &i& not
fee( a certain sense of pri&e in the (arger spirit of (iberty )hich is characteristic of our Orienta( &epen&ency4 Bet those )ho
un&erstan& the situation in the Phi(ippines recogniLe that in one important phase of co(onia( &e*e(opment the 7nite& 0tates has
been far (ess successfu( than has JapanD an& they rea(iLe that both Americans an& Fi(ipinos, especia((y the (atter, )i(( ha*e to pay
the price of that comparati*e fai(ure4
-uring the American rZgime in the Phi(ippines po(itica( an& genera( e&ucation has en:oye& an unpara((e(e& gro)th4 Bet &uring
this perio& Americans an& Fi(ipinos ha*e not succee&e& in (aying an economic foun&ation substantia( enough to support the
socia( an& po(itica( superstructure )hich they ha*e erecte&4 The resu(t is that not on(y in&epen&ence but further progress of any
sort in the Is(an&s must )ait upon the creation of a *ast(y greater nationa( income than )i(( be a*ai(ab(e for some years to come4
The Japanese, on the other han&, ha*e procee&e& much more s(o)(y in the socia( an& especia((y the po(itica( &e*e(opment of
Formosa an& Korea4 Once they are serious(y embar'e& upon a progressi*e program, ho)e*er, both of these countries )i(( ha*e
at their &isposa( amp(e means for the comp(etion of their tas'4 At the present time the annua( income of the ,o*ernment of
Formosa (popu(ation A,.$$,$$$% is about [.$,$$$,$$$D )hi(e the ,o*ernment of the Phi(ippines (popu(ation "",.$$,$$$% has at
its &isposa( about [A,$$$,$$$ year(y4 1onsi&ering the cost of the mo&ern ci*i(iLation )hich both of these peop(e co*et these
figures are of great significance4
8here are the Japanese coming out )ith Korea an& FormosaE 8i(( their present po(icy of IattractionI an& the great materia(
a&*antages )hich they ha*e gi*en these co(onies so &im the memories of the past as to pro&uce at (east an ac@uiescence in
Japanese ru(eE Or, in some future strugg(e, )i(( one of these &epen&encies pro*e to be the Achi((es hee( of the Is(an& ;mpireE
Press reports of a b(oo&y uprising of Koreans in To'yo an& Bo'ohama &uring the recent &isaster suggest *i*i&(y the &angerous
possibi(ities of a permanent(y hosti(e popu(ation in Formosa an& Korea4 In the &e*e(opments of the past four years there is much
e*i&ence that Japan rea(iLes the &anger of the situation an& that she is &etermine& to conso(i&ate her mi(itary gains by po(itica(
an& mora( *ictories4 It is to this en& that the ne) Japanese po(icy in Formosa an& Korea is &irecte&4
0ource5 http566)))4foreignaffairs4com6artic(es6!?/#/6ra(ston-hay&en6:apans-ne)-po(icy-in-'orea-an&-formosa
Foreign Affairs of Imperia( Japan
From 8or(& 8ar I to 8or(& 8ar II
Ed#ard .. House 3standing8 %ar le%t5 appears #ith mem:ers o% the ?ommission on League o% 1ations in 2pril 1919. )talian
Prime .inister Cittorio @rlando is seated third %rom rightF Woodro# Wilson is standing at &enter. 0apanese 2m:assador to Breat
Britain Sutemi ?hinda and 0apanese diplomat 1o:uaki .akino are seated8 respe&tively8 on the %ar le%t. Ao:ert ?e&il8 a .em:er
o% the British Parliament and a mem:er o% the .ilner Broup8 is seated %ourth %rom le%t. ?hinese diplomat Ir. C.6. Wellington 6oo
is standing8 %ourth %rom right. 3Photo! .anus&ripts K 2r&hives8 Yale 'niversity5
0o(&iers an& sai(ors from many countries are (ine& up in front of the A((ie& Hea&@uarters Hui(&ing in J(a&i*osto', +ussia in 0eptember
"#"?4 The *arious f(ags f(ying in front of the A((ie& Hea&@uarters Hui(&ing inc(u&e the (from (eft to right% American f(ag, French f(ag,
Hritish (mi(itaryE% f(ag, an& Imperia( Japanese f(ag4 (Photo5 7n&er)oo& U 7n&er)oo&%
Japanese po(itica( bosses, (eft to right5 Onisaburo -eguchi ( 317%, Mitsuru Toyama (* %, an& +yohei 7chi&a (4
H%4 Mitsuru Toyama )as a member of the H(ac' -ragon 0ociety (Ko'uryu'ai, t% an& the foun&er of the -ar' Ocean 0ociety
(,enKyosha, ou a secret society an& terrorist organiLation that fa*ore& Japanese con@uest an& co(oniLation of Korea an&
Manchuria, in "??"4 +yohei 7chi&a )as the go&father an& foun&er of the H(ac' -ragon 0ociety4 Onisaburo -eguchi )as a Japanese
spiritua( (ea&er4
2 painting o% the landing o% the 0apanese army at Cladivostok8 Aussia during the Aussian ?ivil War in 1919. 4he t#o ships in the :a&kground
appear to :e 2meri&an vessels #ith 2meri&an stars and stripes %lags hoisted atop the ships. 4he Ntri&olor %lagO displayed :elo# the 0apanese
%lag 3NAising SunO5 on a %lagpole on the right is the provisional Aussian %lag representing NWhite Aussia.O 3Painting! 4okyo! Sho:ido K ?o.5
)mperial 0apanese military o&&upation o% the Aussian &ity o% 6ha:arovsk during the Aussian ?ivil War in 1919. 3)llustration! Sho:ido K ?o.
34okyo5"'.S. Li:rary o% ?ongress5
(Photo5 .irohito: /ehind the Myth by ;&)ar& Hehr%
0apanese Statesmen during World War )
Beneral 6en9i&hi Vshima

War .inister o% 0apan
3191=/1915
2dmiral 4omosa:urP 6atP

1avy .inister o% 0apan
3191,/19*+5F
30une 1*8 19**/
2ugust *H8 19*+5
(ield .arshal
.asatake 4erau&hi
$ cd
3@&to:er 98 191=/
Septem:er *98 1915F
Bovernor Beneral o%
6orea 3@&to:er 18 191</
@&to:er 98 191=5F
Iied 1ovem:er +8 1919
)&hirP .otono
@X 67
(oreign .inister o% 0apan
3191=/1915F
0apanese 2m:assador to
Aussia 319<=/191=5F
Iied in o%%i&e on
Septem:er 178 191
6Psai '&hida
4
31911/191*8 191/19*+8
19+*/19++5F
Aussia 3191=/1915
Cote5 KaLue 0hM&a ( % ser*e& as Finance Minister of Japan ("#"!-"#"?% an& Presi&ent of the Han' of 1hosen in
0eou(, Korea4
Prime Minister of ,reat Hritain -a*i& 9(oy& ,eorge (front ro),
n&
(eft% meets )ith 1ro)n Prince Hirohito of Japan (front ro),
center% in 9on&on on May "., "#"4 (Photo5 Asahi Ce)spaper%
http566commons4)i'ime&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e51ro)nFPrinceFHirohitoFan&F9(oy&F,eorgeF"#"4:pg
?ro#n Prin&e Hirohito o% 0apan 3right5 and the Prin&e o% Wales salute during Hirohito7s visit to Breat Britain on .ay *18 19*1.
2meri&an :irth &ontrol a&tivist .argaret Sanger8 right8 is sho#n8 photographed on her arrival to 4okyo8 0apan on 2pril +8 19**. 0apan :eing
opposed to :irth &ontrol8 she #as %or:idden to make any pu:li& talks on the su:$e&t. )n this photo #ith her are the Baroness and Baron
)shimoto8 leaders %or &ontrol o% :irth in 4okyoF .rs. Sanger #as their guest. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
19*+ 6anto EarthEuake
The Metropo(itan Po(ice -epartment at Marunouchi &istrict near Hibiya Par' in To'yo, Japan erupts in f(ames on 0eptember "., "#A4
0ur*i*ors of the "#A ,reat Kanto ;arth@ua'e search for missing re(ati*es4 The ,reat Kanto ;arth@ua'e 'i((e& more than "/$,$$$
peop(e an& &estroye& most of To'yo an& Bo'ohama4 Most Japanese bui(&ings in To'yo an& Bo'ohama in "#A )ere ma&e of )oo&,
an& most of the )oo&en bui(&ings erupte& in f(ames fo((o)ing the earth@ua'e4
A 7404 Ca*y 1hap(ain ministers to the &ea&, burne& beyon& recognition, in the ruins of the 7404 Ca*a( Hospita( at Bo'ohama, Japan in
0eptember "#A fo((o)ing the ,reat Kanto ;arth@ua'e4 The 1hap(ain )as part of an Asiatic F(eet search an& reco*ery party sent to
the hospita( site after the earth@ua'e4 (Photo5 1o((ection of Henry J4 Poy, 0*S* Na+al .istorical 1enter 2hotograph%

Le%t! (ire erupts in the .arunou&hi distri&t in 4okyo8 0apan on Septem:er 18 19*+ %ollo#ing a ma$or earthEuake that day.
Aight! 0apanese poli&e o%%i&ers interrogate and perse&ute ethni& 6orean migrant #orkers8 in&luding a migrant #orker8 a%ter the 19*+ 6anto
EarthEuake. Ethni& 6oreans8 most o% #hom #ere una:le to speak 0apanese %luently8 #ere %alsely a&&used o% looting and arson in 4okyo and
Yokohama a%ter the earthEuake displa&ed many residents and destroyed homes and :usinesses. 4he )mperial 0apanese government
imposed martial la# over 4okyo in an attempt to restore order %ollo#ing the devastating earthEuake.
Le%t to right! ?apt. )soroku Yamamoto8 0apanese naval atta&hW in Washington8 I.?.8 '.S. Se&retary o% the 1avy ?urtis I. Wil:ur8 another
0apanese naval o%%i&er8 and 2dm. Ed#ard W. E:erle8 ?hie% o% '.S. 1aval @perations8 on (e:ruary 178 19*=.
3Photo! Li:rary o% ?ongress8 Washington8 I.?. 3digital. id. np&& *7,<H55
3Sour&e! http!""media/*.#e:.:ritanni&a.&om"e:/media"H"1*7H/<,</+H(,2B*.$pg5
?ro#n Prin&e Hirohito o% 0apan 3le%t5 and '.S. 2rmy Brigadier Beneral (rank A. .&?oy8 later a .a$or Beneral and a mem:er o% the Ao:erts
?ommission8 inspe&t several %ield hospitals in 4okyo8 0apan in 19*+8 shortly a%ter 4he Breat 6anto EarthEuake devastated 4okyo and
Yokohama. 4he 2meri&an people8 out o% &harity and good#ill8 donated money8 %ood8 and &lothes to 0apan to assist the 0apanese people #ho
survived the earthEuake.
)mperial 0apanese 1avy Ci&e 2dmiral @sami 1agano lays a #reath at the 4om: o% the 'nkno#n Soldier at the 2rlington 1ational ?emetery in
2rlington8 Cirginia8 '.S.2. in &ir&a 19*7. 2t the right end o% the 0apanese delegation is ?aptain )soroku Yamamoto8 the 1aval 2tta&hW to the
'nited States. 4he '.S. 1avy o%%i&er standing hatless $ust :ehind them is Lieutenant ?ommander Paulus P. Po#ell8 2ide to Ci&e 2dmiral
@sami 1agano during this visit. 3?olle&tion o% Aear 2dmiral Paulus P. Po#ell"'.S. 1aval Histori&al ?enter Photograph5
http!""###.history.navy.mil"photos"prs/%or"$apan"$aprs/;G"i/yamto.htm

Le%t! (oreign .inister o% 0apan Baron 6i$uro Shidehara 3 75 appears on the %ront &over o% Time magaGine 3@&to:er 1*8 19+1 edition5.
Aight! Prime .inister o% 0apan 4suyoshi )nukai 3 d5 appears on the %ront &over o% Time magaGine 3Ie&em:er *8 19+1 edition5.
'.S. .inister to ?hina 0ohn Can 2nt#erp .a&.urray 3le%t58 later a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations in 1e# York ?ity8 attends a
%ormal a%%air alongside 0apanese (oreign .inister 6i$uro Shidehara in 4okyo8 0apan on 2ugust 18 19*,. 6i$uro Shidehara8 #ho #as identi%ied
#ith the pea&e%ul e%%orts o% 0apan o% the 19*<9s8 served as Prime .inister o% 0apan %rom @&to:er 98 19H, to .ay **8 19H=. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
While '.S. Se&retary o% State Henry L. Stimson looks on8 0apanese 2m:assador 6atsu$i Ie:u&hi signs the 6ellogg/Briand Pa&t an hour prior
to the rati%i&ation &eremony on 0uly *H8 19*9. Stimson #as a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations in 1e# York ?ity. 3?@AB)S5
Beorge Bernard Sha#8 #orld/%amed British dramatist and so&ialist8 meet #ith Lieutenant Beneral Sado 2raki8 0apanese .inister o% War8 in
4okyo8 0apan on .ar&h *+8 19++. 3Photo! Bettmann"?@AB)S5
.em:ers o% the 0apanese delegation to the World E&onomi& ?on%eren&e in London :id good:ye to '.S. President (ranklin Ielano Aoosevelt
at the White House in Washington8 I.?.8 '.S.2. on .ay *78 19++. Le%t to right! Cis&ount 6iku$iro )shii8 head delegate and %ormer 0apanese
2m:assador to the '.S. 3191/19195F 0uukuio 6a:ono8 E&onomi& adviserF President AooseveltF 0apanese :anker Eigo (ukai 3Bovernor o% the
Bank o% 0apan %rom 19+, to 19+75F and 6atsu$i Ie:u&hi8 0apanese 2m:assador to the '.S. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Leading 0apanese o%%i&ials and the 2meri&an 2m:assador to 0apan spoke to the 'nited States o% 2meri&a via telephone %or the %irst time on
Ie&em:er +<8 19+H8 #hen an international servi&e #as &ompleted in 4okyo. Pi&tured at the &eremony8 are le%t to right! 4ake$iro 4okonami8
.inister o% ?ommuni&ationsF (oreign .inister 6oki HirotaF 2m:assador 0oseph ?. Bre#F and .r. Ed#in 1eville8 ?ounsellor o% the 2meri&an
Em:assy listening in on messages &oming %rom Washington8 I.?. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0oseph ?. Bre# 3standing58 the 2meri&an 2m:assador to )mperial 0apan8 delivers a spee&h at an 2meri&a/0apan So&iety dinner in .ar&h
19+=. Prime .inister o% 0apan 6oki Hirota 34 d58 #ho served as the Prime .inister %rom .ar&h 98 19+= to (e:ruary *8 19+78 is seated
three persons %rom Bre#7s right. 4he 0apanese naval o%%i&er at the e;treme right is 2dmiral .ineo @sumi 3 58 .inister o% the 1avy.
6oki Hirota #as &onvi&ted o% #ar &rimes at the 4okyo 4rials in 19H and e;e&uted :y hanging at Sugamo Prison in 4okyo on Ie&em:er *+8
19H. 2dmiral .ineo @sumi8 #ho served as the .inister o% the 1avy %rom 19+1 to 19+* and %rom 19++ to 19+=8 #as killed in a&tion in ?hina
during the Se&ond Sino/0apanese War on (e:ruary ,8 19H1.
British .em:er o% Parliament and statesman 2rthur Bal%our addresses the %irst &oun&il o% the League o% 1ations held in St. 0ames Pala&e in
London on (e:ruary *=8 19*<. 2t ta:le le%t to right! Baron .atsui o% 0apan8 .r. Bal%our8 .. Leon Bourgeoise8 President o% the League o%
1ationsF Sir Eri& Irummond8 Se&retary BeneralF .aggirino (erraris o% )taly8 .. Paul Humans o% Belgium and .. Juinones de Leon o% Spain.
3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Prime .inister o% 0apan Cis&ount .akoto Saito announ&es 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations at a park in 4okyo8 0apan on .ay
178 19++8 a%ter the re&ognition o% the 0apanese puppet/state o% .an&hukuo :y the 0apanese. 3Photo! Bettmann"?@AB)S5
.em:ers o% the 0apanese delegation to the &ongregations :et#een 0apan8 'nited States and Breat Britain in preparation %or the 19+, London
1aval ?on%eren&e8 are seen leaving their hotel %or the %irst &on%eren&e in London on @&to:er *H8 19+H. Le%t to right %ront8 ?ap. 4ain @kaF
2dmiral )soroku YamamotoF and ?aptain )#ashita. Ba&k8 le%t to right! 0. Enomoto and ?ommander 4. .ituno:u. 4he 0apanese delegates
asked %or %uture elimination o% 1aval UratiosU %rom all treaties. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Parti&ipants %rom )taly8 (ran&e8 2meri&a8 Britain8 and 0apan attend the (ive/Po#er 1aval ?on%eren&e dis&ussing limitations on naval
armaments in the Lo&arno Aoom o% the (oreign @%%i&e in London in Ie&em:er 19+,. 3Photo! Hulton/Ieuts&h ?olle&tion"?@AB)S5
Imperia( Japanese 1o(oniLation of Manchuria (Manchu'uo%
Mu-den In'ident: )r*ani+ed Crime!
An e>press train on the 0outh Manchuria +ai(roa& (Photo5 9ibrary of 1ongress%
N7urin* the ni*ht o. :eptember 3G, 3243, K6antun* (rmy o..i'ers detonated an explosion near the Japanese-'ontrolled
:outh Man'hurian Fail6ay line at iut#iao-ou 1north o. Mu-den5 and blamed it on the soldiers o. Chan* Hsueh-lian*
and armed Chinese "bandits8& Esin* an in'ident they themsel;es had sta*ed as a pretext, and that had le.t the rail line
itsel. undama*ed, 0taff Officer 1o(4 Itaga'i 0eishiro 2,en4 0eishiro Itaga'i, (ater Japanese Minister of 8ar3 or&ere& the
In&epen&ent ,arrison Force an& the T)enty-ninth Infantry +egiment to attac' the barrac's of the 1hinese Manchurian Army
)ithin the )a((e& city of Mu'&en4 Ta'en by surprise, the 1hinese troops f(e& or (ai& &o)n their arms4 An hour (ater Itaga'iKs
co-conspirator, 9t4 1o(4 Ishi)ara Kan:i, statione& in +yo:un 2Port Arthur3, con*eye& the fa(se report of )hat ha& happene& to
K)antung Army 1omman&er Hon:o 0higeru4 Hon:o then issue& attac' or&ers that Ishi)ara ha& carefu((y prepare& (ong in
a&*ance4 O*er the ne>t t)enty-four hours K)antung Army units a&*ance& beyon& the (ease& territory an& seiLe& contro( of the
strategic to)ns a(ong the rai()ay4 The army then prepare& to mo*e on the ma:or popu(ation centers of southern Manchuria4 The
ne>t &ay, 0eptember "#, the pa(ace (earne& = through ne)spaper reports base& on K)antung Army e>p(anations = of the c(ash in
Manchuria4 +esponsibi(ity, accor&ing to the army spo'esmen, reste& )ith the 1hinese4 1hief Ai&e-&e-1amp Cara Ta'e:i
prompt(y informe& the emperor, a&&ing that he be(ie*e& Nthis inci&ent 2)ou(&3 not sprea&4O\Once starte&, the Manchurian
Inci&ent set off a chain reaction of internationa( an& &omestic crises that interacte& an& fun&amenta((y a(tere& the )ho(e
tra:ectory of Japanese state &e*e(opment4 1hina imme&iate(y sought re&ress before the 9eague of CationsD the K)antung Army
sought reinforcements4 ,en4 Hayashi 0en:uro, comman&ing in Korea, sought permission, though centra( army hea&@uarters in
To'yo, to sen& units across the Ba(u +i*er into Manchuria4 On 0eptember "# the go*ernment )as sti(( he(p(ess an& i((-
informe&4 Prime Minister 8a'atsu'i appea(e& to Hara&a Kumao, secretary to genro 0aion:i, for assistance\O
= .irohito and the Making of Modern 3apan by Herbert P4 Hi>, p4 A.-A!
NThe ;>press Train of the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany running through the spot )here 1han Tso-rin 21hang Tso-(in3
)as bombe& to &eath4O 1hang Tso-(in )as the 8ar(or& of Manchuria from "# unti( his &eath on June I, 322G, )hen he )as
assassinate& in a bombing inci&ent in )hich his train e>p(o&e& as the train arri*e& in Mu'&en4
1hang Tso-(in &eparte& Pe'ing (Hei:ing% on June A, "#? an& tra*e(e& by train to Mu'&en (0henyang%4 On the morning of June
/, "#?, the train reache& the outs'irts of Mu'&en4 In Mu'&en, the rai( (ine passe& through the Japanese-operate& 0outh
Manchuria +ai(roa&4 Imperia( Japanese K)antung Army officer 1o(one( KMmoto -aisa'u ha& p(ante& a bomb on the rai( (ine,
)hich e>p(o&e& )hen 1hang Tso-(inKs train passe& un&er the *ia&uct4
1hang Tso-(in, 8ar(or& of Manchuria
0apanese e;perts inspe&t the s&ene o% the staged 9rail#ay sa:otage9 on South .an&huria Aail#ay in Septem:er 19+18 leading to the 0apanese
o&&upation o% .an&huria. 0apanese soldiers o% the 6#antung 2rmy reportedly engaged in a %alse/%lag operation :y sa:otaging the 0apanese
government/o#ned South .an&huria Aail#ay and :lamed the terrorist in&ident on the ?hinese N:anditsO.
3Pu:lished in 0apanese ne#spaper Aekishi Syashin5
3Photo! http!""&ommons.#ikimedia.org"#iki"(ile!19+1<9-mukden-in&ident-rail#ay-sa:otage.$pg5
1entra( Han' of Manchou hea&@uarters in Hsin'ing (1hangchun%, Manchu'uo in "#A#4 The Mu'&en Inci&ent occurre& on
:eptember 3G, 32434 ,he 0ritish /mpire 6ent o.. the *old standard on :eptember 23, 32438
(Photo5 Sho)a .istory: .istory of 3apanese colony pub(ishe& by Mainichi Ce)spapers 1ompany%
NHy October ", "#A", t)o )ee's into the inci&ent, most Japanese ha& begun to ra((y behin& the army4 Hirohito -ne6 that the
in'ident had been sta*ed8 He -ne6 6ho had planned it, 6ho had ordered it, and 6ho had 'arried it out8 He 6as totally
a6are that se;eral senior o..i'ers had ;iolated the army#s o6n penal la6 o. 32HG by orderin* troops into areas that lay
outside their 'ommand $urisdi'tion8 Ce*erthe(ess, as 1hief Ai&e-&e-1amp CaraKs &iary ma'es @uite c(ear, Hirohito inten&e&
to or&er on(y the (ightest of punishments for the army chief of staff an& the K)antung Army comman&er4O
= .irohito and the Making of Modern 3apan by Herbert P4 Hi>, p4 /$

1o-1onspirators of the Mu'&en Inci&ent5 ,enera( 0higeru Hon:M ((eft, comman&er in chief of the K)antung Army%,
1o(one( ((ater ,enera(% 0eishiro Itaga'i (center%, an& 9t4 1o(4 ((ater 9ieutenant ,enera(% Kan:i Ishi)ara (right%
Kan:i Ishi)ara )as an a&*ocate of Pan-Asianism an& staunch opponent of the Japanese mi(itary in*asion of 1hina an& Japanese
mi(itary attac' on Pear( Harbor4 Kan:i Ishi)ara confronte& Prime Minister ,en4 Hi&e'i To:o at the Prime MinisterKs office in
To'yo in (ate "#/ an& a&*ise& To:o to resign from office an& commit suici&e4
N1aptain Ka)amoto 0uemori (ai& the forty-t)o ye((o) pac'ages of b(asting po)&er )ith care4 0hort(y after "$5$$ P4M4 on
0eptember "?, "#A", he &etonate& them, &isp(acing a portion of the trac's of the 0outh Manchuria +ai()ay 9ine as it passe& the
northern outs'irts of Mu'&en4 Ka)amoto an& his coconspirators inten&e& to &erai( the -airen ;>press, &ue :ust minutes (ater,
an& b(ame the act on the (oca( 1hinese )ar(or&, Whang Sue(iang4 Incre&ib(y, )hen the train reache& the &amage& section of
trac', it s)aye& on(y s(ight(y an& passe& on safe(y4 7nruff(e&, Ka)amoto re(aye& a prearrange& message to his home base4
N;ngage& in action )ith 1hinese forces )ho set off e>p(osion a(ong rai(roa&4O Ostensib(y in response to that Nunpro*o'e&
aggression,O units of JapanKs K)antung Army imme&iate(y attac'e& the barrac's of WhangKs so(&iers in Mu'&en an&
1hangchun4 8ithin forty-eight hours, Japanese troops occupie& the t)o cities, an& -oihara Ken:i, a co(one( in the K)antung
Army, name& himse(f to hea& an emergency committee to go*ern Mu'&en, effecti*e(y &etaching that pro*incia( capita( from
1hinese contro(4 The fighting in Manchuria erupte& )hi(e Japan )as mire& in &epression4 The Ce) Bor' 0toc' mar'et crashe&
in October "##, an& To'yo soon fe(t the shoc' )a*es4 Het)een "## an& "#A" JapanKs e>ports fe(( in ha(f, its ,CP &ec(ine&
by "? percent, an& in*estments in p(ants an& e@uipment &roppe& by one-thir&4 In urban centers, more than a mi((ion men an&
)omen :oine& the unemp(oyment ro((s as (arge businesses curtai(e& operations, me&ium-siLe firms co((apse& in ban'ruptcy, an&
o)ners of some sma(( factories )ithhe(& pay for )or' &one an& e*en abscon&e& )ith the money (eft in the cash &ra)er4 8ith
)ages (o) an& :obs har& to fin&, many younger )or'ers returne& to their ancestra( *i((ages to )ait out the &epression, on(y to
fin& their re(ati*es )ere faring no betters4 As &eman& for si(' fe(( precipitous(y in "#A$, farm fami(ies that raise& cocoons
earne& on(y ha(f their "## incomes4 +ice prices &ec(ine& so sharp(y that in some regions farmers recei*e& (ess for their crop
than the cost of gro)ing it, an& o*era(( rura( incomes p(unge& form an in&e> of one hun&re& in "#! to :ust thirty-three in "#A"4
9ife gre) e*en harsher )hen crop fai(ures punishe& northern Japan in "#A" an& again in "#A/4 Foo& became so scarce that
tra*e(ers reporte& seeing farm fami(ies stripping the )inter bar' from trees to e>pose eatab(e grubs, an& thousan&s of star*ing
fami(ies so(& their &aughters to urban brothe(s4 ;*en the &ea& )ere affecte&\The Manchurian Inci&ent an& the ,reat
-epression = the t)in crises that rac'e& Japan at the beginning of the "#A$s = raise& ne) &oubts about the efficacy of
capita(ism an& the abi(ity of party cabinets to a&&ress the myria& po(itica(, economic, an& socia( prob(ems, that confronte& the
nation4 1(ear(y, e*eryone ac'no)(e&ge&, Japan ha& entere& Na perio& of nationa( emergency,O an& many pushe& for)ar& )ith
ne) ans)ers to the @uestion of )ither Japan4O = 3apan: A Modern .istory by James 94 Mc1(ain, p4 /$.-/$<
NThe (ea&ing architect of the Manchurian 2Mu'&en3 Inci&ent )as Ishi)ara Kan:i4 A gra&uate of the Japanese Mi(itary Aca&emy,
c(ass of K$# 2"#$#3, the young secon& (ieutenant comp(ete& a tour of &uty in Korea before entering the Army 0taff 1o((ege,
)here he finishe& secon& in his c(ass in "#"? an& steppe& onto the fast trac' for promotion to higher ran'44 He subse@uent(y
ser*e& a year in 1hina, accepte& a posting to ,ermany for three years of research an& (anguage stu&y, an& in "#. returne& to
Japan, a ma:or assigne& to (ecture about the history of )arfare at the Army 0taff 1o((ege4 A @ui>otic an& uncon*entiona(
thin'er, Ishi)ara painte& an apoca(yptic *ie) of the future in his (ectures4 The (esson to be (earne& )as simp(e, he e>p(aine&5
8arfare ha& become more *io(ent an& more encompassing than e*er before4 The in*ention of &ea&(y poison gases, the
in*incib(e tan', an& no) the airp(ane )ith its a)esome potentia( to pro:ect po)er o*er great &istances meant that any future )ar
)ou(& &ra) into its *orte> of horror e*eryone in society = ci*i(ians as )e(( as so(&iers, innocent )omen an& chi(&ren as )e(( as
arme& men4 7sing a term popu(ar in ,erman mi(itary circ(es, der totale 4rieg, Ishi)ara )arne& that another conf(ict, shou(& it
come, )ou(& be Tota( 8ar5 -estruction )ou(& be beyon& comprehension, an& a nation cou(& hope to )eather such a ho(ocaust
on(y if it )ere ab(e to mobi(iLe a(( its materia(, human, an& spiritua( resources4 It )ou(& be fo((y, he a(so cautione&, to imagine
that 8or(& 8ar I )as Nthe )ar to en& a(( )ars4O As a con*ert to the Cichiren faith, a contentious an& sometimes mi(itant
Hu&&hist &enomination foun&e& in the thirteenth century, Ishi)ara accepte& the sectKs fun&amenta( tenet5 7(timate(y a Ntitanic
)or(& 1onf(ict, unprece&ente& in human history,O )ou(& scour the g(obe an& prepare the )ay for a reign of uni*ersa( an& eterna(
peace4 His o)n interpretation of the scriptures suggeste& that this catastrophic sho)&o)n )ou(& ta'e p(ace )ithin his o)n
(ifetime, an& his sense of the strategic situation in the (ate "#$s (e& him to conc(u&e that t)o ne) )or(& po)ers, representati*es
of *ery &ifferent historica( an& re(igious tra&itions, )ou(& stan& in the center of the conf(agration4 On one si&e of the Pacific
Ocean, Ishi)ara to(& his au&ience, the 7nite& 0tates ha& mo*e& to the forefront of 8estern societies, an& on the opposite si&e of
that ocean Japan )as emerging as the un&ispute& (ea&er of Asian ci*i(iLation4 7(timate(y, ine*itab(y, sooner rather than (ater, he
prophesie&, these t)o stan&ar&-bearers for mutua((y hosti(e i&eo(ogica( systems )ou(& meet not :ust in a Tota( 8ar but in a Fina(
8ar, an& on(y one )ou(& sur*i*e to presi&e o*er the ne) era of )or(& peace4 Japan, he conc(u&e&, must begin preparations
imme&iate(y for this impen&ing Armage&&on4 That imperati*e meant that Japan must &ominate ;ast Asia, an& in Manchuria it
ha& to bui(& up a po)erfu( in&ustria( base that )ou(& pro*i&e the resources an& in&ustria( might necessary to )in the coming
)ar of annihi(ation )ith the 7nite& 0tates4 In October "#? Ishi)ara arrange& to ha*e himse(f assigne& to the K)antung Army4
From the &ay he steppe& ashore at Port Arthur he en&(ess(y sermoniLe& about JapanKs nee& to contro( the region4O
= 3apan: A Modern .istory by James 94 Mc1(ain, p4 /$<-/$?
NCeither the army genera( staff nor the countryKs ne)(y appointe& prime minister, Konoe Fumimaro, )as particu(ar(y
apprehensi*e )hen &etai(s of the (atest inci&ent in 1hina reache& To'yo4 The confrontation seeme& to be :ust another minor
fou(up that cou(& be straightene& out @uic'(y an& routine(y4 On the night of Ju(y <, "#A<, a company of Japanese so(&iers, one of
se*era( internationa( units statione& near Hei:ing un&er the pro*isions of the Ho>er Protoco(, )as con&ucting or&inary fie(&
maneu*ers near the gracefu( Marco Po(o Hri&ge, some ten mi(es )est of 1hinaKs o(& imperia( capita(4 The so(&iers a&&e&
rea(ism to the training e>ercise by firing b(an' cartri&ges from their machine guns, as )as regu(ar practice, but that night, much
to their surprise, they )ere ans)ere& by incoming (i*e roun&s, presumab(y from 1hinese troops4 After a ro(( ca(( re*ea(e& one
Japanese so(&ier to be missing, the company comman&er as'e& permission to search a nearby to)n, an& )hen the 1hinese
ba('e& at the re@uest, the Japanese trie& to enter the sett(ement forcib(y4 Fo((o)ing that secon& s'irmish, each si&e rushe& a
batta(ion of men to the scene, e*en though the errant so(&ier ha& foun& his )ay bac' to his unit unharme&4 8hen centra(
mi(itary hea&@uarters in To'yo recei*e& a situation report on the morning of Ju(y ?, the army chief of staff &eci&e& to &o)np(ay
e*ents an& cab(e& instructions to the (oca( Japanese comman&er to )or' out a sett(ement )ith his 1hinese counterpart, a fami(iar
metho& of reso(*ing minor inci&ents in northern 1hina4 The chief of staffKs action met )ith appro*a( from se*era( officers on
the genera( staff )ho be(ie*e& Japan must a*oi& petty mi(itary engagements in 1hina that might broa&en into a protracte& )ar4
+emar'ab(y, one of the most articu(ate of the so-ca((e& noninter*entionists )as Ishi)ara Kan:i, the impu(si*e, coc'sure
mastermin& behin& the Manchurian Inci&ent4 Ha*ing been transferre& in "#A. to the genera( staffKs Operations -i*ision in
To'yo, Ishi)ara agree& )ith co((eagues )ho sa) the 0o*iet 7nion as JapanKs most imme&iate strategic prob(em in northern
Asia, e*en )hi(e he continue& to pre&ict the e*entua( onset of a Fina( 8ar )ith the 7nite& 0tates4 0uch threats compe((e& Japan
to embar' on a (ong-term in&ustria( an& mi(itary bui(&up, Ishi)ara asserte&, an& that ha& :ustifie& the creation of Manchu'uo
since the ne) country cou(& contribute to JapanKs attempt to achie*e autar'y, or economic se(f-sufficiency4 Hut at this :uncture,
in the mi&-"#A$s, Japan nee&e& to maintain a state of peace to buy time to &e*e(op its fu(( economic an& mi(itary capabi(ities4
9oo'e& at in such (ight, further mi(itary in*o(*ement in 1hina, Ishi)ara reasone&, simp(y in*ite& Nthe same sort of &isaster
)hich o*ertoo' Capo(eon in 0pain = a s(o) sin'ing into the &eepest sort of bog4O Japan must be on guar&, the
noninter*entionists a&monishe&, not to un&erestimate the gro)ing strength of 1hinese nationa(ism an& the tenacity )ith )hich
1hiang Kai-she'Ks army )ou(& fight if bac'e& into a corner, the continent )as a @uagmire that )ou(& suc' in Japanese
manpo)er an& resources, (ea*ing the nation *u(nerab(e4O = 3apan: A Modern .istory by James 94 Mc1(ain, p4 //-///
Map of Manchuria (Manchu'uo%, K)antung 9ease& Territory, an& Korea (1hosen% in "#A"
)mperial 0apanese 2rmy troops enter .ukden Lno# ShenyangM8 ?hina in Septem:er 19+18 shortly a%ter the staged .ukden
)n&ident that o&&urred on Septem:er 18 19+1.
)mperial 0apanese 2rmy troops enter Har:in in Septem:er/@&to:er 19+18 shortly a%ter .ukden )n&ident.
3Photo! http!""##*d:.&om"image.phpTimage-idR+,15
6#antung 2rmy HeadEuarters in Hsinking8 .an&hukuo L0apanM in 19+,. Hsinking Lno# ?hang&hunM #as the &apital o% .an&hukuo.
3Sour&e! 0apanese :ook USho#a History! History o% 0apanese &olonyU pu:lished :y .aini&hi 1e#spapers ?ompany5
Members of the 9ytton 1ommission in*estigate the Mu'&en Inci&ent in "#A4 From (eft to right5, 1ount 9uigi A(&ro*an&i-
Marescotti (Ita(ian Ambassa&or to ,ermany ("#!-"##%%, -r4 Heinrich 0chnee (,o*ernor of ,erman ;ast Africa ("#"-"#"?%%,
9or& Jictor Hu()er-9ytton (1hairman of the 9ytton 1ommissionD former ,o*ernor of Henga(%, 7404 Army Ma:or ,enera( Fran'
+4 Mc1oy ((ater member of the 1ounci( on Foreign +e(ations%, ,enera( Henri-;&ouar& 1(au&e( (former Inspector-genera( of
French co(onia( troops%, an& Japanese &ip(omat Isaburo Boshi&a4
The former +ussia city ha(( in -a(ian, 1hina
Members of the 9eague of CationQs 1ommission of In@uiry in the Far ;ast (9ytton 1ommission% arri*e at Han'o), 1hina in
"#A4 (0ource5 9eague of Cations Archi*es, 7CO, 9ibrary%
A photo of Harbin before "#/.
(rank .&?oy and other mem:ers o% the Lytton ?ommission meet #ith Henry Pu/Yi.8 the titular ruler o% .an&hukuo 3.an&huria5 in 19+*. Henry
Pu/Yi is seated in the &enterF .&?oy is seated t#o persons %rom Pu/Yi7s right. (rank .&?oy #as a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign
Aelations. 1aGi Bermany8 (as&ist )taly8 Soviet 'nion8 (as&ist Spain8 and Hungary esta:lished diplomati& relations #ith .an&hukuo.

Le%t photo! 0apanese troops entering Shenyang8 ?hina during the .ukden )n&ident in Septem:er 19+1.
Aight photo! ?hinese soldiers o% the 1ational Aevolutionary 2rmy hold their positions at the .ar&o Polo Bridge near Peking in 19+7 during their
:attle against the )mperial 0apanese 2rmy. 4he )mperial 0apanese government used the in&ident at the .ar&o Polo Bridge as a prete;t to
invade mainland ?hina and the &ities o% Shanghai8 1anking8 and Peking.
Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan 3le%t5 and Emperor Henry Pu/Yi o% .an&hukuo 3&enter8 saluting5 ride in a &arriage during a %ormal visit
to 4okyo8 0apan in 19+,. Henry Pu/Yi8 #ho on&e served as the %inal Emperor o% ?hina in 19118 served as the Emperor o%
.an&hukuo %rom .ar&h 18 19+H until 2ugust 1,8 19H,. Henry Pu/Yi lived in 4ientsin during the .ukden )n&ident and moved to
Iairen shortly a%ter the .ukden )n&ident. Henry Pu/Yi 3:orn on (e:ruary 78 19<=5 died o% medi&al &ompli&ations in Peking
3Bei$ing5 on @&to:er 178 19=7.
Emperor Henry Pu/Yi o% .an&hukuo 3*
nd
right5 appears #ith a group o% )mperial 0apanese 2rmy generals.
Manchu'uo Po(iticians pose for a group portrait in circa "#A!4 Front ro), from (eft5 Bu Whishan, Minister of Mi(itary AffairsD
Sie Jieshi, Ambassa&or to JapanD Si Xia, 1hief of Imperia( Househo(& AgencyD Whang Jinghui, Prime Minister of Manchu'uo
("#A.-"#/.%D Wang 0hiyi, Presi&ent of the 0enateD 9u +onghuan, Minister of 1i*i( AffairsD -ing Jian>iu, Minister of In&ustry4
+ear ro), from (eft5 Buan Jin'ai, Minister of Pa(atine AffairsD 9i 0haogeng, Minister of TrafficD +uan When&uo, Minister of
;&ucation ("#A.-"#A<%D Whang Ban@ing, Minister of Foreign Affairs ("#A.-"#A<%4

,enera( Officers of Manchu'uo Imperia( Army before "#A<
(0ource5 Japanese boo' NThe latest 5eneral +ie) of Empire of ManchuriaO pub(ishe& by 0eibun&ou-0hin'ou 0ha%
(0ource5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5,enera(FOfficersFofFMIA-"4JP,%
0outh Manchuria +ai()ay 1ompany (m)rstu% hea&@uarters in -airen (-a(ian% before "#/.
(6ld 2ictures of 2uppet Manchukuo%, e&ite& by the museum of Manchu'uo Pa(ace, pub(ishe& in $$"
(Photo5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5Manchu'uoF0M+Fhea&@uarters4:pg%
A&*ertisement of the 0outh Manchuria +ai()ay 1ompany4 NManchuria Daily Ne)sO, August "., "#A<4
Pub(ishe& in -a(ian4 0outh Manchuria +ai()ay 1ompany 6 Manchuria -ai(y Ce)s
+ai(roa& map of Manchuria in August "#/.
(Cote5 +e& (ine in&ictates rai()ay operate& by the Japanese go*ernment-o)ne& 0outh Manchurian +ai(roa&%
A map of Manchuria, inc(u&ing the rai( (ines of the 0outh Manchurian +ai(roa&4 The NAsia ;>pressO (ine ran from -airen
2-a(ian3 (K% to Harbin (% *ia to Mu'&en (% an& Hsing'ing (%4

Le%t! 6Psai '&hida8 President o% South .an&huria Aailroad ?ompany 30une 19+1/0uly 19+*5 and (oreign .inister o% 0apan 31911/191*8 191/
19*+8 19+*/19++5. 6Psai '&hida #as the President o% South .an&huria Aailroad ?ompany during the .ukden )n&ident 3Septem:er 18 19+15.
Aight! Yosuke .atsuoka8 President o% South .an&huria Aailroad ?ompany 319+,/19+95 and (oreign .inister o% 0apan 319H</0uly 19H15
Hsin'ing 0tation in Hsin'ing (1hangchun%, Manchu'uo before "#/.4 Hsin'ing (% )as the capita( of Manchu'uo4
0ource5 II (O(& Pictures of Puppet Manchu'uo%, e&ite& by the museum of Manchu'uo Pa(ace, pub(ishe& in $$"
(Photo5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5Manchu'uoFHsin'ingFstation4:pg%
Jie) of the hea&@uarters of 0outh Manchuria +ai()ay 1ompany in -airen (-a(ian%, K)antung 9ease& Territory
0t4 Cico(as Ortho&o> 1hurch in Harbin, Manchu'uo in circa "#/$
A Japanese postcar& &isp(aying a photograph of the K)anto (K)antung% Army Hea&@uarters in Hsin'ing, Manchuria
NManchuria is 'no)n in 1hina as the Three ;astern Pro*inces5 Hei(ung'iang to the north, Kirin to the east, an& Fengtien or
9iaoning to the south4 8ith an area estimate& at #?.,$$$ s@uare 'i(ometers, Manchuria is as (arge as a(( of ,ermany an& France
combine&4 To the south)est stan&s the ,reat 8a(( of 1hinaD to the )est, Inner an& Outer Mongo(iaD to the north an& east,
+ussian 0iberiaD to the southeast, Korea (anne>e& by Japan in "#"$%D to the south, the 9iaotung Peninsu(a an& t)o arms of the
Be((o) 0ea4 -uring the +usso-Japanese 8ar of "#$/-., the Japanese army pushe& as far north as 1hangchun an& con@uere& a((
of 0outh Manchuria, )hich ha& been occupie& by +ussian troops in force at the time of the Ho>er 7prising of "#$$ an& ha& not
been re(in@uishe& after)ar&4 Hy the terms of the Treaty of Portsmouth, )hich en&e& the )ar in 0eptember "#$., the *ictorious
Japanese ouste& the +ussians from 0outh Manchuria an& too' from them the ba(ance of the .-year (ease of the 9iaotung area
that the 1hinese ha& yie(&e& in "?#?4 +ename& the K)antung 9ease& Territory, this Japanese-occupie& strategic Lone of A,/$$
s@uare 'i(ometers at the southern tip of the peninsu(a comman&e& the sea)ar& approaches to Tientsin an& Pe'ing an& containe&
the great port of -airen (-a(ny or Ta(ien% an& the ma:or fortress an& ice-free na*a( base of Port Arthur (9ushun or +yo:un%4
Japan a(so ac@uire&, by the Portsmouth sett(ement, the right to the 1hangchun-to-Port Arthur main portion of the rai( net)or'
that the +ussians ha& bui(t to the south of the 1hinese ;astern +ai()ay (1;+%, their shortcut across Manchuria from Manchou(i
in the )est to J(a&i*osto' in the east4 After obtaining the 1hinese go*ernmentKs nomina( consent to the ne) arrangements in
-ecember "#$. by the Treaty of Pe'ing, the Japanese cabinet in June "#$! authoriLe& the formation of a sing(e corporate
enterprise to be 'no)n as the 0outh Manchuria +ai()ay Joint 0toc' 1ompany (Minami Manshu Tetsu&o Kabushi'i Kaisha, or
Mantetsu%4 The organiLing committee )as hea&e& by ,en4 Ko&ama ,entaro, the chief of staff of the Japanese army &uring the
+usso-Japanese 8ar4 8hen Ko&ama &ie& soon after)ar&, ,en4 Terauchi Masata'e (Masa'ata%, the )ar minister, rep(ace& him4
Hy Apri( "#$< the @uasigo*ernmenta( 0outh Manchuria +ai()ay (0M+% began fu(( operation, ta'ing o*er from the armyKs fie(&
rai()ay corps4 1ount ,oto 0hinpei, most recent(y go*ernor of Formosa, became the first presi&ent of the 0M+, no)
hea&@uartere& in -airen4 At the en& of "#$< the rai()ay company emp(oye& #,$$$ Japanese an& /,$$$ 1hinese4 The core of the
0M+ )as the <$$-'m4 trun' rai(roa& e>ten&ing south from 1hangchun to -airen4 1oa( mines, )arehouses, an& e(ectrica(
faci(ities a(ong the right-of-)ay )ere a(so inc(u&e&, as )ere the !$-'m4 Mu'&en-to-Antung rai( connection an& four other
spurs, bringing the tota( trac'age to more than ","$$ 'i(ometers4 The e>traterritoria( strip encompasse& by the 0M+ Lone itse(f
)as no )i&er than ! meters an& on(y .$ s@uare 'i(ometers in area, but the main trun' an& branch rai( (ines connecte& .
to)ns4 As a counter)eight to +ussian an& Japanese encroachment in 1hinaKs Cortheast, in the (ate nineteenth century the
authorities in Pe'ing be(ate&(y encourage& 1hinese migration to Manchuria = a migration that )as further stimu(ate& by the
rai()ay-bui(&ing pro:ects )hich &re) 1hinese (aborers an& merchants4 From an estimate& three mi((ion in "?<$, ManchuriaKs
1hinese or assimi(ate& Manchu popu(ation gre) to nine mi((ion in "#$!4 The soi( )as some of the richest in the )or(& an& soy
an& cerea( crops &ominate& agricu(tura( output4 7n(i'e the rest of 1hina, Manchuria consistent(y e>porte& far more than it
importe&4 Manchuria a(so possesse& huge coa( an& iron &eposits, supp(emente& by magnesite, go(&, oi( sha(e, an& (umber, a(( of
)hich cou(& be e>p(oite& by cheap in&igenous (abor an& hau(e& easi(y by rai( to goo& ports4 The ro(e of the 0outh Manchuria
+ai()ay 1ompany in spearhea&ing JapanKs aggressi*e continenta( po(icy, at the e>pense of 1hina an& +ussia, )as apparent from
the outset4 In the )or&s of the &ip(omat Matsuo'a Bosu'e, (ater presi&ent of the 0M+, the rai(roa& )as Na bu()ar' in the first
(ine of nationa( &efenseO an& represente& Nthe sum tota( of the specia( rights that Japan ha& )on as a resu(t of the )ars on )hich
she ha& sta'e& her e>istence4O Hy securing contro( of the transportation system, the Japanese cou(& e>ert strategic &omination
o*er a(( of 0outh Manchuria4 Among the first tas's that the 0M+ set for itse(f )ere the &oub(e-trac'ing of the rai( (ine bet)een
-airen an& the Mu'&en area, an& the con*ersion of the +ussian broa&-gauge to stan&ar&-gauge trac'4 The ne) Japanese sphere
of inf(uence in 0outh Manchuria, ho)e*er, nee&e& to be conso(i&ate& an& protecte&, especia((y since accor&ing to the peace
terms the combat forces of both the Japanese an& the +ussians )ere to be )ith&ra)n from Manchuria )ithin "? months, by the
spring of "#$<4 A(rea&y in "#$< there )as a consi&erab(e Japanese ci*i(ian popu(ation in Manchuria5 about .,$$$ in the
K)antung 9ease& Territory, an& another "A,$$$ in the 0M+ Lone4 Three years (ater, in "#"$, those numbers ha& increase& to
near(y A<,$$$ an& .,$$$, respecti*e(y4 1hinese mounte& ban&its, &emobi(iLe& so(&iers, *agrants, an& other (a)(ess e(ements
pose& a fami(iar threat in Manchuria, especia((y in the rura( sectors4 Hut the ma:or concern of the Japanese High 1omman& )as
the possibi(ity that the +ussians )ou(& see' re*enge for their recent &efeat\The Japanese armyKs ne) strategy &eman&e& a
siLab(e mi(itary presence in 0outh Manchuria, e*en in peacetime = the genesis of the force 'no)n (ater as the K)antung Army\
The mission of the K)antung Mi(itary ,o*ernment )as to a&minister the (easeho(&, han&(e army affairs, an& &efen& the region4
The number of regu(ar troops Japan might station in the K)antung Territory )as not stipu(ate& by treaty, but the initia( strength
of the K)antung ,arrison amounte& to t)o regu(ar army &i*isions an& fortress units statione& at Port Arthur an& -airen4 To
&efen& the trac's an& concessions in the 0M+ Lone, Japan ha& insiste& at Portsmouth on its right = an& in&ee& &uty = to station
rai()ay guar& so(&iers a(ong the right-of-)ay4O
= Nomonhan: 3apan Against Russia" #$7$ by A(*in -4 1oo>, p4 "-/
Prominent ,o*ernors-,enera( of ,o*ernor-,enera( of K)antung 9ease& Territory
an& Japanese Ministers of 1o(onia( Affairs
,en4 Boshimasa ]shima

,o*ernor-,enera( of
K)antung 9ease&
Territory
(October "$, "#$.-
Apri( !, "#"%
,reat-gran&father of
0hinLM Abe
,en4 Basumasa
Fu'ushima

,o*ernor-,enera( of
K)antung 9ease&
Territory ("#"-"#"/%
Hi&eo Ko&ama

,o*ernor-,enera( of
K)antung 9ease&
Territory ("#A-"#<%D
Minister of 1o(onia(
Affairs ("#A/-"#A!%
,en4 Jiro Minami
m n7
,o*ernor-,enera( of
K)antung 9ease&
Territory ("#A/-"#A!%D
Imperia( Japan
(Apr4 "#A"--ec4 "#A"%D
,o*ernor-,enera( of
Korea ("#A!-"#/%
,en4 Boshi:irM 7meLu
!" #$
,o*ernor-,enera( of
K)antung 9ease&
Territory (0eptember <,
"#A#-Ju(y "?, "#//%D
1hief of Imperia(
Japanese Army ,enera(
0taff
(Ju(y "#//-0ept4 "#/.%
,en:i Matsu&a
% &$
Affairs
(Oct4 "##-Apr4 "#A"%D
Minister of ;&ucation
(Ju( "#A/-Feb "#A!%D
-ie& February ", "#A!
0h^:irM Hara
n7
Affairs
(Apri( "#A"-0ept4 "#A"%D
Minister of +ai()ays
(0eptember "$, "#A"-
-ecember "A, "#A"%D
-ie& March !, "#A/
Toyosu'e Hata
' ()
Affairs
(-ec4 "#A"-May "#A%
-ie& February /, "#AA
Hi&e:irM Cagata *
+
Affairs
(March #, "#A!-
February , "#A<%D
Minister of +ai()ays
(Co*4 "#A#-Jan4 "#/$%D
Mayor of To'yo, Japan
(May #, "#A-0ept4 ?,
"#/D May A$, "#A$-
Jan4 ., "#AA%D
-ie& 0ept4 "<, "#/A
,en4 KaLushige 7ga'i
,- .
Affairs
(May "#A?-0ept4 "#A?%D
Minister for Foreign
Affairs
(May "#A?-0ept4 "#A?%D
Japanese ,o*ernor-
,enera( of Korea ("#<,
June "#A"-Aug4 "#A!%D
Imperia( Japan
(0ept4 , "#A-Apri( $,
"#<D Ju(y , "##-Apri(
"/, "#A"%
Yale 'niversity Braduates and 4heir @&&upation during the .ukden )n&ident
Aussell ?. Le%%ing#ell
B.2. Yale 199
Partner o% 0.P. .organ K
?o. 319*+/19,<5
Beorge L. Harrison
B.2. Yale 191<
President o% the (ederal
Aeserve Bank o% 1e#
York 319*/19H<5
Eugene .eyer
B.2. Yale 19,
?hairman o% the (ederal
Aeserve 3Septem:er 1=8
19+</.ay 1<8 19++5
Harold Stanley
B.2. Yale 19<
?o. 319*/19+,5
(rank 2lts&hul
B.2. Yale 19<
Partner o% LaGard (reres
K ?o. 3191=/19H,5
Henry L. Stimson
B.2. Yale 1
'.S. Se&retary o% State
3.ar&h *8 19*9/
.ar&h H8 19++5
Hugh A. Wilson
B.2. Yale 19<=
'.S. .inister to
S#itGerland 319*7/19+75
Henry A. Lu&e
B.2. Yale 19*<
Editor/in/?hie% o% Time
magaGine 319*+/19=H5
Ao:ert .. Hut&hins
B.2. Yale 19*1
President o% 'niversity o%
?hi&ago 319*9/19H,5
?harles Seymour
B.2. Yale 19<8
Ph.I. Yale 1911
Provost o% Yale 'niversity
319*7/19+75
W. 2verell Harriman
B.2. Yale 191+
Partner o% Bro#n Brothers
Harriman K ?o.
319+1/19H=5
Pres&ott S. Bush
B.2. Yale 1917
Partner o% Bro#n
Brothers Harriman K ?o.
319+1/197*5
Ao:ert 2. Lovett
B.2. Yale 191
Partner o% Bro#n Brothers
Harriman K ?o. 319+1/
19H<8 19H=/19H78 19H9/
19,<8 19,+/19=5
2rtemus L. Bates
B.2. Yale 191
President o% 1e# York
4rust ?o. 319*9/19H15
Pierre 0ay
B.2. Yale 19*
?hairman o% the :oard o%
(idu&iary 4rust ?ompany
319+</19H,5
(rank L. Polk
B.2. Yale 19H
.em:er o% Iavis8 Polk8
Ward#ell 3191H/19H+5
2llen Ward#ell
B.2. Yale 19,
.em:er o% Iavis8 Polk K
Ward#ell 319<9/19,+5
Iean B. 2&heson
B.2. Yale 191,
.em:er o% ?ovington K
Burling Lla# %irmM 319*1/
19++8 19+H/19H15
Henry Waters 4a%t
B.2. Yale 1<
Partner o% ?ad#alader8
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4homas I. 4ha&her
B.2. Yale 19<H
Soli&itor Beneral o% the
'nited States
319+</19++5
Harvard 'niversity Braduates and 4heir @&&upation during the .ukden )n&ident
W. ?ameron (or:es
2.B. Harvard 19*
9+S+ Am&assador to
Imperial Japan
!")$-!"):%
0oseph ?. Bre#
2.B. Harvard 19<*
'.S. 2m:assador to
4urkey 319*7/19+*5
(ranklin I. Aoosevelt
2.B. Harvard 19<H
Bovernor o% 1e# York
319*9/19+*5
@gden L. .ills
2.B. Harvard 19<H
LL.B. Harvard 19<7
'nder Se&retary o% the
4reasury 319*7/19+*5
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B.2. Harvard 1F
LL.B. Harvard 19*
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319*9/19++5
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B.2. Harvard 1=1F
LL.B. Harvard 1==
0usti&e o% the '.S.
Supreme ?ourt
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Learned Hand
2.B. Harvard 19+F
LL.B. Harvard 19=
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o% 2ppeals %or the Se&ond
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Walter S. Bi%%ord
2.B. Harvard 19<,
President o% 2meri&an
4elephone and 4elegraph
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I#ight (. Iavis
B.2. Harvard 19<<
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Philippines 319*9/19+*5
?harles S. Hamlin
2.B. Harvard 1+
.em:er o% the (ederal
Aeserve Board
3191H/19+=5
2::ott La#ren&e Lo#ell
2.B. Harvard 177F
LL.B. Harvard 1<
President o% Harvard
'niversity 319<9/19++5
Walla&e Brett Ionham
2.B. Harvard 19F
LL.B. Harvard 19<1
Iean o% Harvard
Business S&hool
31919/19H*5
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2.B. Harvard 19<
Se&retary o% ?arnegie
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3191</19H<5
Aoger 1ash Bald#in
2.B. Harvard 19<H
(ounder and Iire&tor o%
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'nion 31917/19,<5
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2.B. Harvard 1919
President o% Harper K
Brothers 319+1/19H,5
0.P. N0a&kO .organ 0r.
2.B. Harvard 19
?hairman o% the :oard o%
0.P. .organ K ?o.8 )n&.
3191+/19H+5
4homas W. Lamont
2.B. Harvard 19*
?o.8 )n&. 31911/19H5
Henry S. .organ
2.B. Harvard 19*+
?o.8 )n&. 319*/19+,5
Winthrop W. 2ldri&h
2.B. Harvard 19<7
LL.B. Harvard 191<
President o% ?hase
1ational Bank
319+</19+H5
(rederi&k .. War:urg
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Partner o% 6uhn8 Loe: K
?o. 319+1/197+5
-rug Tra&e in Manchuria5 Mo&ern Me&icine or Money 9aun&eringE
A Manchurian )oman engages in opium poppy har*est in northern Manchuria in the puppet state of Manchu'uo4 The Imperia(
Japanese ,o*ernment (<@AB% an& the Imperia( Japanese Army (<@AB_D% )ere in*o(*e& in se((ing opium an&
cocaine to finance their o*erseas mi(itary operations in 1hina an& southern Asia4
(0ource5 /, e&ite& by the museum of Manchu'uo Pa(ace, pub(ishe& in $$"D I0HC-<.A?!""<#< 6 J4??!%
(Photo5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5Manchu'uo-poppyFhar*est4:pg%
A ban' note pro&uce& by the 1entra( Han' of Manchu (-vw, Mansh8 1h8 5ink%
?hinese la:orers #ork in an opium %a&tory.

2 photo o% the 0apanese Bovernment @pium (a&tory in 4aihoku Llater 4aipeiM8 4ai#an during 0apanese &olonial rule &ir&a 19<<. 4he
0apanese imperial government imported nar&oti&s8 in&luding opium and &o&aine8 into 4ai#an and transported the nar&oti&s into .an&huria8
#here they #ere sold on the open market in .an&huria and mainland ?hina8 although 0apan had signed international anti/opium treaties in the
early 19<<s.
4he Shongshan SEuare in Iairen 3Ialian5 in &ir&a 19H<. 2 statue o% Beneral Yoshimasa @shima 35 3%oreground58 the %irst Bovernor o%
the 6#antung Leased 4erritory 3G5 #as demolished a%ter the Soviet Aed 2rmy li:erated Iairen in 2ugust 19H,.
4he %ormer Ialian :ran&h o% the Yokohama Seikin Bank 3cvw5 in Ialian8 ?hina. 4his :uilding #as &onstru&ted :y the 0apanese
&olonial authorities in 19<9 and is no# used as the Ialian :ran&h o% the Bank o% ?hina. 4he Yokohama Seikin Bank %ounded :ran&hes in
?hina during the )mperialist 0apanese era! Ialian 319<958 Bei$ing LPekingM 3191<58 Har:in 3191*58 Jingdao 3191958 Hankou 319*158 Shanghai
319*H58 Shenyang 319*,5 and 4ian$in L4iensinM 319*=5. 3Photo! http!""%orum.a;ishistory.&om"vie#topi&.phpT%R=*KtR1H9*5
4oki#a Iepartment Store8 a 0apanese department store in Har:in8 .an&huria 3.an&hukuo5 in the late 19+<s.
3Photo! http!""###.%li&kr.&om"photos"kern:eisser"H++=7919"in"photostream"5
2 photo o% St. Sophia ?athedral8 a Aussian @rthodo; &hur&h8 taken %rom the South .arket in Har:in8 .an&huria during the 19+<s
3Photo! http!""###.%li&kr.&om"photos"kern:eisser"H+HH9+HH9H"in"photostream"5
Map of Manchu'uo (top% an& Port Arthur (be(o), (eft corner%
A group of pro-1Larist +ussian Fascist Party (+FP% rebe(s in Harbin, Manchu'uo 2Japan3 stan& together for a portrait in "#A/4
Harbin an& 0hanghai )ere homes to a (arge number of +ussian ZmigrZs )ho f(e& +ussia fo((o)ing the Ho(she*i' +e*o(ution an&
the +ussian 1i*i( 8ar4 (Photo5 http566commons4)i'ime&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5+ussianFfascistsFatFHarbinF"#A/4:pg%
The +ussian Fascist Party hea&@uarters in Harbin, Manchu'uo in circa "#AA-"#A/4 The +ussian Fascists in Harbin co((aborate&
)ith the Imperia( Japanese ,o*ernment an& the K)antung Army before 8or(& 8ar II4

Le%t! Henry Pu/Yi 358 the NEmperorO o% .an&hukuoF Aight! 2 0apanese propaganda poster promoting NharmonyO in .an&huria
2 map o% the 6#antung Leased 4erritory in 19*1. Ialian 3Iairen in 0apanese5 #as the N&apitalO o% 6#antung.

;mperor Henry Pu Bi ((eft, March ., "#A/%D ,enera( 8ang 1hing-)ei 28ang Jing)ei3 (right, March "?, "#A.%

1hinese )ar(or& ,enera( 8u Pei-fu (% ((eft, 0eptember ?, "#/%D Marsha( Ben Hsi-shan (*% (right, May "#, "#A$%
Imperia( Japanese In*asion of 1hina (+epub(ic of 1hina%5
)r*ani+ed Crime!
Imperia( Japanese army troops enter 0hanghai in Co*ember "#A<4
A group of 1hinese so(&iers march in formation at the Marco Po(o Hri&ge near Pe'ing &uring the Marco Po(o Hri&ge Inci&ent on
Ju(y <, "#A<4
Ir. Sun Yat/sen appears #ith his 0apanese %riends in 4okyo8 0apan in 19<<. (rom le%t to right! Suenage 4akashi8 Ayohei '&hida8 .iyaGaki
4oraGo8 6oyama Yutaro8 6iyo%u$i 6oshi&hiro8 and Ir. Sun Yat/sen. Ayohei '&hida 38 (e:ruary 118 17+/0uly *=8 19+758 a 0apanese
ultranationalist8 %ounded the Bla&k Iragon So&iety 3t 6okuryukai5 in 19<1. 4he NBla&k IragonO re%ers to the 2mur Aiver 3NBla&k Iragon
AiverO in ?hinese58 the long river that separates Aussia %rom .an&hurian provin&e o% ?hina.
3Photo! Shanghai .useum o% Sun Yat/Sen9s (ormer Aesiden&e "Wikipedia5
.itsuru 4oyama 3* le%t58 &hie% o% the Bla&k Iragon So&iety 3t 6okuryukai58 appears #ith %uture Prime .inister o% 0apan 4suyoshi
)nukai 3 d &enter58 %uture President o% Aepu:li& o% ?hina 3Beneralissimo5 ?hiang 6ai/shek 3c 6 se&ond %rom right58 and
other dignitaries in 19*9. Prime .inister o% 0apan 4suyoshi )nukai #as assassinated :y a group o% Nam:itiousO young )mperial 0apanese 1avy
o%%i&ers on .ay 1,8 19+*. 3Photo! http!""###.toyamamitsuru.$p"syashin"inde;.html5
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers of the #th -i*ision march through the streets of 0hanghai, 1hina on March <, "#A as Japanese
resi&ents in 0hanghai greet the so(&iers )ith cheers an& f(ag-)a*ing4 (Photo5 Hettmann61O+HI0%

1o((ege stu&ents in Pe'ing, 1hina ((eft photo% protest against une@ua( treaties, foreign encroachment, JapanKs T)enty-One -eman&s,
an& the Jersai((es Treaty &uring the May Fourth Mo*ement (% on May /, "#"#4
0higenobu ]'uma (center photo%, Prime Minister of Japan (Apri( "!, "#"/-October #, "#"!% an& foun&er of 8ase&a 7ni*ersity
(prominent co((ege in To'yo% in "??, a(ong )ith Foreign Minister Ta'aa'i KatM (right photo%, &rafte& the infamous T)enty-One
-eman&s, a set of &eman&s Imperia( Japan issue& to 1hina in January "#".4 1hina, un&er Buan 0hih-'ai, agree& to signing t)o
une@ua( treaties )ith Japan on May ., "#".4

Le%t! Smoke :illo#s %rom :uildings in Shanghai9s native :usiness distri&t in (e:ruary 19+*8 #here )mperial 0apanese 2rmy troops laun&hed an
atta&k against the ?hinese people. 3Photo! Hulton/Ieuts&h ?olle&tion"?@AB)S5
Aight! 0apanese soldiers set %ire to this sha&k situated on a ?hinese %arm in .ar&h 19+* in their e%%orts to rout any and all snipers en&ountered
during their re&ent %ighting along the %ront. 3Photo! Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0apanese .arines e;amine one o% the ne# armored &ars in Shanghai8 ?hina in 19+*8 :e%ore the re&ent &ompli&ations #ith the ?hinese. .any
o% these armored &ars #ere used as the advan&e guard o% the 0apanese troops #hen they made their atta&k in Shanghai.
3Photo! Bettmann"?@AB)S5

,enera( Boshinori 0hira'a)a ((eft% an& Boon Hong-,i( (right%
Imperia( Japanese Army ,enera( Boshinori 0hira'a)a ( 012,, January /, "?!# -May !, "#A%, 1omman&er of the 0hanghai
;>pe&itionary Army (February ., "#A-Apri( #, "#A% an& 8ar Minister of Japan ("#<-"##%, )as assassinate& ()ith a homema&e
bomb% in 0hanghai on Apri( #, "#A, &uring a mi(itary para&e honoring ;mperor HirohitoKs A"
st
birth&ay, by A-year-o(& Korean
patriot an& in&epen&ence acti*ist Boon Hong-,i(4 ,enera( Boshinori 0hira'a)a &ie& from his )ou&ns on May !, "#A4 A&mira(
Kichisaburo Comura, (ater Japanese Ambassa&or to the 7nite& 0tates, (ost an eye &uring this assassination attempt4 Kuramatsu Murai
(Japanese 1onsu(-,enera( in 0hanghai% an& 0higemitsu Mamoru (Japanese ;n*oy in 0hanghai% )ere in:ure& as )e((4 Boon Hong-,i(
)as arreste&, trie&, an& con*icte& in a Japanese mi(itary court in 0hanghaiD Boon Hong-,i( )as e>ecute& in Japan in -ecember "#A4
(;mperor Hirohito of Japan )as born on Apri( #, "#$"4% 1hinese Cationa(ist (ea&er ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' reporte&(y sai&5
"( youn* Korean patriot has a''omplished somethin* tens o. thousands o. Chinese soldiers 'ould not do8&
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers guar& the Japanese 1oncession in 0hanghai &uring the January ? Inci&ent in 0hanghai,
+epub(ic of 1hina on January ?, "#A4
0apanese marines invade Shanghai during the Sino/0apanese War in 2ugust 19+7. 3Provided :y .aini&hi 1e#spaper5
http!""###.$a&ar.go.$p"english"ni&hi:ei"negotiation"inde;,.html
Aesidents in Shanghai8 ?hina sear&h through ru::le %or survivors a%ter a 0apanese air raid atta&k upon the &ity in Septem:er 19+7.
34ime Li%e photo5
0o(&iers from the Imperia( Japanese Army enter Can'ing, 1hina in January "#A?4 (,erman Fe&era( Archi*es%
Imperia( Japanese Army ,enera( I)ane Matsui enters Can'ing in -ecember "#A<4
(Photo5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Can'ingFMassacre%
Imperia( Japanese army so(&ier ho(&s a &ecapitate& hea& in his (eft han& &uring the Can'ing Massacre (+ape of Can'ing%4
(Photo5 http566)))4armchairgenera(4com6forums6sho)threa&4phpEpageGAUtG<"""/%

1hinese ci*i(ians to be burie& a(i*e &uring the Can'ing Massacre (m%4
(0ource5 -epartment of History at the 7ni*ersity of 1a(ifornia, 0anta Harbara%
http566)))4history4ucsb4e&u6facu(ty6marcuse6c(asses6"AAp6"AAp$/papers6J1hape(Can:ing$/!4htm
?hinese prisoners are used as live targets in a :ayonet drill :y their 0apanese &aptors in 1anking8 ?hina during the in%amous
Aape o% 1anking. 4he photograph #as reportedly taken on 1ovem:er 78 19+. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers engage in a bayonet &ri(( on a ci*i(ian4
2 0apanese ne#spaper report o% the ?ontest 4o ?ut Io#n 1<< People. 4his ne#s #as originally reported :y the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shinbun in
Ie&em:er 1+8 19+7. Both soldiers #ere e;tradited to ?hina a%ter the #ar8 tried %or their a&tions in ?hinese &ourt8 and #ere e;e&uted on
0anuary *8 19H. 2n estimated *<<8<<</+<<8<<< ?hinese people died in 1anking %ollo#ing the 0apanese &onEuest o% the &apital &ity in
Ie&em:er 19+7. ?hina #as in the midst o% a &ivil #ar in 19+7 as the ?hinese 1ationalist government led :y Beneralissimo ?hiang 6ai/shek
#as #aging #ar against the ?hinese ?ommunists led :y .ao 4se/tung.
4his terri%ied :a:y #as almost the only human :eing le%t alive in Shanghai7s South Station rail#ay depot a%ter :rutal 0apanese :om:ing o%
Shanghai8 ?hina on 2ugust *8 19+7. 4he Battle o% Shanghai :egan on 2ugust 1+8 19+7 and ended more than t#o months later on
1ovem:er *=8 19+7. 4his photograph is reportedly a staged photograph that #as used %or propaganda. 31ational 2r&hives5
Imperia( Japanese troops march through the rubb(e of a *i((age near Han'o) ((ater 8uhan%, a 1hinese city (ocate& near
0hanghai, in "#A<4 (7PI Photo%
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers ce(ebrate the capture of Han'o) (the temporary 1hinese capita( after the fa(( of Can'ing% in
"#A<4 (Photo5 Pau( -orsey6Time-9ife%
Imperia( Japanese Army officers toast their *ictory at Hsucho) (SuLhou%, a 1hinese city (ocate& near 0hanghai, in "#A?4
(Photo5 Tsuguichi Koyanagi%
N8ith one notab(e e>ception, JapanKs bac'groun& for aggression presente& a strong para((e( to that of ,ermany4 The e>ception
)as the in&ustria( strength of the t)o Po)ers4 Japan )as rea((y a Nha*e notO nation, (ac'ing most of the natura( resources to
sustain a great in&ustria( system4 It (ac'e& much of the necessary basic materia(s such as coa(D iron, petro(eum, a((oy minera(s,
)aterpo)er, or e*en foo&4 In comparison, ,ermanyQs c(aim to be a Nha*e notO nation )as mere(y a propagan&a &e*ice4 Other
than this, the simi(arity of the t)o countries )as stri'ing5 each ha& a comp(ete(y carte(iLe& in&ustry, a mi(itaristic tra&ition, a
har&)or'ing popu(ation )hich respecte& authority an& (o*e& or&er, a nationa( obsession )ith its o)n uni@ue *a(ue an& a
resentment at the rest of the )or(& for fai(ure to recogniLe this, an& a constitutiona( structure in )hich a faca&e of par(iamentary
constitutiona(ism bare(y concea(e& the rea(ity of po)er )ie(&e& by an a((iance of army, (an&(or&s, an& in&ustry4 The fact that the
Japanese constitution of "??# )as copie& from the constitution of Hismarc' goes far to e>p(ain this (ast simi(arity4 8e ha*e
a(rea&y mentione& the acute prob(em presente& to Japan by the contrast bet)een their (imite& natura( resources an& their
gro)ing prob(ems4 8hi(e their resources &i& not increase, their popu(ation gre) from A" mi((ion in "?<A to <A mi((ion in "#A#,
the rate of gro)th reaching its pea' in the perio& "#.-"#A$ (? percent increase in these fi*e years%4 8ith great ingenuity an&
tire(ess energy, the Japanese peop(e trie& to ma'e en&s meet4 8ith foreign e>change earne& from merchant shipping or from
e>ports of si(', )oo& pro&ucts, or seafoo&s, ra) materia(s )ere importe&, manufacture& into in&ustria( pro&ucts, an& e>porte& to
obtain the foreign e>change necessary to pay for imports of ra) materia(s or foo&4 Hy 'eeping costs an& prices (o*e, the
Japanese )ere ab(e to un&erse(( ;uropean e>porters of cotton te>ti(es an& iron pro&ucts in the mar'ets of Asia, especia((y in
1hina an& In&onesia4 The possibi(ity of re(ie*ing their popu(ation pressure by emigration, as ;urope ha& &one ear(ier, )as
pre*ente& by the fact that the ob*ious co(onia( areas ha& a(rea&y been ta'en in han& by ;uropeans4 ;ng(ish-spea'ing persons,
)ho he(& the best an& *et unfi((e& areas, s(amme& the &oor on Japanese immigration in the perio& after "#$", :ustifying their
actions on racia( an& economic arguments4 American restrictions on Japanese immigration, originate& among (aboring groups in
1a(ifornia, )ere a *ery bitter pi(( for Japan, an& in:ure& its pri&e great(y4
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!"-.!
NThe stea&y rise in tariffs against Japanese manufacture& goo&s after "?#<, a &e*e(opment )hich )as a(so (e& by America,
ser*e& to increase the &ifficu(ties of JapanKs position4 0o a(so &i& the s(o) e>haustion of the Pacific fisheries, the gro)ing (if
necessary% restrictions on such fishing by conser*ationist agreements, the &ecrease in forestry resources, an& po(itica( an& socia(
unrest in Asia4 For a (ong time, Japan )as protecte& from the fu(( impact of this prob(em by a series of fa*orab(e acci&ents4 The
First 8or(& 8ar ) as a sp(en&i& )in&fa((4 It en&e& ;uropean commercia( competition in Asia, Africa, an& the PacificD it
increase& the &eman& for Japanese goo&s an& ser*icesD an& it ma&e Japan an internationa( cre&itor for the first time4 1apita(
in*estment in the fi*e years "#".-"#$ )as eight times as much as in the ten years "#$.-"#".D (aborers emp(oye& in factories
using o*er fi*e )or'ers each increase& from #/? thousan& in "#"/ to ",!" thousan& in "#"#D ocean shipping rose from (4.
mi((ion tons in "#"/ to A mi((ion tons in "#"?, )hi(e income from shipping freight rose from /$ mi((ion yen in "#"/ to /.$
mi((ion in "#"?D the fa*orab(e ba(ance of internationa( tra&e amounte& to ",/?$ mi((ion yen for the four years "#".-"#"?4 0ocia(
(ife, the economic structure, an& the price system, a(rea&y &is(ocate& by this rapi& change, recei*e& a terrib(e :o(t in the
&epression of "#$-"#", but Japan rapi&(y reco*ere& an& )as shie(&e& from the fu(( conse@uences of her (arge popu(ation an&
(imite& resources by the boom of the "#$Ks4 +api& techno(ogica( a&*ance in the 7nite& 0tates, ,ermany, an& Japan itse(f,
&eman& for Japanese goo&s (especia((y te>ti(es% in southern an& southeastern Asia, American (oans throughout the )or(&, (arge
American purchases of Japanese si(', an& the genera( Nboom psycho(ogyO of the )ho(e )or(& protecte& Japan from the fu((
impact of its situation unti( "##-"#A"4 7n&er this protection the o(&er authoritarian an& mi(itaristic tra&itions )ere )ea'ene&,
(ibera(ism an& &emocracy gre) s(o)(y but stea&i(y, the aping of ,ermanic tra&itions in inte((ectua( an& po(itica( (ife ()hich ha&
been going on since about "??$% )as (arge(y aban&one&, the first party go*ernment )as estab(ishe& in "#"?, uni*ersa( manhoo&
suffrage )as estab(ishe& in "#., ci*i(ian go*ernors rep(ace& mi(itary ru(e for the first time in co(onia( areas (i'e Formosa, the
army )as re&uce& from " to "< &i*isions in "#/, the na*y )as re&uce& by internationa( agreement in "# an& in "#A$, an&
there )as a great e>pansion of e&ucation, especia((y in the higher (e*e(s4 This mo*ement to)ar& &emocracy an& (ibera(ism
a(arme& the mi(itarists an& &ro*e them to &esperation4 At the same time, the gro)th of unity an& pub(ic or&er in 1hina, )hich
these mi(itarists ha& regar&e& as a potentia( *ictim for their operations, con*ince& them that they must act @uic'(y before it )as
too (ate4 The )or(& &epression ga*e this group their great opportunity4 ;*en before its onset, ho)e*er, four ominous factors in
Japanese po(itica( (ife hung (i'e threatening c(ou&s on the horiLon4 These )ere (a% the (ac' of any constitutiona( re@uirement for
a go*ernment responsib(e to the -iet, (b% the continue& constitutiona( free&om of the army from ci*i(ian contro(, (c% the gro)ing
use of po(itica( assassination by the conser*ati*es as a means for remo*ing (ibera( po(iticians from pub(ic (ife, as )as &one
against three premiers an& many (esser persons in the perio& "#"?-"#A, an& (&% the gro)ing appea( of re*o(utionary 0ocia(ism
in (aboring circ(es4 The )or(& &epression an& the financia( crisis hit Japan a terrib(e b(o)4 The &ec(ining &eman& for ra) si(' in
competition )ith synthetic fibers (i'e rayon an& the s(o) &ec(ine of such Asiatic mar'ets as 1hina an& In&ia because of po(itica(
&isturbances an& gro)ing in&ustria(iLation ma&e this b(o) har&er to bear4 7n&er this impact, the reactionary an& aggressi*e
forces in Japanese society )ere ab(e to so(i&ify their contro( of the state, intimi&ate a(( &omestic opposition, an& embar' on that
a&*enture of aggression an& &estruction that (e& u(timate(y to the &isasters of "#/.4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!-.!A
NThese economic storms )ere se*ere, but Japan too' the roa& to aggression because of its o)n past tra&itions rather than for economic
reasons4 The mi(itarist tra&itions of feu&a( Japan continue& into the mo&ern perio&, an& f(ourishe& in spite of stea&y criticism an& opposition4
The constitutiona( structure shie(&e& both the mi(itary (ea&ers an& the ci*i(ian po(iticians from popu(ar contro(, an& :ustifie& their actions as
being in the emperorKs name4 Hut these t)o branches of go*ernment )ere separate& so that the ci*i(ians ha& no contro( o*er the genera(s4 The
(a) an& custom of the constitution a((o)e& the genera(s an& a&mira(s to approach the emperor &irect(y )ithout the 'no)(e&ge or consent of
the 1abinet, an& re@uire& that on(y officers of this ran' cou(& ser*e as ministers for these ser*ices in the 1abinet itse(f4 Co ci*i(ian inter*ene&
in the chain of comman& from emperor to (o)(y pri*ate, an& the arme& ser*ices became a state )ithin the state4 0ince the officers &i& not
hesitate to use their positions to ensure ci*i(ian comp(iance )ith their )ishes, an& constant(y resorte& to arme& force an& assassination, the
po)er of the mi(itary gre) stea&i(y after "#<4 A(( their acts, they sai&, )ere in the name of the emperor, for the g(ory of Japan, to free the
nation from corruption, from partisan po(iticians, an& from p(utocratic e>p(oitation, an& to restore the o(& Japanese *irtues of or&er, se(f-
sacrifice, an& &e*otion to authority4 0eparate from the arme& forces, sometimes in opposition to them but genera((y &epen&ent upon them as
the chief purchasers of the pro&ucts of hea*y in&ustry, )ere the forces of monopo(y capita(ism4 These )ere (e&, as )e ha*e in&icate&, by the
eight great economic comp(e>es, contro((e& as fami(y units, 'no)n as -aibatsu4 These eight contro((e& <. percent of the nationKs corporate
)ea(th by "#A$ an& )ere hea&e& by Mitsui, )hich ha& ". per cent of a(( corporate capita( in the country4 They engage& in open(y corrupt
re(ationships )ith Japanese po(iticians an&, (ess fre@uent(y, )ith Japanese mi(itarists4 They usua((y cooperate& )ith each other4 For e>amp(e,
in "#<, the efforts of Mitsui an& Mitsubishi to smash a sma((er competitor, 0uLu'i 1ompany of Kobe, precipitate& a financia( panic )hich
c(ose& most of the ban's in Japan4 8hi(e the 0ho)a Han', operate& :oint(y by the -aibatsu, too' o*er many sma((er corporations an& ban's
)hich fai(e& in the crisis an& o*er "?$,$$$ &epositors (ost their sa*ings, the 1abinet of the mi(itarist ,enera( Tana'a grante& ",.$$ mi((ion
yen to sa*e the -aibatsu themse(*es from the conse@uences of their gree&4 The mi(itaristic an& nationa(istic tra&itions )ere )i&e(y accepte&
by the Japanese peop(e4 These tra&itions, e>to((e& by the ma:ority of po(iticians an& teachers, an& propagate& by numerous patriotic societies,
both open an& secret, )ere gi*en a free han&, )hi(e any opposing *oices )ere crushe& out by (ega( or i((ega( metho&s unti(, by "#A$, most
such *oices )ere si(ence&4 About the same &ate, the mi(itarists an& the -aibatsu, )ho ha& pre*ious(y been in opposition as often as in
coa(ition, came together in their (ast fatefu( a((iance4 They unite& on a program of hea*y in&ustria(iLation, mi(itariLation, an& foreign
aggression4 ;astern Asia, especia((y northern 1hina an& Manchuria, became the &esignate& *ictim, since these seeme& to offer the necessary
ra) materia(s an& mar'ets for the in&ustria(ists an& the fie(& of g(ory an& booty for the mi(itarists4 In aiming their attac' at Manchuria in
"#A" an& at northern 1hina in "#A<, the Japanese chose a *ictim )ho )as c(ear(y *u(nerab(e4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!A-.!/
NThough the Japanese seiLure of Manchuria in the autumn of "#A" )as an in&epen&ent action of the Japanese mi(itary forces, it ha& to be
con&one& by the ci*i(ian (ea&ers4 The 1hinese reta(iate& by a boycott of Japanese goo&s )hich serious(y re&uce& JapanKs e>ports4 To force an
en& to this boycott, Japan (an&e& forces at 0hanghai ("#A% an&, after se*ere fighting in )hich much Japanese abuse )as inf(icte& upon
;uropeans, the 1hinese forces )ere &ri*en from the city an& compe((e& to agree to a termination of the economic boycott against Japan4
About the same time, Manchuria )as set up as a Japanese protectorate un&er the ru(e of Henry PKui, )ho ha& ab&icate& the 1hinese throne in
"#"4 As ear(y as January "#A, the 7nite& 0tates notifie& a(( signers of the Cine-Po)er treaty of "# that it )ou(& refuse to accept
territoria( changes ma&e by force in *io(ation of the Ke((ogg-Hrian& Pact to Out(a) 8ar4 An appea( to the 9eague of Cations for support,
ma&e by 1hina on 0eptember ", "#A", the same &ay that ;ng(an& )ent off the go(& stan&ar&, passe& through an interminab(e series of
proce&ura( &isputes an& fina((y (e& to a 1ommission of ;n@uiry un&er the ;ar( of 9ytton4 The report of this commission, re(ease& in October,
"#A, sharp(y con&emne& the actions of Japan but recommen&e& no effecti*e :oint action to oppose these4 The 9eague accepte& the 0timson
-octrine of Conrecognition, an& e>presse& sympathy for the 1hinese position4 This )ho(e affair has been rehashe& en&(ess(y since "#A" to
the accompaniment of c(aims an& counterc(aims that effecti*e (eague action )as b(oc'e& by the absence of the 7nite& 0tates from its
counci(s, or by 0timsonQs &e(ay in con&emning Japanese aggression, or by Hritish refusa( to support 0timsonQs suggestions for action against
Japan4 A(( these &iscussions neg(ect the *ita( point that the Japanese army in Manchuria )as not un&er the contro( of the Japanese ci*i(
go*ernment, )ith )hich negotiations )ere being con&ucte&, an& that these ci*i( authorities, )ho oppose& the Manchurian attac', cou(& not
gi*e effecti*e *oice to this opposition )ithout rising assassination4 Premier Bu'o Hamaguchi ha& been 'i((e& as recent(y as Co*ember "#A$
for appro*ing the 9on&on Ca*a( Agreement to )hich the mi(itarists ob:ecte&, an& Premier Ki Inu'ai )as &ea(t )ith the same )ay in May
"#A4 Throughout, the 9eague &iscussions )ere not con&ucte& )ith the right party4 ;>cept for its *io(ation of nationa(ist fee(ings an& the
comp(ete(y ob:ectionab(e means by )hich it )as achie*e&, the ac@uisition of Manchuria by Japan possesse& many strategic an& economic
a&*antages4 It ga*e Japan in&ustria( resources )hich it *ita((y nee&e&, an& cou(&, in time, ha*e strengthene& the Japanese economy4
0eparation of the area from 1hina, )hich ha& not contro((e& it effecti*e(y for many years, )ou(& ha*e restricte& the sphere of 1hiangQs
go*ernment to a more manageab(e territory4 Abo*e a((, it cou(& ha*e ser*e& as a counterpoise to 0o*iet po)er in the Far ;ast an& pro*i&e& a
fu(crum to restrain 0o*iet actions in ;urope after the co((apse of ,ermany4 7nfortunate(y, the uncompromising a*arice an& ignorance of the
Japanese mi(itarists ma&e any such so(ution impossib(e4 This )as ma&e @uite certain by their t)o ma:or errors, the attac' on 1hina in "#A<
an& the attac' on the 7nite& 0tates in "#/"4 In both cases the mi(itarists bit off more than they cou(& che), an& &estroye& any possib(e
a&*antages they might ha*e gaine& from the ac@uisition of Manchuria in "#A"4 In the se*en years after the first attac' on Manchuria in
0eptember "#A", Japan san' 4. bi((ion yen in capita( in*estments in that area, most(y in mining, iron pro&uction, e(ectric po)er, an&
petro(eum4 Bear after year this in*estment increase& )ithout returning any imme&iate yie(& to Japan, since output from this ne) in*estment
)as imme&iate(y rein*este&4 The on(y items of much he(p for Japan itse(f )ere iron ore, pig iron, an& certain chemica( ferti(iLers4 The
Manchurian soy-bean crop, a(though it &ec(ine& un&er Japanese ru(e, )as e>change& )ith ,ermany for nee&e& commo&ities obtainab(e there4
For JapanKs other urgent materia( nee&s, such as ra) cotton, rubber, an& petro(eum, no he(p cou(& be foun& in Manchuria4 In spite of cost(y
capita( in*estment, it cou(& pro&uce no more than its o)n nee&s in petro(eum, chief(y from (i@uefaction of coa(4 The fai(ure of Manchuria to
pro*i&e an ans)er to JapanKs economic prob(ems (e& the Japanese mi(itary (ea&ers to)ar& a ne) act of aggression, this time &irecte& to)ar&
Corth 1hina itse(f4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!!-.!?
NThe ri*a(ry bet)een the 1hinese 1ommunists an& the Kuomintang bro'e out intermittent(y in "#A?-"#/", but Japan )as unab(e
to profit from it in any &ecisi*e )ay because of its economic )ea'ness4 The great in*estment in Manchuria an& the a&option of a
po(icy of )ho(ehearte& aggression re@uire& a reorganiLation of JapanQs o)n economy from its pre*ious emphasis on (ight
in&ustry for the e>port mar'et to a ne) emphasis on hea*y in&ustry for armaments an& hea*y in*estment4 This )as carrie& out
so ruth(ess(y that JapanQs pro&uction of hea*y in&ustry rose from A bi((ion yen in "#AA to ?4 bi((ion yen in "#A?, )hi(e te>ti(e
pro&uction rose from 4# bi((ion yen to no more than A4< bi((ion yen in the same fi*e years4 Hy "#A? the pro&ucts of hea*y
in&ustry accounte& for .A percent of JapanQs in&ustria( output4 This increase& JapanQs nee& for imports )hi(e re&ucing her abi(ity
to pro*i&e the e>ports (pre*ious(y te>ti(es% to pay for such imports4 Hy "#A< JapanKs unfa*orab(e ba(ance of tra&e )ith the Nnon-
yenO area amounte& to #. mi((ion yen, or a(most four times the a*erage of the years before "#A<4 Income from shipping )as
re&uce& by mi(itary &eman&s as )e((, )ith the resu(t that JapanKs unfa*orab(e ba(ance of tra&e )as ref(ecte& in a hea*y outf(o)
of go(& (",!?. mi((ion yen in "#A<-"#A?%4 Hy the en& of "#A?, it )as c(ear that Japan )as (osing its financia( an& commercia(
abi(ity to buy necessary materia(s of foreign origin4 The steps ta'en by the 7nite& 0tates, Austra(ia, an& others to restrict e>port
of strategic or mi(itary materia(s to Japan ma&e this prob(em e*en more acute4 The attac' on 1hina ha& been inten&e& to reme&y
this situation by remo*ing the 1hinese boycott on Japanese goo&s, by bringing a supp(y of necessary materia(s, especia((y ra)
cotton, un&er JapanQs &irect contro(, an& by creating an e>tension of the yen area )here the use of foreign e>change )ou(& not be
nee&e& for tra&ing purposes4 On the )ho(e, these purposes )ere not achie*e&4 ,uerri((a acti*ities an& Japanese inabi(ity to
contro( the rura( areas ma&e the achie*ement of a yen area impossib(e, ma&e tra&e &ifficu(t, an& re&uce& the pro&uction of cotton
&rastica((y (by about one-thir&%4 ;>port of iron ore from 1hina to Japan fe(( from 4A mi((ion tons in "#A< to $4A mi((ion in "#A?,
a(though coa( e>ports rose s(ight(y4 In an effort to increase pro&uction, Japan began to pour capita( in*estment into the sti((-
unpacifie& areas of Corth 1hina at a rate )hich ri*a(e& the rate of in*estment in Manchuria4 The Four-Bear P(an of "#A? ca((e&
for ",/$ mi((ion yen of such in*estment by "#/4 This pro:ect, a&&e& to the nee& for Japan to fee& an& c(othe the inhabitants of
Corth 1hina, ma&e that area a &rain on the )ho(e Japanese economy, so that Japanese e>ports to that area rose from "<# bi((ion
yen in "#A< to A" mi((ion in "#A?4 To ma'e matters )orse, the peop(e of this occupie& territory refuse& to accept or use the
ne)(y estab(ishe& yen currency because of guerri((a threats to shoot anyone foun& in possession of it4 A(( this ha& an a&*erse
effect on JapanQs financia( position4 In t)o years of the 1hina )ar, "#A!-"#A< to "#A?-"#A#, the Japanese bu&get rose from 4A
to ?4/ bi((ion yen, of )hich ?$ percent )ent for mi(itary purposes4 ,o*ernment &ebt an& commo&ity prices rose stea&i(y, but the
Japanese peop(e respon&e& so rea&i(y to ta>ation, go*ernment (oans, an& &eman&s for increase& pro&uction that the system
continue& to function4 Hy the en& of "#A#, ho)e*er, it )as c(ear that the threefo(& bur&en of a con*ersion to hea*y in&ustry,
)hich ruine& the e>port tra&e, a hea*y rate of in*estment in Manchuria an& Corth 1hina, an& an in&ecisi*e )ar )ith Cationa(ist
1hina cou(& not be borne fore*er, especia((y un&er the pressure of the gro)ing re(uctance of neutra( countries to supp(y Japan
)ith necessary strategic goo&s4 I he t)o most *ita( nee&s )ere in petro(eum pro&ucts an& rubber4 To the mi(itarists, )ho
contro((e& Japan both po(itica((y an& economica((y after "#A#, it seeme& that the occupation of the -utch In&ies an& Ma(aya
cou(& &o much to a((e*iate these shortages4 The occupation of the Cether(an&s itse(f by Hit(erQs hor&es in "#/$ an& the
in*o(*ement of ;ng(an& in the ;uropean )ar since "#A# seeme& to offer a go(&en opportunity for Japan to seiLe these southern
regions4 To &o so )ou(& re@uire (ong (ines of communications from Japan to In&onesia4 These (ines )ou(& be e>pose& to attac'
from the American bases in the Phi(ippines or from the Hritish base at 0ingapore4 Ju&ging the American psycho(ogy as simi(ar to
their o)n, the Japanese mi(itarists )ere sure that in such circumstances America )ou(& not hesitate to attac' these *u(nerab(e
(ines of communication4 Thus, it seeme& to them that a Japanese attac' on the -utch In&ies )ou(& ine*itab(y (ea& to an
American )ar on Japan4 Facing this prob(em, the Japanese mi(itarists reache& u hat seeme& to their min&s to be an inescapab(e
&ecision4 They &eci&e& to attac' the 7nite& 0tates first4 From this &ecision came the Japanese attac' on Pear( Harbor on
-ecember <, "#/"4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!?-.<$

8or(& 8ar II U -estruction of Imperia( Japan
.inister o% the 2rmy Beneral Hideki 4o$o 3&enter5 and 0apanese (oreign .inister Yosuke .atsuoka 3right5 propose a toast #ith the Berman
and )talian 2m:assadors to 0apan and o%%i&ers %rom the 0apanese .inistry o% (oreign 2%%airs in 4okyo8 0apan in Septem:er 19H<. 4he
o&&asion #as the signing o% the 4ripartite Pa&t8 a de%ense agreement :et#een )mperial 0apan8 1aGi Bermany and (as&ist )taly.
3Photo! ?ourtesy o% 2ustralian War .emorial5 http!""$ohn.&urtin.edu.au"envoy"e;pansion.html
4he Aepresentatives o% the 2;is po#ers &ele:rate in 4okyo8 0apan in 19H+. 3.aini&hi Photos5
4he Iuke o% 6ent and Prin&e and Prin&ess ?hi&hi:u o% 0apan #ere guests at the (estival BanEuet o% the 1ational Hospital %or 1ervous
Iiseases8 at the .ansion House in London on 2pril *78 19+7. Le%t to right! the Lady .ayoress8 Lady Broad:ridgeF .. ?or:in8 (ren&h
2m:assadorF Prin&ess ?hi&hi:uF Sir Beorge Broad:ridge8 the Lord .ayorF the Earl o% 2thloneF the Iuke o% 6ent8 and Prin&e ?hi&hi:u. Prin&e
?hi&hi:u #as the :rother o% Emperor Hirohito. Photo! Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Prin&e ?hi&hi:u 319<*/19,+8 &enter8 le%t58 younger :rother o% Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan8 meets #ith Berman Lu%t#a%%e (ield .arshal Erhard
.il&h 319*/197*8 &enter8 right5 during a visit to a military air%ield at Bato# in Berlin8 Bermany on Septem:er 98 19+7. (ield .arshal Erhard
.il&h #as a mem:er o% the 1aGi PartyF .il&h7s %ather #as a 0e#. 3Photo :y (PB"Hulton 2r&hive"Betty )mages5
;mperor Hirohito of Japan meets )ith Imperia( Japanese Army genera(s at the Imperia( Hea&@uarters 1onference4
(0ource5 .irohito and the Making of Modern 3apan by Herbert P4 Hi>%
(0ource5 .irohito and the Making of Modern 3apan by Herbert P4 Hi>%
The Mi(itary Po(icemen of the Imperia( Japanese Army, better 'no)n as Kenpeitai (O%, pose for a group photo in in "#A.4
The Kenpeitai )as Imperia( JapanKs notorious secret po(ice4 The Kenpeitai )as the e@ui*a(ent of the ,estapo an& the Ab)ehr4
(0ource5 Japanese boo' I0ho)a History Jo(4<5 February ! Inci&entI pub(ishe& by Mainichi Ce)spapers 1ompany4%
http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5Kenpei4JP,
A Kenpeitai officer (right% appears )ith a capture& 1hinese so(&ier in 1hina, possib(y in 0hanghai or Manchuria in circa "#A or
"#A<4 (Photo5 http566)))4))inco(or4com6:apan61FFpia_&e_b_0hanghai_F?FF$$"4htm(%
-n+as.in) /orror - A spe#ial report 0-nit 123 4 Japanese $iolo)i#al Weapons -nit5
Japan Con!rontin) Grueso+e War Atro#ity
Hy Cicho(as -4 Kristof
The Ce) Bor' Times
Pub(ishe&5 March "<, "##.
He is a cheerfu( o(& farmer )ho :o'es as he ser*es rice ca'es ma&e by his )ife, an& then he s)itches easi(y to e>p(aining )hat it is (i'e
to cut open a A$-year-o(& man )ho is tie& na'e& to a be& an& &issect him a(i*e, )ithout anesthetic4
IThe fe((o) 'ne) that it )as o*er for him, an& so he &i&nQt strugg(e )hen they (e& him into the room an& tie& him &o)n,I reca((e& the
<-year-o(& farmer, then a me&ica( assistant in a Japanese Army unit in 1hina in 8or(& 8ar II4 IHut )hen I pic'e& up the sca(pe(,
thatQs )hen he began screaming4
II cut him open from the chest to the stomach, an& he screame& terrib(y, an& his face )as a(( t)iste& in agony4 He ma&e this
unimaginab(e soun&, he )as screaming so horrib(y4 Hut then fina((y he stoppe&4 This )as a(( in a &ayQs )or' for the surgeons, but it
rea((y (eft an impression on me because it )as my first time4I
Fina((y the o(& man, )ho insiste& on anonymity, e>p(aine& the reason for the *i*isection4 The 1hinese prisoner ha& been &e(iberate(y
infecte& )ith the p(ague as part of a research pro:ect -- the fu(( horror of )hich is on(y no) emerging -- to &e*e(op p(ague bombs for
use in 8or(& 8ar II4 After infecting him, the researchers &eci&e& to cut him open to see )hat the &isease &oes to a manQs insi&e4 Co
anesthetic )as use&, he sai&, out of concern that it might ha*e an effect on the resu(ts4
,hat resear'h pro*ram 6as one o. the *reat se'rets o. Japan durin* and a.ter <orld <ar II: a ;ast pro$e't to de;elop
6eapons o. biolo*i'al 6ar.are, in'ludin* pla*ue, anthrax, 'holera and a do+en other patho*ens8 Enit O43 o. the Japanese
Imperial (rmy 'ondu'ted resear'h by experimentin* on humans and by A.ield testin*A pla*ue bombs by droppin* them on
Chinese 'ities to see 6hether they 'ould start pla*ue outbrea-s8 ,hey 'ould8
A tric'(e of information about the program has turne& into a stream an& no) a torrent4 Ha(f a century after the en& of the )ar, a rush of
boo's, &ocumentaries an& e>hibitions are un(oc'ing the past an& he(ping arouse interest in Japan in the atrocities committe& by some
of JapanQs most &istinguishe& &octors4
0cho(ars an& former members of the unit say that at (east A,$$$ peop(e -- by some accounts se*era( times as many -- )ere 'i((e& in the
me&ica( e>perimentsD none sur*i*e&4
Co one 'no)s ho) many &ie& in the Ifie(& testing4I It is becoming e*i&ent that the Japanese officers in charge of the program hope& to
use their )eapons against the 7nite& 0tates4 They propose& using ba((oon bombs to carry &isease to America, an& they ha& a p(an in
the summer of "#/. to use 'ami'aLe pi(ots to &ump p(ague-infecte& f(eas on 0an -iego4
,he resear'h 6as -ept se'ret a.ter the end o. the 6ar in part be'ause the Enited :tates (rmy *ranted immunity .rom 6ar
'rimes prose'ution to the do'tors in ex'han*e .or their data8 Japanese and (meri'an do'uments sho6 that the Enited :tates
helped 'o;er up the human experimentation8 Instead o. puttin* the rin*leaders on trial, it *a;e them stipends8
The accounts are )renching to rea& e*en after so much time has passe&5 a +ussian mother an& &aughter (eft in a gas chamber, for
e>amp(e, as &octors peere& through thic' g(ass an& time& their con*u(sions, )atching as the )oman spra)(e& o*er her chi(& in a futi(e
effort to sa*e her from the gas4
,he )ri*ins 0an on <eapon /nti'es Military
JapanKs bio(ogica( )eapons program )as born in the "#A$Ks, in part because Japanese officia(s )ere impresse& that germ )arfare ha&
been banne& by the ,ene*a 1on*ention of "#.4 If it )as so a)fu( that it ha& to be banne& un&er internationa( (a), the officers
reasone&, it must ma'e a great )eapon4
The Japanese Army, )hich then occupyie& a (arge chun' of 1hina, e*icte& the resi&ents of eight *i((ages near Harbin, in Manchuria, to
ma'e )ay for the hea&@uarters of 7nit <A"4 One a&*antage of 1hina, from the Japanese point of *ie), )as the a*ai(abi(ity of research
sub:ects on )hom germs cou(& be teste&4 The sub:ects )ere ca((e& marutas, or (ogs, an& most )ere 1ommunist sympathiLers or
or&inary crimina(s4 The ma:ority )ere 1hinese, but many )ere +ussians, e>patriates (i*ing in 1hina4
Ta'eo 8ano, a <"-year-o(& former me&ica( )or'er in 7nit <A" )ho no) (i*es here in the northern Japanese city of Morio'a, sai& he
once sa) a si>-foot-high g(ass :ar in )hich a 8estern man )as pic'(e& in forma(&ehy&e4 The man ha& been cut into t)o pieces,
*ertica((y, an& Mr4 8ano guesses that he )as +ussian because there )ere many +ussians then (i*ing in the area4
The 7nit <A" hea&@uarters containe& many other such :ars )ith specimens4 They containe& feet, hea&s, interna( organs, a(( neat(y
(abe(e&4 II sa) samp(es )ith (abe(s saying QAmerican,Q Q;ng(ishQ an& QFrenchman,Q but most )ere 1hinese, Koreans an& Mongo(ians,I
sai& a 7nit <A" *eteran )ho insiste& on anonymity4 IThose (abe(e& as American )ere :ust bo&y parts, (i'e han&s or feet, an& some
)ere sent in by other mi(itary units4I
There is no e*i&ence that Americans )ere among the *ictims in the 7nit <A" compoun&, a(though there ha*e been persistent but
unpro*en accusations that American prisoners of )ar in Mu'&en (no) 0henyang% )ere sub:ect to me&ica( e>perimentation4
Me&ica( researchers a(so (oc'e& up &isease& prisoners )ith hea(thy ones, to see ho) rea&i(y *arious ai(ments )ou(& sprea&4 The
&octors (oc'e& others insi&e a pressure chamber to see ho) much the bo&y can )ithstan& before the eyes pop from their soc'ets4
Jictims )ere often ta'en to a pro*ing groun& ca((e& An&a, )here they )ere tie& to sta'es an& bombar&e& )ith test )eapons to see
ho) effecti*e the ne) techno(ogies )ere4 P(anes spraye& the Lone )ith a p(ague cu(ture or &roppe& bombs )ith p(ague-infeste& f(eas
to see ho) many peop(e )ou(& &ie4
The Japanese arme& forces )ere using poison gas in their batt(es against 1hinese troops, an& so some of the prisoners )ere use& in
&e*e(oping more (etha( gases4 One former member of 7nit <A" )ho insiste& on anonymity sai& he )as ta'en on a Ifie(& tripI to the
pro*ing groun& to )atch a poison gas e>periment4
A group of prisoners )ere tie& to sta'es, an& then a tan'-(i'e contraption that spe)e& out gas )as ro((e& to)ar& them, he sai&4 Hut at
:ust that moment, the )in& change& an& the Japanese obser*ers ha& to run for their (i*es )ithout seeing )hat happene& to the *ictims4
The Japanese Army regu(ar(y con&ucte& fie(& tests to see )hether bio(ogica( )arfare )ou(& )or' outsi&e the (aboratory4 P(anes
&roppe& p(ague-infecte& f(eas o*er Cingbo in eastern 1hina an& o*er 1hang&e in north-centra( 1hina, an& p(ague outbrea's )ere (ater
reporte&4
Japanese troops a(so &roppe& cho(era an& typhoi& cu(tures in )e((s an& pon&s, but the resu(ts )ere often counterpro&ucti*e4 In "#/
germ )arfare specia(ists &istribute& &ysentery, cho(era an& typhoi& in Whe:iang Pro*ince in 1hina, but Japanese so(&iers became i(( an&
",<$$ &ie& of the &iseases, scho(ars say4
0he(&on H4 Harris, a historian at 1a(ifornia 0tate 7ni*ersity in Corthri&ge, estimates that more than $$,$$$ 1hinese )ere 'i((e& in
germ )arfare fie(& e>periments4 Professor Harris -- author of a boo' on 7nit <A", IFactories of -eathI (+out(e&ge, "##/% -- a(so says
p(ague-infecte& anima(s )ere re(ease& as the )ar )as en&ing an& cause& outbrea's of the p(ague that 'i((e& at (east A$,$$$ peop(e in
the Harbin area from "#/! through "#/?4
The (ea&ing scho(ar of 7nit <A" in Japan, Keiichi Tsuneishi, is s'eptica( of such numbers4 Professor Tsuneishi, )ho has (e& the efforts
in Japan to unco*er atrocities by 7nit <A", says that the attac' on Cingbo 'i((e& about "$$ peop(e an& that there is no e*i&ence of huge
outbrea's of &isease set off by fie(& tria(s4
,he ,radeo.. Kno6led*e Gained (t ,errible Cost
Many of the human e>periments )ere inten&e& to &e*e(op ne) treatments for me&ica( prob(ems that the Japanese Army face&4 Many
of the e>periments remain secret, but an "?-page report prepare& in "#/. -- an& 'ept by a senior Japanese mi(itary officer unti( no) --
inc(u&es a summary of the unitQs research4 The report )as prepare& in ;ng(ish for American inte((igence officia(s, an& it sho)s the
e>traor&inary range of the unitQs )or'4
0cho(ars say that the research )as not contri*e& by ma& scientists, an& that it )as inte((igent(y &esigne& an& carrie& out4 The me&ica(
fin&ings sa*e& many Japanese (i*es4
For e>amp(e, 7nit <A" pro*e& scientifica((y that the best treatment for frostbite )as not rubbing the (imb, )hich ha& been the
tra&itiona( metho&, but rather immersion in )ater a bit )armer than "$$ &egrees -- but ne*er more than " &egrees4
The cost of this scientific brea'through )as borne by those seiLe& for me&ica( e>periments4 They )ere ta'en outsi&e in freeLing
)eather an& (eft )ith e>pose& arms, perio&ica((y &renche& )ith )ater, unti( a guar& &eci&e& that frostbite ha& set in4 Testimony from a
Japanese officer sai& this )as &etermine& after the IfroLen arms, )hen struc' )ith a short stic', emitte& a soun& resemb(ing that )hich
a boar& gi*es )hen it is struc'4I
A boo'(et :ust pub(ishe& in Japan after a ma:or e>hibition about 7nit <A" sho)s ho) &octors e*en e>perimente& on a three-&ay-o(&
baby, measuring the temperature )ith a nee&(e stuc' insi&e the infantQs mi&&(e finger4
I7sua((y a han& of a three-&ay-o(& infant is c(enche& into a fist,I the boo'(et says, Ibut by stic'ing the nee&(e in, the mi&&(e finger
cou(& be 'ept straight to ma'e the e>periment easier4I
,he :'ope )ther /xperiments )n Humans
The human e>perimentation &i& not ta'e p(ace :ust in 7nit <A", nor )as it a rogue unit acting on its o)n4 8hi(e it is unc(ear )hether
;mperor Hirohito 'ne) of the atrocities, his younger brother, Prince Mi'asa, toure& the 7nit <A" hea&@uarters in 1hina an& )rote in
his memoirs that he )as sho)n fi(ms sho)ing ho) 1hinese prisoners )ere Ima&e to march on the p(ains of Manchuria for poison gas
e>periments on humans4I
In a&&ition, the reco((ections of -r4 Ken Buasa, <?, )ho sti(( practices in a c(inic in To'yo, suggest that human e>perimentation may
ha*e been routine e*en outsi&e 7nit <A"4 -r4 Buasa )as an army me&ic in 1hina, but he says he )as ne*er in 7nit <A" an& ne*er ha&
contact )ith it4
Ce*erthe(ess, -r4 Buasa says that )hen he )as sti(( in me&ica( schoo( in Japan, the stu&ents hear& that or&inary &octors )ho )ent to
1hina )ere a((o)e& to *i*isect patients4 An& sure enough, )hen -r4 Buasa arri*e& in 0han>i Pro*ince in north-centra( 1hina in "#/,
he )as soon as'e& to atten& a Ipractice surgery4I
T)o 1hinese men )ere brought in, strippe& na'e& an& gi*en genera( anesthetic4 Then -r4 Buasa an& the others began practicing
*arious 'in&s of surgery5 first an appen&ectomy, then an amputation of an arm an& fina((y a tracheotomy4 After #$ minutes, they )ere
finishe&, so they 'i((e& the patient )ith an in:ection4
8hen -r4 Buasa )as put in charge of a c(inic, he sai&, he perio&ica((y as'e& the po(ice for a 1ommunist to &issect, an& they sent one
o*er4 The *i*isection )as a(( for practice rather than for research, an& -r4 Buasa says they )ere routine among Japanese &octors
)or'ing in 1hina in the )ar4
In a&&ition, -r4 Buasa -- )ho is no) &eep(y apo(ogetic about )hat he &i& -- sai& he cu(ti*ate& typhoi& germs in test tubes an& passe&
them on, as he ha& been instructe& to &o, to another army unit4 0omeone from that unit, )hich a(so ha& no connection )ith 7nit <A",
(ater to(& him that the troops )ou(& use the test tubes to infect the )e((s of *i((ages in 1ommunist-he(& territory4

,he Plans ,a-in* the <ar ,o E8:8 Homeland
In "#//, )hen Japan )as nearing &efeat, To'yoQs mi(itary p(anners seiLe& on a remar'ab(e )ay to hit bac' at the American heart(an&5
they (aunche& huge ba((oons that ro&e the pre*ai(ing )in&s to the continenta( 7nite& 0tates4 A(though the American ,o*ernment
censore& reports at the time, some $$ ba((oons (an&e& in 8estern states, an& bombs carrie& by the ba((oons 'i((e& a )oman in
Montana an& si> peop(e in Oregon4
Ha(f a century (ater, there is e*i&ence that it cou(& ha*e been far )orseD some Japanese genera(s propose& (oa&ing the ba((oons )ith
)eapons of bio(ogica( )arfare, to create epi&emics of p(ague or anthra> in the 7nite& 0tates4 Other army units )ante& to sen& catt(e-
p(ague *irus to )ipe out the American (i*estoc' in&ustry or grain smut to )ipe out the crops4
There )as a fierce &ebate in To'yo, an& a &ocument &isco*ere& recent(y suggests that at a crucia( meeting in (ate Ju(y "#// it )as
Hi&e'i To:o -- )hom the 7nite& 0tates (ater hange& for )ar crimes -- )ho re:ecte& the proposa( to use germ )arfare against the 7nite&
0tates4
At the time of the meeting, To:o ha& :ust been ouste& as Prime Minister an& chief of the ,enera( 0taff, but he retaine& enough
authority to *eto the proposa(4 He 'ne) by then that Japan )as (i'e(y to (ose the )ar, an& he feare& that bio(ogica( assau(ts on the
7nite& 0tates )ou(& in*ite reta(iation )ith germ or chemica( )eapons being &e*e(ope& by America4
Bet the Japanese Army )as apparent(y )i((ing to use bio(ogica( )eapons against the A((ies in some circumstances4 8hen the 7nite&
0tates prepare& to attac' the Pacific is(an& of 0aipan in the (ate spring of "#//, a submarine )as sent from Japan to carry bio(ogica(
)eapons -- it is unc(ear )hat 'in& -- to the &efen&ers4
The submarine )as sun', Professor Tsuneishi says, an& the Japanese troops ha& to re(y on con*entiona( )eapons a(one4
As the en& of the )ar approache& in "#/., 7nit <A" embar'e& on its )i(&est scheme of a((4 1o&ename& 1herry H(ossoms at Cight, the
p(an )as to use 'ami'aLe pi(ots to infest 1a(ifornia )ith the p(ague4
Toshimi MiLobuchi, )ho )as an instructor for ne) recruits in 7nit <A", sai& the i&ea )as to use $ of the .$$ ne) troops )ho arri*e&
in Harbin in Ju(y "#/.4 A submarine )as to ta'e a fe) of them to the seas off 0outhern 1a(ifornia, an& then they )ere to f(y in a p(ane
carrie& on boar& the submarine an& contaminate 0an -iego )ith p(ague-infecte& f(eas4 The target &ate )as to be 0ept4 , "#/.4
Ishio Obata, <A, )ho no) (i*es in ;hime prefecture, ac'no)(e&ge& that he ha& been a chief of the 1herry H(ossoms at Cight attac'
force against 0an -iego, but he &ec(ine& to &iscuss &etai(s4 IIt is such a terrib(e memory that I &onQt )ant to reca(( it,I he sai&4
Ta&ao Ishimaru, a(so <A, sai& he ha& (earne& on(y after returning to Japan that he ha& been a can&i&ate for the stri'e force against 0an
-iego4 II &onQt )ant to thin' about 7nit <A",I he sai& in a brief te(ephone inter*ie)4 IFifty years ha*e passe& since the )ar4 P(ease (et
me remain si(ent4I
It is unc(ear )hether 1herry H(ossoms at Cight e*er ha& a chance of being carrie& out4 Japan &i& in&ee& ha*e at (east fi*e submarines
that carrie& t)o or three p(anes each, their )ings fo(&e& against the fuse(age (i'e a bir&4
Hut a Japanese Ca*y specia(ist sai& the na*y )ou(& ha*e ne*er a((o)e& its finest e@uipment to be use& for an army p(an (i'e 1herry
H(ossoms at Cight, part(y because the highest priority in the summer of "#/. )as to &efen& the main Japanese is(an&s, not to (aunch
attac's on the 7nite& 0tates main(an&4
If the 1herry H(ossoms at Cight p(an )as e*er serious, it became irre(e*ant as Japan prepare& to surren&er in ear(y August "#/.4 In the
(ast &ays of the )ar, beginning on Aug4 #, 7nit <A" use& &ynamite to try to &estroy a(( e*i&ence of its germ )arfare program, scho(ars
say4
,he (.termath: >o Punishment, ittle Femorse
Partly be'ause the (meri'ans helped 'o;er up the biolo*i'al 6ar.are pro*ram in ex'han*e .or its data, Gen8 :hiro Ishii, the
head o. Enit O43, 6as allo6ed to li;e pea'e.ully until his death .rom throat 'an'er in 32J28 ,hose around him in Enit O43 sa6
their 'areers .lourish in the post6ar period, risin* to positions that in'luded Go;ernor o. ,o-yo, president o. the Japan
Medi'al (sso'iation and head o. the Japan )lympi' Committee8
Hy con*entiona( stan&ar&s, fe) peop(e )ere more crue( than the farmer )ho as a 7nit <A" me&ic car*e& up a 1hinese prisoner )ithout
anesthetic, an& )ho a(so ac'no)(e&ge& that he ha& he(pe& poison ri*ers an& )e((s4 Bet his main intention in agreeing to an inter*ie)
seeme& to be to e>p(ain that 7nit <A" )as not rea((y so bruta( after a((4
As'e& )hy he ha& not anesthetiLe& the prisoner before &issecting him, the farmer e>p(aine&5 IJi*isection shou(& be &one un&er
norma( circumstances4 If )eQ& use& anesthesia, that might ha*e affecte& the bo&y organs an& b(oo& *esse(s that )e )ere e>amining4 0o
)e cou(&nQt ha*e use& anesthetic4I
8hen the topic of chi(&ren came up, the farmer offere& another :ustification5 IOf course there )ere e>periments on chi(&ren4 Hut
probab(y their fathers )ere spies4I
IThereQs a possibi(ity this cou(& happen again,I the o(& man sai&, smi(ing genia((y4 IHecause in a )ar, you ha*e to )in4I
0ource5 The Ce) Bor' Times

9eft photo5 An Imperia( Japanese Army &octor performs surgery (*i*isection% on a prisoner in Manchuria &uring 8or(& 8ar II4
+ight photo5 0hirM Ishii ( 7, "?#-"#.#% )as a Japanese microbio(ogist an& the (ieutenant genera( of Enit O43 1<A" ,
Nana'san'ichi butai5, a secret bio(ogica( )arfare unit of the Imperia( Japanese Army (ocate& outsi&e of Harbin, 1hina (Manchuria%
&uring the 0econ& 0ino-Japanese 8ar4 Ishii )as ne*er trie& for )ar crimes an& recei*e& immunity from 7404 occupation authorities4
A 7nit <A" N&octorO appears in front of a pi(e of corpse4
A 7nit <A" &octor *i*isects a pregnant gir( on an operating tab(e4 Other secret Japanese bio(ogica( an& chemica( mi(itary units
inc(u&e& 7nit "$$ (bio(ogica( )eapons% an& 7nit ."! (chemica( )eapons%4 7nit "$$ an& 7nit ."! )ere (ocate& in Manchuria,
an& both units )ere operate& by the Kenpeitai, the Japanese secret mi(itary po(ice4
Ho'ushin-ron an& the Hatt(e of Comonhan in "#A# (+usso-Japanese Hor&er 8ar%
0trategic map of NHo'ushin-ronO (%, a(so 'no)n as NCorth 0tri'e strategyO, the Japanese batt(e p(ans for a potentia( attac' on
an& in*asion of the eastern ha(f of the 0o*iet 7nion an& Mongo(ia4 The NCanshin-ronO (m%, a(so 'no)n as N0outh 0tri'e
strategyO, )as a Japanese mi(itary strategy for a Japanese in*asion of French In&ochina, -utch ;ast In&ies, 0ingapore, Hong Kong,
an& the Phi(ippines4
NAs its operations brought the K)antung Army to the outer reaches of Manchuria, an& as first the +ussians an& then the
Japanese began to gir& the bor&ers )ith fortifications, there ensure& tension an& contro*ersies regar&ing nationa( boun&aries4
Het)een "#A an& "#A/, accor&ing to Japanese sources, ". sma((-sca(e bor&er &isputes occurre&, (arge(y because the +ussians
no) foun& it necessary to initiate an intensi*e program of co((ecting inte((igence insi&e Manchuria an& of countering espionage
operations emanating from there4 0o*iet bor&er guar& units sought information, an& sma(( parties of +ussians crosse& into
Manchurian territory at (east t)enty times &uring the perio& to ab&uct nati*es or 8hite +ussians an& to interfere )ith the mai(s4
The K)antung Army a(so note& se*era( airspace *io(ationsD o*er fifty cases of firing affrays, groun& trespassing, an& tampering
)ith bor&er mar'ersD an& si> b(atant instances of interference )ith or attac' upon ri*er shipping4 For their part, the +ussians
a((ege& fifteen cases of bor&er *io(ation by the Japanese, si> air intrusions, an& t)enty episo&es of Nspy smugg(ingO in "#AA
a(one4 Though +usso-Japanese re(ations impro*e& temporari(y after the 0o*iet sa(e of the 1hinese ;astern +ai()ay in ear(y
"#A., ,erman pressures not on(y &re) +ussian attention to ;urope but har&ene& the 0o*iet attitu&e against both the CaLis an&
the Japanese4 An IJA mi(itary attachZ in the 700+ &etecte& the sterner out(oo' @uic'(y4 8hen he set off to *isit the 7'raine in
Apri( "#A., the 0o*iet attitu&e to)ar& the Japanese )as *ery goo&D but by the time he got bac' to Mosco) at the c(ose of the
month the situation ha& &eteriorate&, his fema(e interpreter )as arreste&, an& anti-Japanese propagan&a intensifie& great(y4 At
the 0e*enth 1omintern 1ongress in Ju(y, the Japanese an& ,ermans )ere open(y ca((e& Nfascist enemiesO an& a reso(ution
&eman&e& opposition to them by the 0o*iet 7nion an& the Npopu(ar fronts4O At the same time, the 0o*iet &ip(omatic position
)as impro*e& by entry into the 9eague of Cations an& consummation of a ma:or pact )ith France4 The Japanese ca((e& the
years "#A.-A! a perio& of me&ium-sca(e bor&er &isputes characteriLe& by a &oub(ing of +ussian *io(ations, )hich )ere Nmore
systematic an& more f(agrantO than before4 0o*iet reconnaissance efforts seem to ha*e been acce(erate& at the same time that the
+ussians sought to secure strategic (ocations on the frontier4 0ince K)antung Army an& Manchu'uoan bor&er guar& forces ha&
a(so been reinforce&, the confrontations became increasing(y *io(ent4O
= Nomonhan: 3apan Against Russia" #$7$ by A(*in -4 1oo>, p4 #A-#/
Japanese army troops appear in a pa&&y near Ha(ha +i*er &uring the batt(e of Comonhan against the 0o*iet +ussian army in "#A#4
One of the so(&iers is seen using fie(& periscope binocu(ars4 (Photo5 http566car(4army4mi(6resources6csi6&rea6&rea4asp%
Japanese Type #. Ha-,o capture& by so*iet troops after the Hatt(e of Kha('hin ,o( in "#A#
(Photo5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5Ha-,oFKha('in-,o(4JP,%
The 0o*iet +e& Army go on the offensi*e at Kha('hyn ,o( 2a(so 'no)n as Comonhan3 in August "#A#4
A photo sho)ing a street scene in the bor&er to)n of ManLhou(i, near the Mongo(ian an& +ussian bor&ers, &uring the "#A$s4
ManLhou(i is (ocate& near Comonhan4
0o*iet +e& Army so(&iers super*ise capture& Japanese army so(&iers at Kha('hyn ,o( 2Comonhan3 in August "#A#4 The
Japanese go*ernment an& the 0o*iet go*ernment agree& to a non-agression treaty prior to A&o(f Hit(erKs in*asion of Po(an& in
0eptember "#A#4 Japan &i& not )age )ar on the 0o*iet 7nion in June "#/" after CaLi ,ermany in*a&e& the )estern part of the
0o*iet 7nion4 The 0o*iet 7nion )age& )ar on Japan beginning on August #, "#/. short(y after the 7404 Army Air Force
&roppe& the atomic bomb on Cagasa'i4
(Photo5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5Kha('hinF,o(F1apture&FJapaneseFso(&iersF"#A#4:pg%

9eft5 Japanese army so(&iers cross Kha('hyn ,o( ri*er 2Comonhan3 in "#A# as they prepare to the fight the 0o*iet +e& Army4
+ight5 The (ocation of the Comonhan Inci&ent
.
'.S. 2m:assador to 0apan 0oseph ?. Bre# &hats #ith 6i&hisa:uro 1omura8 the designated 0apanese 2m:assador to the 'nited States o%
2meri&a8 at the 4okyo train station in 4okyo8 0apan in 0anuary 19H1 as 1omura leaves %or 2meri&a. 0oseph ?. Bre# #as a mem:er o% the
?oun&il on (oreign Aelations8 an internationalist organiGation in 1e# York ?ity8 at the time this photograph #as taken. 3Provided :y .aini&hi
1e#spaper5 http!""###.$a&ar.go.$p"english"ni&hi:ei"negotiation"inde;,.html

Le%t photo! )mperial 0apanese (oreign .inister Yosuke .atsuoka 3le%t5 visits 2dol% Hitler in .ar&h 19H1
Aight photo! Yosuke .atsuoka signs the Soviet/0apanese 1eutrality Pa&t in .os&o# on 2pril *, 19H1 #ith Soviet ?ommissar
0ose% Stalin and Soviet (oreign .inister Cya&heslav .olotov #at&hing in the :a&kground.
Soviet ?ommissar 0ose% Stalin and Soviet (oreign .inister Cya&heslav .olotov #at&h 0apanese (oreign .inister Yosuke .atsuoka sign the
Soviet/0apanese 1eutrality Pa&t in .os&o# on 2pril 1+8 19H1. 3Photo! http!""vi&tory.rusar&hives.ru"inde;.phpTpR+1Kphoto-idR99=5
2dol% Hitler talks to )mperial 0apanese (oreign .inister Yosuke .atsuoka during the latter9s re&ent visit to the Berman &apital in Berlin on 2pril
*18 19H18 #ith Ir. S&hmidt 3in uni%orm5 a&ting as interpreter. 0oa&him von Ai::entrop8 the Berman %oreign minister8 looks on 3e;treme le%t5.
3?@AB)S5
Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs Bosu'e Matsuo'a *isits Her(in, ,ermany on Apri( "#, "#/"4 (Pro*i&e& by Keiyosha%
http566)))4:acar4go4:p6eng(ish6nichibei6negotiation6in&e>.4htm(
Japanese Minister of Foreign Affairs Bosu'e Matsuo'a appears )ith Fascist Ita(yKs Prime Minister Henito Musso(ini in Jenice,
Ita(y on Apri( <, "#/"4 (Pro*i&e& by Keiyosha% http566)))4:acar4go4:p6eng(ish6nichibei6negotiation6in&e>.4htm(
Le%t to right! Prime .inister o% 0apan Prin&e (umimaro 6onoe8 (oreign .inister Yosuke .atsuoka8 .inister o% the 1avy 2dmiral Sengo
Yoshida8 and .inister o% War Beneral Hideki 4o$o meet privately in 4okyo8 0apan on 2ugust =8 19H<. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Iignitaries parti&ipate in the signing &eremony o% the 0apan/Bermany/)taly 4riple 2llian&e in Septem:er 19H<. (rom le%t to right! 0apanese
2m:assador to Bermany Sa:uro 6urusu8 )talian .inister o% (oreign 2%%airs ?iano8 and Bermany7s N?han&ellorO 2dol% Hitler.
3Provided :y .aini&hi 1e#spaper5 http!""###.$a&ar.go.$p"english"ni&hi:ei"negotiation"inde;,.html
Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan delivers his message to War .inister Lieutenant Beneral Hideki 4o$o8 %ollo#ing the military parade held on the
Yoyogi Parade Brounds in 4okyo8 0apan on @&to:er *18 19H< to mark the *=<<th anniversary o% the %ounding o% the 0apanese Empire. ?hie%
2ide/de/?amp Beneral Ban Hasunuma stands :ehind the emperor. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan revie#s his troops during the imperial inspe&tion in 4okyo8 0apan on 0une 1*8 19H1. 4he inspe&tion %eatured the
%i%teenth anniversary o% the esta:lishment o% the Young Peoples9 S&hools in 0apan. .ore than +<8<<< Peoples9 representatives gathered in
4okyo %or the &ele:ration. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
'nited States 2m:assador to 0apan8 0oseph ?lark Bre# 3le%t5 and ne# (oreign .inister o% 0apan8 4ei$iro 4oyoda8 smile %or &amera on @&to:er
*8 19H1 #hen .inister 4oyoda made the &ustomary &all upon the dean o% the 4okyo diplomati& ?orps a%ter he assumed o%%i&e.
3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
'nited States 2m:assador to 0apan 0oseph ?. Bre# 3right5 pi&tured #ith (oreign .inister 6i&hisa:uro 1omura at the time Bre# visited the
.inistry in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er H8 19+9. 4he &aptain a&&ompanying this pi&ture %orm 0apan says U1o important &onversations #ere
held8 it is reported.U Iispat&hes %rom 2meri&an &orrespondents in 4okyo the same day8 told that Bre# had told 1omura that 0apan #as in
danger o% e&onomi& pressure %rom the 'nited States i% it #as the %irst o% many s&heduled8 to determine #hat 0apanese/2meri&an ?ommer&ial
4reaty E;pires 0anuary *=8 19H<. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Prince Fumimaro Konoe is seen ri&ing in a (imousine in Japan on October "#, "#/", a &ay after he resigne& as Prime Minister of
Japan4 Fumimaro Konoe an& his entire 1abinet resigne& after Konoe oppose& the Imperia( Japanese ArmyKs proposa( to attac'
Pear( Harbor an& )age )ar on the 7nite& 0tates of America4 (Pro*i&e& by Keiyosha%
http566)))4:acar4go4:p6eng(ish6nichibei6negotiation6in&e>.4htm(
Imperia( Japanese Army ,enera( Hi&e'i To:o (front ro), center% appears )ith his 1abinet in To'yo, Japan on October ", "#/"4
(Pro*i&e& by Keiyosha% http566)))4:acar4go4:p6eng(ish6nichibei6negotiation6in&e>.4htm(
)mperial 0apanese 2m:assador to 2meri&a 6i&hisa:uro 1omura 3le%t58 '.S. Se&retary o% State ?ordell Hull 3&enter58 and )mperial 0apanese
envoy Sa:uro 6urusu stroll on White House grounds in Washington8 I.?. in 1ovem:er 19H1during the %ailed 0apan/2meri&a pea&e mediations
previous to the atta&k on Pearl Har:or. 34homas I. .&2voy"4ime Li%e5
0apanese navy o%%i&ers announ&e the out:reak o% #ar :et#een 0apan and the '.S. at the .inistry o% the 1avy in 4okyo8 0apan on Ie&em:er
8 19H1. 3Provided :y .aini&hi 1e#spaper5 http!""###.$a&ar.go.$p"english"ni&hi:ei"negotiation"inde;,.html
N8ith one notab(e e>ception, JapanKs bac'groun& for aggression presente& a strong para((e( to that of ,ermany4 The e>ception
)as the in&ustria( strength of the t)o Po)ers4 Japan )as rea((y a Nha*e notO nation, (ac'ing most of the natura( resources to
sustain a great in&ustria( system4 It (ac'e& much of the necessary basic materia(s such as coa(D iron, petro(eum, a((oy minera(s,
)aterpo)er, or e*en foo&4 In comparison, ,ermanyQs c(aim to be a Nha*e notO nation )as mere(y a propagan&a &e*ice4 Other
than this, the simi(arity of the t)o countries )as stri'ing5 each ha& a comp(ete(y carte(iLe& in&ustry, a mi(itaristic tra&ition, a
har&)or'ing popu(ation )hich respecte& authority an& (o*e& or&er, a nationa( obsession )ith its o)n uni@ue *a(ue an& a
resentment at the rest of the )or(& for fai(ure to recogniLe this, an& a constitutiona( structure in )hich a faca&e of par(iamentary
constitutiona(ism bare(y concea(e& the rea(ity of po)er )ie(&e& by an a((iance of army, (an&(or&s, an& in&ustry4 The fact that the
Japanese constitution of "??# )as copie& from the constitution of Hismarc' goes far to e>p(ain this (ast simi(arity4 8e ha*e
a(rea&y mentione& the acute prob(em presente& to Japan by the contrast bet)een their (imite& natura( resources an& their
gro)ing prob(ems4 8hi(e their resources &i& not increase, their popu(ation gre) from A" mi((ion in "?<A to <A mi((ion in "#A#,
the rate of gro)th reaching its pea' in the perio& "#.-"#A$ (? percent increase in these fi*e years%4 8ith great ingenuity an&
tire(ess energy, the Japanese peop(e trie& to ma'e en&s meet4 8ith foreign e>change earne& from merchant shipping or from
e>ports of si(', )oo& pro&ucts, or seafoo&s, ra) materia(s )ere importe&, manufacture& into in&ustria( pro&ucts, an& e>porte& to
obtain the foreign e>change necessary to pay for imports of ra) materia(s or foo&4 Hy 'eeping costs an& prices (o*e, the
Japanese )ere ab(e to un&erse(( ;uropean e>porters of cotton te>ti(es an& iron pro&ucts in the mar'ets of Asia, especia((y in
1hina an& In&onesia4 The possibi(ity of re(ie*ing their popu(ation pressure by emigration, as ;urope ha& &one ear(ier, )as
pre*ente& by the fact that the ob*ious co(onia( areas ha& a(rea&y been ta'en in han& by ;uropeans4 ;ng(ish-spea'ing persons,
)ho he(& the best an& *et unfi((e& areas, s(amme& the &oor on Japanese immigration in the perio& after "#$", :ustifying their
actions on racia( an& economic arguments4 American restrictions on Japanese immigration, originate& among (aboring groups in
1a(ifornia, )ere a *ery bitter pi(( for Japan, an& in:ure& its pri&e great(y4
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!"-.!
NThe stea&y rise in tariffs against Japanese manufacture& goo&s after "?#<, a &e*e(opment )hich )as a(so (e& by America,
ser*e& to increase the &ifficu(ties of JapanKs position4 0o a(so &i& the s(o) e>haustion of the Pacific fisheries, the gro)ing (if
necessary% restrictions on such fishing by conser*ationist agreements, the &ecrease in forestry resources, an& po(itica( an& socia(
unrest in Asia4 For a (ong time, Japan )as protecte& from the fu(( impact of this prob(em by a series of fa*orab(e acci&ents4 The
First 8or(& 8ar ) as a sp(en&i& )in&fa((4 It en&e& ;uropean commercia( competition in Asia, Africa, an& the PacificD it
increase& the &eman& for Japanese goo&s an& ser*icesD an& it ma&e Japan an internationa( cre&itor for the first time4 1apita(
in*estment in the fi*e years "#".-"#$ )as eight times as much as in the ten years "#$.-"#".D (aborers emp(oye& in factories
using o*er fi*e )or'ers each increase& from #/? thousan& in "#"/ to ",!" thousan& in "#"#D ocean shipping rose from (4.
mi((ion tons in "#"/ to A mi((ion tons in "#"?, )hi(e income from shipping freight rose from /$ mi((ion yen in "#"/ to /.$
mi((ion in "#"?D the fa*orab(e ba(ance of internationa( tra&e amounte& to ",/?$ mi((ion yen for the four years "#".-"#"?4 0ocia(
(ife, the economic structure, an& the price system, a(rea&y &is(ocate& by this rapi& change, recei*e& a terrib(e :o(t in the
&epression of "#$-"#", but Japan rapi&(y reco*ere& an& )as shie(&e& from the fu(( conse@uences of her (arge popu(ation an&
(imite& resources by the boom of the "#$Ks4 +api& techno(ogica( a&*ance in the 7nite& 0tates, ,ermany, an& Japan itse(f,
&eman& for Japanese goo&s (especia((y te>ti(es% in southern an& southeastern Asia, American (oans throughout the )or(&, (arge
American purchases of Japanese si(', an& the genera( Nboom psycho(ogyO of the )ho(e )or(& protecte& Japan from the fu((
impact of its situation unti( "##-"#A"4 7n&er this protection the o(&er authoritarian an& mi(itaristic tra&itions )ere )ea'ene&,
(ibera(ism an& &emocracy gre) s(o)(y but stea&i(y, the aping of ,ermanic tra&itions in inte((ectua( an& po(itica( (ife ()hich ha&
been going on since about "??$% )as (arge(y aban&one&, the first party go*ernment )as estab(ishe& in "#"?, uni*ersa( manhoo&
suffrage )as estab(ishe& in "#., ci*i(ian go*ernors rep(ace& mi(itary ru(e for the first time in co(onia( areas (i'e Formosa, the
army )as re&uce& from " to "< &i*isions in "#/, the na*y )as re&uce& by internationa( agreement in "# an& in "#A$, an&
there )as a great e>pansion of e&ucation, especia((y in the higher (e*e(s4 This mo*ement to)ar& &emocracy an& (ibera(ism
a(arme& the mi(itarists an& &ro*e them to &esperation4 At the same time, the gro)th of unity an& pub(ic or&er in 1hina, )hich
these mi(itarists ha& regar&e& as a potentia( *ictim for their operations, con*ince& them that they must act @uic'(y before it )as
too (ate4 The )or(& &epression ga*e this group their great opportunity4 ;*en before its onset, ho)e*er, four ominous factors in
Japanese po(itica( (ife hung (i'e threatening c(ou&s on the horiLon4 These )ere (a% the (ac' of any constitutiona( re@uirement for
a go*ernment responsib(e to the -iet, (b% the continue& constitutiona( free&om of the army from ci*i(ian contro(, (c% the gro)ing
use of po(itica( assassination by the conser*ati*es as a means for remo*ing (ibera( po(iticians from pub(ic (ife, as )as &one
against three premiers an& many (esser persons in the perio& "#"?-"#A, an& (&% the gro)ing appea( of re*o(utionary 0ocia(ism
in (aboring circ(es4 The )or(& &epression an& the financia( crisis hit Japan a terrib(e b(o)4 The &ec(ining &eman& for ra) si(' in
competition )ith synthetic fibers (i'e rayon an& the s(o) &ec(ine of such Asiatic mar'ets as 1hina an& In&ia because of po(itica(
&isturbances an& gro)ing in&ustria(iLation ma&e this b(o) har&er to bear4 7n&er this impact, the reactionary an& aggressi*e
forces in Japanese society )ere ab(e to so(i&ify their contro( of the state, intimi&ate a(( &omestic opposition, an& embar' on that
a&*enture of aggression an& &estruction that (e& u(timate(y to the &isasters of "#/.4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!-.!A
NThese economic storms )ere se*ere, but Japan too' the roa& to aggression because of its o)n past tra&itions rather than for economic
reasons4 The mi(itarist tra&itions of feu&a( Japan continue& into the mo&ern perio&, an& f(ourishe& in spite of stea&y criticism an& opposition4
The constitutiona( structure shie(&e& both the mi(itary (ea&ers an& the ci*i(ian po(iticians from popu(ar contro(, an& :ustifie& their actions as
being in the emperorKs name4 Hut these t)o branches of go*ernment )ere separate& so that the ci*i(ians ha& no contro( o*er the genera(s4 The
(a) an& custom of the constitution a((o)e& the genera(s an& a&mira(s to approach the emperor &irect(y )ithout the 'no)(e&ge or consent of
the 1abinet, an& re@uire& that on(y officers of this ran' cou(& ser*e as ministers for these ser*ices in the 1abinet itse(f4 Co ci*i(ian inter*ene&
in the chain of comman& from emperor to (o)(y pri*ate, an& the arme& ser*ices became a state )ithin the state4 0ince the officers &i& not
hesitate to use their positions to ensure ci*i(ian comp(iance )ith their )ishes, an& constant(y resorte& to arme& force an& assassination, the
po)er of the mi(itary gre) stea&i(y after "#<4 A(( their acts, they sai&, )ere in the name of the emperor, for the g(ory of Japan, to free the
nation from corruption, from partisan po(iticians, an& from p(utocratic e>p(oitation, an& to restore the o(& Japanese *irtues of or&er, se(f-
sacrifice, an& &e*otion to authority4 0eparate from the arme& forces, sometimes in opposition to them but genera((y &epen&ent upon them as
the chief purchasers of the pro&ucts of hea*y in&ustry, )ere the forces of monopo(y capita(ism4 These )ere (e&, as )e ha*e in&icate&, by the
eight great economic comp(e>es, contro((e& as fami(y units, 'no)n as -aibatsu4 These eight contro((e& <. percent of the nationKs corporate
)ea(th by "#A$ an& )ere hea&e& by Mitsui, )hich ha& ". per cent of a(( corporate capita( in the country4 They engage& in open(y corrupt
re(ationships )ith Japanese po(iticians an&, (ess fre@uent(y, )ith Japanese mi(itarists4 They usua((y cooperate& )ith each other4 For e>amp(e,
in "#<, the efforts of Mitsui an& Mitsubishi to smash a sma((er competitor, 0uLu'i 1ompany of Kobe, precipitate& a financia( panic )hich
c(ose& most of the ban's in Japan4 8hi(e the 0ho)a Han', operate& :oint(y by the -aibatsu, too' o*er many sma((er corporations an& ban's
)hich fai(e& in the crisis an& o*er "?$,$$$ &epositors (ost their sa*ings, the 1abinet of the mi(itarist ,enera( Tana'a grante& ",.$$ mi((ion
yen to sa*e the -aibatsu themse(*es from the conse@uences of their gree&4 The mi(itaristic an& nationa(istic tra&itions )ere )i&e(y accepte&
by the Japanese peop(e4 These tra&itions, e>to((e& by the ma:ority of po(iticians an& teachers, an& propagate& by numerous patriotic societies,
both open an& secret, )ere gi*en a free han&, )hi(e any opposing *oices )ere crushe& out by (ega( or i((ega( metho&s unti(, by "#A$, most
such *oices )ere si(ence&4 About the same &ate, the mi(itarists an& the -aibatsu, )ho ha& pre*ious(y been in opposition as often as in
coa(ition, came together in their (ast fatefu( a((iance4 They unite& on a program of hea*y in&ustria(iLation, mi(itariLation, an& foreign
aggression4 ;astern Asia, especia((y northern 1hina an& Manchuria, became the &esignate& *ictim, since these seeme& to offer the necessary
ra) materia(s an& mar'ets for the in&ustria(ists an& the fie(& of g(ory an& booty for the mi(itarists4 In aiming their attac' at Manchuria in
"#A" an& at northern 1hina in "#A<, the Japanese chose a *ictim )ho )as c(ear(y *u(nerab(e4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!A-.!/
NThough the Japanese seiLure of Manchuria in the autumn of "#A" )as an in&epen&ent action of the Japanese mi(itary forces, it ha& to be
con&one& by the ci*i(ian (ea&ers4 The 1hinese reta(iate& by a boycott of Japanese goo&s )hich serious(y re&uce& JapanKs e>ports4 To force an
en& to this boycott, Japan (an&e& forces at 0hanghai ("#A% an&, after se*ere fighting in )hich much Japanese abuse )as inf(icte& upon
;uropeans, the 1hinese forces )ere &ri*en from the city an& compe((e& to agree to a termination of the economic boycott against Japan4
About the same time, Manchuria )as set up as a Japanese protectorate un&er the ru(e of Henry PKui, )ho ha& ab&icate& the 1hinese throne in
"#"4 As ear(y as January "#A, the 7nite& 0tates notifie& a(( signers of the Cine-Po)er treaty of "# that it )ou(& refuse to accept
territoria( changes ma&e by force in *io(ation of the Ke((ogg-Hrian& Pact to Out(a) 8ar4 An appea( to the 9eague of Cations for support,
ma&e by 1hina on 0eptember ", "#A", the same &ay that ;ng(an& )ent off the go(& stan&ar&, passe& through an interminab(e series of
proce&ura( &isputes an& fina((y (e& to a 1ommission of ;n@uiry un&er the ;ar( of 9ytton4 The report of this commission, re(ease& in October,
"#A, sharp(y con&emne& the actions of Japan but recommen&e& no effecti*e :oint action to oppose these4 The 9eague accepte& the 0timson
-octrine of Conrecognition, an& e>presse& sympathy for the 1hinese position4 This )ho(e affair has been rehashe& en&(ess(y since "#A" to
the accompaniment of c(aims an& counterc(aims that effecti*e (eague action )as b(oc'e& by the absence of the 7nite& 0tates from its
counci(s, or by 0timsonQs &e(ay in con&emning Japanese aggression, or by Hritish refusa( to support 0timsonQs suggestions for action against
Japan4 A(( these &iscussions neg(ect the *ita( point that the Japanese army in Manchuria )as not un&er the contro( of the Japanese ci*i(
go*ernment, )ith )hich negotiations )ere being con&ucte&, an& that these ci*i( authorities, )ho oppose& the Manchurian attac', cou(& not
gi*e effecti*e *oice to this opposition )ithout rising assassination4 Premier Bu'o Hamaguchi ha& been 'i((e& as recent(y as Co*ember "#A$
for appro*ing the 9on&on Ca*a( Agreement to )hich the mi(itarists ob:ecte&, an& Premier Ki Inu'ai )as &ea(t )ith the same )ay in May
"#A4 Throughout, the 9eague &iscussions )ere not con&ucte& )ith the right party4 ;>cept for its *io(ation of nationa(ist fee(ings an& the
comp(ete(y ob:ectionab(e means by )hich it )as achie*e&, the ac@uisition of Manchuria by Japan possesse& many strategic an& economic
a&*antages4 It ga*e Japan in&ustria( resources )hich it *ita((y nee&e&, an& cou(&, in time, ha*e strengthene& the Japanese economy4
0eparation of the area from 1hina, )hich ha& not contro((e& it effecti*e(y for many years, )ou(& ha*e restricte& the sphere of 1hiangQs
go*ernment to a more manageab(e territory4 Abo*e a((, it cou(& ha*e ser*e& as a counterpoise to 0o*iet po)er in the Far ;ast an& pro*i&e& a
fu(crum to restrain 0o*iet actions in ;urope after the co((apse of ,ermany4 7nfortunate(y, the uncompromising a*arice an& ignorance of the
Japanese mi(itarists ma&e any such so(ution impossib(e4 This )as ma&e @uite certain by their t)o ma:or errors, the attac' on 1hina in "#A<
an& the attac' on the 7nite& 0tates in "#/"4 In both cases the mi(itarists bit off more than they cou(& che), an& &estroye& any possib(e
a&*antages they might ha*e gaine& from the ac@uisition of Manchuria in "#A"4 In the se*en years after the first attac' on Manchuria in
0eptember "#A", Japan san' 4. bi((ion yen in capita( in*estments in that area, most(y in mining, iron pro&uction, e(ectric po)er, an&
petro(eum4 Bear after year this in*estment increase& )ithout returning any imme&iate yie(& to Japan, since output from this ne) in*estment
)as imme&iate(y rein*este&4 The on(y items of much he(p for Japan itse(f )ere iron ore, pig iron, an& certain chemica( ferti(iLers4 The
Manchurian soy-bean crop, a(though it &ec(ine& un&er Japanese ru(e, )as e>change& )ith ,ermany for nee&e& commo&ities obtainab(e there4
For JapanKs other urgent materia( nee&s, such as ra) cotton, rubber, an& petro(eum, no he(p cou(& be foun& in Manchuria4 In spite of cost(y
capita( in*estment, it cou(& pro&uce no more than its o)n nee&s in petro(eum, chief(y from (i@uefaction of coa(4 The fai(ure of Manchuria to
pro*i&e an ans)er to JapanKs economic prob(ems (e& the Japanese mi(itary (ea&ers to)ar& a ne) act of aggression, this time &irecte& to)ar&
Corth 1hina itse(f4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!!-.!?
NThe ri*a(ry bet)een the 1hinese 1ommunists an& the Kuomintang bro'e out intermittent(y in "#A?-"#/", but Japan )as unab(e
to profit from it in any &ecisi*e )ay because of its economic )ea'ness4 The great in*estment in Manchuria an& the a&option of a
po(icy of )ho(ehearte& aggression re@uire& a reorganiLation of JapanQs o)n economy from its pre*ious emphasis on (ight
in&ustry for the e>port mar'et to a ne) emphasis on hea*y in&ustry for armaments an& hea*y in*estment4 This )as carrie& out
so ruth(ess(y that JapanQs pro&uction of hea*y in&ustry rose from A bi((ion yen in "#AA to ?4 bi((ion yen in "#A?, )hi(e te>ti(e
pro&uction rose from 4# bi((ion yen to no more than A4< bi((ion yen in the same fi*e years4 Hy "#A? the pro&ucts of hea*y
in&ustry accounte& for .A percent of JapanQs in&ustria( output4 This increase& JapanQs nee& for imports )hi(e re&ucing her abi(ity
to pro*i&e the e>ports (pre*ious(y te>ti(es% to pay for such imports4 Hy "#A< JapanKs unfa*orab(e ba(ance of tra&e )ith the Nnon-
yenO area amounte& to #. mi((ion yen, or a(most four times the a*erage of the years before "#A<4 Income from shipping )as
re&uce& by mi(itary &eman&s as )e((, )ith the resu(t that JapanKs unfa*orab(e ba(ance of tra&e )as ref(ecte& in a hea*y outf(o)
of go(& (",!?. mi((ion yen in "#A<-"#A?%4 Hy the en& of "#A?, it )as c(ear that Japan )as (osing its financia( an& commercia(
abi(ity to buy necessary materia(s of foreign origin4 The steps ta'en by the 7nite& 0tates, Austra(ia, an& others to restrict e>port
of strategic or mi(itary materia(s to Japan ma&e this prob(em e*en more acute4 The attac' on 1hina ha& been inten&e& to reme&y
this situation by remo*ing the 1hinese boycott on Japanese goo&s, by bringing a supp(y of necessary materia(s, especia((y ra)
cotton, un&er JapanQs &irect contro(, an& by creating an e>tension of the yen area )here the use of foreign e>change )ou(& not be
nee&e& for tra&ing purposes4 On the )ho(e, these purposes )ere not achie*e&4 ,uerri((a acti*ities an& Japanese inabi(ity to
contro( the rura( areas ma&e the achie*ement of a yen area impossib(e, ma&e tra&e &ifficu(t, an& re&uce& the pro&uction of cotton
&rastica((y (by about one-thir&%4 ;>port of iron ore from 1hina to Japan fe(( from 4A mi((ion tons in "#A< to $4A mi((ion in "#A?,
a(though coa( e>ports rose s(ight(y4 In an effort to increase pro&uction, Japan began to pour capita( in*estment into the sti((-
unpacifie& areas of Corth 1hina at a rate )hich ri*a(e& the rate of in*estment in Manchuria4 The Four-Bear P(an of "#A? ca((e&
for ",/$ mi((ion yen of such in*estment by "#/4 This pro:ect, a&&e& to the nee& for Japan to fee& an& c(othe the inhabitants of
Corth 1hina, ma&e that area a &rain on the )ho(e Japanese economy, so that Japanese e>ports to that area rose from "<# bi((ion
yen in "#A< to A" mi((ion in "#A?4 To ma'e matters )orse, the peop(e of this occupie& territory refuse& to accept or use the
ne)(y estab(ishe& yen currency because of guerri((a threats to shoot anyone foun& in possession of it4 A(( this ha& an a&*erse
effect on JapanQs financia( position4 In t)o years of the 1hina )ar, "#A!-"#A< to "#A?-"#A#, the Japanese bu&get rose from 4A
to ?4/ bi((ion yen, of )hich ?$ percent )ent for mi(itary purposes4 ,o*ernment &ebt an& commo&ity prices rose stea&i(y, but the
Japanese peop(e respon&e& so rea&i(y to ta>ation, go*ernment (oans, an& &eman&s for increase& pro&uction that the system
continue& to function4 Hy the en& of "#A#, ho)e*er, it )as c(ear that the threefo(& bur&en of a con*ersion to hea*y in&ustry,
)hich ruine& the e>port tra&e, a hea*y rate of in*estment in Manchuria an& Corth 1hina, an& an in&ecisi*e )ar )ith Cationa(ist
1hina cou(& not be borne fore*er, especia((y un&er the pressure of the gro)ing re(uctance of neutra( countries to supp(y Japan
)ith necessary strategic goo&s4 I he t)o most *ita( nee&s )ere in petro(eum pro&ucts an& rubber4 To the mi(itarists, )ho
contro((e& Japan both po(itica((y an& economica((y after "#A#, it seeme& that the occupation of the -utch In&ies an& Ma(aya
cou(& &o much to a((e*iate these shortages4 The occupation of the Cether(an&s itse(f by Hit(erQs hor&es in "#/$ an& the
in*o(*ement of ;ng(an& in the ;uropean )ar since "#A# seeme& to offer a go(&en opportunity for Japan to seiLe these southern
regions4 To &o so )ou(& re@uire (ong (ines of communications from Japan to In&onesia4 These (ines )ou(& be e>pose& to attac'
from the American bases in the Phi(ippines or from the Hritish base at 0ingapore4 Ju&ging the American psycho(ogy as simi(ar to
their o)n, the Japanese mi(itarists )ere sure that in such circumstances America )ou(& not hesitate to attac' these *u(nerab(e
(ines of communication4 Thus, it seeme& to them that a Japanese attac' on the -utch In&ies )ou(& ine*itab(y (ea& to an
American )ar on Japan4 Facing this prob(em, the Japanese mi(itarists reache& u hat seeme& to their min&s to be an inescapab(e
&ecision4 They &eci&e& to attac' the 7nite& 0tates first4 From this &ecision came the Japanese attac' on Pear( Harbor on
-ecember <, "#/"4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 .!?-.<$
NTra&itiona((y, American po(icy in the Far ;ast ha& sought to preser*e the territoria( integrity an& po(itica( in&epen&ence of 1hina an&
to maintain an NOpen -oorO for 1hinaKs foreign tra&e4 These goa(s became increasing(y &ifficu(t to achie*e in the course of the
t)entieth century because of the gro)ing )ea'ness of 1hina itse(f, the stea&y gro)th of aggression in Japan, an& the &eepening
in*o(*ement of other Po)ers )ith Far ;astern interests in a (ife-or-&eath strugg(e )ith ,ermany4 After the fa(( of France an& the 9o)
1ountries in the summer of "#/$, Hritain cou(& offer the 7nite& 0tates (itt(e more than sympathy an& some &egree of &ip(omatic
support in the Far ;ast, )hi(e the Cether(an&s an& France, )ith rich co(onia( possessions )ithin reach of JapanQs a*i& grasp, cou(&
pro*i&e no rea( opposition to JapanQs &eman&s4 After Hit(erQs attac' on +ussia in June "#/", the 0o*iet 7nion, )hich ha& actua((y
fought Japanese forces in the Far ;ast in "#A? an& again in "#A#, cou(& e>ert no pressure on Japan to &eter further Cipponese
aggression4 Thus, by the summer of "#/", Japan )as rea&y for ne) a&*ances in the Far ;ast, an& on(y the 7nite& 0tates )as in a
position to resist\The Japanese ha& been supreme(y confi&ent of their abi(ity to con@uer a(( 1hina, if necessary, e*en as (ate as "#A#4
As a conse@uence, their a&*ance ha& been accompanie& by bruta(ity against the 1hinese, by *arious actions to &ri*e a(( ;uropeans an&
a(( ;uropean economic enterprises out of 1hina, an& by insu(ts an& humi(iations to ;uropeans foun& in 1hina, especia((y in 0hanghai4
Hy "#A# a(( of this )as beginning to change4 The attac' on 1hina ha& bogge& &o)n comp(ete(y4 The Japanese economy )as beginning
to totter un&er a combination of circumstances, inc(u&ing the e>hausting effort to strang(e 1hina an& to a&minister a fata( b(o) to the
retreating 1hinese go*ernment by octopus tactics, the reorganiLation of JapanKs home in&ustry from a (ight basis to a hea*y in&ustria(
p(ant (for )hich Japan (ac'e& the necessary resources%, the gigantic capita( in*estment in Manchuria an& Corth 1hina, the gro)ing
restrictions on Japanese tra&e impose& by 8estern countries, an&, fina((y, the combination of a rapi&(y gro)ing popu(ation )ith acute
materia( shortages4 Prob(ems such as these might ha*e &ri*en many nations, e*en in the 8est, to &esperate action4 In Japan the
situation )as ma&e more critica( by the (arge-sca(e &i*ersion of manpo)er an& resources from consumption to capita( formation at a
*ery high rate4 An&, fina((y, a(( this )as ta'ing p(ace in a country )hich p(ace& a high esteem on mi(itary arrogance4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <A"-<A
NIn theory, of course, Japan might ha*e sought to reme&y its materia( shortages in a peacefu( )ay, by see'ing to increase JapanQs
foreign tra&e, e>porting increasing amounts of Japanese goo&s to pay for rising Japanese imports4 In fact, such a po(icy ha& ob*ious
)ea'nesses4 The )or(& &epression after "## an& the gro)th of economic autarchy in a(( countries, inc(u&ing the 7nite& 0tates, ma&e
it *ery &ifficu(t to increase Japanese e>ports4 The e>cessi*e(y high American 0moot-Ha)(ey tariff of "#A$, a(though not so inten&e&,
seeme& to the Japanese to be an aggressi*e restriction on their abi(ity to (i*e4 The Nimperia( preferenceO regu(ations of the Hritish
1ommon)ea(th ha& a simi(ar conse@uence4 0ince Japan cou(& not &efen& itse(f against such economic measures, it resorte& to po(itica(
measures4 To &o other)ise )ou(& ha*e been contrary to Japanese tra&itions4 Hut, by embar'ing on this course, Japan )as hea&ing in a
&irection )hich cou(& har&(y ha*e a fa*orab(e outcome4 If Japan a&opte& po(itica( measures to &efen& itse(f against economic
restrictions, the 8estern Po)ers )ou(& ine*itab(y &efen& themse(*es )ith e*en greater economic restrictions on Japan, &ri*ing Japan,
by a series of such stages, to open )ar4 An&, in such a )ar, in *ie) of its economic )ea'ness, Japan cou(& har&(y hope to )in4 These
stages )ere confuse& an& &e(aye& o*er a fu(( &eca&e of years ("#A"-"#/"%, by in&ecision an& &i*i&e& counse(s in both Japan an& the
8estern Po)ers4 In the pro'ess Japan .ound a 'onsiderable ad;anta*e in the parallel a**ressions o. Italy and Germany8 It also
.ound a 'onsiderable disad;anta*e in the .a't that Japan#s imports 6ere ;ital ne'essities to her, 6hile her exports 6ere ;ital
ne'essities to no one8 ,his meant that Japan=s trade 'ould he 'ut o.. or redu'ed by anyone, to Japan#s *reat in$ury, but at mu'h
smaller 'ost to the other nation8 The steps (ea&ing to open )ar bet)een Japan an& the 8estern Po)ers )ere &e(aye& by the (ong-
&ra)n in&ecision of the 0ino-Japanese 8ar4 For years Japan hope& to fin& a so(ution for its economic an& socia( prob(ems in a &ecisi*e
*ictory o*er 1hina, )hi(e in the same years the 8estern Po)ers hope& for an en& to Japanese aggression by a Japanese &efeat in
1hina4 Instea&, the strugg(e in that area &ragge& on )ithout a &ecision4 The 8estern Po)ers )ere too &i*i&e& at home an& among
themse(*es, too fi((e& )ith pacifism an& mista'en po(itica( an& economic i&eas to &o anything &ecisi*e about 1hina, especia((y )hen
open )ar )as impossib(e an& anything (ess than )ar )ou(& in:ure 1hina as )e(( as Japan4 Thus, no sanctions )ere impose& on Japan
for its aggression on Manchuria in "#A" or for its attac' on Corth 1hina in "#A<4 The American Ceutra(ity Act )as not app(ie& to this
conf(ict because Presi&ent +oose*e(t a&opte& the simp(e (ega(istic e>pe&ient of fai(ing to Nfin&O a )ar in the Far ;ast4 Hut the mere
e>istence of (a)s )hich might ha*e impose& economic sanctions or economic reta(iation on Japan re*ea(e& to that country the basic
)ea'ness of its o)n position4O = Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <A-<AA
NIn "#A< Japan recei*e& a series of (essons in the precarious state of its strategic-economic position4 In the first ha(f of that year, as
bac'groun& for its gro)ing mi(itary pressure on 1hina, Japan bought a recor& amount of American scrap iron an& stee(, "4A mi((ion
metric tons in si> months4 Agitation to curtai( this supp(y, either by app(ying the Ceutra(ity Act to the 0ino-Japanese conf(ict or by
some (esser action, )as gro)ing in the 7nite& 0tates4 /arly in )'tober 324O, President Foose;elt 'aused a 'ontro;ersy by a
spee'h su**estin* a "@uarantine& o. a**ressor nations8 Iso(ationist sentiment in the 7nite& 0tates, especia((y in the Mi&)est, )as
too strong to a((o) the a&ministration to ta'e any important steps to)ar& such a N@uarantine4O Ce*erthe(ess, 0timson, )ho ha& been
American secretary of state at the time of the Manchurian crisis in "#A", ma&e a pub(ic appea( for an embargo on the shipment of )ar
materia(s to Japan4 A month (ater, Co*ember A-/, "#A<, a conference of the signers of the Cine-Po)er Treaty of "#, )hich
guarantee& the integrity of 1hina, met at Hrusse(s to &iscuss )hat steps might be ta'en to en& JapanQs aggression in 1hina4 There )as
consi&erab(e ta(' of economic sanctions, but no ,reat Po)er )as )i((ing to (ight the fuse on that stic' of &ynamite, so the occasion
(apse&, an& nothing )as &one4 Hut the (esson )as not )aste& on JapanD it intensifie& its efforts to bui(& up Japanese po)er to a position
)here it cou(& use po(itica( action to &efen& itse(f against any economic reprisa(s4 Catura((y, the po(itica( actions it too' in this
&irection ser*e& on(y to hasten economic reprisa(s against itse(f, especia((y by the 7nite& 0tates, the )or(&Qs most &e*ote& &efen&er of
the status @uo in the Far ;ast an& the on(y ,reat Po)er in any position, especia((y after Hit(erQs attac's, to a&opt an acti*e po(icy
against Japan4O = Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <AA-<A/
NJapan cou(& ha*e achie*e& (itt(e to)ar& a po(itica( so(ution of its prob(ems if it ha& not been for the aggressions of Ita(y an& ,ermany
on the other si&e of the )or(&4 A fu(( year before the Hrusse(s 1onference, on Co*ember ., "#A!, Japan ha& :oine& the (eague of
aggressors 'no)n as the Anti-1omintern Pact4 -iscussions see'ing to strengthen this arrangement into a fu(( ,erman-Japanese
a((iance )ent on for years, but )ere not conc(u&e& unti( 0eptember "#/$4 Hit(er )as not sure )hether he )ante& Japanese support
against the 8estern &emocracies or against the 0o*iet 7nion, an&, accor&ing(y, sought an agreement )hich cou(& be s)ung either )ay,
)hi(e Japan )as intereste& in a ,erman a((iance on(y if it ran against the 0o*iet 7nion4 At the same time, ,ermany ob:ecte& to the
Japanese )ar on 1hina, since this pre*ente& JapanQs strength from being &irecte& against either of ,ermanyKs possib(e foes, an&
:eopar&iLe& ,erman economic interests in 1hina4 A(( these &ifficu(ties continue&, a(though +ibbentropQs a&*ent to the post of foreign
minister in Her(in in February "#A? inaugurate& a perio& of )ho(ehearte& cooperation )ith Japan in 1hina, rep(acing CeurathKs ear(ier
efforts to maintain some 'in& of neutra( ba(ance in the 0ino-Japanese 8ar4 The ,erman mi(itary a&*isers )ith 1hiang Kai-she' )ere
)ith&ra)n, a(though some of them ha& been in their positions for ten years an& )ere (i'e(y to be rep(ace& by 0o*iet a&*isersD the
,erman ambassa&or )as )ith&ra)n from 1hina, an& the protection of ,erman interests )as genera((y (eft to (esser officia(s, using
Japanese officia(s in areas un&er Japanese occupationD the Japanese regime in Manchu'uo )as e>p(icit(y recogniLe& ($ February
"#A?%D a(( shipments of ,erman )ar materia(s to 1hina ()hich reache& a *a(ue of a(most ?A mi((ion mar's in "#A<% )ere en&e&, an&
in-comp(ete& contracts tota(ing ? mi((ion mar's )ere cance(e&D the Japanese c(aim that their attac' on Cationa(ist 1hina )as rea((y
an anti-1ommunist action, a(though recogniLe& as a frau& in Her(in, )as tacit(y accepte&D an& the ear(ier ,erman efforts to me&iate
peace bet)een 1hina an& Japan cease&4 In spite of these concessions, Japan continue& its efforts to curtai( ,erman economic
enterprises in 1hina, a(ong )ith those of other 8estern nations4 The a(ienation of these t)o aggressor countries by the summer of "#A#
can be :u&ge& by the fact that the CaLi-0o*iet Conaggression Pact of August "#A# )as ma&e in f(agrant *io(ation of the ,erman-
Japanese Anti-1omintern Agreement of Co*ember "#A!, since this (atter &ocument boun& the signers to ma'e no po(itica( agreements
)ith the 0o*iet 7nion )ithout the pre*ious consent of the other signatory state4 This )as regar&e& in To'yo as such a b(o) to the
prestige of the Japanese go*ernment that the prime minister resigne&4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <A/-<A.
NIn the meantime the American go*ernment began to tighten the economic pincers on Japan :ust as Japan )as see'ing to tighten its
mi(itary pincers on 1hina4 In the course of "#A# Japan )as ab(e to c(ose a(( the routes from the outsi&e into 1hina e>cept through Hong
Kong, across French In&ochina, an& a(ong the roc'y an& un&e*e(ope& route from Hurma to 1hung'ing4 The American go*ernment
reta(iate& )ith economic )arfare4 In June "#A? it estab(ishe& a Nmora( embargoO on the shipment of aircraft or their parts an& bombs to
Japan by simp(y re@uesting American citiLens to refuse to se(( these artic(es4 ;ar(y in "#A# (arge American an& Hritish (oans to 1hina
sought to strengthen that countryKs co((apsing financia( system4 In 0eptember "#A# 8ashington ga*e the necessary si>-month notice to
cance( the "#"" commercia( treaty )ith JapanD this opene& the &oor to a(( 'in&s of economic pressure against Japan4 At the same time,
the Nmora( embargoO )as e>ten&e& to e(e*en name& ra) materia(s )hich )ere *ita( to JapanQs )ar machine4 In -ecember this embargo
)as e>ten&e& to co*er (ight meta(s an& a(( machinery or p(ans for ma'ing a*iation gaso(ine4 In genera(, there )as consi&erab(e
pressure in the 7nite& 0tates, both insi&e the a&ministration an& e(se)here, to increase American economic sanctions against Japan4
0uch a po(icy )as oppose& by the iso(ationists in the country, by our &ip(omatic agents in To'yo, an& by our @uasi-a((ies, Hritain,
France, an& the Cether(an&s4 These &i*erse opinions agree& that economic sanctions cou(& be enforce&, in the (ong run, on(y by )ar4
To put it b(unt(y, if Japan cou(& not get petro(eum, bau>ite, rubber, an& tin by tra&e, it cou(& be pre*ente& from seiLing areas pro&ucing
these pro&ucts on(y by force4 To a*oi& this ob*ious inference, 1or&e(( Hu(( sought to ma'e AmericaKs economic po(icy ambiguous so
that Japan might be &eterre& from e*i( actions by fear of sanctions not yet impose& an& )on to conci(iatory actions by hopes of
concessions not yet grante&4 0uch a po(icy )as a mista'e, but it obtaine& Presi&ent +oose*e(tKs e>p(icit appro*a( in -ecember "#A#4 It
)as a mista'e, since it para(yLe& the (ess aggressi*e e(ements in Japanese affairs, a((o)ing the more aggressi*e e(ements to ta'e
contro(, because the uncertainty it engen&ere& became so unbearab(e to many, e*en of the (ess aggressi*e, that any &rastic action
see'ing to en& the strain became )e(comeD there )as no rea( faith in AmericaKs intentions, )ith the resu(t that the perio& of sustaine&
uncertainty came to be interprete& in Japan as a perio& of American rearmament pre(iminary to an attac' on Japan, an& the ambiguity
of American commercia( po(icy to)ar& Japan )as, o*er the months of "#/$-"#/", s(o)(y reso(*e& in the &irection of increasing
economic sanctions4 There )as a stea&y increase in AmericaQs economic pressure on Japan by e>tensions of the Nmora( embargo,O by
the gro)th of financia( obstac(es, an& by increasing purchasing &ifficu(ties, presumab(y base& on AmericaKs rearmament program4
Japan continue& to a&*ance in 1hina )ith brus@ue &isregar& of 8estern interests, citiLens, or property4 Hy the en& of "#A#, Japan
contro((e& a(( the chief cities, ri*er *a((eys, an& rai(roa& (ines of eastern 1hina, but face& constant guerri((a opposition in rura( areas an&
ha& no contro( o*er the &eep interior of 1hina, )hich remaine& (oya( to 1hiang Kai-she'Ks go*ernment in far-off 1hung'ing on the
7pper BangtLe in south)estern 1hina4 In March "#/$ the Japanese set up a puppet 1hinese go*ernment at Can'ing, but the rea(ity of
its po)er &ecei*e& no one4 In the )inter of "#A#-"#/$, Japan began to ma'e *igorous commercia( &eman&s on the Cether(an&s ;ast
In&ies4 These &eman&s, chief(y concerne& )ith petro(eum an& bau>ite, )ere increase& after the ,erman *ictories in France an& the
9o) 1ountries4O = Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <A.-<A!
NFrom these *ictories an& from Hu((Ks &octrinaire refusa( to encourage any Japanese hope that they cou(& )in )orth)hi(e American
concessions from a more mo&erate po(icy, the a&*ocates of e>tremism in Japan gaine& inf(uence4 A Japanese &eman& )as ma&e on
France, fo((o)ing the (atterQs &efeat by ,ermany, to a((o) Japanese troops to enter northern In&ochina, in or&er to cut off supp(ies
going to 1hina4 This )as conce&e& at once by the Jichy go*ernment4 At the same time (June "#/$%, Hritain recei*e& a &eman& to
)ith&ra) its troops from 0hanghai an& c(ose the Hurma +oa& to 1hinese imports4 8hen Hu(( refuse& to cooperate )ith Hritain, either
in forcing Japan to &esist or in any po(icy aiming to )in better Japanese beha*ior by concessions, Hritain )ith&re) from 0hanghai an&
c(ose& the Hurma +oa& for three months4 Just at that moment a po)erfu( ne) )eapon against Japan )as a&&e& to the American
arsena(, by an amen&ment to the Cationa( -efense Act gi*ing the Presi&ent authority to embargo the e>port of supp(ies )hich he
:u&ge& to be necessary to the &efense of the 7nite& 0tates4 The first presi&entia( or&er un&er this ne) authority re@uire& (icenses for
many goo&s )hich Japan nee&e&, inc(u&ing a(uminum, airp(ane parts, a(( arms or munitions, optica( supp(ies, an& *arious NstrategicO
materia(s, but (eft petro(eum an& scrap iron unhin&ere&4 As France )as fa((ing in June "#/$, +oose*e(t, for reasons of &omestic
po(icy, a&&e& to his 1abinet t)o (ea&ers of the +epub(ican Party, Henry 94 0timson an& Fran' 14 Kno>D both of these )ere
inter*entionists in beha(f of Hritain, )hi(e 0timson, for years, ha& been &eman&ing economic sanctions against Japan, assuring the
more cautious of his au&ience that such a po(icy )ou(& bring about a Japanese retreat rather than any )ar4 The error in this point of
*ie) )as c(ear(y re*ea(e& at Pear( Harbor in -ecember "#/", but the e>act nature of the error is not a()ays recogniLe&4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <A!-<A<
NHy the beginning of "#/", the Japanese attac' on 1hina ha& bogge& &o)n an& )as in such imminent &anger of co((apse that
something &rastic ha& to be &one4 Hut there )as no agreement )ithin Japan as to )hat &irection such &rastic action shou(& ta'e4 A
timi& ma:ority e>iste&, e*en )ithin the Japanese go*ernment itse(f, )hich )ou(& ha*e been )i((ing to )ith&ra) from the 1hinese
Ninci&entO if this cou(& ha*e been &one )ithout too great N(oss of face4O On the )ho(e, this group )as timi& an& ineffectua( because of
the &anger of assassination by the e>treme mi(itarists an& hyper-nationa(ist groups )ithin Japan4 Moreo*er, it )as impossib(e to reach
any agreement )ith the 1hinese Cationa(ist go*ernment )hich )ou(& a((o) Japan to retain its NfaceO by co*ering a rea( )ith&ra)a(
from 1hina )ith an apparent &ip(omatic triumph of some sort4 The a&*ocates of an aggressi*e po(icy in Japan )ere &i*i&e& among the
insignificant group )ho sti(( be(ie*e& that an a((-out assau(t on 1hina cou(& be brought to a successfu( conc(usion an& the more
inf(uentia( groups )ho )ou(& ha*e sought to re&eem the sta(emate in 1hina by shifting the offensi*e against either 0o*iet 0iberia or
the rich Ang(o--utch possessions of Ma(aysia an& In&onesia4 In the (ong run, the group )hich a&*ocate& a &ri*e to the south )as
boun& to pre*ai(, because Ma(aysia an& In&onesia )ere ob*ious(y )ea' an& rich, )hi(e 0o*iet 0iberia (ac'e& those items (such as
petro(eum, rubber, or tin% )hich Japan most urgent(y nee&e&, an& it ha& &emonstrate& its po)er in the batt(es of "#A?-"#A#4 ,ermany,
)hich origina((y encourage& the Japanese to mo*e south)ar& against Hritish Ma(aysia an& then, )hen it )as too (ate, sought to
re&irect the Japanese b(o) against 0iberia, p(aye& an insignificant ro(e in JapanKs po(icy4 The &ecision to mo*e south)ar&, )here the
&efense )as )ea'er an& the priLes so much greater, )as ma&e in an ambiguous an& ha(fhearte& )ay in the summer of "#/"4 The
critica( turning point )as probab(y &uring the (ast )ee' in Ju(y4 -uring the si>-)ee' perio&, March "-Apri( , Matsuo'a, the fire-
eating foreign minister, )as absent from To'yo on a *isit to Her(in an& to Mosco)4 In the ,erman capita( he )as a&*ise& to ma'e no
po(itica( agreements )ith the 0o*iet 7nion, because of the imminent approach of )ar bet)een that country an& ,ermany4 Matsuo'a at
once )ent to Mosco), )here he signe& a 0o*iet-Japanese Ceutra(ity Pact on Apri( "A, "#/"4 In the meantime, in March, Japanese
&ip(omats )on specia( economic concessions in 0iam, )hi(e in June the nine-month-o(& tra&e &iscussions )ith the Cether(an&s ;ast
In&ies bro'e &o)n )ithout Cippon obtaining any of the concessions it &esire&4 These agreements, if obtaine&, might ha*e put Japan in
a position )here it cou(& ha*e )ithstoo& a tota( American petro(eum embargo4 Fai(ure to obtain these meant that JapanKs (arge oi(
reser*es )ou(& continue to &ecrease to the point )here Japan )ou(& be mi(itari(y he(p(ess from tota( (ac' of oi(4 America cou(&
acce(erate this process either by curtai(ing the supp(y of oi( or by forcing Japan into actions )hich )ou(& increase the rate of its
consumption4 Japanese oi( pro&uction in "#/" )as on(y three mi((ion barre(s a year compare& to a consumption rate of about A
mi((ion barre(s a year4 +eser*es, )hich ha& been .. mi((ion barre(s in -ecember "#A#, )ere be(o) .$ mi((ion in 0eptember "#/", an&
fe(( to about /A mi((ion by Pear( Harbor4 On Ju(y ", "#/", JapanQs threats )on from Jichy France the right to mo*e troops into
southern In&ochina4 This )as a threat to Hritish Ma(aya rather than to the Hurma +oa& in 1hina4 8ithin a )ee', on Ju(y !, "#/", the
7nite& 0tates froLe a(( Japanese financia( assets in the 7nite& 0tates, *irtua((y en&ing tra&e bet)een the t)o countries4 The members of
the Hritish 1ommon)ea(th issue& simi(ar or&ers, )hi(e the Cether(an&s In&ies estab(ishe& specia( (icenses for a(( e>ports to Japan4 Co
(icenses )ere issue& for *ita( commo&ities (i'e oi( or bau>ite4 In the same )ee', an American mi(itary mission )ent to 1hina, an& the
Phi(ippine Army )as incorporate& into the American Army4 As a resu(t of these pressures, Japan foun& itse(f in a position )here its
oi( reser*es )ou(& be e>hauste& in t)o years, its a(uminum reser*es in se*en months4 The chief of the ,enera( 0taff of the Japanese
Ca*y to(& the emperor that if Japan resorte& to a )ar to brea' this b(oc'a&e it )ou(& be *ery &oubtfu( that it cou(& )in4 The presi&ent
of the Japanese P(anning Hoar& confirme& this g(oomy opinion4 The arme& forces insiste& that Japan ha& a choice bet)een a s(o)
&ec(ine to e>tinction un&er economic pressure or )ar )hich might a((o) it to brea' out of its pre&icament4 The na*y ha& (itt(e hope of
*ictory in such a )ar, but agree& )ith this ana(ysis4 It )as a(so agree& that )ar, if it came, must begin before the mi&&(e of -ecember,
)hen )eather con&itions )ou(& become too a&*erse to permit amphibious be((igerent operationsD it )as c(ear that economic pressure
)as too &amaging to a((o) Japan to postpone such operations unti( the resumption of goo& )eather in "#/4 Accor&ing(y, the &ecision
)as ma&e to ma'e )ar in "#/", but to continue negotiations )ith the 7nite& 0tates unti( (ate October4 If an agreement cou(& be
reache& by that &ate, the preparations for )ar cou(& be suspen&e&D other)ise the negotiations )ou(& be en&e& an& the a&*ance to open
)ar continue&4 Matsuo'a, the foreign minister, )ho )as oppose& to continuing the negotiations )ith the 7nite& 0tates, )as &roppe&
from the 1abinet on Ju(y "!thD from that &ate on, the ci*i(ian portion of the 1abinet &esperate(y sought to reach an agreement in
8ashington, )hi(e the mi(itary portion ca(m(y prepare& for )ar4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <A<-<A#
NIn the course of "#/", JapanQs preparations for )ar )ere gra&ua((y e>pan&e& from a pro:ect to c(ose the southern routes into 1hina by
an attac' on Ma(aya, to an attac' on the 7nite& 0tates4 The &ecision to c(ose the Hurma +oa& by force meant that Japan must mo*e
into French In&ochina an& 0iam, an& cross Hritish Ma(aya, after neutra(iLing the Hritish na*a( base at 0ingapore4 0uch a mo*ement
ha& numerous &isa&*antages4 It )ou(& mean )ar )ith HritainD it )ou(& (ea*e the Japanese (ines of communication south)ar& open to a
f(an' attac' from American bases in the Phi(ippinesD it )as &oubtfu( if 1hina cou(& be &efeate& e*en )hen a(( 8estern supp(ies )ere
cut off (after a((, these supp(ies )ere so insignificant that in "#/$ American arms an& munitions to 1hina )ere )orth on(y [# mi((ion%D
e*en a tota( &efeat of 1hina )ou(& (ea*e JapanKs materia( shortages acute, especia((y in respect to the greatest materia( nee&, petro(eum
pro&ucts4 In *ie) of these &isa&*antages, un&er )hich Japan )ou(& e>pen& so much to gain so (itt(e, it seeme& to many Japanese
(ea&ers that *ery consi&erab(e gains cou(& he obtaine& )ith on(y a s(ight a&&itiona( effort if an attac' on the rich Cether(an&s In&ies
)ere combine& )ith the attac' on Ma(aya an& the Hurma +oa&4 0uch an a&*ance to the tin an& bau>ite of Ma(aya an& to the oi( of the
-utch In&ies ha& e*ery a&*antage o*er any a(ternati*e possibi(ity, such as an attac' on eastern 0iberia, especia((y as the Japanese
Army (but not the Ca*y% ha& a higher opinion of 0o*iet po)er than they ha& of Ang(o-American strength4 Ha*ing gi*en the attac' on
Ma(aya an& In&onesia the preference o*er any possib(e attac' on 0iberia, the Japanese (ea&ers accepte& the fact that this )ou(& mean
)ar )ith Hritain an& the 7nite& 0tates4 In this they )ere probab(y not )rong, a(though some Americans ha*e c(aime& that America
)ou(& not ha*e gone to )ar if Japan ha& passe& by the Phi(ippines an& (eft other American territories untouche& on its roa& to the
south4 It is certain(y true that such actions )ou(& ha*e touche& off a *io(ent contro*ersy )ithin the 7nite& 0tates bet)een the
iso(ationists an& the inter*entionists, but it seems a(most certain that the po(icies of the +oose*e(t A&ministration )ou(& ha*e been
carrie& out, an& these po(icies inc(u&e& p(ans for )ar against JapanQs southern mo*ement e*en if American areas )ere not attac'e&4 In
any case, :u&ging American reactions in terms of their o)n, the Japanese &eci&e& that an American f(an' attac' from an untouche&
Phi(ippines on their e>ten&e& communications to the south)ar& )ou(& be too great a ris' to runD accor&ing(y, an attac' on the
Phi(ippines to pre*ent this )as inc(u&e& in the Japanese p(ans for their southern mo*ement4 This &ecision (e& at once to the ne>t step,
the pro:ect to attac' the American f(eet at Pear( Harbor on the groun&s that an ine*itab(e )ar )ith the 7nite& 0tates cou(& be
commence& most effecti*e(y )ith a surprise attac' on the American Ca*y rather than by )aiting for an intact American f(eet to come
to see' out the Japanese in their Lones of acti*e operations in the south)estern Pacific4 It must be recogniLe& that one of the chief
factors impe((ing the Japanese to ma'e the attac' on Pear( Harbor )as that fe) Japanese (an& these most(y in the army% ha& any hope
that Japan cou(& &efeat the 7nite& 0tates in any )ar carrie& to a &ecisi*e conc(usion4 +ather, it )as hope& that, by cripp(ing the
American f(eet at Pear( Harbor, Japan cou(& con@uer such a (arge area of the south)estern Pacific an& southeastern Asia that peace
cou(& be negotiate& on fa*orab(e terms4O
= Tragedy and .ope by 1arro(( Xuig(ey, p4 <A#-</"
A map of Imperia( Japan &uring 8or(& 8ar II (as of Ju(y "#/%
A map of the Japanese ;mpire circa -ecember <, "#/"
-eads of Mitsu&ishi and 3ank of Japan
Yataro )#asaki
31+,/1,5
President o% .itsu:ishi
317+/1,5
Yanosuke )#asaki
31,1/19<5
31,/19+5F Bovernor o%
the Bank o% 0apan
31ovem:er 118 19=/
@&to:er *<8 195
Hisaya )#asaki
31=,/19,,5
319+/191=5F B.S. '. o%
Pennsylvania
6oyata )#asaki
3179/19H,5
3191=/19H,5F B.2.
'niversity o% ?am:ridge
3Pem:roke ?ollege5 19<,
4oyotaro Yuki
Bovernor o% the Bank o%
0apan 319+7/19HH5
1ote! (irst Sino/0apanese War o&&urred %rom 2ugust 18 19H to 2pril 178 19,.
1ote! Spanish/2meri&an War o&&urred %rom 2pril *,8 19 to 2ugust 1*8 19.
1ote! Ausso/0apanese War o&&urred %rom (e:ruary 8 19<H to Septem:er ,8 19<,.
1ote! Se&ond Sino/0apanese War o&&urred %rom 0uly 78 19+7 to Septem:er *8 19H,.
1apture& Japanese image sho)s Imperia( JapanKs Prime Minister ,enera( Hi&e'i To:o (center, in uniform% *isiting the Basu'uni
0hrine in To'yo, Japan in October "#/"4 (Photo5 Time 9ife%
;un&oat <iplomac'=! A nav' photographer snapped this photograph of the Japanese attack on 6earl -ar&or in -awaii on Sunda',
<ecem&er >, !"#!, ?ust as the 9SS Shaw e8ploded+ Imperial Japan@s dependence on foreign oil and raw material8 in&luding 2meri&an
oil and steel8 led 0apan to &onEuer mainland ?hina and Iut&h East )ndies. )mperial 0apan atta&ked Pearl Har:or in an attempt to prevent the
'nited States %rom sa:otaging )mperial 0apan7s desire to a&Euire %oreign oil and other ra# material 3i.e. ru::er8 steel8 lum:er5.
31ational 2r&hives5
0oseph ?. Bre#
NMy Peru*ian 1o((eague to(& a member of my staff that he ha& hear&
from many sources inc(u&ing a Japanese source that the Japanese
military .or'es planned, in the e;ent o. trouble 6ith the Enited
:tates, to attempt a surprise mass atta'- on Pearl Harbor usin* all
o. their military .a'ilities4O
= Joseph 14 ,re), 7404 Ambassa&or to Japan, in a &ip(omatic cab(e
message to the 7404 0tate -epartment on January <, "#/"
4hree Berman generals and a 0apanese general 3right5 e;amine a glo:e during a meeting in Bermany on .ar&h *98 19H1. 3Photo! > ?@AB)S5
4he %amous .ori 'nit o% the )mperial 0apanese 2rmy pushes its #ay %or#ard around the Honan Battle%ront in ?hina in an area north o% the
YangtGe Aiver on 1ovem:er *78 19H18 in pursuit8 says the 0apanese &aption8 o% Uthe %ast d#indling remnants o% ?hiang9s on&e mighty army.U
3Photo! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Imperia( Japanese Army troops enter 0aigon in "#/"4
0apanese troops led :y Lieutenant Beneral 4akashi Sakai and Ci&e 2dmiral .asai&hi 1iimi enter Hong 6ong on Ie&em:er *=8 19H1.
3Photo! .aini&hi 1e#paper5
0apanese troops enter Hong 6ong on Ie&em:er *=8 19H1 led :y Lieutenant Beneral 4akashi Sakai and Ci&e 2dmiral .asai&hi
1iimi. 3Photo! )mperial War .useumsF http!""###.i#m.org.uk"&olle&tions"item"o:$e&t"*<,19,<15
Map of Hong Kong in -ecember "#/"
Aight! )mperial 0apanese 2rmy soldiers mar&h through (ullerton SEuare in do#nto#n Singapore in (e:ruary 19H*. 4he )mperial
0apanese 2rmy e;terminated up to ,<8<<< ?hinese men during the %irst month o% o&&upation o% SingaporeF the in&ident is kno#n
as the NSook ?hing massa&reO. 3Photo! )mperial War .useumsF http!""###.i#m.org.uk"&olle&tions"item"o:$e&t"*<,19,<9H5
The Japanese Campaign and Victory 8 December 1941 - 15 February 1942: Lieutenant General Yamashita Tomoyuki and Lieutenant
General A E Percival discuss surrender terms at the Ford Works Building near the Bukit Timah Road, Singapore.
3Photo! )mperial War .useumsF http!""###.i#m.org.uk"&olle&tions"item"o:$e&t"*<,19H+95
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers patro( the streets of 0ingapore )ith tan's in "#/4
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers patro( the streets of Mani(a, Phi(ippines )ith tan's in "#/4
)mperial 0apanese troops run %or &over during mop up operations in 6uala Lumpur 3British .alaya8 later .alaysia5 in 0anuary 19H*.
3Photo &ourtesy the )mperial War .useum5 http!""###.&ity/data.&om"%orum"history",H=97/day/history/$anuary/1/+1/a/*.html
2 .alayan Iollar 1ote 3promissory note5 issued :y the )mperial 0apanese government during World War ))
Japanese mi(itary forces (an& on Ja*a (-utch ;ast In&ies% in ear(y "#/4 Japan con@uere& the -utch ;ast In&ies in an attempt to
ac@uire oi( 2petro(eum3, rubber, an& other ra) materia(s that e>iste& )ithin the -utch co(onyD petro(eum an& rubber )ere *ita( to
the Imperia( Japanese mi(itary-in&ustria( comp(e>4 Imperia( Japan possesse& no oi( fie(&s )ithin main(an& Japan, an& oi(
pro&uce& in Manchuria )as ina&e@uate to meet the nee&s of the Japanese in&ustry4 In "#/", the -utch ;ast In&ies )as the
fourth-(argest e>porter of oi( in the )or(&D the other three primary oi( e>porters in "#/" )ere America, Iran, an& +omania4 The
capita( of the -utch ;ast In&ies in "#/" )as Hata*ia, a city that )as rename& Ja'arta after the In&onesians &ec(are& their
in&epen&ence from the Cether(an&s on August "<, "#/.4 (Photo5 8i'ipe&ia%
2 @ne Bulden 1ote 3promissory note5 %or the Iut&h East )ndies issued :y the )mperial 0apanese government during World War )).
The Japanese (ines of a&*ance in the -utch ;ast In&ies, 0ara)a' an& Corth Horneo(Hritish%, an& Portuguese Timor
Soldiers o% the )mperial 0apanese 2rmy 3)025 1,th 2rmy prepare to mar&h into Burma8 a provin&e o% British )ndia8 in 0anuary 19H*.
3Photo! .aini&hi 1e#spaper ?ompany5
Ta'en &uring the March of -eath from Hataan to the prison camp march at 1abanatuan4
0ource5 Cationa( Par' 0er*ice (7404 -epartment of -efense, 70M1 ""/,./$, Cationa( Archi*es%
http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6Fi(e5MarchFofF-eathFfromFHataanFtoFtheFprisonFcampF-F-ea&Fso(&iers4:pg
Map of Hataan -eath March
2%ter de%ending the island %or nearly a month8 2meri&an and (ilipino soldiers surrender to 0apanese invasion troops on ?orregidor )sland8
Philippines in .ay 19H*. 4his photograph #as &aptured %rom the 0apanese during 0apan9s three/year o&&upation. 32P Photo5
Heginning of Hataan -eath March after the fa(( of 1orregi&or in the Phi(ippines, near Mani(a, in "#/
(Photo5 http566b(og4ne)so'4com6)or(&)art)o6$$<6"$6"$6the-:apanese-ha&-no-mercy-on-us6%
Imperia( JapanKs Nin*asion moneyO for the Phi(ippines
Prisoners in the prison camp in the Phi(ippines in May "#/, after the Hataan -eath March4 (Photo5 Cationa( Archi*es%
Imperia( JapanKs Nin*asion moneyO for 0ingapore an& Hritish Ma(aya (Ma(aysia%
American prisoners carry the remains of their comra&es on buria( &etai( at 1amp OQ-onne(( in the Phi(ippines in May "#/,
)ee's after the Hataan -eath March4 This photograph, capture& from the Japanese, sho)s American prisoners using impro*ise&
(itters to carry those of their comra&es )ho, from the (ac' of foo& or )ater on the march from Hataan, fe(( a(ong the roa&4 The
Imperia( Japanese Army prohibite& American prisoners-of-)ar from resting an& eating &uring the force& march from Hataan to
the nearby prison camps4 (Photo5 Cationa( Archi*es%
Hataan -eath March (Photo5 http566b(og4ne)so'4com6)or(&)art)o6$$<6"$6"$6the-:apanese-ha&-no-mercy-on-us6%
Hataan -eath March (Photo5 http566b(og4ne)so'4com6)or(&)art)o6$$<6"$6"$6the-:apanese-ha&-no-mercy-on-us6%
Japanese so(&iers are seen shooting 0i'h prisoners )ho are sitting b(in&fo(&e& in a rough semi-circ(e about $ yar&s a)ay in
circa "#/" or "#/4 (Photo5 http566en4)i'ipe&ia4org6)i'i6JapaneseF)arFcrimes%

9eft photo5 The photo sho)s a capture& Austra(ian 0ergeant 9eonar& ,4 0iff(eet being behea&e& by Basuno 1hi'ao in Aitape,
Ce) ,uinea on October /, "#/AD from the Austra(ian 8ar Memoria(, origina( caption5 IAitape, Ce) ,uinea4 / October "#/A4
A photograph foun& on the bo&y of a &ea& Japanese so(&ier sho)ing CS"/AA"/ 0ergeant (0gt% 9eonar& ,4 0iff(eet of IMI
0pecia( 7nit, )earing a b(in&fo(& an& )ith his arms tie&, about to be behea&e& )ith a s)or& by Basuno 1hi'ao4 The e>ecution
)as or&ere& by Jice A&mira( Kama&a, the comman&er of the Japanese Ca*a( Forces at Aitape4 0gt4 0iff(eet )as capture& )ith
Pri*ate (Pte% Patti)ah( an& Pte +eharin, Ambonese members of the Cether(an&s ;ast In&ies Forces, )hi(st engage& in
reconnaissance behin& the Japanese (ines4
+ight photo5 Imperia( Japanese Army so(&ier prepares to mur&er a 1hinese prisoner4
(0ource5 http566)))4princeton4e&u6`nan'ing6htm(6imageF<4htm(%
2 0apanese ne#spaper report o% the ?ontest 4o ?ut Io#n 1<< People.
4his ne#s #as originally reported :y the Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shinbun in Ie&em:er 1+8 19+7. Both soldiers #ere e;tradited to ?hina a%ter the
#ar8 tried %or their a&tions in ?hinese &ourt8 and #ere e;e&uted on 0anuary *8 19H.
2n estimated *<<8<<< ?hinese people died in 1anking %ollo#ing the 0apanese &onEuest o% the &apital &ity.
A picture of Ncomfort )omenO, inc(u&ing )omen from Korea, Manchuria, an& 1hina, )ho )ere force& into se>ua( s(a*ery by the
Imperia( Japanese mi(itary &uring 8or(& 8ar II4 (0ource5 http566eng(ish4chosun4com6)"&ata6htm(6ne)s6$$!$#6$$!$#"/$$"/4htm(%
(ormer U&om%ort #omanU Lee Yong/Soo 3L5 appears #ith her supporters holding portraits o% ?hinese8 Philippine8 South 6orean and 4ai#anese
&om%ort #omen #ho #ere se; slaves %or 0apanese soldiers during World War ))8 at a protest held in %ront o% the 0apanese parliament in 4okyo8
in this 1H 0une *<<7 %ile photo. 0apan on 0une *78 *<<7 :rushed aside &alls %rom 2meri&an la#makers %or a %resh apology to #artime se;
slaves8 even as the %ormer U&om%ort #omenU rene#ed their demands %or 4okyo to a&kno#ledge their plight. 0apan said the '.S. move to pass
a resolution &alling %or an Uunam:iguousU apology %rom 0apan %or the &oer&ion o% #omen into army :rothels during World War )) #ould not
damage relations :et#een the t#o allies. 32(P"Betty )mages5
(ormer U&om%ort #omen8U 0an Au%% @9Herne8 +8 3L5 and Yong Soo Lee8 78 speak during a ne#s &on%eren&e at the o%%i&e o% 2mnesty
)nternational (e:ruary 1=8 *<<7 in Washington8 I?. 4here #ere and estimated *<<8<<< so/&alled U&om%ort #omenU #ho #ere se;ually
enslaved :y the )mperial 0apanese 2rmy :e%ore and during World War )). 4he #omen have #orked sin&e 19H, Uto hold the 0apanese
government a&&ounta:le %or the 0apanese military9s a&tions in World War )).U 0an Au%% @9Herne8 :orn in #hat is no# )ndonesia8 #as imprisoned
:y the 0apanese military #hen she #as *1/years/old in 19H*. Separated %rom her %amily8 @9Herne #as taken to a U&om%ort stationU #here she
#as a:used8 :eaten and raped day a%ter day %or three months. Yong #as kidnapped in her home &ountry o% 6orea :y the 0apanese at the age
o% 1H and taken to a ship #here she #as :eaten8 tortured and raped. Her imprisonment lasted t#o years during #hi&h time she #as given a
0apanese name. 4he #omen are no# seeking an o%%i&ial apology and &ompensation %rom the 0apanese government.
3Photo :y ?hip Somodevilla"Betty )mages5
Imperia( 0apanese plane shot do#n as it attempted to atta&k 'SS 6)46'1 B2Y.U 1ear .ariana )slands8 0une 19HH. 3Photo! 1ational 2r&hives5
@&to:er *,8 19HH! )mperial 0apanese 6amikaGe pilot in a .itsu:ishi Sero 2=., .odel ,* &rash/dives on es&ort &arrier 'SS &hite "%ains
3?CE/==5. 4he air&ra%t is missing the %light de&k and impa&ts the #ater $ust o%% the port Euarter o% the ship a %e# se&onds later.
3'.S. 1avy photo"1ational 2r&hives5
Japanese schoo(gir(s in 1hiran Air Hase, Japan, an Imperia( Japanese mi(itary base (ocate& south of Kagoshima, cheer
a 'ami'aLe pi(ot in "#/. as the pi(ot, a young Japanese conscript, prepares to engage in a suici&e mission to &efen&
Imperia( Japan against the American NbarbariansO4 Japanese so(&iers, sai(ors, an& pi(ots )ere traine& to &efen& their
nation at a(( costs an& to honor N,o& an& 1ountryO, inc(u&ing the ;mperor of Japan4

A group of Japanese pi(ots pose for a group photo before engaging in a 'ami'aLe mission against American sai(ors
an& ships in the Pacific Ocean4 ( Korean -ami-a+e pilot named Fumihiro Mitsuyama 1,a- Kyon*-Hyon*5, 6ho
6as trained at Chiran (ir 0ase near Ka*oshima, 6as -illed in a'tion in 32IJ8
7404 Marine reinforcements )a&e ashore to support the beachhea& on O'ina)a, Japan on March A", "#/.4
A group of Japanese (or Korean% prisoners in O'ina)a, Japan )ho preferre& capture to suici&e )ait to be @uestione& by
American officers4 (Photo5 http566)))4history4army4mi(6boo's6))ii6o'ina)a6chapter"?4htmap/%
At "//A on "" Apri( "#/., one of the most famous photos of the Pacific 8ar )as ta'en4 This image shot aboar& 700
MI00O7+I freeLes the moment in time that 0etsuo Ishino struc' 700 MI00O7+ID it came to symbo(iLe the &esperate nature of
the fighting against Kami'aLe attac's4 The p(ane bro'e apart in a g(ancing impact an& thre) &ebris onto the &ec', igniting a fire
for)ar&4 (7404 Ca*y photo repro&uce& from 8i'ime&ia 1ommons, http566mighty#$4com6Ki'usuiFCumberF4htm(%
0urren&er instructions to sur*i*ing Japanese so(&iers )ere broa&cast by this Ncon*erte&O Japanese from an 91I stan&ing off the roc'y
c(iff near Hi(( ?# in O'ina)a, Japan in "#/.4 (Photo5 http566)))4history4army4mi(6boo's6))ii6o'ina)a6chapter"?4htmap/%
American so(&iers raise the American f(ag in O'ina)a, Japan on June , "#/. as organiLe& Japanese resistance en&e& that &ay4
(Photo5 http566)))4history4army4mi(6boo's6))ii6o'ina)a6chapter"?4htmap/%
,hird Fleet Faids on Japan, July 32IJ8 7404 Ca*y carrier aircraft attac' the Japanese batt(eship .aruna at her moorings near
Kure, Japan on Ju(y ?, "#/.4 Photographe& from a 700 9ntrepid (1J-""% p(ane4
(6fficial 0*S* Na+y 2hotograph" no) in the collections of the National Archi+es*%
http566)))4history4na*y4mi(6photos6sh-forn*6:apan6:apsh-h6haruna4htm
The Ato+i# $o+&s & Nu#lear /olo#aust
0apanese &hildren in Hiroshima huddle together shortly a%ter the '.S. 2rmy 2ir (or&es dropped an atomi& :om: on 2ugust =8
19H,. 4he photos and %ilms taken immediately a%ter the :last #ere &on%is&ated and suppressed :y the '.S. government %or
more than =< years. 4he 19H, atomi& :om: in the 0apanese &ity o% Hiroshima8 one o% the only times that nu&lear #eapons #ere
used in #ar%are8 instantly killed an estimated 1<<8<<< people and in$ured thousands more8 #ith the ma$ority o% its vi&tims :eing
&ivilians. ?asualties o% the atomi& :om:s in Hiroshima and 1agasaki in&luded ethni& 6orean migrant #orkers8 2meri&an and
British prisoners/o%/#ars8 Aoman ?atholi& nuns 3primarily in 1agasaki58 and #omen and &hildren.
3Sour&e! http!""###.%latro&k.org.nG"topi&s"history"stalins-#i%e-and-other-tales.htm5
4he e;a&t moment o% detonation o% the atomi& :om: at 1agasaki8 0apan is &aptured in this photograph on 2ugust 98 19H,.
3Photo! http!""pi&dit.#ordpress.&om"*<<"<7"*1"/insane/nu&lear/e;plosions"5
4he remains o% 'rakami ?athedral 3le%t5 appear on a hill in 1agasaki8 0apan in late 19H,8 months a%ter the atomi& :om: destroyed most o%
1agasaki. 3Photo! '.S. 1ational 2r&hives5

Le%t photo! 0apanese :urn vi&tims %rom the atomi& :om:s Aight! 2 mushroom &loud produ&ed :y an atomi& :om:.

Le%t photo! 0apanese :urn vi&tims %rom the atomi& :om:s
Aight photo! @nly a small part o% a Aoman ?atholi& &athedral is le%t standing in its o#n ruins a%ter the :om:ing o% 1agasaki8
0apan in 19H,. ?atholi& nuns #ere among the &asualties o% the atomi& :om:ing o% 1agasaki on 2ugust 98 19H,. 3?@AB)S5
4he NCalley o% IeathO Q 1agasaki8 0apan in 19H, 3Photo! http!""###.%li&kr.&om"photos"a%igallo"1H=<H*77+1"in"set/7*1,7=<*1+*,+,,19"5
Hattere& re(igious figures stan& )atch on a hi(( abo*e a tattere& *a((ey4 Cagasa'i, Japan on 0eptember /, "#/., si> )ee's after
the city )as &estroye& by the )or(&Ks secon& atomic bomb attac'4
(Photo by 1orpora( 9ynn P4 8a('er, Jr4, 7404 Marine 1orps, Cationa( Archi*es%
1agasaki in 2ugust 19H,
Aeria( *ie) sho)ing ruins of the Mitsubishi factory, )hich pro&uce& munitions, torpe&oes an& armor, ami& the &e*astation of
Cagasa'i, Japan on 0eptember !, "#/.4 (Photo5 ,eorge 0i('6Time 9ife%
1o(or photograph of the ruins of centra( Hiroshima in autumn of "#/.4 (7404 Cationa( Archi*es%
An American correspon&ent *ie)s the Atomic -ome in Hiroshima on 0eptember ?, "#/.4 (AP Photo%
A group of American army officers e>amine the remains of an airframe assemb(y (ine at a Mitsubishi aircraft p(ant in Cagoya,
Japan on 0eptember ", "#/.4 The factory )as re&uce& to rubb(e by repeate& bombings by H-# bombers base& at the Marianas
&uring the (atter part of 8or(& 8ar II4 (Photo5 Hettmann61O+HI0%
1harre& remains of Japanese ci*i(ians after a firebombing
To'yo, Japan in "#/. after a series of American air rai&s
;mperor Hirohito sur*eys &amage from bombing in To'yo, Japan on March "?, "#/.4 (1ar( My&ans 6Time 9ife%
0apanese Prime .inister Ben. 6uniaki 6oiso 3third %rom the le%t8 %ront ro#58 .inister o% War Ben. Ha$ime Sugiyama 3le%t on %irst ro#58 and 1avy
.inister 2dm. .itsumasa Yonai 3right on %ront ro#58 and other ?a:inet mem:ers stand together on the inaugural day o% the 6oiso
administration on 0uly **8 19HH.
4he &a:inet o% 0apanese Prime .inister 6antaro SuGuki on 0une 98 19H,. ?a:inet ministers pi&tured in&lude! 4adahiko @kada8 Hiromasa
.atsuGaka8 6antaro SuGuki8 .itsumasa Yonai8 Benki 2:e8 Heigoro Sakurai8 Sada$iro 4oyada8 (u$ihara Yasui8 4adaatsu )shiguro8 6oGo @hta8
Shigenori 4ogo8 SeiGo Sakon$i8 1aoto 6o:iyama Hosaku Hirose8 4sukiGo 2kinaga8 Hisatsune SakomiGu8 1aoyasu .urase8 6ore&hika 2nami
3Photo! http!""en.#ikipedia.org"#iki"(ile!SuGuki-&a:inet.$pg5
0apanese Prisoners o% War at Buam8 #ith :o#ed heads a%ter hearing Emperor Hirohito make announ&ement o% 0apan9s un&onditional
surrender on 2ugust 1,8 19H,. 3Cationa( Archi*es5
2 Soviet Aed 2rmy o%%i&er #at&hes de%eated )mperial 0apanese 2rmy soldiers turn in their %irearms in 2ugust/Septem:er 19H,.
Imperia( Japanese Army so(&iers surren&er their rif(es to American so(&iers in Korea in 0eptember "#/.4
(Photo5 http566&emons4s)a((o)thes'y4org6post6#$?<?</"%
American so(&iers )atch as the Japanese f(ag is (o)ere& from a f(ag po(e &uring surren&er ceremonies in 0eou(, Korea on
0eptember #, "#/.4 The 7nite& 0tates go*ernment ac@uire& Bongsan ,arrison, a mi(itary garrison (ocate& in &o)nto)n 0eou(,
from the Imperia( Japanese Army in "#/.4 The 7404 go*ernment a(so assume& contro( of a(( Imperia( Japanese army, na*y, an&
air force bases in main(an& Japan in 0eptember "#/.4
(Ta'en by a 700 0an Francisco (1A-A?% photographerD Officia( 7404 Ca*y Photograph, Cationa( Archi*es%
The Japanese party are escorte& out of the Municipa( Hui(&ing in 0ingapore after ,enera( 0eishiro Itaga'i signe& the &ocument
for the abso(ute surren&er of the Japanese armies in 0outh-;ast Asia, " 0eptember "#/.4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$..#"%
9or& 9ouis Mountbatten, 0upreme A((ie& 1omman&er, 0outh ;ast Asia, rea&s the Or&er of the -ay, announcing the surren&er of
a(( Japanese southern armies, from the steps of Municpa( Hui(&ing in 0ingapore in 0eptember "#/.4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?#!%
Japanese prisoners of )ar at )or' in the &oc's at 0ingapore mo*ing concrete b(oc's4 This )as :ust one of many tas's gi*en to
Japanese prisoners to assist )ith reconstruction in the city4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?A$!%
Japanese prisoners of )ar are ta'en to )or' at the &oub(e in 0ingapore )here they )ere ma&e to c(ear up the city4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?/$%
,enera( *ie) of the court in session )ith the accuse& Japanese so(&iers stan&ing in the &oc' of the 0ingapore 0upreme 1ourt4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?!$%
-isarme& Japanese so(&iers (ea*e the city of 0ingapore for prisoner of )ar camps as men of the .th In&ian -i*ision arri*e by (orry4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?A%
Men of the .th In&ian -i*ision )atch &isarme& Japanese so(&iers (ea*e the city of 0ingapore for prisoner of )ar camps4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?A/%
A Japanese officer )ho has :ust surren&ere& is searche& by an officer of the Ar& 1omman&o Hriga&e in Hong Kong4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?A!"%
Members of the Japanese &e(egation arri*e at ,o*ernment House, Hong Kong, un&er arme& escort, in 0eptember "#/.4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?A.?%
Hritish prisoners of )ar marching to capti*ity in Hong Kong4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?<""%
Japanese representati*es Ma:or ,enera( 7ne'ichi O'a&a an& Jice A&mira( 7itaaro Fu:ita at ,o*ernment House, Hong Kong,
for the signing of the surren&er &ocument4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$<A#!%
Ma:or ,enera( O'a&a signs the surren&er &ocument at ,o*ernment House, Hong Kong, on beha(f of the Japanese Army4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$."#.$#<%
Japanese so(&iers, no) prisoners of )ar, are marche& to )or' at Hong Kong &oc's in "#/.4
(Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$."#."$$%
1o(one( ;sao To'unaga, he(& as a )ar crimina( at 0tan(ey Jai(, Hong Kong4 To'unaga ha& been in charge of a(( prisoner of )ar
camps in the Hong Kong area4 (Photo5 Imperia( 8ar MuseumsD http566)))4i)m4org4u'6co((ections6item6ob:ect6$.$?A?.%
A Japanese na*a( officer surren&ers his s)or& to a Hritish 9ieutenant in 0aigon, French In&ochina (Jietnam% on 0eptember "A,
"#/.4
Japanese so(&iers sa(ute a group of Free French !th 1omman&o 1orps 9Zger &QInter*ention (19I% in 0aigon in Co*ember "#/.4
Japanese so(&iers, un&er the comman& an& super*ision of the Hritish an& French armies, participate& in the mi(itary occupation
of 0aigon an& southern Jietnam in (ate "#/. an& ear(y "#/!4
<ata Show 6ark Chung-hee 6ledged Allegiance to Japanese Arm'
By ?ho 0ae/hyon
Sta%% Aeporter
2 resear&h institute spe&ialiGing in studies o% modern 6orean history has released a 0apanese ne#spaper9s histori& arti&le sho#ing that the late
%ormer President Park ?hung/hee 31917/19795 made a pledge o% allegian&e #ritten in :lood to the 0apanese army in 19+9.
4he release o% the report :y the )nstitute %or Aesear&h in ?olla:orationist 2&tivities &ame $ust several days a%ter Park 0i/man8 the only son o%
the late President8 %iled %or an in$un&tion #ith a Seoul &ourt to get his %ather9s name removed %rom a ne# list o% &olla:orators #ith the 0apanese
&olonial government. 4he &ourt8 ho#ever8 turned do#n the in$un&tion8 (riday.
4he institute plans to release on Sunday three :ooks &ontaining the names o% a:out H8+<< 6oreans #ho the institute says &ooperated #ith
0apan :e%ore and during the &olonial period 3191</19H,5.
2&&ording to the released &opy o% the ne#spaper named the U.an&hurian Iaily8U pu:lished on .ar&h8 +18 19+98 in the ?hinese area8 #hi&h
#as also o&&upied :y 0apan at that time8 Park %iled an appli&ation to :e&ome an o%%i&er o% the .an&hurian military unit &ontrolled :y the
0apanese army #hile he #as #orking as a tea&her at a provin&ial s&hool in 6orea.
2%ter his %irst %ailure to $oin the army :e&ause o% his age8 he %iled a se&ond appli&ation :earing a pledge o% allegian&e #ritten in his o#n :lood X
U) pledge allegian&e #ith my o#n li%e8 Park ?hung/hee.U
@n his third attempt8 he #as approved to enter a 0apanese military s&hool in 19H< and thanks to his outstanding per%orman&e there8 he #as
trans%erred to the 0apanese .ilitary 2&ademy in 19H*. He graduated %rom the a&ademy in 19HH and #as &ommissioned as a se&ond lieutenant
in the .an&hurian military unit that year. )n 0uly 19H,8 he #as promoted to %irst lieutenant.
4he institute said it had de&ided to release the data as it had :een :om:arded #ith threatening &alls %rom supporters o% the late President in
the #ake o% the ne#s that his son %iled an in$un&tion to remove his %ather9s name %rom the list o% pro/0apanese %igures. 2n o%%i&ial %rom the
institute said that the .an&hurian daily #as pu:lished :y 0apanese people in their mother tongue mainly %or those living in the region.
U2 6orean tea&her9s pledge o% allegian&e in :lood to the 0apanese army must have :een :ig ne#s even %or 0apanese people and that9s #hy it
made a headline at that time8U the o%%i&ial said.
He said the .an&hurian military unit #as under the &ontrol o% the 0apanese 6#antung 2rmy and had :een regarded as a stepping stone to
move higher in the so&ial hierar&hy during the &olonial period.
4he o%%i&ial said the institute unveiled the data to help :lo&k the unne&essary e;pansion o% disputes surrounding Park9s pro/0apanese a&ts and
instead open a ne# ground %or reasona:le dis&ussions.
Park9s son8 the :rother o% %ormer &hair#oman o% the ruling Brand 1ational Party8 Park Beun/hye8 demanded on Wednesday that the &ourt
suspend pu:li&ation o% the :ooks8 denying that his %ather served in the 0apanese army or perse&uted independen&e %ighters.
)t9s :een +< years sin&e the %ormer President #as shot to death :y his su:ordinate. People remain poles apart in their evaluations o% the late
President :e&ause o% his mode o% di&tatorship. He #as a ruthless military general #ho led a :loody &oup d9etat8 :ut also initiated
industrialiGation programs in the 19=<s and 97<s to pull the nation out o% the lasting e%%e&ts o% the #ar.

A #opy o! a *aily pu&lishe* on Mar#h, 23, 3626, in Man#huria, 7hi#h reports that the late !or+er Presi*ent Par. Chun)-hee +a*e a ple*)e o! alle)ian#e 7ritten in
&loo* to the Japanese ar+y in 3626 8 0Courtesy o! Institute !or Resear#h in Colla&orationist A#ti9ities5
Le!t photo' Par. Chun)-hee as an o!!i#er in the Japanese "7antun) Ar+y *urin) Worl* War II8
Ri)ht photo' Par. Chun)-hee as the Presi*ent o! South "orea8
0ource5 http566)))4'oreatimes4co4'r6)))6ne)s6specia(6$$#6""6"<?F..$A/4htm(
0apanese War Pro%iteers8 Enemy ?olla:orators8 and Perpetrators!
Ben. Hiroshi @shima
1aGi Bermany 319+/
19+98 19H1/19H,5
4oyotaro Yuki
Bovernor o% the Bank o%
0apan 319+7/19HH5
6oyata )#asaki
3191=/19H,5F B.2.
'niversity o% ?am:ridge
3Pem:roke ?ollege5 19<,
@kinori 6aya
(inan&e .inister o% 0apan
319H1/19HH5
6oi&hi 6ido
Lord 6eeper o% the Privy
Seal 319H</19H,5
6oki Hirota
Prime .inister o% )mperial
0apan 319+=/19+75F
319++/19+=8 19+7/19+5
Yosuke .atsuoka
319H</19H15F President o%
South .an&huria Aailroad
319+,/19+95
Ben. Hideki 4o$o
0apan 319H1/19HH5F War
.inister o% 0apan 319H</
19HH5F ?hie% o% Sta%% o% the
6#angtung 2rmy 319+75
Ben. 6uniaki 6oiso
0apan 319HH/19H,5F
0apanese Bovernor/
Beneral o% 6orea 319H*/
19HH5
2dm. Shigetaro Shimada
.inister o% the 1avy
3@&to:er 18 19H1/0uly
178 19HH5F ?ommander o%
Yokosuka 1aval Station
319H15
Ben. Seishiro )tagaki
.inister o% War 319+/
19+95F ?hie% o% Sta%% o% the
?hina E;peditionary 2rmy
319+9/19H15F ?ommander
o% the ?hosen L6oreanM
2rmy 319H1/19H,5
(ield .arshal Shunroku
Hata
.inister o% War 319+9/
19H<5F ?ommander/in/
?hie% o% the ?hina
E;peditionary 2rmy
319H15
1aoki Hoshino
Ci&e .inister o% (inan&ial
2%%airs o% .an&hukuo
3&ir&a 19+5F dire&tor o%
State @pium .onopoly
Bureau in .an&hukuo
Ben. 0iro .inami
0apanese Bovernor/
Beneral o% 6orea 319+=/
19H*5F Bovernor/Beneral
o% 6#antung Leased
4erritory 319+H/19+=5
Shigenori 4ogo
319H1/19H*8 2pril 19H,/
2ugust 19H,5F 0apanese
2m:assador to the Soviet
'nion 319+/19H<5
2dm. @sami 1agano
?hie% o% the )mperial
0apanese 1avy Beneral
Sta%% 319H1/19HH5F
.inister o% the 1avy
319+=/19+75
Ben. 2kira .uto
?hie% o% Sta%% o% the
0apanese (ourteenth
2rea 2rmy under Beneral
4omoyuki Yamashita in
the Philippines
Ben. 6en$i Ioihara
?ommander/in/?hie% o%
the 0apanese Seventh
2rea 2rmy in Singapore
319HH/19H,5F ?ommander
o% 0apanese ,th 2rmy
L.an&huriaM319+9/19H<5
Ben. )#ane .atsui
?ommander o% the
Shanghai E;peditionary
(or&e during the Battle o%
Shanghai in 19+7
Ben. Sadao 2raki
War .inister o% 0apan
319+1/19+H5
Post)ar American Occupation of Japan
Japanese representati*es appear on boar& 0SS Missouri (HH-!A% in To'yo Hay &uring the surren&er ceremonies on 0eptember , "#/.4
(Photograph from the Army 0igna( 1orps 1o((ection in the 7404 Cationa( Archi*es4%
0tan&ing in front are5 Foreign Minister Mamoru 0higemitsu ()earing top hat an& ho(&ing a cane%, an& ,enera( Boshi:iro 7meLu, 1hief
of the Army ,enera( 0taff4
Hehin& them are three representati*es each of the Foreign Ministry, the Army an& the Ca*y4 They inc(u&e, in mi&&(e ro), (eft to right5
Ma:or ,enera( Batsu:i Cagai, ArmyD Katsuo O'aLa'i, Foreign MinistryD +ear A&mira( Ta&atoshi Tomio'a, Ca*yD Toshi'aLu Kase,
Foreign Ministry, an& 9ieutenant ,enera( 0uichi Miya'aLi, Army4
In the bac' ro), (eft to right (not a(( are *isib(e%5
+ear A&mira( Ichiro Bo'oyama, Ca*yD 0aburo Ota, Ca*y, an& KaLiyi (KaLuiE% 0ugita, Army4
(I&entities those in secon& an& thir& ro)s are from an annotate& photograph in Ca*a( Historica( 1enter fi(es4%
The 7404 go*ernment assume& contro( of a(( Japanese mi(itary bases, inc(u&ing Bo'osu'a Ca*a( 0tation, 0asebo Ca*a( 0tation, an&
Bongsan ,arrison (in 0eou(, 0outh Korea%, after 8or(& 8ar II4 American mi(itary bases in Japan inc(u&e5 Bo'ota Air Hase, Misa)a
Air Hase, Ka&ena Air Hase (O'ina)a%, 7404 F(eet Acti*ities 0asebo, Bo'osu'a, an& I)a'uni (Marines%4 American mi(itary bases in
Japan that ha*e been transferre& to Japan inc(u&e Hane&a Air Hase (no) Hane&a Internationa( Airport%, Carita Air Hase (no) To'yo-
Carita Internationa( Airport%, an& Tachi'a)a Air Hase4
,enera( of the Army -oug(as MacArthur, 7404 Army (secon& from right%, appears )ith other senior Army officers, upon his
arri*a( at Atsugi air&rome near To'yo, Japan on August A$, "#/.4 Among those present are5 Ma:or ,enera( Joseph M4 0)ing,
1omman&ing ,enera(, ""th Airborne -i*ision, ((eft%D 9ieutenant ,enera( +ichar& K4 0uther(an& (Ar& from right%D ,enera(
+obert 94 ;iche(berger (right%4 Aircraft in the bac'groun& is a -oug(as 1-./4
(Photograph from the Army 0igna( 1orps 1o((ection in the 7404 Cationa( Archi*es%
Japanese Foreign Minister Mamoru 0higemitsu signs the Instrument of 0urren&er on beha(f of the Japanese ,o*ernment on
boar& 700 Missouri on 0eptember , "#/.4 7404 Army 9ieutentant ,enera( +ichar& K4 0uther(an& (% )atches from the opposite
si&e of the tab(e4 Foreign Ministry representati*e Toshi'aLu Kase (right% is seen assisting Mr4 0higemitsu4
(Photograph from the Army 0igna( 1orps 1o((ection in the 7404 Cationa( Archi*es%
http566)))4history4na*y4mi(6photos6images6s$$$$$6s"A<$$c4htm
Ben. Iouglas .a&2rthur signs as Supreme 2llied ?ommander during %ormal surrender &eremonies on the 'SS (issouri in 4okyo Bay on
Septem:er *8 19H,. Behind Ben. .a&2rthur are Lt. Ben. 0onathan Wain#right and Lt. Ben. 2. E. Per&ival. Lt. ?. (. Wheeler.
31ational 2r&hives5
'.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur 3le%t5 stands :eside Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan at the '.S. Em:assy in 4okyo8 0apan on Septem:er *78
19H,.
;mperor Hirohito of Japan greets the Japanese peop(e &uring a goo&)i(( tour in "#/!4
;mperor Hirohito of Japan greets the Japanese peop(e &uring a goo&)i(( tour in "#/!4

9eft5 The -ai-Ichi Mutua( Insurance 1ompany Hui(&ing (abo*e% in To'yo, Japan ser*e& as 7404 Army occupation forceKs
,enera( Hea&@uarters Hui(&ing (,HX% from "#/. to "#.4
+ight5 Mamoru 0higemitsu ( % ser*e& as Foreign Minister of Japan (Apr "#/A=Apr "#/., Aug "#/.=0ept "#/., -ec
"#./=-ec "#.!%, Japanese Minister to the +epub(ic of 1hina ("#A"-"#A%, Japanese Ambassa&or to the 0o*iet 7nion ("#A!-
"#A#%D Japanese Ambassa&or to ,reat Hritain ("#/$-"#/"%, an& Japanese +epresentati*e to the 7nite& Cations ("#.!%
)mperial 0apanese 2rmy soldiers &ongregate on the plat%orm o% Sase:o 4rain Station in Sase:o8 0apan shortly a%ter the end o%
World War )) in 19H,. 4he '.S. 1avy maintains a navy :ase at Sase:o8 0apan.
3Photo! http!""###.%li&kr.&om"photos"&aptainpandapants",+<9,H*HH"in"photostream5
2 group o% post#ar 0apanese poli&e o%%i&ers pose %or a group photo.
3Photo! http!""###.%li&kr.&om"photos"&aptainpandapants",*=+<**<"in"photostream5
A H(ac' Mar'et in 0hinbashi &istrict of To'yo, Japan in (ate "#/., operate& by Kanto Matsu&a ,ang
NHy October "#/., an estimate& se*enteen thousan& open-air mar'ets ha& b(ossome& nation)i&e, most(y in the (arger cities4
On(y months (ater, there )ere many as se*enty-si> thousan& sta((s, each a*eraging o*er forty customers a &ay, in To'yoKs
numerous mar'ets a(one4 8ith this came organiLationa( rationa(iLation, a sometimes bruta( process common(y (e& by Ba'uLa
gumi = gangster gangs hea&e& by go&father-type in&i*i&ua(s4 In To'yo, the &i*ision of b(ac'-mar'et territories among *arious
gangs )as fair(y c(ear cut4 The mar'et in the 0hinbashi &istrict )as contro((e& by the Matsu&a gang, Asa'usa by the 0hibayama
gang, the ,inLa area by the 7e&a gang, I'ebu'uro by the 0e'iguchi gang, an& 0hin:u'u by the OLu an& 8a&a gangs4 ,ang
contro( of the Osa'a Nfree mar'etO fo((o)e& simi(ar (ines4O
= Embracing Defeat: 3apan in the ,ake of ,orld ,ar 99 by John 84 -o)er, p4 "/$-"/"
NIn a&&ition to the b(ac' mar'et per se, the Matsu&a organiLation )as a(so in*o(*e& in construction an& supp(ie& an& super*ise&
&ai(y (aborers re@ueste& by the occupation forces4 Fierce ri*a(ries accompanie& these acti*ities4 In June "#/!, for e>amp(e, t)o
months after gran&(y proc(aiming the creation of the N0hinbashi Ce) 9ife Mar'et,O Matsu&a ,iichi, the gangKs boss, )as
assassinate& by a former gang member4 Territoria( conf(icts )ere serious(y e>acerbate&, moreo*er, by racia( tensions4 9i'e the
)or(& of prostitution, the b(ac' mar'et ha& a (arge representation of Nthir&-country peop(eO )ho ha& chosen not to be repatriate&
to their nati*e (an&s4 8e((-organiLe& Korean an& Formosan gangs *ie& )ith Japanese gangs, an& in Ju(y these simmering
tensions erupte& in spectacu(ar *io(ence4 A fight in*o(*ing hun&re&s of Formosan *en&ors an& o*er a thousan& Matsu&a-gumi
toughs spi((e& o*er into the neighboring 0hibuya &istrict, cu(minating in a gunfight outsi&e the 0hibuya po(ice station that (eft
se*en Formosans &ea& an& thirty-four in:ure&4 One po(iceman )as 'i((e& an& another critica((y in:ure&4 +epercussions from the
N0hibuya inci&entO e>ten&e& in many &irections4 The hosti(ity that a(rea&y e>iste& bet)een the po(ice an& the Formosan an&
Korean communities )as rubbe& ra)er4O
= Embracing Defeat: 3apan in the ,ake of ,orld ,ar 99 by John 84 -o)er, p4 "/A
NThe group cohesion an& &iscip(ine of the mi(itary hierarchy ha& not been bui(t, as its propagan&ists intone&, on some i&ea(iLe&
notion of N(oya(tyO or NharmonyO but on a structure of authoritarian coercion that transferre& oppression &o)n)ar&4 0uperior
officers common(y comman&e& fear rather than respect e*en in the best of times, an& &efeat un(eashe& &eep, hitherto represse&
resentments4 In e>treme cases, such hatre& (e& to the mur&er of former officers4O
= Embracing Defeat: 3apan in the ,ake of ,orld ,ar 99 by John 84 -o)er, p4 .?
NThe stereotypes that Japanese accept about foreigners are (egion an& are perpetuate& by a rigi& e&ucationa( system4 The ear(y
Mei:i (ea&ers )ere (oo'ing 8est)ar& for the @ua(ities that ma&e other nations great4 They a&apte& aspects of the ,erman
e&ucationa( system, se(ecte& parts of a French system of ci*i( (a), an& estab(ishe& a @uasi-Hritish sty(e par(iament an& cabinet
system4O = 1hrysanthemums and Thorns: The 0ntold Story of Modern 3apan by ;&)in M4 +eingo(&, p4 "<<
4housands o% unemployed 0apanese people parti&ipate in .ay Iay demonstration in 4okyo8 0apan on .ay 78 19H=. 4hese are some o% the
many thousands #ho took part in 4okyo9s %irst .ay Iay demonstration sin&e 19+=. 2ppro;imately +<<8<<< persons took part. 4hey &arried
:anners #ith slogans su&h as! U(orm a Iemo&rati& governmentF 0oin the )nternational Workers 'nionF and (eed us %or @ur Work.U
3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
(ormer '.S. President Her:ert Hoover arrives at 2tsugi 2irport near 4okyo8 0apan on .ay ,8 19H= to study the %ood situation in 0apan. @n
hand to greet him as he deplaned are 3le%t to right5 Beorge 2t&heson8 0r.8 ?hairman o% the 2llied ?oun&il %or 0apan8 and '.S. 2rmy .a$or
Beneral William .arEuat. Hoover arrived %rom the Aepu:li& o% ?hina #here he &on%erred #ith ?hinese o%%i&ials on the %ood situation there.
3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
'.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur 3se&ond %rom le%t5 greets 2ssistant '.S. Se&retary o% War 0ohn .&?loy 3right5 and '.S. 2rmy
Lieutenant Beneral Ao:ert L. Ei&hel:erger 3&enter5 in 0apan in 19H,. 0ohn .&?loy #as a mem:er o% the Council on Foreign 4elations8 a
private organiGation in 1e# York ?ity. 3Photo :y Hulton 2r&hive"Betty )mages5
2verell Harriman 3right5 visits '.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur 3le%t5 in 4okyo8 0apan some time a%ter World War )). 2verell Harriman
#as a mem:er o% the Council on Foreign 4elations8 a private organiGation in 1e# York ?ity.
3Photo! Specia% !nvoy to Churchi%% and Sta%in) *+,*-*+,- :y W. 2verell Harriman and Elie 2:el5
6yui&hi 4okuda8 the head o% the 0apanese ?ommunist Party8 delivers a spee&h in 4okyo8 0apan in 19H7. 6yui&hi 4okuda esta:lished the
0apanese ?ommunist Party in 19** %ollo#ing his visit to Soviet Aussia. 3Photo! 0ohn (lorea"4ime Li%e5
6yui&hi 4okuda8 the 0apanese ?ommunist leader #ho spent 17 years in prison :e%ore and during World War ))8 &asts his :allot in the ele&tion
:o; at a polling station in 4okyo8 0apan on 2pril 1=8 19H=. 4okuda organiGed the ?ommunist Party in 0apan in 19**F 4okuda &ampaigned %or a
seat in the Iiet 30apanese parliament5 in 2pril 19H=. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5

Le%t! )sP 2:e 3 z8 1=,/19H95 #as a 0apanese ?hristian and So&ialist #ho #as a mem:er o% the 0apanese Iiet LHouse o%
AepresentativesM %rom 19* to 19H<F 2:e opposed 0apan7s #ar #ith Aussia during the Ausso/0apanese War and opposed 0apan7s #ar #ith
2meri&a. 2:e #as a %ormer president o% the 0apanese (a:ian So&iety.
Aight! 4etsu 6atayama 3* 8 0uly *8 17/.ay +<8 19758 a 0apanese ?hristian and a mem:er o% the So&ialist Party8 served as the Prime
.inister o% 0apan %rom .ay *H8 19H7 to .ar&h 1<8 19H. 4aro 2so8 #ho served as the Prime .inister o% 0apan %rom *<< to *<<98 is a Aoman
?atholi&.
(ollo#ing the resignation o% his &a:inet and his su:seEuent appointment as leader o% the Progressive Party8 Baron 6i$uro Shidehara 3right5
&on%ers #ith 4etsu 6atayama8 ?hairman o% the So&ialist Party8 on in 4okyo8 0apan on 2pril +<8 19H=. 2t &enter is Wataru 1arahashi o% the
So&ialist Party. 4he meeting #as held in &onne&tion #ith the %orming o% a &oalition government. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
.em:ers o% the governing :oard o% the So&ialist Party pose %or a group portrait in 4okyo in 19H=. (ront ro#8 le%t to right! 4etsu 6atayama
3President5 and )ne$iro 2sanuma8 #ho #as sta::ed to death in 19=<. 3Photo! 2l%red Eisenstaedt"4ime Li%e5
.em:ers o% the 0apanese Parliament meet #ith Emperor Hirohito to present the ne# 0apanese &onstitution during a meeting in
4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er =8 19H=. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
A map of American mi(itary bases in post)ar Japan
Emperor Hirohito 3higher dais5 o% 0apan o%%i&ially promulgated the ne# &onstitution o% 0apan in a &eremony held in the ?ham:er
o% Peers at the Iiet Building in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er +8 19H=. @n the lo#er dais8 Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida has
turned to %a&e the Emperor8 #hose message set %orth an organi& la# pro&laiming the sovereigty o% the people and renoun&ing
%orever the maintenan&e o% armed %or&e in 0apan. 3Photo! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5

Le%t! 0apanese %armers plant ri&e in the ri&e %ields in the 0apanese &ountryside in 19H. 3)mage! > Hora&e Bristol"?@AB)S5
Aight! ?hinese ?ommunists &arry the 1ationalist ?hinese %lag as they pass the #ar/shattered 1avy Building during .ay Iay
Parade in 4okyo8 0apan on .ay 78 19H9. .ore than *,<8<<< #orkers o% :oth right and le%t #ing groups took part in the
demonstration. .ost ?ommunists in 0apan #ere hope%ul that Shanghai #ould %all :y .ay 1. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0apanese #orkers stage .ay Iay demonstration in 4okyo8 0apan on .ay 18 19H.
3)mage! > .aynard @#en Williams"1ational Beographi& So&iety"?or:is5
2 group o% 0apanese ?ommunists parti&ipate in a rally in 4okyo8 0apan on 0une 1*8 19H9. '.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas
.a&2rthur a&&used Soviet Aussia o% in&iting 0apanese minority elements to violen&eF .a&2rthur de&lared that Soviet Beneral
6uGma Ierevyanko9s protest against 0apanese poli&e a&tion at a riot in the 4okyo ?ity Hall8 during #hi&h a demonstrator died8
U&ompletely unmasks the Soviet role as the in&iter o% disorder in an other#ise orderly 0apanese so&iety.U
'.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur8 the Supreme ?ommander o% the 2llied Po#ers 3S?2P58 #at&hes 2meri&an o&&upation troops mar&h in
)mperial Pala&e PlaGa in 4okyo8 0apan on 0uly H8 19H9. 3)mage! > 0. Baylor Ao:erts"1ational Beographi& So&iety"?or:is5
0apanese people gather near a :ill:oard in .aiGuru8 0apan8 a to#n lo&ated near 6yoto8 in 19,< as they #el&ome home prisoners o% #ar.
3)mage! > 0. Baylor Ao:erts"1ational Beographi& So&iety"?or:is5
'.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur &hats #ith Ietroit :anker 0oseph .. Iodge at Haneda 2irport in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er *+8 19H9
#hile a#aiting the arrival o% '.S. Se&retary o% 4reasury 0ohn Snyder %or talks on 0apan9s e&onomy. 0oseph .. Iodge dre# up the :lueprint %or
0apan9s :udget/:alan&ing e&onomyF 0oseph .. Iodge #as a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations8 a private organiGation in 1e# York
?ity. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?or:is5
Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur greets 0ohn (oster Iulles8 Wall Street la#yer and Aepu:li&an ?onsultant to the '.S. State Iepartment8 at the
Haneda 2ir (or&e Base in 4okyo8 0apan on 0une *18 19,<. 0ohn (oster Iulles #as a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations8 a private
organiGation in 1e# York ?ity. 3Photo! 4ruman Presidential Li:rary5
2 photo o% the 4okyo Post E;&hange 3PY58 lo&ated on the sight o% present/day Wako Iepartment Store8 in the BinGa distri&t o% 4okyo8 0apan8
in 19H9.
'.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur 3le%t5 is seen leaving S?2P headEuarters in 4okyo8 0apan on in .ay 19,<. 3Photo! Bettmann"?@AB)S5
2meri&an8 'nited 1ations8 and 0apanese (lags %ly atop Iai/)&hi .utual )nsuran&e ?ompany Building in 4okyo8 0apan during
0apan7s %irst day o% pea&e in .ay 19,*. 4he Iai/)&hi .utual )nsuran&e ?ompany Building served as '.S. 2rmy7s Beneral
HeadEuarters Building 3also kno#n as S?2P5 %rom 19H, to 19,*. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
2 group o% 0apanese people su%%er %rom gunshot #ounds and other physi&al in$uries during .ay Iay Aiots held in 4okyo8 0apan on .ay 18
19,*. 3)mage! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Le%t/#ing 0apanese trade union mem:ers in 4okyo8 0apan mar&h past 0apan9s 1ational Parliament 3Iiet5 :uilding on .ar&h 178 19,+ #ith a
huge portrait o% the late Soviet di&tator 0ose% Stalin. Iuring the parade the mar&hers shouted anti/2meri&an slogans. )nside the diet8 the
government o% li:eral Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida hung in the :alan&e on a non/&on%iden&e vote. 0ose% Stalin died on .ar&h ,8 19,+.
@toya Yamagu&hi 3&enter58 a 17/year/old 0apanese &ollege student8 sta:s and murders 0apanese So&ialist Party leader )ne$iro 2sanuma
3right5 in 4okyo8 0apan on @&to:er 1*8 19=<. 0apan and 2meri&a signed the 4reaty o% .utual ?ooperation and Se&urity :et#een the 'nited
States and 0apan on 0anuary 198 19=<.
The Cold War Explodes in KobeThe 1948 Korean Ethnic School Riots and US
cc!pation "!thorities
0y Mar- /8 Caprio
:ummary
In Mar'h and (pril 32IG Koreans a'ross Japan rose up in protest a.ter the Japanese *o;ernment be*an to en.or'e an order
handed do6n to them by the (meri'an )''upation administration to 'lose Korean ethni' s'hools8 )ne su'h protest too- pla'e
in Kobe on (pril 2I 6hen Koreans stormed the Hyo*o Pre.e'ture o..i'es in an attempt to *et the *o;ernor to res'ind the order
to 'lose the .our Korean ethni' s'hools in the pre.e'ture8 (meri'an and Japanese administrations rea'ted harshly to the
Korean a'tions8 Poli'e arrested thousands o. Koreans and in.li'ted sti.. penalties on the in'ident#s leaders8 (s 6as o.ten the
'ase, the )''upation administration misinterpreted Korean intention to -eep the s'hools open as a le.tist attempt to disrupt
E8:8 o''upations in Korea and Japan8 Here the in'ident is examined throu*h the eyes o. one )''upation employee, /li+abeth
Fyan, a 43-year old 'ourt reporter 6ho in'luded detailed in.ormation on the in'ident and its parti'ipants in personal letters
that she sent to her .amily in the Enited :tates8
At aroun& "$5A$ on the morning of Apri( /, "#/? four men, three Koreans an& one Japanese, storme& into the Hyogo Prefecture
Hui(&ing (-en'hC% an& &eman&e& an au&ience )ith ,o*ernor Kishi&a Bu'io4 Their purpose remaine& unchange& from pre*ious
attempts to see the go*ernorbto &iscuss his Apri( "$ or&er that the four Korean ethnic schoo(s in his :uris&iction cease operations an&
that the stu&ents be transferre& to Japanese schoo(s4 Kishi&a, )ho )as at another meeting, informe& their Japanese spo'esman,
Hori'a)a KaLutomo, that he )ou(& see them (ater4 One ha(f-hour (ater, the go*ernor )as to(& that about one hun&re& Koreans ha&
force& their )ay into the bui(&ing4 He soon hear& them ye((ing NOpen up, open up4 8e )i(( 'i(( you,O as they &estroye& one of his
outer offices4 Then .$ to !$ Koreans force& their )ay into Kishi&aKs office by brea'ing &o)n the )a(( that separate& his office from
the outer office they ha& been &estroying4 They cut his te(ephone (ines, trashe& his furniture, an& began roughing up the go*ernor an&
the mayor of Kobe, )ho ha& been meeting )ith Kishi&a4
The intru&ers then sat the go*ernor at his &es' an& the three negotiators, Kim -aisam 2TKaesam3, Kim Bongho, an& +yang Minseo
2Minsc3, presente& their &eman&s4 Kishi&a )as to rescin& his or&er to c(ose the Korean schoo(s, re(ease the !. Koreans arreste& &uring
a pre*ious inci&ent at the assistant go*ernorKs office, an& see to it that no one in*o(*e& in the present inci&ent face& prosecution4 At
"5A$ three 7nite& 0tates Mi(itary Po(ice officers arri*e& an& attempte& to escort Kishi&a to safety4 Ho)e*er, a cro)& of Koreans )ho
ha& gathere& in the bui(&ing pre*ente& them from &oing so4 The cro)& a(so roughe& up the Mi(itary Po(icemen, (ifting one Noff his
feet4O 8hen one of the po(icemen &re) his pisto( a Korean )oman bare& her chest an& baite& him to Nshoot here4O Cegotiations fina((y
en&e& aroun& "<5$$ )hen the go*ernor agree& in )riting to re(ease those arreste& &uring the pre*ious inci&ent4
Koreans surround Go;ernor Kishida in his o..i'e
Throughout the &ay a cro)& ha& been assemb(ing outsi&e the prefecture bui(&ing4 1aptain +oy M4 Johnson reporte& that by ""5A$
these peop(e, )ho numbere& o*er A$$$, Nha& cease& to be a cro)&D 2they ha& forme&3 a mob4O Their presence pre*ente& he(p from
entering the bui(&ing unti( a team of ".$ po(icemen succee&e& in physica((y &ragging Nacti*e(y resistingO peop(e a)ay an& rope& off
the area4 8hen at "<5$$ one of the intru&ers announce& from a )in&o) that the go*ernor ha& rescin&e& his or&er to c(ose the schoo(s
Nthe mob )ent craLyO an& Nmarche& &o)n I((inois A*enueO )a*ing the Korean f(ag4 2"3
Korean residents mar'h on the Hyo*o Pre.e'tural )..i'e
Their :ubi(ation )as short-(i*e&4 That e*ening, 01AP 20upreme 1omman&er A((ie& Po)ers3, )hich ha& or&ere& the schoo(s c(ose& in
the first p(ace, issue& its first (an& on(y% state of emergency &uring its se*en-year tenure in Japan4 From mi&night the Kobe po(ice,
acting on or&ers from ;ighth Army 1omman&er ,enera( +obert ;iche(berger, )ent on a NKorean huntO (ChCsen$in *ari% that aime&
to arrest anyone )ho N(oo'e& Korean4O The hunt roun&e& up ",<A peop(e, inc(u&ing O'ina)ans, Tai)anese, an& Japanese, of )hom
A# )ere trie& for N(ea&ing &emonstrations4O 23 9ater that &ay, Japanese po(ice entere& the Korean ethnic schoo(s, physica((y remo*e&
the stu&ents, an& nai(e& shut their &oors4
;iche(berger a(so rescin&e& the promises that the go*ernor ha& ma&e to the Koreans on Apri( /4 In tota(, <. peop(e (inc(u&ing one
Japanese% )ere brought to tria( an&, sa*e for four ac@uitte& Koreans, a(( )ere foun& gui(ty of one or more of the fo((o)ing charges5
un(a)fu((y entering the go*ernorKs office, &estroying office furnishings, threatening the go*ernor, &etaining the go*ernor, interfering
)ith Occupation an& Hyogo Prefecture communications, an& assau(ting Occupation force members4 The four peop(e )ho initiate& the
inci&ent, a(ong )ith three other Koreans, )ere trie& by the 7404 Mi(itary 1ommission an& recei*e& sentences ranging from "$ to ".
years of har& (abor4 Cine other Koreans, trie& by the ,enera( Pro*ost 1ourt of Kobe, recei*e& sentences that range& from three months
to four years an& nine months of har& (abor4 Fifty-t)o Koreans )ere fine& .$ yen4 2A3

Koreans on trial in Kobe
The court summary pro*i&e& e>p(icit &etai(s of the &estructi*e an& *io(ent actions of the Korean participants, but fai(e& to a&e@uate(y
consi&er the anger an& frustration that fue(e& them4 8e (earn of the intru&ersK primary moti*ationbto ma'e the go*ernor rescin& his
or&er to c(ose the schoo(sbon(y through the &eman&s that they issue& to the go*ernor4 The court summary &i& not e>p(ain the reasons
)hy 01AP or&ere& the schoo(sK c(osures4 Cor &i& it offer e>p(anation as to )hy the Korean peop(e might react to this or&er as they
&i&4 It a(so neg(ecte& to note the attempts that Koreans ha& ma&e to gain au&iences )ith the go*ernor prior to Apri( /, or the
go*ernorKs stone)a((ingbhis office ha& to(& the Koreans that the go*ernor )as out of to)nbto a*oi& ha*ing to meet them4 2/3
The tone of the court summary ref(ecte& the negati*e attitu&es that Americans an& Japanese &irecte& to)ar& Nuncooperati*eO e(ements
in Japan at the time, among )hom inc(u&e& Koreans resi&ing in both Japan an& Korea4 As to&ay, the o*er !.$,$$$ Japan-base&
Koreans then represente& the countryKs (argest a(ien popu(ation4 The arrogant attitu&e that many Koreans ha& a&opte& at the )arKs en&
to)ar& their former co(onia( masters ha& gaine& them a reputation as troub(ema'ers in the eyes of both American an& Japanese
authorities4 Their insistence on e&ucating their chi(&ren in Korean ethnic schoo(s ir'e& particu(ar(y the 7404 a&ministration in at (east
t)o )ays4 Americans first sa) their reca(citrance as an insu(t to 7404 authority as it b(atant(y &efie& 01AP or&ers that they integrate
their chi(&ren into the Japanese schoo( system4 0econ&(y, it &emonstrate& again the genera((y uncooperati*e beha*ior that Koreans ha&
&isp(aye& throughout the &uration of the Occupation to &ate, be it through )or'ing in b(ac' mar'ets or co((aborating )ith the Japanese
1ommunist Party4 To many, the ob*ious so(ution to the Korean prob(em )as that they a(( be sent Nhome4O Bet, this )as not easy for a
number of reasons, inc(u&ing the fact that many younger Japan-base& Koreans 'ne) of no other home than Japan4
9etters sent by ;(iLabeth +yan, a court reporter statione& in Kobe from "#/<-"#/?, to her fami(y in Mi()au'ee, 8isconsin e>pan&e&
on the court summaryKs &escriptions of the Kobe NriotsO by articu(ating genera( impressions that Americans an& Japanese he(& to)ar&
the inci&ent, the Korean participants, as )e(( as the Korean peop(e in genera(4 2.3 Her )riting thus pro*i&es a )in&o) that enhances
our un&erstan&ing of the inci&ent from the Japan-base& American perspecti*e4 +yanKs (etters a(so suggest outsi&e inf(uence from her
co((eagues4 Their content thus informs us of the genera( conceptions (an& misconceptions% that Occupation an& Japanese
a&ministrations he(& to)ar& Koreans in Japan, but a(so in southern Korea4 Furthermore, these perspecti*es contribute to our
un&erstan&ing of ho) the 7nite& 0tates *ie)e& (ong-he(& conf(icts bet)een Japanese an& Koreans, an& the gro)ing po(itica( unrest in
southern Korea that contribute& to the outbrea' of ci*i( )ar in "#.$4
/li+abeth Fyan 1le.t5 6ith .riends in Kobe
,he Korean "Fioters& :lapped En'le :am in the Fa'e
The &etai(s that ;(iLabeth +yan entere& into her (etters ref(ecte& positi*e(y those recor&e& in the court summary out(ine& abo*e, though
she a&mitte& that her information came primari(y from a short)a*e broa&cast out of 9os Ange(es4 2!3 0he first a&&resse& the NriotsO in
an Apri( <, "#/? (etter that she sent to a(ert her fami(y of her safety4 Here +yan &escribe& the inci&ent an& accuse& the Koreans of
insu(ting the 7nite& 0tatesbthey s(appe& 7nc(e 0amKs facebby refusing to sen& their chi(&ren to Japanese schoo(s as re@uire& by
JapanKs recent(y promu(gate& constitution4
N8hat it boi(s &o)n to is this4 The Japanese constitution, un&er )hich they are no) to run their country, )as set up by
01AP (0upreme 1omman&er A((ie& Po)ers, the organiLation re*o(*ing aroun& Mac 2MacArther3% an& it ca((e& for a
certain schoo(s system )ith a certain curricu(um, etc4 The Japanese ha*e accepte& it an& are putting it into effect, )hich
means c(osing the / Korean schoo(s in Kobe4 The Koreans &onKt )ant their chi(&ren to go to Japanese schoo(s an& ha*e
proteste&4 8hi(e that may be )e(( an& goo&, it is rea((y not the Japanese i&ea in the schoo( but the American, an& so
in&irect(y a s(ap in the face for 7nc(e 0am because the Koreans ha*e re:ecte& the schoo( system4 On 0atur&ay morning <$
Koreans *isite& the Prefecture hea&@uarters an& rea((y tore things apart4 The ,o*ernor ha& them put in :ai(ban& that set
off the fire4O
The inci&ent sprea& concern, as in&icate& by the po)er &isp(ay that 01AP &emonstrate& in its imme&iate aftermath, that it )ou(&
sprea& throughout Japan4 +yan )rote that ,enera( MenoherKs &ec(aration of Nminor state of emergencyO bought the OccupationKs top
officia(s to Kobe4 0oon after, or&ers )ent out to arrest Ne*ery (ast Korean4O Her obser*ations here ref(ect the seriousness )ith )hich
01AP *ie)e& the inci&ent, perhaps because of its genera((y negati*e impression of JapanKs Korean popu(ation4 0he )rites5
NHea&@uarters Kobe Hase (0hin'o H(&g% (oo'e& for a(( the )or(& (i'e it might be the go(& &eposit for the )or(&ba(( the
cars (ine& up in front in Nstan& byO, guar&s )ith he(mets an& guns patro((ing e*ery "$ feetban air of e>citement a(( o*er4
The or&er )ent out from the NbrainsO that e*ery (ast Korean )as to be arreste& an& by / oKc(oc' (ast e*ening they ha&
".$$ of them in :ai(4O
+yan pre&icte& that the Koreans )ou(& be trie& fair(y, but then suggeste& that they may be ma&e scapegoats so as to &iscourage the
outbrea' of simi(ar inci&ents in the future4
N0pecia( courts an& staffs of (a)yers are coming &o)n from To'yo an& Bo'ohama to assist in the spee&y tria( of these
peop(e4 They )i(( be trie& in our Pro*ost 1ourt instea& of the Japanese courtban& they probab(y )i(( get it, but goo&4 I
ha*e hear& from some of the officers )ho )ere in the conference that it rea((y )asnKt too ba&, but if )e (et it go by
unnotice&, the )ay things ha*e gone in the rest of the )or(&, this cou(& be on(y the beginning4O
+yan returne& home :ust as the tria(s reache& their conc(usion an& thus she &oes not comment further on the actua( sentencing of those
in*o(*e&4 Her short reports of the inci&ent are as informati*e for )hat they contain as they are for )hat they omit4 Her suggestion that
the Kobe inci&ent might ser*e as the first of a series of riots across Japan curious(y ignores the fact that the Kobe inci&ent )as :ust the
most recent of a series of simi(ar inci&ents that too' p(ace in Bamaguchi (March A"%, O'ayama (Apri( ?%, Hyogo (Apri( "$%, Osa'a
(Apri( "%, an& To'yo (Apri( $%4 2<3 A secon& Osa'a &emonstration he(& on Apri( ! attracte& A$,$$$ peop(e4
A(so stri'ing is her contention that the Koreans *io(ate& 7nite& 0tates, rather than Japanese, (a)bby re:ecting the constitutiona((y
authoriLe& Japanese schoo( system they s(appe& 7nc(e 0amKs face4 0he e(aborate& on this point in a May / (etter )here she )rote
N01AP\set up a constitution )hich )as accepte& by the Japanese an& the a((ie& po)ers as )or'ab(e4 In the constitution it state& that
a certain schoo( system )ou(& be set upbthe )ho(e curricu(um has to be change& to )ee& out their former teachings against
&emocracy, etc4 The Koreans ha& their o)n schoo(s, / of )hich )ere in Kobe, an& )ou(& not mo*e out of their schoo( bui(&ings4O
Her c(aim that JapanKs post)ar constitution (egitimiLe& c(osing the Korean ethnic schoo(s is prob(ematic in a number of )ays4 First,
this &ocument ha& much to say about promoting a &emocratic e&ucation system but nothing to say about the curricu(um that )ou(&
gui&e this e&ucation4 The constitutionKs Ne&ucation c(ause,O Artic(e !, rea&s as fo((o)s5
NA(( peop(e sha(( ha*e the right to an e@ua( e&ucation correspon&ent to their abi(ity, as pro*i&e& for by (a)4 % A(( peop(e
sha(( be ob(igate& to ha*e a(( boys an& gir(s un&er their protection recei*e or&inary e&ucation as pro*i&e& for by (a)4
0uch compu(sory e&ucation sha(( be free4O 2?3
If anything, this &ocument, in re@uiring Ne@ua( e&ucation correspon&ent to their abi(ityO (egitimiLe& the Korean ethnic schoo(sK
continue& e>istence4 In&ee&, after recei*ing or&ers to c(ose these schoo(s Japanese (a)ma'ers &ebate& )hether this action )ou(&
constitute a *io(ation of this *ery &ocument4 2#3
The Fun&amenta( 9a) of ;&ucation (KyCi-u -ihonhC% passe& in March "#/< reinforce& the rights guarantee& by JapanKs post)ar
constitution4 0ometimes &escribe& as a re*ision of the "?#$ Imperia( +escript on ;&ucation, this (egis(ationKs preamb(e &ec(are& as
JapanKs intention to bui(& Na &emocratic an& cu(tura( stateO &epen&ent on the Npo)er of e&ucation4O It stipu(ate& in Artic(e . that
JapanKs e&ucation system )ou(& be compu(sory (*imu%, an& that Nnationa(sO (-o-umin% )ou(& be guarantee& free access to this
e&ucation4 It further stipu(ate& in Artic(e / that this e&ucation )ou(& pro*i&e Nnationa(sO )ith Ne@ua( opportunities )ithout
&iscrimination by race, cree&, se>, socia( status, economic position, or fami(y origin4O
It )as not unti( (ater that year, )hen the Japanese go*ernment passe& the 0choo( ;&ucation Act (Ga--C -yCi-uhC% that )e fin& any
mention of the (anguage or content that this e&ucation )as to assume4 Artic(e ", no4 . of this (egis(ation stipu(ate& as a goa( stu&ents
being ab(e to Ncorrect(y un&erstan& the nationa( (anguage (-o-u*o or Japanese% as necessary for their &ai(y (i*es,O an& to un&erstan&
the present con&itions an& history of their country an& *i((ages4 It )as the formation of the post)ar Ministry of ;&ucation, rather than
(egis(ation, )hich estab(ishe& the curricu(um to )hich, in 01APKs eyes, the Korean schoo(s shou(& a&here4 In January "#/< the
Ministry, acting un&er 01AP or&ers, notifie& prefectura( go*ernors of their inc(usion4 This or&er it ha& to repeat one year (ater after the
prefectures refuse& to enforce it4 2"$3
These &ocuments specifying that their regu(ations app(ie& to Nnationa(sO (-o-umin% further comp(icate& +yanKs argument that the
Koreans *io(ate& the constitution by refusing to sen& their chi(&ren to Japanese schoo(s4 Her neg(ect a(erts us to the precarious position
that Koreans in Japan face&, particu(ar(y regar&ing their (ega( status4 +yan might ha*e been a)are that in May "#/<, :ust months prior
to 01APKs January "#/? announcement that Koreans )ou(& be treate& as NJapanese nationa(s,O 01AP re*erse& course by sub:ecting
Japan-base& Koreans an& Tai)anese to its A(ien +egistration Or&inance4 Mirrore& after the 7404 A(ien +egistration Act of "#/$, it
re@uire& a(( non-Japanese o*er the age of "/ to register their a(ien status an& carry )ith them at a(( times their a(ien registration
passboo'4 It further stipu(ate& that *io(ators )ou(& face &eportation4 This (egis(ation ser*e& as the forerunner for the more
comprehensi*e A(ien +egistration Act of "#. that intro&uce& man&atory fingerprinting of foreign resi&ents4 2""3
The KoreansK options )ere (imite&4 To a*oi& ha*ing their chi(&ren enro((e& in Japanese schoo(s, the Kobe schoo(s cou(& ha*e :oine&
other Korean schoo(s in app(ying for pri*ate schoo( status4 This )ou(& ha*e permitte& their chi(&ren to stu&y )ith their Korean, rather
than Japanese, counterparts4 They )ou(& ha*e remaine& sub:ecte& to a Japanese-base& curricu(um as pri*ate schoo(s, as )e((, )ere
sub:ect to Ministry of ;&ucation regu(ations4 Their other option perhaps met the genera( intentions of the t)o seeming(y contra&ictory
(egis(ati*e actions by 01APbto ri& Japan of its Korean prob(em4 American resi&ents in Japan, (i'e +yan, :ustifie& this response by
c(aiming that Koreans ha& no &esire to assimi(ate into Japanese societybthey )ere simp(y intereste& in causing troub(eban& thus ha&
no business remaining in Japan4
Koreans ha;e been "Pains in the >e'-&
The harsh reaction by 01AP to the riots )as partia((y fue(e& by their genera((y negati*e attitu&e to)ar& the Korean peop(e4 0ince the
beginning of the occupation they ha& been rather uncooperati*e4 0oon after the )arKs en& they, a(ong )ith Japan-base& Tai)anese,
became acti*e in b(ac' mar'et acti*ities4 Many Koreans :oine& the (eft-)ing Chaeil 'hosQnin yQnmaen* (9eague of Koreans in
Japan% that maintaine& ties )ith the Japanese 1ommunist Party4 +eports on the Kobe inci&ent emphasiLe& that its (ea&ers be(onge& to
this group, an& that their fo((o)ers, being peop(e of (imite& inte((igence, )ere easi(y s)aye& by this )ay)ar& inf(uence4 ;(iLabeth
+yan echoe& these *ie)s in her (etters4 On Apri( < she remar'e& that these troub(ema'ers, )ho )ere &ri*en by (eftist agitators,
pro*i&e& the Japanese po(ice )ith a test to pro*e their capacity to maintain (a) an& or&er5
NThe Koreans ha*e been a pain in the nec' a(( a(ong4 They ha*e some strange notion that they are the Occupationaires,
an& rea((y gi*e these Japs a har& time4 They go into shops an& boar& street cars )ith no intention of paying4 The poor Jap
)as scare& to &o anything about it because he got beat up4 0o fina((y, )e ha& to te(( them to sett(e the thing )ith their
o)n (a) enforcement agencies (ha*e to (et them stan& on their feet% an& )e )ou(& bac' them up to @ue(( rioting, etc4 A((
this Korean business is 1ommunist-insti((e&4O 2"3
In an un&ate& (etter she repeate& the c(aim that Nmuch 2Korean3 acti*ity is 1ommunisticO a&&ing that the recent Nuprising\among
Japanese an& KoreansO )as har&(y unusua(bNIt happene& a(( the time4O
American images of Koreans ha& ne*er been o*er(y positi*e4 Their negati*e *ie)s )ere e*i&ent in the 7404 being one of the first to
recogniLe JapanKs paramount position on the peninsu(a in "#$., an& among the first to b(ess its anne>ation of Korea fi*e years (ater4
;*en after the 7404 )ent to )ar )ith Japan, ca((s cou(& sti(( be hear& for Japan to be a((o)e& to 'eep Korea4 2"A3 A report tit(e&
NA(iens in Japan,O comp(ete& before the en& of the )ar, incorporate& many negati*e attitu&es fre@uent(y seen in Japanese )riting on
Koreans5
NThe Koreans in Japan are, for the most part, a &istinct minority group )ith a (o) socia( an& economic position4 Koreans
genera((y (i*e apart from Japanese, &o not intermarry, an& are not assimi(ate& into Japanese (ife to any great e>tent4 The
tra&itiona( pattern of Korean migration )as base& on the seasona( nee& for (abor in Japan an& the migrantsK &esire to
return to Korea for the Ce) Bear ho(i&ays4O
The report a(so borro)e& images use& by the Japanese (an& other co(oniLers% to :ustify co(onia( anne>ation5 The peop(e (ac'e& the
NJapanese fe*er for har& )or' 2an&3 appear to be s(o)-mo*ing an& (aLy4O 2"/3
American 1onsu( -oug(as Jen'ins, )ho )as statione& in Kobe, a(so *ie)e& Koreans as (eft-)ing troub(ema'ers, an& suggeste& that
they marche& to Mosco)Ks or&ers4
NThere are bet)een !$,$$$ an& <$,$$$ Koreans in Kobe4 The great ma:ority of them )ere importe& by the Japanese
&uring the )ar for manua( (abor4 They are of the (o) type genera((y, poor(y e&ucate& an& inc(u&e among their number a
high number of thugs an& roughnec's\4 This (arge, boisterous an& &issatisfie&, a(ien group in the popu(ation of the city
is an easy prey to organiLers an& agitators4 They are 'no)n to inc(u&e among their (ea&ers a number of communists an&
@uasi-communists )ho probab(y recei*e instructions from Corthern Korea or, if not that c(ose(y associate&, certain(y
fo((o) the party (ine4O 2".3
+yan an& Jen'insK appraisa(s of this minority suggest misconceptions of the peop(eKs purpose for both coming an& remaining in Japan4
The contention that the Ngreat ma:orityO of them came as force& (aborers is probab(y inaccurate4 Among the estimate& 4/ mi((ion
Koreans in Japan at the en& of the )ar, about one-thir& (or <$$,$$$% )ere force& to come to Japan to perform har& (abor4 2"!3 After the
)ar these peop(e )ere gi*en high repatriation priority4 They thus (ac'e& many of the reasons that pre*ente& Koreans )ith a more
estab(ishe& e>istence from returning5 their inabi(ity to bring their entire estate to Korea an& their insufficient 'no)(e&ge of the Korean
(anguage an& cu(ture4 Those )ho characteriLe& the participants in the inci&ent as NthugsO or Nroughnec'sO emphasiLe& their actions
o*er their genera( purpose, to say nothing of their frustrations4 Korean frustrations stemme& from ha*ing en&ure& force& assimi(ation
&uring the four &eca&es of co(onia( ru(e4 To this peop(e, 01APKs e&ucation po(icies mirrore& this co(onia(-era po(icy as they force&
Koreans to accept a Japanese-centere& e>istence )hi(e treating them an& the Koreans an& their cu(ture as inferior to the Japanese4
The be(ief that the NriotersO )ere Ncommunists an& @uasi-communists 2)ho toe&3 the party (ineO a(so ref(ecte& an impression that
01AP officia(s ha& &e*e(ope& soon after the )arKs en& in southern Korea, as )e((4 In mi&-0eptember "#/., :ust )ee's after the 7404
ha& estab(ishe& its Mi(itary ,o*ernment in southern Korea, Po(itica( A&*iser H4 Merre(( Henninghoff inc(u&e& the fo((o)ing in his
Nbrief ana(ysis of con&itions in Korea4O
NThere is (itt(e &oubt that 0o*iet agents are sprea&ing their po(itica( thought throughout southern Korea, an& se*era(
para&es an& &emonstrations in 0eou( ha*e a&mitte&(y been communist-inspire&4 1ommunists a&*ocate the seiLure no6 of
Japanese properties an& may be a threat to (a) an& or&er4 It is probab(e that )e((-traine& agitators are attempting to bring
about chaos in our area so as to cause the Koreans to repu&iate the 7nite& 0tates in fa*or of 0o*iet Nfree&omO an&
contro(4 0outhern Korea is a ferti(e groun& for such acti*ities because 70AFIK (ac's sufficient troops to e>pan& its area
of contro( rapi&(y4O 2"<3
The connection )ith Japan came )ith the smugg(ing operations that Koreans an& Japanese carrie& out across the ;ast 0ea6Japan 0ea4
Occasiona((y concerns )ere *oice& in go*ernment &ocuments as to )hether these operations, in a&&ition to i((ega((y transporting rice,
)eapons, money, an& e*en peop(e, )ere so(i&ifying 0o*iet-Corth Korea-Japan (eftist connections4 2"?3
These s(urs on Korean character neg(ecte& to consi&er )hy this peop(e ob:ecte& so strong(y to &ecisions that force& them to (i*e un&er
Japanese :uris&iction &espite the har&ships they en&ure& un&er co(onia( ru(e4 The ma:ority ha& not been brought to Japan against their
)i((, as +yan c(aime&4 8hi(e, as the NA(iens in JapanO artic(e e>p(aine&, many of JapanKs Korean minority ha& resiste& assimi(ation
o*er the (ast four &eca&es, the actions an& attitu&es of Japanese ha& a(so &iscourage& those Koreans )ho )ishe& to (i*e as Japanese4
Koreans atten&ing Japanese schoo(s face& &iscrimination, an& upon gra&uating )ere genera((y (imite& to (o)er status :obs an&
positions4 After the "#A ,reat Kanto ;arth@ua'e the Japanese po(ice sprea& base(ess rumors that Koreans )ere committing acts of
terror (such as po((uting the )e(( )ater% that encourage& the sense(ess s(aughter of o*er <,$$$ Japan-base& Koreans4 Koreans )ere a(so
prohibite& from entering their fami(y registers in Japan an& ha& to return to their Korean hometo)n )hene*er changes to this
&ocument )ere re@uire&4
+egar&(ess of )hether they p(anne& to remain in Japan, as most e*entua((y &i&, or return to Korea, for many, the most attracti*e short-
term option )as to enro(( their chi(&ren in the ethnic schoo(s4 Bet, this &ecision ma&e (itt(e sense to American occupation
a&ministrators )ho sa) the most efficient means of encouraging Korean assimi(ation (or repatriation% to be their stu&ying a(ongsi&e
their Japanese counterparts4 01AP refuse& to see the Korean efforts for )hat they )erebattempts to protect the aspiration that their
chi(&ren &e*e(op or maintain a sense of i&entity as Koreans4 +ather, 01AP interprete& them as efforts to encourage a (arger causeb
internationa( communist re*o(ution4 +yan :oine& other American officia(s in tying the NriotsO to the upcoming e(ections sche&u(e& for
May "$ in southern Korea4 0he )rote that 01AP ha& e*en &ra)n up e*acuation p(ans shou(& Korean actions threaten American
resi&ents4
NThe Korean e(ections certain(y ha*e been )atche& from here )ith much interest for a (ong time4 The outbrea' has been
confine& to the 1ommunists an& the Koreans, but for a time there )as a great fear that the attac' )ou(& be ma&e on
Americans an& )e )ere rea&y for it4 +ight after the first of the year hush-hush arrangements )ent on )ith preparations to
e*acuate a(( Americans from Korea if a riot bro'e out prior to the e(ections4 Kobe natura((y )ou(& be the first ha*en for
them4 0hips came o*er from the 0tates (oa&e& &o)n )ith foo& an& it )as store& here\4 A month ago a(( petro(eum
pro&ucts )ere cut off so that in case of e*acuation there )ou(& be nothing (eft for the +e&s to ta'e o*er4 Then Mrs4
Keeney an& her baby\got out of there the (ast part of March as &i& many others4 Many ships )ere out at sea rea&y to put
in at 0eou( an& other ports in case e*acuation became necessary e*en at the ""
th
hour4O
0he e>presse& re(ief that her suspicions this time came to naught5 after Nthe e(ections ha*e passe& that fear is o*er for the time being at
(east4O
+yanKs opinions again ref(ecte& those of her peers in Japan, as )e see in -oug(as Jen'insK (etter to 8i((iam J4 0eba(&4 Jen'ins
suggeste& that Koreans )ere not especia((y concerne& o*er the future of their ethnic schoo(s, but sa) 01APKs actions as an
opportunity to protest a more important issue, the upcoming e(ections4
N8ith the e(ections in 0outhern Korea imminent, any c(ash bet)een Koreans in Japan an& the Occupation forces, )hich
cou(& be p(aye& up as &emonstrating the Occupation supporting the Japanese against the Koreans, )ou(& ser*e as usefu(
propagan&a ammunition in 0outhern Korea, an& cou(& a(so be use& throughout the )or(& as a further e>amp(e of
PAmerican imperia(ism4K

The Korean (ea&ers )ere presente& )ith a rea&y ma&e cause for mass protest by the c(osing of Korean schoo(s by the
Japanese authorities for the fai(ure of the schoo(s to comp(y )ith recent(y enacte& e&ucation (egis(ation4 Co &oubt, ha&
this eminent(y satisfactory cause for protest not come to han&, the (ea&ers )ou(& ha*e in*ente& another to obscure their
un&er(ying moti*e4O 2"#3
01AP officia(s might be e>cuse& for consi&ering this possibi(ity4 The &ays (ea&ing up to the May "$ e(ections )ere fi((e& )ith *io(ence
bet)een (eft an& right-)ing factions4 The ,-II Perio&ic +eports of Apri( ?, the &ay +yan penne& her first (etter on the Kobe inci&ent,
(iste& the fo((o)ing acts of Nci*i( unrestO in southern Korea4 A Nmob of un'no)n siLe thre) a homema&e han& grena&e into the home
of a (oca( e(ection can&i&ateOD the N0outh Korean 9abor Party (0K9P% has issue& instructions that a(( myQn (*i((age% offices, po(ice
bo>es an& registration offices must be burne& to &estroy e(ection recor&s4 0K9P has a(so promise& that arms sent by the Corth Korean
9abor Party )i(( be a*ai(ab(e by "$ MayOD an& Nthree members of the (oca( e(ection committee )ere 'i((e& an& one serious(y in:ure&
)hen attac'e& by a mob of $ terrorists arme& )ith spears an& shotguns4O This report a(so carrie& ne)s of mob attac's on schoo(
principa(s, *i((age hea&s, (ea&ers of right-)ing groups, an& po(ice officers4 2$3 In a&&ition, Jio(ent confrontations on a mass sca(e a(so
bro'e out from Apri( "#/? on the is(an& of 1he:u that (eft an estimate& .,$$$ to A$,$$$ of the is(an&ers &ea&, an& force& as many as
/$,$$$ peop(e to f(ee to Japan4 2"3
8hi(e acts of *io(ence committe& by (eftists against rightists recei*e& much more pub(icity in the 7404 reports, this bias probab(y better
ref(ects the conser*ati*e tone of the reports than the actua( situation4 1ounter Inte((igence 1orps (1I1%, for e>amp(e, inc(u&e& in its
report simi(ar acts of sabotage an& *io(ence that )ere instigate& from both si&es4 23 The *io(ence by (eft-)ing groups no &oubt a(so
ref(ecte& 7404 genera( oppression of this e(ement from as ear(y as February "#/!, )hen the Mi(itary ,o*ernment passe& the Po(itica(
Party +egistration Act (ChQn*dan* tun*no- bQp%, a (a) that Kim KutKae compares fa*orab(y to the co(onia(-era Peace Preser*ation
Act42A3 This oppression, an& the fact that the e(ection )as (imite& to southern Korea strengthene& the po(itica( &i*i&e bet)een the t)o
Koreas, (e& many (eft-)ing groups to boycott them a(together4
Occupation officia(s interprete& the Korean actions as communist inspire&4 Koreans on the peninsu(a a&&resse& the inci&ent from a
much &ifferent perspecti*e4 A 1I1 report note& that both (eft- an& right-)ing Koreans *ie)e& this Noppression of Koreans in JapanO as
7404 bac'ing for a rene)a( of Japanese e>pansion in ;ast Asia4 It paraphrase& one (eft-)ing ne)spaper artic(e that reporte& Ninnocent
Koreans 2being3 oppresse& an& mur&ere& not on(y by the Japanese but a(so by the 70 Army Forces in Japan4O The report continue&5
N70 (eniency to)ar& the Japanese is responsib(e for the rene)a( of bruta(ity &irecte& at the Korean peop(e4O The future presi&ent of the
+epub(ic of Korea (+OK%, 0yngman +hee a&&e& that Koreans )ou(& ha*e no &ifficu(ty in choosing si&es on this issue4 2/3
":end them all 0a'- to Korea&
;(iLabeth +yanKs so(ution to the prob(embsen& them a(( bac' to Korea, an& if they &o not )ant to return ha*e them ta'e out Japanese
citiLenshipb)as a simp(istic so(ution to a much more comp(e> prob(em4 Bet, it )as one fre@uent(y offere& by many in the Occupation
an& Japanese go*ernments4 7pon arri*ing in Kobe, ,enera( +obert 94 ;iche(berger remar'e& that he )ishe& he Nha& the Rueen
/li+abeth here to ship the )ho(e (ot of them 2Koreans3 to Korea4O2.3 Japanese Prime Minister Boshi&a 0higeru suggeste& in a (etter
to -oug(as MacArther that the 7404 a&ministration forcefu((y return a(( Koreans )ho )ere unab(e to Ncontribute to 2JapanKs3
reconstruction4O MacArthur, sympathiLe& )ith Boshi&aKs genera( aim to ri& Japan of this prob(em, but )as un)i((ing to force them to
&o so4 He (amente& that shou(& he &o so they N)ou(& ha*e their hea&s cut offO by the 0outh Korean go*ernment as they )ere a((
NCorth Koreans,O in other )or&s, communists4 2!3
Ma'(rthur and Moshida, 32JI
:u'h su**estions 6ere impra'ti'al .or a number o. reasons8 First, the idea that Koreans should "return& to Korea made little
sense to this people, many o. 6hom had been born and raised in Japan8 ,he Japan-based Korean population 'onsisted o. a
lar*e number o. .irst-*eneration Koreans, but perhaps e;en more se'ond- and third-*eneration Koreans8 For these latter
people Japan 6as the only "home& they -ne68 K2OL ,hey had little or no -no6led*e o. their an'estral lan*ua*e and 'ulture8
Indeed, some 6ho had been raised as Japanese durin* the pre6ar and 6artime periods did not learn that they 6ere o. Korean
an'estry until a.ter Korea#s liberation8 ,hese de.i'ien'ies 'ompli'ated the e..orts o. many repatriated Koreans to inte*rate into
Korean so'iety, leadin* them to on'e a*ain 'ross o;er 1no6 ille*ally5 into Japan8 ,he 32IO (lien Fe*istration )rdinan'e
'ate*ori+ed all Japan-based Koreans as ".orei*ner& 1or alien5, e;en thou*h :C(P expe'ted the people to *o to s'hools o.
"Japanese nationals8& K2GL Feelin* una''epted in both Korean and Japanese 'ulture, the ethni' s'hools pro;ided Koreans 6ith
an opportunity to reorient their 'hildren to their an'estral 'ulture8
+yan an& ;iche(berger might ha*e recogniLe& that 7404 po(icy a(so comp(icate& their return to Korea4 Occupation po(icy se*ere(y
(imite& the amount of be(ongings returnees (both Korean an& Japanese% cou(& bring4 One pro*ision restricte& them to bringing bac'
:ust up to ",$$$ yen in currency, not enough to sur*i*e a fe) )ee's much (ess to restart their (i*es in a ne) en*ironment4 2#3
A&&itiona( prob(ems a)aite& them upon arri*a( in southern Korea4 The )arKs en& an& KoreaKs &i*ision interrupte& economic net)or's
that Japan ha& nurture& throughout its ;ast Asian ;mpire4 This cause& acute shortages in foo&, energy, an& natura( resources in
southern Korea, )hich further curtai(e& the abi(ity of a(( Koreans to procure basic (i*ing essentia(s (housing an& foo&%, an& critica((y
(imite& their opportunities for emp(oyment4 7404 Mi(itary ,o*ernment pro:ections for impro*ement in these areas remaine& g(oomy
o*er its initia( fe) years of its a&ministration of southern Korea4 In a&&ition, Koreans in Japan a(so recei*e& ne)s of po(itica( unrest in
southern Korea an& mi(itary confrontation )ith northern Korea increase& that a(so cause& them to thin' t)ice before returning to the
Korean peninsu(a4 2A$3
,he Kobe "Fiots& and :C(P#s "Fe;erse Course&
The @uestion foremost on the min&s of the Korean protestersb)hy the Japanese an& Occupation a&ministrations &eci&e& to c(ose the
schoo(s at this particu(ar timeb)as the @uestion that ;(iLabeth +yan an& others fai(e& to a&&ress in their commentaries4 The Korean
situation in Japan represents one e>amp(e )here 01APKs other)ise farsighte& &ecision to funne( its or&ers through a Japanese
a&ministration )or'e& to its &isa&*antage4 Ha*ing the Japanese go*ernment or&er the ethnic schoo( to c(ose on(y re'in&(e& in Korean
min&s painfu( memories of JapanKs co(onia( ru(e, an& the troub(es that this regime ha& inf(icte& on this peop(e o*er the past four
&eca&es4
The conte>t un&er )hich these schoo(s )ere c(ose& cannot be &i*orce& from other actions then ta('ing p(ace in Japan4 From "#/<
01AP initiate& )hat has come to be 'no)n as the Nre*erse course,O the 7404 ro((ing bac' occupation po(icies that promote& &emocracy
an& &emi(itariLation in Japan to concentrate efforts on JapanKs economic an& po(itica( &e*e(opment4 These changes )ere inf(uence& by
the Truman -octrine of March "#/<4 Truman *o)e& to Nhe(p free peop(es to maintain their free institutions an& their nationa( integrity
against aggressi*e mo*ements that see' to impose upon them tota(itarian regimes4O 2A"3 In Japan, the Truman -octrine )as manifeste&
in 01APKs purging thousan&s of suspecte& (eftists from positions of inf(uence, an& returning purge& Japanese to these positions,
inc(u&ing a number of 1(ass A )ar crimina(s4 It a(so en&e& p(ans to &ismant(e Japanese cong(omerates (+aibatsu% an& initiate&
&iscussions urging Japanese rearmament4 The fear &ri*ing these changes )as e>presse& by -irector of the Po(icy P(anning 0taff
,eorge Kennan, )ho &uring a March "#/? *isit to Japan @uestione& )hether NJapanKs po)ers of resistance to 1ommunism cou(& be
ta'en for grante&4O 2A3 As 1hina s(ippe& into communism, the 7nite& 0tates came to rea(iLe the paramount position that Japan )ou(&
p(ay in ;ast Asian po(itica( affairs4 01APKs or&er to the Japanese to c(ose Korean ethnic schoo(s, )hich it be(ie*e& ser*e& as a
bree&ing groun& for communist in&octrination, ref(ecte& the spirit of this po(icy re*ersa(4
The upcoming e(ections in southern Korea may a(so ha*e factore& in the timing of the schoo(sK c(osing4 The formation of a
&emocratica((y e(ecte& nationa( assemb(y, an& the anticipate& estab(ishment of a Korean go*ernment, )ou(& offer Japan-base& Koreans
the opportunity to register as 0outh Korean nationa(s, )hich in turn might e>pe&ite their repatriation4 This scenario )as anticipate& in
the N0taff 0tu&y 1oncerning Koreans in KoreaO &ate& August "!, "#/?, one &ay after the 0outh Korean go*ernment )as officia((y
inaugurate&4 This stu&y began by out(ining the prob(em5 NThere are about !$$,$$$ Koreans in JapanD most of them )ere born in Korea
or in Japan of Korean parents4 It is estimate& that on a month(y a*erage !.$ Koreans enter Japan i((ega((y an& that /$$ are repatriate&
or &eporte& to Korea4O It then summariLe& the efforts that 01AP ha& ma&e to repatriate Japan-base& Koreans5
N01AP po(icy to)ar& Koreans in Japan has been t)ofo(&5 a% \Koreans ha*e been treate& as (iberate& peop(e an&
therefore strenuous efforts ha*e been ma&e to repatriate to Korea a(( Koreans in Japan )ho )ishe& to returnD b% Koreans
)ho *o(untari(y continue& to resi&e in Japan ha*e been presumpti*e(y consi&ere& for purposes of treatment as retaining
their Japanese nationa(ity an& are to be consi&ere& unti( such time as a &u(y estab(ishe& Korean ,o*ernment accor&s
them recognition as Korean nationa(s4O
Ho)e*er, those Koreans )ho remaine& in Japan )ere re(uctant to return to Korea &ue in part to the uncertain prospects in both ha(*es
of the peninsu(a4 Bet, at the same time their continue& presence in Japan cause& a number of prob(ems4
NPo(itica((y, Koreans ha*e attempte& to estab(ish a (arge &egree of autonomy in Japan4 Many of them ha*e ten&e& more
an& more to participate in communist acti*ity, so that no) the 9eague of Koreans +esi&ing in Japan, the principa( Korean
organiLation in Japan, is (arge(y &ominate& by communists4 Koreans mo*e i((ega((y bet)een Japan an& Korea ser*e as
the (in' bet)een Japanese communists an& those on the continent of AsiabKorean, 1hinese, an& +ussian\40ocia((y the
Koreans represent a group )hich &oes not rea&i(y assimi(ate to the Japanese both because of the (ong-stan&ing pre:u&ice
of the (atter an& because of the une&ucate& an& genera((y un&erpri*i(ege& character of most of the Koreans in
Japan\4The recent riots in Osa'a an& Kobe arising from refusa( by the Koreans to comp(y )ith or&ers of the Japanese
,o*ernment affor&e& a test of the e>tent of Korean autonomy in Japan\4The riots ha*e of course increase& the
bitterness bet)een Japanese an& Koreans, an& it is un&eniab(e that the Japanese )ou(& be on(y too happy to see a((
Koreans (ea*e Japan4O
The stu&y then recommen&e& changes to faci(itate Korean repatriation that inc(u&e& increasing the amount of currency )ith )hich
they cou(& return to "$$,$$$ yen, offering better protection for the part of their estate that e>cee&e& this amount, an& pro*i&ing more
con*enient transportation an& better terms for repatriation4 At the same time the 0taff 0tu&y report ac'no)(e&ge& that these measures
a(one )ou(& be insufficient to encourage comp(ete repatriation4 Those )ho remaine& in Japan, it a&*ise&, shou(& be treate& as Japanese
nationa(s e*en if they registere& as Koreans an& he(& &ua( nationa(ity, or if they reentere& Japan after resett(ing in Korea4 The stu&y &i&
(itt(e to reso(*e the prob(ems of Korean resi&ents4 8ith the (one e>ception of the recommen&ation to increase the amount of their estate
)ith )hich Koreans cou(& return to Korea, 01AP ma&e no changes in po(icy4 It )ashe& its han&s of the prob(em, (ea*ing it for 0outh
Korean an& Japanese go*ernments to negotiate after Japan regaine& its so*ereignty4 It )ou(& be "#!. before Japan an& the +epub(ic of
Korea (+OK or 0outh Korea% signe& both a treaty to norma(iLe their &ip(omatic re(ations an& an agreement that set con&itions for
Japan-base& Koreans to meet shou(& they see' permanent resi&ence in Japan4 Japan-Corth Korea re(ations ha*e yet to be norma(iLe&4
The shoc' of the *io(ent response by Koreans to 01APKs or&er to c(ose the schoo(s initia((y (e& to its harsh reaction4 Bet, it a(so
a)a'ene& 01AP to the nee& to negotiate )ith Korean (ea&ers4 On May ., "#/? the (sahi :hinbun &ec(are& the prob(em so(*e& )hen
the Osa'a an& Kobe schoo(s agree& to app(y for authoriLation (nin-a% as pri*ate schoo(s4 2AA3 The Korean popu(ation cou(& on(y *ie)
this resu(t as &efeat, a compromise that benefite& the Japanese as it create& separate Koreans an& Japanese schoo(s4 Koreans, on the
other han&, &i& gain the right to e&ucate their chi(&ren in a Korean en*ironment an& to offer them a (imite& Korean ethnic program4 Hut
it )as a(so an e&ucation that remaine& sub:ecte& to Japanese Ministry of ;&ucation &irecti*es4
Tension heightene& after the -emocratic Peop(eKs +epub(ic of Korea (-P+K or Corth Korea% )as estab(ishe& in 0eptember "#/?4
01AP soon banne& &isp(ay of the -P+K f(ag at ra((ies, sub:ugating *io(ators to arrest an& &eportation to the +OK4 ;>act(y one year
(ater 01AP began enforcing its Apri( "#/# or&er for the 9eague of Koreans to &isban&4 On 0eptember #, .$$ Japanese po(ice officers
(oc'e& the &oors of the organiLationKs hea&@uarters4 The Japanese go*ernment again targete& ethnic schoo(s by or&ering A.$ of them
to c(ose4 Of those that app(ie& for pri*ate schoo( status, on(y three )ere accepte&4 Other schoo(s gaine& recognition as Nmisce((aneous
schoo(sO that )ere free& from Japanese inf(uence, an& thus ab(e to &e*e(op a Korean-base& curricu(um4 2A/3 A ha(f-century (ater #$
percent of a(( Japan-base& Korean chi(&ren recei*e& their e&ucation as minorities in Japanese schoo(s, many obscure& by the use of
Japanese names, f(uent Japanese (anguage abi(ities, an& fami(iarity )ith Japanese cu(ture an& mannerisms4 2A.3

2;C-3
Mar- /8 Caprio is a pro.essor o. history at Fi--yo Eni;ersity in ,o-yo and a Japan Fo'us asso'iate8 He has re'ently
'ompleted a manus'ript titled The Japanese Assimi(ation of Koreans, "#"$-"#/., 6hi'h 6ill be published by the Eni;ersity o.
<ashin*ton Press in early 2HH28 He 'an be rea'hed at 'aprioSri--o8a'8$p8 ,he author 6ould li-e to than- Mar- :elden .or
su**estin* this topi', Katalin Ferber .or 'omments on an earlier ;ersion o. this paper, im Chol .or ;aluable insi*hts to
@uestions about the in'ident and Japan-based Koreans in *eneral, and Ken (lley .or permission to use the pi'tures o.
/li+abeth Fyan and the Kobe 'ourt s'ene8 He 6rote this arti'le .or Japan Fo'us8 Posted at Japan Fo'us on >o;ember 2I,
2HHG8
+ecommen&e& citation5 Mar' ;4 1aprio, IThe 1o(& 8ar ;>p(o&es in KobebThe "#/? Korean ;thnic 0choo( N+iotsO an& 70
Occupation Authorities,I ,he (sia-Pa'i.i' Journal: Japan Fo'us, Jo(4 /?--$?, Co*ember /, $$?4
>otes
2"3 7n(ess specifie& other)ise, information on the riots is ta'en from N7nite& 0tates of America *s4 Kim -ai 0am 2TKaesam3 et a(5
+e*ie) of the 0taff Ju&ge A&*ocate,O +ecor&s of the 7404 -epartment of 0tate +e(ating to the Interna( Affairs of Japan, "#/.-"#/#,
ree( A (To'yo5 Japanese -iet 9ibrary, microfi(m%4
23 Pa' Kyonsi', KaihC-*o +aini'hi ChCsen$in undCshi 2The history of post-(iberation Japan-base& Korean &emonstrations3 (To'yo5
0anKichi shoten, "#?#%, "#.4
2A3 N0entences Impose& as +esu(ts of Kobe-Osa'a +iots in Apri( "#/?,O +ecor&s of the 7404 -epartment of 0tate +e(ating to the
Interna( Affairs of Japan, "#/.-"#/#, ree( A (To'yo5 Japanese -iet 9ibrary, microfi(m%4
2/3 1hangsoo 9ee, NKoreans 7n&er 0JAP5 An ;ra of 7nrest an& +epression,O in Koreans in Japan: /thni' Con.li't and
(''ommodation, e&ite& by 9ee an& -e Jos (Her'e(ey5 7ni*ersity of 1a(ifornia Press, "#?"%, ?"4
2.3 These (etters, )hich tota(e& o*er "$$$ pages, )ere recent(y &isco*ere& in a use& boo'store in Cebras'a4 Japan ,imes staff )riter
+ei:i Boshi&a has )ritten a series of artic(es on them4 I am in&ebte& to him for sharing )ith me the (etters in*o(*ing the Kobe riots
a(ong )ith other &ocuments that he co((ecte& in*o(*ing the inci&ent4 His artic(es can be foun& at
2!3 This )as probab(y &ue to her an& Nthe boysO being restricte& to camp, as she reporte& in her Apri( <, "#/? (etter4
2<3 Bi 8c(sun, NWainichi 1hMsen:in no minLo'u 'yMi'u to Lainichi 1hMsen:in 'yMi'uO (Japan-base& Korean ethnic e&ucation an&
Japan-base& Korean e&ucation% in Pa' 1hongmycng, Taini'hi ChCsen$in no re-ishi to bun-a (Japan-base& Korean history an&
cu(ture% (To'yo5 A'ashi shoten, $$!%, "4
2?3 NThe 1onstitution of Japan,O Japan Institute of 1ongressiona( 9a), at
2#3 Hiromitsu Ino'uchi, NKorean ;thnic 0choo(s in Occupie& Japan, "#/.-.,O in Koreans in Japan: Criti'al ;oi'es .rom the
Mar*in, e&ite& by 0onia +yang (9on&on5 +out(e&ge61urLon, $$%, ".$4
2"$3 Hoth or&ers )ere originate& by 01AP4 Ta'emae ;i:i, GHR: ,he (llied )''upation o. Japan and its e*a'y, trans4 +obert
+ic'etts an& 0ebastian 0)ann (Ce) Bor'5 1ontinuum, $$"%, /!4
2""3 Ibi&4, /.$4
2"3 In another un&ate& (etter +yan )rites that the massi*e NKorean huntO )as a &emonstration to the +ussians ()ho )ere suspecte& as
Nbehin& a(( this unrestO% to ma'e them, as she put it, Nstay out of our p(ay pen here4O
2"A3 For e>amp(e, Hugh Hyas, Go;ernment 0y (ssassination (Ce) Bor'5 A(fre& A4 Knopf, "#/%, A.#-A!$4
2"/3 Office of 0trategic 0er*ices, NA(iens in JapanO (June #, "#/.%, NOccupation of JapanO 7nite& 0tates P(anning -ocuments, "#/-
"#/., Jo(ume III of set (ocate& in the Japanese Cationa( 9ibrary, pp4 , ".4
2".3 9etter from -oug(ass Jen'ins to 7404 Po(itica( A&*iser 8i((iam 0eba(& (May /, "#/?%4 +ecor&s of the 7404 -epartment of 0tate
+e(ating to the Interna( Affairs of Japan, "#/.-"#/#, ree( ". (To'yo5 Japanese -iet 9ibrary, microfi(m%4
2"!3 0ee 8i((iam 7n&er)oo&, NCe) ;ra for Japan-Korea History Issues5 Force& 9abor +e&ress ;fforts Hegin to Hear Fruit,O Japan
Fo'us4
2"<3 H4 Merre(( Henninghoff, NThe Po(itica( A&*iser in Korea (Henninghoff% to the 0ecretary of 0tate,O Forei*n Felations o. the
Enited :tates JI (0eptember "., "#/.%, "$."4 This attitu&e may ha*e been inf(uence& by communications sent by the Japanese to
O'ina)a, )here the occupying army prepare& for its ne) assignment prior to arri*a(4 0ee Kobayashi Tomo'o, N,HX no Lainichi
1hMsen:in ninshi'i ni 'an suru i''MsatuO (One consi&eration of ,HXKs perception of Koreans%, ChCsenshi -en-yB-ai ronbunshB A
(October "##/%, "!.-"#4 for a summary of 7404 suspicions of communist inf(uence in southern Korea4 Hruce 1umings foun& (itt(e
e*i&ence to support the often-hear& contention that 0o*iet or Corth Korean sources )ere supp(ying southern guerri((as4 1umings,
Korea#s Pla'e in the :un: ( Modern History (Ce) Bor'5 8484 Corton, "##<%, /.4 He )rites that a(though from aroun& the time
of 0yngman +heeKs "#/? e(ection southern communists began recei*ing gui&ance from Corth Korean communists, it Ncannot be sai&
2they3 )ere mere creatures of Kim I( 0ungO (ibi&4, "?%4
2"?3 For &iscussion on the smugg(ing operations see Tessa Morris-0uLu'i, NAn Act Pre:u&icia( to the Occupation Forces5 Migration
1ontro(s an& Korean +esi&ents in Post-0urren&er Japan,O Japan :tudies /, no4 " (May $$/%5 .-?4
2"#3 N9etter from Jen'ins to 0eba(&,O May /, "#/?4 In Fe'ords o. the E8:8 7epartment o. :tate Felatin* to the Internal (..airs o.
Japan, 32IJ-32I2 (Microfi(m, +ee( "., Japan -iet 9ibrary%4 For simi(ar *ie)s see N,enera( -eanKs Ans)er to 8ritten Press
Xuestions of May !, "#/?,O in ibi&4
2$3 ,- Perio&ic +eports (Apri( ?, "#/?%4
2"3 1umings, Korea#s Pla'e in the :un, pp4 $-"4
23 1I1 +eports carrie& statistics that suggeste& these acts to ha*e been more ba(ance& than the information inc(u&e& in ,-II reports,
)hich &i& not (ist right-)ing acts against (eft-)ing groups4 In its May "! report it recor&e& "! &eaths of )hich /A )ere members of
(eft-)ing groups, an& .# members of right-)ing groups4 1ounter Inte((igence 1orps 0emi-Month(y +eport (May "!, "#/?%, 1I1
Pogoso ("#/.4# = "#/#4"% A (0eou(5 Ha((ym 7ni*ersity, "##.%, /$!-/$<, //4
2A3 Kim KutKae, Mi*un'hQn* Ui Han*u- t#on*'h#i (7404 mi(itary a&ministrationKs ru(e in Korea% (0eou(5 Pagycngsa, "##%, "."-
".4 The Peace Preser*ation Act acte& as a mo&e( for 0outh KoreaKs Cationa( 0ecurity 9a) that is most fre@uent(y app(ie& to anyone
)ho &emonstrates sympathy to communism or to Corth Korea4
2/3 1ounter Inte((igence 1orps 0emi-Month(y +eport (Apri( A-A$, "#/?%, ".4
2.3 9ee, NKoreans 7n&er 01AP, p4 ?4
2!3 1hangsoo 9ee, NThe 9ega( 0tatus of Koreans in Japan,O in 9ee an& -e Jos, e&s4, Koreans in Japan, p4"A?4
2<3 +ichar& H4 Mitche(( @uotes Ministry of Justice figures to estimate that in "#.$ :ust un&er ha(f (/#4# percent% of Japan-base&
Koreans )ere secon& generation in his ,he Korean Minority in Japan (Her'e(ey5 7ni*ersity of 1a(ifornia, "#!<%, ".#4
2?3 9ee, NThe 9ega( 0tatus of Koreans in Japan,O p4 "A?4 This )as in part a &ecision base& on practica(ities4 Ha& 01AP grante&
Koreans the specia( status they &eman&e&, they )ou(& ha*e been e(igib(e for specia( foo& rations an& other pri*i(eges affor&e& peop(es
of 7nite& Cations states4 The sheer siLe of the Japan-base& Korean popu(ation ma&e this option rather impractica(4 0ee Mar' ;4
1aprio, N+esi&ent A(iens5 Forging the Po(itica( 0tatus of Koreans in Occupie& Japan4O In Mar' ;4 1aprio an& Boneyu'i 0ugita, e&s4
7emo'ra'y in )''upied Japan: ,he E8:8 )''upation and Japanese Politi's and :o'iety (9on&on5 +out(e&ge, $$<%, "<?-"##4
2#3 As I &escribe in N+esi&ent A(iens,O more entrepreneuria( returnees )ere ab(e to circum*ent this restriction by e>changing money
en route to Korea )ith Japanese returning to Japan4 As )e sha(( see be(o), e*en 01AP officia(s recogniLe& this restriction as a
formi&ab(e barrier to Korean repatriation4
2A$3 Hruce 1umings offers a more comp(ete &escription of this *io(ence4 0ee his t)o-*o(ume )ri*ins o. the Korean <ar (Princeton5
Princeton 7ni*ersity Press, "#?", "##$%4 I ref(ect on the effect that this *io(ence ha& on Japan-base& Koreans in N+esi&ent A(iens4
2A"3 Truman &e(i*ere& this speech before 1ongress to re@uest ["$$ mi((ion in ai& for ,reece an& Tur'ey4 Xuote& in 8arren I4 1ohen,
,he Cambrid*e History o. (meri'an Forei*n Felations, Pol8 IP: (meri'a in the (*e o. :o;iet Po6er, 32IJ-3222 (1ambri&ge5
7K, 1ambri&ge 7ni*ersity Press, "##.%, A?-A#4
2A3 ,eorge F4 Kennan, Memoirs, 322J-32JH (Hoston5 9itt(e Hro)n an& 1ompany, "#!<%, 1hapter "!4 For a summary of this Nre*erse
courseO see Mar' ;4 1aprio an& Boneyu'i 0ugita, NIntro&uction5 The 7404 Occupation of JapanbInno*ation, 1ontinuity, an&
1ompromise,O in 1aprio an& 0ugita, e&s4, 7emo'ra'y in )''upied Japan: ,he E8:8 )''upation and Japanese Politi's and
:o'iety, pp4"-"<4
2AA3 N0hiritsu &e nin'a shinsei5 1hMsen ga''M mon&ai )a 'ai'etsuO (Korean schoo( prob(em is so(*e&5 They )i(( app(y for
authoriLation as pri*ate schoo(s%, (sahi shinbun (May ., "#/?%4 0choo(s in To'yo remaine& open but )ere absorbe& by the Japanese
schoo(s system that supp(ie& the schoo(s )ith Japanese staff an& teachers4 (Ino'uchi, NKorean ethnic schoo(s,O p4 "./4
2A/3 0ee Ino'uchi, NKorean ethnic schoo(s,O p4 ".A-"..4
2A.3 0ee ;ri'o Ao'i, NKorean 1hi(&ren, Te>tboo's, an& ;&ucationa( Practices in Japanese Primary 0choo(s,O in +yang, Koreans in
Japan, p4 ".<4
0ource5 http566o(&4:apanfocus4org6Fmar'FeFFcaprio-
theFco(&F)arFe>p(o&esFinF'obeFFFtheF"#/?F'oreanFethnicFschoo(FFFFriotsFFFFan&FusFoccupationFauthorities
.odern 0apan and )nternational 2%%airs
Prime .inister o% 0apan Shigeru Yoshida 3seated5 signs the Bilateral Se&urity 4reaty during the post#ar pea&e &on%eren&e in San (ran&is&o8
?ali%ornia on Septem:er 8 19,1. 4he Se&urity 4reaty8 #hi&h #as signed shortly a%ter the signing o% the 0apanese Pea&e 4reaty8 permits
2meri&an military to remain in and around 0apan a%ter the Pea&e 4reaty :e&omes e%%e&tive. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Shigeru Yoshida 34 8 Septem:er **8 17/@&to:er *<8 19=75 served as the Prime .inister o% 0apan on t#o separate o&&asions 3.ay **8
19H=Q.ay *H8 19H78 @&to:er 1,8 19H/Ie&em:er 1<8 19,H5. Shigeru Yoshida served as ?onsul Beneral in 4ientsin 319**/19*,58 ?onsul
Beneral in .ukden 319*,/19*58 Ci&e/.inister %or (oreign 2%%airs 319*/19+<58 0apanese 2m:assador to (as&ist )taly 319+</19+*58 0apanese
2m:assador to the British Empire 319+=/19+958 and .inister %or (oreign 2%%airs 319H,/19H78 19H/19,H5. 4aro 2so 3 S758 the %ormer
Prime .inister o% 0apan8 is the grandson o% Shigeru Yoshida.
;>cerpts from Shigeru !oshida: :ast Mei;i Man by 0higeru Boshi&a, Hiroshi Cara, an& Boshi&a Ken-ichi
0apan7s Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida and his daughter and son/in/la# visit 0ohn I. Ao&ke%eller ))) at the (ield#ood (arm in
1ovem:er 19,H.
Le%t to right! .rs. 6aGuko 2so8 daughter o% Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida and mother o% &urrent Prime .inister 4aro 2so8 Prime .inister o%
0apan Shigeru Yoshida 3&enter58 and 0oseph ?. Bre#8 %ormer '.S. 2m:assador to 0apan8 meet at the Washington 1ational 2irport in
Washington8 I.?. on 1ovem:er 1+8 19,H. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
'.S. Se&retary o% State 0ohn (oster Iulles 3le%t5 greets Prime .inister o% 0apan Shigeru Yoshida a%ter arriving in Washington8 I.?. on
1ovem:er 78 19,H. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Prime .inister o% 0apan Shigeru Yoshida 3le%t5 is greeted :y '.S. Se&retary o% Ie%ense ?harles E. Wilson #hen he visited the Pentagon near
Washington8 I.?.8 '.S.2. on 1ovem:er 8 19,H. Yoshida arrived the day :e%ore %or %ive days o% high/level talks. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
President I#ight I. Eisenho#er and 0apan7s Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida are sho#n #alking to the White House a%ter they posed %or
photographers on the north porti&o o% the E;e&utive .ansion on 1ovem:er 1<8 19,H. I#ight I. Eisenho#er #as a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on
(oreign Aelations. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5

Le%t! Aetired '.S. 2rmy Beneral Iouglas .a&2rthur 3le%t58 %ormer Supreme ?ommander o% the 2llied Po#ers in 0apan8 greets Prime .inister o%
0apan Shigeru Yoshida in the Beneral9s suite at the Waldor%/2storia Hotel in 1e# York ?ity on 1ovem:er ,8 19,H. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Aight! His Holiness Pope Pius Y)) 3&enter5 re&eives Prime .inister o% 0apan Shigeru Yoshida 3le%t5 and Yoshida7s daughter 6aGuko 3right5 in
an audien&e at the Papal summer residen&e in ?astel Bandol%o8 )taly on @&to:er *18 19,H. 3Photo! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
President 2&hmed Sukarno 3&enter5 o% )ndonesia meets #ith Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan 3le%t5 and ?ro#n Prin&e 2kihito o% 0apan #hen
Sukarno #as guest o% the emperor at a lun&heon in the )mperial Pala&e in 4okyo8 0apan on (e:ruary +8 19,. 3)&hiro
(u$imura"Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0a#aharlal 1ehru 3&enter58 Prime .inister o% )ndia8 poses #ith his host8 Emperor Hirohito in the )mperial Pala&e in 4okyo8 0apan on @&to:er
1<8 19,7. Le%t to right! ?ro#n Prin&e 2kihito o% 0apan8 Empress 1agako o% 0apan8 Prime .inister 1ehru8 )ndira Bandhi 31ehru9s daughter58 and
Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Xueen ;(iLabeth of ,reat Hritain ((eft% an& ;mperor Hirohito of Japan (right% ri&e in an open carriage in 9on&on enroute to
Huc'ingham Pa(ace on October !, "#<"4
;mperor Hirohito of Japan ((eft% an& his )ife ;mpress Caga'o of Japan (right% meet )ith Prince 1har(es of 8a(es4
;mperor Hai(e 0e(assie of ;thiopia (right% greets ;mperor Hirohito of Japan &uring a state *isit to To'yo, Japan4
(Photo5 http566)))4ange(fire4com6ny6ethiocro)n6Hai(eIII4htm(%
0hah Mohamma& +eLa Pah(a*i of Iran ((eft% ren&ers a sa(ute &uring his meeting )ith ;mperor Hirohito of Japan in To'yo, Japan in
May "#.?4 (Photo5 http566iranian4com6main6b(og6&arius-'a&i*ar6mo&ernity-tra&ition-shah-iran-meets-:apans-hirohito-"#.?4htm(%
?han&ellor o% West Bermany Helmut S&hmidt 3right5 and his #i%e 3se&ond %rom le%t5 are re&eived in audien&e :y Emperor
Hirohito o% 0apan 3le%t5 and Empress 1agako o% 0apan at the )mperial Pala&e in 4okyo8 0apan on @&to:er 1*8 197. Helmut
S&hmidt attended the Bilder:erg .eetings in 1977. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
West Berman ?han&ellor Helmut S&hmidt 3le%t5 &on%ers #ith Prime .inister o% 0apan 4akeo (ukuda as they meet at the
premier9s o%%i&ial residen&e in 4okyo8 0apan on @&to:er 118 197. 4akeo (ukuda #as a mem:er o% the 4rilateral ?ommission.
President 0ose LopeG Portillo o% .e;i&o 3right5 toasts #ith Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan during a return :anEuet hosted :y Portillo at the
guesthouse in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er 18 197. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan 3right5 toasts President o% South 6orea Ben. ?hun Ioo H#an 3le%t5 during a state :anEuet at the )mperial Pala&e in
4okyo8 0apan on Septem:er =8 19H. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan and Empress 1agako o% 0apan greet Ci&e President and .rs. Ai&hard 1i;on in the east &ham:er o% the )mperial
Pala&e in 4okyo8 0apan8 #here .r. 1i;on presented the emperor #ith an autographed photo o% President Eisenho#er. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
President Ai&hard 1i;on :o#s to Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan 3le%t5 in 2laska in 1971. Emperor Hirohito7s visit to 2laska #as the %irst visit o% a
0apanese Emperor to the 'nited States o% 2meri&a. 3Photo! 4ime Li%e5
;mpress Caga'o of Japan ((eft%, First 9a&y Hetty For& (n& (eft%, ;mperor Hirohito of Japan (n& right%, an& 7404 Presi&ent
,era(& For& (right% )a(' &o)n the 1ross Ha(( to)ar&s the ;ast +oom prior to a state &inner he(& in honor of ;mperor Hirohito at
the 8hite House on October , "#<.4
,era(& +4 For& ((eft%, Presi&ent of the 7nite& 0tates, stan&s besi&e ;mperor Hirohito of Japan &uring a nationa( anthem
ceremony he(& in To'yo, Japan4
(Photo5 http566)))4f(ic'r4com6photos6gera(&rfor&6.<"$""/"#6in6set-<".<!.!!A#/$$#.6%
President Aonald Aeagan 3le%t5 shakes hands #ith Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er 98 19+.
3Wally .&1amee"?@AB)S5
Emperor Hirohito o% 0apan $oins President Aonald Aeagan8 :oth dressed in tu;edos8 in a toast during a %ormal state dinner in 4okyo on
1ovem:er 98 19+. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
7nite& 0tates 0ecretary of 0tate Hi((ary 1(inton ((eft% greets ;mperor A'ihito of Japan an& his )ife ;mpress Michi'o of Japan
prior to tea at the Imperia( Pa(ace in To'yo, Japan on Apri( "<, $""4 (AP Image%
Presi&ent of +ussia J(a&imir Putin ((eft% greets ;mperor A'ihito of Japan in an un&ate& photo4
'.S. President Aonald Aeagan delivers a spee&h at the 1ational Iiet in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er 118 19+.
3Photo!Aonald Aeagan Presidential Li:rary5

'.S. President Aonald Aeagan revie#s troops #ith Prime .inister o% 0apan Yasuhiro 1akasone at an 2rrival ?eremony at 2kasaka Pala&e in
4okyo8 0apan on .ay H8 19=. 3Photo! Aonald Aeagan Presidential Li:rary5
0apan7s Prime .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a 3le%t8 podium5 and President Beorge Bush speak at the White House Aose Barden in
0uly 199*. 4he %our individuals standing in the :a&kground are 3le%t to right5! '.S. 2m:assador to 0apan .i&hael 2rma&ost8
4reasury Se&retary 1i&holas Brady8 unidenti%ied8 and '.S. 4rade Aepresentative ?arla 2. Hills. 2rma&ost8 Brady8 Hills8 and
Bush are 3or #ere5 mem:ers o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations. 3Photo! Iir&k Halstead8 4ime Li%e Pi&tures"Betty )mages5
'.S. President Beorge W. Bush 3le%t5 #alks #ith Prime .inister o% 0apan 0uni&hiro 6oiGumi.
South 6orean President 6im Iae 0ung 3L5 meets #ith Emperor 2kihito 3A5 at the )mperial Pala&e in 4okyo8 0apan on 0uly *8 *<<*.
3Photo! 6oi&hi 6amoshida"Betty )mages5
South 6orea7s President Aoh .oo/hyun 3L5 is greeted :y 0apanese Emperor 2kihito during #el&oming &eremonies %or Aoh at the 2kasaka
Pala&e state guesthouse in 4okyo8 0apan on 0une =8 *<<+. 3Betty )mages5
President o% Aussia Imitry .edvedev 3le%t5 shakes hands #ith Prime .inister o% 0apan 4aro 2so :e%ore their meeting %ollo#ing the opening
&eremony o% the liEue%ied natural gas plant in Prigorodnoye8 south o% Sakhalin )sland8 in the Aussian (ar East8 on (e:ruary 18 *<<9.
3'P) Photo"2natoli Shdanov5
Prime .inister o% Aussia Cladimir Putin 3le%t5 shakes hands #ith Prime .inister o% 0apan 4aro 2so during a meeting at the Prime
.inister o% 0apan7s o%%i&ial residen&e in 4okyo8 0apan on .ay 1*8 *<<9. 3Pool"Betty )mages5
Prime .inister o% Breat Britain Bordon Bro#n and Prime .inister o% 0apan 4aro 2so meet at 1< Io#ning Street in London on
2pril 18 *<<98 ahead o% the B*< Summit.
Prime .inister o% Breat Britain 4ony Blair 3le%t5 meets #ith Prime .inister o% 0apan 0uni&hiro 6oiGumi in *<<+.
'.S. President Bara&k @:ama meets #ith Prime .inister o% 0apan 4aro 2so in the @val @%%i&e on (e:ruary *H8 *<<9. 4aro 2so is the
grandson o% %ormer Prime .inister o% 0apan Shigeru Yoshida. 3White House photo :y Pete SouGa5
http!""###.state.gov"r"pa"ei"pi;"proto&ol"1*1<1,.htm
'.S. President Bara&k @:ama :o#s to Emperor 2kihito o% 0apan and Empress .i&hiko o% 0apan upon arrival at the )mperial Pala&e in 4okyo8
0apan on 1ovem:er 1H8 *<<9. 3Aeuters5
?oun&il on (oreign Aelations K 0apan
Henry 6issinger 3le%t5 is #el&omed :y 0apanese Prime .inister 4aro 2so8 the grandson o% %ormer 0apanese Prime .inister
Shigeru Yoshida8 prior to their talks at 2so9s o%%i&ial residen&e in 4okyo on 2pril **8 *<<9. 3Betty )mages5
(ormer Se&retary o% State 0ames 2. Baker ))) 3L58 '.S. spe&ial envoy on )raEi de:t8 meets #ith 0apanese Prime .inister 0uni&hiro 6oiGumi in
4okyo8 0apan on Ie&em:er *98 *<<+. 3EA)6@ S'B)42"Aeuters"?or:is5

Le%t photo! Se&retary o% State ?ondoleeGGa Ai&e 3le%t5 meets #ith 0apan7s Prime .inister 0uni&hiro 6oiGumi in 4okyo on 0uly 1*8 *<<,.
?ondoleeGGa Ai&e is a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations.
Aight photo! 0apan7s Prime .inister 0uni&hiro 6oiGumi speaks to mem:ers o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations at the Harold Pratt House on
Septem:er 1<8 *<<*.
Both 4homas W. Lamont 34WL5 and 0eremiah Smith 0r. #ere .organ :ankers and mem:ers o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations.
4he )mperial 0apanese Ielegation arrives on @&to:er *H8 19*1. Le%t to right! Ao:ert Woods Bliss 34hird 2ssistant '.S.
Se&retary o% State58 0apanese (oreign .inister Baron 6i$uro Shidehara8 2dmiral ?oontG8 2dmiral 6ato8 Beneral 4anaka8 and
Beneral Bre#ster. Ao:ert Woods Bliss #as a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations. 3Photo! Li:rary o% ?ongress5
'.S. .inister to ?hina 0ohn Can 2nt#erp .a&.urray 3le%t58 later a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations8 attends a %ormal a%%air
alongside 0apanese (oreign .inister 6i$uro Shidehara in 4okyo8 0apan on 2ugust 18 19*,. 6i$uro Shidehara8 #ho #as identi%ied #ith the
pea&e%ul e%%orts o% 0apan o% the 19*<9s8 served as Prime .inister o% 0apan %rom @&to:er 98 19H, to .ay **8 19H=. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
While '.S. Se&retary o% State Henry Stimson looks on8 0apanese 2m:assador 6atsu$i Ie:u&hi signs the 6ellogg/Briand Pa&t an hour prior to
the rati%i&ation &eremony on 0uly *H8 19*9. 3?@AB)S5
Leading 0apanese o%%i&ials and the 2meri&an 2m:assador to 0apan spoke to the 'nited States o% 2meri&a via telephone %or the %irst time on
Ie&em:er +<8 19+H8 #hen an international servi&e #as &ompleted in 4okyo. Pi&tured at the &eremony8 are le%t to right! 4ake$iro 4okonami8
.inister o% ?ommuni&ationsF (oreign .inister 6oki HirotaF 2m:assador 0oseph ?. Bre#F and .r. Ed#in 1eville8 ?ounsellor o% the 2meri&an
Em:assy listening in on messages &oming %rom Washington8 I.?. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0oseph ?. Bre# 3standing58 the 2meri&an 2m:assador to )mperial 0apan8 delivers a spee&h at an 2meri&a/0apan So&iety dinner in .ar&h
19+=. Prime .inister o% 0apan 6oki Hirota8 #ho served as the Prime .inister %rom .ar&h 98 19+= to (e:ruary *8 19+78 is seated three persons
%rom Bre#7s right. 4he 0apanese naval o%%i&er at the e;treme right is 2dmiral .ineo @sumi8 .inister o% the 1avy. 6oki Hirota #as &onvi&ted o%
#ar &rimes at the 4okyo 4rials in 19H and e;e&uted :y hanging at Sugamo Prison in 4okyo on Ie&em:er *+8 19H. 2dmiral .ineo @sumi8
#ho served as the .inister o% the 1avy %rom 19+1 to 19+* and %rom 19++ to 19+=8 #as killed in a&tion in ?hina during the Se&ond Sino/
0apanese War on (e:ruary ,8 19H1.
'nited States 2m:assador to 0apan 0oseph ?. Bre# 3right5 pi&tured #ith (oreign .inister 6i&hisa:uro 1omura at the time Bre# visited the
.inistry in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er H8 19+9. 4he &aptain a&&ompanying this pi&ture %orm 0apan says U1o important &onversations #ere
held8 it is reported.U Iispat&hes %rom 2meri&an &orrespondents in 4okyo the same day8 told that Bre# had told 1omura that 0apan #as in
danger o% e&onomi& pressure %rom the 'nited States i% it #as the %irst o% many s&heduled8 to determine #hat 0apanese/2meri&an ?ommer&ial
4reaty E;pires 0anuary *=8 19H<. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
'nited States 2m:assador to 0apan8 0oseph ?lark Bre# 3le%t5 and ne# (oreign .inister o% 0apan8 4ei$iro 4oyoda8 smile %or &amera on @&to:er
*8 19H1 #hen .inister 4oyoda made the &ustomary &all upon the dean o% the 4okyo diplomati& ?orps a%ter he assumed o%%i&e.
3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0apan7s Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida and his daughter and son/in/la# visit 0ohn I. Ao&ke%eller ))) at the (ield#ood (arm in
1ovem:er 19,H.
Le%t to right! .rs. 6aGuko 2so8 daughter o% Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida and mother o% &urrent Prime .inister 4aro 2so8 Prime .inister o%
0apan Shigeru Yoshida 3&enter58 and 0oseph ?. Bre#8 %ormer '.S. 2m:assador to 0apan8 meet at the Washington 1ational 2irport in
Washington8 I.?. on 1ovem:er 1+8 19,H. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
'.S. Se&retary o% State 0ohn (oster Iulles 3le%t5 greets Prime .inister o% 0apan Shigeru Yoshida a%ter arriving in Washington8 I.?. on
1ovem:er 78 19,H. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
President I#ight I. Eisenho#er and 0apan7s Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida are sho#n #alking to the White House a%ter they posed %or
photographers on the north porti&o o% the E;e&utive .ansion on 1ovem:er 1<8 19,H. I#ight I. Eisenho#er #as a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on
(oreign Aelations. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0apan9s Prime .inister Shigeru Yoshida 3le%t5 &alls on Eugene Bla&k8 President o% the World Bank8 in Washington8 I.?. on 1ovem:er 1<8 19,H
to dis&uss the possi:ility o% %urther :ank loans to his &ountry. Yoshida also invited Bla&k to make a trip to 0apan. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5
0ohn I. Ao&ke%eller ))) and Ao&ke%eller (oundation ?hairman 0ohn (oster Iulles talk to 0apanese 2m:assador Eiki&hi 2raki at
the PlaGa Hotel on 0une 178 19,*.
Shigeharu .atsumoto 3le%t5 #at&hes 0ohn I. Ao&ke%eller ))) shake hands #ith 0apan7s Prime .inister 6akuei 4anaka in 1ovem:er 197*.
'.S. Se&retary o% State Beorge P. ShultG 3le%t5 and '.S. President Aonald Aeagan #at&hes Prime .inister o% 0apan Yasuhiro 1akasone speak
at a press ?on%eren&e in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er 1<8 19+. Beorge P. ShultG is a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign AelationsF ShultG and
Aeagan are 3or #ere5 mem:ers o% the Bohemian Brove in northern ?ali%ornia. 3Photo! Wally .&1amee"?@AB)S5
'.S. 2m:assador to 0apan 0ames I. Hodgson #at&hes Ci&e President 1elson Ao&ke%eller shake hands #ith 0apan7s (oreign
.inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a at the 4okyo )nternational 2irport on 2pril 178 197,.
Se&retary o% State Henry 6issinger greets 0apan7s (oreign .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a at the @E?I meeting in Paris in .ay 197,.
3'S)S Photo5
Se&retary o% State ?olin Po#ell8 %ormer 0apanese Prime .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a and %ormer Se&retary o% State Beorge P.
ShultG listen to the 2meri&an national anthem at a &eremony &ommemorating the ,<th anniversary o% the signing o% the San
(ran&is&o Pea&e 4reaty8 #hi&h o%%i&ially ended World War ))8 in San (ran&is&o on Septem:er 8 *<<1. ?olin Po#ell and Beorge
P. ShultG are mem:ers o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations and mem:ers o% the .andalay ?amp at the Bohemian Brove in
?ali%ornia. 3Photo :y 0ustin Sullivan"Betty )mages5
0apan7s Prime .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a 3le%t8 podium5 and President Beorge Bush speak at the White House Aose Barden in
0uly 199*. 4he %our individuals standing in the :a&kground are 3le%t to right5! '.S. 2m:assador to 0apan .i&hael 2rma&ost8
4reasury Se&retary 1i&holas Brady8 unidenti%ied8 and '.S. 4rade Aepresentative ?arla 2. Hills. 2rma&ost8 Brady8 Hills8 and
Bush are 3or #ere5 mem:ers o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations. 3Photo! Iir&k Halstead8 4ime Li%e Pi&tures"Betty )mages5
0apan7s Prime .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a visits President Beorge H.W. Bush at the White House in Washington8 I.?. on 0uly 18 199*.
30e%%rey .arko#itG"Sygma"?or:is5
President Bill ?linton sits :eside 0apan7s Prime .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a at the B7 Summit on 0uly =8 199+.
3Wally .&1amee"?@AB)S SYB.25
4reasury Se&retary La#ren&e Summers 3le%t5 shakes hands #ith 0apan7s (inan&e .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a at the 4reasury
Iepartment in Washington8 I.?. on 2pril 1,8 *<<<. 3Beorge Bridges"2(P"Betty )mages5
0apan7s Prime .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a 3le%t5 #alks #ith President Beorge Bush8 an unidenti%ied aide8 and 1ational Se&urity
2dvisor Brent S&o#&ro%t 3right5 at the White House in 0uly 199*. 3Photo! Iir&k Halstead8 4ime Li%e Pi&tures"Betty )mages5
0apan7s (inan&e .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a 3le%t5 shares a laugh #ith 4reasury Se&retary Ao:ert Au:in in San (ran&is&o8
?ali%ornia on Septem:er H8 199. 30ohn B. .a:anglo"2(P"Betty )mages5
4reasury Se&retary Ao:ert Au:in 3right5 shakes hands #ith 0apan7s (oreign .inister 6eiGo @:u&hi during a meeting in Au:in9s
o%%i&e at the 4reasury Iepartment in Washington I.?. on Ie&em:er =8 1997. 30amal 2. Wilson"2(P"Betty )mages5
0apanese legislator 6oi&hi 6ato 3le%t58 Hiroshi Peter 6amura8 and 2lan I. Aom:erg meet together at the Harold Pratt House on
0une 1H8 199 to dis&uss 0apan7s %oreign poli&y. 6ato is a mem:er o% the 4rilateral ?ommission.
3Photo! ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations 2nnual Aeport5
4reasury Se&retary Henry Paulson 3le%t5 meets #ith 4aiGo 1ishimuro8 President and ?E@ o% the 4okyo Sto&k E;&hange in 4okyo
on .ar&h =8 *<<7. Paulson is a mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign AelationsF 1ishimuro #as a mem:er o% the 4rilateral
?ommission. Paulson is the %ormer ?hairman and ?E@ o% Boldman Sa&hs. 1ishimuro is the %ormer ?hairman and ?E@ o%
4oshi:a ?orporation. 3Photo :y 0unko 6imura"Betty )mages5
Se&retary o% Ie%ense Ao:ert .. Bates 3le%t5 meets #ith 0apanese Prime .inister Yasuo (ukuda in 4okyo8 0apan8 on 1ov. 8
*<<7. 3Photo :y ?herie 2. 4hurl:y8 '.S. Iepartment o% Ie%ense5
Ieputy Se&retary o% Ie%ense Paul Wol%o#itG shakes hands #ith 0apan7s Prime .inister 0uni&hiro 6oiGumi 3le%t5 at the Pentagon
on Septem:er *,8 *<<1. 3Photo :y Helene ?. Stikkel8 '.S. Iepartment o% Ie%ense5
0apanese Prime .inister Ayutaro Hashimoto 3right5 meets #ith visiting '.S. Se&retary o% Ie%ense William S. ?ohen 3le%t5 in
4okyo8 0apan on 2pril 98 1997. 4he t#o men met to dis&uss a variety o% se&urity issues %a&ing the t#o nations in&luding the
&urrent %amine in 1orth 6orea and its potential e%%e&t on regional sta:ility. 3'.S. Iepartment o% Ie%ense photo :y A. I. Ward5
Left to right: Angier Biddle Duke (left) and his wife Robin Chandler Duke (right) appear with Japanese businessman
and one-time ultranationalist Roi!hi "asakawa (!enter) at the laun!h of the #nited "tates-Japan $oundation in %oko&
Japan in '()*+ Angier 3iddle <uke was a mem&er of the Council on Foreign 4elationsA 4o&in Chandler <uke is a
mem&er of the Council on Foreign 4elations+ 4'oichi Sasakawa was acBuitted of war crimes at the (ok'o (rials+
6hoto5 http!""###.us/$%.org"a:out.html5
Se&retary o% Ie%ense William ?ohen 3le%t5 and 0apanese Prime .inister Yoshiro .ori pose %or photographers prior to their
meeting at the 6antei :uilding in 4okyo8 0apan on Septem:er **8 *<<<. 3Photo! '.S. Iepartment o% Ie%ense"Helene ?. Stikkel5
.auri&e Breen:erg8 %ormer '.S. 4rade Aepresentative ?arla 2. Hills8 %ormer President o% ?olum:ia 'niversity .i&hael ). Sovern8
0apan7s Prime .inister Ayutaro Hashimoto8 and ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations ?hairman Peter B. Peterson smile %or the
&ameras at a ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations meeting on Septem:er *H8 199=.
Paul Wol%o#itG 3le%t58 President o% the World Bank8 meets #ith Sadako @gata8 President o% the 0apan )nternational ?ooperation
2gen&y8 in 0apan on .ay *8 *<<=. Sadako @gata is a mem:er o% the 4rilateral ?ommission. Paul Wol%o#itG is a mem:er o%
the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations and a %ormer mem:er o% the 4rilateral ?ommission. 3Photo! 6en 6atsurayama"World Bank5
Ao:ert Au:in shakes hands #ith 0apan7s Prime .inister 6ii&hi .iyaGa#a.
'.S. Aepresentative to the 'nited 1ations Ai&hard Hol:rooke 3A5 ans#ers a Euestion during a ne#s &on%eren&e a%ter his meeting #ith
0apanese 2m:assador to the 'nited 1ations Yukio Satoh 3L5 at Satoh9s o%%i&e near the 'nited 1ations in 1e# York ?ity on Septem:er 1+8
1999. Yukio Satoh is a mem:er o% the 4rilateral ?ommission. Ai&hard Hol:rooke is a %ormer mem:er o% the 4rilateral ?ommission and a
mem:er o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations until his death on Ie&em:er 1+8 *<1<. 3Betty )mages5
'S 2m:assador to the 'nited 1ations Ai&hard Hol:rooke 3?5 shakes hands #ith 0apanese Prime .inister 6eiGo @:u&hi 3A5 prior to their talks
at the latter9s o%%i&ial residen&e in 4okyo8 0apan on .ar&h 1=8 *<<<8 #hile '.S. 2m:assador to 0apan 4homas (oley 3L5 looks on. Ai&hard
Hol:rooke and 4homas (oley #ere mem:ers o% the ?oun&il on (oreign Aelations in *<<<. 3Betty )mages5
ShinGo 2:e 3right58 as ?hie% ?a:inet Se&retary8 meets #ith '.S. Ieputy Se&retary o% State Ao:ert Soelli&k in 0anuary *<<=.
(ormer '.S. Se&retary o% State Henry 6issinger 3le%t5 shakes hands #ith 0apan9s Prime .inister ShinGo 2:e during a meeting in
4okyo8 0apan on .ar&h +<8 *<<7. 3Pool"Aeuters"?or:is5
'.S. Ieputy Se&retary o% State 0ames Stein:erg 3le%t5 meets 0apan7s Prime .inister 4aro 2so at the Prime .inister7s o%%i&ial residen&e in
4okyo8 0apan on 0une *8 *<<9. 32P Photo5
'.S. Ieputy Se&retary o% State 0ames Stein:erg8 right8 shakes hands #ith 0apanese (oreign .inister 6atsuya @kada prior to their talk at
0apanese (oreign .inistry in 4okyo8 0apan on @&to:er 18 *<<9. 32P Photo5
Treasury 0ecretary Tim ,eithner ((eft% met )ith JapanKs Prime Minister Boshihi'o Co&a in To'yo, Japan on Thurs&ay, January
", $"4 (Photo5 7404 Treasury -epartment% http566)))4f(ic'r4com6photos6ustreasury6!!#"A#/<""6in6photostream
,ai6an#s ee ;isits ,o-yo=s Masu-uni 6ar shrine
Hy 1hisa Fu:io'a
TOKBO Thu Jun <, $$< ""5"$am ;-T
(+euters% - Former Tai)an presi&ent 9ee Teng-hui, &espise& by Hei:ing for asserting the se(f-ru(e& is(an&Qs so*ereignty, pai& his
respects at To'yoQs Basu'uni )ar shrine on Thurs&ay, prompting a terse comp(aint from 1hina4
9eeQs pi(grimage cou(& ta'e some of the g(o) off a rapprochement in 0ino-Japanese ties, but ana(ysts sai& its impact )as (i'e(y
to be (imite&4
1hina e>presse& Istrong &issatisfactionI )ith Japan for a((o)ing 9ee to *isit the country4 I9ee Teng-huiQs beha*ior in Japan
sho)s )hat it is he aspires to,I Foreign Ministry spo'es)oman Jiang Bu to(& a ne)s conference in Hei:ing4
0he urge& To'yo to abi&e by agreements un&er )hich it recogniLes on(y one 1hina4
0upporters of 9ee, )ho )as e&ucate& in Japan an& (e& Tai)an from "#?? to $$$, shoute& IbanLaiI ((ong (ife% )hen he arri*e&
at the 0hinto shrineQs massi*e, tree-(ine& comp(e> in centra( To'yo4 0ome )a*e& Japanese f(ags4 0ome shoute& ITai)an
fore*erI4
Basu'uni is seen by many in Asia as a symbo( of JapanQs past mi(itarism4 It honors mi((ions of Japanese )ar &ea& -- among them
so(&iers from Tai)an an& Korea )ho fought for Japan, their co(onia( ru(er at the time -- but a(so some con*icte& )ar crimina(s,
inc(u&ing )artime prime minister Hi&e'i To:o4
Hut 9ee, ?/, sai& his pi(grimage to Basu'uni )as inten&e& to pay respects to his e(&er brother, )ho &ie& fighting for the
Japanese &uring 8or(& 8ar T)o, )hen Tai)an )as a Japanese co(ony4
IIt is comp(ete(y persona(, p(ease &onQt thin' of anything po(itica( or historica(,I he sai&, spea'ing in Japanese4
IAs fami(y, sho)ing respect to my e(&er brother by *isiting the shrine is something I must &o,I 9ee sai&4
Japanese 1hief 1abinet 0ecretary Basuhisa 0hioLa'i sai& he foresa) no change in an e>pecte& meeting bet)een Prime Minister
0hinLo Abe an& 1hinese Presi&ent Hu Jintao at this )ee'Qs ,roup of ;ight summit in ,ermany4
IIt )as Mr4 9eeQs pri*ate act an& it shou(& not affect 0ino-Japanese re(ations an& I &onQt thin' it )i((,I 0hioLa'i to(& a ne)s
conference4
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Ana(ysts sai& any &amage to the fragi(e rapprochement that began after Abe too' office (ast year )as (i'e(y to be (imite&4
I1hina )i(( fin& this har& to accept, but it &oesnQt represent any shift on AbeQs )i((ingness to open &ia(ogue, an& thatQs )hat
1hina cares about,I sai& 0hi Binhong, a regiona( security e>pert at the Peop(eQs 7ni*ersity of 1hina in Hei:ing4
I0econ&ary things (i'e this arenQt going to change the course of re(ations,I 0hi a&&e&4
+e(ations ha& )orsene& un&er AbeQs pre&ecessor, Junichiro KoiLumi, (arge(y &ue to KoiLumiQs annua( *isits to Basu'uni4
Hefore becoming prime minister, Abe ha& bac'e& KoiLumiQs *isits to the Basu'uni shrine, but he has &ec(ine& to say )hether he
)ou(& go there )hi(e in the countryQs top post4
0ome &ip(omats sai& 9eeQs mo*e )as part(y an appea( to conser*ati*e Japanese po(iticians )ho fa*or tighter ties )ith Tai)an,
)ith )hich To'yo has no forma( &ip(omatic ties4
Hei:ing has c(aime& so*ereignty o*er Tai)an since "#/#, )hen 1hinaQs Cationa(ist forces f(e& to the is(an& after (osing po)er on
the main(an& to Mao We&ongQs 1ommunists4
Many in Tai)an maintain a frien&(ier attitu&e to)ar&s Japan than those in main(an& 1hina, )here many harbor &eep resentment
to)ar& To'yo &ue to )artime aggression an& atrocities4
Tai)an )as (arge(y spare& the harsh treatment mete& out to many of the countries that Japan occupie& &uring the )ar an& many
resi&ents cre&it Japan for he(ping to mo&erniLe the is(an&4
(A&&itiona( reporting by ,eorge Cishiyama an& 9in&a 0ieg in To'yo, -oug Boung in Taipei an& 1hris Huc'(ey in Hei:ing%
http566)))4reuters4com6artic(e6$$<6$!6$<6us-:apan-tai)an-(ee-i&700P"!"<"$$<$!$<
9ee Teng-hui (
n&
(eft%, former Presi&ent of the +epub(ic of 1hina 2Tai)an3, *isits Basu'uni 0hrine in To'yo, Japan on June <, $$<4
Lee Tenghui pays respects to brother at Yasukuni Shrine
Asahi Shimbun - Former Taiwanese President Lee Tenghui visited Yasukuni Shrine on Thursday morning to pay his
respects to his older brother who was killed while fighting for apan during !orld !ar ""#
The $%-year-old Lee& currently on a trip to apan& gave a silent prayer at the shrine in Tokyo& where the nation's war
dead& along with (% )lass-A war criminals& are enshrined& sources said#
*The visit to pay respects to my brother whom " parted with +, years ago is a private affair&* Lee said#
Lee's brother& Lee Tengchin& who is honored under the apanese name Takenori "wasato& is said to have died while
serving in the apanese navy in the Philippines#
Lee's visit to the shrine lasted about %- minutes#
Yasukuni Shrine officials declined to comment on how Lee paid his respects& saying the visit was made by a *private
citi.en#*
Lee& a )hristian& had earlier told reporters that he wanted his visit to the Shinto shrine to be regarded as *neither a
political nor a historical* act#
*/y father did not believe that my brother was killed# So there was not even an ancestral tablet at my home& and "
could not mourn properly&* he said#
Lee had visited Tokyo in (0$1 when he was vice president& but he was not aware that his brother was honored at the
shrine& he said# *"t would lack human empathy not to go this time&* he said#
Lee had also brushed aside concerns that 2ei3ing& which regards Taiwan as a renegade province& would react strongly
to the Yasukuni visit#
*Taiwan has e4perienced the colonial occupation of apan and is different from )hina&* Lee has said#
)hina on Thursday did not comment on Lee's visit to the shrine& but reiterated its opposition to apan's decision to let
him enter the country#
*!e e4press our displeasure again with apan for allowing Lee Tenghui to visit apan&* )hinese foreign ministry official
iang Yu told a news conference# iang's remark indicates that )hina does not intend to make Lee's visit a new source
of dispute between the two countries#
2ei3ing views Lee as a key figure among Taiwan's pro-independence forces#
)hina also takes a critical view of Yasukuni Shrine because of the )lass-A war criminals enshrined there#
Some apanese government officials had e4pressed concerns that Lee might make a political statement in apan that
could infuriate )hina#
*!e were informed that the purpose of the current trip is academic and cultural e4changes&* )hief )abinet Secretary
Yasuhisa Shio.aki said# *5e is coming as a private person& so there is nothing much the government has to say#*
The consensus within the Foreign /inistry is that Lee's visit will have little influence on efforts to improve apan-)hina
relations& sources said#
Lee arrived in apan on /ay 6- for *academic and cultural e4changes as a private person#*
2efore visiting Yasukuni Shrine& Lee traveled around the Tohoku region#7"5T8Asahi9 une $&,--:;
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Lee raps China, South Korea over Yasukuni
apan Times - Former Taiwan President Lee Teng-hui said Saturday in Tokyo that )hina and South <orea have lashed
out at apanese leaders over Yasukuni Shrine mainly because of their own domestic political problems& and apan
should not let other countries intervene in honoring its war dead#
Lee& speaking in apanese at the Foreign )orrespondents' )lub of apan& also critici.ed the media for playing up and
politici.ing his *private* visit to the war-related shrine#
*Yasukuni issues have been made up 3ust because )hina and <orea could not handle their own domestic problems#
And apan has been too weak 7in reacting to the protests;&* said the $%-year-old Lee& who led Taiwan from (0$$ to
,---#
5e did not elaborate on what domestic problems 2ei3ing and Seoul are facing& but critics say apan-related issues are
often used in )hina and South <orea as a prete4t to attack domestic political foes or as a means to distract public
attention from other issues#
Yasukuni Shrine honors and enshrines dead apanese soldiers and officers& serving as a spiritual pillar for veterans
and relatives of the war dead# "t is also widely regarded as a symbol of apan's wartime militarism as it enshrines
)lass-A war criminals# Lee went to the shrine Thursday to pray for his deceased older brother& who fought for apan
when Taiwan was under apanese colonial rule#
Saturday was the final day of his ((-day stay in apan# 5e described the trip as *successful&* saying it was designed
for cultural and academic e4changes as well as retracing the footsteps of the noted (:th-century poet /atsuo 2asho#
5e added he wants to come back& saying this time he followed only half of the itinerary of 2asho's 3ourney in the
Tohoku region#
Another purpose was to gauge recent changes in traditions and behavior# Lee said he found that the apanese people
have retained their strong spiritual discipline to maintain order in society and praised the tradition of apanese
culture#
*7apanese people; provide the best public services and keep 7everything; as clean as possible# There even is no dirt
on e4pressways&* he said#
As Lee wrapped up his trip at =arita airport later Saturday& a man hurled two plastic bottles containing li>uid at him&
but he was unhurt# The man& identified as a )hinese engineer& 6%& currently living in )hiba& was taken into custody&
police said#
0ource5 http566chinesein*ancou*er4b(ogspot4com6$$<6$!6man-thro)s-soft-&rin'-bott(es-at-(ee4htm(
9ee Teng-hui ((eft%, former Presi&ent of the +epub(ic of 1hina 2Tai)an3, arri*es at Basu'uni 0hrine in To'yo, Japan on June <,
$$<4 (1re&it5 +euters6Michae( 1aronna%
The To'yo 8ar 1rimes Tribuna( ("#/!-"#/?%
2n 2meri&an 2rmy military poli&eman #at&hes Hideki 4o$o 3le%t58 #artime Prime .inister o% 0apan8 sit in the #itness &hair at a #ar &rimes trial
in 4okyo8 0apan on 0anuary ,8 19H. 3Bettmann"?@AB)S5

Le%t! 2 rare &olor photograph o% Beneral Hideki 4o$o8 a%ter t#o years and more than H<< &ourtroom days8 seated in a &ourtroom at the 4okyo
4rials in 4okyo8 0apan on 2pril 1,8 19H8 :e%ore re&eiving the verdi&t o% the .ilitary 4ri:unal %or the (ar East. 3Photo! > Bettmann"?@AB)S5
Aight! Beneral Hideki 4o$o reads his verdi&t at the 4okyo 4rials.
The &efen&ants at the Internationa( Mi(itary Tribuna( for the Far ;ast Ichigaya 1ourt5 Accuse& Japanese )ar crimina(s in the
prisonersQ bo> in May-June "#/!4 Front ro) of &efen&ants from (eft to right5 ,enera( Ken:i -oiharaD Fie(& Marsha( 0hunro'u
HataD Ko'i Hirota, former Prime Minister of JapanD ,enera( Jiro MinamiD ,enera( Hi&e'i To:o, former Prime Minister of JapanD
Ta'asumi O'aD ,enera( Boshi:iro 7meLuD ,enera( 0a&ao Ara'iD ,enera( A'ira MutoD Cao'i HoshinoD O'inori KagaD Mar@uis
Koichi Ki&o4 Hac' ro)5 1o(one( Kingiro HashimotoD ,enera( Kunia'i KoisoD A&mira( Osami CaganoD ,enera( Hiroshi OshimaD
,enera( I)ane MatsuiD 0humei O'a)aD Haron Kiichiro HiranumaD 0higenori TogoD Bosu'e Matsuo'aD Mamoru 0higemitsuD
,enera( Kenryo 0atoD A&mira( 0higetaro 0hima&oD Toshio 0hiratoriD Teiichi 0uLu'i4
4omoyuki Yamashita 3?58 %ormer 0apanese 2rmy ?ommander in the Philippines8 is administered the oath8 #ith an interpreter 3L58 as he takes
the #itness stand in his o#n trial %or #ar &rimes in .anila8 Philippines on Ie&em:er ,8 19H,. .a$or Ao:ert .. 6err 3A58 o% Portland8 @regon8
administers the oath. 3> Bettmann"?@AB)S5
An American Mi(itary Po(ice officer (eans for)ar& to fasten a button on e>-officia( 0humei O'a)aKs shirt after he s(appe&
former premier Hi&e'i To:o (Front +o) 9% &uring their arraignment on )ar crimes in To'yo, Japan in May "#/!4
(Photo5 A(fre& ;isenstae&t6Time 9ife%
American 7404 Army Mi(itary Po(ice guar&s stan& at attention as Japanese )ar crimina( Hi&e'i To:o )ears a trans(ation hea&set
)hi(e testifying &uring his tria( in To'yo, Japan in -ecember "#/?4 (Photo5 1ar( My&ans6Time 9ife%

6oki Hirota4d5 listens to death senten&e read :y Sir William We:: 32ustralia5 3not sho#n58 President o% the )nternational .ilitary
4ri:unal %or the (ar East8 at the 4okyo 4rials in 4okyo8 0apan on 1ovem:er 1*8 19H. 6oki Hirota #as Prime .inister o% )mperial 0apan %rom
.ar&h 98 19+= to (e:ruary *8 19+7 and (oreign .inister under Saito8 @kada and 6onoe. 6oki Hirota and Hideki 4o$o #ere e;e&uted at
Sugamo Prison in 4okyo on Ie&em:er *+8 19H. 3Photo! 1ational 2r&hives5
Japanese )ar crimina(s, in'ludin* General Hide-i ,o$o 1third .rom ri*ht5, eat their meal inside the :u*amo Prison in
,o-yo, Japan in "#/!4 (Photo5 A(fre& ;isenstae&t6Time 9ife%
A Time-9ife photograph of Japanese )ar crimina( Hi&e'i To:o smo'ing )hat appears to be a cigarette (opiumE% at his :ai( ce(( in
To'yo, Japan in -ecember "#/?4 Hi&e'i To:o )as e>ecute& at 0ugamo Prison in To'yo on -ecember A, "#/?4
(Photo5 1ar( My&ans6Time 9ife%
Chapter V
Japanese Aggression Against China
Sections I and II
:e'tion I8
In;asion V )''upation o. Man'huria
,he China <ar and Its Phases
The )ar )hich Japan )age& against 1hina, an& )hich the Japanese (ea&ers fa(se(y &escribe& as the I1hina Inci&entI or the
I1hina AffairI, began on the night of "? 0eptember "#A" an& en&e& )ith the surren&er of Japan in To'yo Hay on 0eptember
"#/.4 The first phase of this )ar consiste& of the in*asion, occupation an& conso(i&ation by Japan of that part of 1hina 'no)n as
Manchuria, an& of the Pro*ince of Jeho(4 The secon& phase of this )ar began on < Ju(y "#A<, )hen Japanese troops attac'e& the
)a((e& city of 8anping near Peiping fo((o)ing the IMarco Po(o Hri&ge Inci&entI, an& consiste& of successi*e a&*ances, each
fo((o)e& by brief perio&s of conso(i&ation in preparation for further a&*ances into 1hinese territory4 0ome of the Accuse& )ere
acti*e in this )ar form the *ery beginning, some participate& as the )ar progresse&4 0HI+ATO+I state& &uring the course of his
(ecture, IThe Tren& of the ,reat 8arI, )hich )as pub(ishe& in the Diamond Maga-ine for June "#/$, IIt is not too much to say
that the fuse of the ;uropean 8ar )as first attache& by the 1hina Inci&entI4
Japan=s Foothold in Man'huria
at the 0e*innin* o. the China <ar
The position of Japan in Manchuria as at "? 0eptember "#A" is &escribe& by the 9ytton 1ommission in terms )ith )hich the
Tribuna( entire(y agrees5
''(<#''
These treaties an& other agreements ga*e to Japan an important an& unusua( position in Manchuria4 0he go*erne& the (ease&
territory )ith practica((y fu(( rights of so*ereignty4 Through the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay, she a&ministere& the rai()ay areas,
inc(u&ing se*era( to)ns an& (arge sections of such popu(ous cities as Mu'&en an& 1hangchunD an& in these areas she contro((e&
the po(ice, ta>ation, e&ucation, an& pub(ic uti(ities4 0he maintaine& arme& forces in many parts of the country5 the K)antung
Army in the 9ease& Territory, +ai()ay ,uar&s in the rai()ay areas, an& 1onsu(ar Po(ice throughout the *arious &istricts4 This
summary of the (ong (ist of JapanQs rights in Manchuria sho)s c(ear(y the e>ceptiona( character of the po(itica(, economic an&
(ega( re(ations create& bet)een that country an& 1hina in Manchuria4 There is probab(y no)here in the )or(& an e>act para((e( to
this situation, no e>amp(e of a country en:oying in the territory of a neighboring 0tate such e>tensi*e economic an&
a&ministrati*e pri*i(eges4 A situation of this 'in& cou(& possib(e be maintaine& )ithout (ea&ing to incessant comp(ications an&
&isputes if it )ere free(y &esire& or accepte& on both si&es, an& if it )ere the sign an& embo&iment of a )e(( consi&ere& po(icy of
c(ose co((aboration in the economic an& in the po(itica( sphere4 Hut, in the absence of these con&itions, it cou(& on(y (ea& to
friction an& conf(ict4
The situation )as not Ifree(y &esire& an& accepte& on both si&esI, an& the friction ine*itab(y fo((o)e&4 Hy the use of force or the
threat of force, Japan ha& secure& concessions from 1hina in the &ays of her )ea'nessD the resurgent nationa(ism of 1hina
''(<<''
resente& the (osses )hich the &eca&ent ;mpire of 1hina ha& been unab(e to a*oi&4 A more po)erfu( factor, an& u(timate(y the
&ecisi*e factor in pro&ucing the friction, began to emerge as Japan, non (onger satisfie& )ith the rights she ha& gaine&, south
their en(argement on a sca(e )hich in the en& in*o(*e& the con@uest of Manchuria4 This po(icy on the part of Japan to see'
en(argement of her rights an& interests in 1hina )as first authoritati*e(y announce& in the time of the Tana'a 1abinet4
,he ,ana-a Cabinet and its APositi;e Poli'yA
The po(itica( atmosphere ha& been tense in Japan before the formation of the Tana'a 1abinet, )hich came into po)er in "#<
a&*ocating the so-ca((e& IPositi*e PO(icyd to)ar& 1hina4 The mi(itary group attribute& )hat they terme& the )ea'ene&
con&ition of Japan at that time to the (ibera( ten&encies of the ,o*ernment as e*i&ence& by the IFrien&ship Po(icyI a&*ocate& by
Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara4 The IFrien&ship Po(icyI, )hich )as thus &isp(ace&, ha& been in force since the 8ashington
1onference of "#4 The IPositi*e Po(icyI, a&*ocate& by Premier Tana'a, )as to e>pan& an& &e*e(op the specia( rights an&
pri*i(eges, )hich Japan c(aime& to ha*e ac@uire& in Manchuria, through co((aboration )ith Manchurian authorities, especia((y
Marsha( 1hang Tso-(in, the 1omman&er-in-1hief of the 1hinese Corth-;astern Frontier Army an& 1hief of the A&ministration
of Manchuria an& Jeho(4 Premier Tana'a a(so &ec(are& that a(though Japan )ou(& respect the so*ereignty of 1hina o*er
Manchuria an& )ou(& &o e*erything possib(e to enforce the IOpen -oor PO(icyI in
''(<7''
1hina, she )as fu((y &etermine& to see that no state of affairs arose in Manchuria )hich )ou(& &isturb the (oca( tran@ui(ity an&
put JapanQs *ita( interests in :eopar&y4 The Tana'a ,o*ernment p(ace& great emphasis upon the necessity of regar&ing
Manchuria as &istinct from the rest of 1hina an& &ec(are& that, if &isturbances sprea& to Manchuria an& Mongo(ia from other
parts of 1hina, Japan )ou(& &efen& her interests in those &istricts by force4 The po(icy thus in*o(*e& an e>presse& intention to
secure further rights in a foreign country an& an imp(ie& c(aim of right to preser*e interna( peace an& or&er in that foreign
country4
(*itation in :upport o. the APositi;e Poli'yA
0uch organiLations as the 4okuryukai (H(ac' -ragon 0ociety% an& the 4okuhonsha (Foun&ation of the 0tate 0ociety% as )e(( as
such )riters as -r4 O'a)a (the former Accuse&% agitate& strong(y in Japan for the enforcement of JapanQs specia( rights an&
pri*i(eges in 1hina by force of arms if necessary4
The H(ac' -ragon 0ociety ha& been forme& on A February "#$" at Kan&a, Japan, to promote nationa(ism an& anti-+ussian an&
anti-Korean sympathies4 It ha& a&*ocate& anne>ation of Korea, an& in genera( supporte& the e>pansionist aspirations of Japan4
The Foun&ation of the 0tate 0ociety ha& been forme& on $ -ecember "#$ to foster the spirit of nationa(ism an& &isseminate
propagan&a4 It 'ept in c(ose touch )ith the mi(itary an& pub(ishe& a magaLine to present its i&eas to the pub(ic4 HI+AC7MA
)as Presi&ent an& KOI0O an& A+AKI )ere Members of the 0ociety4
-r4 O'a)a )as a truste& emp(oyee of the 0outh
''(<&''
Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany, an& ha& been a -irector of the ;ast Asia +esearch Institute estab(ishe& by the +ai()ay
1ompany to stu&y the economic situation in Manchuria4 He ha& pub(ishe& se*era( boo's before the formation of the Tana'a
1abinet4 Sato Shinen=s 9deal State" pub(ishe& by him in "#/, state&5 that accor&ing to 0ato, Japan being the first country in the
)or(& to be create&4 it )as the foun&ation of a(( nations an& therefore ha& the &i*ine mission to ru(e a(( nations4 The boo'
a&*ocate& the occupation of 0iberia to pre*ent the south)ar& a&*ance of +ussia, an& the occupation of the 0outh 0ea Is(an&s to
pre*ent the north)ar& a&*ance of Hritain4 He pub(ishe& Asia" Europe and 3apan" in "#.4 In that boo', he maintaine& that the
9eague of Cations )as organiLe& to maintain eterna((y the status @uo an& further &omination of the 8or(& by the Ang(o-0a>ons4
He pre&icte& that a )ar bet)een the ;ast an& the 8est )as ine*itab(e4 Pro*i&ence )as trying to e(ect Japan as the champion of
Asia, he asserte&4 Japan shou(& en&ea*or to fu(fi(( that sub(ime mission by &e*e(oping a strong materia(istic spirit, he a&*ise&4
-r4 O'a)a ha& been the organiLer of many societies, inc(u&ing the 4ochisha" one princip(e of )hich )as the (iberation of the
co(ore& races an& the unification of the 8or(&4 The po(itica( phi(osophy of -r4 O'a)a ha& appea(e& to certain of the Mi(itary
)ho ha& a&opte& him as their spo'esman among the ci*i(ians an& often in*ite& him to &e(i*er (ectures at the Army ,enera( 0taff
meetings4 -r4 O'a)a became intimate(y ac@uainte& )ith the Accuse& KOI0O, ITA,AKI, -OHIHA+A an& other Army (ea&ers4
''(<(''
,he ,sinan In'ident
Marsha( 1hang Tso-(in, ha*ing &ec(are& Manchuria in&epen&ent of the 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina at the time of the
8ashington 1onference, an& ma&e himse(f master of Manchuria, &eci&e& to e>ten& his authority further into 1hina proper an&
mo*e& his hea&@uarters to Pe'ing4 The po(icy of the Tana'a 1abinet, being base& on the p(an of co((aboration )ith the Marsha(,
&epen&e& on the success of the Marsha( in maintaining his (ea&ership in Manchuria4 Premier Tana'a repeate&(y a&*ise& the
Marsha( to aban&on his ambitions to e>ten& his authority outsi&e ManchuriaD but the Marsha( resente& an& refuse& this a&*ice4
1i*i( )ar bet)een 1hang Tso-(in an& the Cationa(ist ,o*ernment of 1hina fo((o)e&4 In the spring of "#?, )hen the nationa(ist
armies of ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' )ere marching on Pe'ing an& Tientsin to &ri*e out the army of 1hang Tso-(in, an&
force it bac' into Manchuria, Premier Tana'a issue& a &ec(aration to the effect that Japan )ou(& maintain peace an& or&er in
Manchuria an& )as prepare& to pre*ent a state of affairs )hich )ou(& en&anger the interests of Japan in Manchuria4 The Premier
then sent a message to the 1hinese genera(s, in effect te((ing them that the Japanese )ou(& oppose any in*asion of Manchuria,
inc(u&ing the &efinite statement that the Japanese )ou(& pre*ent &efeate& troops or those in pursuit from entering Manchuria4
;*en before the ci*i( )ar sprea& to Manchuria, Japanese troops )ere sent to Tsinan in 0hantung Pro*ince4 A conf(ict ensue&
'no)n as the Tsinan Inci&ent, )hich arouse& pub(ic opinion in Japan in fa*our of protection of Japanese rights in Manchuria4
The H(ac' -ragon 0ociety he(& mass-meetings a(( o*er Japan in an effort to fan nationa( resentment against 1hina to the )ar
pitch4
''(<>''
Murder o. Marshal Chan* ,so-lin
Marsha( 1hang Tso-(in ha& not on(y &isregar&e& the a&*ice of Premier Tana'a in attempting to e>ten& his authority south of the
,reat 8a((, but ha& sho)n increasing un)i((ingness to a((o) Japan to e>p(oit 1hina by the pri*i(eges she &eri*e& from *arious
treaties an& agreements4 This attitu&e of the Marsha( ha& cause& a group of officers in the K)antung Army to a&*ocate that
force shou(& be use& to promote the interests of Japan in Manchuria, an& to maintain that nothing )as to be gaine& by
negotiating )ith the Marsha(D ho)e*er, Premier Tana'a continue& to co((aborate )ith the Marsha(, re(ying upon the threat of
force rather than its actua( use to attain his ob:ecti*e4 This resentment of the Marsha( by certain officers of the K)antung Army
became so intense that a senior staff officer of that army, 1o(one( Ka)amoto, p(anne& to mur&er the Marsha(4 The purpose of the
mur&er )as to remo*e him as the obstac(e to the creation of a ne) state in Manchuria, &ominate& by Japan, )ith the Marsha(sQ
son, 1hang Hsueh-(iang, as its nomina( hea&4
In the (atter part of Apri( "#?, the Marsha( )as &efeate& by the nationa(ist armies of ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she'4 Premier
Tana'a a&*ise& him to )ith&ra) into Manchuria behin& the Japanese (ines before it )as too (ate4 The Marsha( resente& this
a&*ice, but )as force& to fo((o) it4 The K)antung Army, in accor&ance )ith Tana'aQs &ec(aration, that Japan )ou(& pre*ent
&efeate& troops form entering Manchuria, )as engage& in &isarming 1hinese troops retreating to)ar& Mu'&en from Pe'ing4 The
Japanese $th ;ngineer +egiment, )hich ha& arri*e& at Mu'&en from Korea, mine& the rai(roa& )ith &ynamite an& a Japanese
1aptain p(ace& his
''(<?''
so(&iers in position aroun& the mine4 On / June "#A?, )hen the Marsha(Qs train reache& the mine, )hich )as (ocate& at the point
)here the Pe'ing-Mu'&en +ai()ay passes un&erneath the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay, there )as an e>p(osion4 The Marsha(Qs
train )as )rec'e& an& Japanese so(&iers began firing upon the Marsha(Qs bo&yguar&4 The Marsha( )as 'i((e& as p(anne&4 An
attempt )as ma&e to obtain an or&er to muster the entire K)antung Army into action an& e>p(oit the inci&ent an& attain its
origina( purpose, but the effort )as th)arte& by a staff officer )ho apparent(y &i& not un&erstan& the rea( purpose of those
&esiring the issuance of the or&er4
The Tana'a 1abinet )as ta'en by surprise an& great(y embarrasse& as it sa) its program en&angere& by this mur&er of the
Marsha(4 Premier Tana'a ma&e a fu(( report to the ;mperor an& obtaine& his permission to court-martia( those responsib(e4 7pon
his return from the pa(ace, he summone& the Minister of 8ar an& other members of his 1abinet an& sate& that he )as
&etermine& to &iscip(ine the Army4 Those present agree&, but )hen the Minister of 8ar too' the matter up )ith his Ministry, he
suggeste& that strong opposition on the part of the ,enera( 0taff shou(& be encourage&4 Thereafter, the Minister of 8ar reporte&
to the Premier that the opposition of the Army ,enera( 0taff )as base& on the i&ea that to court-martia( those responsib(e )ou(&
force the Army to ma'e pub(ic some of its mi(itary secrets4 This )as the first time, accor&ing to the testimony of former Ca*y
Minister O'a&a, that the Army ha& pro:ecte& itse(f into the formu(ation of go*ernment po(icy4
It )as at this time that -OHIHA+A appeare& upon a scene in )hich he )as to p(ay an important part4 He ha&
''(<@''
spent appro>imate(y eighteen years in 1hina prior to the mur&er of Marsha( 1hang Tso-(in as ai&e to ,enera( HenLai, )ho ha&
acte& as a&*isor to *arious 1hinese (ea&ers4 On "< March "#?, -OHIHA+A ha& re@ueste& an& recei*e& permission from the
;mperor to accept an appointment as ai&e& to Matsui, Canao, )ho )as a&*isor to the Marsha(4 -OHIHA+A reporte& for &uty
un&er the appointment an& )as present in Manchuria )hen the Marsha( )as 'i((e&4
Marshal Chan* Hsueh-lian*, the Moun* Marshal
The Boung Marsha(, 1hang Hsueh-(iang, succee&e& his fatherD but he pro*e& to be a &isappointment to the K)antung Army4 He
:oine& the Koumintang Party in -ecember "#?D an& anti-Japanese mo*ements began to be promote& on an organiLe& sca(e an&
gaine& great(y in intensity4 The mo*ement for the reco*ery of 1hinese nationa( rights gaine& strength4 There )as a &eman& for
the reco*ery of the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay an&, in genera(, for the (imitation of the Japanese inf(uence in Manchuria4
In Ju(y "#?, soon after the mur&er of Marsha( 1hang Tso-(in, Premier Tana'a ha& sent a persona( representati*e to negotiate
)ith the Boung Marsha(4 The representati*e ha& been instructe& to inform the Boung Marsha( that Japan regar&e& Manchuria as
her outpost, an& that the Japanese ,o*ernment )ou(& (i'e to cooperate )ith him Ibehin& the scenesI an& )as prepare& to spare
no sacrifice un&er the 1abinetQs IPositi*e Po(icyI to pre*ent an in*asion of Manchuria by the 1hinese Cationa(ist Armies4 The
Boung Marsha(Qs ans)er )as to :oin the Koumintang as re(ate&4
Japanese-Chinese Felations :trained
Japanese-1hinese re(ations in Manchuria became e>treme(y aggra*ate&4 The Japanese c(aime& se*era( *io(ations
''(<$''
of the ITra&e TreatyI )ith 1hina4 The 1hinese proposa( to construct a rai(roa& para((e( to the 0outh Manchurian +ai(roa&, the
c(aim that there )as i((ega( ta>ation of Japanese in Manchuria, the c(aim of oppression of Koreans, an& the &enia( of the right of
Japanese sub:ects to (ease (an& in Manchuria, )ere a(( IManchurian Prob(emsI accor&ing to the Japanese agitators4 The Mi(itary
a&*ocate& Japanese occupation of Manchuria4 They maintaine& that &ip(omatic negotiations )ere use(ess an& that arme& force
shou(& be use& to &ri*e the 1hinese from Manchuria an& set up a ne) regime un&er Japanese contro(4 ITA,AKI, )ho ha& been
appointe& a staff officer of the K)antung Army in May "##, )as one of those )ho a&*ocate& the use of force4 -r4 O'a)a, )ho
ha& *isite& Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang an& attempte& to negotiate )ith him on beha(f of the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay,
returne& to Japan an& engage& in a tour of o*er fifty prefectures in Apri( "##, gi*ing (ectures an& sho)ing pictures4 The Army
,enera( 0taff, of )hich MICAMI )as Jice-1hief, began to cooperate )ith -r4 O'a)a an& to ai& him in his propagan&a
program to instigate the peop(e to ta'e action against 1hina4 The Army ,enera( 0taff a(so began to stu&y p(ans for operations in
Manchuria an& to &ec(are that Manchuria )as the I(ife(ineI of Japan4
Fesi*nation o. the ,ana-a Cabinet
The efforts of the Tana'a 1abinet to punish those responsib(e for the mur&er of Marsha( 1hang Tso-(in ha& a(ienate& the
Mi(itary4 This group ha& :oine& )ith -r4 O'a)a to create opposition among the ci*i(ians to the 1abinet, an& ha& seiLe& upon the
signing of the Ke((ogg-Hrian& Pact (Anne> Co4 H-".%, )hich they c(aime& *io(ate& the Japanese
''(7%''
1onstitution, as )e(( as the terms appro*e& by the 1abinet for the sett(ement of the Tsinan Inci&ent, )hich they c(aime& )ere a
&isgrace to Japan, as opportunities to embarrass the 1abinet4 The pressure became so great that on " Ju(y "##, the 1abinet
resigne&4
The resignation of the Tana'a ,o*ernment )as a &istinct *ictory for the Mi(itary an& their ci*i(ian spo'esman, -r4 O'a)a4
From this time on, the inf(uence of this e(ement on go*ernment po(icies )as to become stronger, an& their insistence that Japan
shou(& occupy Manchuria by force an& estab(ish a puppet go*ernment there )as to bear fruit4 -r4 O'a)a became recogniLe& as
a po(itica( (ea&erD an& the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany officia(s, rea(iLing his *a(ue to them, &i*orce& the ;ast Asia
+esearch Institute from the 1ompany an& create& a Foun&ation in Ju(y "## to assist him in his )or' of in*estigating an&
mo(&ing pub(ic opinion in support of the ArmyQs p(an to occupy Manchuria4
Feinstatement o. the AFriendship Poli'yA
The Hamaguchi 1abinet, )hich fo((o)e& the Tana'a 1abinet, )as forme& on Ju(y "##D an& Haron 0hi&ehara, )ho continue&
to a&*ocate the IFrien&ship Po(icyI to)ar& 1hina, )as se(ecte& by Premier Hamaguchi as his Foreign Minister4 The IFrien&ship
Po(icyI reste& upon goo& )i(( an& frien&ship as &istinguishe& form the IPositi*e Po(icyI of the Tana'a 1abinet, )hich reste&
upon the threat of mi(itary force4 As a resu(t of the IFrien&ship Po(icyI, 1hinese boycotts of Japanese tra&e stea&i(y &ecrease&
an& norma( peacefu( re(ations might ha*e pre*ai(e& but for *io(ent agitation on the party of the Mi(itary4
''(7#''
Hashimoto and the Cherry :o'iety
In his boo', The Road to the Reconstruction of the ,orld" HA0HIMOTO, in &iscussing his tour of &uty of three years in Istanbu(
as Mi(itary AttachZ &iscusse& the po(itica( con&ition of other countries an& sai&5 II )as c(ear(y conscious that Japan )as the on(y
country )ithin the )hir(poo( of )or(& mo*ement that stoo& )ithin the boun&s of (ibera(ism4 I consi&ere& if Japan goes on un&er
the present con&ition, she )ou(& &rop from the ran's in the community of nations4 At this time, fortunate(y, I )as or&ere& to go
bac' (to Japan%4 -uring my thirty &aysQ *oyage, I pon&ere& on ho) to reform Japan an& as a resu(t, I succee&e& in &ra)ing a
&efinite p(an to a certain &egree4 On returning to the Army ,enera( 0taff Office, my former haunt, I &e*ise& se*era(
''(7<''
schemes in or&er to put my i&eas into e>ecution4I HA0HIMOTO )as attache& to the Army ,enera( 0taff on A$ January "#A$4
Het)een "-"$ 0eptember "#A$, a score or more of army captains )ho ha& recent(y gra&uate& from the Army 0taff 1o((ege, met
at the Army 1(ub in To'yo un&er the sponsorship of 9t4 1o(one( HA0HIMOTO an& &eci&e& to organiLe a research organiLation
to stu&y Manchurian an& Mongo(ian @uestions an& the interna( reorganiLation of the country4 The 0ocietyQs u(timate ob:ecti*e
)as (ater announce& to be nationa( reorganiLation, by arme& force if necessary, in or&er to sett(e the so-ca((e& IManchurian
Prob(emI an& other pen&ing issues4 The name Sakurakai (1herry 0ociety% )as gi*en to the organiLationD an& its membership
)as (imite& to army officer on the acti*e (ist )ith ran' of 9t4 1o(one( or un&er, )ho )ere concerne& about nationa(
reorganiLation4
Man'huria as Japan=s Ai.elineA
-r4 O'a)a, )ith the ai& of the ;ast Asia +esearch Foun&ation an& the officers of the Army ,enera( 0taff, ha& his propagan&a
campaign in fu(( b(ast )hen HA0HIMOTO returne& to the ,enera( 0taff Office4 Propagan&a )as being &isseminate& through the
ne)spapers an& other me&ia to estab(ish the i&ea that Manchuria )as JapanQs I9ife(ineI, an& that a stronger po(icy in connection
there)ith shou(& be a&opte&4 The mi(itary (ea&ers issue& instructions that a(( e&itoria( )riters, u(tra-nationa(istic spea'ers, etc4,
shou(& unite to estab(ish pub(ic opinion for more aggressi*e action in Manchuria4 The MI(itary argue& that Manchuria )as
JapanQs
''(77''
I9ife(ineI, an& that Japan must e>pan& into Manchuria, &e*e(op it economica((y an& in&ustria((y, set it up as a &efence against
+ussia, an& protect the rights of Japan an& its nationa(s there as Japan )as entit(e& to &o un&er e>isting treaties4 An appea( to
emotion )as ma&eD it being sai& that Japanese b(oo& ha& been she& in Manchuria in the +usso-Japanese 8ar, an& that by reason
of that sacrifice, Japan )as entit(e& to contro( Manchuria4 The rai(roa& @uestion )as sti(( a burning issueD an& -r4 O'a)a insiste&
that Manchuria shou(& be separate& from Can'ing an& p(ace& un&er Japanese contro( to create a (an& foun&e& on the IKing(y
8ayI4
HA0HIMOTO in his boo', The 9ne+itability of Reno+ation" has e>p(aine& )e(( the meaning of the term IKing(y 8ayI4 He sai&,
IIt is necessary to ha*e po(itics, economics, cu(ture, nationa( &efense, an& e*erything e(se, a(( focuse& on one, the ;mperor, an&
the )ho(e force of the nation concentrate& an& &isp(aye& from a sing(e point4 ;specia((y the po(itica(, economic an& cu(tura( (ines
)hich ha& been organiLe& an& con&ucte& by (ibera(ism an& socia(ism in the past shou(& be reorganiLe& accor&ing to the princip(e
of oneness in the Imperia( 8ay, that is to say 4odo 9ttai Shugi* This system is the strongest an& the gran&est of a((4 There are
mony countries in the )or(&, but there is abso(ute(y no nation that can compare )ith our nationa( b(oo& so(i&arity )hich ma'es
possib(e a unification (i'e ours )ith the ;mperor in the centerI4
It )as O'a)aQs i&ea that after an in&epen&ent Manchuria ha& been estab(ishe& on the IKing(y 8ayI, )ith an incomparab(e
re(ation bet)een Manchuria an& Japan, Japan cou(& assume the (ea&ership of the peop(es of Asia4
''(7&''
A ,enera( In*estigation 0ection )as create& in the ,enera( 0taff on " Apri( "#A$, as the In*estigation 0ection of the K)antung
Army )as consi&ere& insufficient to probe into the resources of Manchuria, the sentiments of the peop(e an& other 'in&re&
sub:ects of in*estigation4
Aroun& the hea&@uarters of the K)antung Army at Port Arthur, the chief topic of con*ersation among the staff officers in those
&ays )as the IManchurian Prob(emI4 ITA,AKI, )ho )as one of those staff officers, ha& some &efinite i&eas for so(*ing the
prob(em, )hich he e>presse& to a frien& &uring the month of May "#A$4 ITA,AKI sai& that there )ere many ?unso(*e&
prob(ems bet)een 1hina an& Japan, that they )ere so serious that they cou(& not be so(*e& by &ip(omatic means, an& that there
)as no a(ternati*e but to use force4 He e>presse& the opinion that Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang shou(& be &ri*en from Manchuria
so that a ne) state might be estab(ishe& in accor&ance )ith the princip(es of the IKing(y 8ayI4
(ssassination o. Premier Hama*u'hi
On / Co*ember "#A$, Premier Hamaguchi )as on the p(atform of the To'yo +ai()ay 0tation )hen, in the )or&s of Foreign
Minister 0hi&ehara, IHe )as shot by a si((y young manI4 The Premier )as not 'i((e& instant(yD but his )oun& )as such that it
)as necessary for Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara to act as Prime Minister unti( the Hamaguchi 1abinet resigne& on "A Apri( "#A"4
The Premier succumbe& to his )oun&s an& &ie& on ! August "#A"4 Acting Prime Minister 0hi&ehara cause& an in*estigation to
be ma&e an& &etermine& that the assassination of Premier Hamaguchi )as cause& by &issatisfaction )ith the PremierQs
''(7(''
Ca*a( -isarmament Po(icy4
The 9on&on Ca*a( 9imitations Treaty ha& been signe& on Apri( "#A$4 This treaty )as in (ine )ith the po(icy of nationa(
economy an& re&uction of armaments )hich accompanie& the PremierQs IFrien&ship PO(icyI4 A(so in (ine )ith this po(icy )as
the re&uction fo the Army from " &i*isions to "< &i*isions4 The signing of the 9on&on Treaty ma&e the young na*y officers
in&ignant4 The H(ac' -ragon 0ociety began to ho(& massGmeetings in protest4 The Pri*y 1ounci(, of )hich HI+AC7MA )as
Jice-Presi&ent, )as strong(y against the Treaty an& )as ta'ing the attitu&e that the 1abinet ha& usurpe& the po)ers an&
prerogati*es of the Mi(itary in conc(u&ing the Treaty4 It )as in the mi&st of this *io(ent po(itica( argument that the assassination
ha& occurre&4
,he Mar'h In'ident
A mi(itary coup &Qetat )as p(anne& to occur on $ March "#A"4 The affair came to be 'no)n as the IMarch Inci&entI4 The
continua( agitation an& &issemination of propagan&a by the Army ,enera( 0taff ha& its effectD an& as testifie& by Haron O'a&a,
)ho )as a member of the 0upreme 8ar 1ounci( at that time, it )as genera((y un&erstoo& that it )as on(y a @uestion of time unti(
the Army )ou(& un&erta'e the occupation of Manchuria4 Hefore the Army cou(& mo*e into Manchuria, it )as thought necessary
to p(ace in po)er a ,o*ernment fa*orab(e to such action4 At the time, the Hamaguchi 1abinet )as in po)erD an& &ue to the
attempte& assassination of the Premier, the chief e>ponent of the IFrien&ship Po(icyI, name(y Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara, )as
acting as Premier4
''(7>''
HA0HIMOTOQs p(an, )hich )as appro*e& by his superior officers of the Army ,enera( 0taff, inc(u&ing Cinomiya, )ho )as
Jice-1hief of the 0taff, an& Tate'a)a, )ho )as 1hief of the 0econ& -i*ision of the 0taff, )as to start a &emonstration as an
e>pression of &isappro*a( of the -iet4 It )as e>pecte& that a c(ash )ou(& occur )ith the Po(ice &uring the &emonstration, an&
that this c(ash cou(& be e>pan&e& unti( the &isor&er )ou(& :ustify the Army in estab(ishing martia( (a), &isso(*ing the -iet an&
seiLing the ,o*ernment4 KOI0O, Cinomiya, Tate'a)a an& others ca((e& upon 8ar Minister 7ga'i at his Officia( +esi&ence an&
&iscusse& their p(ans )ith him, (ea*ing )ith the impression that he )as a rea&y too( for their scheme4 -r4 O'a)a )as instructe&
to procee& )ith the mass &emonstrationD an& HA0HIMOTO &e(i*ere& to him A$$ practice bombs, )hich KOI0O ha& secure& for
use on that occasion4 They )ere to be use& to sprea& a(arm an& confusion in the cro)& an& increase the appearance of riot4
Ho)e*er, -r4 O'a)a in his enthusiasm a&&resse& a (etter to 8ar Minister 7ga'i in )hich he state& that the time )as :ust ahea&
for a great mission to &escen& upon Minister 7ga'iD the 8ar Minister no) rea(iLe& the fu(( import of the p(ot4 He imme&iate(y
ca((e& in KOI0O an& HA0HIMOTO an& instructe& them to stop a(( further p(ans to use the Army to carry out this re*o(ution
against the ,o*ernment4 The pro:ecte& coup &Qetat )as a*erte&4 KI-O, )ho )as then the 1hief 0ecretary to the 9or& Keeper of
the Pri*y 0ea(, )as fu((y informe& of the p(ot beforehan& by a frien&, )ho suggeste& that the Imperia( Househo(& shou(& be
a&*ise&4
''(7?''
,he <atasu-i Cabinet Continued the AFriendship Poli'yA
A(though the IMarch Inci&entI hastene& the fa(( of the Hamaguchi 1abinet, )hich )as fo((o)e& on "/ Apri( "#A" by the
formation of the 8a'atsu'i 1abinet, it &i& not succee& in &isp(acing the IFrien&ship Po(icyI fostere& by Haron 0hi&ehara, for he
)as retaine& as Foreign Minister by Premier 8a'atsu'i4 ,enera( MICAMI, )ho ha& been a 8ar 1ounci((or since his re(ief as
1omman&er of the Korean Army, )as se(ecte& as 8ar Minister4 He rep(ace& ,enera( 7ga'i, )ho )as in &isgrace )ith the Army
for ha*ing re&uce& the siLe of the Army an& for ha*ing refuse& to ta'e part in the IMarch Inci&entI4 7ga'i resigne& from the
Army an& )ent into retirement4
,he <anpaoshan In'ident
The IFrien&ship Po(icyI )as &estine& to be put to further tests, by t)o IInci&entsI, )hich ha& far-reaching effect upon opinion
in Japan4 The first of these IInci&entsI occurre& at 8anpaoshan, a sma(( *i((age (ocate& some "? mi(es north of 1hangchun, in
Manchuria4 The *i((age is (ocate& in a (o) marshy area a(ongsi&e the Itung +i*er4 A group of Koreans (ease& a (arge tract of (an&
near 8anpaoshan an& prepare& to irrigate the (an& by &igging a &itch se*era( mi(es (ong, e>ten&ing from the Itung +i*er across a
tract of (an&, not inc(u&e& in their (ease, an& occupie& by 1hinese farmers4 After a consi&erab(e (ength of the &itch ha& been
constructe&, the 1hinese farmers arose en masse an& proteste& to the 8anpaoshan authorities, )ho &ispatche& po(ice an&
or&ere& the Koreans to cease construction at once an& (ea*e the area occupie& by the 1hinese4 The Japanese 1onsu( at
1hangchun a(so sent po(icy to protect the Koreans4 On " Ju(y "#A", after
''(7@''
negotiations ha& pro&uce& no resu(ts, the 1hinese farmers too' matters into their o)n han&s an& &ro*e the Koreans from their
(an&s an& fi((e& the &itch4 -uring this operation, Japanese 1onsu(ar Po(ice opene& fire on the 1hinese farmers an& &ro*e them
a)ay, )hi(e the Koreans returne& an& comp(ete& their irrigation pro:ect un&er the protection of the Japanese po(ice4 Co
casua(ties resu(te& from this IInci&entI, but the sensationa( accounts of it printe& in the Japanese an& Korean Press cause& a
series of anti-1hinese riots in Korea in )hich 1hinese )ere massacre& an& their property &estroye&, )hich in turn cause& a
re*i*a( of the anti-Japanese boycott in 1hina4
About this time, the 8ar Ministry in*ite& officia(s of the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany to &iscuss IManchurian
Prob(emsI4 At the &iscussions, MICAMI represente& the Army an& state& that he ha& (ong recogniLe& the necessity of increasing
the number of &i*isions in Korea4
,he >a-amura In'ident
The 'i((ing of a Japanese Army captain by the name of Ca'amura, 0hintaro, on < June "#A" by so(&iers un&er the comman& of
Kuan Buheng, 1omman&er of the Thir& +egiment of the 1hinese +ec(amation Army in Manchuria, )hich 'i((ing &i& not
become 'no)n to the Japanese unti( about "< Ju(y "#A", ga*e rise to the secon& IInci&entI4 1aptain Ca'amura, a regu(ar
Japanese Army officer, )as on a mission un&er or&ers of the Japanese Army4 Accor&ing to the 1hinese, he )as arme& an&
carrie& patent me&icines, )hich inc(u&e& narcotic &rugs for non-me&ica( purposes4 He )as accompanie& by three interpreters
an&
''(7$''
assistants, an& represente& himse(f as an IAgricu(tura( ;>pertI4 8hen he reache& a point near Taonan, he an& his assistants )ere
capture& an& shotD an& their bo&ies )ere cremate& to concea( the e*i&ence of the &ee&4 This IInci&entI great(y aggra*ate& the
resentment of the Japanese Mi(itary against the IFrien&ship Po(icyID an& the Japanese Press repeate&(y &ec(are& that Iso(ution of
the Manchurian Prob(em ought to be by forceTI
,he (rmy (ttitude :ti..ened
The Army stiffene& its attitu&e in regar& to re&uction of armaments an& the p(an of the Finance -epartment to economiLe, an&
threatene& to appea( to the Throne4 The Foreign Minster )as bitter(y assai(e& in the Press an& by u(tra-nationa(ists an& the
mi(itarists for I0hi&eharaQs )ea'-'nee& foreign po(icyI4 The 1herry 0ociety continue& its agitation for the use of force4 The
H(ac' -ragon 0ociety he(& mass-meetings4 -r4 O'a)a steppe& up the tempo of his propagan&a4 He )as con&ucting a campaign
of pub(ic speeches an& pub(ications to bui(& up sentiment in support of the mo*ement to occupy Manchuria4 He ma&e a speech
a(ong this (ine at the Ca*a( Aca&emy4 The Army )as comp(ete(y out of contro( an& cou(& not be restraine&4 The 1hiefs of 0taff
he(& a conference an& &eci&e& that since one cou(& not te(( )hat Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang )ou(& &o, he shou(& be smashe&
firm(y an& )ithout hesitation4 -r4 O'a)a confi&e& in a frien& that he an& 1o(one( ITA,AKI an& certain other Army officers
)ou(& bring about an IInci&entI in Mu'&en (ater on that )ou(& so(*e a(( IManchurian Prob(emsI4 KI-O a&mits that Haron
Hara&a informe& him of a
''(&%''
p(ot to this en& on the part of the mi(itary officers in Manchuria as ear(y as A June "#A"4
On / August "#A", MICAMI a&&resse& a conference of Army 1omman&ers an& 1omman&ing ,enera(s4 he sai&, I0ome
obser*ers, )ithout stu&ying the con&itions of neighboring foreign countries, hasti(y a&*ocate (imitation of armaments an&
engage in propagan&a unfa*ourab(e to the nation an& the Army4 Manchuria an& Mongo(ia are *ery c(ose(y re(ate& to our country
from the *ie)point of our nationa( &efense as )e(( as po(itics an& economics, It is to be regrette& that the recent situation in that
part of 1hina is fo((o)ing a tren& unfa*ourab(e to our ;mpire4 In *ie) of the situation, I hope you )i(( e>ecute your &uty in
e&ucating an& training the troops )ith enthusiasm an& sincerity so that you may ser*e the cause of His Ma:esty to perfectionI4
The 1itiLensQ &isarmament 9eague too' issue )ith MICAMI on this speech an& a&&resse& a (etter to him in )hich they accuse&
him of sprea&ing propagan&a in the Army in *io(ation of the Mi(itary 1rimina( 1o&e4
9t4 1o(one( HA0HIMOTO an& 9t4 1o(one( 0higeto, )ho )as a(so a member of the 1herry 0ociety, &ine& at the home of frien&,
Fu:ita, in To'yo, &uring August "#A"4 -uring the course of the mea(, the IManchurian Prob(emI )as &iscusse& an& the t)o 9t4
1o(one(s agree& that positi*e action shou(& be ta'en in Manchuria4 A fe) &ays (ater, 9t4 1o(one( 0higeto appeare& at the home
of Fu:ita an& &eposite& a (arge sum of money for safe-'eeping4 -uring the fo((o)ing &ays, this fun& )as &ra)n upon by 0Higeto
in *arying amounts4 After the IMu'&en Inci&entI, Fu:ita ca((e& at the home of 0higeto an& e>c(aime&, IBou ha*e accomp(ishe&
)hat you )ere contemp(ating
''(&#''
in ManchuriaTI 0higeto rep(ie&, IBesTI an& smi(e&D he then a&&e&, I8e )i(( e>pe( 1hang Hsueh-(iang from Manchuria an& bring
Pu Bi to Manchuria an& insta(( him as ,o*ernor of the Far ;astern Pro*incesTI 7pon @uestioning HA0HIMOTO, Fu:ita
recei*e& the rep(y, IBes, things ha*e come to pass )here they shou(& comeTI
''(&<''
7ohihara In;esti*ated
1o(one( -OHIHA+A, )ho ha& been attache& to the Army ,enera( 0taff since his return from 1hina in March "##, )as sent by
the 1hief of the ,enera( 0taff to in*estigate the &eath of 1aptain Ca'amura4 A(though his mission )as ostensib(y to in*estigate
1aptain Co'amuraQs &eath, his rea( mission appears to ha*e been to &etermine the strength, state of training an& con&ition of the
1hinese armies an& the efficiency of their communication system4 He &eparte& from To'yo in Ju(y "#A", an& tra*e(e& by )ay of
0hanghai, Han'o), Peiping an& Tientsin before reporting to Mu'&en4 He a&mits that the in*estigation of the Ca'amura Inci&ent
)as on(y one of the missions that too' him to 1hina4 A(though the Hea&@uarters of the K)antung Army )as in Port Arthur, the
Hea&@uarters of the 0pecia( 0er*ices OrganiLation of that Army )as in Mu'&en4 -OHIHA+A arri*e& at Mu'&en on "? August
"#A" an& too' comman& of the 0pecia( 0er*ice OrganiLation4
Forei*n Minister :hidehara (lso In;esti*ated
Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara, an>ious to enforce his IFrien&ship Po(icyI in Manchuria an& gi*e the Army no occasion to
capita(iLe on the ICa'amura Inci&entI, &ispatche& 1onsu(-,enera( Hayashi from To'yo on "< August "#A" )ith instructions to
in*estigate an& sett(e the affair4 The 1onsu(-,enera( ca((e& upon the 1hinese ,o*ernor of 9iaoning Pro*ince, )ho appointe& a
commission to in*estigate an& report upon the IInci&entI4 This
''(&7''
1ommission reporte& on A 0eptember "#A"D but its report )as unsatisfactory to the 1hinese authorities4 On the /th of
0eptember, 1onsu(-,enera( Hayashi )as informe& by ,enera( Bung 1hen, the 1hinese 1hief of 0taff, that the report of the
1ommission )as in&ecisi*e an& unsatisfactory an& that it )ou(& be necessary to con&uct a secon& en@uiry4 Marsha( 1hang
Hsueh-(iang, )ho )as sic' in a hospita( at Peping, )as a&*ise& of the situationD an& he imme&iate(y or&ere& a ne) 1ommission
to be appointe& an& instructe& to in*estigate the &eath of 1aptain Ca'amura4 At the same time, he sent Ma:or 0hibayama to
To'yo to confer )ith Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara an& ma'e it c(ear that he &esire& to sett(e the case amicab(y4 In the meantime,
he ha& sent a high officia( to To'yo to confer )ith Haron 0hi&ehara an& ascertain )hat common groun& cou(& be foun& for the
sett(ement of *arious 0ino-Japanese issues then outstan&ing4
7ohihara Feported to the (rmy General :ta..
1o(one( -OHIHA+A returne& to To'yo ear(y in 0eptember to report to the Army ,enera( 0taff4 After his return,the Press free(y
pub(ishe& references to the fact that it ha& been &eci&e& to use force to sett(e a(( pen&ing issues in Manchuria as recommen&e&
by 1o(one( -OHIHA+A4 THe Press a(so state& that conferences )ere being he(& bet)een the 8ar Ministry an& the Army
,enera( 0taff to arrange &efinite instructions to be gi*en to 1o(one( -OHIHA+A4 These pub(ications may or may not be
factua((y accurate4 They )ere not officia((y &enie&4
''(&&''
They fanne& the rising f(ame of Japanese opinion in fa*oring the use of force against 1hina4 It is estab(ishe& that 1o(one(
-OHIHA+A &isagree& )ith 1onsu(-,enera( Hayashi regar&ing sett(ement of the Ca'amura Inci&ent an& continue& to @uestion
the sincerity of the 1hinese efforts to arri*e at a satisfactory so(ution of the case4 8ar Minister MICAMI (ater confi&e& in a
frien& that at the time he ha& a&*ocate& &ecisi*e sett(ement of the IManchurian Prob(emI in (ine )ith Army opinion4 KI-O, as
1hief 0ecretary to the 9or& Keeper of the Pri*y 0ea(, note& in his &iary on "$ 0eptember "#A" that he agree& )ith the theory that
Ise(f-&efensi*eI action might be una*oi&ab(e in connection )ith Manchuria accor&ing to future &e*e(opments4
Forei*n Minister :hidehara Continued /..orts at Mediation
+umors )ere current in To'yo that the Army )as p(anning an IInci&entI in Mu'&en, an& these rumors )ere hear& by Foreign
Minister 0hi&ehara4 In fact, 0hi&ehara state&, I0hort(y before the Manchurian Inci&ent, as Foreign Minister, I recei*e&
confi&entia( reports an& information that the K)antung Army )as engage& in amassing troops an& bringing up ammunition an&
materia( for some mi(itary purpose, an& 'ne) from such reports that action of some 'in& )as contemp(ate& by the Mi(itary
1(i@ueI4
It no) appears from the e*i&ence a&&uce& before this Tribuna(--though these facts )ere not 'no)n to 0hi&ehara at the time--that
9ieutenant, or 1aptain,
''(&(''
Ka)a'ami, )ho )as statione& at Fushun in comman& of a &etache& company of the secon& batta(ion of the In&epen&ent Infantry
,arrison, ha& recei*e& or&ers from the 1omman&er-in-1hief of the K)antung Army )hich in*o(*e& the absence of himse(f an&
his company from Fushun4 The remaining companies of this batta(ion )ere statione& at Mu'&en an& too' part in the attac' on
the 1hinese Harrac's at Mu'&en on the "?th of 0eptember4 The fu(( content of the or&ers )hich Ka)a'ami ha& recei*e& form
the 1omman&er-in-1hief is not estab(ishe&, but they in*o(*e& that Ka)a'ami an& his company shou(& entrain an& (ea*e Fushun
upon the occurrence of a certain emergency4 Thereupon, Ka)a'ami assemb(e& the Japanese po(ice, e>-ser*icemen, an& ci*i(ians
at Fushun an& as'e& them )hat they )ou(& &o if on "?th 0eptember "#A" an e*ent occurre& in Mu'&en )hich re@uire& him an&
his company to (ea*e Fushun4 He is sai& to ha*e been an>ious about &efense at Fushun shou(& he an& his company (ea*e that
city4 He a(so assemb(e& the officia(s of the +ai()ay at Fushun4 He to(& them that some acute situation might arise after the "<th
of 0eptember an& that arrangements ought to be ma&e about trains at Fushun4 It appears that up ti(( that time no arrangement ha&
been ma&e for ha*ing a night train stan&ing by at Fushun to mo*e troops in case of emergency, an& Ka)a'ami &esire& that such
pro*ision shou(& be ma&e4
The case& for the &efence in regar& to this most significant affair is that Ka)a'ami ha& no or&ers )hich re(ate& specifica((y to
the "?th of 0eptemberD that his or&ers )ere genera(, to ta'e certain action if an& )hen an emergency occurre&D that upon a
re*ie) of the situation, Ka)a'ami specu(ate& that the emergency might occur about the "?th of 0eptemberD an& that this guess
''(&>''
of his a(ong accounts for his mention of that &ate, )hen spea'ing to the peop(e at Fushun4 Thus, accor&ing to the &efence,
Ka)a'ami guesse& the e>act &ate on )hich the 1hinese )ou(& &e(i*er a surprise attac' on the Japanese troops at Mu'&en4 7pon
a consi&eration of a(( the facts re(ating to the inci&ent of "?th 0eptember, the Tribuna( unhesitating(y re:ects this e>p(anation an&
ho(& that Ka)a'ami ha& or&ers to ta'e certain action in an emergency, )hich )ou(& occur on the night of the "?th of 0eptember,
an& )as concerne& since there )as no pro*ision for (ea*ing a train a*ai(ab(e at Fushun at night4
7pon recei*ing the report from Hayashi, 0hi&ehara ca((e& upon 8ar Minister MICAMI an& strong(y proteste& against the
report4 In the meantime, 0HI,;MIT07 )as ho(&ing conferences )ith Mr4 T4J4 0oong, )ho )as Finance Minister of the
+epub(ic of 1hina, an& they ha& agree& to meet in Mu'&en on $ 0eptember "#A", an& confer )ith Marsha( 1hang Hseuh-(iang
an& 1ount 7chi&a, )ho )as Presi&ent of the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany, in an effort to sett(e a(( outstan&ing
&ifferences bet)een Japan an& the Marsha(4
>i*ht Maneu;ers by the K6antun* (rmy
The K)antung Army ha& begun carrying out night maneu*ers on "/ 0eptember "#A" in the *icinity of the barrac's of the <th
1hinese Hriga&e4 These barrac's )ere (ocate& near the trac's of the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay, a short &istance north of
Mu'&en4
''(&?''
The maneu*ers in*o(*e& *igorous rif(e an& machine-gun fire, an& the "$,$$$ men of the <th Hriga&e ha& been confine& to
barrac's on or&ers of Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang in or&er to a*oi& a c(ash bet)een them an& the Japanese4 These maneu*ers
continue& up to an& inc(u&ing the night of "? 0eptember "#A"4
Mr4 Morishima, a member of the staff of the 1onsu(ate )ho ha& been )or'ing )ith Hayashi in an attempt to sett(e the Ca'amura
Inci&ent, (earne& that the K)antung Army 7nits statione& at the important coa( mining &istrict of Fushun )ou(& e>ecute a
maneu*er )hich contemp(ate& the occupation of Mu'&en, (ea*ing Fushun at about ""5A$ p4m4 on the night of "? 0eptember
"#A"4
Marshal Chan* Hsueh-lian*=s Commission Feturned to Mu-den
Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iangQs 1ommission, )hich ha& been in*estigating the Ca'amura Inci&ent, returne& to Mu'&en on the
morning of "! 0eptember "#A"4 The Japanese 1onsu(-,enera( ca((e& upon ,enera( Bung 1hen, the 1hinese 1hief of 0taff, on
the afternoon of "? 0eptember "#A", an& the (atter state& that 1omman&er Kuan Buheng ha& been brought to Mu'&en on "!
0eptember "#A", charge& )ith the responsibi(ity for the mur&er of 1aptain Ca'amura an& )ou(& be imme&iate(y trie& by a
court-martia(4 It appeare& that the case )ou(& be sett(e&4 Ho)e*er, the conference bet)een the 1onsu( an& ,enera( Bung )as
a&:ourne& at about ? p4m4, because it )as fe(t that since a member of the Mi(itary )as in*o(*e&, it )ou(& be necessary to confer
)ith appropriate representati*es of the K)antung Army before any further representations cou(& be ma&e to the 1hinese
officia(s4
Mr4 Morishima, of the 1onsu(ate, )as &etai(e& to arrange for the atten&ance of appropriate mi(itary representati*es at a further
conference, )hich )as to be he(& (ater in the
''(&@''
e*ening4 He en&ea*ore& to contact 1o(one( -OHIHA+A, an& Ma:or HanayaD ho)e*er, he )as unab(e to (ocate either of them or
any other office of the 0pecia( 0er*ice Office, a(though he sought them at their respecti*e hote(s, offices, bi((ets an& other p(aces
)hich they fre@uente&4 He reporte& this to the 1onsu(ate an& retire& to his @uarters4
Minami=s /missary <ent (stray
,enera( Tate'a)a of the Army ,enera( 0taff arri*e& in Mu'&en *ia the Antung-Mu'&en +ai()ay at "5$$ p4m4 on "? 0eptember
"#A"4 He ha& been sent to Manchuria to ma'e an inspection for the Army ,enera( 0taffD an& 8ar Minister MICAMI, acting on
Foreign Minister 0hi&eharaQs protest against the rumor that the army p(anne& an IInci&entI at Mu'&en for the "?th, ha&
instructe& Tate'a)a to stop that p(ot4 MICAMIQs &enia( that he ga*e this or&er to Tate'a)a is &ispro*e& by the subse@uent
statements of MICAMI an& by other statements of Tate'a)a4 The K)antung Army 1omman&er Hon:o, )ho ha& :ust comp(ete&
an inspection of his troops an& insta((ations, )as &e(i*ering an a&&ress to the n& -i*ision at 9iaoyang )hen he recei*e& a
te(egram from his 1hief-of-0taff, Miya'e, in Port Arthur, informing him of Tate'a)aQs *isit an& suggesting that 0taff Officer
ITA,AKI or 0taff Officer Ishihara be &etai(e& to meet Tate'a)a an& escort him on his inspection tour4
1o(one( ITA,AKI )as &etai(e& an& procee&e& form 9iaoyang to Mu'&enD an& upon his arri*a(, )ent to the 0hinyo'an Inn4
-OHIHA+AQs assistant, Ma:or Hanaya, of the 0pecia( 0er*ice Office in Mu'&en, met ,enera( Tate'a)a an& escorte& him to
:oin 1o(one( ITA,AKI at the Inn, )here 1o(one( ITA,AKI an& he &ine& that e*ening4 Accor&ing to ITA,AKI, ,enera(
Tate'a)a comp(aine& that he ha& not been ab(e to rest on his trip an&
''(&$''
)as not inc(ine& to &iscuss business imme&iate(y, but &i& state that the superiors )ere )orrying about the care(ess an&
unscrupu(ous con&uct of the young officers4 To this, ITA,AKI rep(ie& that there )as no nee& to )orry about that, an& that he
)ou(& hear the ,enera( at (eisure the ne>t &ay4 After &inner, ITA,AKI too' his (ea*e of ,enera( Tate'a)a an& )ent to the
0pecia( 0er*ice Office, arri*ing there about # p4m4 ,enera( Tate'a)a (ater to(& a frien& that he ha& no &esire to interfere )ith
any propose& IInci&entI an& ha& a((o)e& himse(f to be &ecoye& to the Inn, )here he )as entertaine& by geisha gir(s )hi(e he
(istene& to the soun& of firing in the &istance an& (ater retire& an& s(ept soun&(y unti( ca((e& in the morning4
,he Mu-den In'ident
At # oQc(oc' in the e*ening of "? 0eptember "#A", Officer 9iu, at the barrac's of the <th 1hinese Hriga&e, reporte& that a train
compose& of three or four coaches, but )ithout the usua( type of (ocomoti*e, ha& stoppe& on the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay
opposite the barrac's4 At "$ p4m4, the soun& of a (ou& e>p(osion )as hear&, imme&iate(y fo((o)e& by rif(e fire4 The Japanese
account is that 9t4 Ka)amoto, of the K)antung Army, )ith si> men un&er his comman&, )as on patro( &uty, practicing &efense
e>ercises a(ong the trac' near the p(ace )here the e>p(osion occurre&, that he hear& the e>p(osionD that his patro( turne& an& ran
bac' about $$ yar&s an& foun& that a portion of one of the rai(s ha& been b(o)n outD that )hi(e on the site of the e>p(osion, the
patro( )as fire& upon from the fie(&s on the east si&e of the trac'sD that at that moment, the regu(ar southboun& train, &ue in
Mu'&en at "$5A$ p4m4, )as hear& approachingD an& that the train
''((%''
passe& o*er the &amage& rai( )ithout mishap to arri*e in Mu'&en on time4 1aptain Ka)ashima an& his company arri*e& at
"$5.$ p4m4 an& the Hatta(ion 1omman&er 9ieutenant 1o(one( 0himamoto comman&ing the 0econ& Hatta(ion of the In&epen&ent
Infantry ,arrison or&ere& t)o more companies to procee& to the spot4 They arri*e& about mi&night4 Another company at
Fushun, )hich )as an hour-an&-a-ha(f a)ay, )as or&ere& to procee& to the spot a(so4 This is the 1ompany of Ka)a'ami, )ho
ha& (ong ago announce& that he an& his 1ompany )ou(& ha*e to (ea*e Fushun on the night of the "?th4 The barrac's of the <th
1hinese Hriga&e )ere g(ittering )ith e(ectric (ights, but the Japanese attac'e& the barrac's )ithout hesitation at ""5A$ p4m4,
emp(oying arti((ery as )e(( as rif(es an& machine-guns4 Most of the 1hinese so(&iers escape& from the barrac's an& retreate& to
;rhtaitLe, to the northeastD ho)e*er, the Japanese c(aim they burie& A$ 1hinese so(&iers an& capture& $ )oun&e&4 The (oss to
the Japanese )as t)o pri*ates 'i((e& an& )oun&e&4 1o(one( Hirata comman&ing the #th +egiment recei*e& a te(ephone
message at "$5/$ p4m4 from 9t4 1o(one( 0himamoto informing him of the e>p(osion on the rai(roa& an& the p(an to attac' the
barrac's4
''((#''
1o(one( Hirata imme&iate(y &eci&e& to attac' the )a((e& city of Mu'&en4 His attac' commence& at ""5A$ p4m4 Co resistance )as
offere&, the on(y fighting that occurre& )as )ith the po(ice, of )hom appro>imate(y <. )ere 'i((e&4 The n& -i*ision an& part
of the "!th +egiment (eft 9iaoyang at A5A$ a4m4 of the "#th an& arri*e& at Mu'&en at . a4m4 The arsena( an& aero&rome )ere
capture& at <5A$ a4m4 1o(one( ITA,AKI (ater a&mitte& that hea*y guns, )hich ha& been secret(y insta((e& in the Japanese
Infantry 1ompoun& on the "$th, ha& pro*en usefu( in the bombar&ment of the airfie(& after the fighting got un&er )ay4 After
ITA,AKI too' (ea*e of ,enera( Tata'a)a, he )ent to the 0pecia( 0er*ice Office4 There, accor&ing to him, he )as informe& by
1o(one( 0himamoto of his &ecision to attac' the barrac's of the <th 1hinese Hriga&e an& by 1o(one( Hirata of his
''((#'A''
&ecision to attac' the )a((e& city of Mu'&en4 ITA,AKI says that he accepte& their &ecisions an& too' steps to report to the
1omman&er-in-1hief at Port Arthur4
Ita*a-i Fe.used to >e*otiate
In the meantime, at "$5A$ oQc(oc' in the e*ening of "? 0eptember "#A", Mr4 Morishima of the Japanese 1onsu(ate, recei*e& a
te(ephone ca(( from the Army 0pecia( 0er*ice Office in Mu'&en a&*ising him that an e>p(osion ha& occurre& on the 0outh
Manchurian +ai()ay an& that he shou(& report to the 0pecia( 0er*ice Hea&@uarters in Mu'&en4 He arri*e& at "$5/. an& foun&
ITA,AKI an& Ma:or Kanaya an& some others there4 ITA,AKI state& that the 1hinese ha& e>p(o&e& the rai(roa&, that Japan
must ta'e appropriate mi(itary action, an& that or&ers ha& been issue& to that effect4 Mr4 Morishima trie& to persua&e ITA,AKI
that they shou(& re(y upon peacefu( negotiations to a&:ust the matter4 ITA,AKI then repriman&e& him an& )ante& to 'no) if the
office of the 1onsu(-,enera( inten&e& to interfere )ith the right of mi(itary comman&4 Mr4 Morishima insiste& that he )as
certain the matter cou(& be a&:uste& amicab(y through norma( negotiations4 At that point, Ma:or Hanaya unsheathe& his s)or& in
an angry gesture an& state& that if Morishima insiste&, he shou(& be prepare& to suffer the conse@uences4 Hanaya a(so state& that
he )ou(& 'i(( anyone )ho en&ea*ore& to interfere4 That bro'e up the conference4
The Japanese 1onsu(ate recei*e& many re@uests &uring the night from the 0upreme A&*isor for Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang
imp(oring the office of the 1onsu(-,enera( to persua&e the Japanese Army to cease attac's4 A(( these representations )ere
communicate& to the mi(itary, but to no a*ai(, an& the fighting continue&4 The 1onsu(-,enera( ta('e& o*er the
''((<''
te(ephone a number of times &uring the night of the "?th an& morning of the "#th )ith 1o(one( ITA,AKI in an effort to
persua&e him to cease the fighting, but 1o(one( ITA,AKI remaine& &efiant an& consistent(y informe& the 1onsu(-,enera( that
he shou(& cease interference )ith the right of mi(itary comman&4 1onsu(-,enera( Hayashi on the morning of "# 0eptember "#A"
cab(e& Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara, IIn *ie) of the fact that it )as propose& se*era( times from the 1hinese si&e that this matter
be sett(e& in a peacefu( )ay, I Qphone& to 0taff Officer ITA,AKI an& sai& that since Japan an& 1hina ha& not yet forma((y
entere& into a state of )ar an& that, moreo*er, as 1hina ha& &ec(are& that she )ou(& act upon the non-resistance princip(e
abso(ute(y, it )as necessary for us at this time to en&ea*or to pre*ent the aggra*ation of the QInci&entQ unnecessari(y, an& I urge&
that the matter be han&(e& through &ip(omatic channe(s, but the abo*e mentione& 0taff Officer ans)ere& that since this matter
concerne& the prestige of the 0tate an& the Army, it )as the ArmyQs intention to see it through thorough(y4I
,he Mu-den In'ident <as Planned
The e*i&ence is abun&ant an& con*incing that the Mu'&en Inci&entI )as carefu((y p(anne& beforehan& by officers of the Army
,enera( 0taff, officers of the K)antung Army, members of the 1herry 0ociety, an& others4 0e*era( of the Participators in the
p(an, inc(u&ing HA0HIMOTO, ha*e on *arious occasions a&mitte& their part in the p(ot an& ha*e state& that the ob:ect of the
IInci&entI )as to affor& an e>cuse for the occupation of Manchuria by the K)antung Army, an& the estab(ishment of a ne)
0tate there base& on the IKing(y 8ayI an& subser*ient to Japan4 In Japan,
''((7''
,enera( Tate'a)a of the Army ,enera( 0taff )as the (ea&er4 This )as the same Tate'a)a )hom MICAMI, on 0hi&eharaQs
comp(aint, sent to Mu'&en to stop the p(ot, the same Tate'a)a )ho ha& no &esire to interfere )ith any propose& inci&ent4 In
Manchuria, ITA,AKI )as the principa( figure4 The case )hich has been presente& to the Tribuna( as a genera( &efence of the
actions of the Japanese on the night of "?th 0eptember an& as a particu(ar &efense of those )ho, (i'e ITA,AKI, )ere in action
on that night is this5 it is sai& that pre*ious to that night, 1hinese troops in Manchuria ha& increase& so that the Japanese troops
in Manchuria, )ho numbere& on(y some "$,$$$ men, then face& a hosti(e army )hich numbere& some $$,$$$ men an& )as
superior in e@uipment to the JapaneseD it is sai& that the &isposition of the 1hinese troops ha& recent(y been change& so that the
Japanese troops, )i&e(y &isperse& in groups a(ong the rai()ay (ine, face& concentrations )hich threatene& their annihi(ationD it is
sai& that the beha*ior of the 1hinese troops to)ar&s the Japanese troops )as pro*ocati*e an& insu(tingD it is sai& that a((
in&ications pointe& to an unpro*o'e& attac' by the 1hinese troops upon the Japanese troops, in )hich the (atter )ou(& be
o*er)he(me&, un(ess &ecisi*e counter-action )as prompt(y ta'en4 Therefore, it is sai&, a p(an )as &ra)n up )hereby, if the
1hinese attac'e&, the K)antung Army )ou(& concentrate its main forces in the *icinity of Mu'&en an& &e(i*er a hea*y b(o) to
the nuc(eus of the 1hinese forces in the *icinity of Mu'&en, an& thus by sea(ing the fate of the enemy, )ou(& sett(e the matter
)ithin a short perio&4 It )as a part of this p(an that t)o hea*y guns shou(& be secret(y set up in the Mu'&en In&epen&ent
,arrison Harrac's4 0uch is the testimony of ITA,AKI4 8hen therefore, says ITA,AKI, he hear& on the night of "?th
0eptember of
''((&''
the b(o)ing up of the rai()ay an& the fighting outsi&e the 1hinese Harrac's, it )as apparent that this )as a p(anne& cha((enge on
the part of the 1hinese +egu(ar Army against the Japanese Army an& he appro*e& of the &ecisions to attac' the 1hinese
Harrac's an& the )a((e& city of Mu'&en, because it )as abso(ute(y necessary an& in (ine )ith the p(an of operations of the Army
&ra)n up in case of emergency4
The picture thus painte& is that of a p(anne& attac' by the 1hinese Army, o*er)he(ming(y superior in numbers, upon some ".$$
Japanese troops in the *icinity of Mu'&enD of a surprise attac' upon an unanticipate& occasionD an& of a s)ift counter-attac' by
the Japanese troops at the nuc(eus of the superior forces, )hereby they )ere route&4 The picture is fa(se sa*e in the one
particu(ar, that Mu'&en )as capture& an& the 1hinese troops &ri*en a)ay4
The 1hinese troops ha& no p(an to attac' the Japanese4 They )ere caught unprepare&4 In the attac' on the Harrac's, )here there
)ere thousan&s of 1hinese troops, the Japanese fire& from the &ar'ness upon the bright(y (it Harrac's an& met )ith trif(ing
resistance, main(y from some 1hinese troops )ho )ere cut off in their attempt to escape4 In their capture of the city of Mu'&en,
they met on(y neg(igib(e resistance on the part of some po(ice4
There is no @uestion of the Japanese being surprise& by the e*ents of that night4 For some time before "? 0eptember "#A",
rumors )ere current in Japan that the Army )as p(anning an IInci&entI in Mu'&en4 9ieutenant Ka)a'ami at Fushun ha&
re*ea(e& that an Ie*entI might occur in Mu'&en on "? 0eptember "#A"4 1onsu(-,enera( Hayashi ha& te(egraphe& to the Foreign
Minister the ne)s that the 1ompany 1omman&er of a Japanese 7nit at Fushun ha& sai& that )ithin a )ee' a big IInci&entI
)ou(& brea' out4 Morishima, a member of the staff of the Japanese 1onsu(ate at Mu'&en, ha& (earne& that
''(((''
K)antung Army units statione& at Fushun )ou(& e>ecute a maneu*er )hich contemp(ate& the occupation of Mu'&en, (ea*ing
Fushun about ""5A$ on the night of "? 0eptember "#A"4 The Foreign Minister attache& so much cre&ence to the information he
ha& that he comp(aine& to the 8ar Minister an& persua&e& the (atter to &ispatch ,enera( Tate'a)a to Manchuria to Istop the
p(otI, a ,enera( )ho, ha*ing non &esire to interfere )ith any propose& 5inci&entI fai(e& to fu(fi(( his mission4 An& )hen, as the
Japanese a((ege, a patro( of a 9ieutenant an& si> men )as fire& on in the &ar' of the night of "? 0eptember "#A", a(( the Japanese
forces in Manchuria )ere brought into action a(most simu(taneous(y on that night o*er the )ho(e area of the 0outh Manchuria
+ai()ay from 1hangchun to Port Arthur, a &istance of appro>imate(y /$$ mi(es4 The 1hinese troops at Antung, Bing'o),
9iaoyang an& other sma((er to)ns )ere o*ercome an& &isarme& )ithout resistance4 The Japanese +ai()ay ,uar&s an&
gen&armerie remaine& in these p(aces an& the units of the n& -i*ision at once concentrate& at Mu'&en to ta'e part in the more
serious operations4 ITA,AKI )as at the 0pecia( 0er*ice Office at Mu'&en to appro*e the initia( attac's by the Japanese, an& to
resist a(( efforts by the Japanese 1onsu(-,enera( Hayashi an& the Japanese 1onsu( Morishima to persua&e him to stop the
fighting, not)ithstan&ing that the 1onsu(-,enera( informe& him that 1hina ha& &ec(are& that she )ou(& act on the princip(e of
non-resistance4 ;*en among the Japanese there )ere those )ho be(ie*e& that the IInci&entI )as p(anne& by the Japanese4 A year
after it happene&, )e fin& the ;mperor in@uiring if the IInci&entI )as the resu(t of a Japanese p(ot, as rumore&4 The Tribuna(
re:ects the Japanese contention an& ho(&s that the so-ca((e& IInci&entI of "? 0eptember "#A" )as p(anne& an& e>ecute& by the
Japanese4
''((>''
Preparation for )ar in 1hina )as not confine& to the K)antung Army4 In Japan, an unusua( shift of personne( occurre& on "
August "#A" as if in anticipation of coming e*ents4 0uch truste& officers as O0HIMA, KOI0O, M7TO, 7M;W7, HATA an&
A+AKI, )ere inc(u&e& in this personne( shift4 O0HIMA )as appointe& a 1hief of 0ection in the army ,enera( 0taff, a Member
of the Mi(itary Technica( 1ounci(, an& 9iaison Officer to the Ca*y ,enera( 0taffD KOI0O )as appointe& a 9t4 ,enera(D M7TO
)as re(ie*e& as an instructor in 0trategy at the Mi(itary 0taff 1o((ege an& ma&e a*ai(ab(e to the Army ,enera( 0taffD 7M;W7
)as ma&e 1hief of the ,enera( Affairs -epartment of the Army ,enera( 0taff OfficeD HATA )as promote& to 9t4 ,enera( an&
assigne& as Inspector of Arti((ery an& 1omman&er of the "/th -i*isionD an& A+AKI )as appointe& 1hief of the ,enera( Affairs
-epartment of the Office of the Inspector-,enera( of Mi(itary ;&ucation4
General Hon$o (ssumed Command at Mu-den
1o(one( ITA,AKI, )ho, as senior staff officer on the spot, ha& been in acti*e comman& at Mu'&en &uring the IInci&entI, )as
re(ie*e& by ,enera( Hon:o, )ho arri*e& at Mu'&en at noon on "# 0eptember "#A" an& rapi&(y e>pan&e& the IMu'&en Inci&entI
into )hat came to be 'no)n as the IManchurian Inci&entI4
Hon:o ha& returne& to Port Arthur, after &e(i*ering his a&&ress to the n& -i*ision, the -i*ision )hich attac'e& Mu'&en,
arri*ing at Port Arthur about # p4m4 on "? 0eptember "#A"4 Hon:o ha& recei*e& the first ne)s of the fighting at Mu'&en at about
"" p4m4 from a ne)spaper agency4 He imme&iate(y )ent to K)antung Army Hea&@uarters in Port Arthur, )here he issue&
or&ers that action shou(& fo((o) the operationa( p(ans a(rea&y estab(ishe&4 It is
''((?''
state& in e*i&ence that a fe) minutes after mi&night on the "?th, a secon& te(egram form the 0pecia( 0er*ice Office at Mu'&en
)as recei*e& at the K)antung Army Hea&@uarters reporting that the fighting ha& become more )i&esprea& an& that the 1hinese
forces )ere bringing up reinforcements4 if a te(egram to this effect )as recei*e&, there )as no basis in fact for the statement that
the 1hinese forces )ere bringing up reinforcements4 They )ere in fu(( retreat from the Japanese attac'4 Hon:oQs staff a&*ise& that
he shou(& Imobi(iLe the )ho(e of the Japanese mi(itary might to sea( the fate of the enemy in the shortest possib(e timeI4 Hon:o
rep(ie&, IBes, (et it be &oneI4 Or&ers )ere imme&iate(y issue& bringing into action a(( Japanese forces in ManchuriaD the
Japanese ,arrison Army in Korea )as as'e& to sen& reinforcements in accor&ance )ith the pre-arrange& p(anD an& the 0econ&
O*erseas F(eet )as re@ueste& to sai( for Bing'o)4 7n&er these or&ers, a(( the Japanese forces in Manchuria, an& some of those
in Korea, )ere brought into action a(most simu(taneous(y on the night of "? 0eptember "#A" o*er the )ho(e are of the 0outh
Manchurian +ai()ay from 1hangchun to Port Arthur4
7pon arri*ing at Mu'&en, ,enera( Hon:o set up a comman& post at the rai()ay station an& &ec(are& to the )or(& his intention to
)age a puniti*e )ar4
Minami :an'tioned the K6antun* (rmy ('tion
8ar Minister MICAMI sanctione& the action of the K)antung Army an& acte& as a buffer bet)een that Army an& the 1abinet
to pre*ent effecti*e interference by the ,o*ernment4 He recei*e& information of the situation at Mu'&en in a te(egram from the
0pecia( 0er*ice Office there at about A a4m4 on "# 0eptember "#A"4 Premier 8a'atsu'i first hear& of the fighting )hen he
recei*e& a te(ephone
''((@''
ca(( from MICAMI sometime bet)een ! an& < oQc(oc' on the morning of "# 0eptember "#A"4 The Premier ca((e& a meeting of
the 1abinet for "$ a4m4 MICAMI sent 9t4 ,enera( KOI0O, )ho )as 1hief of the Mi(itary Affairs Hureau of the 8ar Ministry, to
act as 9iaison Officer bet)een the Army ,enera( 0taff an& the 1abinet4 At the 1abinet meeting, MICAMI reporte& that the
1hinese troops ha& fire& on the Japanese troops at Mu'&en an& that their fire ha& been returne&4 He characteriLe& the action of
the Japanese as Ian act of righteous se(f-&efenseI4 The 1abinet e>presse& a &esire that the affair be terminate& at once4 MICAMI
state& that he )ou(& in*estigate an& report to the 1abinet4 The 1abinet then reso(*e& upon a po(icy of non-e>pansion of the
IInci&entI4 THe Premier ca((e& upon the ;mperor at "5A$ oQc(oc' that afternoon an& informe& him of the situation an& the
&ecision of the 1abinet4 The ;mperor agree& that the Army shou(& not try to en(arge the situation, but shou(& stop further action
as soon as it foun& itse(f in an a&*antageous position4 MICAMI &ispatche& 9t4 1o(one( HA0HIMOTO an& t)o other officers of
the Army ,enera( 0taff to Mu'&en for the announce& purpose of communicating to the K)antung Army 1omman&er the
&ecision of the ,o*ernment to pre*ent the e>pansion of the IInci&entI4
The Army )as not to be contro((e&D an& the Premier cast about &esperate(y, but )ithout success, for assistance in enforcing this
po(icy of non-e>pansion of the IInci&entI4 In an effort to fin& a )ay to contro( the Army, the Premier he(& a meeting at ?5A$ of
the e*ening of "# 0eptember "#A" at the officia( resi&ence of the Minister of the Imperia( Househo(&D 0enior 0tatesman Prince
0aion:iQs 0ecretary, Haron Hara&a, 1hief 0ecretary to the 9or& Keeper of the Pri*y 0ea( KI-O, the ,ran& 1hamber(ain, the
Jice-,ran& 1hamber(ain, an& the Mi(itary
''(($''
Ai&e-&e-1amp to His Ma:esty, among others, )ere present4 The on(y suggestion came from KI-O, )ho propose& &ai(y
meetings of the 1abinet4 This suggestion pro*e& to be of no effect, since 8ar Minister MICAMI reporte& at each of these
meetings that for Istrategic an& tactica(I consi&erations, it ha& been necessary for the Japanese forces to pursue the 1hinese
troops a certain &istance further into 1hinese territory, but that such action )as on(y Iprotecti*eI an& )ou(& in no sense be
e>pan&e&4 Ho)e*er, at this *ery time, the 1hinese ha& propose& through Minister T4J4 0oong that a po)erfu( commission be
organiLe&, consisting of both Japanese an& 1hinese, in an effort to pre*ent further e>pansion of the conf(ict4 0HI,;MIT07, in
reporting this proposa( to Foreign Minister 0Hi&ehara suggeste& that it be accepte&, if for no other reason than to strengthen the
position of the Japanese in regar& to the IInci&entI4 A(though Imperia( 0anction )as re@uire& un&er e>isting regu(ations for the
Korean Army to commence operations outsi&e Korea, the A#th Mi>e& Hriga&e of the $th -i*ision, consisting of /,$$$ men an&
arti((ery, )hich ha& concentrate& at 0hingishu on the Korean frontier, crosse& the Ba(u +i*er into Manchuria on " 0eptember
"#A", an& arri*e& at Mu'&en aroun& mi&night of the same &ay, )ithout ha*ing recei*e& the Imperia( 0anctionD ne*erthe(ess, the
1abinet &eci&e& on 0eptember "#A" that the e>penses incurre& in this mo*e shou(& be &efraye&, an& (ater the Imperia(
0anction for this mo*e
''(>%''
)as obtaine&4 This ha& not been reporte& to the 1abinet by MICAMI4 At the 1abinet meeting of 0eptember "#A", MICAMI
ma&e further e>cuses for a((o)ing the Army to continue its aggression4 As Premier 8a'atsu'i says5 I-ay after &ay e>pansion
continue&D an& I ha& *arious conference )ith 8ar Minister MICAMI4 I )as sho)n maps &ai(y on )hich MICAMI )ou(& sho)
by a (ine a boun&ary )hich the Army )ou(& not go beyon&, an& a(most &ai(y this boun&ary )as ignore& an& further e>pansion
reporte&, but a()ays )ith assurances that this )as the fina( mo*eI4
''(>#''
KI-O recor&e& in his &iary, that &uring a &iscussion by a group at the resi&ence of Haron Hara&a, it )as mentione& that
a(though the ;mperor ha& appro*e& the 1abinetQs po(icy of non-e>pansion, the Army ha& been in&ignant that the ;mperor ha&
been in&uce& by his persona( atten&ants to form such an opinion4 It )as &eci&e& by this group that the ;mperor ha& better say no
more about the 1abinetQs po(icyD an& that ;(&er 0tatesman Prince 0aion:i ha& better remain out of To'yo to a*oi& intensifying
the antipathy he(& for him by the Mi(itary 1(i@ue4 In this manner, MICAMIQs effecti*e cooperation )ith the Army ,enera( 0taff,
through his 9iaison Officer KOI0O, pre*ente& the ,o*ernment from enforcing its &ecision to ha(t further e>pansion of the
IMu'&en Inci&entI4 This is confirme& by an a&mission ma&e by MICAMI after the surren&er that he ha& been in fa*or of the
action ta'en by the K)antung Army4
Colonel 7ohihara Feturned to Mu-den
1o(one( -OHIHA+A ha& comp(ete& his report to the Army ,enera( 0taff, recommen&e& the so(ution of a(( pen&ing
IManchurian XuestionsI by the use of force as soon as possib(e, an& )as on his )ay bac' to his 0pecia( 0er*ice Office in
Mu'&en to p(ay the principa( ro(e in the organiLation of the ne) 0tate in Manchuria base& on the IKing(y 8ayI, )hen the
IInci&entI occurre& there4 -OHIHA+AQs e>tensi*e 'no)(e&ge of 1hina an& its peop(e, gaine& o*er some eighteen years spent in
acti*e participation in (oca( po(itics as a Mi(itary Ai&e un&er successi*e 1hinese mi(itary (ea&ers, @ua(ifie& him more than any
other Japanese Army officer to act as o*er-a(( a&*isor an& coor&inator in the p(anning, e>ecution an& e>p(oitation of the
IMu'&en Inci&entI4
''(><''
There can be no &oubt that such )as the part p(aye& by -OHIHA+A4 His reconnaissance trip through 1hina, )ith a brief pause
in Mu'&en before reporting to the Army ,enera( 0taff, an& his return to Mu'&en on the e*e of the IInci&entI, together )ith his
actions thereafter, (ea*e us )ith no other conc(usion4
Colonel 7ohihara as Mayor o. Mu-den
The organiLation of a pro*incia( go*ernment for 9iaoning Pro*ince ha& pro*en to be a &ifficu(t one, because Mu'&en )as the
center of the Pro*ince, an& &uring the fighting, most of the inf(uentia( 1hinese ha& f(e& to 1hincho) )here they )ere continuing
to carry on the pro*incia( a&ministration4 1hinese ,enera( Tsanh 0hih-yi, )ho )as ,o*ernor of the Pro*ince an& ha& remaine&
in Mu'&en, refuse& to cooperate )ith the Japanese in the organiLation of a ne) pro*incia( go*ernmentD for this, he )as
imme&iate(y arreste& an& confine& in prison4 Heing thus hin&ere& by (ac' of cooperation from the 1hinese, the Japanese Army
issue& a proc(amation on " 0eptember "#A" insta((ing 1o(one( -OHIHA+A as Mayor of Mu'&enD he procee&e& to ru(e the city
)ith the ai& of a so-ca((e& I;mergency 1ommitteeI compose& most(y of Japanese4 Hy A 0eptember "#A", -OHIHA+A ha&
ma&e himse(f comp(ete master of the city an& )as foun& by *isiting :ourna(ists in the Japanese Army Hea&@uarters, )here he
)as acting as po(itica( representati*e an& spo'esman for the Army4 From this point on, the organiLation of pro*isiona(
go*ernments for the three ;astern Pro*inces ma&e hea&)ay4 On A 0eptember "#A", 9t4 ,enera( Hsi Hsia )as in*ite& to form a
pro*isiona( go*ernment for Kirin Pro*ince, an& the ne>t &ay, it
''(>7''
)as announce& that a pro*isiona( go*ernment ha& been forme& for 9iaoning Pro*ince )ith Mr4 Buan 1hin-hai as 1hairman of
the I1ommittee for the Maintenance of Peace an& Or&erI4 THe Japanese Press hai(e& this as the first step in a separatist
mo*ement4
''(>&''
:el.-Go;ernment Guidin* 0oard
The 0e(f-,o*ernment ,7i&ing Hoar& )as organiLe& by the Japanese Army in Mu'&en &uring the (ast ha(f of 0eptember "#A"4
The purpose of the Hoar& )as to start an in&epen&ence mo*ement an& sprea& it throughout Manchuria4 1o(one( ITA,AKI )as
in charge of the 0taff 0ection ha*ing super*ision o*er the Hoar&D an& 1o(one( -OHIHA+A, as hea& of the 0pecia( 0er*ice
Office, supp(ie& the Hoar& )ith a(( necessary confi&entia( information regar&ing the 1hinese4 A(though the 1hairman of the
Hoar& )as 1hinese, appro>imate(y #$ per cent of the personne( emp(oye& by the Hoar& )ere Japanese resi&ents in Manchuria4
,enera( Hsi Hsia accepte& the Japanese in*itation, ca((e& a meeting of go*ernment organiLation an& Japanese a&*isors, an& on
A$ 0eptember issue& a proc(amation estab(ishing a pro*isiona( go*ernment for Kirin Pro*ince un&er protection of the Japanese
Army4
,enera( 1hang 1hing-hui, A&ministrator of the 0pecia( -istrict, a(so ca((e& a conference in his office at Harbin on < 0eptember
"#A" to &iscuss the organiLation of an I;mergency 1ommittee of the 0pecia( -istrictI4
,enera( Hon:o too' a&*antage of some minor &isturbances in the to)n of 1hientao, in Kirin Pro*ince, to announce& that Japan
)ou(& no (onger recogniLe the go*ernment of Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang an& )ou(& not cease operations unti( his po)er )as
comp(ete(y bro'en4
Protests and (ssuran'es
1hina (o&ge& a protest )ith the 9eague of Cations against the action of Japan in Manchuria4 The protest )as fi(e& on A
0eptember "#A"4 The 1ounci( of the 9eague )as assure& by the Japanese ,o*ernment that Japan ha& starte& )ith&ra)ing her
troops to the rai(roa& Lone an& )ou(&
''(>(''
continue the )ith&ra)a(D upon this assurance, the 1ounci( a&:ourne& to meet again on "/ October "#A"4
The 7nite& 0tates of America a(so proteste& against the fighting in Manchuria, an& on / 0eptember "#A" ca((e& the attention of
both Japan an& 1hina to the pro*isions of the e>isting treaties4 After a 1abinet meeting that &ay, the Japanese Ambassa&or in
8ashington &e(i*ere& to the 0ecretary of 0tate of the 7nite& 0tates a Cote in )hich it )as state& among other things, IIt may be
superf(uous to repeat that the Japanese ,o*ernment harbors no territoria( &esigns in ManchuriaI4
''(>>''
,he )'tober In'ident
These assurances gi*en to the 9eague an& to the 7nite& 0tates in&icate& that the 1abinet an& the Army &i& not agree upon a
common po(icy in Manchuria4 It )as this &isagreement )hich cause& the so-ca((e& IOctober Inci&entI4 This )as an attempt on
the part of certain officers of the Army ,enera( 0taff an& their sympathiLers to organiLe a coup &Qetat to o*erthro) the
,o*ernment, &estroy the po(itica( party system, an& estab(ish a ne) ,o*ernment )hich )ou(& support the ArmyQs p(an for the
occupation an& e>p(oitation of Manchuria4 The p(ot centere& aroun& the 1herry 0ocietyD an& the p(an )as to Ic(eanse the
i&eo(ogica( an& po(itica( atmosphereI by assassinating the go*ernment (ea&ers4 HA0HIMOTO )as the (ea&er of the group an&
ga*e the necessary or&ers for the e>ecution of the scheme4 HA0HIMOTO a&mitte& that he originate& the p(ot in ear(y October
"#A" to bring about a ,o*ernment hea&e& by A+AKI4 KI-O )as )e(( informe& of the propose& rebe((ion an& his on(y concern
seems to ha*e been to fin& a )ay to (imit the &isor&ers to as to pre*ent )i&esprea& &amage an& sacrifices4 Ho)e*er, a certain 9t4
1o(one( Cemoto informe& the Po(ice of the p(ot, an& 8ar Minister MICAMI or&ere& the (ea&ers arreste&, thereby brea'ing up
the p(ot4 0HI+ATO+I criticiLe& MICAMI for opposing the coup an& &ec(are& that it )as necessary to ta'e prompt acton so as to
create a ne) regime in ManchuriaD an& that if MICAMI ha& gi*en his tacit appro*a( to the scheme, it )ou(& ha*e faci(itate& a
so(ution of the IManchurian Prob(emI4
''(>?''
After the fai(ure of the IOctober Inci&entI, rumors )ere hear& to the effect that if the 1entra( Authorities in To'yo &i& not
support the K)antung Army in the e>ecution of its p(an to occupy a(( Manchuria an& estab(ish a puppet 0tate there, that Army
)ou(& &ec(are& itse(f in&epen&ent of Japan an& procee& )ith the pro:ect4 This threat appears to ha*e been effecti*e in pro&ucing
a change in the ,o*ernment an& its attitu&e4
The 8ar Ministry began censoring the ne)sD an& army officers ca((e& upon )riters an& e&itors, )ho )rote or pub(ishe& anything
unsatisfactory to the 8ar Ministry, an& a&*ise& them that such )ritings )ere &isp(easing to the 8ar Ministry4 Jio(ent
organiLations threatene& e&itors an& )riters )hen they e>presse& *ie)s contrary to that of the 8ar Ministry4
7e'ision to /nthrone Pu Mi
After this change of attitu&e by the Japanese ,o*ernment, 1o(one( ITA,AKI an& 1o(one( -OHIHA+A &eci&e& to return Henry
Pu Bi, the &epose& ;mperor of 1hina, an& enthrone him as emperor of Manchuria as an emergency measure to combat the
inf(uence of Marsha( 1hang Hseuh-(iang, )hich )as gro)ing progressi*e(y stronger )ith the unity bet)een the Boung Marsha(
an& ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she'4 The ne) pro*isiona( go*ernment operating un&er the protection of the Japanese Army ha&
succee&e& in ta'ing o*er a(( ta> co((ection an& finance institutions an& ha& further strengthene& its position by reorganiLation,
but it )as ha*ing consi&erab(y &ifficu(ty &ue to the Marsha(Qs continue& popu(arity4 The K)antung Army ,enera( 0taff became
fearfu( that the pro*isiona( go*ernment set up
''(>@''
by them )ou(& conspire )ith the Marsha(D therefore, it )as &eci&e& by 1o(one(s ITA,AKI an& -OHIHA+A to procee& at once
)ith the organiLation of an in&epen&ent 0tate by uniting the Three ;astern Pro*inces of Hei(ung'iang, Kirin an& 9iaoning un&er
the nomina( (ea&ership of Henry Pu Bi, the &ethrone& ;mperor of 1hina4
Colonel 7ohihara Pro'eeds to Feturn Pu Mi
-OHIHA+A )as &ispatche& by ITA,AKI to Tientsin to return Pu Bi to Manchuria4 ITA,AKI ma&e a(( necessary
arrangements an& ga*e -OHIHA+A &efinite instructions4 The p(an )as to preten& that Pu Bi ha& returne& to resume his throne
in ans)er to a popu(ar &eman& of the peop(e of Manchuria, an& that Japan ha& nothing to &o )ith his return, but )ou(& &o
nothing to oppose the popu(ar &eman& of the peop(e4 In or&er to carry out this p(an, it )as necessary to (an& Pu Bi at Bin'go)
before that port became froLenD therefore, it )as imperati*e that he arri*e there before "! Co*ember "#A"4
Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara ha& (earne& of the scheme to return Pu Bi to Manchuria an& ha& instructe& his 1onsu(-,enera( at
Tientsin to oppose the p(an4 On the afternoon of " Co*ember "#A", the 1onsu(-,enera( contacte& -OHIHA+A as instructe& an&
trie& e*ery means at his &isposa( to persua&e him to aban&on the p(an, but -OHIHA+A )as &etermine& an& state& that if the
;mperor )as )i((ing to ris' his (ife by returning to Manchuria, it )ou(& be easy to ma'e the )ho(e affair appear to be instigate&
by the 1hineseD he further state& that he )ou(& confer )ith the ;mperorD an& if
''(>$''
the ;mperor )as )i((ing, he )ou(& go through )ith the schemeD but if the ;mperor )as not )i((ing, then he )ou(& (ea*e )ith a
parting remar' that there )ou(& be no such opportunity in the future for the ;mperor, an& &ispatch a te(egram to the mi(itary
authorities at Mu'&en to the effect that he )ou(& consi&er an a(ternati*e as the present p(an )as hope(ess of success4
-uring the e*ening of Co*ember "#A", -OHIHA+A *isite& Pu Bi an& informe& him as fo((o)s5 1on&itions )ere fa*orab(e
for Pu BiQs enthronement an& the opportunity shou(& not be misse&4 He shou(& ma'e an appearance in Manchuria by a(( means
before "! Co*ember "#A"4 If he &i& so appear, Japan )ou(& recogniLe him as ;mperor of an in&epen&ent 0tate an& conc(u&e a
secrete &efensi*e an& offensi*e a((iance )ith the ne) 0tate4 If the 1hinese Cationa(ist Armies shou(& attac' the ne) 0tate,
JapanQs armies )ou(& crush them4 Pu Bi appeare& )i((ing to fo((o) -OHIHA+AQ a&*ice upon being to(& that the Japanese
Imperia( Househo(& fa*ore& his restoration to the Throne4
The 1onsu(-,enera( continue& his efforts to &issua&e -OHIHA+A, but )ithout resu(ts4 On one occasion, -OHIHA+A
threatene& that it )ou(& be outrageous for the ,o*ernment to ta'e the attitu&e of pre*enting Pb BiQs returnD an& that if this shou(&
occur, the K)antung Army might separate from the ,o*ernment an& no one cou(& say )hat action it might ta'e4
0ome &ifficu(ty )as encountere& by -OHIHA+A in arranging the terms upon )hich Pu Bi )as to returnD an& a 1hinese
ne)spaper in 0hanghai, un&er a Tientsin &ate (ine fro Co*ember "#A",
''(?%''
pub(ishe& a comp(ete account of the scheme an& a((ege& that Pu Bi ha& refuse& -OHIHA+AQs offer4 To hasten P7 BiQs &ecision,
-OHIHA+A resorte& to a(( 'in&s of schemes an& intrigues4 Pu Bi recei*e& a bomb concea(e& in a bas'et of fruitD he a(so
recei*e& threatening (etters from the IHea&@uarters of the Iron H(oo& ,roupI, as )e(( as form others4 -OHIHA+A fina((y
cause& a riot to occur in Tientsin on ? Co*ember "#A" )ith the assistance of certain un&er)or(& characters, secret societies an&
rogues of the city, )hom he supp(ie& )ith arms furnishe& by ITA,AKI4 The Japanese 1onsu(-,enera(, in a further attempt to
carry out 0hi&eharaQs or&ers, )arne& the 1hinese Po(ice of the impen&ing riotD being fore)arne&, they )ere ab(e to pre*ent the
riot from being a comp(ete successD but it ser*e& th thro) Tientsin into &isor&er4
This &isor&er continue&, an& &uring the riot on the night of "$ Co*ember "#A", -OHIHA+A secret(y remo*e& Pu Bi from his
resi&ence to the pier in a motor car guar&e& by a party e@uippe& )ith machine-guns, entere& a sma(( Japanese mi(itary (aunch
)ith a fe) p(ain-c(othes men an& four or fi*e arme& Japanese so(&iers an& hea&e& &o)n the ri*er to Tang-'u4 At Tang-'u, the
party boar&e& the ship A)a;i Maru boun& for Bing'o)4 Pu Bi arri*e& at Bing'o) on "A Co*ember "#A", an& on the same &ay
)as ta'en to Tang-Kang-tLu, )here he )as he(& in protecti*e custo&y in the Hote( Tai 0ui Ha'u by the Japanese Army4 An
attempt )as ma&e to cause it to appear that Pu Bi ha& f(e& for his (ife as a resu(t of threats an& the riots in Tientsin4 Co &oubt,
these ser*e& to hasten Pu BiQs agreement )ith the terms offere& by -OHIHA+A4
''(?#''
/nthronement o. Pu Mi 7elayed
In an effort to pre*ent further aggra*ation of JapanQs position in the 9eague an& 'eep JapanQs +epresentati*e in a fa*orab(e
position before the 1ounci( &uring its &e(iberations, MICAMI a&*ise& the K)antung Army to &e(ay the enthronement of Pu Bi4
On ". Co*ember "#A", he sent a te(egram to ,enera( Hon:o in )hich he sai&5 I;specia((y, to commit such hasty actions )hen
)e ha*e :ust begun to see the signs of fa*orab(e resu(ts of our efforts to impro*e the atmosphere of the 9eague of Cations is by
no means a )ise po(icy4 Therefore, for the time being, )e )ou(& (i'e to ha*e you (ea& the genera( pub(ic in such a )ay so as not
ha*e Pu Bi connecte& in any )ay, )hether it be acti*e or passi*e, )ith po(itica( prob(ems4 Catura((y, in estab(ishing a ne)
regime, if our ;mpire ta'es the )rong attitu&e )e must e>pect either an inter*ention by the 7nite& 0tates base& upon the Cine-
Po)er Treaty or a counci( of the 8or(& Po)ers4 Moreo*er, un&er the present con&itions in Manchuria, it is an internationa((y
recogniLe& fact that an estab(ishment of the ne) regime )ou(& not be possib(e )ithout the un&erstan&ing an& support of the
Imperia( Army4 Therefore, )hen Pu Bi une>pecte&(y enters into the picture of the estab(ishment of the ne) regime, an& e*en if
it is ostensib(y performe& accor&ing to the )ishes of the peop(e, there )ou(& be fear of arousing )or(& suspicion4 it is essentia(
that our ;mpire (ea& )or(& situations so that )e can at (east an& at any time con&uct a (ega( argument against the Po)ers4 I
)ou(& (i'e to ha*e you 'eep this point in min&I4
The Army mo*e& Pu Bi on $ Co*ember "#A" to Port Arthur an& insta((e& him in the Bamato Hote( )ith
''(?<''
e>p(anation that he )as recei*ing too many un&esirab(e *isitors at Tang-Kang-tLu4 -OHIHA+A an& ITA,AKI arrange&
secret(y for the ;mperorQs )ife to :oin him at Port Arthur4
,he (d;an'e on Chin'ho6
An e>pe&ition to the Conni +i*er Hri&ge, )hich succee&e& in &efeating ,enera( Ma 1hen-shen, the Mi(itary ,o*ernor of
Hei(ung'ian Pro*ince, an& &ri*ing him to)ar& the northeast upon Hei(un &uring the first ha(f of Co*ember "#A", ha& a(so
resu(te& in the occupation of Taitsihar, an& the e(imination of Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iangQs authority from a(( of Manchuria,
e>cept for a fragment of 0outheast 9iaoning Pro*ince surroun&ing the city of 1hincho)4 The occupation of 1hincho) )as a((
that remaine& to ma'e the sub:ugation of Manchuria comp(ete4
The 1hinese pro*incia( ,o*ernment, )hich ha& f(e& from Mu'&en, ha& estab(ishe& itse(f in 1hincho) soon after the Mu'&en
Inci&ent, an& Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang ha& mo*e& his hea&@uarters from Peiping to 1hincho) in the ear(y &ays of October
"#A", so that the 1ity ha& become the center of opposition to the Japanese occupation4 Japanese obser*ation p(anes ma&e
fre@uent f(ights o*er the cityD an& on ? Co*ember "#A", si> scouting an& fi*e bombing p(anes f(e) o*er the city an& &roppe&
some eighty bombs4
The &isturbances an& riots organiLe& by 1o(one( -OHIHA+A ga*e the staff officers of the K)antung Army an e>cuse to sen&
troops to tientsin to reinforce the Japanese ,arrison an& protect the Japanese 1oncession
''(?7''
there4 The first of these riots occurre& on ? Co*ember "#A" as heretofore re(ate&D but on ! Co*ember "#A", a ne) series of
&isor&ers began4 1o(one( -OHIHA+A ha& emp(oye& 1hinese ruffians an& Japanese p(ain-c(othes men an& forme& them into
operating gangs )ithin the Japanese 1oncession in or&er to start troub(e in the 1hinese section of Tientsin4 On the e*ening of the
!th, a terrific e>p(osion )as hear&, imme&iate(y fo((o)e& by firing of cannon, machine-guns an& rif(es4 The e(ectric (ights in the
Japanese 1oncession )ere put out, an& p(ain-c(othes men emerge& from the 1oncession firing upon the po(ice station in the
*icinity4
The most practica( route for reinforcements to ta'e in mo*ing from Manchuria to tientsin )ou(& ha*e been by seaD but the route
by (an& ha& &istinct strategica( a&*antages as it (ay through the city of 1hincho)D an& any mo*ement through 1hincho) )ou(&
affor& an e>cuse for ma'ing an attac' upon that city, e(iminating the concentration of Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iangQs Army there4
Ceutra( obser*ers ha& e>pecte& an a&*ance on 1hincho)D an& on A Co*ember "#A", &uring a conference on the sub:ect,
Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara assure& the American Ambassa&or in to'yo that he, the Premier, the Minister of 8ar, MICAMI, an&
the 1hief of the Army ,enera( 0taff ha& agree& that there )ou(& be no hosti(e operations to)ar& 1hincho)4 Ho)e*er,
-OHIHA+AQs riot on the night of the !th precipitate& such an a&*ance on the morning of < Co*ember "#A"D an& a troop train
an& se*era( airp(anes crosse& the 9iao +i*er, ostensib(y for the purpose of re(ie*ing the Japanese ,arrison )hich )as a((ege& to
be be(eaguere& at Tientsin, but actua((y inten&ing to &ri*e Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang from 1hincho)4
''(?&''
The Japanese met (itt(e or no resistance as Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang ha& a(rea&y begun )ith&ra)a( of his troops south of the
,reat 8a(( in or&er to remo*e a(( e>cuse for further a&*ances by the Japanese4 Ce*erthe(ess, the a&*ance procee&e&, an&
Japanese p(anes repeate&(y bombe& 1hincho)4 The American 0ecretary of 0tate proteste& the *io(ation of the assurance so
recent(y gi*en the American Ambassa&or that no hosti(e action )ou(& be ta'en to)ar& 1hincho)D an& on # Co*ember "#A",
this assurance )as re(uctant(y an& be(ate&(y honore& by the 1hief of the Army ,enera( 0taff or&ering Hon:o to reca(( his troops
to a position in the *icinity of Hsinmin4
''(?(''
,he ea*ue (ppointed a Commission o. In@uiry
The 1ounci( of the 9eague of Cations ha& been in session for appro>imate(y four )ee's consi&ering the &ispute bet)een Japan
an& 1hina, )hen it reso(*e& on "? -ecember "#A" to accept the suggestion of the Japanese +epresentati*e an& sen& a
1ommission of In@uiry to Manchuria to ma'e a stu&y of the situation Ion the spotI4 The 1ounci(Qs reso(ution pro*i&e& that the
1ommission shou(& consist of fi*e members from neutra( countries )ith the right of 1hina an& Japan to appoint one IAssessorI
each to assist the 1ommission4
Paragraph of the reso(ution )as in these terms5 I(% 1onsi&ering that e*ents ha*e assume& na e*en more serious aspect since
the 1ounci( meeting of October /th, notes that the t)o parties un&erta'e to a&opt a(( measures necessary to a*oi& any further
aggra*ation of the situation an& to refrain from any initiati*e )hich may (ea& to further fighting an& (oss of (ife4I
Japan, in accepting the +eso(ution, ma&e a reser*ation concerning paragraph (%, stating that she accepte& it IOn the
un&erstan&ing that this paragraph )as not inten&e& to prec(u&e the Japanese forces from ta'ing such action as might be ren&ere&
necessary to pro*i&e &irect(y for the protection of the (i*es an& property of Japanese sub:ects against the acti*ities of ban&its an&
(a)(ess e(ements rampant in *arious parts of Manchuria4I
1hina accepte& the +eso(ution )ith the reser*ation that 1hinaQs rights of so*ereignty in Manchuria )ou(& not be impaire&4
8ith regar& to the un&erta'ing an& in:unction containe& in paragraph (%, @uote& abo*e, 1hina state& IIt must be c(ear(y pointe&
out that this in:unction shou(& not be *io(ate& un&er the prete>t of the e>istence of (a)(essness cause& by a state of affairs )hich
it is the *ery purpose
''(?>''
fo the reso(ution to &o a)ay )ith4 It is to be obser*e& that much of the (a)(essness no) pre*a(ent in Manchuria is &ue to the
interruption of norma( (ife cause& by the in*asion of the Japanese forces4 The on(y sure )ay of restoring the norma( peacefu( (ife
is to hasten the )ith&ra)a( of the Japanese troops an& a((o) the 1hinese authorities to assume the responsibi(ity for the
maintenance of peace an& or&er4 1hina cannot to(erate the in*asion an& occupation of her territory by the troops of any foreign
countryD far (ess can she permit these troops to usurp the po(ice functions of the 1hinese authorities4I
-espite this counter-reser*ation of 1hina, the Japanese maintaine& that their reser*ation ga*e Japan the right to maintain her
troops in Manchuria an& ma&e her responsib(e for the suppression of ban&itry4 7n&er the prete>t of suppressing ban&itry, Japan
procee&e& to comp(ete the con@uest of Manchuria4 In the )or&s of the 9ytton 1ommission, IThe fact remains that, ha*ing ma&e
their reser*ation at ,ene*a, the Japanese continue& to &ea( )ith the situation in Manchuria accor&ing to their p(ansI4
The membership of the 1ommission )as not comp(ete(y ma&e up unti( "/ January "#A4 The +t4 Honorab(e, the ;ar( of 9ytton
(Hritish% )as e(ecte& 1hairman of the 1ommissionD an& the 1ommission has come to be 'no)n as the 9ytton 1ommission4
,he <a-atsu-i Cabinet <as For'ed to Fesi*n
The continue& efforts of Premier 8a'atsu'i an& his Foreign Minister 0hi&ehara to enforce the IFrien&ship Po(icyI an& the
IPo(icy of Con-;>pansionI generate& so much opposition from the Mi(itary an& their sympathiLers that the 1abinet )as force&
to resign on " -ecember "#A"4 Premier 8a'atsu'i testifie& as fo((o)s5 IIt is true that in spite of the fact that the 1abinet ha&
&eci&e& on the po(icy of stopping the QManchurian Inci&entQ, it continue&
''(??''
to sprea& an& e>pan&4 Jarious metho&s )ere trie&, an& one of these )as a coa(ition cabinet, )hich I hope& might be ab(e to stop
the action of the K)antung Army4 Ho)e*er, because of certain &ifficu(ties, this &i& not materia(iLe, an& that is )hy my 1abinet
resigne&4I
,he Inu-ai Cabinet
The Inu'ai 1abinet )as forme& on "A -ecember "#A", )ith A+AKI as Minister of 8ar4 The three Army 1hiefs, that, is5 the
outgoing 8ar Minister, MICAMI, the 1hief of the ,enera( 0taff, an& the Inspector ,enera( of Mi(itary ;&ucation, )hose &uty it
)as un&er the Japanese 1onstitution to se(ect the succee&ing 8ar Minister, ha& se(ecte& ,enera( Abe to be 8ar MinisterD but
A+AKI )as popu(ar )ith the ra&ica( e(ements of the Army, an& they approache& Inu'ai an& &eman&e& his appointment4 ,enera(
A+AKI recei*e& the appointment4 A(though Premier Inu'ai announce& to ;(&er 0tatesman Prince 0aion:i that he inten&e& to
carry out the ;mperorQs )ish that Japanese po(itics shou(& not be contro((e& so(e(y by the Army, an& a(though he a&opte& a
po(icy to terminate the aggression of the K)antung Army in Manchuria, 8ar Minister A+AKI )as not in accor& )ith this
po(icy4 A+AKI fa*ore& 1omman&er Hon:oQs p(an that the four Pro*inces former(y un&er Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang shou(& be
occupie& an& pacifie&4 He a&mitte& that this )as so &uring an interrogation at 0ugamo Prison after the surren&er4 His first act
)as to secure appro*a( in the 1abinet an& the pri*y 1ounci( of an appropriation to carry out this scheme4
''(?@''
Hon$o and Ita*a-i Mo;ed to /xe'ute Hon$o=s Plan
The formation of the Inu'ai 1abinet, )ith A+AKI as 8ar Minister an& fa*orab(e to the Hon:o p(an to occupy an& pacify the
four Pro*inces, )as the signa( to the K)antung Army to e>ecute the p(an4 ITA,AKI mo*e& @uic'(y to strengthen the
pro*isiona( go*ernment of 9iaoning Pro*inceD a concentration of troops )est of Mu'&en, poise& for a &ri*e on 1hincho) an&
Tientsin, )as begunD an& ITA,AKI prepare& to *isit To'yo to assist A+AKI in ma'ing &etai(e& arrangements for carrying out
the p(an4
,enera( Tsang 0hi-hi, )ho ha& been incarcerate& in prison on " 0eptember "#A" because of his refusa( to cooperate )ith the
in*a&ing Japanese Army, )as star*e& into submission an& force& to agree to accept the appointment as ,o*ernor of the
Pro*incia( ,o*ernment, a& interim, of 9iaoning Pro*ince4 He )as re(ease& form prison on the night of "A -ecember "#A"D an&
after an inter*ie) )ith ITA,AKI, he )as &u(y inaugurate& as ,o*ernor on ". -ecember "#A"4 He )as in such a ner*ous,
)ea'ene& con&ition as a resu(t of ha*ing been star*e& in prison, that he fainte& &uring his inauguration )hen a photographer
e>p(o&e& a f(ash bu(b in ma'ing his picture4 The inauguration of ,enera( tsang 0hi-hi )as in preparation for a conference of a((
the Manchurian Pro*incia( ,o*ernorsD an& the K)antung Army )as hastening preparations for the meeting4
The concentration of troops for the a&*ance on 1hincho) ha& begun on the "$thD an& by ". -ecember "#A", it )as comp(ete4
Ho)e*er, the a&*ance cou(& not begin unti( appro*a( of 8ar Minister A+AKI ha& been obtaine& an& fun&s pro*i&e&4
''(?$''
A(( preparations being comp(ete, 1omman&er Hon:o &ispatche& ITA,AKI to To'yo to con*ey to the ,o*ernment his opinion
that Manchuria shou(& be ma&e in&epen&ent of 1hina4 8ar Minister A+AKI imme&iate(y supporte& Hon:oQs p(an an& sai& that
comp(ete in&epen&ence )as the on(y )ay in )hich the IManchurian Inci&entI cou(& be so(*e&, but consi&erab(e opposition to
the p(an )as foun& to e>ist, an& he )as not ab(e to obtain appro*a( of the p(an )ithout &ifficu(ty4 The @uestion )as fina((y
presente& to the Throne at an Imperia( 1onference on < -ecember "@#A", an& A+AKI states5 I8e imme&iate(y &eci&e& to sen&
the troops to Fengtien Pro*ince4 The principa( p(an )as ma&e in the 8ar MinistryQs or&er to ,enera( Hea&@uarters, an& they too'
the proce&ure of sen&ing troops for the operation4I At (east a part of ITA,AKIQs mission ha& bene accomp(ishe&4
On the *ery &ay that this &ecision to a&*ance against 1hincho) )as ma&e, the Jice-Minister for Foreign Affairs han&e& the
American Ambassa&or in To'yo a memoran&um in )hich it )as state& that Japan )as &etermine& to remain (oya( to the
1o*enant of the 9eague, the Ke((ogg-Hrian& Pact, an& other treaties, an& )ou(& abi&e by the t)o reso(utions a&opte& by the
1ounci( of the (eague regar&ing the Manchurian situation4
Man'huria <as Completely )''upied (.ter the Capture o. Chin'ho6
The K)antung Army pointe& to the reser*ation ma&e at ,ene*a, as a(rea&y referre& to, an& continue& to &ea( )ith Manchuria
accor&ing to p(an4 The 1hinese Minister for Foreign Affairs, 'no)ing that the attac' on
''(@%''
1hincho) )as imminent, ha& ma&e a (ast minute appea( to pre*ent further fighting by offering to remo*e a(( remaining 1hinese
troops south of the ,reat 8a((, but nothing came of this appearD an& the K)antung Army actua((y began its mo*ement on A
-ecember "#A"4 The 1hinese Army )as force& to gi*e up its position4 From that &ay, the a&*ance continue& )ith perfect
regu(arity an& har&(y met any resistance at a(( as the 1hinese ,enera( ha& or&ere& a retreat4 1hincho) )as occupie& on the
morning of A January "#AD an& the K)antung Army continue& its a&*ance right up to the ,reat 8a(( at 0hanhai')an4
Ita*a-i Completed His Mission and Feturned to Mu-den
KI-O recor&s in his &iary for "" January "#A, that ITA,AKI ha& obtaine& appro*a( of the p(an to set up a puppet 0tate in
ManchuriaD the entry is in part as fo((o)s5 IAt "$5A$ oQc(oc' this morning in the antechamber connecte& )ith the (ecture ha(( of
the Imperia( Pa(ace, I, together )ith persons c(ose to the ;mperor, hear& from 1o(one( ITA,AKI the con&itions in Manchuria
an& Mongo(ia4 1o(one( ITA,AKI first e>p(aine& the situation concerning the progress of the campaign against so(&ier ban&its in
Manchuria an& Mongo(ia as )e(( as the progress in estab(ishing a ne) 0tate in Manchuria4 1o(one( ITA,AKI ga*e hint that
Manchuria )ou(& be p(ace& un&er a ne) ru(er, an& the Japanese Army )ou(& ta'e charge of the nationa( &efense of the ne)
Manchurian 0tate4 He further e>p(aine& that Japanese peop(e )ou(& participate in the management of the ne) 0tate as high
go*ernment officia(s4I It )i(( be note& that ITA,AKI fo((o)e& the usua( practice of referring to a(( 1hinese so(&iers as
''(@#''
Iban&itsI4 The pretense of in*o'ing the reser*ation ma&e at ,ene*a )as again emp(oye&4
On his )ay bac' to Mu'&en, 1o(one( ITA,AKI ca((e& upon the ne) ru(er mentione& in his con*ersation )ith KI-O4 -uring his
*isit )ith Pu Bi at Port Arthur, ITA,AKI state& to Pu Bi, IIn or&er to get ri& of 1hinese Mi(itarists an& secure socia( )e(fare for
the peop(e of the Cortheastern Pro*inces, )e are )i((ing(y prepare& to put up a ne) po(itica( regime in Manchuria4I ITA,AKI
propose& that Pu Bi shou(& become the hea& of the ne) regimeD but &eman&e&, that a soon as the Manchurian +egime )as set
up, Japanese shou(& be emp(oye& as a&*isers an& officia(s4
''(@<''
,he Independen'e Mo;ement Gained in Intensity
After the fa(( of 1hincho), the in&epen&ence mo*ement ma&e progress, especia((y in Corth Manchuria, )here -OHIHA+A )as
on &uty as 1hief of the 0pecia( 0er*ices in Harbin4 After the Japanese occupie& Tsitsihar on "# Co*ember "#A", an& &ro*e the
forces of ,enera( Ma to)ar& Hai(um, a 0e(f-,o*ernment Association of the usua((y type )as estab(ishe& in Hei(ung'iang
Pro*inceD an& ,enera( 1hang 1hing-hui )as inaugurate& as ,o*ernor of the Pro*ince on " January "#A4 ,enera( 1hang 1hing-
hui, upon (earning of the comp(ete &efeat an& e>pu(sion of Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang from 1hincho), acce&e& to the re@uests
of the 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar& at Mu'&en an& &ec(are& the in&epen&ence of Hei(ung'iang Pro*ince4 The &ec(aration
)as issue& on < January "#A4 On the same &ay, the 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar& issue& a Proc(amation, )hich it ha&
prepare& on " January, but ha& bene ho(&ing unti( an opportune time for pub(ication4 The Proc(amation appea(e& to the peop(e to
o*erthro) Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang an& :oin the 0e(f-,o*ernment Association4 The Proc(amation en&e& )ith these )or&s5
IOrganiLations of the Cortheast, 7niteTI Fifty thousan& copies )ere &istribute&4 Mr4 Bu 1hung-han, the 1hief of the Hoar&, an&
,o*ernor Tsang 0hih-yi, of 9iaoning Pro*ince, )ere ma'ing p(ans for a ne) 0tate to be estab(ishe& in February4 This i&ea of
in&epen&ence from 1hina ha& recei*e& no popu(ar support in Manchuria before the IMu'&en Inci&entI of "? 0eptember "#A"4 It
is apparent that it )as concei*e&, organiLe& an& carrie& through by a group of Japanese ci*i( an& mi(itary officia(s, of )hom
1o(one(s
''(@7''
ITA,AKI an& -OHIHA+A )ere (ea&ers4 The presence of Japanese troops to enforce their authority, the contro( of the rai()ays
by the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay, the presence of Japanese 1onsu(s in a(( of the important urban centers, an& the coor&inating
effect of the Japanese contro((e& 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar&, affor&e& the group a means of e>ercising an irresistib(e
pressure to bring about this so-ca((e& in&epen&ence, an& (ater to contro( the ne) puppet 0tate4 The in&epen&ence mo*ement an&
the 1hinese co((aborators )ere sustaine& by Japanese mi(itary might a(one4
(dditional (ssuran'es by Japan
On < January "#A, the &ay that ,enera( 1hang 1hing-hui proc(aime& the in&epen&ence of Hei(ung'iang Pro*ince, the
American 0ecretary of 0tate instructe& the American Ambassa&or in To'yo to &e(i*er a Cote to the Japanese ,o*ernment4 The
0ecretary of 0tate state& in that Cote that the ,o*ernment of the 7nite& 0tates &eeme& it a &uty to notify both Japan an& 1hina
that it )ou(& not a&mit the (ega(ity of any &e facto situation nor recogniLe any treaty or agreement entere& into so as to impair
the treaty rights of the 7nite& 0tates or its citiLens in 1hina or *io(ate the con*entiona( po(icy of the IOpen -oorI in 1hina, or
impair the ob(igations of the Pact of Paris (Anne> Co4 H-".%4
This Cote )as not ans)ere& unti( "! January "#A4 The Japanese Cote state& that Japan )as a)are that the 7nite& 0tates cou(&
be re(ie& upon to &o e*erything to support JapanQs efforts to secure fu(( an& comp(ete fu(fi((ment of the treaties of 8ashington
an& the Ke((ogg-Hrian& Pact (Anne> Co4 H-".%4 This Japanese Cote )ent on to say that in
''(@&''
so far as Japan cou(& secure it, the po(icy of the IOpen -oorI in 1hina )ou(& a()ays be maintaine&4 Ha*ing regar& to the
Japanese mi(itary action in Manchuria, )hich )e ha*e :ust &escribe&, this Japanese Cote is a masterpiece of hypocrisy4
Hashimoto )b$e'ted to ,his (ssuran'e
The ne>t &ay, HA0HIMOTO pub(ishe& an artic(e in the Taiyo Dai Nippon" apparent(y in protest against this po(icy of obser*ing
treaties an& maintaining the IOpen -oorI in 1hina4 The tit(e of the artic(e )as, IThe +eform of Par(iamentary 0ystems4I In the
artic(e, HA0HIMOTO sai&D I+esponsib(e go*ernment-Party 1abinet 0ystem-runs abso(ute(y counter to the 1onstitution4 It is the
&emocratic go*ernment )hich ignores the QTennoQ go*ernment, e e e )hich has been estab(ishe& firm(y since the foun&ing of our
;mpire, an& )hich remains so(emn(y unsha'en in the 1onstitution grante& by the ;mperor4 8hen )e consi&er their &angerous
anti-nationa( structure, po(itica( i&eo(ogy an& their aggressi*e e*i(s )e be(ie*e it most urgent(y necessary first of a(( to ma'e a
scapegoat of the e>isting po(itica( parties an& &estroy them for the sa'e of the construction of a cheerfu( ne) Japan4I
7ohihara >e*otiated <ith General Ma Chan-shan
After ,enera( Ma ha& been &ri*en from Tsitsihar by the Japanese an& ha& set up his capita( at Hai(un, from )hich he )as
attempting to go*ern Hei(ung'iang, 1o(one( -OHIHA+A began carrying on negotiations )ith the ,enera( form his 0pecia(
0er*ice Office at Harbin4 The ,enera(Qs position )as some)hat ambiguousD a(though he continue& negotiating )ith
-OHIHA+A, he continue& to support ,enera( Ting 1hao4 ,enera( Ting 1hao ha& ne*er appro*e& of the puppet
''(@(''
go*ernment set up in Kirin Pro*ince by the K)antung Army un&er the nomina( (ea&ership of ,enera( Hsi Hsia, an& ha&
organiLe& an army to oppose ,enera( Hsi Hsia4 Cot on(y &i& ,enera( Ma continue to support ,enera( Ting 1hao, but these t)o
,enera(s maintaine& some contact )ith Marsha( 1hang Hseuh-(iang an& ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she', )ho ga*e them
assistance4
In an effort to force ,enera( Ma to terms, 1o(one( -OHIHA+A re@ueste& ,enera( Hsi Hsia to a&*ance on Harbin an& &ri*e in
the &irection of Hai(un4 ,enera( Hsi Hsia, at the beginning of January "#A, prepare& an e>pe&ition to the Corth )ith a *ie) to
occupying Harbin4 ,enera( Ting 1hao )as bet)een him an& Harbin4 ,enera( Hsi Hsia a&*ance& to 0huangchong on . JanuaryD
but Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang instructe& ,enera(s Ma an& ting 1hao not to negotiate furtherD an& fighting began on the
morning of the !th4 -OHIHA+A ha& fai(e& in his attempt to intimi&ate ,enera(s Ma an& Ting 1haoD an& )hat )as sti(( )orse,
his a((y, ,enera( Hsi Hsia, )as meeting serious re*erses at the han& of ,enera( Ting 1hao4 Thereupon, -OHIHA+A )as force&
to ca(( upon the K)antung Army to assist ,enera( Hsi Hsia4 To :ustify this, 1o(one( -OHIHA+A create& another of his
IInci&entsI in Harbin--an engineere& riot--&uring )hich it is sai& that one Japanese an& three Korean sub:ects of Japan )ere
'i((e&4 Most of the Japanese troops ha& been )ith&ra)n from Corthern Manchuria in or&er to use them in the 1hincho) &ri*eD
but the ne -i*ision ha& returne& to Mu'&en for a rest4 A(though the n& -i*ision )as or&ere& to go to the rescue of ,enera(
Hsi Hsia, an& entraine& on ? January, some &e(ay )as e>perience& because of transportation &ifficu(ties4 This ga*e ,enera(
Ting 1hao time to seiLe the Municipa( A&ministration
''(@>''
in Harbin an& arrest ,enera( 1hang 1hing-hui, )ho ha& been acting as puppet ,o*ernor of Hei(ung'iang Pro*ince4
Minami e'tured
8hi(e the reinforcements )ere entraining to go to the ai& of ,enera( Hsi Hsia, 8ar 1ounci((or MICAMI )as &e(i*ering a
(ecture before the Japanese ;mperor in To'yo4 His sub:ect )as, IThe 9atest 0ituation in ManchuriaI4 KI-O )as present an&
recor&e& the (ecture4 MICAMIQs conc(usions as e>presse& to the ;mperor )ere5 ("$ Japan )ou(& ta'e o*er the nationa( &efense
of the ne) state to be create& in Manchuria, comp(ete the Kirin-K)ainei +ai()ay, an& ma'e the 0ea of Japan into a (a'e to
faci(itate JapanQs a&*ance into Corth Manchuria, thereby re*o(utioniLing JapanQs &efense p(ans4 (% The :oint management by
Japan an& the ne) 0tate of the economy of the area )ou(& ma'e Japan se(f-sufficient in the 8or(& fore*er4 (A% This arrangement
)ou(& so(*e JapanQs popu(ation prob(em, pro*i&e& she estab(ishe& a co(onia( trooping system to the ne) 0tate4 KI-O further
recor&e& that he thought the three or four JAPanese organs in Manchuria shou(& be untie& un&er one hea& )hen the ne) 0tate
)as forme&4 This i&ea )as to be carrie& out (ater4
First In;asion o. :han*hai
After MICAMI ha& finishe& his (ecture on the afternoon of ? January "#A, fighting bro'e out in a ne) p(ace in 1hina4 At
""5$$ p4m4, fighting commence& in the first in*asion of 0hanghai4 The commencement of the IInci&entI is typica(4 The anti-
1hinese riots in Korea fo((o)ing the I8anpaoshan Inci&entI (e& to a 1hinese boycott of Japanese goo&s in 0hanghai, )hich ha&
been
''(@?''
intensifie& after the IMu'&en Inci&entI an& increase& in intensity as that IInci&entI gre) into the IManchurian Inci&entI4
Tension increase& so that serious c(ashes occurre& bet)een 1hinese an& Japanese4 Japanese resi&ents of 0Hanghai re@ueste& the
&ispatch of Japanese troops for their protection4 The Japanese 1onsu(-,enera( presente& fi*e &eman&s to the 1hinese Mayor of
0hanghaiD an& the A&mira( in comman& of Japanese na*a( forces at 0hanghai announce& that un(ess the MayorQs rep(y )as
satisfactory, he )ou(& ta'e action4 On / January "#A, Japanese na*a( reinforcements arri*e&4 The 1hinese reinforce& their
garrison in 1hapei, )hich is the nati*e section of 0hanghai4 On ? January, the Municipa( 1ounci( of the Internationa(
0ett(ement met an& &ec(are& a state of emergency as of /5$$ p4m4D at that hour, the Japanese 1onsu(-,enera( informe& the
1onsu(ar Ho&y that a satisfactory rep(y ha& been recei*e& from the 1hinese MayorD an& that no action )ou(& be ta'en4 At ""5$$
p4m4 on the same &ay, the Japanese A&mira( announce& that the Japanese Ca*y )as an>ious as to the situation in 1hapei )here
numerous Japanese nationa(s resi&e&, an& ha& &eci&e& to sen& troops to that sector an& occupy the 0hanghai-8oosung +ai()ay
0tation, an& that he hope& the 1hinese )ou(& spee&i(y )ith&ra) to the )est of the rai()ay4 These Japanese troops sent to the
1hapei sector came into contact )ith 1hinese troops )hich )ou(& not ha*e ha& time to )ith&ra) e*en ha& they )ishe& to &o so4
This )as the beginning of the batt(e of 0hanghai4
''(@@''
China Made (nother (ppeal to the ea*ue
The ne>t morning, # January "#A, the a(arming situation cause& 1hina to submit a further appea( to the 9eague of Cations
un&er Artic(es "$, "" an& ". of the 1o*enant4 The 1ounci( of the 9eague )as in session )hen the fighting starte& at 0hanghai
an& it recei*e& the ne) appea( from 1hina the ne>t &ay4
General Ma 0ar*ained <ith 7ohihara
In Manchuria, 1o(one( -OHIHA+A )as continuing his negotiations in an effort to obtain the support of ,enera( Ma in the
formation of a ne) 0tate in Manchuria4 1o(one( ITA,AKI ha& recogniLe& ,enera( Ma as Ia man of rea( )orth possessing his
o)n troopsI, an& ha& attempte& to arrange a truce )ith him after the batt(e of Tsitsihar4 ,enera( Ma continue& to cooperate )ith
,enera( Ting 1hao unti( the (atterQs &efeat by the combine& forces of ,enera( Hsi Hsia an& the Japanese on . February "#A4
After ,enera( Ting 1haoQs &efeat, ,enera( Ma resume& negotiations )ith 1o(one( -OHIHA+A, )hi(e his army escape& through
+ussian territory into 1hina4 8ith his army safe in 1hina proper,' ,enera( Ma, it is sai&, accepte& the one mi((ion &o((ars in go(&
offere& by -OHIHA+A4 In any e*ent, he no) agree& on "/ February "#A to become ,o*ernor of Hei(ung'iang Pro*ince an&
cooperate )ith the Japanese4
''(@$''
:upreme (dministrati;e Coun'il
Accor&ing to A+AKI, ,enera( Hon:o concei*e& the i&ea of ha*ing the ,o*ernors of the Pro*inces organiLe a I0upreme
A&ministrati*e 1ounci(I to ma'e recommen&ations for the organiLation of the ne) 0tate in Manchuria4 He for)ar&e& his p(an to
A+AKI an& re@ueste& permission to set up a ne) 0tate for the go*ernment of Manchuria )ith Henry Pu Bi as its hea&4 -uring
his interrogation at 0ugamo Prison, A+AKI a&mitte& that since he ha& no better suggestion an& thought the ,enera(Qs p(an
)ou(& so(*e the IManchurian Prob(emI, he ha& appro*e& the p(an4 A+AKI then sent a&&itiona( e>perts into Manchuria to assist
the 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar& in carrying out ,enera( Hon:oQs p(an4
,enera( Ma ha*ing reache& an agreement )ith -OHIHA+A, the 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar& ca((e& a meeting of the
,o*ernors of the Three ;astern Pro*inces an& the 0pecia( -istrict to meet at Mu'&en on "! February "#A, for the announce&
purpose of I(aying the foun&ationI for the ne) 0tate4 The meeting )as atten&e& in person by ,enera( Ma, as ,o*ernor of
Hei(ung'iangD ,enera( 1hang 1hing-hui as ,o*ernor of the 0pecia( -istrictD ,enera( Hsi Hsia, as ,o*ernor of KirinD an&
genera( Tsang 0hihui, as ,o*ernor of 9iaoningD but ,enera( Tang Ju-(in, the ,o*ernor of Jeho(, )as not present4 The (ega(
a&*isor for the meeting )as -r4 1hao Hsin-po, the To'yo 7ni*ersity traine& -octor of 9a)s, )ho ha& re(ie*e& 1o(one(
-OHIHA+A as Mayor of Mu'&en4
These fi*e men &eci&e& that a ne) 0tate shou(& be estab(ishe&, that a Corth-;astern 0upreme A&ministrati*e 1ounci( shou(& be
organiLe& )hich )ou(& e>ercise temporari(y
''($%''
the supreme authority o*er the Pro*inces an& the 0pecia( -istrict, an& that this 0upreme 1ounci( shou(&, )ithout &e(ay, ma'e a((
necessary preparations for the foun&ing of the ne) 0tate4
On the secon& &ay of the 1onference, the 0upreme A&ministrati*e 1ounci( )as &u(y organiLe&, to consist of se*en members,
name(y5 the ,o*ernors of Hei(ung'iang, Kirin, 9iaoning, Jeho( an& the 0pecia( -istrict, an& the t)o Mongo( chiefs )ho ha&
:oine& the 1onference on the morning of the secon& &ay4 The ne) 0upreme 1ounci( imme&iate(y procee&e& to business, an&
&eci&e&5 ("% to a&opt the +epub(ican system for the ne) 0tateD (% to respect the autonomy of the constituting pro*incesD (A% to
gi*e the ti(e of I+egentI to the 1hief ;>ecuti*eD an& (/% to issue a -ec(aration of In&epen&ence4 That night, ,enera( Hon:o ga*e
an officia( &inner in honor of the Ihea&s of the Ce) 0tateI4 He congratu(ate& them on their success an& assure& them of his
assistance in case of nee&4
7e'laration o. Independen'e
The ne>t morning after ,enera( Hon:oQs &inner party, that is to say on "? February "#A, the -ec(aration of In&epen&ence of
Manchuria )as pub(ishe& by the 0upreme A&ministrati*e 1ounci(4 -r4 O'a)a in his boo', <>%% !ears of 3apanese .istory"
pub(ishe& in "#A#, in commenting on this &ec(aration has this to say5 IThe 1hang Hseuh-(iang regime )as s)ept comp(ete(y
a)ay from Manchuria in one s)oop through the @uic' an& &aring action of the Japanese troops4I The Tribuna( fin&s upon the
e*i&ence that there )as no popu(ar
''($#''
mo*ement in Manchuria for the estab(ishment of any in&epen&ent go*ernment4 This mo*ement )as sponsore& an& inspire& by
the K)antung Army an& its creature, the 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar&, )ith its Japanese A&*isors4
)r*ani+ation o. the >e6 :tate
The -ec(aration of In&epen&ence ha*ing been issue&, ,o*ernors Ma an& Hsi Hsia returne& to their Pro*incia( 1apita(s, but they
&esignate& representati*es to meet )ith ,o*ernor Tsang 0hih-yi, ,o*ernor 1hang 1hing-hui an& Mayor 1hao Hsin-Po for the
purpose of )or'ing out the &etai(s of the p(an for the ne) 0tate4 On "# February "#A, this group &eci&e& that the form of the
ne) go*ernment shou(& be that of a +epub(ic )ith a constitution &ra)n on the princip(e of the separation of po)ers4 The group
then agree& upon 1hangchun as the 1apita( of the ne) 0tate, fi>e& the &esign of the ne) nationa( f(ag, an& agree& that Pu Bi
shou(& be as'e& to act as I+egentI of the ne) 0tate4
The 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar& imme&iate(y began ho(&ing mass-meetings an& &emonstrations in the Pro*inces, at )hich
the K)antung Army para&e& its might an& fire& arti((ery sa(utes to impress the Manchurians )ith the po)er of Japan4 After the
proper foun&ation ha& been (ai& by these &emonstrations, the Hoar& too' the (ea& in con*ening an A((-Manchurian 1on*ention,
)hich )as he(& in Mu'&en on # February "#A4 At this 1on*ention, speeches )ere &e(i*ere&D a &ec(aration &enouncing the
pre*ious regime of ,enera( 1hang Hsueh-(iang )as unanimous(y a&opte&D an& reso(utions )e(coming
''($<''
the ne) 0tate )ith Pu Bi as its 1hief ;>ecuti*e )ere appro*e&4
The 0upreme A&ministrati*e 1ounci( met imme&iate(y in urgent session an& e(ecte& si> &e(egates to procee& to Port Arthur to
con*ey their in*itation to Pu Bi to hea& the ne) go*ernment4 Pu Bi &i& not respon& to the first in*itation from the 0upreme
A&ministrati*e 1ounci(, so a secon& &e(egation )as appointe& on / March "#A to in&uce Pu Bi to accept4 7pon the a&*ice of
1o(one( ITA,AKI, Pu Bi accepte& the secon& in*itation4 After an au&ience )ith the -e(egate on . March, Pu Bi (eft Port
Arthur on the !th for Tang'ang-tLe, an& after t)o &ays, began, on the ?th, to recei*e homage as the I+egent of Manchu'uoI4
Inauguration ceremonies )ere he(& at the ne) capita(, 1hangchun, on # March "#A4 Pu Bi &ec(are& the po(icy of the ne) 0tate
to be foun&e& upon mora(ity, bene*o(ence an& (o*e4 the ne>t &ay he appointe& the (ist of princip(e officia(s suggeste& by the
Japanese4
Prior to the arri*a( of Pu Bi, a number of (a)s an& regu(ations, on )hich -r4 1hao Hsin-Po ha& been )or'ing for some time, ha&
been ma&e rea&y for a&option an& promu(gation4 they came into effect on # March "#A, simu(taneous(y )ith the (a) regu(ating
the organiLation of the ,o*ernment of Manchu'uo4
Pub(ic announcement of the ne) 0tate of Manchu'uo )as ma&e on " March "#A in a te(egram to the foreign Po)ers,
re@uesting that they recogniLe the ne) 0tate4 -r4 O'a)a state& that Manchu'uo )as a resu(t of the p(an of the K)antung Army
appro*e& by the Japanese ,o*ernment, an& the estab(ishment of the 0tate progresse& smooth(y, because it ha& been )e((
p(anne& an& prepare&
''($7''
beforehan&4 Pu Bi says that Manchu'uo )as un&er the comp(ete &omination of Japan from the beginning4
Japanese Cabinet (ppro;ed Fait (''ompli
A+AKI )as right )hen he sai& that the Hon:o p(an )as appro*e& by the 1abinetD but it )as not so appro*e& unti( " March
"#A, after the p(an ha& been e>ecute& an& after the ne) 0tate of Manchu'uo ha& come into e>istence4 it )as on " March "#A,
the &ay that the te(egram announcing the formation of Manchu'uo to the foreign Po)ers )as sent out, that the 1abinet met an&
&eci&e& upon an IOut(ine for the -isposition of Foreign +e(ations Accompanying the ;stab(ishment of the Ce) 0tates of
Manchu'uoI4 It )as &eci&e& to ren&er Ia(( sorts of ai&I to the ne) 0tate, short of recognition un&er internationa( (a), an& I(ea&
her to fu(fi(( the substantia( con&itions for an in&epen&ent state step by stepI in the hope that the Po)ers )ou(& u(timate(y
recogniLe her in&epen&ence4 To a*oi& inter*ention of the 0ignatory Po)ers of the Cine-Po)er Pact (Anne> Co4 H-"$%, it )as
thought best to ha*e Manchu'uo &ec(are a po(icy consistent )ith the po(icy of the IOpen -oorI an& in harmony )ith the
princip(e of e@ua( opportunity guarantee& by the Treaty4 The 1abinet a(so &eci&e& that Manchu'uo shou(& seiLe the custom
houses an& sa(t-ta> co((ecting organsD but that this shou(& be &one in such a )ay as not to Ibring about troub(es in foreign
re(ationsI4 One metho& agree& upon for &oing this )as to bribe the customs officia(s an& rep(ace them )ith Japanese4 It )as
p(anne& to seiLe mi(itary po)er in Manchu'uo un&er the guise of sub:ugating ban&itry, in (ine )ith the reser*ation ma&e
''($&''
at ,ene*a4 In short, the 1abinet fu((y rea(iLe& that the occupation of Manchuria an& the estab(ishment of an in&epen&ent 0tate
there by Japan )as a &irect *io(ation of e>isting treaty ob(igationsD an& it )as trying to e*o(*e a p(an )hereby the rea(ity of the
breach cou(& be concea(e& by an appearance of comp(iance )ith the ob(igations4
,he ytton Commission (rri;ed in ,o-yo
On the &ay that the A((-Manchurian 1on*ention )as being he(& in Mu'&en, that is to say on # February "#A, the 9ytton
1ommission arri*e& in To'yo, )here they )ere recei*e& by the ;mperor an& commence& a series of &ai(y conferences )ith the
,o*ernment, inc(u&ing Premier Inu'ai, 8ar Minister A+AKI, an& others4 A(though these &ai(y conferences continue& for eight
&ays, none of these go*ernment officia(s informe& the 1ommission that Japan )as forming a ne) 0tate in ManchuriaD an& the
1ommission first (earne& of this after it ha& (eft To'yo an& arri*e& at Kyoto on its )ay to 1hina4
On the &ay that the 1ommission arri*e& in To'yo, KOI0O )as e(e*ate& by A+AKI from 1hief of the Mi(itary Affairs Hureau of
the 8ar Ministry to the high position of Jice-Minister of 8ar4
(ra-i 7ispat'hed Fein.or'ements to :han*hai
The batt(e )hich ha& starte& at 0hanghai on ? January "#A ha& &e*e(ope& to such an e>tent that the Ca*y Minister )as force&
to ca(( upon 8ar Minister A+AKI for reinforcements4 The 1hinese "#th +oute Army )as
''($(''
gi*ing a goo& account of its fighting abi(ity4 9arge numbers of Japanese &estroyers )ere anchore& in the H)angpu, an& Japanese
airp(anes )ere bombing 1hapei4 The Japanese Marines )ere using their permanent garrison in Hung'o) as a base of operationsD
an& barrica&es erecte& bet)een this garrison an& 1hapei ser*e& as the front (ines bet)een the groun& forces4 The Japanese
&estroyers, firing point b(an', bombar&e& the forts at 8u-sungD this fire )as not returne& by the forts, for they ha& no guns
capab(e of ans)ering4 The Japanese Marines ha& in*a&e& areas a&:acent to the Internationa( 0ett(ement, &isarme& the po(ice an&
para(yse& a(( city functionsD a *eritab(e reign of terror )as in fu(( s)ing )hen the Ca*y Minister re@ueste& these reinforcements4
A+AKI states that he conferre& )ith the 1abinet an& it )as &eci&e& to sen& supporting forces @uic'(yD "$,$$$ men )ere
&ispatche& the fo((o)ing &ay aboar& fast &estroyers4 These reinforcements (an&e& in the Internationa( 0ett(ement fu((y e@uippe&
)ith tan's an& arti((ery4 The Ca*y &re) up hea*y ships an& began she((ing the city4 Ho)e*er, this attac' )hich began on $
February "#A brought no mar'e& success &espite the fact that it continue& for se*era( &ays4 Fo((o)ing this attac', A+AKI,
c(aiming that ,enera( 7e&a ha& suffere& such great (osses that it )as necessary to sen& further reinforcements, sent the ""th an&
"/th -i*isions to oppose the 1hinese Army )hich ha& been &efen&ing the city4
''($>''
,he ea*ue ,oo- ('tion
The 9eague of Cations )as arouse& to action4 The members of the 1ounci(, other than 1hina an& Japan, a&&resse& an urgent
appea( to the Japanese ,o*ernment on "# February "#A ca((ing attention to Artic(e "$ of the 1o*enant (Anne> Co4 H-!%D an&
the Assemb(y )as con*ene& to meet on A March "#A4
The American 0ecretary of 0tate a&*ise& the American 1Onsu(-,enera( at 0hanghai that the 0ecretaryQs (etter to senator 1orsh
on the 1hina situation )as being re(ease& to the Press4 In this (etter, the 0ecretary state& that the Cine-Po)er Treaty (Anne> Co4
H-"$% forme& the (ega( basis upon )hich the IOpen -oor Po(icyI reste&4 He set forth a (ong history of the Treaty4 He
commente& that the Treaty represente& a carefu((y mature& internationa( po(icy &esigne& to assure to a(( parties their rights in
1hina an& to assure the 1hinese the fu((est opportunity to &e*e(op their in&epen&ence an& so*ereignty4 He reca((e& that 9or&
Ha(four, 1hairman of the Hritish -e(egation, ha& state& that he un&erstoo& that there )as no representati*e present at the signing
of the Treaty, )ho thought that spheres of interest )ere a&*ocate& or )ou(& be to(erate&4 The Pact of Paris (Anne> Co4 H-".%
)as inten&e& to reinforce the Cine-po)er Treaty4 The t)o Treaties )ere inter&epen&ent, he sai&, an& )ere inten&e& to a(ign
)or(& conscience an& pub(ic opinion in fa*or of a system of or&er(y &e*e(opment through internationa( (a), inc(u&ing the
sett(ement of a(( contro*ersies by peacefu( means instea& of arbitrary force4 He sai&, that in the past the 7nite& 0tates ha& reste&
its po(icy upon abi&ing faith in the future of 1hina an& upon u(timate success
''($?''
in &ea(ing )ith 1hina upon princip(es of fair p(ay, patience an& mutua( goo& )i((4
The Hritish A&mira(, 0ir Ho)ar& Ke((y, as one of the many attempts to secure a cessation fo hosti(ities at 0hanghai through the
goo& offices of frien&(y Po)ers, he(& a conference on boar& his f(agship on ? February "#A4 An agreement on the basis of
mutua( an& simu(taneous )ith&ra)a( )as propose&D but the conference )as unsuccessfu(, o)ing to the &iffering opinions of the
parties4 As though in resentment of this interference, the Japanese troops occupie& the )estern part of Kiang)an, )hich ha&
been e*acuate& by the 1hinese, an& the 8u-sung forts an& fortifications a(ong the BangtLe )ere again bombe& from the air an&
she((e& from the sea, as bombing-p(anes operate& o*er the )ho(e front, inc(u&ing the Can'ing +ai()ay an& the airfie(& at
Hung:ao4
Hefore the Assemb(y of the 9eague cou(& meet, the 1ounci( propose& a roun&tab(e conference of # February to ma'e (oca(
arrangements for a cessation of hosti(ities at 0hanghaiD both parties agree& to this conference, but it )as not successfu( because
of the con&itions impose& by the Japanese4
,enera( 0hira'a)a, )ho ha& been appointe& to the Japanese supreme comman&, arri*e& )ith reinforcements on # February4
His first or&er &irecte& the bombing of the airfie(& at Hangcho), )hich )as appro>imate(y "$$ mi(es a)ay4 ,enera( 0hira'a)a
gaine& groun& s(o)(y as a resu(t of hea*y na*a( bombar&mentD an& after a f(an' attac' on " March, he )as ab(e to &ri*e the
1hinese beyon& the $ 'i(ometer (imit origina((y &eman&e& by the :apanese as terms for cessation of the hosti(ities4
This Iface-sa*ingI success permitte& the
''($@''
Japanese to accept the re@uest of the Assemb(y of the 9eague of / March "#A, ca((ing upon both ,o*ernments to ma'e a
cessation of hosti(ities an& recommen&ing negotiations for conc(usion of the hosti(ities an& the )ith&ra)a( of Japanese troops4
The opposing comman&ers issue& appropriate or&ers an& the fighting cease&D negotiations began on "$ March "#A4
The Assemb(y continue& its in*estigation of the &isputeD an& on "" March "#A, it a&opte& a reso(ution to the effect that the
pro*isions of the 1o*enant (Anne> Co4 H-!% )ere app(icab(e to the &ispute, especia((y the pro*isions that treaties shou(& be
scrupu(ous(y respecte&, that members shou(& respect an& preser*e the territoria( integrity an& po(itica( in&epen&ence of a(( the
members of the 9eague against e>terna( aggression, an& that the members )ere ob(igate& to submit a(( &isputes bet)een them to
proce&ures for peacefu( sett(ement4 The Assemb(y affirme& that it )as contrary to the spirit of the 1o*enant that the &ispute
shou(& be sett(e& un&er stress of mi(itary pressure, affirme& the reso(utions of the 1ounci( of A#$ 0eptember an& "$ -ecember
"#A", as )e(( as its o)n reso(ution of / March "#A, an& procee&e& to set up a I1ommittee of CineteenI to sett(e the &ispute at
0hanghai4
1ontrary to their ob(igation, the Japanese too' a&*antage of the truce to bring up reinforcements, )hich )ere (an&e& at 0hanghai
on < an& "< March "#A4 it )as not unti( . May "#A, that a comp(ete agreement )as rea&y for signature4 0HI,;MIT07 signe&
for the Japanese4 The fighting at 0hanghai ha& been characteriLe& by e>treme crue(ty on the part of the Japanese4 The nee&(ess
bombing of 1hapei, the ruth(ess bombar&ment
''($$''
by na*y *esse(s, an& the massacre of the he(p(ess 1hinese farmers )hose bo&ies )ere (ater foun& )ith their han&s tie& behin&
their bac's, are e>amp(es of the metho& of )arfare )age& at 0hanghai4
''>%%''
This Inci&ent furnishes another e>amp(e of the Japanese &etermination to use mi(itary force against the 1hinese an& to impress
the 1hinese )ith the might of Japan, using any prete>t for the purpose4 The ostensib(e reason for the use of force in this case )as
the re@uest from some Japanese resi&ents of 0hanghai for protection4 The Tribuna( has no hesitation in coming to the conc(usion
that the force use& )as out of a(( proportion to the e>isting &anger to Japanese Cationa(s an& property4
There is no &oubt that at the time fee(ing )as running high an& the 1hinese boycott of Japanese goo&s, in&uce& at (east in part by
Japanese action in Manchuria, )as being fe(t4 In the (ight of a(( the facts, the Tribuna( is of the opinion that the rea( purpose of
the Japanese attac' )as to a(arm the 1hinese by in&ication of )hat )ou(& fo((o) if their attitu&e to)ar& Japan continue&, an&
thus brea' &o)n resistance to future operations4 The Inci&ent )as a part of the genera( p(an4
Man'hu-uo <as Constru'ted and )perated as a Puppet
Manchu'uo )as &efinite(y a tota(itarian 0tate, because of the po)er *este& in the +egentD an& those )ho contro((e& the +egent
contro((e& the 0tate4 Or&inance Co4 ", )hich )as promu(gate& on # March "#A, prescribe& the organic (a) for Manchu'uo4 In
forma( e>pression, the position )as as fo((o)s5 the go*ernmenta( po)er )as &i*i&e& into four &i*isions5 the ;>ecuti*e, the
9egis(ati*e, the Ju&icia( an& the 0uper*isoryD the +egent as the 1hief ;>ecuti*e )as the hea& of the 0tateD a(( e>ecuti*e po)er,
as )e(( as the po)er to o*erri&e the 9egis(ati*e 1ounci(, )as *este& in himD the functions of the ;>ecuti*e -epartment )ere
performe&, un&er the &irection of the +egent, by the
''>%#''
Premier an& the Minister of 0tate, )ho forme& a 0tate 1ounci( or 1abinetD the Premier super*ise& the )or' of the Ministries
through the po)erfu( ,enera( Affairs Hoar&, )hich ha& &irect charge of their confi&entia( matters, personne(, accounting an&
supp(iesD subor&inate to the 0tate 1ounci( )ere *arious bureau>, such as the 9egis(ati*e 1ounci(D but, fo((o)ing the Japanese
1onstitution, the +egent ha& authority, )hen the 9egis(ati*e 1ounci( )as not in session, to promu(gate or&inances upon a&*ice
of his Pri*y 1ounci(D an& the 0uper*isory 1ounci( super*ise& the con&uct of officia(s an& au&ite& their accounts4 The 9egis(ati*e
1ounci( )as ne*er organiLe& an& (egis(ation )as therefore enacte& by or&inance of the +egent4
The ,enera( Affairs Hoar&, the 9egis(ati*e Hureau an& the A&*isory Hureau, in practice by )ay of contrast to form, constitute&
a PremierQs Office4 7pon estab(ishment of the 0tate, the 0e(f-,o*ernment ,ui&ing Hoar& )as abo(ishe& an& its personne( )ere
transferre& to the A&*isory Hureau, )hich continue& the )or' of the Hoar& through the 0e(f-,o*ernment 1ommittees pre*ious(y
estab(ishe& in the Pro*inces an& -istricts4 The ,enera( Affairs Hoar&, more than any other, )as the agency of the Japanese for
effecti*e practica( contro( an& &omination of e*ery phase of the go*ernment an& economy of Manchu'uo4
The Ministers of 0tate )ere genera((y 1hinese, but each Minister ha& a Jice-Minister, )ho )as Japanese4 There e>iste& a
committee in the ,o*ernment of Manchu'uo not pro*i&e& for in the 1onstitution )hich )as 'no)n as the ITues&ay meetingI4
;ach Tues&ay, there )as a meeting of the *arious Japanese Jice-Ministers, presi&e& o*er by the Japanese -irector of the
,enera( Affairs Hoar&, an& atten&e& by the 1hief of a 0ection of the K)antung Army ,enera( 0taff4
''>%<''
At these meetings, a(( po(icies )ere a&opte&, a(( rescripts, or&inances an& other enactments appro*e&D the &ecisions of the
ITues&ay MeetingI )ere then passe& on to the ,enera( Affairs Hoar& to be officia((y a&opte& an& promu(gate& as an act of the
,o*ernment of Manchu'uo4 It )as in this manner that Manchu'uo )as comp(ete(y &ominate& by the K)antung Army4 In a
te(egram sent by ,enera( Hon:o to 8ar Minister A+AKI on A Apri( "#A, Hon:o sai&D II be(ie*e you ha*e no3 ob:ections that
the e>ecution of our po(icies regar&ing the )ho(e of Manchu'uo shou(&, insofar as it in*o(*es negotiations )ith Manchu'uo, be
(eft chief(y to the K)antung Army4 in *ie) of the recent con&uct of the Japanese go*ernment Offices an& *arious other
representing organs in Manchuria, ho)e*er, I fear that un(ess )e ma'e it thoroughgoing, confusion might arise4I To this A+AKI
rep(ie&5 II agree in princip(e to your opinion regar&ing unification in the e>ecution of our Manchurian po(icies4I
At first Japanese IA&*isorsI )ere appointe& to a&*ise a(( the important go*ernment officia(s of Manchu'uoD but short(y after the
formation of the 0tate, these IA&*isorsI became fu(( go*ernment officia(s on the same basis as the 1hinese4 O*er $$ Japanese
)ere ho(&ing office in the 1entra( ,o*ernment a(one, not inc(u&ing those in the 8ar Ministry an& Mi(itary Forces, &uring the
month of Apri( "#A--one month after the formation of the 0tate4 In most bureaus, there )ere Japanese a&*isors, counci((ors, an&
secretaries4 A(( important posts in the 0uper*isory Hureau )ere he(& by Japanese4 Fina((y, most of the important officia(s of the
+egency, inc(u&ing the 1hief of the Office of Interna( Affairs an& the 1omman&er of the +egentQs Ho&yguar&, )ere Japanese4
;*en the +egent )as Isuper*ise&I by ,enera( Boshio'a, )ho )as appointe& by the
''>%7''
K)antung Army for that purpose4 In short, as for the go*ernment an& pub(ic ser*ices, a(though the titu(ar hea&s )ere usua((y
1hinese, the main po(itica( an& a&ministrati*e po)er )as he(& by Japanese officia(s an& a&*isors, counci((ors, super*isors,
secretaries an& *ice-officia(s4
The Japanese 1abinet at a meeting on "" Apri( "#A, consi&ere& metho&s for Igui&ingI Manchu'uo an& appro*e& the metho&
out(ine& abo*e4 A+AKI )as a member of the 1abinet as 8ar Minister at that time4 The &ecision )as5 IThe ne) 0tate sha((
emp(oy authoritati*e a&*isors from our country an& ma'e them the highest a&*isors in connection )ith financia(, economic, an&
genera( po(itica( prob(ems4 The ne) 0tate sha(( appoint Japanese nationa(s to the (ea&ing posts in the Pri*y 1ounci(, the 1entra(
Han', an& other organs of the ne) 0tate4I The 1abinet then (iste& the offices of the go*ernment of Manchu'uo )hich shou(& be
fi((e& by JapaneseD these inc(u&e& the 1hief of the ,enera( Affairs Hoar& an& the 1hief of each of that Hoar&Qs sections,
1ounci((ors an& 1hief 0ecretary of the Pri*y 1ounci(, an& offices in the re*enue, Po(ice, Han'ing, Transportation, Justice,
1ustoms, an& other -epartments4 This measure )as foun& to be necessary so that the ne) 0tate )ou(& manifest the I*ery
characteristics that are important factors for the e>istence of the ;mpire in re(ation to po(itics, economy, nationa( &efense,
transportation, communication an& many other fie(&sI, an& so that Ia sing(e se(f-sufficient economic unit comprising Japan an&
Manchu'uo )i(( be rea(iLe&I4
,he Con'ordia :o'iety and the AKin*ly <ayA
The 1oncor&ia 0ociety (4yo',a'4ai% )as organiLe& by a committee compose& of ITA,AKI an& others in Mu'&en
''>%&''
&uring Apri( "#A4 The K)antung Army 1omman&er )as ma&e e>-officio 0upreme A&*isor of the 0ociety4 The specia( mission
of the 1oncor&ia 0ociety )as to sprea& the spirit an& i&eo(ogy of the 0tate, the IKing(y 8ayI, an& to strengthen Manchu'uo so
that she cou(& subser*e Japan in her strugg(e against the Ang(o-0a>on 8or(& an& the 1omintern4 The po(icy of the ,o*ernment
of Manchu'uo )as e>presse& in proc(amations issue& on "? February "#A an& " March "#AD it )as to ru(e in accor&ance )ith
the fun&amenta( princip(e of the IKing(y 8ayI4 In this manner, the conso(i&ation of JapanQs con@uest of Manchuria )as
accomp(ishe& in the sphere of i&eo(ogica( propagan&a4 Co po(itica( party other than the 0ociety )as a((o)e& in Manchuria4 The
titu(ar hea& of the 0ociety )as the Prime Minister of Manchu'uoD but actua((y, the (ea&er )as a member of the K)antung Army
,enera( 0taff4
,he ytton Commission Pisited Man'huria
The 9ytton 1ommission arri*e& in Manchuria in Apri( "#A, an& began its )or' of penetrating the *ei( of secrecy thro)n o*er
the situation by the intimi&ation of the inhabitants an& obstruction of the 1ommitteeQs efforts by the K)antung Army an&
Japanese officia(s of Manchu'uo4 7n&er the e>cuse of offering IprotectionI to members of the 1ommission an& prospecti*e
)itnesses, the Army an& the ,en&armes Isuper*ise&I their acti*ities an& mo*ements4 Pu Bi testifie& that, I8e )ere a(( un&er
the super*ision of the Japanese Mi(itary OfficersD an& )here*er 9or& 9ytton )ent, he )as un&er the super*ision of Japanese
,en&armes4 8hen I inter*ie)e& 9or& 9ytton, many of the K)antung mi(itary officers )ere besi&e me super*ising4 If I ha& to(&
him the truth, I )ou(& ha*e been mur&ere&
''>%(''
right after the mission (eft Manchuria4I Pu Bi &e(i*ere& to 9or& 9ytton a statement prepare& by 1o(one( ITA,AKI, )hich Pu Bi
no) &ec(ares &i& not ref(ect the true facts4 Peop(e )ho spo'e +ussian or ;ng(ish )ere carefu((y super*ise& &uring the
1ommissionQs stay in ManchuriaD some )ere arreste&4
The 1hief of 0taff of the K)antung Army suggeste&, in a te(egram sent to the 8ar Ministry on / June "#A, that Japan sho) her
contempt of the 9ytton 1ommission by ta'ing o*er the customs &uring the *isit of the 1ommission4 He sai&5 IIt is rather
a&*antageous to ta'e this action &uring the stay of the (eagueQs In@uiry 1ommission in or&er to &isp(ay the in&epen&ence of
Manchu'uo, an& to in&icate the firm reso(ution of Japan an& Manchu'uo in respect to the QManchurian Inci&entQI4
,he (ssassination o. Premier Inu-ai
The opposition of Premier Inu'ai to the estab(ishment of Manchu'uo as an in&epen&ent 0tate cost him his (ife4 The Premier ha&
consistent(y oppose& the recognition of Manchu'uo by Japan, maintaining that such recognition )ou(& be a *io(ation of the
so*ereign rights of 1hina4
8ithin a fe) &ays after assuming office as Premier, Inu'ai sent a secret emissary by the name of Kayano to ,enera(issimo
1hiang Kai-she' to arrange terms of peace4 ,enera(issimo 1hiang )as high(y satisfie& )ith KayanoQs proposa(s, an&
negotiations )ere procee&ing satisfactori(y )hen one of KayanoQs te(egrams to Premier Inu'ai )as intercepte& by the 8ar
Ministry4 The 0ecretary of the 1abinet informe& Inu'aiQs son that, IBour father is carrying on negotiations )ith ,enera(issimo
1hiang4 1oncerning
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this, the 8ar Ministry is high(y in&ignant4I A(though the negotiations )ere aban&one&, the friction continue& bet)een the
Premier an& 8ar Minister A+AKI4
The conf(ict bet)een Premier Inu'ai an& the 4odo or IImperia( 8ayI faction, of )hich A+AKI )as (ea&er at that time, reache&
the e>p(osion point on ? May "#A, )hen Inu'ai &e(i*ere& an anti-mi(itaristic an& pro-&emocratic speech at Bo'ohama4 On ".
May "#A, the Premier )as i(( an& temporari(y a(one in his Officia( +esi&ence, )hen se*era( na*a( officers force& their )ay into
his home an& assassinate& him4 -r4 O'a)a furnishe& the pisto(s for the 'i((ingD an& HA0HIMOTO a&mitte& in his boo', The
Road to Reconstruction of the ,orld" that he )as imp(icate& in the mur&er4
9t4 1o(one( 07W7KI, )ho )as an officia( in the Mi(itary Affairs Hureau of the 8ar Ministry at that time, )arne& that if a ne)
1abinet shou(& be organiLe& un&er the (ea&ership of po(itica( parties, a secon& or thir& assassination )ou(& occur4 He ma&e this
)arning at a &inner atten&e& by KI-O, KOI0O, an& 07W7KI at Haron Hara&aQs house t)o &ays after the mur&er4 The
opposition to the e>pansionist po(icy ha& come (arge(y from representati*es of the po(itica( parties in Japan4
Fe'o*nition o. Man'hu-uo by Japan
A+AKI an& KOI0O retaine& their positions, as 8ar Minister an& Jice-8ar Minister respecti*e(y, in the ne) 1abinetD an& un&er
their (ea&ership, Manchu'uo )as recogniLe& by the ,o*ernment of Japan as an in&epen&ent 0tate4 in rep(ying on / June "#A to
a te(egram from the 1hief-of-0taff of the K)antung Army, the 8ar Minister sai&, regar&ing the @uestion of recognition5 IIt has a
*ery
''>%?''
&e(icate bearing on *arious circ(es at home an& abroa&, an& therefore )e are no) &etermine& an& rea&y to effect the recognition
)hene*er opportunity offers4I He a(so re*ea(e& the p(an to ru(e Manchu'uo through the K)antung ArmyD he sai&5 IAs regar&s
unification of *arious organs in Manchuria, )e are p(anning to estab(ish a coor&inating organ )ith the Army as its center, among
other things aiming at the in&ustria( &e*e(opment of Manchuria to meet )ith re@uirements for spee&y stabi(iLation of
Manchu'uo an& nationa( &efense4 0hou(& such un&er(ying moti*e by chance (ea' out at home or abroa&, an& especia((y in
foreign countries, it )ou(& be e>treme(y &isa&*antageous from the point of *ie) of the &irection of Manchu'uo4 Therefore, )e
hope that you )i(( be *ery circumspect e*en in the stu&y of the matter in y our o)n office4I About the mi&&(e of June #"A,
A+AKI state& before the 0upreme 8ar 1ounci( that the reso(utions of the 9eague of nations an& statements ma&e by Japan in
regar& to Manchuria before the estab(ishment of Manchu'uo cou(& no (onger be consi&ere& bin&ing on Japan4
The K)antung Army assiste& A+AKI in forcing the ,o*ernment to recogniLe Manchu'uo by sen&ing a so-ca((e& IPeace
MissionI to To'yo in June #"A4 The purpose of this mission )as to urge the imme&iate recognition of the ne) 0tateD it )or'e&
in con:unction )ith the H(ac' -ragon 0ociety, )hich he(& conferences at Hibiya Toyo'en to assist this IMissionI4
In *ie) of the change of 1abinets, the 9ytton 1ommission returne& to To'yo on / Ju(y "#A, an& he(& a series of conferences
)ith the officia(s of the ne) ,o*ernment in an effort to (earn the *ie)s of the 1abinet regar&ing the situation in Manchuria4
A+AKI )as present at these conferences4
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After the 1ommission returne& to Peiping, that is to say on or about ? August "#A, the Icoor&inating organ )ith the Army at its
centerI, mentione& by A+AKI in his te(egram to the 1hief-of-0taff of the K)antung Army, )as estab(ishe& as p(anne&4 The
IFour-in-OneI system )as rep(ace& by the IThree-in-OneI systemD un&er this ne) system, the 1omman&er of the K)antung
Army became the ,o*ernor of the K)antung 9ease& Territory, an& at the same time Ambassa&or to Manchu'uo4 The ne)
system too' effect on $ August "#A4 A change of personne( )as ma&e to put this system in effect4 Muto, Cobuyoshi, rep(ace&
Hon:o as 1omman&er of the K)antung Army4 ITA,AKI remaine& on the 0taff of the K)antung Army, an& )as promote& to
the ran' of Ma:or ,enera(4 Jice-Minister of 8ar KOI0O )as sent to Manchuria as 1hief-of-0taff of the K)antung Army
0pecia( 0er*ice OrganiLation, or Inte((igence 0er*ice4
After the surren&er, A+AKI state&5 IAt the conference of the Hig Three (Foreign, Ca*y an& 8ar Ministers%, )hen &iscussing
recognition of Manchu'uo as an in&epen&ent state, I suggeste& that )e e>change Ambassa&ors since Manchu'uo )as an
in&epen&ent state4 The @uestion came before the 1abinet at a meeting in August "#A4 The &iscussion )as as to )hen
Manchu'uo shou(& recei*e recognition -- no) or (ater4 The K)antung Army put in a re@uest that )e recogniLe imme&iate(y4 I
set the &ate of ". 0eptember "#A as the &ate to forma((y recogniLe Manchu'uo4 At this meeting )e &iscusse& the contents of
the Treaty to be entere& into )ith Manchu'uo, an& I appro*e& the contents agree& upon4I
HI+AC7MA, as Jice-Presi&ent of the Pri*y 1ounci(, ca((e& a meeting of the 1ounci( on "A 0eptember "#A to consi&er the
@uestion of I0igning of the Protoco( bet)een
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Japan an& Manchu'uo4I HI+AC7MA, )ho ha& a(so been appointe& a Member of the In*estigation 1ommittee of the Pri*y
1ounci(, rea& the report of the 1ommittee to the fu(( Pri*y 1ounci(4 The reporte& state&, among other things, IOur Imperia(
,o*ernment firm(y be(ie*e& that it )ou(& be a&*isab(e to recogniLe that country )ithout &e(ay4 Ce*erthe(ess, in or&er to use
pru&ence an& caution, our ,o*ernment )atche& for ha(f a year the &e*e(opments in Manchu'uo as )e(( as the attitu&es of the
9eague of Cations an& other countries4 In&ications are that our countryQs recognition of that country a(though it )i((, as may be
easi(y imagine&, cause for a time no sma(( shoc' to the )or(&, it )i(( not bring about an internationa( crisis4 8ith the ob:ect of
co-e>istence an& co-prosperity, our country inten&s to ta'e measures for recogniLing Manchu'uo by conc(u&ing an arrangement
through this Protoco( an& the Cotes e>change& bet)een the t)o countriesI4
HI+AC7MA )as referring to four Cotes as fo((o)s5
"4 The first Cote consiste& of a (etter an& the rep(y thereto4 The (etter, )hich )as &ate& "$ March "#A, the &ay after Pu
BiQs inauguration, )as a&&resse& by Pu Bi to Hon:o4 In this (etter, Pu Bi state& that he appreciate& the efforts an&
sacrifices of Japan in estab(ishing Manchu'uo, but that the &e*e(opment of Manchu'uo cou(& not be e>pecte& )ithout
the support an& gui&ance of Japan4 Pu Bi then re@ueste& that Japan agree, among other things, to the fo((o)ing5
A4 Japan to un&erta'e, at the e>pense of Manchu'uo, the nationa( &efence of the ne) 0tate an& the maintenance of
or&er )ithin the country, )ith the un&erstan&ing that Manchu'uo )ou(& furnish a(( mi(itary faci(ities re@uire&
by the K)antung ArmyD
H4 Japan to un&erta'e to contro( a(( e>isting rai(roa&s an& other transportation
''>#%''
faci(ities an& to construct such ne) faci(ities as may be &eeme& &esirab(eD an&
14 Japanese nationa(s to ser*e as go*ernment officia(s in a(( branches of the ,o*ernment of Manchu'uo, sub:ect to
appointment, remo*a( an& rep(acement at )i(( by the 1omman&er of the K)antung Army4
Hon:oQs rep(y to the (etter )as simp(y that Japan ha& no ob:ection to Pu BiQs proposa(s4
A4 The secon& Cote )as an agreement bet)een the Prime Minister of Manchu'uo an& Hon:o, &ate& < August "#A,
re(ating to the contro( of transportation faci(ities, an& ma'ing the Japanese contro( more abso(ute4
/4 The thir& Cote )as another agreement bet)een the Prime Minister of Manchu'uo an& Hon:o, &ate& < August "#A4 It
re(ate& to the estab(ishment of the Japan Air Transportation 1ompany4 This 1ompany )as authoriLe& by a 1abinet
&ecision of " August "#A, to ta'e o*er the air-routes )hich ha& a(rea&y been estab(ishe& in Manchuria by the
K)antung Army un&er the prete>t of mi(itary communications4
.4 The fourth Cote )as an agreement bet)een 1omman&er Muto an& the Prime Minister of Manchu'uo &ate& # 0eptember
"#A, re(ati*e to mining concessions in Manchuria4
Accor&ing to the report rea& by HI+AC7MA, these Cotes )ere to be retroacti*e to the &ates of their signing an& )ere to be
&eeme& internationa( agreements, but )ere to be strict(y secret4
The Protoco(, )hich )as to be ma&e pub(ic, pro*i&e& that Japan ha& recogniLe& Manchu'uoD that Manchu'uo affirme& a(( rights
an& interests possesse& by Japan an& her sub:ects in Manchuria at the time of the formation of Manchu'uoD an& that both parties
agree& to
''>##''
cooperate in the maintenance of their nationa( security, recogniLing that a threat to either )as a threat to both an& gi*ing Japan
the right to maintain troops in Manchu'uo4 The In*estigation 1ommittee recommen&e& appro*a( of the Protoco( an& Cotes4
The &iscussion that fo((o)e& the rea&ing of the report of the In*estigation 1ommittee re*ea(s that the members of the Pri*y
1ounci( fu((y rea(iLe& that the propose& Protoco( an& notes *io(ate& the Cine-Po)er Pact (Anne> Co4 H-"$% an& other treaty
ob(igations of Japan4 Pri*y 1ounci((or O'a&a raise& the @uestion4 The Foreign Minister ha& e>p(aine& to the -iet that Japan
)ou(& not be *io(ating the Cine-Po)er Pact by recogniLing Manchu'uo, because Manchu'uo ha& become in&epen&ent, an&
Japan ha& not agree& to pre*ent the in&epen&ence of the 1hinese peop(e4 O'a&a e>presse& the opinion that the 7nite& 0tates an&
others )ou(& not be satisfie& by that e>p(anation4 As he e>p(aine&, IThe American might say that it )ou(& be a(( right if
Manchu'uo ha& become in&epen&ent by the free )i(( of her o)n peop(e, but that it )as a *io(ation of the Pact an& a &isregar& of
1hinaQs so*ereignty for Japan to assist an& maintain that in&epen&ence4I The Foreign
''>#<''
Minister rep(ie&5 IOf course, in this respect, *arious *ie)s Minister rep(ie&5 IOf course, in this respect *arious *ie)s are he(& in
the 7nite& 0tates an& other countries, but these are their o)n *ie)s4I A+AKI e>p(aine&, IThe nationa( &efense of Manchu'uo is
at the same time the nationa( &efense of our countryI4 1ounci((or Ishii state&5 II fee( *ery uneasy about JapanQs contention in
regar& to the connection bet)een the QManchurian Prob(emQ an& the 9eague of CationsI, an& he further obser*e&5 IIt )as a(most
an estab(ishe& *ie) of a (arge number of the peop(e of the 7nite& 0tates an& other countries that our action in Manchu'uo
*io(ate& the Pact of Paris (Anne> Co4 H-".% an& the Cine-Po)er Pact4I Ho)e*er, 1ounci((or Ishii a&&e&5 ICo) that Japan has
conc(u&e& an a((iance )ith Manchu'uo, for :oint nationa( &efense I be(ie*e that there )i(( be no room for opposing the stationing
of Japanese troops in Manchuria, this )i(( ma'e the 9eagueQs past reso(ution a &ea& (etter4I He then obser*e&5 IIt )as rather
strange that the Manchurian an& Mongo(ian races ha& starte& no in&epen&ence mo*ement up to no)TI
The *ote )as ta'en, the Protoco( an& Cotes )ere appro*e& by unanimous *ote an& the ;mperor )ith&re)4 Ambassa&or Muto
presente& the Protoco( to the Manchu'uoan Prime Minister )ith the remar', IHere it is4 This is the agreement that you ha*e to
signI4 A(though Pu Bi testifie& that he &i& not 'no) of the e>istence of the Protoco( up unti( the &ay it )as presente& for signing,
he signe& it on ". 0eptember "#A4
Preparation .or the Con@uest o. Jehol
;fforts to persua&e ,enera( Tang Ju-(in, )ho )as ,o*ernor of Jeho( Pro*ince, to &ec(are his Pro*ince in&epen&ent of 1hina an&
p(ace it un&er the :uris&iction of Manchu'uo pro*e& to be of no a*ai(D therefore, )ith the con@uest an& conso(i&ation of the
Three ;astern Pro*inces comp(ete&, the Japanese
''>#7''
Army began to prepare for the con@uest of Jeho(4 After the surren&er, A+AKI trie& to e>p(ain the &ecision to in*a&e Jeho( by
saying, in spea'ing of the Pri*y 1ounci( meeting of "< -ecember "#A", )here it )as &eci&e& -- accor&ing to him -- to
appropriate fun&s for the sub:ugation of Manchuria, IIt ha& been &eci&e& that the three pro*inces comprising 1hang Hsueh-
(iangQs territory re@uire& pacificationD but a statement by 1hang to the effect that his :uris&iction e>ten&e& o*er four pro*inces
e>pan&e& the scene of acti*ities to Jeho(I4
At the organiLation of the 0upreme A&ministrati*e 1ounci( by the puppet ,o*ernors of the pro*inces on "< February "#A, it
)as pro*i&e& that Jeho( shou(& be represente& on the 1ounci(D ho)e*er, ,o*ernor Tang Ju-(in ignore& the in*itation an&
continue& to ru(e the Pro*ince, a(though the Mongo(s of the *arious 9eagues )ithin the Pro*ince attempte& to co((aborate )ith
the ne) 0tate, an& )ere c(aime& as sub:ects by Manchu'uo4
The Japanese, ha*ing ma&e their reser*ation at ,ene*a, nee&e& on(y to fin& an e>cuse to procee& )ith their p(an for the
incorporation of Jeho( into Manchu'uo4 The first e>cuse )as presente& )hen an officia( by the name of Ishimoto, )ho )as
attache& to the K)antung Army, stage& a I&isappearanceI )hi(e tra*e(ing bet)een Peipiao an& 1hincho) on "< Ju(y "#A4 The
Japanese imme&iate(y c(aime& that he ha& been 'i&nappe& by 1hinese Jo(unteers, an& sent a &etachment of the K)antung Army
into Jeho( on the prete>t of rescuing Ishimoto4 A(though the &etachment )as e@uippe& )ith arti((ery, it )as repu(se& an& fai(e&
in its purpose, after occupying a *i((age on the frontier of the Pro*ince4 -uring this encounter, Japanese p(anes &roppe& bombs
on the to)n of 1haoyangD an& through the month of August "#A, Japanese p(anes continue& to &emonstrate o*er this part of
Jeho( Pro*ince4 On "# August
''>#&''
"#A, a K)antung Army staff officer )as sent to Can(ing, a sma(( *i((age situate& bet)een Peipiao an& the boun&ary of Jeho(,
ostensib(y to negotiate for the re(ease of Mr4 Ishimoto4 He )as accompanie& by an infantry &etachment4 he c(aime& that on his
return :ourney, he )as fire& upon an& in se(f-&efense returne& the fire4 On the arri*a( of another infantry &etachment, as if by
pre-arrangement, Can(ing )as occupie&4
0hort(y after the engagement at Can(ing, a &ec(aration )as issue& to the effect that Jeho( Pro*ince )as the territory of
Manchu'uo, thus (aying the foun&ation for its anne>ation through the action of the K)antung Army4 Mi(itary action continue&
upon one prete>t or another, most(y a(ong the 1hincho)-Peipiao branch (ine of the Peiping-Mu'&en +ai()ay, )hich is the on(y
means of access to Jeho( from Manchuria by rai()ay4 This )as to be e>pecte&, as the main (ines of communication at that time
bet)een 1hina proper an& the 1hinese forces remaining in Manchuria ran through Jeho(4 It )as e*i&ent to casua( obser*ers that
an in*asion of Jeho( )as imminent, an& the Japanese Press free(y a&mitte& that fact4 In 0eptember "#A, the "/th Mi>e& Hriga&e
arri*e& in Manchuria )ith the announce& mission of Imopping upI ban&its in the Tung Pientao, )hich is the &istrict on the north
si&e of the Ba(u +i*er bet)een Manchuria an& Korea4 The rea( mission of this briga&e )as to prepare for the in*asion of Jeho(4
,he ytton Commission Feported
In ,ene*a, the 1ounci( of the 9eague met on " Co*ember "#A to consi&er the report of the 9ytton 1ommission, )hich ha&
been recei*e& on " October "#A4 -uring the &e(iberations, the Japanese -e(egate, Matsuo'a, &ec(are&, I8e )ant no more
territoryTI Ho)e*er, &ue to the fact that Matsuo'a refuse&
''>#(''
to agree to any basis for sett(ement of the &ispute, the 1ounci( )as force& on ? Co*ember "#A to transmit the report of the
9ytton 1ommission to the Assemb(y for action4
The 9ytton 1ommission in its report state&5 IIt is a fact that, )ithout &ec(aration of )ar, a (arge area of )hat )as in&isputab(y
the 1hinese territory has been forcib(y seiLe& an& occupie& by the arme& forces of Japan an& has, in conse@uence of this
operation, been separate& form an& &ec(are& in&epen&ent of the rest of 1hina4 The steps by )hich this )as accomp(ishe& are
c(aime& by Japan to ha*e been consistent )ith the ob(igations of the 1o*enant of the 9eague of Cations (Anne> Co4 H-!%, the
Ke((ogg Pact (Anne> Co4 H-".% an& the Cine-Po)er Treaty of 8ashington (Anne> Co4 H-"$%, a(( of )hich )ere &esigne& to
pre*ent action of this 'in&4 The :ustification in this case has been that a(( the mi(itary operations ha*e been (egitimate acts of
se(f-&efence4I Ho)e*er, the 1ommission further state& in &iscussing the e*ents at Mu'&en on the night of "? 0eptember "#A"5
IThe mi(itary operations of the Japanese troops &uring this night, )hich ha*e been &escribe& abo*e, cannot be regar&e& as
measures of (egitimate se(f-&efence4I
The Assemb(y of the 9eague met on ! -ecember "#AD an& after a genera( &iscussion, a&opte& a reso(ution on # -ecember "#A
re@uesting the 1ommittee of Cineteen, )hich it ha& appointe& on "" March "#A, to bring about a cessation of hosti(ities at
0hanghai, stu&y the report, &ra) up proposa(s for sett(ement of the &ispute, an& submit those proposa(s to the Assemb(y at the
ear(iest possib(e moment4
The 1ommittee of Cineteen &re) up t)o &raft reso(utions an& a statement of reasons in&icating genera((y the basis on )hich it
thought it possib(e to continue its en&ea*ors4 On ". -ecember "#A, the t)o &raft reso(utions an& the statement of reasons )ere
submitte& to the parties4 The 1hinese an&
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the Japanese -e(egates propose& amen&mentsD an& the 1ommittee a&:ourne& on $ -ecember "#A to permit &iscussion of the
propose& amen&ments bet)een the -e(egates, the 0ecretary-,enera( of the 9eague an& the Presi&ent of the 1ommittee4
,he :hanhai-6an In'ident
Hefore this &iscussion procee&e& *ery far, the serious I0hanhai')an Inci&entI occurre& on " January "#AA4 0ituate& at the
e>tremity of the ,reat 8a((, ha(f)ay bet)een Peiping an& Mu'&en, this city has a()ays been regar&e& as of great strategic
importance4 It is on the route fo((o)e& by in*a&ers, )ho, coming from Manchuria, )ish to penetrate into )hat is no) the
Pro*ince of Hopei4 Moreo*er, from Hopei is the easiest route into Jeho(4
After 1hincho) ha& been ta'en, the Japanese ha& a&*ance& to 0hanhai')an -- up to the ,reat 8a(( -- an& ta'en possession of
the Mu'&en-0hanhai')an +ai()ay4 The rai()ay continues form 0hanhai')an to Peiping, )here Marsha( 1hang Hsueh-(iang
)as maintaining his hea&@uarters4 A(though the rai()ay station at 0hanhai')an is :ust south of the ,reat 8a((, the Japanese
trains from Mu'&en ran to the stationD therefore, the Japanese maintaine& troops at the station un&er the pretense of guar&ing the
trains4 The 1hinese trains from Peiping a(so ran into this station, an& the 1hinese maintaine& troops there4 The 1hinese
1omman&er reporte& that a(( ha& been )e(( at the station unti( this IInci&entI occurre&4
The fact that this IInci&entI occurre& &uring the &iscussion of the propose& amen&ments to the t)o &raft reso(utions submitte&
by the 1ommittee of Cineteen strong(y suggests that it )as p(anne& in or&er
''>#?''
to simu(ate :ustification of the action of the Japanese ,o*ernment in re:ecting a(( efforts of the 1ommittee to arri*e at a basis of
sett(ement bet)een 1hina an& Japan4
On the afternoon of " January "#AA, the Japanese c(aime& that some 1hinese ha& thro)n a han& grena&e4 That )as the e>cuse
for a forthright assau(t on the )a((e& city of 0hanhai')an4 0ma((er to)ns nearby )ere machine-gunne&, American missionary
property )as bombe&, an& the fighting &e*e(ope& into o(&-fashione& trench )arfare, so that the Corth 1hina P(ain bet)een
Peiping an& the ,reat 8a(( became criss-crosse& by hun&re&s of mi(es of trenches4 Thousan&s of peacefu( citiLens )ere
s(aughtere&D an& the 1hinese ,o*ernment a&&resse& an appea( on "" January "#AA to the signatories of the "#$" Protoco(
(Anne> Co4 H-%4
Japan 7e'lined (ll /..orts o. the Committee o. >ineteen
The 1ommittee of Cineteen met pursuant to a&:ournment on "! January "#AAD an& submitte& to the parties a number of
@uestions an& re@uests for information in an effort to arri*e at a basis of sett(ement bet)een 1hina an& Japan4 To a(( of its
re@uests, the 1ommittee recei*e& unsatisfactory rep(ies form JapanD an& on "/ February "#AA, the Japanese ,o*ernment
informe& the 1ommittee that it )as con*ince& that the maintenance an& recognition of the in&epen&ence of Manchu'uo )ere the
on(y guarantees of peace in the Far ;ast, an& that the )ho(e @uestion )ou(& e*entua((y be so(*e& bet)een Japan an& 1hina on
that basis4 This put an en& to the 1ommitteeQs &e(iberations an& it imme&iate(y reporte& to the Assemb(y4
''>#@''
,he ea*ue o. >ations Condemned Japan
The Assemb(y of the 9eague of Cations, on / February "#AA, a&opte& the report prepare& for it by the 1ommittee of Cineteen
con&emning Japan as the aggressor in the )ar bet)een her an& 1hina, an& ma'ing recommen&ations for termination of that )ar4
The Assemb(y reporte& that for more than si>teen months the 1ounci( or the Assemb(y ha& continuous(y trie& to fin& a so(ution
for the 0ino-Japanese &isputeD ho)e*er, the situation ten&e& constant(y to gro) )orse, an& the I)ar in &isguiseI continue&4 It
&ec(are& that IThrough a(( its )ars an& perio&s of Qin&epen&enceQ, Manchuria remaine& an integra( part of 1hinaD an& that a
group of Japanese ci*i( an& mi(itary officia(s concei*e&, organiLe&, an& carrie& through the Manchurian in&epen&ence
mo*ement as a so(ution to the situation in Manchuria as it e>iste& after the e*ents of "? 0eptember "#A"D an&, )ith this ob:ect
ma&e use of the names an& actions of certain 1hinese in&i*i&ua(s an& too' a&*antage of certain minorities an& nati*e
communities that ha& grie*ances against the 1hinese a&ministration4I The Assemb(y &eci&e& that it cou(& not regar& as measures
of se(f-&efence the mi(itary operations carrie& out on the night of "? 0eptember "#A" by the Japanese troops at Mu'&en an&
other p(aces in ManchuriaD an& that this app(ie& as )e(( to the mi(itary measures of Japan as a )ho(e, &e*e(ope& in the course of
the &ispute4 It a(so state& that the main po(itica( an& a&ministrati*e po)er in the I,o*ernmentI of IManchu'uoI reste& in the
han&s of Japanese officia(s an& a&*isors, )ho )ere in a position actua((y to &irect an& contro( the a&ministration4 It
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foun& that the *ast ma:ority of the popu(ation &i& not support this I,o*ernmentI, but regar&e& it as an instrument of the
Japanese4 The Assemb(y &ec(are& that IIt is in&isputab(e that, )ithout any &ec(aration of )ar, a (arge part of 1hinese territory
has been forcib(y seiLe& an& occupie& by Japanese troops an& that in conse@uence of this operation, it has been separate& from
an& &ec(are& in&epen&ent of the rest of 1hina4I The Assemb(y foun& as a matter of factD I8hi(e at the origin of the state of
tension that e>iste& before "? 0eptember "#A", certain responsibi(ities )ou(& appear to (ie on one si&e an& the other, no @uestion
of 1hinese responsibi(ity can arise for the &e*e(opment of e*ents since "? 0eptember "#A"4I This )as a fin&ing of aggression
against Japan an& a )arning that simi(ar con&uct )ou(& meet simi(ar con&emnation in the future4 Therefore, no person in Japan
cou(& right(y say thereafter that he honest(y be(ie*e& that con&uct of this 'in& )ou(& be con&one&4 This Tribuna( fin&s no basis
for &isagreement )ith the report a&opte& by the Assemb(y of the 9eague on / February "#AA4
The Accuse& 0HI+ATO+I, )ho in his pub(ic announcements )as one of the foremost assertors of the (egitimacy of JapanQs
actions in Manchuria, e>presse& the truth in a pri*ate (etter to Arita, then Japanese Minister to He(gium4 8riting in Co*ember
"#A., an& spea'ing of Japanese &ip(omats )ho fa*ore& conci(iation in internationa( affair,s he sai&5 IHa*e they enough courage
to return Manchuria to 1hina, to get reinstate& in the 9eague of Cations, an& to apo(ogiLe to the )or(& for the crimeEI
Japan <ithdre6 From the ea*ue o. >ations
+ather than fu(fi(( her ob(igations un&er the
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1o*enant (Anne> Co4 H-!%, Japan ga*e notice on < March "#AA of her intention to )ith&ra) from the 9eague4 The notice
state& her reason for )ith&ra)a( to be5 IThat there e>ist serious &ifferences of opinion bet)een Japan an& these Po)ers (The
ma:ority of the Members of the 9eague% concerning the app(ication an& e*en the interpretation of *arious internationa(
engagements an& ob(igations inc(u&ing the 1o*enant of the 9eague an& the princip(es of internationa( (a)4I
In;asion o. Jehol
One &ay after the Assemb(y a&opte& its reso(ution con&emning Japan as the aggressor in 1hina, she open(y &efie& the 9eague by
in*a&ing Jeho( Pro*ince4 Key points a(ong the ,reat 8a((, such as 0hanhai')an an& Kiumen'ou, fe(( into the han&s of the
Japanese as a resu(t of the fighting that fo((o)e& the I0hanhai')an Inci&entI, an& the strategica( situation of Jeho( became *ery
critica( prior to February "#AA4 On that &ate, the Japanese Army, in the name of the puppet 0tate of Manchu'uo, sent an
u(timatum to 1hina, stating that Jeho( )as not 1hinese territory an& &eman&ing that 1hinese forces in Jeho( Pro*ince be
)ith&ra)n )ithin / hours4 The u(timatum )as not satisfie&, an& the a&*ance of the Japanese Army began on . February "#AA4
The Japanese a&*ance& in three co(umns from their bases at Tung(iao an& 0ui-1hung, an& &i& not stop unti( a(( the territory
north an& east of the ,reat 8a(( )as occupie& an& a(( the strategic gates a(ong the ,reat 8a(( )ere capture&4 ITA,AKI an&
KOI0O, as staff officers of the K)antung Army, assiste& in the comp(etion of the occupation of a(( Manchuria by March "#AA4
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,an*-u ,ru'e
As a resu(t of its a&*ance to the ,reat 8a((, the Japanese Army )as in a fa*orab(e position to in*a&e 1hina properD but time )as
nee&e& to conso(i&ate an& organiLe its gains preparatory to the ne>t a&*anceD to gain this time, the Tang'u Truce )as signe& on
A" May "#?AA4 1omman&er M7TO sent representati*es, *este& )ith p(enary po)er an& arme& )ith a &raft of the Truce, )hich
)as prepare& by the K)antung Army, to negotiate )ith the 1hinese representati*es at tang'u4 The Truce as signe& pro*i&e& for
a &emi(itariLe& Lone south of the ,reat 8a((4 The terms )ere that the 1hinese forces )ou(& first )ith&ra) to a specifie& (ine4
The Japanese )ere authoriLe& to obser*e by airp(ane from time to time )hether the )ith&ra)a( )as comp(eteD on being satisfie&
)ith the )ith&ra)a(, the Japanese Army )as to )ith&ra) to the (ine of the ,reat 8a((D an& the 1hinese forces )ere not to again
re-enter the &emi(itariLe& Lone4
(ra-i, ( Popular Fi*ure
The successfu( con@uest of a(( Manchuria by the Japanese forces ma&e 8ar Minister A+AKI a popu(ar figure among certain
groups in JapanD an& he )as constant(y in &eman& as a )riter an& pub(ic spea'er4 In a motion-picture a&aptation of one of his
speeches ma&e in June "#AA an& entit(e&, The 1ritical 2eriod of 3apan" he state& the i&ea(s of the Mi(itary an& re*ea(e& their
p(an to )age )ars of aggression in or&er to &ominate a(( of Asia an& the is(an&s of the Pacific4 Among other things, he sai&5
IHas peace reigne& in Asia &uring the
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(ast fifty yearsE 8hat is the situation in 0iberia, Mongo(ia, Tibet, 0ing'iang, an& 1hinaE Are the )a*es of the Pacific rea((y
ca(mE 1an )e e>pect the )a*es of the Pacific of tomorro) to be as ca(m as they are to&ayE It is the ho(y mission of Japan, the
Bamato race, to estab(ish peace in the Orient )ith its i&ea(s an& po)er4 The 9eague of Cations &oes not respect this mission of
Japan4 The siege of Japan by the )ho(e )or(& un&er the (ea&ership of the 9eague )as re*ea(e& by the QManchurian Inci&entQ4 The
&ay )i(( come )hen )e )i(( ma'e the )ho(e )or(& (oo' up to our nationa( *irtues4I (On the screen )as sho)n Japan an&
Manchuria in the center, then 1hina, In&ia, 0Iberia an& the 0outh 0eas%4 IManchu'uo, )hich )as foun&e& by the re*e(ation of
Hea*en in the form of the QMu'&en Inci&entQ, an& Japan )i(( )or' together an& )i(( secure permanent peace in Asia4I He then
&efine& nationa( &efence as fo((o)s5 II )ou(& not a&opt such a narro) *ie) that &efence of the nation may be &efine& in terms of
geographic position4 It is the mission of the Army to &efen& the QImperia( 8ayQ, in space, in time, in en(argement an&
&e*e(opment, in eternity an& continuity4 Our troops ha*e fought )ith the e*er(asting spirit of the song5 QThe greatest honor is to
&ie for the ;mperor4Q Our 1ountry is &estine& to &e*e(op in space4 It is of course e>pecte& of the Army to fight against those )ho
oppose us in sprea&ing the QImperia( 8ayQ4 1ompatriotsT 9et us (oo' at the situation in Asia4 Is it to be (eft unamen&e& fore*erE
Our supreme mission is to ma'e a para&ise in Asia4 I fer*ent(y beseech you to stri*e on)ar&s unite&4I (On the screen appeare&
the )or&s5 I9ight comes from the ;astTI%
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:e'tion II8
Consolidation and /xploitation o. Man'huria
Feor*ani+ation o. Man'hu-uo
After the signing of the Tang'u Truce, Manchu'uo )as reorganiLe& so as to strengthen JapanQs contro( o*er that puppet 0tate
an& to faci(itate the economic e>p(oitation of Manchuria in preparation for continuation of the )ar of aggression against 1hina
an& the )aging of )ars of aggression against other Cations, )ho might oppose her &omination of Asia an& the Is(an&s of the
Pacific4
The Japanese 1abinet &eci&e& on ? August "#AA to I&e*e(op Manchuria into an in&epen&ent Cation possessing in&i*isib(e
re(ations )ith the Japanese ;mpire4I 1ontro( of Manchu'uo )as to be Ie>ecute& by Japanese officia(s un&er the :uris&iction of
the 1omman&er of the K)antung Army4I The aim of the Manchurian economy )as to be Ithe unification of Japanese an&
Manchurian economies in or&er to estab(ish secure(y the foun&ation for the e>pansion of the ;mpireQs economic po)ers to the
)ho(e )or(&4I I1o-e>istence an& co-prosperity of Japan an& ManchuriaI )as to be Irestricte& by the &eman&s of the nationa(
&efense of the ;mpire4I A+AKI, )ho )as a member of the 1abinet at the time this &ecision )as ma&e, ha& &efine& nationa(
&efense in no uncertain terms4 The concrete p(an for the e>ecution of this po(icy )as to be appro*e& by the 1abinet on(y after
carefu( in*estigation, it )as &eci&e&4
The in*estigations )ere not comp(ete& unti( after -OHIHA+A ha& been assigne& to the Hea&@uarters of the K)antung Army on
"! October "#AA, an& HI+OTA ha&
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become Foreign Minister on "/ 0eptember "#AA4 Ho)e*er, on -ecember "#AA, the 1abinet, )ith A+AKI an& HI+OTA
present, &eci&e& that5 IIt seems that the Manchurian ,o*ernment is consi&ering a s)ift reformation to Monarchy as soon as
possib(e4 It must be ma&e c(ear that the enforcement of the Monarchy is not the restoration of the Tsing -ynasty, but the
foun&ation of a constitutiona( monarchD an& a(( causes of hin&rances to the &e*e(opment of the nationa( po(icy must be nu((ifie&,
especia((y to contribute to the strengthening an& e>pansion of the Japanese an& Manchurian nationa( &efense po)er necessary to
o*ercome the internationa( crisis )hich )e may encounter before (ong4I It )as &eci&e&5 that the ,enera( Affairs Hoar& of
Manchu'uo shou(& be strengthene&D that basic reformation of the interna( structure of the ,o*ernment of Manchu'uo shou(& be
e>ercise&, especia((y upon the personne(D an& that the Ie>isting con*entions an& agreements bet)een Japan an& Manchu'uo
shou(& be ac'no)(e&ge& by the Monarchy4I
This, be it note&, )as the 1abinet of Japan formu(ating its &ecisions as to the manner in )hich Manchu'uo )ou(& be go*erne&, a
country )hich it )as proc(aiming to the 8or(& as in&epen&ent4 The astoun&ing thing is that the pretence )as sti(( maintaine&
before us an& supporte& by hun&re&s of pages of e*i&ence an& argument4
Co better proof that this &epen&ent status of Manchu'uo &i& not change can be foun& than the te(egram from Foreign Minster
TO,O to the 1omman&er of the K)antung Army 7M;W7 &ate& / -ecember "#/", )hich )as on(y three &ays before the attac'
upon Pear( Harbor4 In that te(egram, TO,O ga*e the fo((o)ing instructions5 IOn the
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fourth, in a Joint 1onference )ith the ,o*ernment 1ontro( Hoar&, )e &eci&e& upon steps )hich )e )i(( ha*e Manchu'uo ta'e
in case the internationa( situation turns critica(4 -iffering from )hat I sai& in my te(egram Co4 ?<A, our po(icy )as change& as
fo((o)s5 Q8hen the Japanese ;mpire commences hosti(ities, for the time being Manchu'uo )i(( not participate4 Hecause
Manchu'uo is c(ose(y boun& up )ith the Japanese ;mpire an& because ;ng(an& an& the unite& 0tates an& the Cether(an&s ha*e
not recogniLe& the ,o*ernment of Manchu'uo, as a matter of fact, 1hangchun )i(( regar& those three nations as &e facto
enemies an& treat them accor&ing(yQ4I
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The ne>t step in the reorganiLation )as the enthronement of Pu Bi as emperor of Manchu'uo4 After the 1abinet &ecision of
-ecember "#AA, ,enera( Hishi'eri, )ho ha& succee&e& ,enera( M7TO as 1omman&er of the K)antung Army, ca((e& upon Pu
Bi an& to(& him that he p(anne& to con*ert Manchu'uo into an ;mpire4 A ne) set of Organic 9a)s )as promu(gate& for
Manchu'uo on " March "#A/4 These (a)s pro*i&e& for an ;mperor to ru(e Manchu'uo an& prescribe& his po)ers, ho)e*er,
they &i& not materia((y change the genera( construction of the ,o*ernment4 Japanese continue& to ho(& important positions in the
,o*ernmentD the ITues&ay MeetingI )as retaine& as the po(icy ma'ing organD an& ,enera( Boshio'a continue& )ith his
assignment of Isuper*isingI the ;mperor, e*en to the &ay of his capture after the surren&er4 On the &ay that the ne) (a)s )ere
promu(gate&, Pu Bi, after paying obeisance to Hea*en at a temp(e in 1hangchun, )as enthrone& as ;mperor of Manchu'uo4
Ho)e*er, he ha& no po)er4 A(though he )as a((o)e& to gi*e au&ience to his Ministers once a year, that au&ience )as carefu((y
super*ise& by the Japanese -irector fo the ,enera( Affairs Hoar&4
Ha*ing insta((e& Pu Bi as ;mperor of Manchu'uo an& re*ise& the (a)s of that 0tate to faci(itate its economic e>p(oitation, the
1abinet met on $ March "#A/ to &iscuss the po(icy to be fo((o)e& in carrying out that e>p(oitation4 A(though A+AKI ha&
resigne& as 8ar Minister on A January "#A/ to become a 0upreme 8ar 1ounci((or, Foreign Minister HI+OTA )as present at
this 1abinet meeting4 It )as &eci&e& that fun&amenta( po(icy )ou(& be Ibase& on &e*e(oping Manchu'uo as an in&epen&ent
Cation possessing an in&i*isib(e re(ationship )ith Japan, estab(ishing secure(y the base of JapanQs )or(&-)i&e economic
e>pansion, an& strengthening Manchu'uoQs economic po)ers4I Transportation, communication an& other enterprises in
Manchu'uo
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)ere to be &e*e(ope& by specia( companies &irect(y or in&irect(y un&er the super*ision fo Japan so as to contribute to the
Inationa( &efenseI of the ;mpire4
As though to remo*e a(( &oubt regar&ing JapanQs intentions to)ar& 1hina, HI+OTAQs Foreign Office issue& a statement on "<
Apri( "#A/, )hich has come to be 'no)n as the IHan&s Off 1hina 0tatementI or the IAmau 0tatementI, &eri*ing the first name
from its contents an& the secon& name from the officia( )ho ga*e the statement to the Press4 Amau )as not on(y an officia( of
the Foreign Office, but a(so its officia( spo'esman4 On . Apri( "#A/, Foreign Minister HI+OTA, &uring an inter*ie) )ith the
American Ambassa&or in Japan, on his o)n initiati*e referre& to the IAmau 0tatementID he state& that, un&er @uestioning of
ne)spaper men, Amau ha& gi*en out the statement )ithout his appro*a( or 'no)(e&ge an& that the 8or(& ha& recei*e& a )ho((y
fa(se impression of Japanese po(icy4 HI+OTA a&&e& that the po(icy of Japan )as comp(ete obser*ance an& support of the
pro*isions of the Cine-Po)er Treaty (Anne> Co4 H-"$% in e*ery respect4 HI+OTAQs statement to the American Ambassa&or )as
a pri*ate statement, not a pub(ic statement4 The IAmau 0tatementI )as ne*er pub(ic(y repu&iate&4 Amau )as regar&e& by the
e>pansionists as a hero for ha*ing issue& the 0tatementD an& Foreign Minister HI+OTA ne*er &iscip(ine& him for ha*ing issue&
the 0tatement )ithout authority of the Foreign Ministry4 This 0tatement conforms c(ose(y to subse@uent &e*e(opments in
Japanese foreign po(icyD an& the Tribuna( fin&s upon the e*i&ence that it )as an officia( &ec(aration by the Foreign Ministry of
JapanQs po(icy to)ar& 1hina at the time an& )as issue& for the purpose of )arning the 0ignatory Po)ers of the Cine-Po)er Pact
that the Japanese ,o*ernment )ou(& not to(erate any interference )ith her p(ans in 1hina4
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This 0tatement containe&, among other things, the fo((o)ing5 IO)ing to the specia( position of Japan in her re(ations )ith 1hina,
her *ie)s an& attitu&e respecting matters that concern 1hina, may not agree )ith those of foreign CationsD but it must b e
rea(iLe& that Japan is ca((e& upon to e>ert the utmost effort in carrying out her mission in fu(fi((ing her specia( responsibi(ities in
;ast Asia4 8e oppose, therefore, any attempt on the part of 1hina to a*ai( herse(f of the inf(uence of any other country in or&er
to resist Japan4 Any :oint operations un&erta'en by foreign Po)ers e*en in the name of technica((y or financia( assistance at this
particu(ar moment after the QManchurian an& 0hanghai Inci&entsQ are boun& to ac@uire po(itica( significance4 Japan, therefore,
must ob:ect to such un&erta'ings as a matter of princip(e4I
A,6o-in-)neA :ystem
The K)antung Army recei*e& a ne) 1omman&er an& a ne) Jice-1hief-of-0taff on "$ -ecember "#A/, name(yI MICAMI an&
ITA,AKI respecti*e(y4 These appointments hera(&e& the comp(etion of the reorganiLation of Manchu'uo an& the machinery for
its contro( by Japan4 Hy Imperia( Or&inance4 the Japanese ,o*ernment create& the Manchurian Affairs Hureau to &ea( )ith
affairs concerning Manchu'uo in a(( Ministries4 The Hureau )as organiLe& to correspon& to the ne) IT)o-in-OneI organiLation
in Manchuria4 The 1omman&er of the K)antung Army became Ambassa&or to Manchu'uo as before, but the office of ,o*ernor
of the K)antung 9ease& Territory )as abo(ishe& an& its &uties )ere ta'en o*er by the -irector of the ne)(y create& K)antung
Hureau, )hich )as p(ace& un&er the Ambassa&or4 Thus, MICAMI became 1omman&er of the K)antung ArmyD an& at the same
time, as Ambassa&or, he contro((e& the ,o*ernment of the 9ease& Territories, the ;mbassy an& the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay
1ompany4 A(though the Manchurian Affairs Hureau came un&er the Premier, the 8ar Minister he(& the post of
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Presi&ent of the Hureau, so that the effecti*e contro( of Manchu'uo remaine& )ith the K)antung Army an& the 8ar Ministry4
MICAMI state& on interrogation that, as Ambassa&or, his prime &uty )as Ito preser*e the in&epen&ence of Manchu'uo4I At that
time, he a&*ise& the ,o*ernment Ion such matters as agricu(ture, transportation, e&ucation, etc4I 7pon being as'e& the @uestion5
IIn fact, your a&*ice in substance )as a &irectionD )as it notEI, rep(ie&5 IBou might say so--Bes4I MICAMI )as succee&e& as
Ambassa&or an& K)antung Army 1omman&er by ,enera( 7e&a on ! March "#A!, )ho ser*e& unti( he )as rep(ace& by ,enera(
7M;W7 on < 0eptember "#A#4 7M;W7 he(& the post unti( "? Ju(y "#//4
Man'hurian (..airs 0ureau
As mentione&, the Manchurian Affairs Hureau )as organiLe& to &ea( )ith affairs concerning Manchu'uo in a(( Ministries, an&
set as the connecting (in' bet)een the Japanese ,o*ernment an& the IT)o-in-OneI A&ministrator in Manchuria4 It too' charge
of a(( matters concerning the K)antung Hureau, the foreign affairs of Manchu'uo, the corporations organiLe& to e>p(oit the
economy of Manchuria, the co(oniLation of Manchuria by the Japanese, cu(tura( )or's for Manchu'uo -- )hich probab(y
inc(u&e& the opium tra&e, an& any other matters concerning Manchuria or the K)antung Territory4 Hy *irtue of their positions as
8ar Minister, the fo((o)ing Accuse& ser*e& as Presi&ent of this Hureau5 ITA,AKI, HATA an& TOJO4 A(so OKA an& 0ATO
each ser*e& as 0ecretary of this Hureau4 The fo((o)ing ser*e& as 1ounci((ors to the Hureau at one time or another5 KABA,
M7TO, 0ATO, 0HI,;MIT07, OKA, 7M;W7 an& TOJO4
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Control o. Publi' )pinion in Man'huria
In or&er to contro( the ne)s coming out of Manchuria an& &irect propagan&a, the K)antung Army 1omman&er, or IT)o-in-
OneI contro( organ, organiLe& a(( the Press an& ne)s agencies in Manchuria4 A(( the agencies, )hich up to that time ha& been
un&er the Japanese ,o*ernment, the Manchu'uo ,o*ernment or the Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany, )ere organiLe& into an
association, )hich )as 'no)n as the Koho Association4 This association )as charge& )ith the &uty of rigi&(y super*ising a((
&omestic an& foreign ne)s re(eases, an& &eci&ing the po(icy an& means of propagan&a, as )e(( as enforcing that po(icy upon its
member agencies an& those agencies not members4
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Hoshino 0e'ame 7ire'tor o. the /'onomy o. Man'huria
7n&er the ne) organiLation of Manchu'uo, HO0HICO became the un&ispute& ru(er of the economy of Manchuria4 He began his
training for this )or' )hen he (eft Japan on " Ju(y "#A, at the instance of the Japanese Minister of Finance, to accept an
appointment as a 1ommissioner in the Finance Ministry of Manchu'uo4 He )as to(& at that time that he )as consi&ere&
competent for the position as 1hief of the ,enera( Affairs Hoar&, the a((-po)erfu( agency of the K)antung Army for contro( of
the Manchu'uoan ,o*ernment4 He )as a&*ance& by successi*e promotions to the position promise&4 Just before the comp(etion
of the reorganiLation of Manchu'uo, he )as appointe& on " Ju(y "#A/ as 1hief of the ,enera( Affairs Hureau in the Finance
Ministry of Manchu'uo4 Then on # June "#A!, he became Jice-Minister of Finance for Manchu'uo4 On "! -ecember "#A!, he
became 1hief of the ,enera( Affairs Hureau of the ,enera( Affairs Hoar&, )here he ser*e& unti( his e(e*ation to the high office
of -irector of the Hoar& on " Ju(y "#A<4D He continue& in this office unti( re(ie*e& to become Presi&ent of the 1abinet P(anning
Hureau in To'yo on " Ju(y "#/$4 Any e>position of the economic e>p(oitation of Manchuria is essentia((y a story fo
HO0HICO4 8hen he (eft To'yo in Ju(y "#A to become a 1ommissioner in the Manchu'uoan Finance Ministry, he too' )ith h
im a traine& staff to assist him in his &utiesD an& he soon became recogniLe& in Manchuria as the Japanese officia( in charge of
economic affairs un&er the authority of the K)antung Army4
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/'onomy o. Man'huria :ei+ed
At the *ery outset of the mi(itary occupation, the Japanese seiLe& contro( of the economy of Manchuria4 The first pub(ic uti(ity
seiLe& )as the rai(roa&s4 A(( the 1hinese-o)ne& rai()ays north of the ,reat 8a((, an& the monies stan&ing to their cre&it in
ban's in Manchuria, )ere seiLe&4 A(( rai(roa&s )ere co-or&inate&, connecte& )ith, an& p(ace& un&er the management of the
Japanese ,o*ernment agency 'no)n as the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany4 ;(ectrica( supp(y an& &istribution systems
)ere @uic'(y ta'en o*er4 A(( sources of re*enue )ere ta'en by force, an& the re*enues e>pen&e& to finance the ne)
,o*ernment4 The customs )ere seiLe& on the pretense that Manchu'uo )as an in&epen&ent state4 The 1entra( Han' of
Manchu'uo )as estab(ishe& on "/ June #"A to rep(ace the o(& pro*incia( ban's an& the Frontier Han', )hose fun&s )ere use&
to capita(iLe the ne) organiLation4 A ne) currency )as issue& by the 1entra( Han' beginning on " Ju(y "#A4 The te(ephone,
te(egraph an& ra&io systems, being state o)ne&, )ere seiLe& an& p(ace& un&er Japanese contro(4 On "/ Apri( "#A, specia(
officers )ere appointe& to ta'e charge of the Posta( A&ministrationD they ha& ta'en comp(ete charge of this ser*ice by ! Ju(y
"#A4 In a(( of these pub(ic ser*ices, Japanese officia(s an& a&*isors )ere p(ace& in the main po(itica( an& a&ministrati*e offices
an& e>ercise& effecti*e contro( of the organiLations4 The Japanese 1abinet confirme& this practice in its &ecision of "" Apri(
"#A4 It )as soon after this &ecision that HO0HICO )as sent to Manchuria4 He )as a recogniLe& authority on fisca( an&
economic prob(ems, an& )as sent to Manchuria to organiLe its economy4
''>77''
K6antun* (rmy=s /'onomi' Plan .or Guidin* Man'hu-uo
On A Co*ember "#A, after HO0HICOQs arri*a( in Manchuria in Ju(y, 1hief-of-0taff KOI0O of the K)antung Army, sent a
te(egram to the Japanese 8ar Ministry out(ining his p(an for Igui&ingI Manchu'uo4 He sai&5 IThe a&ministration sha(( be
bac'e& for the time being by inner (ea&ership of the 1omman&er of the K)antung Army an& sha(( be carrie& out )ith officia(s of
Japanese (ineage as its (ea&ers4 ;conomica((y, co-prosperity an& co-e>istence sha(( be the basic princip(e4 In the future, the
system accompanying the estab(ishment of a unit for an economic Qb(ocQ bet)een Japan an& Manchu'uo sha(( be &ept accor&ing
to the race coor&inate to Japan an& Manchu'uo4 In or&er to rea(iLe the organiLation of the economy of Japan an& Manchu'uo
into a sing(e Qb(ocQ, )e must rea(iLe in&ustria((y the i&ea of QFit In&ustry for 0uitab(e 9oca(ityQ both in Japan an& Manchu'uo )ith
the aim of abo(ishing the mutua( customs barriers4I A(( p(ans a&opte& thereafter by the Japanese 1abinet for the contro( an&
e>p(oitation of the Manchurian economy )ere base& upon these i&eas4
/'onomi' Constru'tion Pro*ram .or Man'hu-uo
The &ay before the con@uest of Jeho( )as comp(ete&, that is to say on " March "#AA, the ,o*ernment of Manchu'uo
promu(gate& an I;conomic 1onstruction Program for Manchu'uoI4 The Japanese 1abinet appro*e& the essentia( features of this
IProgramI in its &ecision of ? August "#AA as re(ate&4 In the announcement of the IProgramI, it )as state&I5 ;fforts )i(( be
ma&e to promote a hea(thy an& *igorous &e*e(opment of the )ho(e nationa( economy by app(ying to capita( such 0tate contro( as
may be necessary in
''>7&''
*ie) of the e*i(s of uncontro((e& capita(istic economy an& by ma'ing the most of the uses of capita(4I It )as announce& that
economic &e*e(opment )as to procee& upon the fo((o)ing basic princip(es5 ("% ITo app(y 0tate contro( an& ta'e measures in
regar& to the important branches of economic acti*ity, in or&er effecti*e(y to open up the *arious nationa( resources )ith )hich
this country is en&o)e& an& to promote a co-or&inate& &e*e(opment in a(( fie(&s of economic en&ea*orD (% To aim at the co-
or&ination an& rationa(iLation of the ;ast Asian economy, to p(ace the emphasis on co-or&ination )ith the goo& neighbor Japan
in *ie) of the economic re(ationship of mutua( &epen&ence bet)een the t)o countries, an& to ma'e increasing(y c(oser this
re(ationship of mutua( he(pfu(ness4I In accor&ance )ith basic princip(es, it )as announce& that the ,o*ernment propose& Ito
ma'e it a gui&ing princip(e that important enterprises of the nature of nationa( &efense or pub(ic uti(ities shou(& be manage& by
pub(ic bo&ies or specia( companies4I
At the Japanese 1abinet meeting of $ March "#A/, )hich )as after the reorganiLation of Manchu'uo an& the insta((ation of Pu
Bi as ;mperor, the IProgramI recei*e& further sanction of the 1abinet, an& it )as &eci&e& that those in&ustries necessary for
Inationa( &efenseI shou(& be operate& by specia( companies, )hich shou(& ho(& a &ominant position in the business in
Manchu'uo, so that rapi& &e*e(opment might be e>pecte&4 The organiLation an& operation of these specia( companies create&
monopo(ies in fa*or of the Japanese an& effecti*e(y &efeate& the IOpen -oor Po(icyI in Manchuria4 The unite& 0tates an& other
Po)ers proteste& this un)arrante& *io(ation of e>isting treaty ob(igations inten&e& to insure Ie@ua( opportunityI for tra&e in
1hina4
''>7(''
Ho)e*er, the Japanese ,o*ernment &isc(aime& a(( responsibi(ity for the *io(ation of treaties by Manchu'uo on the theory that
Manchu'uo )as an in&epen&ent 0tate4
Japan-Man'hu-uo Joint /'onomi' Committee
A Joint ;conomic 1ommittee )as estab(ishe& in "#A. by an agreement bet)een Japan an& Manchu'uo4 The agreement pro*i&e&
that the 1ommittee )as to consist of eight members, four from each country4 JapanQs members )ere to be5 1hief-of-0taff of the
K)antung ArmyD the 1ounci((or of the ;mbassy in Manchu'uoD the 1hief of the K)antung HureauD an& one member specia((y
appointe& by the Japanese ,o*ernment4 It is to be note& that the 1omman&er of the K)antung Army automatica((y contro((e&
three *otes by this arrangement4 Manchu'uoQs members )ere to be5 the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, 1ommerce an& In&ustry,
an& Finance, an& the Japanese &irector fo the ,enera( Affairs Hoar&4 A(( @uestions before the 1ommittee )ere to be &eci&e& by
ma:ority *ote4 In ans)er to a @uestion put to him at the Pri*y 1ounci( meeting on A Ju(y "#A. &uring &iscussion of the @uestion
of ratification of the Agreement, HI+OTA sai&5 II as' him (1ounci((or Moto&a% to consi&er the fact that three out of the four
members of the 1ommittee from Manchu'uo are Ministers an& the remaining one is the -irector of the ,enera( Affairs Hoar&,
)ho is, an& )i(( be a Japanese fore*er, I am confi&ent4 A(though he is an officia( of Manchu'uo, he is a centra( organ assuming
(ea&ership of that country4 Therefore, in case of a &ifference of opinion bet)een the t)o countries, it cannot be imagine& that he
)i(( ma'e any &ecision that )i(( be &isa&*antageous to Japan4I The 1ommittee )as to &e(iberate on a(( @uestions concerning the
economic tie bet)een the t)o countries an&
''>7>''
super*ise the Joint Ho(&ing 1ompany to be organiLe& by Japan an& Manchu'uo (ater to contro( the in&ustries of Manchu'uoD
ho)e*er, it )as pro*i&e& that matters important to the economic ties of both ,o*ernments, but )hich )ere in JapanQs po)er,
)ou(& not be &iscusse& by the 1ommitteeD an& because they )ere not to be &e(iberate& by the 1ommittee, those matters )ere to
be ma&e into uni(atera( contracts bin&ing on(y upon Manchu'uo4 HO0HICO became a members of this 1ommittee upon his
appointment as -irector fo the ,enera( Affairs Hoar& of Manchu'uo4 MICAMI )as a member from the time of the creation of
the 1ommittee in "#A. unti( he )as re(ie*e& as 1omman&er of the K)antung Army on ! March "#A!4 7M;W7 ser*e& on the
1ommittee )hi(e K)antung Army 1omman&er from < 0eptember "#A# to "? Ju(y "#//4 ITA,AKI, )ho became 1hief-of-0taff
of the K)antung Army on A March "#A!, became e>-officio a member of the 1ommittee on that &ate4 Thus, ITA,AKI )as
one of the foremost figures in the construction of Manchu'uo4 Others )ho ser*e& on this 1ommittee )hi(e 1hief-of-0taff of the
K)antung Army )ere5 TOJO, )ho ser*e& from ! March "#A< to A$ May "#A?, )hen he became Jice-Minister of 8arD
KIM7+A, )ho ser*e& from < Co*ember "#/$ to " Apri( "#/"4 7pon being appointe& Jice-Minister of 8ar, TOJO retaine&
his post as a member of the 1ommittee, but in the capacity as the ,o*ernment +epresentati*e rather than as 1hief-of-0taff4
Men 0lo' )r*ani+ed
One of the first acts of this Joint ;conomic 1ommittee )as to integrate the currencies of the t)o countries4 In Co*ember "#A.,
the yen b(oc' )as estab(ishe& an& Manchu'uoQs currency )as no (onger base on si(*er an& )as stabi(iLe& at par )ith the yen4
''>7?''
Felease o. /xtra-,erritoriality
The ne>t important economic arrangement ma&e by this Joint ;conomic 1ommittee )as a Treaty )hich )as signe& bet)een
Manchu'uo an& Japan on "$ June "#A!4 The purpose of the Treaty appears to ha*e been to gi*e Japanese a(( the benefits of
Manchu'uoan citiLenship )ithout imposing on them the correspon&ing ob(igations4 The Treaty recite& that its purpose )as to
abo(ish, by progressi*e stages, the rights of e>tra-territoria(ity en:oye& in Manchu'uo by Japan4 Ho)e*er, it recite& that
IJapanese sub:ects sha(( be free )ithin the territories of Manchu'uo to resi&e an& tra*e( an& engage in agricu(ture, commerce
an& in&ustry, an& to pursue ca((ings an& professions, an& sha(( en:oy a(( the rights re(ating to (an&4I A 0upp(ementary Agreement
)ent much more into &etai( an& set out at great (ength the rights of Japanese in Manchu'uo4
''>7@''
One of these pro*isions )as, IThe go*ernment of Manchu'uo sha(( spee&i(y ta'e necessary steps in or&er that the rights of (ease
by negotiation hitherto possesse& by Japanese sub:ects sha(( be con*erte& into (an&-o)nership or other rights re(ating to (an&4I
Thus )as sett(e& the high(y contro*ersia( @uestion in*o(*ing the right to (ease (an& gro)ing out of the Cotes attache& to the
0ino-Japanese Treaty of "#".4 This )as *ery important, for Japan )as co(oniLing Manchuria at a rapi& rate4 Het)een "#A! an&
"#/$, appro>imate(y ",$$$ Japanese migrate& to Manchuria4 Hy "#/., this number e>cee&e& ",$$$,$$$4 Most of the Japanese
men sett(ing in Manchuria )ere fit so(&iers an& )ere use& to man ne) -i*isions of the K)antung Army4 The (an& for sett(ement
of these Japanese )as re@uisitione& at a nomina( price, an& the 1hinese farmers so &ispossesse& )ere mo*e& an& a((otte&
un&e*e(ope& (an&s4
Industrial 0an- o. Man'hu-uo
The In&ustria( Han' of Manchu'uo, )hich )as organiLe& in -ecember "#A!, )ith a capita( of !$ mi((ion yen, ser*e& as an easy
means of financing preferre& in&ustries to be &e*e(ope& un&er the Japanese 1abinet Po(icy4 This ban' han&(e& a(( (oans ma&e for
in&ustria( purposes in Manchu'uo4 The Manchurians )ere permitte& to ma'e &eposits in the 1entra( Han' of Manchu'uo an& its
branches, but they )ere not a((o)e& to borro) from the in&ustria( Han'D on(y Japanese )ere a((o)e& to borro) from that Han'4
A (a) of sa*ings )as enacte& to force the peop(e to sa*e money an& &eposit it in the 1entra( Han' for the Japanese4 At the time
of the surren&er, appro>imate(y !$$ mi((ion &o((ars )ere in this Han' -- a(( the resu(t of the compu(sory sa*ings (a)4
''>7$''
:e'ond Period Constru'tion Plan
HO0HICO sai& &uring his interrogation that instea& of the haphaLar& &e*e(opment of the first fi*e year perio& from "#A" to
"#A!, it )as &eeme& necessary that a concrete, coor&inate& p(an be formu(ate& for the &e*e(opment of Manchu'uo4 HO0HICO,
)or'ing )ith *arious Ministries of Manchu'uo, the 1abinet P(anning Hureau, the 0outh Manchurian +ai()ay 1ompany, an&
ITA,AKI as 1hief-of-0taff of the K)antung Army, &re) up an IOut(ine of Fi*e Bear P(an for In&ustria( -e*e(opment of
Manchu'uoI, )hich )as comp(ete& in January "#A<4 HO0HICO says that the 1omman&er of the K)antung Army ha& the Ifina(
sayI on a(( @uestions in*o(*ing this p(an4 This 0econ& Fi*e Bear P(an fo((o)e& the basic princip(es un&er(ying the First Fi*e
Bear P(an, an& (ai& emphasis on opening up resources in Manchu'uo an& ma'ing them a*ai(ab(e for Inationa( &efenseI, that is to
say I)arQ4 the out(ine of the p(an &ec(are& the po(icy )ith regar& to mining an& in&ustries to be, Ithat munition in&ustries for
)eapons of )ar, airp(anes, automobi(es, an& ro((ing-stoc' )i(( be firm(y estab(ishe&, an& basic ma:or in&ustries such as those of
iron, (i@ui& fue(, coa( an& e(ectric po)er )i(( be &e*e(ope&, an& emphasis )i(( be (ai& especia((y on the &e*e(opment of iron an&
(i@ui& fue( in&ustries, )hich materia(s are necessary for nationa( &efense4I
This p(an )as a&opte& at a conference of Pro*incia( ,o*ernors an& the 1hiefs of the ,enera( Affairs Hureau of the *arious
Ministries in Manchu'uo in January "#A<4 On "< February "#A<, the ,o*ernment of Manchu'uo issue& its IOfficia( +eport on
the +esu(t of the First Perio& Fi*e Bear A&ministration an& Out(ine of the 0econ& Perio& 1onstruction P(an4I The out(ine state&5
IFi*e
''>&%''
Bears ha*e e(apse& since Manchu'uo foun&e& her country4 In this perio&, the a&ministrati*e an& economic system ha*e been
rearrange&, an& the secon& QFi*e-Bear P(anQ )i(( be inaugurate& in "#A<, )ith )hich epoch-ma'ing construction acti*ity )i(( be
commence& &ashing(y4I In effect, the secon& p(an of the K)antung Army for the e>p(oitation of the economy of Manchuria )as
to be a&opte& )ithout change4
''>&#''
The In&ustria(ist Ai'a)a )as sent to Manchuria to he(p &irect the fi*e year p(an4 He fa*ore& a hug ho(&ing company to contro(
a(( in&ustries in Manchuria, especia((y the hea*y in&ustries such as coa( an& stee(4
Control o. Industries
On " May "#A<, Manchu'uo promu(gate& a I9a) 1ontro((ing Important In&ustriesI, )hich )as so &ra)n as to pro*i&e for the
(icensing of IImportant In&ustriesI, practica((y a(( in&ustries being c(assifie& as IimportantI un&er the (a), The (a) )as
promu(gate& in or&er to coor&inate the economy of Manchuria )ith that of Japan4 The I;ssentia(s of the ,i*e Bear Program for
Important In&ustriesI re(ease& by the Japanese 8ar Ministry on # May "#A< containe& the fo((o)ing5 I8e p(an systematica((y
to promote the acti*ity of important in&ustries genera((y, so that by "#/", if anything happens, our country may be capab(e of
se(f-supp(ying the important materia(s in Japan, Manchuria an& Corth 1hinaI4 The p(an then )ent on5 IIn promoting important
in&ustries for nationa( &efense, the re@uisite in&ustries shou(& be pushe& ahea& to the continent as far as possib(e accor&ing to the
princip(e of QFit In&ustry for 0uitab(e 9oca(ityQ4I It )as in or&er to enforce this ru(e of IFit In&ustry for 0uitab(e 9oca(ityI that the
I9a) 1ontro((ing Important In&ustriesI )as promu(gate& by the puppet ,o*ernment in Manchu'uo4
Man'hurian Hea;y Industry 7e;elopment Corporation
The 1abinet &eci&e& on October "#A< to estab(ish the Manchurian Hea*y In&ustry -e*e(opment 1orporation Iin or&er to
secure an& a&*ance the &e*e(oping po(icy of Manchurian In&ustry an& to estab(ish synthetica((y an& spee&i(y the hea*y in&ustry
of Manchu'uo4I This )as to be a huge ho(&ing companyD an& its shares )ere to be he(&
''>&<''
on(y by Manchu'uo, Japan an& their nationa(s4 The origina( issue of stoc' )as to be so(& one-ha(f to the ,o*ernment of
Manchu'uo an& one-ha(f to Japanese pri*ate interests4 The management of this company )as to be Ientruste& to a po)erfu(
suitab(e person among the Japanese ci*i(ians4 The po)erfu( suitab(e person among the Japanese ci*i(ians is prearrange& as
Ai'a)a, ,isu'e, the present Presi&ent of Cissan4I The -irectors an& the Presi&ent of the 1ompany )ere to be appointe& by the
t)o ,o*ernments4 Pursuant to this 1abinet &ecision, an agreement )as entere& into )ith Manchu'uo for the estab(ishment of
the 1ompany4
Man'hu-uo a <or--House .or Japan
The economic organiLation comp(ete& by Japan )ith the organiLation of the Hea*y In&ustry -e*e(opment 1orporation, pro*e&
to be of benefit on(y to Japan an& the :apanese4 Its so(e purpose )as to ma'e of Manchuria a )or'-house for the pro&uction of
)ar goo&s for use by Japan4 The effecti*eness )ith )hich this purpose )as rea(iLe& is *i*i&(y e>presse& by HO0HICO, the one
man more responsib(e than any other for such successD he state& that Japan too' e*erything out of Manchuria )hich cou(& be
obtaine&4 0ince 1hinese business men )ere not a((o)e& to enter important in&ustries an& )ere not a((o)e& to ma'e (oans, most
of them )ent into ban'ruptcy4 The 1hinese farmers (ost their (an&s to Japanese immigrants4 The sa*ings (a) re&uce& the
1hinese (aborer to )or'ing for mere subsistence4 The monopo(ies on rice an& cotton &epri*e& the 1hinese of a&e@uate foo& an&
c(othing, in or&er to furnish the best rice an& cotton for JapanQs Army4 A (abor an& ci*i( ser*ice (a) )as put into effect by
7M;W7 )hi(e he )as 1omman&er of the K)antung Army, )hich re@uire& a(( persons bet)een "? an& /. to ren&er (abor
ser*ice to the Japanese Army in opening high)ays, &igging mines, an& constructing
''>&7''
pub(ic )or's4 These (aborers )ere 'ept in concentration camps )here they )ere fe& short rations an& furnishe& no me&ica(
attention )hate*er4 Hea*y pena(ties )ere impose& for escape4 in the resu(t a system )as &e*e(ope& )hereby the Japanese came
first, Koreans secon&, an& 1hinese (ast4
)pium and >ar'oti's
In or&er to finance her operations in Manchuria an& a(so in or&er to )ea'en the po)er of resistance of the 1hinese, Japan
sanctione& an& &e*e(ope& the traffic in opium an& narcotics4 As ear(y as "##, the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina )as ma'ing
an effort to fu(fi(( its ob(igations un&er the Opium 1on*entions of "#" an& "#.4 (Anne> Co4 H-"" U H-"%4 That ,o*ernment
ha& issue& its 9a)s for the Prohibition of 0mo'ing Opium, effecti*e as of . Ju(y "##4 The p(an )as gra&ua((y to suppress the
pro&uction an& consumption of opium by "#/$4 Japan as a signatory to the abo*e opium con*entions )as ob(igate& to assist the
1hinese ,o*ernment in the era&ication of the &rug habit by (imiting the manufacture an& sa(e of the &rugs )ithin her territory
an& by pre*enting smugg(ing of the &rugs into 1hina4
The princip(e sources of opium an& narcotics at the time of the Mu'&en Inci&ent an& for some time thereafter, )as Korea, )here
the Japanese ,o*ernment operate& a factory in the to)n of 0eou( for the preparation of opium an& narcotics4 Persian opium )as
a(so importe& into the Far ;ast4 The Japanese Army seiLe& a huge shipment of this opium, amounting to appro>imate(y "$
mi((ion ounces, an& store& it in Formosa in "##D this opium )as to be use& (ater to finance JapanQs mi(itary campaigns4 There
)as another source of i((ega( &rugs in Formosa4 The cocaine factory operate& at 0inei by Finance Minister Ta'ahashi of Japan
unti( his assassination in "#A!, pro&uce& form $$
''>&&''
to A$$ 'i(os of cocaine per month4 This )as one factory that )as gi*en specific authority to se(( its pro&uce to raise re*enue for
)ar4
8here*er the Japanese Army )ent in 1hina, Korean an& Japanese &rug pe&&(ers fo((o)e& c(ose(y upon its hee(s, *en&ing their
merchan&ise )ithout hin&rance from the Japanese authorities4 In some cases, these traffic'ers )ere sent ahea& of the in*a&ing
Army to prepare a )ay for it by engaging in intrigue, espionage an& sabotageD such seems to ha*e been the case in Corth 1hina
an& a(so in Fu'ien Pro*ince, )here the ,en'i P(ot )as perpetrate&4 ;*en the Japanese so(&iers an& their officers at times
in&u(ge& in this (ucrati*e business of *en&ing opium an& narcotics4 The Japanese 0pecia( 0er*ice OrganiLation )as charge& )ith
the &uty of regu(ating the opium an& narcotic traffic in territories imme&iate(y fo((o)ing their captureD an& this organiLation in
the K)antung Army became so in*o(*e& in the i((icit traffic un&er KOI0O that it )as necessary for MICAMI, )hen he became
1omman&er of the K)antung Army in -ecember "#A/, to abo(ish the organiLation to pre*ent it from &estroying a(( &iscip(ine in
that Army4 -OHIHA+A )as one of the foremost officers of this organiLationD an& his connection )ith the &rug traffic has been
fu((y sho)n4
The genera( princip(e of gra&ua( suppression of the traffic in an& use of opium an& narcotics )as the un&er(ying princip(e, not
on(y of the &rug (a)s promu(gate& by 1hina, but a(so of the internationa( Opium 1on*entions of "#", "#. an& "#A" (Anne>es
Co4 H-"", H-", H-"A%4 Japan, ha*ing ratifie& those 1on*entions, )as boun& by them4 7sing this princip(e of gra&ua(
suppression to their a&*antage, the Japanese promu(gate& Opium 9a)s in the territories occupie& by them in 1hinaD these (a)s
ostensib(y fo((o)e& the princip(e of gra&ua( suppression by (icensing 'no)n a&&icts to smo'e in (icense& shops4
''>&(''
Ho)e*er, these (a)s )ere mere(y a b(in& or co*er for JapanQs rea( intention an& operations4 These (a)s create& go*ernment
contro((e& monopo(ies for the &istribution of opium an& narcotics to (icense& shopsD an& these monopo(ies )ere nothing more
than re*enue co((ection agencies, )hich encourage& the use of the &rugs in or&er to increase the re*enue therefrom4 In a(( areas
occupie& by the Japanese, the use of opium an& narcotics increase& stea&i(y from the time of such occupation unti( the surren&er4
This )as the proce&ure fo((o)e& in Manchuria4 In the Fa(( of "#A, the Opium 9a) )as promu(gate& by Manchu'uo an& the
Manchu'uo Opium Monopo(y A&ministration )as create& as the a&ministrati*e agency to enforce the (a)4 This agency )as
un&er the genera( super*ision of the -irector of the ,enera( Affairs Hoar& an& became one of the important sources of re*enue
for Manchu'uo4 The re(iabi(ity of the re*enue form these sources is atteste& by the fact that the In&ustria( Han' of Japan )as
)i((ing to un&er)rite the A$ mi((ion yen foun&ing bon& issue secure& by the opium re*enue of Manchu'uo an& negotiate& by
HO0HICO soon after his arri*a( in Manchuria4
This proce&ure )as repeate& in Corth 1hina an& again in 0outh 1hinaD ho)e*er, the a&ministrati*e agency in those p(aces )as
the 4o'A'9n or 1hina Affairs Hureau, )hich maintaine& its main offices in To'yo )ith branch offices a(( o*er Corth, 1entra( an&
0outhern 1hina4 These organiLations create& such &eman& for opium that the 1abinet )as force& from time to time to authoriLe
the farmers of Korea to increase their acreage &e*ote& to gro)ing poppies4 The tra&e became so (ucrati*e that Japanese tra&ing
companies, such as the Mitsubishi Tra&ing 1ompany an& Mitsui Hussan, )ere in&uce& by the Foreign Ministry to sign a contract
(imiting their tra&e areas an& the amount of opium to be supp(ie& by them4
''>&>''
JapanQs rea( purpose in engaging in the &rug traffic )as far more sinister than e*en the &ebauchery of the 1hinese peop(e4 Japan,
ha*ing signe& an& ratifie& the Opium 1on*entions, )as boun& not to engage in the &rug traffic, but she foun& in the a((ege& but
fa(se in&epen&ence of Manchu'uo a con*enient opportunity to carry on a )or(&)i&e &rug traffic an& cast the gui(t upon that
puppet 0tate4 A (arge part of the opium pro&uce& in Korea )as sent to Manchuria4 There, opium gro)n in Manchuria an&
importe& from Korea an& e(se)here, )as manufacture& an& &istribute& throughout the )or(&4 In "#A<, it )as pointe& out in the
9eague of Cations that ninety per-cent of a(( i((icit )hite &rugs in the )or(& )ere of Japanese origin, manufacture& in the
Japanese concession in Tientsin, -airen an& other cities of Manchuria, Jeho( an& 1hina, a()ays by Japanese or un&er Japanese
super*ision4
''>&?''
Tab(e of 1ontents ee Pre*ious 1hapter (/% e Ce>t 0ection (.A%
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Chapter V
Japanese Aggression Against China
Sections III-VII
Section III.
The Plan to Advance Further Into China
JapanQs occupation of Manchuria an& Jeho( )as comp(ete& )hen the Tang'u Truce )as signe& in the spring of "#AA4 Jeho(,
facing another Inner Mongo(ian Pro*ince of 1hahar on the )est an& the Corth 1hina Pro*ince of Hopeh on the south, became
the frontier of the ne)(y forme& puppet state of Manchu'uo4 If Japan )ere to a&*ance further into 1hina from the territory she
ha& a(rea&y occupie&, her a&*ance )ou(& be from Jeho( )est)ar&s into 1hahar or south)ar&s into Hopeh, besi&es the other
route )hich (in'e& Manchuria )ith the rest of 1hina through the narro) corri&or of the 9iaoning Pro*ince aroun& 0hanhai')an
on the eastern en& of the ,reat 8a((4
On "<th Apri( "#A/, the Japanese Foreign Office issue& the IAmau 0tatementI )arning the Po)ers )ho subscribe& to the Cine-
Po)er Treaty (Anne> Co4 H-"$% that the Japanese ,o*ernment )ou(& not to(erate any interference )ith her p(ans in 1hina4
A(though HI+OTA (ater e>p(aine&, upon in@uiries, to the American Ambassa&or ,re), that the IAmau 0tatementI ha& been
issue& )ithout his appro*a( or 'no)(e&ge, the fact remains that the IAmau 0tatementI tru(y represente& JapanQs po(icy to)ar&s
1hina4 A(rea&y, it appeare& possib(e that Japanese ambitions in regar& to 1hina ha& not been satisfie& by her occupation of
Manchuria an& Jeho(4 Jery short(y thereafter, in May an& June "#A., there too' p(ace t)o inci&ents, of trif(ing importance )hen
compare& )ith the &eman&s base& by the Japanese upon their occurrence, )hich resu(te& in the position of the Cationa(
,o*ernment of 1hina on both the Hopei an& the 1hahar fronts being substantia((y )ea'ene&4
''>&@''
The Hopei Incident
In the mi&&(e of May "i#A., t)o 1hinese ne)spapermen )ere assassinate& by uni&entifie& assai(ants in the Japanese 1oncession
in Tientsin4 The :ourna(ists )ere sai& to ha*e been pro-Japanese in sentiment4 7M;W7 )as then 1omman&er of the Corth 1hina
,arrison Forces, an& )ith his appro*a(, certain &eman&s )ere presente& by his 1hief of 0taff to ,enera( Ho Bing-1hin, hea& of
the 1hinese mi(itary organiLation in Peiping4 on the "$th of June "#A., the inci&ent )as sett(e&, the 1hinese authorities agreeing
to )ith&ra) the 1hinese ."st Army from the pro*ince of HopeiD to c(ose the party offices an& to ban a(( party acti*ities of the
Koumintang in that pro*ince, an& to ban a(( anti-Japanese acti*ities in that pro*ince4
The abo*e sett(ement is the so-ca((e& IHo-7M;W7 AgreementI4
The &efense submit that no pressure of any 'in& )as put upon the 1hinese authorities to in&uce them to agree to the abo*e ma:or
(imitations on their so*ereignty o*er the great pro*ince of Hopei4 They say that the Japanese ma&e no more than some
IsuggestionsI )hich might impro*e future re(ations bet)een the nations4 In this connection, the e*i&ence of the &efense )itness,
Ku)ashima, shou(& be notice&4 He )as then -irector of the Hureau of Asiatic Affairs in the Japanese Foreign Office, an& 0ino-
Japanese re(ations )ere his &irect concern4 He testifie& that he (earne& from the Japan 9egation at Peiping that the Japanese ha&
ma&e Ia consi&erab(y strong &eman&I upon the 1hinese4 A consi&eration of the )ho(e of his e*i&ence ma'es it p(ain that
Ku)ashima un&erstoo& that the 1hinese ha& been presente& )ith an u(timatum4 There is a(so an entry in the Hara&a-0aion:i
''>&$''
-iaries in )hich O'a&a, the then Premier of Japan, is recor&e& as ha*ing sai& that Iin the beginning on(y an e>cee&ing(y (ight,
frien&(y )arningI ha& been inten&e& Iform )hich such a serious thing ha& resu(te&4I 8hen, on A$th May "#A., KI-O &re) the
attention of 0HI,;MIT07, then Jice Minister of Foreign Affairs, to a report in the morning ne)spaper that the Japanese
,arrison in Corth 1hina ha& (o&ge& a momentous c(aim against the 1hinese go*ernment, 0HI,;MIT07 &i& not &eny the
report, but rather specu(ate& as to the persona(ities in the Japanese Army )ho )ere responsib(e for such action4
''>(%''
The North Chahar Incident
In June "#A., about the time )hen the Hopei inci&ent )as being sett(e& by the IHo-7M;W7 AgreementI, four members of the
Japanese Army entere& the 1hangpei -istrict of 1hahar pro*ince4 This is the south)estern part of 1hahar, a (itt(e to the north of
the ,reat 8a((4 As they &i& not ha*e the re@uire& permits from the 1hahar Pro*incia( ,o*ernment, they )ere ta'en to the
hea&@uarters of the 1hinese -i*isiona( 1omman&er, )ho communicate& )ith the genera( in comman& of the 1hinese #th
Army4 The (atter or&ere& their re(ease an& that they be a((o)e& to continue on their pro:ecte& :ourney to Ka(gan an& Peiping, but
)ith the )arning that the appropriate permits must be obtaine& in future4 The matter )as at first ta'en up by the Japanese 1onsu(
at Ka(gan, )ho represente& to genera( 1hing, -eputy 1omman&er of the 1hinese #th Army, that the 1hinese ,uar&s ha&
insiste& on searching the Japanese personne(, ha& pointe& rif(es at them, ha& &etaine& them some four or fi*e hours at -i*isiona(
Hea&@uarters, an& ha& thus insu(te& the Japanese Army4 Jery short(y thereafter, the 1onsu( state& that the matter )as *ery gra*e
an& )as beyon& his po)er to sett(e4 The matter ha& been transferre& to the army4 In -ecember "#A/, MICAMI ha& become
1omman&er-in-1hief of the K)antung Army an& ITA,AKI ha& become his *ice-chief of staff4 -OHIHA+A, then attache& to
the K)antung Army, )as appointe& to negotiate )ith ,enera( 1hing4 In the en&, it as agree& that the comman&er of the regiment
concerne& an& the :u&ge a&*ocate of the &i*ision concerne& shou(& be &ismisse& an& punishe&4
''>(#''
These measures, one )ou(& ha*e thought, shou(& ha*e amp(y met the occasion, if these officers ha& been in the )rong4 Hy far
the most important pro*isions of the agreement, ho)e*er, are those )hich fo((o)e&, an& they are (arge(y, if not )ho((y,
unconnecte& )ith the inci&ent4 A(( units of the 1hinese #th Army )ere to be )ith&ra)n from the &istricts north of 1hangpei,
that is to say, from substantia((y the )ho(e of 1hahar pro*ince4 the maintenance of peace an& or&er there )as to be entruste& to
the Peace Preser*ation 1orps, an organiLation of the nature of a po(ice force4 In the future, no 1hinese )ere to be permitte& to
migrate to an& sett(e in the northern part of 1hahar pro*ince4 Co acti*ities of the Koumintang )ere henceforth to be permitte& in
1hahar pro*ince4 A(( anti-Japanese institutions an& acts in 1hahar pro*ince )ere to be banne&4 This is the so-ca((e& I1hing-
-OHIHA+A AgreementI4
Again the &efense submit that no pressure of any 'in& )as put upon the 1hinese authorities to in&uce them to submit to the
abo*e ma:or restrictions on the so*ereignty of 1hina o*er the great pro*ince of 1hahar4 ,enera( 1hing in his e*i&ence ca((s it a
Itemporary sett(ementI accepte& by the 1hinese ,o*ernment Iin or&er to secure peace an& un&er painI4 Thus, by June "#A., in
(ess than t)o months, an& nomina((y in sett(ement of t)o inci&ents of trif(ing importance in internationa( affairs, the Japanese
right f(an' in Jeho( ha& been free& from any imme&iate threat of attac' from 1haharD t)o 1hinese armies, though to be hosti(e to
the Japanese, ha& been remo*e& from 1hahar an& Hopei, an& a(( acti*ities of the 1hinese Cationa( Party an& a(( anti-Japanese
acti*ities ha& been banne& in both pro*inces4
''>(<''
Inner Mongolian Autonomous Government
In the beginning of "#A., Prince Teh, the (ea&er of the Mongo(s of Inner Mongo(ia, )as stri*ing to set up an autonomous
Mongo(ian ,o*ernment there4 The subse@uent history of this go*ernment is ta'en from the e*i&ence of ,enera( Tana'a,
+yuichi, a )itness )hom both prosecution an& &efense a&&uce& from time to time, as occasion &eman&e&, an& )hen both
prosecution an& &efense cross-e>amine& as a )itness of no cre&it, again as occasion &eman&e&4 In this matter of the
estab(ishment of the Inner Mongo(ian Autonomous regime there is no reason to &istrust his account an& he )as certain(y in a
position to be fami(iar )ith the &etai(s4
Tana'aQs account of this matter fo((o)s4 MICAMI an& ITA,AKI ga*e earnest support to the estab(ishment of an Inner
Mongo(ian Autonomous ,o*ernment, )hich they inten&e& to be subser*ient to the )ishes of Japan4 In Apri( "#A., MICAMI
sent Tana'a an& another officer to inter*ie) Prince Teh )ith a *ie) to estab(ishing such a go*ernment, an& Prince Teh &i& not at
this time come to terms4 It shou(& be notice& that there no) fo((o)e& the so-ca((e& IHo-7M;W7I an& 1hing--OHIHA+A
Agreements of June "#A., the (atter of )hich substantia((y affecte& the northern part of Inner Mongo(ia, the pro*ince of 1hahar4
Accor&ing to Tana'a, in August "#A., MICAMI ha& an inter*ie) )ith Prince Teh at )hich the Prince promise& c(ose
cooperation )ith Japan an& MICAMI promise& financia( assistance to the Prince4 In -ecember "#A., MICAMI sent t)o
batta(ions of ca*a(ry to assist Prince the in ta'ing o*er the northern part of 1hahar pro*ince4 On ""th February "#A!, Prince Teh
transferre& the seat
''>(7''
of his autonomous regime from Pai(inmiao, in 0uiyuan pro*ince, to 8est 0unito, an& Japanese ci*i(ians )ere sent there to act as
a&*isers to him4
There is a significant cab(e, &ate& October "#A., from the 0ecretary ,enera( of the Japanese ;mbassy at Peiping to Foreign
Minister HI+OTA inter alia to the fo((o)ing effect5 Ithe Japanese ForcesQ Mongo(ian Po(icy is ma'ing stea&y progress as I an&
1onsu( at 1hangchia'ou repeate&(y reporte& to you4 The other &ay Ma:or ,enera( -OHIHA+A ma&e a trip from 1hangchia'ou
to 1hangte an& bac' an& sa) the ,o*ernor of 1hahar Pro*ince an& Prince TehD his mission )as no &oubt to promote the Inner
Mongo(ian se(f-go*ernment4I
+eferences )i(( a(so be foun& in the Japanese Army p(an for &ea(ing )ith Corth 1hina, transmitte& to the Japanese forces in
1hina on "A January "#A!, )hich ma'e it p(ain that this Inner Mongo(ian Autonomous ,o*ernment )as supporte& an&
contro((e& by the K)antung Army4 This &ocument )i(( be consi&ere& more fu((y a (itt(e (ater4
Attempt to Set Up a North China Autonomous Government
,enera( Tana'a testifie& that in 0eptember "#A., MICAMI sent -OHIHA+A to Peiping )ith or&ers to set up an autonomous
regime in Corth 1hina4 Tana'a )as then a staff officer )ith the K)antung Army an& he state& that he ha& a han& in the &rafting
of -OHIHA+AQs instructions4 he a(so sai& that -OHIHA+A, ITA,AKI, an& 0asa'i consi&ere& that IAnti-1ommunismI shou(&
be a&&e& as a s(ogan to the ob:ecti*e of creating an autonomous regime in Corth 1hina4 8e accept this e*i&ence, for it fits in
)ith )hat fo((o)e&, an& its statement as to the
''>(&''
rea( authors of the so-ca((e& autonomous mo*ement in Corth 1hina is confirme& by *arious &ocuments form Japanese sources
)hich )i(( be notice& hereafter4
8e ha*e (itt(e e*i&ence as to the e*ents of the ne>t t)o months4 This is not surprising, for they )ere presumab(y months of
intrigue, of &angerous intrigue4 Cegotiations on such matters are se(&om recor&e& or ma&e pub(ic4
-OHIHA+A first trie& to persua&e 8u Pei-Fu to become the hea& of a Corth 1hina Autonomous ,o*ernment an& fai(e&4
-OHIHA+A thereafter trie& to in&uce genera( 0ung 1he-Ban, then ,arrison 1omman&er of the Peiping-Tientsin Area, to (ea&
such a go*ernment, an& fai(e&4 -OHIHA+A an& Ta'ahashi, )ho )as Mi(itary AttachZ of the Japanese embassy, then passe&
from persuasion to &eman&s that a Corth 1hina Autonomous ,o*ernment shou(& be forme&, an& -OHIHA+A an& Matsui, )ho
)as 1hief of the Japanese 0pecia( 0er*ices Hoar&, further &eman&e& that specia( economic concessions shou(& be grante& to the
Japanese in Corth 1hina4
It is pro*e& that )hen in&ucements fai(e& to pro&uce an autonomous go*ernment, -OHIHA+A, in Co*ember "#A., betoo'
himse(f to threats of force, an& e*en to the issue of an u(timatum for the purpose of procuring the estab(ishment of such a
go*ernmentD an& that the K)antung Army bac'e& up his threats by concentrating a stri'ing force of tan's, mobi(e troops, an&
airp(anes at 0hanhai')an at the eastern en& of the ,reat 8a((, rea&y to a&*ance into the Peiping-Tientsin area4
About the en& of the year "#A., there emerge&
''>((''
t)o ne) forms of go*ernment in Corth 1hina4 One, )hich )as set up &irect(y as a resu(t of -OHIHA+AQs effort, )as ca((e& the
I;ast Hopei Anti-1ommunist Autonomous go*ernment4I It )as estab(ishe& about the en& of Co*ember "#A., )ith Bin Ju-Keng
as its chairman4 he ha& been a&ministrati*e commissioner of the &emi(itariLe& Lone south of the ,reat 8a(( in ;ats Hopei4 It
proc(aime& itse(f in&epen&ent of the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina4 Its capita( )as Tungcho) in the &emi(itariLe& Lone,
northeast of Peiping4 the Japanese maintaine& garrison troops there4 Its contro( e>ten&e& o*er many &istricts of the &emi(itariLe&
Lone4 The )itness ,oette tra*e(e& in this area many times after the estab(ishment of this go*ernment, sa) the Japanese garrison
troops, an& sa) the 1hinese gen&armerie of the ne) go*ernment, recruite&, traine&, an& officere& by Japanese4 Heing in the
&emi(itariLe& Lone, this ne) go*ernment )as beyon& the reach of the forces of the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina4 That
go*ernment proteste& to the Japanese against the e>istence of this so-ca((e& autonomous go*ernment, but )ithout effect4
Another ne) go*ernmenta( organ )hich ma&e its appearance in Corth 1hina about this time )as the Hopei-1hahar Po(itica(
1ounci(4 It )as create& by the nationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina as a resu(t of pressure e>erte& by -OHIHA+A, an& ostensib(y to
conform to his )ishes4 Accor&ing to the Japanese Bear Hoo', it )as a ne) po(itica( organ )hich ha& po)er to negotiate )ith
Japan an& Manchu'uo for the maintenance of amicab(e re(ations4
-OHIHA+AQs hopes of these regimes can be gathere& from his report ma&e to MICAMI in Tana'aQs presence in the en& of
"#A.4 -OHIHA+A reporte& that
''>(>''
the Hope-1hahar regime an& the ;ast Hopei regime, though unsatisfactory, ha& been estab(ishe& an& )ou(& more or (ess obey
the K)antung Army, an& that the Corth 1hina regime )ou(& be estab(ishe& )ith the Hopei-1hahar regime as its core4
0imi(ar hopes )ere entertaine& by the Japanese Army at home at this time4 On "A January "#A!, it transmitte& to the Japanese
forces in 1hina a p(an for &ea(ing )ith Corth 1hina4 the ob:ect of the p(an )as state& to be the rea(iLation of se(f-go*ernment in
the fi*e northern pro*inces of 1hina4 This, it )i(( be reca((e&, )as the ob:ect for )hich MICAMI ha& &ispatche& -OHIHA+A to
Peiping in 0eptember "#A.4 The p(an suggeste& that Japanese a&*ice an& gui&ance shou(& be gi*en to the Hopei-1hahar Po(itica(
1ounci(D that ;ats Hopei in&epen&ence shou(& be uphe(& so (ong as the Hopei-1hahar Po(itica( 1ounci( remaine& unsatisfactory,
but, )hen it )as estab(ishe& so as to :ustify confi&ence, a merger shou(& be intro&uce&D that measures shou(& be a*oi&e& )hich
might (ea& to Japan being misun&erstoo& as if she )ere setting up a separate state (i'e Manchu'uoD that accor&ing(y, Japanese
a&*isers shou(& be (imite& in numberD that measures to)ar&s Inner Mongo(ia shou(& be continue& as before, but measures )hich
ha& become obstac(es to the se(f-go*ernment po)er of the Hopei-1hahar Po(itica( 1ounci( shou(& be he(& bac' for the time
beingD that management of Corth 1hina shou(& be the &uty of the 1omman&er of the Japanese troops in 1hinaD an& that as a ru(e,
he shou(& e>ecute this informa((y by &irect contact )ith the Hopei-1hahar an& ;ast Hopei ,o*ernments4
''>(?''
The apanese Arm!"s Plans #or an Advance Into North China
About the time )hen -OHIHA+A )as e>pressing to MICAMI, comman&ing the K)antung Army, his e>pectation that the
Hopei 1hahar Po(itica( 1ounci( )ou(& more or (ess obey the K)antung Army, an& that an in&epen&ent Corth 1hina regime
)ou(& be estab(ishe& )ith the Hopei-1hahar regime as its core, the K)antung Army sent to To'yo a Propagan&a P(an )hich is
most significant as to Japanese intentions to)ar&s Corth 1hina4 It )as &ispatche& by the 1hief of 0taff of the K)antung Army to
the Jice Minister of 8ar on # -ecember "#A.4 1ertain passages in it merit @uotation in fu((4 As to the time of e>ecution, it is
state&5
Prior to the a&*ance of our mi(itary forces in to 1hina proper, this propagan&a sha(( be (aunche&, chief(y to support form the si&e
of propagan&a of the Japanese ,o*ernment an& the Japanese forces statione& in 1hina4 After the a&*ance of our forces into
1hina proper it sha(( be performe& so as to faci(itate our mi(itary acti*ities4
The genera( princip(e is state& to be5
8e start our propagan&a to con*ince the )ho(e )or(& of our (a)fu(ness as soon as the a&*ancement of the K)antung Army into
1hina proper ta'es p(ace4 8e sha(( (aunch out on a mo*ement to estrange the inhabitants of Corth 1hina from the 1entra(
,o*ernment by fomenting anti-Koumintang an& anti-communism agitation among them4 As for the 1hinese peop(e an& army of
the rest of 1hina, )e sha(( ta'e a measure to form an anti-)ar atmosphere4
8e @uote a(so the types of propagan&a )hich are to be use&4
"4 The 1entra( ,o*ernment has regar&e&
''>(@''
Corth 1hina as a co(ony in a sense, an& has (ong ma&e it the ob:ect of e>p(oitation4 The inhabitants in Corth 1hina
therefore ha*e been cherishing a strong &esire to estab(ish a separate go*ernment of their o)n in or&er to sha'e
themse(*es from the fetters of the 1entra( ,o*ernment4 Hurning )ith strong aspiration for in&epen&ence, the peop(e
concerne& ha*e e>presse& their firm reso(ution to estab(ish an in&epen&ent country4
4 The enactment of the nationa(iLation of si(*er has ma&e the 1entra( ,o*ernment the ob:ect of resentment, an& as a resu(t
of it, the mo*ement to estab(ish a ne) in&epen&ent go*ernment in Corth 1hina is ma'ing rapi& progress4
A4 It is the greatest &esire of the Japanese ,o*ernment to form an anti-1ommunist front )ith the Corth 1hina in&epen&ent
go*ernment, for it may be consi&ere& the first ray of hope for the estab(ishment of (asting peace in the Orient by the
harmonious cooperation among Japan, 1hina an& Manchuria4 8e therefore sha(( assume a &efinite attitu&e to support
)ho(ehearte&(y the estab(ishment an& &e*e(opment of the in&epen&ent go*ernment in Corth 1hina4
/4 The 1hinese 1entra( ,o*ernment has *io(ate& the agreement of cessation of hosti(ities in Corth 1hina an& other mi(itary
agreementsD they ha*e been &isturbing the peace of ManchuriaD instigating a boycott of Japanese goo&s an& an anti-
Japanese sentimentD an& has become a great menace to the Japanese interests an& resi&ents in Corth 1hina an& the
e>istence of the Manchurian ;mpireD therefore, )e ha*e to ma'e it c(ear that )e sha(( be ob(ige& to resort to arms if
''>($''
the 1hinese ,o*ernment continues such un&erhan&e& tactics4
.4 It must 2be3 ma&e c(ear that )hen )e &o &ispatch our forces to 1hina in the future, )e &o it for the purpose of punishing
the 1hinese mi(itary, an& not the 1hinese peop(e at (arge4
!4 8e sha(( try to enhance an anti-)ar sentiment among the peop(e by propagan&iLing e>tensi*e(y that the emp(oyment of
mi(itary forces by the 1hinese 1entra( ,o*ernment or other mi(itary (or&s )i(( re&uce the peop(e to the greatest misery
an& )i(( (ea& to the &estruction of the country4
<4 As for the 1hinese forces, )e )i(( ta'e a measure to promote antagonism bet)een them an& to increase their a&miration
for the strength of the Japanese mi(itary po)er, thus &epri*ing their fighting spirit4
?4 Our propagan&a for Manchuria )i(( be that the appearance of the in&epen&ent go*ernment in Corth 1hina is nothing but
a concrete manifestation of their (onging for the fine a&ministration of the Manchurian ,o*ernment, an& it )i(( brighten
the future of Manchuria4
8e ha*e @uote& form this &ocument so fu((y in or&er that is proposa(s, a&*ance& on # -ecember "#A., may be contraste& )ith
the contention propose& by the &efense in genera(, an& by MICAMI, 7M;W7, ITA,AKI, an& -OHIHA+A in particu(ar, that
the so-ca((e& Corth 1hina in&epen&ence mo*ement )as a spontaneous mo*ement on the part of the peop(e of Corth 1hina,
neither initiate& nor furthere& by Japan4
+e(e*ant a(so to the @uestion of the attitu&e an& intention of the Japanese to)ar&s the so-ca((e& autonomous mo*ement in Corth
1hina is a I-raft of Out(ine
''>>%''
for the Mi(itary -isposa( of Jarious +ai()ays in Corth 1hinaI5 sent by ,enera( Ta&a, then 1omman&er of the Japanese garrison
forces in Corth 1hina, to the Ministry of 8ar in To'yo on -ecember "#A.4
This &ocument contains &etai(e& p(ans for the )or'ing of certain rai()ays in Corth 1hina on beha(f of Japanese troops engage&
in mi(itary 2a3 operation in Corth 1hina4 The &ocument &oes not specifica((y mention the nature of this propose& mi(itary
operation4 The operation is &escribe& in such *ague terms as the Imi(itary ob:ecti*eI, Imi(itary operationsI, an& I)hen the army
fin& it ine*itab(e to sett(e the issue by arme& force4I A critica( e>amination of the )ho(e &ocument, ho)e*er, re*ea(s that the
Japanese Army propose& to mo*e from about the (ine of the ,reat 8a((, &ri*ing before it the mi(itary forces of the Cationa(
,o*ernment of 1hina, an& c(earing 0hantung, Hopei an& 0hansi, the three southern pro*inces of the fi*e northern pro*inces of
1hina4 It is c(ear a(so that the operation )as to be embar'e& on to support the propose& Corth 1hina Autonomous +egime4 Thus,
the 1hinese emp(oyees of the rai()ays )ere to be ma&e to Iun&erstan& the spirit of the Corth 1hina Autonomous Mo*ementI,
an& ,enera( Ta&a e>presses a pri*ate an& strict(y confi&entia( opinion as to the &isposa( of the rai()ays )hen norma( po(itica(
con&itions is restore&4 He says5
8hen the situation in Corth 1hina is restore& to its norma( con&ition after the mi(itary operations are o*er, the rai()ays )i(( be
turne& o*er to the Corth 1hina +egime 4 4 4 7n&er the management of the 1ommunication Ministry of the Corth 1hina +egime,
Japanese a&*isers
''>>#''
an&6or some rai()ay emp(oyees )i(( be emp(oye&4 A&&en&a4 The fo((o)ing &eman&s )i(( be ma&e of the Corth 1hina +egime
on the occasion of the abo(ition of the hea&@uarters of the QJapaneseQ +ai()ay 1orps4
"4 ;mp(oyment of a&*isers an& high-ran'ing officia(s by each rai()ay4
4 The right of guar&ing the rai()ays an& of posting troops at the principa( p(aces a(ong the rai()ay (ines4
A4 1ession of the 0hantung +ai()ay an& the section of the 9unghai +ai()ay east of 0ucho)4
/4 The right of construction ne) rai()ays4
Moreo*er, the &ocument sho)s that certain steps ha& a(rea&y been ta'en in Corth 1hina to pa*e the )ay for the operation4 Thus5
4 8e sha(( en&ea*or to chec' the south)ar& transfer of ro((ing stoc's in counter opposition to the Can'ing ,o*ernmentQs
po(icy of carrying a)ay ro((ing stoc's an& other materia(s to the south4 For this purpose )e sha(( &o our best in app(ying
a(( possib(e in&irect means, but in the case of Peiping-0hanhai')an +ai()ay )e sha(( chec' it e*en by might if
necessary4 In case such forcib(e measure is ta'en, )e sha(( gi*e as the nomina( reason se(f-&efense an& protection of the
Peiping-0hanhai')an +ai()ay against the anti-Japanese mi(itary operations of the Can'ing ,o*ernment4 (This is being
enforce& by the &ispatch of mi(itary po(ice un&er an agreement ma&e )ith the Peiping-0hanhai')an +ai()ay 1o4%
Thus, &uring the (atter ha(f of the year "#A., the K)antung Army an& the Corth 1hina ,arrison Army,
''>><''
)ith the support of, an& at times as &irecte& by, the Japanese Ministry of 8ar, )ere engage& in an attempt to &etach the fi*e
northern pro*inces of 1hina from a((egiance to the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina, an& to set up an autonomous regime or
regimes there, )hich )ou(& be subser*ient to Japan4 The p(an containe& the t)o essentia( e(ements )hich ha& been present in
the Japanese con@uest of Manchuria an& Jeho(, name(y5 ("% mi(itary &omination by Japan, an& #% a &ec(aration of in&epen&ence
by such fe) 1hinese figures as cou(& be in&uce& to ser*e JapanQs purpose4 in the Manchurian case, ho)e*er, mi(itary con@uest
ha& prece&e& the artificia((y engen&ere& &ec(aration of in&epen&ence4 In the case of Corth 1hina, the Japanese mi(itary ha&
hope& to a*oi& the appearance of mi(itary con@uest, an& ha& trie& har& to in&uce the estab(ishment of an artificia((y engen&ere&
Corth 1hina Autonomous ,o*ernment, at first by persuasion, an& (ater by threat of the use of force4 Hy the en& of the year "#A.,
the Japanese mi(itary ha& e*o(*e& the p(ans for in*asion )hich )e ha*e :ust consi&ere&4 The efforts of the Japanese mi(itary
)ere 'no)n to the Japanese Foreign Ministry an& )ere resente& by it, but on(y because they )ere regar&e& as an attempt by the
Army to encroach on the Foreign MinistryQs &omain -- the con&uct of the foreign re(ations of Japan4
Hirota"s Three Principles
8hi(e JapanQs armies in 1hina )ere formu(ating p(ans in anticipation of mi(itary operations in Corth 1hina, the Japanese 1abinet
)as )or'ing on a program of sub:ugating 1hina through &ip(omatic measures4
''>>7''
On . August "#A., Foreign Minister HI+OTA sent to the &ip(omatic an& consu(ar officia(s in 1hina a p(an prepare& on his
instructions by the Hureau of east Asiatic Affairs of the Foreign Office, as a resu(t of the re-in*estigation of JapanQs po(icy
to)ar&s 1hina )hich ha& been ma&e by that Hureau in co((aboration )ith the Army an& Ca*y authorities4 Three genera(
princip(es )ere state& in the p(an, as fo((o)s5
"4 1hina shou(& carry out strict contro( o*er a(( anti-Japanese speeches an& acti*ities, an& both Japan an& 1hina shou(&
ma'e efforts to promote frien&ship an& cooperation on the basis of the princip(es of mutua( respect of in&epen&ence,
cooperation an& mutua( assistance, an& shou(& )or' for the &e*e(opment of re(ations bet)een Manchu'uo an& 1hinaD
4 8hi(e the u(timate aim of the &e*e(opment of re(ations )as that 1hina )ou(& gi*e forma( recognition to Manchu'uo an&
that Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina )ou(& conc(u&e an agreement to regu(ate the ne) re(ations among the three countries,
1hina for the time being shou(& not &eny the fact of Manchu'uoQs e>istence, at (east in Corth 1hina an& in the 1hahar
&istrict )hich bor&ere& the Manchu'uo territory, an& shou(& enter into actua( re(ations of inter&epen&ence an&
cooperation )ith Manchu'uo in the economic an& cu(tura( fie(&s5
A4 Japan an& 1hina shou(& cooperate in 1hahar an& other &istricts bor&ering Out Mongo(ia, )ith a *ie) to remo*ing the
communist menace4
In a subse@uent te(egram &ate& ? 0eptember "#A., a&&resse& to Japanese &ip(omatic an& consu(ar officia(s in 1hina an&
Manchu'uo, HI+OTA reiterate& the three princip(es as the basis of JapanQs foreign po(icy to stabi(iLe ;ast Asia an& to )or' for
common prosperity
''>>&''
by means of cooperation an& mutua( assistance bet)een Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina, putting Japan as its center4 In substance,
the three princip(es )ere recite& as fo((o)s5
"4 1hina shou(& carry out strict contro( of a(( anti-Japanese speeches an& acti*ities, an& shou(& cooperate )ith Japan on
concrete @uestions, putting an en& to her po(icy of &epen&ing upon ;uropean an& American countriesD
4 1hina must u(timate(y gi*e a forma( recognition to Manchu'uo, but for the time being, 1hina shou(& gi*e tacit consent
to the in&epen&ence of Manchu'uo an& enter into re(ations of inter&epen&ence an& cooperation )ith Manchu'uo in the
economic an& cu(tura( fie(&s, at (east in Corth 1hina, )hich is an area bor&ering Manchu'uo territoryD
A4 1hina shou(& cooperate )ith Japan in remo*ing the communist menace in areas bor&ering Outer Mongo(ia4
The te(egram appen&e& the a&&itiona( instruction that in the e*ent the abo*e-mentione& princip(es )ere carrie& into e>ecution
stea&i(y an& 1hinaQs sincerity sufficient(y manifeste&, a genera( agreement )ou(& be conc(u&e& for the regu(ation of the ne)
re(ations among Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina4 One materia( a(teration in this statement of the three princip(es as compare& )ith
the statement of . August "#A. is that the (ater *ersion omits the statement that Japan an& 1hina shou(& cooperate on the basis of
the princip(e of mutua( respect of in&epen&ence4
After consi&erab(e &iscussion )ith the Army an& the Ca*y, the p(an as set out in the secon& *ersion of ? 0eptember "#A. )as
a&opte& on / October "#A. by the Premier, the Foreign, 8ar, Ca*y an& Finance Ministers4 Japanese &ip(omatic officia(s abroa&
)ere again
''>>(''
notifie& an& instructe& to 'eep the matter strict(y secret4 On " January "#A!, the three princip(es )ere ma&e 'no)n to the pub(ic
through HI+OTAQs a&&ress to the -iet4 On the part of 1hina, ho)e*er, no enthusiasm )as sho)n for their acceptance, inasmuch
as these princip(es )ou(& in*o(*e 1hinaQs recognition of the de facto status of Manchu'uo4 Thus, the &ip(omats of Japan )ou(&
ha*e secure& for Japan the fruits of her con@uest of Manchuria4
8hi(e HI+OTA, on " January "#A!, )as announcing his three princip(es of Japanese po(icy to)ar&s 1hina, the Japanese
Foreign Office )as fu((y a)are of the ArmyQs p(an to set up an autonomous go*ernment in the fi*e northern pro*inces of 1hina,
for on that same &ay, " January "#A!, it ha& transmitte& a copy of that p(an to the Japanese Ambassa&or in 1hina4
The Fe$ruar! Incident
The February Inci&ent )as an outburst of the ArmyQs resentment against the go*ernment un&er the premiership of O'a&a, )hich
)as 'no)n as a Ca*y cabinet an& repute& to be oppose& to the ArmyQs po(icy of e>pansion on the continent of Asia by mi(itary
force4 The Inci&ent occurre& on ! February "#A!4 ;ar(ier, )hen O'a&a )as Ca*y Minister in the 0aito 1abinet, great
&ifficu(ties )ere e>perience& by the 1abinet because the 1abinet )as pursuing a po(icy of re&ucing the Army bu&get against
*igorous opposition of the Army4 8hen O'a&a became Premier in "#A/, the po)er of the Army )as increasing4 There )ere
a(rea&y in&ications, )hi(e the 1abinet )as being forme&, that the army )ou(& bring about &isturbances an& troub(e )ith the ne)
go*ernment4
''>>>''
On ! February "#A!, some officers an& ",/$$ men re*o(te& against the ,o*ernment, terroriLe& To'yo for three an& a ha(f
&ays, seiLe& the PremierQs officia( resi&ence, the -iet Hui(&ing, the Home an& 8ar Offices, the Metropo(itan Po(icy Hui(&ing an&
the ,enera( 0taff Hui(&ing, assassinate& Finance Minister Ta'ahashi, 9or& Keeper of the Pri*y 0ea( 0aito an& ,enera(
8atanabe, an& attempte& to assassinate ,ran& 1hamber(ain 0uLu'i an& O'a&a himse(f4 As a resu(t of the inci&ent, the O'a&a
1abinet resigne& on ? March "#A!, an& HI+OTA succee&e& as Premier4
The purpose of this Inci&ent )as to rep(ace the O'a&a 1abinet by another )ith stronger po(icies )hich )ou(& fit into the po(icy
of the Army for further e>pansion on the continent4 O'a&a testifie& that he suppose& the Inci&ent )as a spontaneous outbursts of
resentment on the part of a group of young officers against the ,o*ernmentQs (ac' of sympathy )ith the ambitions of the
mi(itary4
Formation o# the Hirota Ca$inet
On # March "#A!, as a resu(t of the February Inci&ent, HI+OTA succee&e& O'a&a as Premier of Japan4 Instea& of ta'ing
measures to enforce mi(itary &iscip(ine an& era&icate the interference of the Army in po(itica( affairs, some &ire effects of )hich
ha& :ust been e>hibite&, a(rea&y in the formation of his 1abinet he yie(&e& to Army &eman&s as to the choice of some of his
ministers4 Moreo*er, in May "#A!, short(y after he assume& the premiership, the organiLation of the Army an& na*y )as
change& to re@uire that Army an& Ca*y ministers shou(& be of ran' not (o)er than (ieutenant genera( an& *ice a&mira(, an& *ice
ministers of ran'
''>>?''
not (o)er than ma:or genera( an& rear a&mira(, an& that they shou(& a(( be on the acti*e (ist4 0ince "#"A, the organiLation ha& in
form permitte& the appointment of reser*e officers as Ministers of 8ar an& of the Ca*y4 8hi(e the change &i&, in fact, ma'e the
(a) conform to the e>isting practice of appointing 8ar an& Ca*y ministers from senior officers on the acti*e (ist, it )as &one in
comp(iance )ith the &eman& of the army, )ho )ere thereby assure& that )hoe*er became 8ar Minister, )hether on the acti*e
(ist or reca((e& form the reser*e (ist, )ou(& be sub:ect to Army &iscip(ine an& comman&, an& thus to contro( by the Army4
Foreign Policies Under the Hirota Ca$inet
On A$ June "#A!, the 8ar an& Ca*y Ministries agree& on a IHasis of Cationa( Po(icy4I The fun&amenta( po(icy )as to consist in
a&*ancing to)ar& an& &e*e(oping the 0outh 0eas, as )e(( as obtaining a firm position in the ;ast Asiatic 1ontinent for
stabi(iLing JapanQs nationa( &efense4 The princip(es state& )ere5
"4 Japan must stri*e to correct the aggressi*e po(icies of the great po)ers an& to rea(iLe the spirit of the IImperia( 8ayI by
a consistent po(icy of o*erseas e>pansionD
4 Japan must comp(ete her nationa( &efense an& armament to secure the position of the ;mpire as the stabi(iLing po)er in
;ast AsiaD
A4 Japan e>pects the soun& &e*e(opment of Manchu'uo an& thus hopes to stabi(iLe Japan-Manchu'uo nationa( &efenseD in
or&er to promote economic &e*e(opment, Japan inten&s to get ri& of the menace of the 740404+4D to prepare against
Hritain an& the 7nite& 0tates an& to bring about c(ose co((aboration bet)een Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hinaD in the
e>ecution of this continenta( po(icy
''>>@''
Japan must pay &ue attention to frien&(y re(ations )ith other po)ersD
/4 Japan p(ans to promote her racia( an& economica( &e*e(opment in the 0outh 0eas, an& )ithout rousing other po)ers, )i((
attempt to e>ten& her strength by mo&erate an& peacefu( measures4
Thus, )ith the estab(ishment of Manchu'uo, Japan may e>pect fu(( &e*e(opment of her natura( resources an& &e*e(op her
nationa( &efense4
These p(ans )ere a&opte& on "" August "#A!, as the IHasic Princip(es of Cationa( Po(icy5 by the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference,
consisting of the Premier, HI+OTA, an& the 8ar, Ca*y, Foreign an& Finance Ministers4 8hi(e HI+OTA conten&s that they
)ere to be achie*e& by peacefu( means an& )ere &efensi*e in nature, the contents of these princip(es spea' for themse(*es4
Japan propose& to assume the ro(e of the (ea&er of ;ast Asia, thus bringing the entire sphere un&er her &omination through
e>pansion on the continent an& to the 0outh 0eas, to the e>c(usion of the inf(uence of )estern po)er4 As has been pre*ious(y
obser*e&, the use of the )or&s Inationa( &efenseI in this &ocument shou(& be note&4 They occur in many statements of JapanQs
po(icy4 They are ne*er confine& to &efense by Japan against the aggressi*e acts of other nations4 They a()ays mean mi(itary
support by Japan of her o)n po(icies, aggressi*e or not4
Itaga%i"s Mongolian Polic!
8hi(e the HI+OTA 1abinet )as formu(ating its e>pansionist foreign po(icy un&er the name of nationa( &efense, the K)antung
Army ha& its attention &irecte& to)ar& Mongo(ia in the north4 ;ar(ier, on ? March "#A!, fi*e &ays after ITA,AKI )as
promote& to 1hief of
''>>$''
0taff of the K)antung Army, he ha& an inter*ie) )ith Ambassa&or Arita, e>poun&ing his *ie)s on the strategic importance of
Outer Mongo(ia an& Inner Mongo(ia4 ITA,AKI sai&5 IOuter Mongo(ia is of importance from the point of *ie) of Japanese-
Manchu'uoan inf(uence to&ay, because it is the f(an' &efense of the 0iberian +ai(roa& )hich is a connecting (ine bet)een 0o*iet
territory in the Far ;ast an& ;urope4 If Outer Mongo(ia be combine& )ith Japan an& Manchu'uo, 0o*iet territory in the Far ;ast
)i(( fa(( into a *ery &angerous con&ition an& it is possib(e that the inf(uence of the 0o*iet 7nion in the Far ;ast might be
remo*e& )ithout fighting4 Therefore, the Army aims to e>ten& Japanese-Manchurian po)er into Outer Mongo(ia by a(( means at
han&4I
In connection )ith Inner Mongo(ia, he sai&5 I8estern Inner Mongo(ia an& the Lone to the )est of these are of great *a(ue for
e>ecuting the continenta( po(icy of Japan4 0hou(& the sai& Lone be p(ace& in the sphere of Japanese an& Manchurian inf(uence, it
means that )i(( be a base for pacification of their brothers of the same race in Outer Mongo(ia4 Moreo*er, that the inf(uence of
0o*iet +ussia )hich comes from Pro*ince of 0in'iang, as )e(( as a (an& (in' bet)een 0o*iet +ussia an& 1hina )i(( be
b(oc'e&4 4 4 4 From the abo*e stan&point, the Imperia( Army has been furthering its )or' )ith regar& to 8estern Inner Mongo(ia
for se*era( years4 The Imperia( Army is reso(*e& to further its )or', o*ercoming a(( sorts of obstac(es4I
This statement ma&e by ITA,AKI sho)s )hat the K)antung Army ha& &one an& )ou(& continue to &o in
''>?%''
those areas in (ine )ith JapanQs Icontinenta( po(icyI4 It is to be reca((e& that a part of Inner Mongo(ia ha& a(rea&y been brought
un&er Japanese s)ay by the estab(ishment of the Inner Mongo(ia autonomous regime un&er Prince Teh through the efforts of
-OHIHA+A an& others of the K)antung Army in "#A.4 A(( that )as (eft to be &one )as to e>ten& the Japanese inf(uence
further )est an& to Outer Mongo(ia4 This e>p(ains )hy the seat of the Inner Mongo(ia autonomous regime un&er Prince Teh )as
mo*e& from Pai(ingmiao to 8est 0untio in February "#A!, an& again to Teh-Hua in June of the same year4
State&Founding Con#erence in Mongolia
As a resu(t of the a&option of a positi*e Mongo(ian po(icy by Japan, the autonomous mo*ement in Inner Mongo(ia ma&e stea&y
progress4 In Apri( "#A!, Prince Teh an& 9i 0hou-Hsin met )ith the Japanese 0pecia( 0er*ice 1hief Tana'a, Hisshi, at 8est
8uchumuhsin4 +epresentati*es of Mengchenhui, Hei(in'uo(emeng, Tsa'harmen, 7(anchapmeng, Tumotechi, A(ashan,
Kashimouchi, I'echiameng, Tsinghai an& Outer Mongo(ia a(so atten&e& this meeting, )hich )as ca((e& the 0tate-Foun&ing
1onference, (asting from " to ! Apri( "#A!4 The principa( matters &eci&e& at the conference )ere5 ("$ A p(an to foun& the
Mongo(ian 0tate by ama(gamating Mongo(ia an& TsinghaiD (% A p(an to set up a monarchy, )ith a committee system to ser*e
the purpose for the time beingD (A% A p(an to foun& a Mongo(ian 1ongressD (/% A p(an to organiLe a mi(itary go*ernmentD an& (.%
A p(an to conc(u&e a mutua( assistance agreement )ith Manchu'uo4
''>?#''
Hy June "#A!, the seat of the regime )as mo*e& to Teh-Hue an& an in&epen&ent Mongo(ian go*ernment )as set up there4 In
Ju(y "#A!, an agreement bet)een this go*ernment an& Manchu'uo )as conc(u&e&, pro*i&ing for mutua( po(itica( an& economic
ai&4 After the conc(usion of this treaty, Prince Teh set out to e@uip his army4 The ob:ect )as to increase ca*a(ry &i*isions, )hich
ha& hitherto numbere& three, to nine4 Hoth MICAMI an& ITA,AKI ga*e their earnest support for the creation of the Mongo(ian
0tate4 The armyQs po(icy )as carrie& out in utmost secrecy4 Preparations )ere ma&e by the Japanese Army to recogniLe the
in&epen&ence of Inner Mongo(ia4
apan"s Policies To'ard North China && ()*+&()*,
OC "" August "#A!, IThe 0econ& A&ministrati*e Po(icy To)ar& Corth 1hinaI )as &eci&e& by the appropriate ministries in the
HI+OTA 1abinet4 The main purpose of the po(icy )as state& to be to assist the peop(e in Corth 1hina to procure perfect
in&epen&ence in a&ministration, to set up an anti-1ommunist, pro-Japanese an& pro-Manchu'uoan area, to secure necessary
materia(s for JapanQs nationa( &efense an& to impro*e the faci(ities of transportation against the possib(e in*asion of 0o*iet
+ussia, thus ma'ing Corth 1hina a base for cooperation bet)een Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina4 The fi*e pro*inces in Corth
1hina shou(& fina((y be put un&er se(f-go*ernment4 A&*ice shou(& be gi*en to the ;ast Hopeh regime to reform their interna(
a&ministration so as to ser*e as an e>amp(e throughout Hopei an& 1hahar4 the ob:ect of economic &e*e(opment in Corth 1hina
)as state& to be to create an inseparab(e
''>?<''
connection bet)een 1hina an& Japan base& on the mutua( economic interest promote& by free in*estment an& a(so to ma'e it
contribute to)ar& the preser*ation of frien&(y re(ations bet)een Japan an& Corth 1hina, both in time of )ar or peace4 Iron, coa(
an& sa(t in the Corth 1hina pro*inces shou(& be uti(iLe& for JapanQs nationa( &efense an& for the promotion of transportation
faci(ities an& e(ectric po)er4 The same p(an pro*i&e& in &etai( for the unification an& impro*ement of transportation faci(ities
an& the metho&s of &e*e(oping natura( resources in Corth 1hina4 There is interna( e*i&ence in this p(an that the hopes entertaine&
by Japan at the en& of "#A. that the Hopei-1hahar Po(itica( 1ounci( )ou(& pro*e subser*ient to Japan ha& been &isappointe&4
This p(an says a fair an& s@uare attitu&e is re@uire& for the gui&ance of the (ea&ers of Hopei an& 1hahar4 It says the system
shou(& be impro*e&, the personne( purge& an& change&, an& efforts ma&e to abo(ish the financia(, economic an& mi(itary
a&ministration of the 1hinese mi(itary c(i@ue4
The content of the se(f-go*ernment )hich Japan no) propose& for Corth 1hina )as that the ne) regime shou(& ha*e contro( of
finances, in&ustry an& transportation an& shou(& be free of the anti-Japanese interference of the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina4
The p(an at the same time pro*i&e& that acts must be a*oi&e& )hich )ou(& ma'e it appear as if Japan )as infringing 1hinaQs
territoria( rights or estab(ishing an in&epen&ent country, or ma'ing Corth 1hina an e>tension of Manchu'uo4 A simi(ar
pro*ision, it )i(( be remembere&, appeare& in the first p(an, or Army p(an, for Corth
''>?7''
1hina for)ar&e& by the Foreign Office to the Japanese Ambassa&or to 1hina on "A January "#A!4 The framers of JapanQs
po(icies sti(( be(ie*e& that b(ac' cou(& be ma&e to (oo' )hite in the eyes of the )or(&4 The e>posZ by the 9eague of Cations of
JapanQs &up(icity in regar& to Manchuria ha& taught them nothing4
0ubse@uent(y, on $ February "#A<(, IThe thir& A&ministrati*e Po(icy To)ar& Corth 1hinaI )as &eci&e& upon by the
appropriate ministries of the Hayashi 1abinet4 There )as no substantia( change in contents4 Again, on "! Apri( "#A<, IThe P(an
for ,ui&ing Corth 1hinaI )as &eci&e& upon by the Foreign, Finance, 8ar an& Ca*y Ministers of the same 1abinet4 The essence
of the p(an )as to ma'e the 1hinese ,o*ernment recogniLe the specia( position of Corth 1hina an& to carry out economic
measures4 Hoth the Thir& A&ministrati*e Po(icy to)ar& Corth 1hina an& the P(an for ,ui&ing Corth 1hina &eci&e& upon by the
Hayashi 1abinet )i(( be treate& in more &etai( (ater4
The Fengtai Incident
In May "#A!, as a resu(t of negotiations con&ucte& bet)een the Japanese forces an& the 1hinese authorities in Corth 1hina, one
Japanese batta(ion )as permitte& to be statione& at Fengtai, a to)n )est of Peiping4 On "? 0eptember "#A!, an inci&ent occurre&
)hen a company of Japanese so(&iers carrie& out maneu*ers in Fengtai4 As they passe& through the garrison (ine of the 1hinese
troops there, the 1hinese patro(s attempte& to ha(t them an& a c(ash ensue&4 A(though it )as imme&iate(y sett(e&, the Japanese
use& this inci&ent as a prete>t for reinforcement, an& occupie& Fengtai4 8ith the occupation of4 the Japanese )ere in a
''>?&''
position to contro( the communications of the Peiping-Han'o) rai()ay (ine an& to cut off Corth 1hina from 1entra( 1hina4 This
)as the stage-setting for the 9u'ouchiao Inci&ent, sometimes referre& to as the Marco Po(o Hri&ge Inci&ent )hich occurre& on <
Ju(y "#A<4 The bri&ge is on the rai()ay from to Peiping, an& if the Japanese cou(& gain contro( of the bri&ge, their contro( of
Peiping from the )est )ou(& be faci(itate&4 The Japanese forces statione& at then repeate&(y &eman&e& the )ith&ra)a( of the
1hinese garrison from 9u'ouchiao an& a(so from 1hang-0in-Tien, another strategic point on the rai()ay (ea&ing to Peiping4 In
the )inter of "#A!, the Japanese inten&e& to reenforce their garrison force in this *ita( strategic area an& p(anne& the bui(&ing of
barrac's an& an airfie(& there4 For this purpose, they )ishe& to purchase (arge tracts of (an& in the area bet)een an& 9u'ouchiao4
These &eman&s, ho)e*er, )ere refuse& by the 1hinese4
The Chang&-a'agoe Tal%s
In the autumn of "#A!, a series of ta('s )as he(& bet)een the 1hinese Foreign Minister 1hang 1hun an& the Japanese
Ambassa&or Ka)agoe, )ith a *ie) to a&:usting 0ino-Japanese &ip(omatic re(ations4 Ka)agoe a(so ha& an inter*ie) )ith
,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' at the en& of Co*ember "#A!, an& there )as a mutua( e>pression of the &esire to see the
&ip(omatic re(ations bet)een the t)o countries a&:uste&4 -uring the ta('s )ith the 1hinese Foreign Minister, the Japanese si&e
submitte& a proposa( embo&ying the fo((o)ing important points5 ("% 0ino-Japanese economic cooperationD (% 0ino-Japanese
Anti-1omintern AgreementD an& (A% Corth 1hina to be &esignate& a specia( area in *ie) of its re(ationships )ith Japan4 1hang
1hun respon&e& that he )as, of course, in fa*or of 0ino-Japanese economic cooperation, but )ishe& this to be base& on the
princip(e of
''>?(''
reciprocity an& e@ua(ity4 He )as a(so *ery much in fa*or of 0ino-Japanese Anti-1omintern agreement, but here too he )ante& to
see that the agreement )ou(& not infringe upon 1hinaQs so*ereignty4 As to ma'ing Corth 1hina a specia( area on account of its
re(ation )ith Japan, he cou(& on(y recogniLe a specia( economic re(ation, but )ou(& not be ab(e to recogniLe any specia(
a&ministrati*e changes4 These ta('s achie*e& no resu(ts since the attitu&e of the 1hinese ,o*ernment )as incompatib(e )ith
JapanQs po(icies, particu(ar(y )ith regar& to Corth 1hina4
The Fall o# the Hirota Ca$inet
OC $ January "#A<, one of JapanQs t)o po(itica( parties, the 0eiyu'ai Party, issue& a &ec(aration attac'ing the HI+OTA 1abinet
on the groun&, inter alia" that its members )ere too much inf(uence& by the &ogmatic pre:u&ices of the bureaucrats an& of the
mi(itary, an& that the )ish of the mi(itary to interfere in e*ery sphere )as a threat to constitutiona( go*ernment in Japan4 On
January "#A<, 8ar Minister Terauchi ten&ere& his resignation because, as he state&, the *ie)s on the pre*ai(ing situation he(& by
the po(itica( party )hich ha& some members sitting as cabinet members &iffere& fun&amenta((y from the ArmyQs4 7n&er the then
e>isting situation, there )as no hope of getting a ne) 8ar Minister )ho cou(& in any manner reconci(e the e>tremist po(icy of
the Army )ith the party po(itics, an& the HI+OTA 1abinet ha& to resign4
Uga%i Failed to Form a Ca$inet
7pon the resignation of the HI+OTA 1abinet, 7ga'i, on / January "#A<(, )as gi*en the Imperia( Man&ate to form a ne)
1abinet4 7ga'i )as not
''>?>''
regar&e& )ith fa*or by the Army, )hich too' appropriate an& effecti*e steps to pre*ent his accession to office4 This )as an
important an& significant happening, &iscusse& in more &etai( in another part of this Ju&gment4 Accor&ing(y )e &o no more than
mention the matter at this point as part of the narrati*e of e*ents4
The Ha!ashi Ca$inet and Its North China Polic!
The Hayashi 1abinet )as forme& on February "#A<4 7M;W7 remaine& as Jice-Minister of 8ar, an& KABA )as ma&e Jice-
Minister of Finance4 The genera( po(icy of the ,o*ernment )as not change&4 1ontinuing the estrangement po(icy of the
HI+OTA 1abinet )ith regar& to Corth 1hina, IThe Thir& A&ministrati*e Po(icy To)ar& Corth 1hinaI )as &eci&e& on by the
Ministries concerne& on $ February "#A<4 The principa( ob:ect of a&ministering Corth 1hina )as state& to be to comp(ete
JapanQs aim of ma'ing Manchu'uo strong(y pro-Japanese an& anti-communistic, to procure &efense materia(s, to protect
transportation, to prepare &efense against the 740404+4 an& to estab(ish unity among Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina4 To attain the
abo*e-mentione& ob:ect, Japan shou(& carry out her economic po(icy in Corth 1hina, secret(y ai& the go*ernment of Corth
1hina an& ma'e the 1hinese Cationa( ,o*ernment recogniLe the specia( position of Corth 1hina an& the unity of Japan,
Manchu'uo an& 1hina4
Again, on "! Apri( "#A<, the IP(an for ,ui&ing Corth 1hinaI )as &eci&e& on by the Foreign, Finance, 8ar an& Ca*y Ministers4
the essence of the gui&ance of north 1hina )as state& to be Ito ma'e the sai& area *irtua((y a firm anti-communistic pro-
Manchu'uo
''>??''
Japanese region, an& a(so to contribute to the ac@uisition of communicationa( faci(ities, thus part(y preparing against the +e&
threat an& part(y forming a foun&ation for rea(iLing the unity of mutua( ai& of Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina4I +egar&ing
economic e>p(oitation, the p(an pro*i&e& that the &e*e(opment of those mi(itary resources *ita( to nationa( &efense, such as iron,
coa( sa(t an& so forth, an& the estab(ishment of communications, shou(& be spee&i(y rea(iLe&, by specia( capita( if necessary4
Again the pro*ision appears that actions )hich )i(( cause other po)ers to misun&erstan& JapanQs intentions must be a*oi&e&4
The formu(ation of these po(icies in the 1abinet, participate& in by the *arious Ministries concerne&, re*ea(e& that not on(y the
Army but a(so the other &epartments of the ,o*ernment stoo& rea&y for some positi*e progress in regar& to Corth 1hina to be
carrie& out in the near future4
The First -ono!e Ca$inet and
Further Planning Against North China
After the fa(( of the Hayashi 1abinet, Prince Konoye assume& the Premiership on / June "#A<, )ith HI+OTA as Foreign
Minister an& KABA as Finance Minister4
In Army circ(es, there )as agitation for further mi(itary action in 1hina4 TOJO, Hi&e'i, then 1hief of 0taff of the K)antung
Army, sent a te(egram on # June "#A< to the Army ,enera( 0taff )ith the suggestion that :u&ging from the present situation in
1hina, form the point of *ie) of mi(itary preparations against 0o*iet +ussia, Japan shou(& I&e(i*er a b(o)I first of a(( upon the
1hinese Cationa( ,o*ernment to get ri& of the menace at the bac' if JapanQs mi(itary po)er
''>?@''
permitte& it4 In (ess than one month, the suggeste& b(o) against the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina )as &e(i*ere&4
The e*ents )e ha*e :ust re*ie)e& sho) that the seiLure of Manchuria an& Jeho( )as on(y the first step in JapanQs p(an gra&ua((y
to contro( the )ho(e of 1hina so that the country, )ith its great mar'et for JapanQs manufacture& goo&s an& its enormous natura(
resources, )ou(& he(p to ma'e Japan the o*er(or& of ;ast Asia4 Co sooner ha& Manchuria an& Jeho( been seiLe&, an& )hi(e yet
their con*ersion to sate((ite fee&ers of JapanQs economy )as har&(y begun, than in the spring of "#A/, Japan )as c(aiming a
specia( position in regar& to the fi*e northern pro*inces of 1hina4 Hy June "#A., Japan ha& force& the conc(usion of the so-ca((e&
IHo-7M;W7I an& 1hing--OHIHA+A Agreements, )hereby the ho(& of the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina o*er t)o of these
pro*inces, Hopei an& 1hahar, )as substantia((y (oosene&4 Hy the en& of the year "#A., the support of Japan ha& estab(ishe& t)o
so-ca((e& in&epen&ent go*ernments, )hich )here her creatures, the Inner Mongo(ian go*ernment of Prince Teh an& the ;ast
Hopei Anti-1ommunist Autonomous ,o*ernment, )hose capita( )as at Tungcho)4 Hy that time a(so, there ha& been set up the
Hopei-1hahar Po(itica( 1ounci( )hich Japan e>pecte& to be ab(e to turn into a go*ernment of the fi*e northern pro*inces, )hich
)ou(& be in&epen&ent of the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina an& subser*ient to JapanQs )i((4 Japan inten&e& to fo((o) the
anticipate& &ec(aration of in&epen&ence of the fi*e northern pro*inces by a mi(itary occupation of them, an& the mi(itary p(ans
for this
''>?$''
occupation an& for the propagan&a )hich )as to accompany the mo*ement )ere prepare& for e>ecution by the en& of the year
"#A.4 Ceither persuasion nor the threat of force in&uce& the Hopei-1hahar Po(itica( 1ounci( to proc(aim the in&epen&ence of the
fi*e northern pro*inces an&, in our opinion, the occupation of these pro*inces by the Japanese Army )ou(& ha*e occurre& much
ear(ier than it &i& if e*ents in Japan ha& not compe((e& the Japanese Army to increase an& conso(i&ate its inf(uence o*er the
,o*ernment of Japan so that it might contro( that go*ernment in support of its mi(itary a&*enture4 As a resu(t of the mi(itary
re*o(t of February "#A!, the Army got ri& of the O'a&a 1abinet )hich )as not supporting the ArmyQs ambitious po(icies, but
that re*o(t re*ea(e& a gra*e (ac' of &iscip(ine an& responsibi(ity among the younger e(ements in the Army )hich ca((e& for a
pause )hi(e &iscip(ine )as re-estab(ishe&4 HI+OTA, the ne>t Premier, an& the 8ar, Ca*y, Foreign an& Finance Ministers in his
1abinet, )ere )ho((y in fa*or of the e>pansionist po(icy )hich the Army a&*ocate&, an& the (atter ha(f of the year "#A! sa) the
a&option by some or a(( of them of the IHasis of Cationa( Po(icy of June "#A!I an& of the IHasic Princip(es of Cationa( Po(icyI
an& the I0econ& A&ministrati*e Po(icy To)ar& Corth 1hinaI of August "#A!4 Meantime, the Army ha& secure& a footing at
)hich shou(& enab(e it to seiLe the Marco Po(o Hri&ge, cut off the fi*e northern pro*inces from the rest of 1hina to the
south)ar&, an& contro( Peiping4 Hut the HI+OTA 1abinet )as not )ho((y in fa*or of the po(icies of the Army4 There )ere
e(ements in it )hich resente& the increasing contro( of the mi(itary o*er
''>@%''
the ,o*ernment4 These ha& to be got ri& of, an& in January "#A<, the mi(itary brought about the fa(( of the HI+OTA 1abinet an&
the fai(ure of 7ga'i to form a go*ernment4 Fina((y, in the beginning of June "#A<, Prince Konoye forme& his first 1abinet, an&
go*ernment support for the a&*entures of the mi(itary )as at (ast assure&4 The )ay )as c(ear for the ne>t step in JapanQs p(an to
sub:ugate 1hina4
''>@#''
Section I..
From the Marco Polo /ridge Incident 0, ul! ()*,1 to
the -ono!e 2eclaration o# (+ anuar! ()*3
7n&er the Ho>er Protoco( of < 0eptember "#$" (Anne> Co4 H-%, 1hina grante& to the po)ers ha*ing (egations at Peiping the
right to station guar&s in the 9egation Xuarters an& at t)e(*e specifie& points a(ong the rai()ay bet)een Peiping an& Tientsin for
the maintenance of open communication bet)een the capita( an& the sea4 Hy a supp(ementary agreement of ". Ju(y "#$,
foreign troops statione& at these points )ere gi*en the right to carry on fie(& e>ercises an& rif(e practice )ithout informing the
1hinese authorities, e>cept in the case of feuA de guerre*
At the beginning of Ju(y "#A<, Japan maintaine& a force, *arious(y estimate& from <,$$$ to ".,$$$, in Corth 1hina, )hi(e the
other Protoco( po)ers ha& on(y sma(( &etachments4 The Hritish ha& a tota( of ",$$<, inc(u&ing . members of the 9egation
,uar&sD the strength of the French effecti*es statione& in Hopei Pro*ince *arie& bet)een ",<$$ an& ",#$$, the bu(' of )hom
)ere at Tientsin4 The number of Japanese troops great(y e>cee&e& that nee& to carry out the &uties un&er the Protoco(4 From June
"#A<, the Japanese troops carrie& out intense night maneu*ers in the *icinity of 9u'ouchiao (Marco Po(o Hri&ge%4 These
maneu*ers )ere he(& e*ery night, )hi(e night maneu*ers he(& by other foreign garrison troops )ere *ery much (ess fre@uent
than those con&ucte& by the Japanese4 The 1hinese ha& re@ueste& that notice be gi*en beforehan& of the night maneu*ers, in
or&er that the inhabitants of the territory shou(& not be &isturbe&4 To this the Japanese ha& agree&4 On the night of < Ju(y "#A<,
the maneu*ers
''>@<''
)ere carrie& on )ithout notice4 It )as therefore un&er an atmosphere of tension an& unrest, that on that night the 9u'ouchiao
Inci&ent bro'e out4
At about ten oQc(oc' in the e*ening, the 1hinese authorities recei*e& a te(ephone message from Matsui, Kotaro, 1hief of the
Japanese 0pecia( 0er*ice in Peiping, a((eging that one of the Japanese so(&iers )as reporte& missing after the 1hinese garrison
forces in Manping ha& opene& fire at the Japanese maneu*ering troops, an& &eman&ing that the Japanese troops be a((o)e& entry
into the city of 8anping to con&uct searches4 8anping is in the neighborhoo& of 9u'ouchiao, )hich being on the main
communication (ine )est of Peiping )as of consi&erab(e strategic importance4 Prior to Ju(y "#A<, the Japanese forces at ha&
repeate&(y &eman&e& the )ith&ra)a( of the 1hinese forces statione& at this p(ace4
8e ha*e a(rea&y notice& that in "#A!, the Japanese ha& en&ea*ore& to ta'e up a (arge tract of (an& bet)een , to the )est of
Peiping, an& 9u'ouchiao, for the purpose of erecting barrac's an& an airfie(&, an& ho) that en&ea*or fai(e&4 the strategic effect
on Corth 1hina of the remo*a( of 1hinese troops from 9u'ouchiao an& the estab(ishment of mi(itary posts by the Japanese
bet)een an& 9u'ouchiao is ob*ious4 Peiping )ou(& be comp(ete(y cut off from the 0outh an& 8est4
,enera( 1hin Teh-1hun, at the time acting as 1omman&er of the #th Army in the absence of ,enera( 0ung 1he-Buan, )ho )as
then on (ea*e at his home, instructe& the 1hinese (iaison authorities to rep(y to the Japanese &eman& for entry into 8anping that
the maneu*ers he(& un&er
''>@7''
the circumstances of that night )ere i((ega( an& therefore the 1hinese authorities ha& no responsibi(ity )hatsoe*er for the
a((ege&(y missing so(&ier4 Ho)e*er, he sai& that he )ou(& or&er the 1hinese troops statione& at 8anping to con&uct a search on
their o)n beha(f4 The Japanese, not satisfie& )ith the rep(y, insiste& on con&ucting the search themse(*es4
8ang 9en-1hai, A&ministrati*e 1ommissioner in the city of 8anping, )as or&ere& by ,enera( 1hin to in*estigate an& report on
the maneu*ering of the Japanese troops an& )hether any Japanese so(&ier )as missing4 In the meantime, a report came to the
1hinese authorities that a batta(ion of Japanese troops )ith si> pieces of arti((ery )as a&*ancing from to 9u'ouchiao4 1hinese
troops )ere thereupon or&ere& to be a(ert, )hi(e 8ang (en-1hai )as sent to negotiate )ith Matsui4 8hi(e the in*estigation
con&ucte& by 8ang 9en-1hai &i& not (ocate& the a((ege&(y missing so(&ier, an& subse@uent &iscussion )ith Matsui brought
about no resu(t, it )as &eci&e& that a :oint in*estigation shou(& be con&ucte& on the spot4 After 8ang 9en-1hai an& the Japanese
representati*e Terahira entere& the city, the Japanese troops encirc(e& it on three si&es an& opene& fire4 1hinese forces &efen&e&
the city from the )a((s4 At fi*e oQc(oc' in the morning of ? Ju(y "#A<, )hi(e the in*estigation )as sti(( going on, a Japanese
batta(ion un&er its 1omman&er Ichi'i attac'e& the 1hinese troops at 9ung)angmiaso in the neighborhoo& of 9u'ouchiao4 At
about si> oQc(oc', the Japanese began to attac' the )a((e& city of 8anping )ith machine gun fire4
Su$se4uent 5perations and Negotiations #or Truce
In the morning of ? Ju(y "#A<, the rai()ay bri&ge
''>@&''
(ea&ing to 1hang-0in-Tien )as capture& by the Japanese4 In the afternoon of the same &ay, the Japanese sent an u(timatum to the
1omman&er of the city of 8anping to surren&er before se*en oQc(oc' in the e*ening, fai(ing )hich, bombar&ment )ou(& begin4
The 1hinese, ho)e*er, stoo& firm, an& prompt(y at se*en, the Japanese bombar&ment began4 On the ne>t &ay, # Ju(y "#A<, the
Japanese, through Matsui an& others, informe& ,enera( 1hin that the missing so(&ier ha& been foun&, an& as'e& for a truce )ith
the fo((o)ing con&itions5 ("% A(( mi(itary actions shou(& cease on both si&es5 (% Troops of both si&es shou(& return to their
origina( positionsD (A% The A<th -i*ision, )hich entertaine& more hosti(e fee(ing to)ar&s Japan, shou(& be rep(ace& by another
unit of the #th Army for the &efense of 8anping4 An un&erstan&ing )as a(so to be reache& on both si&es to refrain from
&e*e(oping henceforth inci&ents of simi(ar nature4 The truce )as agree& to on the same &ay4
1hinese units un&er the comman& of 9ieutenant 1o(one( 1hi Hsin-8en retreate& to their origina( positions, )hi(e the Japanese
units )ere to )ith&ra) to)ar&4 At this point, the inci&ent might )e(( be consi&ere& as ha*ing been sett(e&, if the Japanese an&
conforme& to the terms of the truce4 Hut, it )as (ater ascertaine& that some one hun&re& Japanese so(&iers a(ong the rai()ay
tunne( )ere not )ith&ra)n as agree&4 -uring mi&night on # Ju(y "#A<, the Japanese troops there again fire& into the city4
Thereafter, Japanese troops continue& to pour into the troub(e& area4 Hy " Ju(y, there )ere $,$$$ Japanese troops an& "$$
airp(anes in the area4 There then occurre& spora&ic c(ashes bet)een the t)o forces unti( the <th of Ju(y,
''>@(''
)hen, as hereafter re(ate&, hosti(ities on a (arge sca(e bro'e out4
Attitude o# the apanese Government
The officia( te(egram reporting the outbrea' of hosti(ities reache& To'yo on ? Ju(y "#A<4 On the fo((o)ing &ay, the Konoye
1abinet, in an e>traor&inary meeting, &eci&e& that the go*ernment attitu&e shou(& be to ho(& fast to the po(icy of arresting the
scope of the &isturbance an& to see' a prompt (oca( sett(ement of the matter, Cot)ithstan&ing this &ecision of the 1abinet, the
,enera( 0taff &eci&e& on "$ Ju(y "#A< to re-enforce the garrison by sen&ing t)o briga&es from the K)antung Army, one
&i*ision from Korea an& three &i*isions from Japan4 The 1abinet, of )hich HI+OTA an& KABA )ere members, appro*e& the
Army p(an on "" Ju(y4 7nits of the K)antung Army )ere sent to the Peiping an& Tientsin area4 Ho)e*er, on the night of "" Ju(y
"#A<, upon receipt of the report from the Corth 1hina Forces that the 1hinese ha& come to terms, the 0upreme 1omman&
&eci&e& to stop mobi(iLation of the &i*isions in Japan proper4 On "A Ju(y "#A<, the 0upreme 1omman& a&opte& the IPo(icy for
the Treatment of the Corth 1hina Inci&entI, )hich pro*i&e& that )hi(e the Japanese Army )ou(& fo((o) the (oca(iLation po(icy
an& )ou(& &eci&e mobi(iLation of the home(an& forces in the (ight of future &e*e(opments, they )ou(& ne*erthe(ess ta'e reso(ute
steps, if the 1hinese neg(ecte& the terms they agree& upon, or sho)e& their insincerity by mo*ing their troops to Corth 1hina4
From "< Ju(y "#A<, )hi(e negotiations )ere being carrie& on bet)een the Corth 1hina ,arrison Forces an& the #th Army on
the spot, an& bet)een the Japanese
''>@>''
&ip(omatic officia(s an& the 1hinese ,o*ernment at Can'ing, the Japanese 0upreme 1omman& procee&e& to prepare for
mobi(iLation in Japan )hich ha& been interrupte& on "" Ju(y "#A<4 ;*en after 0ung 1he-Buan, 1omman&er of the #th Army
an& hea& of the Hopei-1hahar Po(itica( 1ounci(, )as reporte& to ha*e come to terms on "? Ju(y "#A<, the Japanese 0upreme
1omman& sti(( pushe& for)ar& preparations for mobi(iLation on the groun& that the 1hinese ,o*ernment ha& sho)n no
sincerity4 On # Ju(y "#A<, the 1abinet authoriLe& mobi(iLation of three &i*isions4 One )ee' (ater, the 1omman&er of the Corth
1hina ,arrison Forces reporte& that, ha*ing e>hauste& e*ery means of peacefu( sett(ement, he ha& &eci&e& to use force to
chastise the #th Army an& re@ueste& appro*a(, )hich )as gi*en by the 0upreme 1omman&4 In the meantime, mobi(iLation
or&ers )ere issue& for four &i*isions4 A(so, ostensib(y for the protection of Japanese resi&ents in 0hanghai an& Tsingtao, one
&i*ision )as to be reser*e& for each city4
It is important to note that un&er the I-raft of the Out(ine for the Mi(itary -isposa( of Jarious +ai()ays in Corth 1hinaI of
-ecember "#A., )hich pro*i&e& for a s)eep by the Japanese forces of the pro*inces of 0hantung, Hopeh an& 0hansi, Tsingtao
)as the port at )hich reinforcements from Japan )ere to be (an&e& to ta'e part in the s)eep4
On the &ip(omatic front, the Japanese Foreign Office too' prompt measures to strengthen the &ip(omatic staff in Corth 1hina,
fo((o)ing the 1abinet meeting on "" Ju(y "#A<, in )hich the important &ecision )as ma&e to ta'e necessary steps in connection
)ith the &ispatching of troops to Corth 1hina4 On "" Ju(y "#A<, Hi&a'a, 1ounse((or
''>@?''
to the Japanese ;mbassy at Can'ing, )as instructe& by the Foreign Office to notify the 1hinese ,o*ernment of the intention of
the Japanese ,o*ernment to sett(e the matter (oca((y an& to re@uest the 1hinese ,o*ernment not to obstruct the Japanese efforts
(to sa*e the situation prompt(y%4 8hen the 1hinese foreign Minister &eman&e& the )ith&ra)a( of Japanese troops from the
p(aces of &isturbance an& the cessation of sen&ing re-enforcements from Manchuria, Korea, an& Japan proper, Hi&a'a e*a&e&
the issue by as'ing the 1hinese Foreign Minister )hether the 1hinese ,o*ernment ha& any intention of &enying any agreement
reache& bet)een the Japanese an& 1hinese authorities on the spot4 After the 1hinese Foreign Minister ha& pointe& out in an
officia( note that any (oca( un&erstan&ing or agreement )ou(& ta'e effect on(y on confirmation by the 1hinese ,o*ernment,
Hi&a'a )as again instructe& by the Japanese Foreign Office on "< Ju(y "#A< to &eman& that the 1hinese ,o*ernment shou(& not
obstruct the e>ecution of the terms of the sett(ement reache& on the spot4 It ha& thus become c(ear that )hat the Japanese
authorities concei*e& as (oca( sett(ement )as the acceptance of JapanQs &eman&s by the Corth 1hina authorities, )ithout the
confirmation of the 1hinese ,o*ernment4 Acceptance of this proposa( )ou(& ob*ious(y ha*e the &ua( effect of )ea'ening the
po)er of the (oca( authorities by &epri*ing them of the support of the 1entra( ,o*ernment an& of *irtua( recognition by the
1entra( ,o*ernment of an autonomous Corth 1hina4
United States 5##er o# Good 5##ices
The hosti(ities )hich bro'e out in Corth 1hina ha& cause& serious concern to the thir& po)ers )ho &esire&
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to see peace in the Far ;ast4 On "< Ju(y "#A<, 7nite& 0tates 0ecretary of 0tate, 1or&e(( Hu((, issue& a statement to the effect that
the 7nite& 0tates constant(y an& consistent(y ha& a&*ocate& maintenance of peace, nationa( an& internationa( se(f-restraint,
abstinence by a(( nations from use of force in pursuit of po(icy, a&:ustment of internationa( &ifferences by peacefu( means,
faithfu( obser*ance of internationa( agreements, upho(&ing of the sanctity of treaties, respect of nations for rights of others, an& a
re*ita(iLing an& strengthening of internationa( (a), an& that the 7nite& 0tates )ou(& *oi& entering into a((iances or entang(ing
commitments, but be(ie*e& in cooperati*e effort by peacefu( an& practicab(e means in support of the abo*e princip(es4
It )as on the same &ay that the 1hinese ,o*ernment sent a memoran&um to a(( the po)ers signatory to the Cine-Po)er Treaty
(Appen&i> Co4 H-"$%, an& on the ne>t &ay, "< Ju(y "#A<, ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' ma&e a speech emphasiLing that 1hina
)as not see'ing )ar, but mere(y meeting attac's on her *ery e>istence4 He then mentione& as minimum consi&erations for
peacefu( so(ution the fo((o)ing four points5
"4 Co encroachment on 1hinaQs so*ereignty an& territoria( integrityD
4 Co a(terations in the a&ministrati*e system of the Hopei an& 1hahar pro*incesD
A4 Co in*o(untary remo*a( of principa( officers appointe& by the 1entra( ,o*ernmentD an&
/4 Co restrictions to be impose& on the garrison &istricts of the #th Army4
On "# Ju(y "#A<, the 1hinese Ministry of foreign Affairs presente& a memoran&um to the Japanese ;mbassy in Can'ing, in
)hich the 1hinese ,o*ernment rene)e& its proposa( for simu(taneous cessation of troop mo*ements on both si&es an& mutua(
)ith&ra)a(
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of troops to their origina( positions on a &ate to be agree& upon by both parties4 It a(so state& une@ui*oca((y that for the
sett(ement of the inci&ent, the 1hinese ,o*ernment )as prepare& to accept any pacific means 'no)n to internationa( (a) or
treaties, such as &irect negotiations, goo& offices, me&iation an& arbitration4
Mr4 Hu((, in an effort to sett(e the matter before it sprea& too far, he(& a ta(' )ith the Japanese Ambassa&or on " Ju(y "#A<4
Among other things, he to(& the Japanese Ambassa&or that the 7nite& 0tates ,o*ernment )as rea&y, an& )ou(& be most g(a& at
any time, to say or &o anything, short of me&iation, )hich, of course, )ou(& re@uire the agreement of both parties in a&*ance,
)hich might in any )ay contribute to)ar&s composing the present matters of contro*ersy bet)een Japan an& 1hina4 Hut the
attitu&e of Japan )as ma&e c(ear by Foreign Minister HI+OTA )ho, in a speech ma&e on < Ju(y "#A< before the Hu&get
1ommittee of the -iet, state& that the Japanese ,o*ernment )ou(& re:ect thir& po)er inter*ention4 On "$ August "#A<, three
&ays before the outbrea' of hosti(ities in 0hanghai, Mr4 Joseph ,re), the 7nite& 0tates Ambassa&or in To'yo, to(& the Japanese
Foreign Minister that his ,o*ernment ha& authoriLe& him to ma'e a &efinite offer of goo& offices4 Fo((o)ing this, the Japanese
Ambassa&or in 8ashington, in a note to the -epartment of 0tate &ate& "A August "#A<, state& that )hi(e Japan concurre& in the
princip(es containe& in the statement ma&e by Mr4 Hu(( on "! Ju(y "#A< concerning maintenance of )or(& peace, it )as the
be(ief of the Japanese ,o*ernment that the ob:ecti*es of those princip(es )ou(& be attaine& on(y by a fu((
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recognition an& practica( consi&eration of the actua( circumstances of the Far ;astern region4 The 7nite& 0tates -epartment of
0tate, ho)e*er, on A August "#A<, issue& a press re(ease reaffirming the princip(es (ai& &o)n by the Hu(( statement of "! Ju(y
"#A<, an& urging the sett(ement of &ifferences by negotiations4
The 6ang#ang Incident
-espite the truce, fighting again bro'e out on "/ Ju(y "#A<4 8anping )as continuous(y she((e& by Japanese arti((ery4 On "? Ju(y
"#A<, 0ung 1he-Buan ca((e& on Katsu'i, 1omman&er of the Japanese ,arrison Forces, an& e>presse& regrets, as &eman&e& by
the Japanese Army4 Ho)e*er, this &i& not ease the tension4 Cumerous inci&ents occurre&4 On the .th of Ju(y, a c(ash occurre&
at 9angfang, bet)een Peiping an& Tientsin, bet)een a company of Japanese troops an& 1hinese forces4 There )as another c(ash
the ne>t &ay at the K)angamen ,ate of Peiping as a batta(ion of Japanese infantry en&ea*ore& to enter the city for the purpose
of protecting the Japanese resi&ents4 8hi(e the e>act cause of the outbrea' of these inci&ents is not c(ear, it is significant that on
the !th, the Japanese ha& sent an u(timatum to the 1hinese &eman&ing, inter alia" the )ith&ra)a( of the 1hinese <th -i*ision
from the Peiping Area )ithin t)enty-four hours, fai(ing )hich, Japan )ou(& attac' )ith (arge forces4
apan"s Ultimatum 7e8ected
On < Ju(y "#A<, the &ay after the Japanese ha& &e(i*ere& the u(timatum, Premier Konoye announce& that in sen&ing troops to
Corth 1hina, the ,o*ernment ha& no other purpose than to preser*e peace in ;ast Asia4 JapanQs
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u(timatum )as not accepte&4 Fighting bro'e out on < Ju(y "#A< at an& in the *icinity of 9u'ouchiao4 Katsu'i, 1omman&er of
the Japanese ,arrison Forces, or&ere& reinforcements from Tientsin an& Tungcho) )ith strong e@uipment an& more than thirty
airp(anes4 in the ear(y morning of ? Ju(y "#A<?, the Japanese ma&e an ons(aught at Canyuan, outsi&e the city of Peiping, )ith
aircraft an& arti((ery, inf(icting hea*y casua(ties on the 1hinese4 9arge sca(e hosti(ities ha& thus &e*e(ope&4
7eaction in German!
On ? Ju(y "#A<, the Japanese Ambassa&or, Musha'o:i, ca((e& upon the ,erman +eichminister, 8eiLsac'er, an& state& that
Japan fe(t that ,ermany &i& not un&erstan& the anti-communistic efforts )hich the Japanese action in 1hina constitute&4 He trie&
to sho) that Japan )as &oing anti-communistic )or' in 1hina a(so for ,ermanyQs benefit4 Ho)e*er, 8eiLsac'er rep(ie& that he
cou(& not &e&uce an ob(igation on the part of ,ermany to appro*e or assist mora((y a Japanese action )hich might easi(y (ea& to
the fostering of communism in 1hina, the *ery opposite of the aim of both ,ermany an& Japan4
On the same &ay, 8eiLsac'er sent a te(egram to the ,erman Ambassa&or in To'yo, instructing him to a&*ise the Japanese to be
mo&erate4 He to(& the Ambassa&or that attempts of Japan to base measures in 1hina as a fight against communism on the
strength of the Anti-1omintern Pact )ere &e*ious, as the sai& Pact ha& not the ob:ecti*e of fighting Ho(she*ism in the territory
of thir& states4 On the contrary, JapanQs actions )ere rather consi&ere& to be contrary to the Anti-1omintern Pact because they
)ou(& obstruct the conso(i&ation of 1hina an& thus promote
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the sprea& of communism4 8eiLsac'er further state& that the ra&io propagan&a carrie& on by Japan in ,ermany, attempting to
represent the )ar against 1hina as a fight against communism, )as un)e(come4
In the (ight of the ,erman attitu&e, an& the nature of the operations a&opte& by the Japanese, *ery gra*e &oubts are thro)n on the
Japanese reiterate& &ec(arations that they )ere primari(y concerne& in combating communism4 0uch &ec(arations )ere
repeate&(y ma&e by -OHIHA+A an& ITA,AKI in their initia( efforts to estab(ish the autonomous mo*ement in Corth 1hina4
The +eichminister seeme& to ha*e foreseen a situation )hich )as (ater testifie& to by a )itness in this tria(, that the 1hinese
communists began to gather strength in the troub(e& con&itions &e*e(oping after the outbrea' of the 9u'ouchiao Inci&ent, an&
that it )as the Japanese )ho thus nurture& the communist mo*ement4
Peiping Captured
On the same &ay, ? Ju(y "#A<, ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' or&ere& ,enera( 0ung 1he-Buan to retreat to Paoting in
southern Hopei an& to &irect operations from there4 -uring the ne>t t)o &ays, # an& A$ Ju(y "#A<, intense fighting too' p(ace in
Tientsin, )here the 1hinese forces put up a stiff stan&, but subse@uent(y they fe(( bac' to)ar& the south a(ong the Tientsin-
Pu'o) +ai()ay, )hi(e other troops fe(( bac' a(ong the Peiping-Han'o) +ai()ay4 Thus, Peiping )as iso(ate& an& fina((y
capture& on ? August "#A< by the Japanese forces un&er the comman& of Ka)abe, 0hoLo, )ho para&e& the streets of Peiping
)ith his troopsD announce& by proc(amations poste& at important p(aces that he )as the mi(itary go*ernor,
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an& threatene& )ith &eath anyone )ho )ou(& &efy his e&icts4 Accor&ing to neutra( obser*ers, )ithin eight )ee's after the
outbrea' of hosti(ities, the Japanese ha& about "!$,$$$ troops fighting in Corth 1hina4
The 5!ama Incident
8hi(e the hosti(ities in Corth 1hina )ere progressing, an& fo((o)ing the capture of Peiping by Japanese troops on ? August
"#A<, another inci&ent causing gra*e concern to the )or(& occurre& at 0hanghai on the *ery ne>t &ay4 In the afternoon of #
August "#A<, 0ub-9ieutenant Oyama an& his &ri*er, 0eaman 0aito, of the Japanese Ca*a( 9an&ing Party, )ere 'i((e& in front of
the air&rome on Hung:ao +oa& in a suburb of 0hanghai )hi(e trying to enter the air&rome4 The e*i&ence as to the &etai(s of the
inci&ent is contra&ictory4 Ho)e*er, one point is estab(ishe& beyon& &oubtD name(y, that Oyama ha& no authority to enter the
air&rome4 In any e*ent, the inci&ent, though it contribute& to the tenseness of the situation genera((y, is of (itt(e importance as the
Japanese &i& not a((ege it as an e>cuse or :ustification for their subse@uent operations4
5ther 9vents Preceding the Shanghai :ar
After the Oyama Inci&ent occurre&, the situation in 0hanghai became e>treme(y tense4 8ithin (ess than forty-eight hours
thereafter, Japan concentrate& about thirty )arships in 0hanghai an& increase& her arme& forces by se*era( thousan&s4 At the
same time, &eman&s ca(cu(ate& to remo*e or un&ermine 1hinese &efense )ere ma&e on the 1hinese authorities4 Hosti(ities bro'e
out on "A August "#A<, an& furious fighting continue& thereafter4
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As may be reca((e&, in the ear(y part of "#A, the hosti(ities in the 0hanghai region )ere brought to an en& by the conc(usion of
the 1ease-Fire Agreement of . May "f#A, )hich stipu(ate& that the 1hinese troops )ou(& remain in the positions )hich they
occupie& at that &ate, pen&ing (ater arrangements upon the estab(ishment of norma( con&itions in the area4 The 1hinese
&e(egation to the 0hanghai 1onference, in accepting the Agreement, then &ec(are& in particu(ar that it )as un&erstoo& that
nothing in this Agreement imp(ie& any permanent restriction on the mo*ements of 1hinese troops in 1hinese territory4 In June
"#A<, actin on a report that the 1hinese )ere reinforcing the Peace Preser*ation 1orps in )hat he ca((e& Ithe forbi&&en areaI,
an& )ere constructing &efense )or's there, inc(u&ing the reconstruction of the 8oosung Fortress, O'amoto, the Japanese
1onsu(-,enera( in 0hanghai, ca((e& for a meeting of the Joint 1ommission set up un&er the 1ease-Fire Agreement4 At the
meeting he(& on A June "#A<, Mayor Bui Hung-1hun, the 1hinese representati*e, too' the position that the matter )as not
)ithin the pro*ince of the Joint 1ommission, )hose &uty )as, as )as c(ear from the Agreement, to super*ise the )ith&ra)a( of
troops4 The representati*es of the participating po)ers conc(u&e& that they cou(& not e>press an opinion on conf(icting
interpretations4 8hi(e stating that he )as not authoriLe& to gi*e any information concerning the number of Peace Preser*ation
1orps in the 0hanghai area, an& the @uestion of fortifications, the 1hinese representati*e &i& gi*e an assurance that nothing
un&erta'en in the area ha& any hosti(e intention or the nature of )ar(i'e preparation4
On or about ". Ju(y "#A<, after the hosti(ities
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bro'e out in Corth 1hina, Mayor Bui in*ite& 1onsu(-,enera( O'amoto an& the Japanese mi(itary an& na*a( attachZs to a
meeting at )hich the Mayor e>presse& his &esire to pre*ent the sprea& of hosti(ities to 0hanghai, an& as'e& the Japanese to
cooperate4 O'amoto promise& cooperation an& as'e& that 1hina contro( terrorism an& anti-Japanese mo*ement4 Thereafter, they
maintaine& c(ose touch )ith each other4 At times, the Mayor ca((e& on O'amoto t)o or three times a &ay, re@uesting the (atter to
restrain certain actions on the part of the Japanese marines4 The actions )hich the 1hinese comp(aine& of )ere such as
maneu*ers an& emergency guar& measures ta'en by the Japanese marines4 Accor&ing to O'amoto, he an& the 1omman&er of the
Japanese Ca*a( 9an&ing Party agree& to restrain the maneu*ers, but as to the emergency guar& measures, he e>p(aine& that they
)ere ta'en as a resu(t of the &isappearance of a Japanese sai(or by the name of Miyasa'i, )ho )as, ho)e*er, subse@uent(y
foun&4
In Japan, fo((o)ing the occurrence of the Oyama Inci&ent, the Army )as notifie& by the Ca*y on "$ August "#A< that for the
time being the units in 0hanghai )ou(& ta'e no further steps, but circumstances might re@uire preparations for sen&ing troops4
The Japanese ,o*ernment then &eci&e& that it )ou(& be )orth)hi(e to stu&y the proposa( for e*entua( mobi(iLation4 After the
Inci&ent, the Japanese Ca*a( 9an&ing Party at 0hanghai )as reinforce& by ",$$$ men from Japan4 Hy noon of "" August "#A<,
there )as a re(ati*e(y (arge f(eet, inc(u&ing the F(agship 9-umo an& other na*a( *esse(s, at the 0hanghai )aterfront4
On " August "#A<, another meeting of the Joint 1ommission )as he(& in 0hanghai4 8hi(e reiterating that the 1ommission ha&
no authority o*er the issues, the 1hinese
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representati*e pointe& out that it )as Japan )ho ha& ren&ere& the 1ease-Fire Agreement nu(( an& *oi& by stationing the arme&
forces at PaitLuchiao, or the ;ight 1haracter Hri&ge, a p(ace far beyon& the rai()ay from )hich it ha& been agree& that the
Japanese forces )ou(& be )ith&ra)n, an& conse@uent(y Japan ha& no right to in*o'e the agreement4 He further pointe& out that
Japanese armaments an& supp(ies )ere being (an&e&, an& further reinforcements )ere on the )ayD that these measures
constitute& a serious threat to the peace an& or&er in 0hanghai, an& that 1hina ha& the right to a&opt measures for se(f-&efense4
The Japanese representati*e a&mitte&, in the meeting, that Japanese forces ha& been in the PaitLuchiao area an& ma&e no &enia(
of the na*a( concentration an& reinforcements, other than an e>p(anation that the Ca*a( 9an&ing Party ha& not yet prepare& to &o
anything, )hi(e the 1hinese representati*e a(so reiterate& the statement that the right to a&opt measures of se(f-&efense
accounte& for her mi(itary mo*ements4
At the same meeting on " August "#A<, )hen the parties )ere as'e& to gi*e assurances not to ma'e an attac' )ithin forty-eight
hours, the 1hinese state& that they )ou(& not attac' un(ess they )ere first attac'e&, )hi(e the Japanese re:oine& that they )ou(&
cause no troub(e un(ess pro*o'e& or cha((enge&, an& then re(ate& the case of the arrest of a Japanese ne)spaperman by the
1hinese as an i((ustration of pro*ocation4 The meeting brought about no so(ution of the troub(e4
The Shanghai :ar
On "A August "#A<, fighting bro'e out at a point near the hea&@uarters of the Japanese Ca*a( 9an&ing Party an& at another point
in the PaitLuchiao area4 The
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Japanese a((ege& that the cause of the outbrea' )as the firing by 1hinese troops on the Japanese 9an&ing Party4 On this point the
e*i&ence is contra&ictory4 ;*en if their *ersion )as correct, it )ou(& not, in our opinion, :ustify the e>tent an& magnitu&e of the
operations )hich fo((o)e&, as hereafter re(ate&4
As soon as the c(ash occurre&, the Japanese ,o*ernment on ". August "#A<, announce& its &ecision to &ispatch a force of t)o
&i*isions form the home(an& for the &ec(are& purpose of protecting Japanese sub:ects in 0hanghai4 A mobi(iLation or&er )as a(so
issue& on the same &ay, an& MAT07I, I)ane, )as appointe& 1omman&er of the Japanese ;>pe&itionary Forces in 0hanghai4
1(ear(y, the Japanese 1abinet ha& &eci&e& to aban&on the po(icy of (oca(iLation4 Fighting in the 0hanghai area )as intense4
Further Japanese reinforcements arri*e& at 0hanghai on A August "#A<4 Aircraft )ere brought into action by both si&es4
Japanese airp(anes bombe& Can'ing, the capita( of 1hina, an& numerous aeria( bombar&ments )ere carrie& out on the ports, an&
a(so on cities in the interior4 The Japanese f(eet, )hi(e cooperating )ith the forces on (an&, patro((e& the coast to pre*ent supp(ies
from being brought to the ports by 1hinese ships, a number of )hich )ere sun'4
8hi(e the fighting at 0hanghai )as in fu(( s)ing, Horinouchi, the Japanese Jice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, in a ra&io
broa&cast to the 7nite& 0tates on " 0eptember "#A<, &efen&e& JapanQs actions in 1hina on the groun& of 1hinaQs anti-Japanese
acts an& asserte& that JapanQs intentions )ere peacefu(4 He state& that the u(timate ob:ect of the current hosti(ities in Corth 1hina
an&
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0hanghai )as the rea(iLation of a situation permitting genuine cooperation bet)een the t)o countries4 0peeches of simi(ar
purport )ere subse@uent(y &e(i*ere& to the Japanese -iet by Foreign Minister HI+OTA4 It is c(ear that )hi(e these speeches
)ere ma&e, they ha& in min& JapanQs po(icy of ma'ing Corth 1hina a specia( area subser*ient to Japan, a po(icy )hich ha& been
open(y a&opte& by the successi*e cabinets since "#A.4 To imp(ement this po(icy, a fu(( sca(e )ar )as being )age&, e>ten&ing as
far south as 0hanghai in 1entra( 1hina4
As hosti(ities continue&, sti(( further reinforcements )ere poure& into the 0hanghai area4 Het)een the en& of 0eptember an& the
beginning of Co*ember "#A<, the Japanese 0upreme 1omman& &ispatche& fi*e batta(ions from Japan an& fi*e more &i*isions
from Corth 1hina4 In the beginning of Co*ember "#A<, three &i*isions (an&e& in Hangcho) Hay, about fifty mi(es south of
0hanghai, an& again, in the mi&&(e of the same month, one more &i*ision (an&e& at Paimao'iang, si>ty mi(es up the BangtLe
+i*er from 0hanghai4 As the area of conf(ict )as thus being e>pan&e&, the ;>pe&itionary Forces un&er MAT07I an& the
&i*isions of the Tenth Army )hich ha& (an&e& at Hangcho) Hay )ere ama(gamate& in to the ne)(y forme& 1entra( 1hina
;>pe&itionary Forces )ith MAT07I as its 1omman&er in 1hief4 The batt(e continue& for three months, an& by " Co*ember
"#A<, the 1hinese Army retreate& to the 8est4
On . -ecember "#A<, the 0hanghai Ta-Tao 1ity ,o*ernment )as set up, un&er the sponsorship of 1o(one( Kusumoto of the
Mi(itary AttachZQs Office, Japanese ;mbassy, an& 1o(one( Kagesa of the Hea&@uarters of the Japanese 0upreme 1omman&, )ith
0u Hsi-8en, a Japanese-e&ucate&
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1hinese, as the Mayor4
Continued Militar! Activities in North China
To coor&inate the Japanese mi(itary acti*ities being carrie& on in 1hina, HATA, 0hunro'u, )as appointe& on ! August "#A<, as
Inspector ,enera( of Mi(itary ;&ucation, one of the three chiefs )ho )ou(& nominate the 8ar Minister )hene*er there )as a
cabinet change4 -OHIHA+A, in comman& of the "/th -i*ision, in August "#A< too' part in the &ri*e a(ong the Peiping-
Han'o) +ai()ay, an& TOJO, in comman& of an army corps, )as engage& in hosti(ities in 1hahar Pro*ince4 At the same time,
the .th -i*ision un&er ITA,AKI )as &ri*ing up the Peiping-0uiyuan +ai()ay to)ar& Ka(gan, )hich )as capture& on !
August "#A<4 It is )orthy of note at this point that in Co*ember "#A?, the pro*inces of 1hahar, 0uiyuan, an& 0hansi )ere
organiLe& as separate (oca( go*ernment territories un&er the Autonomous Fe&eration of Mengchiang4 This )as an organiLation
inten&e& by the Japanese to ru(e Mongo(ia an& 0in'iang4 At the hea& of the Fe&eration )as Prince Teh, )hose a&*isors )ere
Japanese Army officers an& others )ho too' charge of po(itica( an& economic @uestions in the Fe&eration4
On A" August "#A<, at H)ai(ai, appro>imate(y one hun&re& mi(es north)est of Peiping, )here ITA,AKI ha& an inter*ie) )ith
;uropean an& American correspon&ents, he &ec(are& that it )as possib(e for him to turn south to the Be((o) +i*er4 This
statement is the first in&ication to the pub(ic that the Japanese p(ans contemp(ate& an a&*ance to the 0outh beyon& the (imits of
Corth 1hina, )hich, in fact, fo((o)e& soon after4 On / 0eptember "#A<, an Imperia( ;&ict )as issue&, e>p(aining the ob:ect of
the Japanese mi(itary e>pe&ition in 1hina as Ito urge gra*e
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se(f-ref(ection upon 1hina an& to estab(ish peace in the Far ;ast )ithout &e(ayI4
These mi(itary acti*ities )ere accompanie& by propagan&a in the form of press inter*ie)s, speeches an& other utterances, )ith
the purpose of brea'ing the mora(e of the 1hinese4
On / 0eptember "#A<, Paoting, capita( of Hopei Pro*ince, )as capture&4 The Japanese genera(s participating in the fighting at
that time state& to a foreign ne)spaperman that the mi(itary aim of the Japanese Army )as Inot so much the ac@uisition of
territory as the annihi(ation, smashing, an& 'i((ing of 1hinese Cationa(ist ArmiesI4 This po(icy of annihi(ation of the 1hinese
Armies ha& been pre*ious(y e>presse& by HI+OTA in his speech of . 0eptember "#A<, &e(i*ere& in the -iet, in )hich he sai&,
I)e firm(y be(ie*e that it is in accor&ance )ith the right of se(f-&efense as )e(( as )ith the cause of righteousness that our
country is &etermine& to &ea( a &ecisi*e b(o) to such a country, so that it may ref(ect upon the error of its )ays4 The so(e
recourse open to the Japanese ;mpire is to a&minister the foregoing b(o) to the 1hinese Army, so that it may (ose comp(ete(y its
)i(( to fightI4 In the same speech, he reiterate& JapanQs po(icy in regar& to Corth 1hina, an& conc(u&e& that the urgent nee& for
Japan at that moment )as to ta'e Ia reso(ute attitu&e an& compe( 1hina to men& her )aysI4 Japan, he sai&, ha& no other
ob:ecti*e than to see a happy an& tran@ui( Corth 1hina, a(( 1hina free& from the &anger of recurrence of such ca(amitous
hosti(ities as the present, an& 0ino-Japanese re(ations so a&:uste& as
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to enab(e them to put into practice JapanQs abo*e-mentione& po(icy4
ITA,AKIQs troops ma&e further a&*ances, an& on "/ October "#A<, occupie& K)isui, the capita( of 0uiyuan Pro*ince4 On the
ne>t &ay, ". October "#A<, an Imperia( Or&inance )as enacte& in Japan, creating the 1abinet A&*isory 1ounci(, of )hich
A+AKI )as appointe& a member, the responsibi(ity of )hich )as to participate in Ithe &e(iberation an& p(anning of the 1abinet
in regar& to important state affairs concerning the 1hina Inci&entI4
On # Co*ember "#A<, Japanese troops capture& Taiyuan, the capita( of 0hanshi pro*ince4 Imme&iate(y, the Japanese set about
organiLing an autonomous go*ernment at Taiyuan to go*ern the northern part of 0hanshi Pro*ince4 This puppet go*ernment )as
(ater combine& )ith those organiLe& at Ka(gan an& Kueihua as part of the ne) IAutonomous Fe&eration of MengchangI to
)hich reference has a(rea&y been ma&e4 In the 0hantung Area, the Corth 1hina ;>pe&itionary Forces on . -ecember "#A<,
capture& Tsinan, capita( of 0hantung Pro*ince4 At this stage, the Japanese Army ha& practica((y brought a(( the 'ey points in
Corth 1hina un&er mi(itary occupation4
China Appealed to the 6eague o# Nations
On " 0eptember "#A<, 1hina appea(e& to the 9eague of Cations against Japan, in*o'ing Artic(es "$, "", an& "< of the
1o*enant (Anne> Co4 H-!%4 On " 0eptember "#A<, the 9eague of Cations in*ite& the Japanese ,o*ernment to participate in the
T)enty-Three Po)ers 1onsu(tati*e 1ommittee4 Japan, ho)e*er, maintaining an attitu&e of non-participation in any po(itica(
acti*ity of the 9eague of Cations, on the groun& that she ha& )ith&ra)n from the 9eague, refuse&
''?%<''
the in*itation4 At that time, HI+OTA )as the Foreign Minister in the First Konoye 1abinet4
On ! October "#A<, the 9eague of Cations foun& that the mi(itary operations carrie& on by Japan against 1hina )ere out of a((
proportion to the inci&ent )hich )as the cause of the conf(ict, that such action cou(& not possib(y faci(itate or promote frien&(y
cooperation bet)een the t)o nations )hich Japanese statesmen ha& affirme& to be the aim of their po(icy, that it cou(& be
:ustifie& neither on the basis of e>isting (ega( engagements nor on that of the right of se(f-&efenseD an& that it )as in
contra*ention of JapanQs ob(igations un&er the Cine-Po)er Treaty of ! February "# (Anne> Co4 H-"$%, an& the Pact of Paris of
< August "#? (Anne> Co4 H-".%4 These conc(usions )ere, on the same &ay, concurre& in by the 7nite& 0tates ,o*ernment4
apan"s Terms #or Peace
8hi(e mi(itary operations )ere being successfu((y carrie& on, the Japanese ,o*ernment a&opte&, on " October "#A<, an IOut(ine
+egar&ing the 0ett(ement of the 1hina Inci&entI4 It pro*i&e& that the inci&ent shou(& be brought to a spee&y conc(usion through
the efforts of arme& forces combine& )ith time(y &ip(omatic action4 In Corth 1hina, there shou(& be &esignate& a &emi(itariLe&
Lone in )hich peace an& or&er )ere to be maintaine& by arme& 1hinese po(ice4 Japan )ou(& ha*e the right to station troops, but
she might re&uce the number of occupation troops an& (imit them to the number present at the outbrea' of Ithe Inci&entI4 8hi(e
the Tang'u Truce )as to remain in force, other arrangements such as the I-OHIHA+A-1hin AgreementI, the I7M;W7-Ho
AgreementI, an& the
''?%7''
arrangement concerning through rai()ay traffic, mai( ser*ice, air ser*ice, etc4, shou(& be &isso(*e&4 The Hopei-1hahar Po(itica(
1ounci( an& the ;ast Hopei Autonomous 1ounci( )ou(& be abo(ishe& an& the a&ministration in these areas )ou(& be con&ucte&
by the 1hinese ,o*ernment as it p(ease&4 Ho)e*er, it )as &esirab(e that the a&ministrati*e (ea&ers of this area shou(& bring
about rea(iLation of frien&(y re(ations bet)een Japan an& 1hina4 As for the 0hanghai area, there shou(& a(so be &esignate& a
&emi(itariLe& Lone in )hich peace an& or&er shou(& be maintaine& by the internationa( po(ice or the restricte&(y arme& 1hinese
po(ice, to be assiste& by the Municipa( Po(ice of the Internationa( 0ett(ement4 Japanese (an& forces might be )ith&ra)n, but this
shou(& not inc(u&e the right of anchorage of Japanese )arships4 For the genera( rea&:ustment of 0ino-Japanese re(ations,
negotiations shou(& be simu(taneous(y or subse@uent(y con&ucte& a(ong po(itica(, mi(itary, an& economic (ines4 1hina shou(&
grant forma( recognition of Manchu'uo an& conc(u&e an anti-1omintern pact )ith Japan, enforcing strict contro( in the Corth
1hina &emi(itariLe& Lone4 The 1hinese customs tariffs on specifie& goo&s shou(& be re&uce& an& the free&om to pre*ent
smugg(ing in ;ast Hopei shou(& be restore& to the 1hinese ,o*ernment4 This out(ine )as appro*e& by Premier Konoye, Foreign
Minster HI+OTA, the 8ar an& Ca*y Ministers4
/ritish 5##er o# Good 5##ices
Prior to < October "#A<, con*ersations )ere he(& bet)een Foreign Minister HI+OTA an& Hritish Ambassa&or 1raigie
concerning the cessation of hosti(ities in 1hina4 Accor&ing to Horinouchi, then Jice-Minister of Foreign Affairs, HI+OTA
e>presse&, as his persona( *ie)s, the
''?%&''
fo((o)ing con&itions for so(ution5 ("% 1reation of a &emi(itariLe& Lone in Corth 1hinaD (% A&:ustment of re(ations bet)een
Corth 1hina an& Manchu'uo on a practica( basisD (A% 1ontro( by 1hina of anti-Japanese mo*ementsD an& #/% ;@ua( economic
opportunities in the Corth 1hina region4 These *ie)s )ere con*eye& by Ambassa&or 1raigie to the 1hinese ,o*ernment, an&
the *ie)s of the (atter )ere a(so con*eye& on t)o or three occasions to HI+OTA through the Hritish Ambassa&or4
On < October "#A<, HI+OTA, in an inter*ie) )ith the ambassa&ors from ,reat Hritain, the 7nite& 0tates, ,ermany an& Ita(y,
state& that )hi(e the Japanese ,o*ernment cou(& not accept the in*itation to atten& the Hrusse(s 1onference, it &esire& to ha*e
any one of the four po)ers use its goo& offices for bringing about &irect peace negotiations bet)een Japan an& 1hina4 The
Hritish Ambassa&or soon ca((e& upon HI+OTA an& informe& the (atter of his go*ernmentQs )i((ingness to use its goo& offices
for negotiations bet)een the t)o countries4 Horinouchi testifie& that HI+OTA accepte&, but it )as rea(iLe& after)ar&s that there
)as strong opposition )ithin the army against Hritain acting as a go-bet)een an& the scheme ha& to be he(& in abeyance4
Ho)e*er, Horinouchi a&mitte& in cross-e>amination that it )as JapanQs po(icy to re:ect inter*ention or arbitration at any time
an& that a(though goo& offices of thir& parties )ere a()ays )e(come, it )as the &esire an& po(icy of the Japanese ,o*ernment to
effect a sett(ement of the troub(e bet)een Japan an& 1hina by &irect negotiations4
The /russels Con#erence
After the 9eague of Cations ha& fai(e& to bring
''?%(''
Japan to the conference tab(e for the sett(ement of &ifferences by negotiations, another means )as being sought for the
achie*ement of the same purpose4 On t)o occasions, October $ an& Co*ember <, "#A<, the He(gian ,o*ernment in*ite& Japan
to atten& a meeting at Hrusse(s, )ith a *ie) to e>amining, in accor&ance )ith Artic(e JII of the Cine-Po)er Treaty (Anne> Co4
H-"$%, the situation in the Far ;ast, an& of stu&ying means of sett(ing the conf(ict amicab(y4 Japan again &ec(ine& the in*itation,
e>p(aining that since the 9eague of Cations, to )hich the con*ocation of the propose& conference )as c(ose(y (in'e&, ha&
e>presse& *ie)s hosti(e to Japan, the Japanese ,o*ernment be(ie*e& that fran' an& fu(( &iscussion to bring about a :ust so(ution
of the conf(ict cou(& not be e>pecte&4 On ". Co*ember "#A<, by a reso(ution a&opte& in the Hrusse(s 1onference, Japan )as
pronounce& the aggressor in the 0ino-Japanese conf(ict4
The Imperial General Head4uarters
1onfronte& )ith &ifficu(ties both at home an& abroa&, Premier Konoye &esire& to resign in the mi&&(e of Co*ember "#A<, but
)as &issua&e& by KI-O4
On $ Co*ember "#A<, the 1abinet set up the Imperia( ,enera( Hea&@uarters, an organiLation to be estab(ishe& in )ar time on(y4
It ha& contro( of operations an& tactics4 The 1hief of 0taff thus obtaine& *irtua( contro( o*er the 8ar an& Ca*y Ministers4
Meetings )ere he(& once or t)ice a )ee'4 It ha& a great &ea( of inf(uence on the Japanese ,o*ernment prior to the outbrea' of
the Pacific 8ar, since its utterances )ere not on(y those of the Army ,enera( 0taff an& the Ca*a( ,enera( 0taff, but a(so of the
;mperor, )ho )as its hea&4
''?%>''
The Attac% on Nan%ing
8hen MAT07I )as appointe& 1omman&er of the 0hanghai ;>pe&itionary Forces an& (eft To'yo for the fighting area, he
a(rea&y ha& thoughts of pushing on to Can'ing after the inten&e& capture of 0hanghai4 He re@ueste& fi*e &i*isions for the
0hanghai ;>pe&itionary Force before (ea*ing To'yo4 Actua( preparations for the a&*ance upon 1hinaQs capita( )ere ma&e, for he
ha& pre*ious(y ma&e a stu&y of the topography in the *icinity of 0hanghai an& Can'ing4 on ? October "#A<, MAT07I issue& a
statement in )hich he sai& Ithe &e*i(-&efying sharp bayonets )ere :ust on the point of being unsheathe& so as to &e*e(op their
&i*ine inf(uence, an& that the mission of the Army )as to fu(fi(( a(( its &uties of protecting Japanese resi&ents an& interests, an&
to chastise the Can'ing ,o*ernment an& the outrageous 1hinese4I As the area of hosti(ities aroun& 0hanghai )as (i'e(y to
e>pan&, MAT07I )as appointe& 1omman&er in 1hief of the 1entra( 1hina ;>pe&itionary Forces4
M7TO, A'ira, )as appointe& MAT07IQs Jice-1hief of 0taff in (ate Co*ember "#A<4 Appro>imate(y one moth after the capture
of 0hanghai, the Japanese Army arri*e& outsi&e the city of Can'ing4 MAT07I issue& an or&er to the effect that, as Can'ing )as
the capita( of 1hina, its capture )as an internationa( e*ent, an& carefu( stu&ies shou(& be ma&e so as to &aLL(e 1hina )ith JapanQs
mi(itary g(ory4 The Japanese &eman& for surren&er )as ignore& by the 1hinese ,o*ernment4 Hombar&ment starte&, an& the city
fe(( on "A -ecember "#A<4 The Japanese Army that entere& Can'ing )as a ne)(y-forme& organiLation, but it )as compose& of
e>perience& troops4
''?%?''
MAT07I ma&e his triumphant entry on "< -ecember "#A<4 From "A -ecember on)ar&, there occurre& )hat has come to be
'no)n as the I+ape of Can'ingI, )hich )i(( be &ea(t )ith in a (ater phase4
On " January "#A?, a pro*isiona( se(f-go*erning bo&y )as set up, f(ying the o(& &iscar&e& fi*e-co(oure& 1hinese f(ag instea& of
the H(ue 0'y an& 8hite 0un )hich is the officia( nationa( f(ag of 1hina4
German! Acted As Go&/et'een
Ha*ing ignore& the offers of goo& offices ma&e by the 7nite& 0tates an& ,reat Hritain, the Japanese Army &esire& that ,ermany
shou(& be as'e& to act as go-bet)een4 On . Co*ember "#A<, certain peace terms propose& by Japan )ere con*eye& to the
1hinese ,o*ernment through Trautmann, the ,erman Ambassa&or in Can'ing4 0ubse@uent(y, on ? an& # Co*ember an&
-ecember, the ,erman Ambassa&or again communicate& the intentions of the Japanese ,o*ernment an& informe& the 1hinese
authorities that the terms propose& by the Japanese ,o*ernment ear(y in Co*ember )ere sti(( to stan&4 1hina )as prepare& to
ta'e the points propose& by Japan as the basis of &iscussion4 The propose& terms )ere embo&ie& in )hat )as ca((e& the August
P(an &rafte& in Ju(y "#A<, by officia(s of the Japanese Foreign, 8ar, an& Ca*y Ministries, but appro*e& on . August "#A< by the
abo*e-mentione& ministries4 It consiste& of three main points5 ("% ;stab(ishment of unfortifie& Lones a(ong the +i*er Paiu-Ho
an& the )ith&ra)a( of Japanese an& 1hinese troops from the areas specifie& as suchD ($ Co anne>ation of territoriesD an& (A% Co
in&emnities4 Cegotiations on the (ines of these terms )ere being con&ucte& bet)een Japanese Ambassa&or Ka)agoe an&
''?%@''
the 1hinese, )hen they )ere interrupte& by the outbrea' of the 0hanghai hosti(ities on "A August "#A<4
One &ay in -ecember "#A<, accor&ing to the testimony of Horinouchi, Foreign Minister HI+OTA )as to(& by ,erman
Ambassa&or -ir'sen that he ha& information from Ambassa&or Trautmann in Can'ing that the 1hinese ,o*ernment ha& the
intention of reopening peace negotiations on the basis of the Japanese terms, an& )as as'e& if there )as any a(teration in the
peace terms of the August P(an4 Thereupon, the @uestion )as submitte& to the 9iaison 1onference of the ,o*ernment an& the
Army an& Ca*y, an& )as p(ace& on the agen&a for the meeting of $ -ecember "#A<4 The fa(( of Can'ing on "A -ecember "#A<
ha& consi&erab(y stiffene& the attitu&e of the Japanese to)ar&s 1hina4 The 9iaison 1onference &eci&e& upon four fun&amenta(
terms of peace, )hich )ere as fo((o)s5 ("% 1o((aboration )ith Japan an& Manchu'uo in an anti-communist po(icyD ($
;stab(ishment of &emi(itariLe& Lones an& specia( a&ministrati*e organs in &esignate& areasD (A% 1reation of c(ose economic
re(ations among Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hinaD an& (/% Cecessary reparations by 1hina4 The &ifferences bet)een these Peace
Terms an& those of August "#A<, )hich ha& been communicate& to the 1hinese ,o*ernment, )ere so great fun&amenta((y that
their acceptance by the 1hinese )ou(& ha*e in*o(*e&, amongst others, one that 1hina ha& refuse& to accept from "#A"D name(y,
the in&epen&ence of Manchuria4 In the circumstances, it is not surprising that the o*ertures (e& to no practica( so(ution of the
&ifficu(ties4
On -ecember "#A<, HI+OTA communicate& the abo*e terms to Ambassa&or -ir'sen, stating that as there
''?%$''
ha& been a great change in the situation, it )as not possib(e any (onger to offer the ear(ier con&itions4 He sai& that if the 1hinese
si&e )ou(& genera((y agree on the ne) terms, Japan )ou(& be rea&y to enter into negotiationsD other)ise, Japan )ou(& ha*e to
&ea( )ith the inci&ent from a ne) stan&point4 These ne) terms )ere communicate& to the 1hinese ,o*ernment on < -ecember
"#A<, through Ambassa&or Trautmann4
On "A January "#A?, the 1hinese Minister of Foreign Affairs rep(ie& to Trautmann that, as the ne) peace terms propose& by
Japan )ere so genera( in their terms, the 1hinese ,o*ernment &esire& to be informe& in &etai( of their nature an& content, in
or&er to ma'e a carefu( e>amination an& reach a &efinite &ecision4 The 1hinese rep(y )as communicate& to HI+OTA on "/
January "#A?4
The Imperial Con#erence on (( anuar! ()*3
8hi(e the peace terms )ere being offere& to 1hina, there &e*e(ope& a &ifference bet)een the Army an& the ,o*ernment in
Japan4 The Army ,enera( 0taff thought that the terms of peace )ere not on(y *ague, but a(so aggressi*e4 They )ere in fa*or of
gi*ing more specific terms4 The ,enera( 0taff )as concerne& about the protracte& nature of the )ar in 1hina4 Cot on(y )as it a
&rain upon Japanese resources, but it embarrasse& mi(itary an& economic preparations for )ar against +ussia, America an& ,reat
Hritain4 The ,o*ernment un&er Konoye preferre& to state them in genera( terms4 Foreign Minister HI+OTA an& ;&ucation
Minister KI-O supporte& KonoyeQs *ie)D Home minister 0uyetsugu &rafte& the four terms, an& Foreign Minister HI+OTA
cause& them to be communicate& to the
''?#%''
1hinese ,o*ernment4 On "" January "#A?, )hi(e the rep(y of the 1hinese ,o*ernment )as being a)aite&, an Imperia(
1onference )as he(&, )hich )as atten&e& by HI+AC7MA, )ho )as Presi&ent of the Pri*y 1ounci(4 HI+OTA e>p(aine& the
IFun&amenta( Po(icy for the -isposition of the 1hina Inci&entI, pro*i&ing for c(ose co((aboration an& unity bet)een Japan,
Manchu'uo, an& 1hina4 Hase& upon this po(icy, t)o a(ternati*e measures )ere a&opte& at the conference4 on the one han&, the
conference &eci&e& that if 1hina shou(& as' for conci(iation, Japan )ou(& negotiate in accor&ance )ith the con&itions of peace
as containe& in an a&&en&um to the I-etai(s of the 1on&itions of the Cegotiations for Peace bet)een Japan an& 1hin,I )hich
inc(u&e&, among other items, forma( recognition of Manchu'uo by 1hinaD estab(ishment of an anti-communist se(f-go*ernment
in Inner Mongo(iaD creation of &emi(itariLe& areas in occupie& territories of 1entra( 1hina an& recognition of JapanQs right to
station troops in &esignate& areas of Corth 1hina, Inner Mongo(ia, an& 1entra( 1hina4 On the other han&, if 1hina refuse& to
reconsi&er, Japan )ou(& not on(y consi&er the 1hinese ,o*ernment her opponent, but )ou(& assist in the formation of a ne)
1hinese ,o*ernment )ith )hich Japan cou(& cooperate4 Thereupon, the 1hiefs of Army ,enera( 0taff an& Ca*y ,enera( 0taff
an& the Presi&ent of the Pri*y 1ounci( e>presse& their appro*a(4 Thus )ere the &etai(s of peace con&itions &ra)n up4
On the &ay )hen the Imperia( 1onference a&opte& the abo*e p(an, Ambassa&or Trautmann reporte& to his go*ernment that the
te(egram )hich he recei*e& from To'yo
''?##''
containe& no further information e>cept that Japan seeme& to be a(tering for the secon& time their peace proposa(s )hich )ere
issue& through the ,erman ;mbassy, an& I)e are (osing face )ith the 1hinese through thisI4
The -ono!e 2eclaration o# (+ anuar! ()*+
7pon receipt of the 1hinese rep(y of the "/th of January through the ,erman Ambassa&or, saying that the terms co*ere& a *ery
)i&e scope, that they &esire& further &etai(s in or&er to ma'e a fina( &ecision, HI+OTA became *ery angry an& &ec(are& that it
)as 1hina an& not Japan )ho )as beaten an& must as' for peace4 8hen remin&e& that officia((y 1hina ha& 'no)(e&ge of on(y
four fun&amenta( con&itions, an& the rest ha& been 'ept, at his )ish, in a *ery in&efinite form, HI+OTA agree& to ta'e the
matter up )ith the 1abinet4 In an a((-&ay session of the 1abinet on "/ January "#A?, accor&ing to KI0O, HI+OTA reporte& the
course of the peace negotiations )ith 1hina an& conc(u&e& by asserting that there )as not goo& faith on the 1hinese si&e4 The
1abinet &eci&e& not to &ea( further )ith the 1hinese Cationa( ,o*ernment un&er ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she'4
On ". January "#A?, a meeting of the 9iaison 1onference )as he(&, an&, after (engthy &iscussion, the go*ernment p(an )as
a&opte&, a(though some members of the ,enera( 0taff sti(( preferre& reconci(iation4 On "! January "#A?, Konoye issue& a pub(ic
statement announcing JapanQs firm po(icy as &eci&e& by the 1abinet an& the 9iaison 1onference4 This historica((y important
&ocument
''?#<''
)hich &eci&e& the tren& of re(ations bet)een these t)o Asiatic countries, as trans(ate& for this Tribuna(, rea&s as fo((o)s5
The Imperia( ,o*ernment has been patient enough, after the occupation of Can'ing, to gi*e the (ast opportunity to the 1hinese
Cationa( ,o*ernment for reconsi&ering the situation4 Hut they &o not un&erstan& our rea( intention, attempt foo(ish(y to counter-
attac', &isregar& the greatest &istress of the peop(e at home an& &o not min& the peace of the entire ;ast Asia4 Thereupon, the
Imperia( ,o*ernment )i(( not care for the Cationa( ,o*ernment thereafter, an& e>pect the estab(ishment an& &e*e(opment of a
ne) go*ernment of 1hina an& )i(( rea((y be )orthy coa(ition )ith our ;mpire4 8e &esire to stri*e, rising un&er cooperation )ith
such ne) go*ernment, to arrange the re(ation bet)een the t)o countries an& to construct a ne) re*i*e& 1hina4 Of course, there
)i(( be not e*en a s(ight change in our po(icy that respects the territoria(ity an& so*ereignty of 1hina an& the rights an& interests
of other po)ers in 1hina4 Our responsibi(ity for the peace of ;ast Asia is no) increasing hea*ier an& hea*ier4 It is the most
earnest &esire of the ,o*ernment that our peop(e &e*ote themse(*es to perform this important mission4
The &oor )as thus c(ose& to further negotiations, an& the stage )as set for further in*asion an& the &e*e(opment of (oca( regimes
u(timate(y for the creation of a Ine) go*ernmentI in 1hina )hich )ou(& cooperate )ith Japan4
''?#7''
Section .
The Provisional Government in North China
Prior to KonoyeQs &ec(aration that Japan )ou(& not &ea( )ith the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina, ne) regimes ha& a(rea&y been
set up by the Japanese in occupie& territories, such as those in Corthern 0hansi, Kueihua, Ka(gan an& 0hanghai, as )e(( as so-
ca((e& IPeace Maintenance OrganiLationsI in *arious (oca(ities4 These )ere mere(y (oca( authorities go*erning areas of (imite&
e>tent4 There )as one )hich co*ere& a much (arger area an& )as in (ine )ith JapanQs po(icy of estab(ishing a pro-Japanese
autonomous regime in Corth 1hina, i*e*" the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment in Peiping4 8hen hosti(ities first bro'e out in Corth 1hina,
8ang Keh-min, a retire& high-ran'ing 1hinese officia( )ho (ater hea&e& the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment, )as in Hong Kong4 He
)as persua&e& to come Corth by Japanese Army men statione& in Peiping an& 0hanghai, an& staff officers from Peiping an&
Formosa )ere &ispatche& to Hong Kong for the purpose4 As a resu(t, 8ang came to 0hanghai on / Co*ember "#A<, an& on !
-ecember "#A<, )as f(o) to Japan an& )ent then to Corth 1hina4 The Japanese authorities in Corth 1hina ha& ma&e great
efforts un&er the p(an to ma'e the Corth 1hina regime the 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina in the future, an& arrange& to in*ite not
on(y 8ang, but a(so other notab(e figures in 0outh 1hina through army officers )ho )ere statione& in 0hanghai4 After 8angQs
arri*a( in Peiping, on "/ -ecember "#A<, the &ay after the fa(( of Can'ing, the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment )as forma((y
inaugurate& in the presence of officers of the Japanese Army4 Foreign :ourna(ists )ere in*ite& to atten&4
''?#&''
8ang Keh-min became a(so the chairman of the .sin'Min'.ui or Ce) Peop(eQs Association, )hich ha& been create& in
-ecember "#A< un&er or&ers of the Japanese ;>pe&itionary Forces in Corth 1hina4 The function of this association )as to ma'e
'no)n to the peop(e the po(icies of the puppet go*ernment an& to 'eep the (atter in touch )ith the peop(e4 The *ice-chairman of
the association )as a Japanese4
The Konoye &ec(aration of "! January "#A? ga*e fresh impetus to this Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment4 The *arious peace maintenance
organiLations in the Peiping an& Tientsin areas ha& :oine& it an& subse@uent(y, on A$ June "#A?, the ;ast Hopei +egime )as a(so
ama(gamate& )ith it4
Hy the en& of January "#A?, the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment ha& re*ise& the 1hinese customs tariffs on certain artic(es in the
foreign e>port an& import tra&e of Corth 1hina4 The 7nite& 0tates Ambassa&or ,re) &e(i*ere&, on A" January "#A?, a protest to
HI+OTA, stating that the Cationa( ,o*ernment of 1hina )as the on(y one authoriLe& to &o this, an& that the 7nite& 0tates )as
a&&ressing her representation to Japan, because Ifor the creation an& the acts of the pro*isiona( regime the Japanese ,o*ernment
has an inescapab(e responsibi(ity4I The Fe&era( +eser*e Han' of 1hina )as incorporate& in February, an& commence& its
business of "$ March "#$A?, an& )as authoriLe& by the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment to issue paper currency4 8hi(e the go*ernor
an& *ice-go*ernor )ere 1hinese, the &irecting personne( )ere main(y Japanese4
This Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment, together )ith the +eno*ation ,o*ernment in 1entra( 1hina, (ater accepte& the
''?#(''
in*itation of 8ang 1hing-)ei to participate in the organiLation of a so-ca((e& ne) 1entra( ,o*ernment4
1onfirmation of the part p(aye& by Japan in the formation of the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment is &eri*e& from a &ocument pro&uce&
form the recor&s of the ,enera( Affairs Hureau of the Japanese Foreign Ministry4 It recor&e& that5
In "#A<, fo((o)ing the co((apses of Teh-cho), 0uiyuan, 1hangte, Taiyuan, etc4, in Corth 1hina, at the en& of Co*ember the
Cationa( ,o*ernment ha& bro'en up an& remo*e& to Han'o), 1hung'ing an& 1hangsha an& fina((y Can'ing co((apse& on "A
-ecember, &eci&ing the genera( tren& of the )ar situation4 Thus the opportunity to estab(ish a ne) regime )hich )as
prearrange& among the important men in Corth 1hina ha& mature&4
The circumstances in )hich 8ang-Keh-min consente& to become the hea& of the Corth 1hina regime are as fo((o)s5 At the
beginning of the inci&ent he )as at Hong Kong4 The hea& of specia( ser*ice faci(ities in Pe'ing, Ma:or ,enera( Kita, eager(y
ma&e efforts through Fi:i Bamamoto, )ho )as in 0hanghai, to persua&e 8ang to accept the in*itationD mean)hi(e, staff officers
from Pe'ing an& Formosa )ere specia((y &ispatche& to Hong Kong for the same purpose4 As the resu(t 8ang came to 0hanghai
on / Co*ember, an& on ! -ecember ma&e a f(ight to Fu'uo'a an& )ent to Corth 1hina )ith Bamamoto an& Bu 1hin4
It is sai& that )hen 8ang entere& 0hanghai, he ha& not yet consente& to become the hea& of the Corth 1hina regime but on
con&ition that he ma&e an inspection trip he consente& to the :ourney4
The Corth 1hina army authorities ha& ma&e great
''?#>''
efforts un&er the p(an to estab(ish the Corth 1hina regime as the 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina in the future an& arrange& to
in*ite not on(y 8ang but other inf(uentia( men from 0outh 1hina through Boshino an& Imai (mi(itary officers% )ho )ere
statione& in 0hanghai4 To)ar& this po(icy the centra( army an& ,enera( Terauchi ga*e appro*a(D ho)e*er, a section of the
mi(itary officers in 0hanghai e>presse& opposition, especia((y 1o(one( Kusumoto )as oppose& to pu((ing out many inf(uentia(
men from 0hanghai, on the groun& that there is no necessity to &etermine Corth 1hina as the po(itica( center from the beginning4
After the arri*a( in Pe'ing, 8ang 'eh-min &eci&e& to accept the chairmanship of the Corth 1hina regime an& &etermine&
go*ernment organiLation an& fun&amenta( princip(es4 On "/ -ecember "#A<, the Pro*isiona( 1hinese ,o*ernment )as
estab(ishe& at Pe'ing4
The 7enovation Government in Central China
The foregoing &ocument further sho)s5
Mo*ement for estab(ishment of a ne) go*ernment in 1entra( 1hina4
8hen the Japanese force crushe& the 1hinese Army in 0hanghai, an& its *icinity, an& subse@uent(y on -ecember "A, "#A<,
capture& Can'ing, mo*ements for creating a ne) regime in the 1entra( 1hina )ere (aunche&4 First of a((, the 0hanghai Tatao
Municipa( ,o*ernment )as organiLe& in 0hanghai on -ecember .4 In *arious p(aces other than 0hanghai pub(ic or&er
maintenance associations came into being4 Among these, the ma:or organs are the Can'ing Pub(ic Or&er Maintenance
Association an& the Hangcho) Pub(ic Or&er Maintenance Association estab(ishe& on
''?#?''
January ", "#A?4 Ce*erthe(ess, in 0hanghai area the inf(uence of the 1hiang regime an& the Cationa(istic Party pro*e& to remain
strong, far more than )hat )as anticipate&, e*en after the fa(( of Can'ing, so that it )as impossib(e for pro-Japanese e(ements to
open(y approach the Japanese e*en in the Internationa( 0ett(ement4 Thus, the matter of bui(&ing up a substantia( regime ha& (ong
been &ifficu(t un(i'e the case in Corth 1hina4I
Fo((o)ing the &ec(aration of "! January "#A?, Premier Konoye an& HI+OTA a&&resse& the -iet on January "#A?, an&
&iscusse& JapanQs po(icy, emphasiLing the prospecti*e emergence of a ne) 1hinese regime to cooperate c(ose(y )ith Japan for
the u(timate estab(ishment of a ne) or&er in ;ast Asia4 On < January "#A?, the Konoye 1abinet &eci&e& on a IProgramme for
the ;stab(ishment of a 1entra( 1hina Ce) +egime4I That is to say, not)ithstan&ing protestations that this )as a spontaneous
1hinese mo*ement, the Japanese ,o*ernment too' it upon itse(f to &eci&e upon the IProgramme for the ;stab(ishment of a
1entra( 1hina Ce) +egime4I The &ocument a(rea&y referre& to as ha*ing been pro&uce& form the recor&s of the ,enera( Affairs
Hureau of the Japanese Foreign Office &isc(oses the e>tent of Japanese &irection of the mo*ement5
I4 ,enera( Princip(es4
"4 They sha(( foun& a high(y pro-Japanese regime, gra&ua((y free themse(*es from &epen&ence on ;urope an&
America, an& estab(ish the foun&ation of a &istrict in 1hina &epen&ent on Japan4
4 The &irection of that regime sha(( be so e>ercise& that the regime, in the course of its future
''?#@''
&e*e(opment sha(( smooth(y ama(gamate )ith the Corth 1hina +egime4 The &irection sha(( stop at genera( inner
&irection by Japanese a&*isors4 -etai(e& &irection an& interference in a&ministration by appointing Japanese
officia(s sha(( be a*oi&e&4
A4 1hiang +egime sha(( be annihi(ate&4 At the same time, e(imination of 1ommunists an& &estruction of the
Cationa(ist Party in a short time )ithin the area un&er Japanese occupation sha(( be rea(iLe&4 After)ar&s simi(ar
operations sha(( be spee&i(y e>ten&e& to neighboring areas4I
The programme pro*i&e& for nomina( 1hinese contro(, but as to a&ministration an& finance, it )as &irecte&4 IThe foun&ation of
finance sha(( spee&i(y be estab(ishe&, ban'ing organs a&:uste&, an& Japan-1hina economic co((aboration in 1entra( 1hina
rea(iLe&4 Measures for it are &escribe& in another programme4I The &irection upon arms )as -- IAs for armaments, minimum
army sha(( be traine& for maintenance of peace an& or&er, an& ma'e efforts, un&er the gui&ance of the Japanese Army, to restore
pub(ic or&er4 Hut the na*y an& air force sha(( be inc(u&e& in the &efence p(an of Japan4I The ne) regime )as to be &e*e(ope& as
fo((o)s4
The Ce) +egime sha(( be spee&i(y set up, an&, by nurturing it, antagonistic inf(uence sha(( be &estroye& )ith physica( an& mora(
pressure4
For this purpose, (oca( autonomous bo&ies )hich are being set up successi*e(y in the areas un&er Japanese occupation, sha(( be
strengthene&, an& pub(ic sentiments &esiring the estab(ishment of a Ce) +egime bac'e& by
''?#$''
Japan sha(( be po)erfu((y stimu(ate&4 Moreo*er, in an& aroun& 0hanghai, economic rehabi(itation sha(( be spee&i(y rea(ise&,
thereby to contribute to the estab(ishment of the Ce) +egime set up4
Of the e>pen&itures in the initia( stage of the Ce) +egime, consi&erab(e part sha(( be borne by Japan4
For the re(ief of )ar sufferers, an& rehabi(itation of in&ustries, emergency measures sha(( be spee&i(y ta'en4 ;specia((y,
agricu(tura( pro&uce sha(( be smooth(y supp(ie& to the mar'etD an& farmers sha(( ta'e to spring farming )ithout uneasiness4
For this purpose, maintenance of (oca( peace sha(( be un&erta'en by the Japanese Army to the best of their abi(ity unti( the
estab(ishment of ne) (oca( go*ernment organs4
Or&er of the estab(ishment of the ne) a&ministrati*e setup is as fo((o)s5
"4 1entra( ,o*ernment setup, especia((y (egis(ati*e an& e>ecuti*e &epartments4
4 0hanghai 0pecia( Municipa(ity setup4
A4 Pro*incia( ,o*ernments setup4
/4 OrganiLation of country autonomous bo&ies an& &o)n)ar&s4
In para((e( )ith the e>ecution of " an& , the inf(uence of Tsingpan an& 1hihpan (1hinese secret societies% sha(( be turne& pro-
Japanese, an& ma&e to assist the Ce) +egime &irect(y an& in&irect(y4
In fi>ing ne) a&ministrati*e &istricts, former ones sha(( genera((y be preser*e&4
In foreign sett(ements, )ith the strengthening
''?<%''
of the Ce) +egime, Japanese inf(uence sha(( be gra&ua((y e>ten&e&, an&, after the estab(ishment of the Ce) +egime, the organs
of the o(& regime un&er the contro( of Japanese Army an& Ca*y sha(( be ta'en o*er by the Ce) +egime at proper opportunity,
causing at the same time outstan&ing issues to be spee&i(y sett(e&4
In the ear(y stage of the )ar, mo*ements for creating a ne) regime ha& a(rea&y been starte&4 MAT07I, through 0ugano, sought
to persua&e certain senior 1hinese officia(s to form a ne) regime, but )ithout success4 8hen 9iang Hung-chi, )ho (ater hea&e&
the 1entra( 1hina regime, an& others came into the matter )ith the assistance of the Japanese Army an& Ca*y specia( ser*ice
organs, the ne) regime began to assume a more &efinite shape4 On ? March "#A?, the +eno*ation ,o*ernment, )hich )as
sometimes referre& to as the +eforme& ,o*ernment or the +estoration ,o*ernment, )as forma((y estab(ishe&4 Together )ith the
Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment in Corth 1hina, it (ater accepte& 8ang 1hing-)eiQs in*itation to organiLe a so-ca((e& ne) 1entra(
,o*ernment4
Thus )as rea(iLe& the Japanese p(anning for the creation of a pro-Japanese, an& in&ee& a Japanese-&ominate&, 1hinese
I,o*ernment4I
5ther Cities Invaded $! apanese Troops Under Hata"s Command
HATA )as appointe& 1omman&er of the Japanese 1entra( 1hina ;>pe&itionary Forces on "/ February "#A?, succee&ing
MAT07I4 Three &ays (ater, HATA became 1omman&er-in-1hief of a(( ;>pe&itionary Forces in 1hina, succee&ing Cishio, an&
remaine& in that post unti( Co*ember "#A?4
''?<#''
HATAQs origina( tas' )as to con@uer the triangu(ar area bet)een the cities of 0hanghai, Can'ing an& Hangcho)4 There
&e*e(ope& (ater the purpose of continuing the operations an& to e>pan& the area of conf(ict farther into the interior if 1hina &i&
not come to terms4 In a ta(' bet)een Hon:o an& KI-O, the former )as @uote& by KI-O has ha*ing sai&5 IAfter the batt(e of
0ucho) (Hsucho)% it is, on the one han&, necessary to sho) an attitu&e of a&*ancing to Han'o), but, at the same time, it is
essentia( to ta'e steps for sett(ing the inci&ent4 If things &o not turn out as hope& for, I be(ie*e it )ou(&, by a(( means, be
necessary to estab(ish a c(ose connection a(so )ith the 0upreme 1omman& an& enter into protracte& )arfare by p(anning to
continue for about three years4I KI-O agree& genera((y )ith Hon:oQs opinion an& promise& to &o his best, as he recor&s in his
&iary of "# May "#A?4
HATA, ha*ing secure& the triangu(ar &istrict referre& to, procee&e& against Han'o), )hich fe(( to the Japanese on . October
"#A?4 In that campaign, he ha& a force of A$$,$$$ to /$$,$$$ men sent to him from Corth 1hina4 These forces mo*e& &eep into
the interior of 1hina, an& at the &ates sho)n be(o), ha& capture& the fo((o)ing important cities5
"# May "#A?, Hsucho), strategic :unction of the Tientsin-Pu'o) an& 9unghai +ai()aysD ! June "#A?, Kaifeng, capita( of
Honan Pro*inceD < June "#A?, Matang, important fortification on the BangtLe +i*erD . Ju(y "#A?, Kiu'iang, (ea&ing
commercia( city in Kiangsi Pro*inceD " October "#A?, 0inyang, important point on the-Han'o) +ai()ayD . October "#A?,
Han'o), in the center of 1hina4
''?<<''
8ith the occupation of such important cities o*er so *ast an e>panse of territory, it is not surprising that HATA in interrogation
ac'no)(e&ge& that it )as a )ar that )as being )age& in 1hina, rather than that )hich the Japanese ,o*ernment euphemistica((y
ca((e& it, an Iinci&entI4
The National General Mo$ili;ation 6a'
In anticipation of a protracte& )ar, the Japanese ,o*ernment enacte& a Cationa( ,enera( Mobi(iLation 9a)4 The &raft ha& been
prepare& by the Mobi(iLation P(ans Hureau an& appro*e& by the 1abinet4 8hen it came before the -iet in February "#A?,
0ATO, then in the Mi(itary Affairs Hureau, assiste& Premier Konoye in ma'ing the necessary e>p(anations an& securing the
passage of the bi((4 It )ent into effect on . May "#A?4 It )as &esigne& to contro( an& operate a(( human an& materia( resources so
as to uti(iLe the nationa( po)er most effecti*e(y for Inationa( &efense purposesI in time of )ar I(inc(u&ing an inci&ent
correspon&ing to a )ar%I4 It authoriLe& the genera( mobi(iLation of a(( Japanese sub:ects or :uri&ica( persons or other
organiLations to cooperate )ith state or other organiLations or persons nominate& by the ,o*ernment4
Itaga%i /ecame :ar Minister
Pursuant to the )ishes of the Army, ITA,AKI on the A June "#A?, )as appointe& 8ar Minister in the Konoye 1abinet after its
reorganiLation in may4 Imme&iate(y before this, ITA,AKI ha& been successi*e(y Jice-1hief of 0taff an& then 1hief-of-0taff of
the K)antung Army, 1omman&er of a -i*ision in 1hina an& on the ,enera( 0taff4 M7TO in Ju(y "#A?, )as appointe& Jice-
1hief of 0taff of the Corth 1hina ;>pe&itionary Forces4 Japan ha& hope& the Hsucho) Hatt(e
''?<7''
)ou(& be &ecisi*e by engaging an& &efeating the main forces of the 1hinese Army4 As the 1hinese ,o*ernment &i& not yie(&,
e*en after the capture of Hsucho), the Japanese 0upreme 1omman& procee&e& )ith the p(an to &ri*e on to Han'o) to &e(i*er
yet another b(o) to the 1hinese in the hope of reaching an en& of the 1hinese )ar4 ITA,AKI, rea(iLing that the )ar threatene&
to become a protracte& one, sought to bo(ster the &etermination of the Japanese peop(e4 In his first press inter*ie) after
assumption of the post of 8ar Minister, on ! June "#A?, he to(& the -omei Ce)s Agency that the army must be prepare& to
continue hosti(ities perhaps for ten more years4 He sai& a(so that Japan )ou(& fo((o) her o)n po(icy )ithout fear or hesitation,
not)ithstan&ing the attitu&e of Thir& Po)ers4 He e>p(aine& that there )as no nee& for a forma( &ec(aration of )ar in *ie) of the
officia( &ec(aration of the Japanese ,o*ernment of the "!th January4
Minister of 8ar ITA,AKI too' part in the Fi*e MinisterQs 1onferences, some of the &ecisions of )hich )i(( be &iscusse&
present(y4
China Polic! and the Five Ministers" Con#erence && ()*3
The practice of ho(&ing conferences apart from the 1abinet among the Premier, Foreign Minister, 8ar Minister, Ca*y Minister
an& Finance Minister )as not ne) )hen ITA,AKI :oine& the 1abinet4 -iscussions ha& been he(& an& p(ans &e*e(ope& in this
)ay un&er the HI+OTA an& Hayashi 1abinets4 Hut meantime, the 1onferences ha& gaine& in importance an& fre@uency because
of the circumstances fo((o)ing the intensifying of the )ar )hich &e*e(ope& after
''?<&''
ITA,AKI became 8ar Minister4 Het)een June an& October "#A?, the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference, )ith ITA,AKI participating,
ma&e successi*e &ecisions of the utmost importance concerning po(icies to)ar& 1hina, &irecte& not on(y to the con&uct of the
)ar, but a(so to the estab(ishment of a Japanese-&ominate& or IpuppetI go*ernment for the )ho(e of 1hina as &istinct from the
(oca( IpuppetI go*ernments a(rea&y estab(ishe&4 For instance, on the ? Ju(y, it )as &eci&e& in the e*ent of the surren&er of
1hiang Kai-she'Qs ,o*ernment5
In case of surren&er of the 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina, Japan )i(( regar& it as one of the regime an& treat it accor&ing to the
IMust be ma&e to :oin the ne)(y estab(ishe& 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hinaI po(icy &eci&e& upon by the Imperia( 1onference4
In case the present 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina surren&ers an& accepts the thir& con&ition, (item three of the &ocument, the
con&itions for surren&er% state& (ater, it sha(( either be consi&ere& as a frien&(y regime an& )i(( be permitte& to :oin the ne)(y
estab(ishe& 1entra( ,o*ernment, or be ma&e to estab(ish another ne) centra( go*ernment in cooperation )ith *arious e>isting
pro-Japanese regimes4
The con&itions for the recognition of the surren&er of the present 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina inc(u&e5
+etiring from pub(ic (ife of 1hiang Kai-she'4
On the same &ay, a(ternati*e &ecisions )ere ma&e in the e*ent of ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' continuing to fight on4
It is to be note& that the constant po(icy )as to foster an& en(arge the Japanese-contro((e& I1entra(I
''?<(''
,o*ernment, the creation of )hich by Japan has a(rea&y been &iscusse&4
Again, on ". Ju(y "#A?, the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference &eci&e& in respect of the Ine)I 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina5
Though the estab(ishment of the ne) 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina sha(( be un&erta'en main(y by the 1hinese, it sha(( be
interna((y assiste& by Japan4 The princip(e of the co((aboration of in&i*i&ua( (oca( go*ernments sha(( be a&opte& to their
go*ernment form4
A Joint 1ommission sha(( be estab(ishe& as soon as possib(e through the cooperation bet)een the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment an&
the +estoration ,o*ernment, to be :oine& (ater by the Mongo(ian an& 0in'-Kiang (Meng'iang% Joint 1ommission4 Then )e
shou(& gui&e this regime so as to gro) into a rea( centra( go*ernment by gra&ua((y absorbing *arious other inf(uences or
co((aborating )ith them4
It )as I)eI, the Japanese, not 1hinese, )ho )ere to gui&e the gro)th of the Ine)I 1entra( ,o*ernment4
The ne) 1entra( go*ernment sha(( not be estab(ishe& unti( after the fa(( of Han'o), )ith the 1hiang Kai-she' regime re&uce& to
a mere (oca( go*ernment or unti( the reformation of the present 1entra( ,o*ernment is brought about by 1hiang Kai-she'Qs
retirement from pub(ic office4
In case the 1hiang Kai-she' regime is bro'en up or reforme&, an& shou(& a pro-Japanese go*ernment turn up, )e )ou(& ma'e it
a factor of the centra( go*ernment system an& procee& to set up a centra( go*ernment4
A&:ustment of the re(ations bet)een Japan an& 1hina in connection )ith our contro( of the estab(ishment
''?<>''
of the ne) 1entra( ,o*ernment of 1hina, sha(( be &one on the fo((o)ing basis, an& its concrete matters sha(( be &eci&e&
separate(y4
The IbasisI inc(u&e&5
The estab(ishment of the genera( po(icy for the co((aboration among Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina base& upon reciprocity,
particu(ar(y on neighbour(y frien&ship an& goo&)i((, anti-1omintern an& :oint &efense an& economic cooperation4 In or&er to
attain the abo*e ob:ecti*es, Japan )i(( gi*e interna( gui&ance &uring a certain perio&4
The Mi(itary position of the Ine)I 1hinese ,o*ernment )as sett(e& in the fo((o)ing &ecision of the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference5
8e )i(( urge the surren&er of the 1hinese Army, conci(iate them, an& bring them un&er contro(4 8e )i(( stri*e to ma'e them
support the ne) go*ernment by promoting their anti-1hiang Kai-she' an& anti-1ommunist consciousness, an& ma'ing as many
1hinese troops as possib(e cooperate )ith the Japanese Army for &estruction of the Anti-Japanese an& pro-1ommunist Army,
an& thus gui&e the racia( conf(ict to)ar& an i&eo(ogica( opposition4
The necessary Japanese troops )i(( be statione& at ports, rai()ays, )ater)ays, etc4 in the occupie& areas )hich are strategic for
communications, as )e(( as at the (ocations of important resourcesD an& in remote &istricts arme& 1hinese troops )i(( be
organiLe& to ensure the preser*ation of peace4 The numerica( strength of the troops )i(( be &eci&e& in accor&ance )ith the actua(
(oca( situation4
8e )i(( conc(u&e an anti-1ommunist Mi(itary
''?<?''
A((iance an& gra&ua((y reorganiLe the 1hinese Army to p(ace it un&er the &irection of the Japanese Army4 8hen the
circumstance permit, )e )i(( re&uce our mi(itary strength to the minimum necessary for our nationa( &efense4
The &ecisions upon economic matters inc(u&e& the fo((o)ing5
The &e*e(opment of the economy an& communication )i(( contribute to the estab(ishment of the nationa( &efense of Japan,
Manchu'uo an& 1hina, an& satisfy the &e*e(opment of the economy of the three countries an& the )e(fare of its peop(e4 Japan
especia((y )i(( materia((y ho(& the necessary transportation4 In Corth 1hina the &eman& for nationa( &efense sha(( be the first
consi&eration an& in 1entra( an& 0outh 1hina the interests of the peop(e )i(( be particu(ar(y consi&ere&4
8e sha(( carry out the &e*e(opment of economy fo((o)ing the princip(e of ministering to each otherQs )ants among Japan,
Manchu'uo an& 1hina an& a&*ance energetica((y for the accomp(ishment of the three countriesQ economic sphere4 Ho)e*er, )e
sha(( respect the rights an& interests, a(rea&y obtaine& by the thir& countries, an& not interfere )ith their participation in the
economic &e*e(opment4
+ai()ay, )ater transport, a*iation an& communication )i(( be materia((y p(ace& un&er JapanQs po)er, an& satisfy the
accomp(ishment of mi(itary acti*ities an& contribute to the )e(fare of the peop(e4
These @uotations from the po(icy &ecisions of the Fi*e MinisterQs 1onference in&icate& the genera( scheme to create a
go*ernment in 1hina comp(ete(y &ominate& by Japan,
''?<@''
but bui(t up behin& a faga&e of 1hinese autonomy4
The 2ohihara Agenc!
To a&*ance the programme of estab(ishing a ne) centra( go*ernment in 1hina a(ong the (ines :ust &iscusse&, the Fi*e MinistersQ
1onference on the !th Ju(y &eci&e& upon the creation of a 0pecia( 1ommission on 1hinese Affairs4 In particu(ar, the &ecision
)as as fo((o)s5
The 0pecia( 1ommission for 1hina be(ongs to the Fi*e Ministers 1ounci( an& is an e>ecuti*e organ e>c(usi*e(y for )or'ing out
important stratagems against 1hina an& estab(ishing the ne) 1hinese 1entra( ,o*ernment in accor&ance )ith the &ecision of the
1ounci(4
;*ery organ at the actua( p(aces concerne& )ith the abo*e-mentione& business is &irecte& by the 0pecia( 1ommission for 1hina
in connection )ith the sai& business4
The Army an& Ca*y Ministers )i(( be in charge of the (iaison bet)een 0pecia( 1ommission for 1hina an& the Imperia(
Hea&@uarters4
On the #th Ju(y, the 1ommission )as set up un&er -OHIHA+A, Tsu&a an& HanLai, its functions being &efine& thus5 The
important stratagems against 1hina in Paragraph " are un&erstoo& as po(itica( an& economic strategies )hich are not &irect(y
connecte& )ith mi(itary operations4I A(though -OHIHA+A )as the youngest of the commissioners, he )as the on(y one )ho
)as a so(&ier in acti*e ser*ice4 He it )as )ho un&ertoo' the a&ministration of the affairs of the 1ommission an& for the purpose
set up an estab(ishment in 0hanghai un&er the name of the I-ohihara AgencyI4 -OHIHA+A )as ab(e to ma'e use of his )i&e
'no)(e&ge of 1hina an& fami(iarity )ith the 1hinese4 He starte& accor&ing(y
''?<$''
to en(ist Tang 0hao-Bi an& 8u Pei-Fu, retire& 1hinese statesman an& genera( respecti*e(y, for the purpose of estab(ishing an&
anti-1hiang Kai-she' go*ernment in the IenemyQs mi&stI among high-ran'ing 1hinese4 8u Pei-Fu )as then (i*ing in retirement
at Peping4 -OHIHA+A aime& to bring him out from retirement for acti*e co((aboration )ith Japan4 This scheme came to be
referre& to as the I8u Pro:ectI4 The e>penses in connection )ith this pro:ect )ere to come from surp(us re*enues of the
maritime customs in occupie& 1hina4
Tang 0hao-Bi )as assassinate&, an& negotiations )ith 8u Pei-Fu fai(e&, so -OHIHA+A turne& e(se)here4 The -OHIHA+A
Agency in 1hina ai&e& the &e*e(opment of a scheme to bring 8ang 1hing-8ei to 1entra( 1hina4 It reporte& to To'yo a
conference )ith associates of 8ang 1hing-8ei concerning arrangements for 8ang 1hing-8eiQs coming to 0hanghai, etc4
A(though -OHIHA+A c(aime& that he )as in To'yo at that time, it is c(ear that he )as in contro( of these p(ans4
The <Federated Committee< o# Puppet 7egimes
8hi(e -OHIHA+A an& others )ere ma'ing efforts to carry out the po(icy of estab(ishing a ne) centra( go*ernment in 1hina
through 1hinese personages, the Japanese mi(itary authorities in Japan &isc(ose& their &etermination in pursuit of this po(icy4
0ATO, then 1hief of the Press section of the 8ar Ministry, ma&e t)o speeches upon the I1hina Inci&entI an& sai& that the
fun&amenta( attitu&e of the go*ernment )as to be foun& in the &ec(aration of "! January "#A?, an& that the p(ans for the
estab(ishment of a ne) regime )ere abso(ute(y unchangeab(e4 On < an& ?
''?7%''
August "#A?, representati*es of the To'yo go*ernment an& of the Japanese Army authorities in Tientsin met at Fu'uo'a, Japan,
an& &eci&e& on a basic p(an for the coor&ination of the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment, the +eno*ation ,o*ernment an& the Mongo(ia-
0in'iang Fe&eration4 On # 0eptember "#A?, a p(an for the estab(ishment of a Fe&erate& 1ommittee, or IJoint 1ommitteeI, of
these pro-Japanese organs in 1hina )as a&opte& by the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference4 1onse@uent upon these &ecisions ma&e in
Japan, the )or' of &e*e(oping a Ine)I 1entra( ,o*ernment )as pursue& by the Japanese on the continent4 On # an& "$
0eptember "#A?, representati*es of the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment an& the +eno*ation ,o*ernment met Japanese representati*es at
-airen an& arrange& for the estab(ishment of a IFe&erate& 1ommitteeI at4 It )as to coor&inate an& unify the *arious puppet
regimes, particu(ar(y the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment an& the +eno*ation ,o*ernment, an& to prepare for the estab(ish,ment of the
future Ine)I centra( go*ernment4 On 0eptember "#A?, the inauguration ceremony )as he(& in an& the first meeting of the
1ommittee )as he(& on the ne>t &ay4
5ccupation o# Canton and Han%o'
Pursuant to a &ecision of the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference, he(& ? Ju(y "#A?, prescribing the occupation of certain strategic points
in 1hina, Japanese troops capture& 1anton on $ October "#A?, an& Han'o) on . October "#A?4 0teps )ere ta'en to pro*i&e
for the a&ministration of these t)o important cities an& their a&:oining areas un&er Japanese occupation accor&ing to the fami(iar
pattern4 On ? October "#A?, the arrangements for a&ministration of the 1anton an& Han'o) &istricts )ere agree& upon
''?7#''
among the 8ar, Ca*y an& Foreign Ministers4 They pro*i&e& for Japanese contro( of po(itica( affairs an& for the &e*e(opment of
a IPeace Maintenance AssociationI4 A(though such regimes )ere to be estab(ishe& ostensib(y at the initiati*e of the 1hinese,
po(itica( gui&ance )as to be gi*en by the Japanese4 They )ere to be 'ept in c(ose connection an& cooperation )ith the 0pecia(
1ommission on 1hinese Affairs, )hich, as pre*ious(y note&, )as a specia( agency un&er the (ea&ership of -OHIHA+A4 8ith
regar& to 1anton, a specia( instruction )as gi*en by the 8ar, Ca*y an& Foreign Ministers as fo((o)s5
The organiLation of a (oca( regime sha(( be initiate& by the 1hinese si&e4 Ho)e*er, the estab(ishment of the regime sha(( be
acce(erate& )ith the cooperation of our po(itica( gui&ing agency (The 9iaison 1onference of the 8ar, Ca*y an& Foreign
Ministry authorities at K)antung%, chief(y by our strategy agency (The 0pecia( 1ommittee To)ar&s 1hina%4 After the
estab(ishment of the regime the po(itica( gui&ing agency sha(( ta'e up its interna( gui&ance4
The po(icy of occupying strategic points in 1hina )as carrie& much farther than the capture of 1anton an& Han'o), for on .
Co*ember "#A?, the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference &eci&e& upon the seiLure of Hainan Is(an&, in the e>treme south of 1hina4 this
is(an& )as capture& by the Japanese on "$ February "#A#4
apan Terminated All 7elations :ith 6eague o# Nations
A(though Japan ha& notifie& her )ith&ra)a( from the 9eague of Cations in March "#AA, she continue& to participate in certain of
the acti*ities of the 9eague4
''?7<''
After the fa(( of Han'o) an& 1anton, the attitu&e of Japan to)ar&s thir& po)ers stiffene&4 On Co*ember "#A?, at a meeting of
the Pri*y 1ounci(, )hich )as presi&e& o*er by HI+AC7MA an& atten&e& by the Premier an& Ministers of 0tate, inc(u&ing
A+AKI, KI-O, ITA,AKI an& Pri*y 1ounci((ors MICAMI an& MAT07I, continuance of cooperation )ith the 9eague )as
consi&ere&, inasmuch as matters re(ating to &ip(omacy an& treaties )ere )ithin the pro*ince of the Pri*y 1ounci(4 On the groun&
that a reso(ution ha& been a&opte& on A$ 0eptember "#A? by the 1ounci( of the 9eague of Cations con&emnatory of Japan, it
)as consi&ere& impossib(e, ha*ing regar& to nationa( honour, for Japan to ha*e further cooperation )ith the organs of the
9eague, an& conse@uent(y, a p(an for the termination of cooperati*e re(ations bet)een Japan an& the *arious organs of the
9eague, e>cept the man&atory ru(e of the 0outh 0ea Is(an&s, )as &ra)n up an& a&opte& by unanimous *ote at the Meeting4
Cotice to that effect )as imme&iate(y ser*e& on the 9eague of Cations4
The Ne' 5rder in 9ast Asia
Fo((o)ing her &ecision of comp(ete )ith&ra)a( from the 9eague of Cations, Japan procee&e& to )hat it ca((e& the ICe) Or&er in
;ast Asia4I On A Co*ember "#A?, the Japanese ,o*ernment issue& a statement a&*ising the )or(& that )ith the fa(( of 1anton,
8uchang, Han'o) an& Hanyang, chief cities of 1hina, the Cationa( ,o*ernment ha& been re&uce& to a (oca( regime, an& that
the u(timate aim of Japan )as to estab(ish, in co((aboration )ith Manchu'uo an& 1hina, a Ce) Or&er )hich )ou(& secure
eterna( peace in the Far ;ast4
''?77''
On # Co*ember "#A?, Foreign Minister Arita submitte& a report to the Pri*y 1ounci( of )hich the fo((o)ing are some of the
more significant passages5
As to the po(icy for a&:ustment of ne) 0ino-Japanese re(ations, it is our intention to procee& on the basis of the fo((o)ing points
)ith a *ie) to estab(ishing a Ce) Or&er in ;ast Asia through mutua( co((aboration in po(itica(, economic an& cu(tura( fie(&s
among Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina5 4 4 4 as to the prob(em of ma'ing peace )ith the 1hiang Kai-she' ,o*ernment 4 4 4 it is our
po(icy not to carry this out 4 4 4 Our country )i(( foster the estab(ishment of a ne) 1entra( ,o*ernment on the basis of the pro-
Japanese regime )hich has been estab(ishe& in Han'o) an& 1anton, an& after the ne) 1entra( ,o*ernment has been firm(y
estab(ishe&, )e hope to achie*e the fo((o)ing5 4 4 4 ,enera( co((aboration of Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hinaD 4 4 4 ;stab(ishment in
Corth 1hina an& Mangchiang of a Lone of high &egree of 0ino-Japanese unity in &efense an& economic spheresD 4 4 4
;stab(ishment a(ong the (o)er basin of the BangtLe +i*er of L Lone of high &egree of 0ino-Japanese unity in economic
co((aboration 4 4 4 In 0outh 1hina, besi&es the estab(ishment of specia( Lones on certain specifie& is(an&s a(ong the coast,
en&ea*ours sha(( be ma&e to secure the foun&ation of 0ino-Japanese cooperation an& co((aboration )ith the ma:or cities an&
to)ns as starting points 4 4 4 +egar&ing 4 4 4 princip(e of :oint &efense, )e hope to ha*e Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina, )ith the
chief ob:ects of :oint(y &efen&ing themse(*es against the 1omintern an& at the same time cooperating )ith each other
''?7&''
in the maintenance of common pub(ic or&er an& peace, a&opt the fo((o)ing programme5 4 4 4 The ear(y )ith&ra)a( of Japanese
troops, e>cepting the stationing of troops in specifie& Lones, an& is(an&s for the purpose of guarantee an& the maintenance of
pub(ic peace an& or&er 4 4 4 +ecent(y Hritain, the 7nite& 0tates, etc4 ha*e ma&e *arious representations base& on the princip(e of
open &oor an& e@ua( opportunity4 In this connection it is the intention of the Imperia( ,o*ernment to cope )ith the situation by
a&opting the po(icy of e>amining the so-ca((e& open &oor an& e@ua( opportunity princip(e from the stan&point of the
estab(ishment of a Japan-Manchu'uo-1hina economic b(oc base& upon the necessities for the e>istence an& &efense of our
;mpire, an& of not recogniLing such a princip(e )ithin the e>tent that it is incompatib(e )ith this stan&point 4 4 4 our chief ob:ects
are that5 (a% Japan sha(( contro( in substance the &e*e(opment of natura( resources for nationa( &efence an& principa((y Corth
1hina an& MengchiangD (b% The currency system, customs an& maritime customs system in ne) 1hina sha(( be a&:uste& form the
stan&point of Japan-Manchu'uo-1hina economic b(oc4 0o (ong as the po)ersQ rights an& interests in 1hina &o not conf(ict )ith
the foregoing t)o ob:ects, )e )i(( not purpose(y e>c(u&e an& restrict them4
Premier Konoye ma&e a further speech on -ecember "#A?, reiterating JapanQs reso(ution to e>terminate the 1hinese Cationa(
,o*ernment an& to estab(ish a Ce) Or&er in ;ast Asia4
This Japanese ICe) Or&er in ;ast AsiaI cause& the 7nite& 0tates gra*e concern4 On A$ -ecember "#A?,
''?7(''
Ambassa&or ,re), un&er instructions from his ,o*ernment, a&&resse& a note to the Japanese ,o*ernment, in the course of
)hich he sai&5 IFurther, )ith reference to such matters as e>change contro(, compu(sory currency circu(ation, tariff re*ision, an&
monopo(istic promotion in certain areas of 1hina the p(ans an& practices of the Japanese authorities imp(y an assumption on the
part of those authorities that the Japanese ,o*ernment or the regimes estab(ishe& an& maintaine& in 1hina by Japanese arme&
forces are entit(e& to act in 1hina in a capacity such as f(o)s from rights of so*ereignty an& further in so acting to &isregar& an&
e*en to &ec(are non-e>istent or abrogate& the estab(ishe& rights an& interests of other countries inc(u&ing the 7nite& 0tates4I
Again, on A" -ecember "#A?, Ambassa&or ,re) &e(i*ere& a note informing the Japanese ,o*ernment of the *ie) of his o)n
,o*ernment that the so-ca((e& ICe) Or&erI cou(& not be create& by JapanQs eA'parte &ec(aration4
ITA,AKI )as @uote& by 3apan Ad+ertiser ne)spaper of "< March "#A#, as ha*ing &ec(are& in the -iet that in or&er to estab(ish
to so-ca((e& Ce) Or&er, conf(ict )ith thir& po)ers )as ine*itab(e4 Hritain an& France )ere JapanQs ne>t ob:ecti*e, )hi(e +ussia
)as the first4
On < Ju(y "#A#, on the occasion of the secon& anni*ersary of the 9u'ouchiao (Marco Po(o Hri&ge% Inci&ent, ITA,AKI )as
reporte& as gi*ing a press inter*ie), in the course of )hich he sai& that JapanQs mission of constructing a Ce) Or&er in ;ast Asia
)ou(& necessitate the stamping out of un:ust interference by thir& po)ers4
''?7>''
The Ko-A-In or Asia 2evelopment /oard
After the Japanese Army ha& ma&e &eep penetration into the interior of 1hina, steps )ere ta'en by the Japanese to re*ie) the
a&ministration of the occupie& areas, hitherto un&erta'en by the specia( ser*ice organs of the Japanese Army, preparatory to the
formation of a Ce) 1entra( ,o*ernment4 Foreign Minster 7ga'i &esire& to ha*e a ne) organ to &ea( )ith 1hina Affairs )ithin
the Foreign Office, but this suggestion )as oppose& by the Army4 It )as (ater &eci&e&, at the instance of the Army, that a 1hina
Affairs Hoar& or some such organiLation be p(anne&4 The ne) organ to be set up )as &istinct form the 0pecia( 1ommission on
1hinese Affairs create& by the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference on ! Ju(y "#A?4 The (atter )as an agency concerne& )ith the means
of crushing the 1hinese Cationa( ,o*ernment an& estab(ishing a ne) centra( go*ernment, )hi(e the Hoar& to be estab(ishe& )as
to be concerne&, primari(y, )ith matters of a&ministration in occupie& areas4
On "! -ecember "#A?, this ne) organ came into being un&er the name of 4o'A'9n" or Asia -e*e(opment Hoar&, but more
fre@uent(y referre& to as the 1hina Affairs Hoar&4 The Premier )as the Presi&ent an& the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Finance,
8ar an& Ca*y )ere Jice-Presi&ents4 Accor&ing to the regu(ations go*erning its organiLation, the Hoar& )as put in charge of the
fo((o)ing5 po(itics, economics an& cu(ture, an& the formu(ation of po(icies re(ating theretoD the super*ision of commercia(
concerns to un&erta'e enterprises in 1hina un&er specia( (a)s or to &o business in 1hinaD an& the coor&ination of a&ministrati*e
affairs in 1hina con&ucte& by Japanese ,o*ernment agencies4
''?7?''
Its hea& office )as in To'yo, )ith four branch offices in 0hanghai,, Ka(gan an& Amoy, an& t)o sub-branch offices in 1anton
an& Tsingtao4 07W7KI, Teiichi, )as one of the organiLers of the Hoar& an& the hea& of the po(itica( or a&ministrati*e &i*ision4
-ecisions ma&e by the hea& office in To'yo )ere transmitte& to the Hranch of I(iaisonI offices )hich &ea(t )ith the (oca(
1hinese authorities in )or'ing out metho&s of imp(ementing &ecisions ma&e in To'yo4
Cot)ithstan&ing the estab(ishment of the Hoar&, the Japanese Army in 1hina &i& not forsa'e matters of a&ministration4 0pecia(
ser*ice organs continue& to e>ist, an& army interference )as &efen&e& as necessary because of mi(itary operations4
Among the *arious matters han&(e& by the Asia -e*e(opment Hoar& )as opium4 It stu&ie& the opium nee&s in &ifferent parts of
1hina an& arrange& for the &istribution from Mongo(ia to Corth, 1entra( an& 0outh 1hina4 JapanQs po(icy upon narcotics in
1hina is treate& e(se)here4
:ang Ching&:ei 2eparted Chung%ing
The mo*ement for the estab(ishment of the ICe)I 1entra( ,o*ernment in 1hina recei*e& an impetus )hen 8ang 1hing-8ei
(eft 1hung'ing, 1hinaQs )artime capita(, on "? -ecember "#A?4 He )as Jice 1hairman of the Koumintang Party an& Jice
1hairman of the Cationa( -efense 1ounci(4 As ear(y as the spring of "#A?, Kao Tsung-8u an& Tung Tao-Cing, former officia(s
of the 1hinese Foreign Ministry, )ere brought into touch )ith Kagesa, 1hief of the 1hinese 0ection of the Army ,enera( 0taff,
an& )ere ta'en to Japan
''?7@''
by an army p(ane4 There, Kagesa ha& ta('s )ith them on reestab(ishment of peace bet)een 1hina an& Japan4 It )as propose&
that some person other than ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' must be south to promote peace bet)een the t)o countries an& that
8ang 1hing-8ei )ou(& be a suitab(e person4 The con*ersations )ere reporte& to the Army ,enera( 0taff, )hich too' up the
&iscussions4 In the autumn of "#A?, an officer of the Army ,enera( 0taff returne& form 0hanghai to To'yo bringing ITentati*e
Terms of Peace bet)een Japan an& 1hinaI )hich ha& been &ra)n up by Kao Tsung-8u an& Mei 0su-Ping4 This )as brought by
ITA,AKI before the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference, an& amen&ments ma&e to the Itentati*e P(anI in accor&ance )ith the IPo(icy
for the a&:ustment of +e(ations bet)een Japan an& 1hinaI )hich ha& pre*ious(y been &ra)n up by the Japanese ,o*ernment4
On "? Co*ember "#A?, Kagesa, un&er or&ers of ITA,AKI, )ent to 0hanghai to confer )ith Kao Tsung-8u an& Mei 0su-Ping4
After se*era( amen&ments )ere ma&e to the propose& terms, it )as arrange& that 8ang 1hing-8ei )ou(& (ea*e 1hung'ing
accor&ing to a pre-arrange& p(an, upon )hich the Japanese ,o*ernment )ou(& announce the suggeste& terms of peace4 These
arrangements )ere appro*e& by the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference on . Co*ember "#A?, an& by the Imperia( 1onference on A$
Co*ember "#A?4 As state& abo*e, on "? -ecember "#A?, 8ang 1hing-8ei (eft 1hung'ing4 He reache& Hanoi in In&o-1hina on
$ -ecember "#A?4 It is to be note& that the &ate of 8ang 1hing-8eiQs inten&e& &eparture from 1hung'ing )as 'no)n to the
Japanese ,o*ernment at (east si> &ays pre*ious(y, as KI-O recor&e& in his &iary on " -ecember Iit )as reporte& that 8ang
1hao-Ming (8ang 1hing-8ei% on the
''?7$''
"?th )ou(& escape from 1hung'ing, an& for the present it )as not goo& to &isc(ose any po(itica( unrest in our country4I
-ono!e"s Three Principles
On -ecember "#A?, subse@uent to 8ang 1hing-8eiQs IescapeI from 1hung'ing, Premier Konoye issue& a statement as pre-
arrange&4 The essentia( points of this statement )ere as fo((o)s5 ("% Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina shou(& unite )ith the
estab(ishment of a Ce) Or&er in ;ast Asia as their common ob:ect, an&, in or&er to rea(iLe this, 1hina )ou(& aban&on resistance
to Japan an& hosti(ity to Manchu'uoD #% Japan consi&ere& it essentia( for the rea&:ustment of 0ino-Japanese re(ations that there
be conc(u&e& an anti-1omintern agreement bet)een the t)o countries in consonance )ith the spirit of the anti-1omintern
agreement among Japan, ,ermany an& Ita(y4 In *ie) of the circumstances pre*ai(ing in 1hina, Japanese troops shou(& be
statione& at specifie& points4 Inner Mongo(ia shou(& be &esignate& as a specia( anti-1ommunist areaD (A% Japan &i& not &esire
economic monopo(y in 1hina or (imitation on thir& po)ersQ interestsD but she &eman&e& that 1hina shou(&, in accor&ance )ith
the princip(e of e@ua(ity bet)een the t)o countries, recogniLe free&om of resi&ence an& tra&e on the part of Japanese sub:ects in
the interior of 1hina, to promote the economic interest of both, an& shou(& e>ten& to Japan faci(ities for the &e*e(opment of
1hinaQs natura( resources, especia((y in Corth 1hina an& Inner Mongo(ia4
As p(anne&, 8ang 1hing-8ei on # -ecember "#A?, ma&e a speech in Hanoi in )hich he &ec(are& that the three points in the
Konoye 0tatement )ere consistent )ith the spirit
''?&%''
of peace, since the Japanese ,o*ernment ha& so(emn(y &ec(are& that she )ou(& respect the so*ereignty, po(itica( in&epen&ence
an& territoria( integrity of 1hina an& )ou(& neither aim at an economic monopo(y in 1hina nor &eman& the restriction of thir&
po)ersQ interests in 1hina4 He urge& that the 1hinese ,o*ernment shou(&, as soon as possib(e, e>change *ie)s for a spee&y
restoration of peace bet)een the t)o countries4
Thus )as the groun& prepare& for acceptance of Japanese peace terms by the ICe)I ,o*ernment inten&e& to be create& by
Japan un&er 8ang4 Hy these means, the &ifficu(t an& embarrassing )ar )ith 1hina )ou(& be en&e&, (ea*ing Japan free to pursue
its strategic p(ans e(se)here4 At the same time, a comp(acent ,o*ernment )ou(& be create& by Japan, gi*ing the (atter comp(ete
contro( of 1hina, both mi(itari(y an& economica((y4
Hiranuma Formed a Ca$inet
To)ar& the en& of "#A?, Premier Konoye contemp(ate& resigning4 HI+AC7MA )as oppose& to this because, as he to(& KI-O,
8ang 1hing-8ei ha& (eft 1hung'ing an& the p(ot )as procee&ing stea&i(y4 Konoye, ho)e*er, persiste& )ith his resignation, an&
)as succee&e& by HI+AC7MA on . January "#A#4 A+AKI remaine& as ;&ucation Minister, KI-O accepte& the position as
Home Minister, an& ITA,AKI continue& to be 8ar Minister4
Hefore ITA,AKI agree& to continue, he stipu(ate& on beha(f of the Army se*en re@uirements, +i-:
"4 8ith regar& to the I1hina Inci&entI, the aims of the IHo(y 8ar5I shou(& be achie*e& an& in accor&ance )ith fi>e&
po(icies, particu(ar(y the &ec(aration of -ecember "#A?, containing
''?&#''
the basis of rea&:ustment of the re(ationship )ith 1hina, )hich shou(& be a&opte& in its entiretyD
4 The p(an for nationa( &efense shou(& be estab(ishe& an& e>pansion of armament shou(& be the aim in or&er to cope )ith
the ne) circumstances in ;ast AsiaD
A4 The re(ations among Japan, ,ermany an& Ita(y shou(& be strengthene&D
/4 The system of nationa( tota( mobi(iLation shou(& be reinforce& an& the P(anning Hoar& shou(& be e>pan&e& an&
reinforce&D
.4 A(( efforts shou(& be ma&e to increase pro&ucti*ityD
!4 Cationa( mora(e shou(& be stimu(ate&D an&
<4 Tra&e shou(& be promote&4
The first conse@uence of these &eman&s )as the a&option by a 1abinet 1onference in January "#A# of the IOut(ine of the P(an
for ;>pansion of Pro&ucti*e Po)erI &ra)n up by the P(anning Hoar&4 This pro*i&e& for the estab(ishment of a comprehensi*e
pro&ucti*e po)er e>pansion p(an for Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina, for the impro*ement of nationa( &efense an& basic in&ustries
by "#/", in preparation for the Iepocha( &e*e(opment of our countryQs &estiny in the future4I On " January "#A#, Premier
HI+AC7MA ma&e a speech before the -iet, in )hich he sai& that his cabinet )as committe& to the same immutab(e po(icy as
the pre*ious cabinet )ith regar& to the 1hina Affair, an& that for those )ho fai(e& to un&erstan& an& persiste& e*en in their
opposition to Japan, there )ou(& be no other a(ternati*e than to e>terminate them4 In the meantime, Japan continue& her mi(itary
operations in 1hina4 As has been re(ate&, the Hainan Is(an&s )ere capture& on "$ February "#A#, an& Canchang, capita( of
Kiangsi Pro*ince, )as capture& on ! March "#A#4
''?&<''
:ang Ching&:ei Ta%en to Shanghai
The &ec(arations of an& # -ecember "#A?, ma&e by Konoye an& 8ang 1hing-8ei respecti*e(y, )ere but a pre(u&e to the
estab(ishment of a ne) centra( go*ernment in 1hina4 In March "#A#, the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference in Japan &eci&e& to sen&
Kagesa to Hanoi to ta'e 8ang to a Isafety LoneI, )hich )as &eci&e& upon as 0hanghai4 He reache& Hanoi on "< Apri( "#A#,
carrying persona( (etters to 8ang from Foreign Minister Arita, 8ar Minister ITA,AKI, 4o'A'9n -i*ision 1hief 07W7KI, an&
Ca*y Minister Bonai4 8ang informe& Kagesa that he )ou(& (aunch a mo*ement for peace, )ith 0hanghai as his base4 8ang )as
con*eye& by the Japanese )ith the utmost secrecy from Hanoi to 0hanghai, )here he arri*e& on the ?th May "#A#4
:ang Ching&:ei .isited apan
8hi(e in Formosa )ith 8ang, on their )ay to 0hanghai, Kagesa reporte& to the 8ar Ministry in To'yo that 8ang, in *ie) of
e>pecte& opposition, )ishe& to ha*e himse(f set up as soon as possib(e at the p(ace most con*enient for his *arious acti*ities4
9ater, Kagesa actua((y set up hea&@uarters for 8ang in 0hanghai4 A Kagesa Agency )as &e*e(ope& a(so to coor&inate the )or'
of the Japanese ,en&armerie an& 8angQs men4
8ang )as concerne& to ascertain the *ie)s of the Japanese ,o*ernment4 Accompanie& by Kagesa an& other Japanese, he (eft
0hanghai for To'yo on A" May "#A#4 8hi(e in To'yo, he conferre& )ith HI+AC7MA, ITA,AKI, Konoye, Arita an& Bonai4 In
his ta(' )ith HI+AC7MA, soon after his arri*a( in To'yo, HI+AC7MA to(& him that his cabinet ha& inherite& the i&eas of the
Konoye statement an& )as
''?&7''
firm(y a&hering to it4 On ". June "#A#, 8ang ha& in inter*ie) )ith 8ar Minister ITA,AKI, acting as the pro>y of Premier
HI+AC7MA4 ITA,AKI pointe& out that Japan cou(& not &isso(*e the t)o e>isting regimes, the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment an&
+eno*ation ,o*ernment, as those associate& )ith them ha& been (oya( to the p(an of peacefu( cooperation bet)een Japan an&
1hina4 He suggeste& the estab(ishment of a po(itica( counci( in the Pro*isiona( ,o*ernment an& an economic counci( in the
reno*ation ,o*ernment as the basis of maintaining 0ino-Japanese re(ations (oca((y4 8ang )as not oppose& to this4 IKTA,AKI
further suggeste& changing the 1hinese nationa( f(ag, because the H(ue 0'y an& 8hite 0un ensign )as regar&e& as the symbo( of
anti-Japanism4 ITA,AKI a(so as'e& 8angQs opinion upon the recognition of the in&epen&ence of Manchu'uo, to )hich the
(atter ans)ere& that, as his aim )as peace )ith Japan, he )ar firm(y con*ince& that there )as no a(ternati*e but to recogniLe
Manchu'uo4
2ecision o# the Five Ministers" Con#erence&&une ()*)
HI+AC7MA says that in his ta(' )ith 8ang 1hing-8ei on the "$th of June "#A#, he &iscusse& the future of 1hina an& ga*e it
as his opinion that there )as no )ay but to Ita'e the measure )hich 1hina thought properID yet four &ays before, on ! June
"#A#, )hi(e 8ang 1hing-8ei )as sti(( in Japan, the Fi*e MinistersQ 1onference &eci&e& on a IPo(icy for the ;stab(ishment of a
Ce) 1entra( ,o*ernmentI4 The Po(icy, genera((y spea'ing )as &irecte& to the estab(ishment of a pro-Japanese po(itica( system,
)ith a ICe)I 1entra( ,o*ernment an& a group of constituent (oca( go*ernments -- a form of fe&era( go*ernment, Ibut its &etai(s
''?&&''
sha(( be conforme& to the p(an of a&:usting a ne) re(ation bet)een Japan an& 1hinaI4 As top the 1hung'ing ,o*ernment, the
p(an pro*i&e& that it cou(& become a constituent e(ement Ipro*i&e& that it change its min& an& be reforme&I4 In more &etai( it
sai& I8hen the 1hung'ing ,o*ernment gi*es up its anti-Japanese an& pro-communism po(icy an& accomp(ishe& the re@uire&
personne( changes 4 4 4 it sha(( be ma&e a constituent e(ement of the ne) centra( go*ernment, conc(u&ing BsicC that it has
surren&ere& to usI4 The po(icy pro*i&e& that Ithe time of estab(ishment an& its &etai(s sha(( be sett(e& after consu(tation )ith
JapanI4 The &ecision )as reache& a(so that Ipositi*e an& interna( ai& necessary for this mo*ement sha(( be gi*en from the si&e of
JapanI4 This statement of po(icy )as &ra)n up because of &iscussions then ta'ing p(ace )ith 8ang, an& set out a series of
con&itions to be re@uire& of him, as )e(( as a IP(an of ,ui&ance of 8angQs Mo*ementsI4 A consi&eration of this po(icy &ecision
&isc(oses a c(ear purpose of using 8ang in the &e*e(opment of a Japanese-contro((e& go*ernment throughout the entire area of
1hina4 This is the fact, a(though Kagesa in his e*i&ence sai& the 8angQs party submitte& a re@uest containing broa& princip(es
such as respect for 1hinaQs so*ereignty, non-interference )ith &omestic a&ministration, the pro*i&ing of Japanese a&*isers on(y
at 1hinaQs re@uest, etc4, an& that these suggestions on the part of the 1hinese )ere Igenera((y a&mitte&I4
Ca$inet 7eshu##led in apan
and Continued Militar! 5perations in China
8ithin a perio& of four an& a ha(f months bet)een
''?&(''
the en& of August "#A# an& the mi&&(e of January "#/$, there )ere t)o cabinet changes in Japan4 As a resu(t of the signing of
the +usso-,erman Con-Aggression Pact on August "#A#, the HI+AC7MA 1abinet, )hich ha& been stri*ing for the
conc(usion of a Tri-Partite Pact )ith ,ermany an& Ita(y, submitte& its resignation4 On A$ August "#A#, ,enera( Abe forme& a
ne) 1abinet4 HATA succee&e& ITA,AKI as 8ar Minister an& M7TO became 1hief of the mi(itary Affairs Hureau4 On "
0eptember "#A#, ITA,AKI )as appointe& 1hief of 0taff of the ,enera( Hea&@uarters of the 1hina ;>pe&itionary Forces
statione& at Can'ing, )here he continue& his intrigues by supporting 8ang 1hing-8eiQs ICationa( 0a(*ation Peace Mo*ementI4
Mi(itary operations in 1hina continue& into the interior of 1hina4 On $ Ju(y "#A#, a I0ituation ;stimateI )as ma&e by the
Army in 1entra( 1hina an& presente& to the Jice-Minister of 8ar an& other organs4 This state&, among other things, the future
p(ans of the Army in 1hina4 It sai& that the Army ha& &eci&e& that a ne) centra( go*ernment shou(& be estab(ishe& )ith 8ang
1hing-8ei as its hea&, an& shou(& be gi*en positi*e support in its &e*e(opment4
OC A -ecember "#A#, Japanese (an&e& in 9ungcho) in southernmost 1hina4 On the ne>t &ay, they capture& Canning, the
capita( of K)angsi Pro*ince4 At the en& of "#A#, Japan or&ere& her air force to bomb the Bunnan rai()ay )ith a *ie) to
&isrupting transshipment of )ar materia(s to the interior of 1hina form the seaports of French In&o-1hbina4 In January "#/$,
another go*ernment change too' p(ace in Japan4 Premier Abe resigne& on " January "#/$, an& )as succee&e& by Bonai4 The
genera( po(icy of Japan to)ar&s 1hina, ho)e*er, remaine& unchange&4
''?&>''
Inauguration o# the Puppet Central Government
After his return from Japan, 8ang 1hing-8ei conferre& )ith ,enera( Ta&a, 1omman&er of Japanese Forces in Corth 1hina, an&
)ith the (ea&ers of the Pro*isiona( an& +eno*ation ,o*ernments in regar& to the propose& estab(ishment of a puppet centra(
go*ernment4 Hy that time, Ju(y "#A#, Kagesa ha& estab(ishe& in 0hanghai the Kagesa Agency, )hich )or'e& )ith the 8ar,
Ca*y an& Foreign Ministries, as )e(( as )ith the Asia -e*e(opment Hoar&4 This Agency assiste& in the estab(ishment of the
1entra( go*ernment4 A (oan of /$ mi((ion Ben )as a&*ance& to 8ang 1hing-8ei by Japan for that purpose4 From ? August to
! 0eptember "#A#, 8ang con&ucte& the I0i>th Cationa( 1ongressI, )hich re*ise& the p(atform of the Party an& a&opte& as
Iprincip(esI JapanQs proposa(s, an& &iscusse& a 1entra( Po(itica( 1onference to estab(ish the ne) 1entra( ,o*ernment4
Thereafter, 8ang issue& in*itations to the Pro*isiona( an& the reno*ation ,o*ernments to participate in organiLing the 1entra(
Po(itica( 1ounci( to create the ne) go*ernment4
In Japan, accor&ing to Kagesa, steps )ere being ta'en to imp(ement a tentati*e p(an )hich ha& been prepare& by the Asia
-e*e(opment Hoar& in October, an& this )as agree& upon by the Japanese ,o*ernment an& 8ang 1hing-8ei on A$ -ecember
"#A#4 -etai(s retar&ing the estab(ishment of a ne) 1entra( ,o*ernment )ere a(so agree& upon by a representati*e of 8ang an&
Japanese officia(s in To'yo4 Then in January "#/$, representati*es of the Pro*isiona( an& the +eno*ation ,o*ernments, as )e((
as of the Japanese Army met at Tsingtao an& &eci&e& to ama(gamate the e>isting regimes4 On A$ March "#/$, 8angQs
go*ernment )as forma((y inaugurate&4
''?&?''
Section .I
Greater 9ast Asia Co&Prosperit! Sphere
1(ose(y associate& )ith JapanQs programme of &ominating 1hina on the continent )as the i&ea of estab(ishing a ,reater ;ast
Asia 1o-Prosperity 0phere4 This )as recogniLe& as being boun& to bring her into conf(ict )ith the interests of thir& po)ers4 On <
Ju(y "#A#, t)o years after the outbrea' of hosti(ities at 9u'ouchiao (Marco Po(o Hri&ge%, ITA,AKI an& Bonai, 8ar an& Ca*y
Ministers respecti*e(y of the HI+AC7MA 1abinet, )ere reporte& in the 3apan Times and Mail as stating that the un:ust
interference of thir& po)ers in the e>ecution of JapanQs mission of constructing a Ce) Or&er in ;ast Asia shou(& be stampe& out4
IA(( the peop(e in the countryI, the artic(e continue&, Imust e>press their firm &etermination that Japan )i(( ne*er aban&on her
aim of ma'ing ;ast Asia for ;ast Asiatics4 Co pains must be spare& for the attainment of the goa(I4 On # June "#/$, JapanQs
Foreign Minister Arita broa&cast a speech reiterating JapanQs mission of estab(ishing a Ce) Or&er in ;ast Asia an& her
&etermination Ito (ea*e no stone unturne& to era&icate acti*ities assisting 1hiang Kai-she'I4 He state& that the countries of ;ast
Asia an& the regions of the 0outh 0eas )ere c(ose(y re(ate& to each other an& )ere &estine& to cooperate an& a&minister each
otherQs nee& for their common )e(fare an& prosperity, an& that the uniting of a(( those regions un&er a sing(e sphere on the basis
of common e>istence an& stabi(ity )as a natura( conc(usion4 +eferences )ere ma&e at conferences of representati*es of the
Army, Ca*y an& Foreign Office authorities to the possibi(ity of fighting against ,reat
''?&@''
Hritain, the occupation of Hritish co(onies, an& to JapanQs intention that the Ce) Or&er in the Far ;ast inc(u&e& the 0outh 0eas,
an& in particu(ar, the regions e>ten&ing from Hurma an& the ;astern part of In&ia to Austra(ia an& Ce) Wea(an&4
The &ate of this pub(ic &ec(aration of JapanQs po(icy to e>pan& in ;ast Asia an& the region of the Pacific Ocean, )hich )as #
June "#/$, is significant4 of the countries intereste& in this sphere, Ho((an& ha& been o*errun by the ,ermans an& her
go*ernment )as in e>i(e4 France ha& surren&ere& to ,ermany, Hritain )as about to face a strugg(e for her e>istence4 America, if
she inter*ene&, )ou(& a(most certain(y face a strugg(e )ith Japan, ,ermany an& Ita(y, a strugg(e for )hich her state of
rearmament )as unfitte&4 0uch an opportunity for Japan to e>pan& at the e>pense of her neighbors )ou(& not easi(y occur again4
The Second -ono!e Ca$inet
In the mi&&(e of Ju(y "#/$, the Bonai 1abinet )as force& by the Army to resign because, upon the resignation of HATA as 8ar
Minister, the Army refuse& to pro*i&e a successor4 Konoye )as again chosen to form a ne) 1abinet because, as KI-O sai&, he
)as to be I&epen&e& upon to sett(e the 1hina Inci&entI4 TOJO became 8ar Minister, )hi(e HI+AC7MA, 07W7KI, an&
HO0HICO ser*e& as Ministers )ithout portfo(ios4 The ne) 1abinet )as forme& on Ju(y "#/$4 1ontinuing the po(icy of
estab(ishing a ,reater ;ast Asia 1o-Prosperity 0phere, the ne) Foreign minister, Matsuo'a, &ec(are& on " August "#/$ that the
imme&iate en& of JapanQs foreign po(icy )as to estab(ish a ,reat ;ast Asian chain of common prosperity )ith the Japan-
Manchu'uo-1hina
''?&$''
group as the core4 On ? 0eptember "#/$, the Japanese ,o*ernment prepare& an IOut(ine of Japanese Foreign Po(icyI )hich
pro*i&e& that an effort must be ma&e to rea(iLe genera( peace bet)een Japan an& 1hina, an& to promote the estab(ishment of the
,reater ;ast Asia 1o-Prosperity 0phere4 7n&er that p(an, in the regions inc(u&ing French In&o-1hina, -utch ;ast In&ies, 0traits
0ett(ement, Hritish Ma(aya, Thai(an&, the Phi(ippine Is(an&s, Hritish Horneo an& Hurma, )ith Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina as
center, Japan shou(& construct a sphere in )hich po(itics, economy an& cu(ture of these countries an& regions )ou(& be
combine&4
Further Militar! Action $! apan Against China
A(though the ,o*ernment of 8ang 1hing-8ei )as forma((y insta((e& on A$ March "#/$ in Can'ing, the 1hinese Cationa(
go*ernment at 1hung'ing )as sti(( ho(&ing out against Japan4 In or&er to bring about the surren&er of the 1hinese ,o*ernment,
Japanese mi(itary operations continue& )ith increasing *igour4 On " June "#/$, Japanese forces capture& Ichang, gate)ay to
the 0Lechuen Pro*ince, )ithin )hich is 1hung'ing4 On A$ June "#/$, they again capture& Kaifeng, )hich ha& been reco*ere&
by the 1hinese4 The Japanese ,o*ernment a(so insiste& upon sen&ing troops to In&o-1hina in or&er to &isrupt the supp(y (ine of
the 1hinese an& to threaten them from the rear4 On "/ 0eptember "#/$, KI-O a&*ise& the ;mperor to appro*e the action ta'en
to)ar&s that en&4 After protracte& negotiations, )hich )i(( be &iscusse& (ater, an agreement )as ma&e bet)een the Japanese an&
French authorities to a((o) the Japanese troops to occupy northern French In&o-1hina from A 0eptember "#/$ for operations
against 1hina4
''?(%''
apan Signed a Treat! :ith :ang Ching&:ei Government
7pon the inauguration of the ne) go*ernment, it )as not a professiona( &ip(omat, but a so(&ier, ,enera( Abe, Cobuyu'i, )ho
)as appointe& the Japanese Ambassa&or ;>traor&inary an& P(enipotentiary4 This arrangement fo((o)e& the pattern of
Manchu'uo, )here a so(&ier, the 1omman&er for the time being of the K)antung Army, )as appointe& Japanese Ambassa&or to
the puppet go*ernment of Manchu'uo4 ,enera( Abe arri*e& at Can'ing on A Apri( "#/$, an& a(( preparations )ere comp(ete&
for the restoration of 0ino-Japanese re(ations4 After protracte& negotiations bet)een 8ang an& Abe, a &raft treaty )as agree&
upon on ? August "#/$ an& initia(e& three &ays after)ar&s4 After further negotiations an& some a(terations ha& been ma&e, a
treaty in its fina( form )as sett(e&4 Fo((o)ing an Imperia( 1onference of "A Co*ember "#/$, the treaty )as submitte& to the
Pri*y 1ounci( an& )as appro*e& at its fu(( session on < Co*ember "#/$4 It )as forma((y signe& on A$ Co*ember "#/$ at
Can'ing4
<Treat! Concerning the /asic 7elations
/et'een apan and China<
The Treaty an& associate &ocuments signe& A$ Co*ember "#/$ )ere eA facie &irecte& to the maintenance of mutua( respect an&
cooperation )ith each other as goo& neighbors un&er their common i&ea( of estab(ishing a ne) or&er in ;ast Asia, an&, )ith this
as a nuc(eus contributing to)ar& the peace of the )or(& in genera(4 The Treaty pro*i&e& that the t)o go*ernment agree& to
e(iminate causes pre:u&icia( to amity bet)een the t)o countries, an& to engage in :oint &efense against communism, for )hich
''?(#''
purpose Japan shou(& station re@uire& forces in specifie& areas of Menchiang an& of Corth 1hina4 The 8ang ,o*ernment agree&
to recogniLe JapanQs right to station na*a( units an& *esse(s in specifie& areas in 1hina4 The Treaty further pro*i&e& that the t)o
go*ernments shou(& effect c(ose cooperation so as to comp(ement each other an& minister to each otherQs nee&s in resources in
Corth 1hina an& Menchiang, especia((y materia(s nee&e& for nationa( &efense4 To &e*e(op resources in other areas, the 8ang
,o*ernment agree& to gi*e positi*e an& fu(( faci(ities to Japan4 The t)o go*ernments agree& to promote tra&e an& commerce
an& to e>ten& specia((y c(ose cooperation for the promotion of tra&e an& commerce in the (o)er basin of the BangtLe +i*er4
Attache& to the Treaty )ere t)o secret agreements4 in the first, it )as agree& that &ip(omacy )ou(& be base& on concerte& action
an& no measures )ou(& be ta'en )ith respect to thir& countries contrary to that princip(e4 The 8ang ,o*ernment a(so agree& to
comp(y )ith JapanQs &eman&s for mi(itary nee&s in rai()ays, air)ays, communications an& )ater)ays in areas )here Japanese
troops )ere statione&4 1hinaQs a&ministrati*e an& e>ecuti*e rights )ere to be respecte& in or&inary times4 The secon& secret
agreement a((o)e& Japanese *esse(s to Ifree(y enter into an& anchor at the harbour areas )ithin the territoria( :uris&iction of the
+epub(ic of 1hina4I The 8ang ,o*ernment agree& to cooperate in the p(anning, &e*e(opment an& pro&uction of specia(
resources, especia((y strategic resources, necessary for nationa( &efense, in Amoy, Hainan Is(an& an& the a&:oining is(an&s, an&
to faci(itate the strategic &eman&s of Japan4 In a separate (etter,
''?(<''
a&&resse& to Abe, 8ang promise& that so (ong as Japan )as carrying on mi(itary operations in 1hina, the (atter )ou(& cooperate
to)ar& the fu(( attainment of JapanQs )ar purpose4 On the same &ay as the Treaty )as forma((y signe&, there )as pub(ishe& a
IJoint -ec(aration by the ,o*ernments of Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina,I )hich pro*i&e& that the three countries )ou(&
mutua((y respect their so*ereignty an& territories, an& )ou(& bring about genera( cooperation as goo& neighbors, common
&efense against communistic acti*ities, an& economic cooperation4 Hy this treaty an& associate& secret agreements, Japan
secure& the right to a *oice in 1hinaQs &ip(omatic acti*ities, to maintain mi(itary an& na*a( forces in 1hina, to use 1hina for
strategic purposes, an& to use 1hinese natura( resources for Inationa( &efenseI4 In other )or&s, &espite the &ip(omatic
protestations in these &ocuments, 1hina )as to become at the best a pro*ince or satrapy of Japan, an& at the )orst a country to
be e>p(oite& to satisfy JapanQs mi(itary an& economic nee&s4
Intermittent Peace Tal%s and Continued Militar! 5perations
The signing of the treaty might )e(( be regar&e& by the Japanese go*ernment )ith satisfaction, as the rea(iLation of the po(icy
state& in the Konoye -ec(aration of "! January "#A?, in so far as the estab(ishment of a ne) centra( go*ernment an& the
obtaining of mi(itary an& other a&*antages )as concerne&4 At the same time, the prob(em of ho) to &ea( )ith the 1hinese
Cationa( ,o*ernment in 1hung'ing, )hich )as ho(&ing out, remaine& unsett(e&4 The attitu&e of the Japanese ,o*ernment
&uring this perio& appeare& to be &e*ious or *aci((ating4 Prior to the signing
''?(7''
of the treaty, peace mo*es ha& been con&ucte& to)ar& the 1hinese ,o*ernment at 1hung'ing, but they (e& to no tangib(e resu(ts4
Foreign Minister Matsuo'a, in an attempt to ta'e these negotiations into his o)n han&s, &espatche& Ta:iri, Matsumoto an& others
to Hong Kong4 These efforts again pro*e& fruit(ess4 Fo((o)ing the signing of the treaty )ith 8ang, the attitu&e of the Japanese
,o*ernment to)ar& the 1hinese ,o*ernment at 1hung'ing again stiffene&4 On "" -ecember "#/$, Abe )as gi*en instructions
as fo((o)s5
The Imperia( ,o*ernment has no) recogniLe& the Cationa( ,o*ernment (at Can'ing% an& ha& entere& into forma( &ip(omatic
re(ations )ith it4 Ho)e*er, in *ie) of the situation that not on(y is the Inci&ent sti(( going on, but a(so that )e are, at (east, going
to a&apt the state for a (ong term )arfare, you shou(& try to rapi&(y bring up an& strengthen the Cationa( ,o*ernment (in
Can'ing%, in accor&ance )ith the estab(ishe& po(icy of the ;mpire an& the pro*isions of the ne) 1hina-Japanese Treaty4
Thereafter, arme& operations against 1hung'ing )ere continue&4 On " March "#/", HATA )as again appointe& 1omman&er-in-
1hief of a(( Japanese Forces in 1hina4 0ATO become 0ecretary of the Manchurian Affairs Hureau on "? March "#/"4 07W7KI
)as ma&e the Presi&ent of the 1abinet P(anning Hoar&, fo((o)ing an agreement reache& among Premier Konoye, KI-O, the 8ar
an& Ca*y Ministers4 On " Apri( "#/", Kunming, the capita( of Bunnan Pro*ince, )hich occupie& a strategica((y important
position in the rear of 1hung'ing, )as bombe&, an& the 7nite& 0tates 1onsu(ate bui(&ing there )as ba&(y &amage&4 1hung'ing,
ha*ing pre*ious(y
''?(&''
suffere& &amage from Japanese air rai&s, )as again bombe& on # an& "$ May an& on " June "#/"4
Hull&Nomura Tal%s 7elating to China
In the meantime, Ambassa&or Comura )as con&ucting negotiations )ith the American 0ecretary of 0tate, 1or&e(( Hu((, at
8ashington, o*er @uestions affecting )or(& peace, particu(ar(y 0ino-Japanese re(ations4 These )i(( be &iscusse& more fu((y (ater4
It is sufficient to mention here that Japan sought ("% to en& American assistance to 1hina, (% the assistance of America to in&uce
,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she' to negotiate peace &irect )ith Japan -- rea((y to accept Japanese terms, (A% the recognition of
Manchu'uo, an& (/% the right to ho(& 1hina in mi(itary sub:ection through the stationing of Japanese troops there4
On Ju(y "#/", another Imperia( 1onference )as he(&, atten&e& by TOJO, 07W7KI, HI+AC7MA an& OKA4 A summary of
JapanQs po(icy in accor&ance )ith the current change of situation )as a&opte& at the 1onference4 Among other things, it inc(u&e&
a &ecision to e>ercise further pressure Ito hasten the surren&er of 1hiangQs regime4I
The Third -ono!e Ca$inet
Foreign Minister Matsuo'a )as not in fu(( agreement )ith Premier Konoye in regar& to proce&ure in the negotiation bet)een
Japan an& the 7nite& 0tates4 Matsuo'a )as a(so in fa*or of a Japanese attac' on +ussia, )hich ha& no) been in*a&e& by
,ermany, as )e(( as an a&*ance in ;ast Asia an& the Pacific, a po(icy )hich most of JapanQs (ea&ers thought beyon& her po)ers4
The 1abinet resigne& on "! Ju(y "#/" as a means of getting ri& of Matsuo'a4
On "? Ju(y "#/", Konoye forme& his thir& 1abinet4
''?((''
Toyo&a rep(ace& Matsuo'a as Foreign Minister4 The fun&amenta( po(icy of the Japanese go*ernment remaine& unchange&4
The negotiations bet)een the 7nite& 0tates an& Japan )ere continue&4 On < August "#/", Konoye sent a message to Presi&ent
+oose*e(t4 A Japanese ,o*ernment statement bearing the same &ate )as a(so &e(i*ere& to Presi&ent +oose*e(t4 Among other
things, the statement sai& that JapanQs measures in-1hina )ere inten&e& to acce(erate the sett(ement of the I1hina Inci&ent4I
Presi&ent +oose*e(t, in rep(y reiterate& the princip(es regar&e& as the foun&ation upon )hich re(ations bet)een nations shou(&
proper(y rest, *iL5 respect for the territoria( integrity an& the so*ereignty of each an& a(( nations an& support of the princip(e of
non-interference in the interna( affairs of other countries4 7pon receipt of the rep(y, Konoye ca((e& the 1abinet into session on .
0eptember "#/", )hich &eci&e& to ho(& an Imperia( 1onference on ! 0eptember "#/"4 TOJO, 07W7KI, M7TO an& OKA )ere
a(( present in the Imperia( 1onference, )hich, asi&e from ma'ing a &ecision to brea' off the negotiations in the mi&&(e of
October, a(so set forth the fo((o)ing &eman&s to be ma&e in connection )ith the I1hina Inci&entI in the propose& &iscussions
bet)een Konoye an& +oose*e(t5 ("% the 7nite& 0tates an& Hritain shou(& not interrupt the sett(ement of the I1hina Inci&entI
)hich )ou(& be ma&e in accor&ance )ith the I0ino-Japanese Hasic TreatyI an& the Japanese-Manchu'uo-1hina Tri-Partite Joint
-ec(arationD (% the Hurma +oa& shou(& be c(ose& an& the 7nite& 0tates an& Hritain shou(& gi*e ,enera(issimo 1hiang Kai-she'
neither mi(itary nor economic support4 On 0eptember "#/", Toyo&a &e(i*ere& to Ambassa&or ,re) a
''?(>''
statement of the terms of peace )hich Japan propose& to offer 1hina4 Those terms )ere5 ("% Ceighbor(y frien&shipD (% +espect
for so*ereignty an& territoria( integrityD (A% 1ooperati*e &efense bet)een Japan an& 1hina, for )hich Japanese troops an& na*a(
forces )ou(& be statione& in certain areas in 1hinaD (/% 8ith&ra)a( of Japanese troops upon the sett(ement of the 1hina Inci&ent,
e>cepting those )hich came un&er point AD (.% ;conomic cooperation bet)een Japan an& 1hinaD (!% Fusion of ,enera(issimo
1hiang Kai-she'Qs ,o*ernment )ith 8ang 1hing-8eiQs go*ernmentD (<% Co anne>ationD (?% Co in&emnitiesD (#% +ecognition of
Manchu'uo4 These terms, it )i(( be notice&, not)ithstan&ing their )e((-soun&ing purposes an& ha*ing regar& to the treaty )ith
8angQs ,o*ernment, )ou(& ha*e gi*en Japan comp(ete &ominance of 1hina po(itica((y, economica((y an& mi(itari(y4
In his &iscussion of the situation )ith Premier Konoye on # October "#/", KI-O state& that a(though it )ou(& be ina&*isab(e to
ma'e )ar on the 7nite& 0tates imme&iate(y, Japan shou(& prepare for mi(itary action for the comp(etion of the I1hina Inci&entI
)hich might (ast for ten or fifteen years, an& to app(y the )ho(e of JapanQs mi(itary force in 1hina to rea(iLe JapanQs p(ans against
Kunming an& 1hung'ing4 On " October "#/", the 1abinet reache& an agreement, upon the insistence of 8ar Minister TOJO,
that Japan shou(& not )a*er in her po(icy of stationing troops in 1hina or
''?(?''
other po(icies connecte& )ith 1hina, an& that nothing be &one )hich might pre:u&ice the resu(t of the 1hina Inci&ent4 This
meant, in other )or&s, in no circumstances shou(& Japan yie(& up any of the many materia( benefits a(rea&y gaine& or in prospect
in 1hina4 On "/ October "#/", prior to the 1abinet Meeting, Konoye spo'e to TOJO an& urge& further consi&eration upon the
opening of hosti(ities bet)een Japan an& the 7nite& 0tates, an& the bringing to an en& of the 1hina Inci&ent4 TOJO, as before,
oppose& any concession to the 7nite& 0tates in the matter of )ith&ra)a( of troops from 1hina, an& sai& Konoye )as too
pessimistic4 In the 1abinet meeting he(& that &ay, TOJO )as insistent upon his *ie) an& brought about a comp(ete &ea&(oc'4
Konoye resigne& on "! October "#/"4
To8o Formed a Ca$inet
After the resignation of Konoye, TOJO became Premier upon the recommen&ation of KI-O4 HI+OTA a(so ga*e his specific
appro*a( to the recommen&ation4 In the ne) 1abinet, TOJO )as a(so 8ar Minister an& Home Minister4 TO,O became Foreign
Minister an& concurrent(y Minister of O*erseas Affairs, )hi(e KABA became Finance Minister4 07W7KI )as 1hief -irector of
the Asia -e*e(opment Hoar& an& concurrent(y Presi&ent of the P(anning Hoar&4 0HIMA-A became Ca*y Minister, )hi(e
HO0HICO )as &esignate& 1hief 0ecretary of the 1abinet4 As before, the Premier ser*e& as Presi&ent of the Asia -e*e(opment
Hoar&, )ith the Army, Ca*y , Foreign an& Finance Ministers, as Jice Presi&ents4
Continuance o# United States&apan Parle!s
After the ne) TOJO 1abinet came into office, the Japanese ,o*ernment continue& &ip(omatic &iscussions
''?(@''
)ith the 7nite& 0tates ,o*ernment, but, )hi(e appearing to be urgent for a &ecision, it sho)e& no )i((ingness to ma'e any rea(
mo&ification of its attitu&e concerning 1hina4 On / Co*ember "#/", TO,O informe& Comura that Kurusu )as being
&espatche& to assist him in the par(eys4 On the same &ay, TO,O sent to Comura another message gi*ing the terms to be
presente& to the 7nite& 0tates ,o*ernment, inc(u&ing those re(ating to the stationing of Japanese troops in 1hina4 Japan sti((
insiste& that it shou(& station troops in 1hina, in the Mongo(ian bor&er region an& on the is(an& of Hainan, e*en after the
estab(ishment of peace bet)een Japan an& 1hina, an& that these )ou(& not be e*acuate& unti( the (apse of an in&efinite perio&,
)hich if necessary might be interprete& as . years4 These terms )ere subse@uent(y appro*e& by the Imperia( 1onference he(&
on . Co*ember "#/", at )hich TOJO, TO,O, 0HIMA-A, KABA, 07W7KI, HO0HICO, M7TO an& OKA )ere present4
Comura )as prompt(y notifie& of the appro*a(4
Continued Militar! Campaign in China
The outbrea' of the Pacific 8ar &i& not abate JapanQs mi(itary operations in 1hina, nor a(ter the &ecision to crush the 1hinese
Cationa( ,o*ernment at 1hung'ing4 ;*en before the outbrea' of the Pacific 8ar, casua(ties an& (osses suffere& by 1hina ha&
assume& tremen&ous proportions4 7p to June "#/", figures of the Japanese sho)e& that the 1hinese arme& forces ha& (ost
A,?$$,$$$ men 'i((e&, )oun&e& an& capture&D that the Japanese ha& capture& form the 1hinese an enormous amount of bootyD
that they ha& &estroye& ",<< 1hinese p(anesD an& that the Japanese ha& themse(*es (ost "$#,.$ men 'i((e& an& $A p(anes4
''?($''
In May "#/, the Japanese too' 9ung(ing an& Tengchung in Bunnan Pro*ince, in the rear of 1hung'ing4 In -ecember "#/A,
they capture& 1hangthe in Hunnan Pro*ince, a(though it )as soon recapture& by the 1hinese4 Hy the mi&&(e of "#//, mi(itary
operations )ere intensifie& in the interior of 1entra( 1hina4 1hengcho) fe(( on $ Apri( "#//, 9oyang on . May "#//,
1hangsha on "? June "#// an& Hengyang on ? August "#//4 Then in the )inter of the same year, the Japanese ma&e a further
thrust into the strategic south)estern 1hina4 They capture& K)ei(in on "$ Co*ember "#//, an& 9iucho) on "" Co*ember "#//4
At the c(ose of the )ar, the officia( recor&s of the 1hinese Army sho)e& that the army a(one (ost from < Ju(y "#A< to August
"#/., A,$<,#/? men 'i((e&, )oun&e& an& missing4 8e )ere not gi*en figures of non-combatants 'i((e& or maime& in the course
of the )ar, a(though there must ha*e been *ery consi&erab(e ci*i(ian casua(ties4
''?>%''
Section .II
apan"s 9conomic 2omination o# Manchuria
and 5ther Parts o# China
The case ma&e against the accuse& is of )aging aggressi*e )ar, )ith the ob:ect, inter alia" of obtaining economic &omination of
Manchuria an& other parts of 1hina4 It becomes necessary, therefore, that )e shou(& &iscuss short(y the e*i&ence presente& upon
this sub:ect4 As a(rea&y re(ate&, the Japanese po(icy in Manchuria )as to conso(i&ate the territory un&er a go*ernment
subser*ient to Japan, an& then by means of agreements )ith that go*ernment, an& by other means, to obtain much nee&e& basic
materia(s re@uire& to carry out the program a&opte& in Japan, an& to obtain contro( of the communications an& a substantia( part
of in&ustry an& commerce, a(( of )hich )ere of great *a(ue to (ater mi(itary operations4
In Corth 1hina, the same p(an )as fo((o)e& for the same purposes, an& particu(ar(y to fi(( the &eman& for supp(ies )hich at the
time )ere not obtainab(e in foreign mar'ets an& )hich )ere ba&(y nee&e& in the campaign against the )ho(e of 1hina, an& )ere
necessary to faci(itate the o*er-a(( p(an4 The same po(icy )as a&opte& as the )ar progresse& into 1entra( an& 0outhern 1hina4
The po(itica( &omination has a(rea&y been &ea(t )ithD the fo((o)ing account of the *arious measures a&opte& in&icates the e>tent
to )hich the po(icy of economic &omination )as carrie& out4
General 9conomic Matters
The Japanese po(icy to)ar& 1hina has been &ea(t )ith at an ear(ier point in this :u&gment in re(ation to the po(itica( po(icy4 Most
of the IP(ans an&
''?>#''
Po(iciesI there referre& to a(so &ea( )ith economic matters4 Therefore, at this step )e mention on(y a fe) &ecisions )hich are
particu(ar(y app(icab(e to the @uestion of economic &omination4
Typica( of the po(icy )as the a&option by the HI+OTA 1abinet, on the ""th of August "#A!, of IThe 0econ& A&ministrati*e
Po(icy To)ar& Corth 1hina,I the main purpose of )hich )as ITo Assist the peop(e in Corth 1hina in procuring perfect
in&epen&ence an& to set up an anti-communistic an& pro-Japanese an& pro-Manchurian area an& to secure the necessary
materia(s for our Cationa( &efense as )e(( as to impro*e the faci(ities of the transportation against the possib(e in*asion of 0o*iet
+ussia, an& by ma'ing Corth 1hina the base for the cooperation of Japan, Manchuria, an& 1hina as )e(( as for mutua( ai&4I It
)as then pro*i&e& that Japan shou(& gui&e the (oca( po(itica( po)ers to insure the in&epen&ence of Corth 1hina4 It )as fina((y
pro*i&e& that Iiron, coa( an& sa(t e>isting in the pro*ince shou(& be uti(iLe& for our nationa( &efense an& for the promotion of our
transportation faci(ities an& e(ectric po)er4I
On the $th of February "#A<, the Hayashi 1abinet a&opte& the IThir& A&ministrati*e Po(icy To)ar& Corth 1hinaI, the
princip(e ob:ects of )hich )ere procuring &efense materia(s, impro*ing transportation, preparing the &efense against 700+, an&
estab(ishing cooperation bet)een Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina4 On the "$th of June "#A<, the 8ar Ministry un&er the first
Konoye 1abinet prepare& a I+esume of Po(icy regar&ing the e>ecution of summary of fi*e year program of important
''?><''
in&ustriesI )hich, as )e ha*e mentione& pre*ious(y, )as &ec(are& to be base& upon a Ipo(icy fro the estab(ishment of a
comprehensi*e p(an for Japan, Manchu'uo, an& 1hina in or&er to prepare for the epocha( &e*e(opment of JapanQs &estiny in the
future4I The p(an a(so recites that it Iaims at the estab(ishment of se(f-sufficiency in regar& to important resources )ithin the
sphere of our inf(uence an& thereby a*oi& &epen&ing upon the resources of a thir& po)er4I On the /th -ecember "#A<, the
1abinet &eci&e& the IOut(ine of Measures of the 1hina Inci&entI )hich containe& a section entit(e& IPo(icy for ;conomic
-e*e(opment4I That section pro*i&e& that its ob:ect )as the economic &e*e(opment of Corth 1hina to coor&inate Japanese an&
Manchurian economy an& to estab(ish co-prosperity an& coa(ition bet)een Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina4 For that purpose, it
)as consi&ere& necessary to &e*e(op an& a&:ust e*ery phase of economics by c(ose(y combining 1hinese capita( )ith Japanese
capita(, thereby contributing to the &e*e(opment an& increase of pro&uction of necessary materia(s for the nationa( &efense of
Japan an& Manchu'uo4
In or&er to *ie effect to the p(ans an& po(icy (ast mentione&, an& to coor&inate the Japanese efforts in that regar&, pro*ision )as
ma&e in Apri( "#A? for the creation of t)o nationa( po(icy companies4 These )ere the Corth 1hina -e*e(opment 1ompany for
Corth 1hina an& the 1entra( 1hina Promotion 1ompany for 1entra( 1hina4 The ob:ects of the Corth 1hina -e*e(opment
1ompany )ere to further economic &e*e(opment an& to conso(i&ate *arious un&erta'ings in Corth 1hina4 Its operations )ere
carrie& on as a ho(&ing company
''?>7''
financing an& contro((ing (ea&ing enterprises in transportation, harbor an& port &e*e(opments, e(ectric po)er generation an&
transmission, mining, pro&uction an& sa(e of sa(t an& a((ie& un&erta'ings4
It operate& un&er the super*ision of the Japanese ,o*ernment an& )as sub:ect to the or&ers of the go*ernmentD in fact, e>cept in
routine matters, it re@uire& the appro*a( of the go*ernment for a(( its &ecisions4 For e>amp(e, the appro*a( of the Japanese
,o*ernment )as re@uire& for the raising of (oans, ma'ing changes in its artic(es of association, gi*ing effect to mergers an&
&isso(utions an& &istribution of profits4 Its p(ans for in*estment an& financing for each fisca( year a(so re@uire& the appro*a( of
the ,o*ernment4
7M;W7 )as appointe& a member of the companyQs organiLing committee )ith OKA as an assistant4 KABA ser*e& as presi&ent
of the company for some time, going out of office on the "$th of October "#/", )hen he became Finance Minister in the TOJO
1abinet4
The 1entra( 1hina Promotion 1ompany ha& ob:ects *ery simi(ar to those of the Corth 1hina -e*e(opment 1ompany, an& )as
sub:ect to substantia((y the same contro( by the go*ernment4 The operations in the &e*e(opment of pub(ic uti(ities, transportation,
an& natura( resources, )hich )i(( short(y be referre& to, came un&er the contro( of one or the other of these companies4
Hefore &ea(ing )ith the particu(ar operations, reference shou(& be ma&e to the IProgram for the ;conomic -e*e(opment of
1hinaI a&opte& by the P(anning Hoar& in January "#A#4 It )as state& in this program
''?>&''
that the &e*e(opment of natura( resources in 1hina ha& far-reaching conse@uences in rea(iLing the i&eas of economic
co((aboration bet)een Japan, 1hina an& Manchu'uo as the basic step for estab(ishing a ne) or&er in ;ast Asia4 It )as further
state& that these acti*ities )ere Ias *ita( an& urgent as mi(itary operations an& po(itica( acti*ities an& that they shou(& be carrie&
out e*en &uring hosti(ities4I
+eference shou(& a(so be ma&e to the I0ummary of the Program for ;conomic 1onstruction ;mbracing Japan, Manchu'uo an&
1hinaI put out by the 1abinet Information Hureau on the .th of Co*ember "#/$, the principa( purpose of )hich )as the
estab(ishment of a se(f-supporting an& se(f-sufficient economic structure )ithin ten years to strengthen the position of ;ast Asia
in 8or(& ;conomy4 7n&er the program, JapanQs function )as to promote science an& techni@ues an& to &e*e(op hea*y in&ustry,
the chemica( in&ustry an& mining4 Manchu'uo )as to &e*e(op important basic in&ustries, an& 1hina her natura( resources,
particu(ar(y mining an& the sa(t in&ustry4
Cot on(y )as no pro*ision ma&e in this program for consu(ting Manchu'uo or 1hina )ith regar& to its operation, but rea&ing the
&ocument as a )ho(e, it is ma&e c(ear that &ecisions as to its being put into effect in a(( its aspects )ere to be ma&e by Japan an&
Japan a(one4
0ignificant of the purposes of the Japanese p(ans in Corth 1hina is a statement by KABA that the p(an for mobi(iLation of
materia(s in Corth 1hina ha& three main pointsD the first )as to supp(y Japan )ith )ar materia(sD the secon& )as to e>pan&
JapanQs armamentsD an&
''?>(''
the thir& )as to meet the nee&s of peace-time economy4
Particular Industries
The foregoing gi*es an out(ine of the genera( p(ans an& po(icies a&opte& by the Japanese ,o*ernment4 A short out(ine of ho) the
genera( p(ans )ere app(ie& to particu(ar in&ustries an& specia( phases of economics )i(( be of *a(ue at this point4
,ransportation and Communi'ations
In "#A., )hen -OHIHA+A )as acti*e in connection )ith the estab(ishment of autonomous ru(e in Corth 1hina, he &eman&e&
the construction of a rai()ay bet)een Tientsin an& 0hihchiachuan4 +eference has a(rea&y been ma&e to the rai()ay p(an &rafte&
by the Corth 1hina ,arrison Force in Co*ember "#A. )hich in&icate& JapanQs &esire or intention to ac@uire the 0hantung
+ai()ay an& a section of the 9unghai +ai()ay an& to construct further ne) rai()ays in 1hina4
In Ju(y "#A?, the Corth 1hina Te(ephone an& Te(egraph 1ompany )as organiLe&, the Corth 1hina -e*e(opment 1ompany
o)ning more than <$h of its capita( stoc'4 Its ob:ects )ere to construct an& operate te(egraph an& te(ephone ser*ice, inc(u&ing
submarine cab(e in Corth 1hina an& connecting )ith Japan, Manchu'uo, an& the rest of the )or(&4 Other subsi&iary companies
of the Corth 1hine -e*e(opment 1ompany )ere the Corth 1hina 1ommunications 1ompany an& the Corth 1hina A*iation
1orporation4 The Corth 1hina 1ommunications 1ompany operate& A,<.$ mi(es of rai()ays, !,.$ mi(es of bus (ines, an& !.
mi(es of in(an& )ater)ay communications in Corth 1hina4
''?>>''
>atural Fesour'es
Hy IThe Out(ine of Measures for the 1hina Inci&entI of -ecember "#A<, pro*ision )as ma&e for a Cationa( Po(icy 1ompany to
ta'e o*er the sa(t in&ustries an& practica((y the )ho(e mining in&ustry in Corth 1hina for the purpose of obtaining re*enue for
Japan4
The 1entra( Iron Mine 1ompany, a subsi&iary of the 1entra( 1hina Promotion 1ompany, )as set up in Apri( "#A? to &e*e(op the
estimate& one hun&re& mi((ion tons of coa( in 1entra( 1hina4
-eposits of iron ore in Corth 1hina estimate& at appro>imate(y t)o hun&re& mi((ion tons, or more than ha(f of 1hinaQs estimate&
iron ore &eposits, )ere ta'en o*er in Ju(y "#A# by the 9ungyen Iron Mine 1ompany, a subsi&iary of the Corth 1hina
-e*e(opment 1ompany4 Of the mines coming un&er the contro( of this company, the one ha*ing the (argest estimate& &eposits of
a(( )as the 9ungyen Mine in 1hahar Pro*ince4 Part of the ore from this mine, an& the surp(us of pig iron pro&uce& therefrom,
)ere e>porte& to Japan4 Of a tota( pro&uction of /,A$$,$$$ tons of ore mine& by the company, <$$,$$$ tons )ere use& for the
pro&uction of pig iron, an& of the ba(ance, ",/$$,$$$ tons )ere sent to Manchuria an& o*er a mi((ion tons to Japan4
In 1entra( 1hina, iron &eposits in the BangtLe Ja((ey )ere estimate& at one hun&re& mi((ion tons4 For the purpose of continuing
the &e*e(opment of this &eposit, the 1entra( 1hina Iron Mine 1ompany )as estab(ishe& in Apri( "#A?4 The company )as
contro((e& by the 1entra( 1hina Promotion 1ompany an& other Japanese interestsD payment for 1hinese interests in the property
)as
''?>?''
arrange& to be ma&e in the form of e@uipment an& goo&s4
1oa( &eposits in Corth 1hina )ere enormous, an& estimate& to be more than .$h of the &eposits in the )ho(e of 1hina4 In
&e*e(oping these coa( resources, the Japanese a&opte& a po(icy of
''?>@''
contro((ing the supp(y to the 1hinese in or&er to insure a further supp(y for Japan, ha*ing particu(ar regar& for the nee& of co'ing
coa(4 The Tatung Mine, )hich ha& the (argest annua( pro&uction, )as ta'en o*er an& operate& by the Tatung 1oa( Mine
1ompany, a subsi&iary of the Corth 1hina -e*e(opment 1ompany4
Hy "#A?, the greater part of the sa(t consume& in Japan )as importe& from *arious countries in the ;ast an& Mi&&(e ;ast,
inc(u&ing 1hina4 In or&er to increase the supp(y from 1hina, the Corth 1hina 0a(t 1ompany )as organiLe& as a subsi&iary of the
Corth 1hina -e*e(opment 1ompany for the pro&uction of sa(t in Corth 1hina4 For the same purpose in 1entra( 1hina, the Hua
1hung 0a(t 1ompany )as organiLe& by the 1entra( 1hina Promotion 1ompany in August "#A#, an& p(ans )ere ma&e to &e*e(op
ne) sa(t fie(&s by in*estment of the fun&s of the ho(&ing company4
Publi' Etilities
Imme&iate(y after the occupation of 0hanghai in -ecember "#A<, the Japanese too' o*er *arious pub(ic uti(ity companies,
among )hich might be mentione&5 (a% Puntung ;(ectric 0upp(y 1ompany, )hich )as then ma&e a subsi&iary of the 1entra(
1hina 8ater an& ;(ectricity 1ompany, )hich in turn )as Japanese contro((e&D #b% the 1hinese ;(ectric Po)er 1ompany in
0hanghai )as ta'en o*er in June "#A? an& became a subsi&iary of the same ho(&ing company4 In these cases, the o)ners of the
companies )ere compensate& at a *a(uation consi&erab(y be(o) the rea( )orth of the companies4
The 1hapei 8ater an& ;(ectricity 1ompany )as ta'en o*er, an& after the outbrea' of the Pacific 8ar,
''?>$''
the American-o)ne& 0hanghai Po)er 1ompany )as a(so ta'en o*er4 ;*i&ence )as ma&e before the Tribuna( that after the
surren&er in "#/., )hen the *arious p(ants )ere ta'en bac' by the former o)ners, the p(ant e@uipment an& machinery ha&
&eteriorate& far beyon& or&inary )ear an& tear4
0an-in*
From the beginning of the occupation of Corth 1hina, the Japanese Army circu(ate& in Corth 1hina ban' notes of the Han' of
1hosen, an& in 1entra( 1hina, ban' notes of the Han' of Japan, together )ith some mi(itary or occupation yen notes4 Ho)e*er,
the use of Japanese currency in occupie& territories )as &isturbing to JapanQs monetary system4 In or&er to reme&y this situation,
the Japanese ,o*ernment organiLe& the Fe&era( +eser*e Han' of 1hina in February "#A?, the main po(icy of )hich )as to
stabi(iLe currency an& contro( the money mar'et in foreign e>change4 It )as authoriLe& to issue paper currency )hich )as (in'e&
to the Japanese yen, an& so ma&e the basis for Japanese in*estments in Corth 1hina4 1ontro((e& by the Japanese ,o*ernment,
this ban' became *ery important an& carrie& out JapanQs po(icy in the financia( fie(& of its operations4
As a resu(t of the Japanese *irtua( contro( of the economics of occupie& 1hina, an& its contro( of a substantia( part of in&ustry
an& commerce, many Japanese businessmen an& in&ustria(ists )ent to 1hina an& entere& the economic (ife, ma'ing no effort to
hi&e their contro(4
Protests o# the United States
The a&option of the measures :ust referre& to
''??%''
ine*itab(y ha& the resu(t of affecting the tra&e an& commerce of other po)ers4 1onse@uent(y, on the !th of October "#A?, 7nite&
0tates Ambassa&or ,re) )rote to Prime Minister Konoye that the e*ents in Manchuria )ere being repeate&D that the e>change
contro( in Corth 1hina )as &iscriminatory, an& that )ith the a(teration of customs tariffs, the Japanese contro( of transportation
an& communications, an& the proposa( to create a monopo(y in )oo( an& tobacco, )as putting Japan an& Japanese merchants in a
preferre& position in 1hina4 He conse@uent(y as'e& for &iscontinuance of ("% e>change contro( an& other measures
&iscriminatory to American tra&e an& enterpriseD (% monopo(ies or preferences conferre& on Japanese interests, superiority of
rights in commerce or the economic &e*e(opment in 1hina an& (A% interference )ith American property an& rights, particu(ar(y
censorship of mai( an& restrictions upon resi&ence an& tra*e( by Americans an& American tra&e an& interests4 To this protest, the
Foreign Minister, )hi(e a&mitting the truth of the charges, c(aime& :ustification for the economic measures as being for the
benefit of 1hina an& ;ast Asia4
Narcotics in China
+eference has a(rea&y been ma&e to the traffic in narcotic &rugs in Manchuria4
A po(icy simi(ar to that a&opte& in Manchuria )as a&opte& form time to time as mi(itary operations succee&e& in Corth, 1entra(,
an& 0outhern 1hina4 This traffic is re(ate& to the mi(itary operations an& po(itica( &e*e(opments in that, by means of it,
substantia( fun&s )ere obtaine& for the *arious (oca( go*ernments
''??#''
set up by the Japanese, fun&s )hich )ou(& other)ise ha*e to be furnishe& by Japan or foun& by a&&itiona( (oca( ta>es4
Inci&enta((y, the effect on the mora(e of the 1hinese popu(ation by the tremen&ous increase of &rug a&&icts can be )e((
imagine&4
Prior to the outbrea' of the 1hina 8ar, the 1hinese ,o*ernment ha& been ma'ing &etermine& efforts to )ipe out opium
smo'ing4 that these efforts )ere meeting )ith success is &emonstrate& by a report ma&e by the A&*isory 1ommittee of the
9eague of Cations in June "#A# to the effect that the measures ta'en by the 1hinese ,o*ernment for the suppression of &rug
a&&iction un&er regu(ations promu(gate& in June "#A!, ha& pro&uce& high(y satisfactory resu(ts4
1onnecte& )ith the opium traffic in 1hina from "#A<, )ere the Japanese Army, the Japanese Foreign Office, an& the Asia
-e*e(opment Hoar&4 The Mitsubishi Tra&ing 1ompany an& the Mitsui Hussan Kaisha )ere ma'ing (arge purchases of Iranian
opium for Japan, Manchu'uo an& 1hina4 Hy arrangement )ith the Foreign Ministry, the t)o companies in March "#A? ma&e an
agreement in respect to the p(aces form )hich the opium )as to be importe& an& their respecti*e shares in the business4 The
&istribution of opium for Japan an& Manchu'uo )as to be han&(e& by the Mitsubishi 1ompany, an& that for 1entra( an& 0outh
1hina by the Mitsui 1ompanyD the &istribution for Corth 1hina being share& e@ua((y, an& the go*ernment offices of Japan,
Manchu'uo, an& 1hina )ere to &eci&e upon an& inform the t)o companies of the amount to be purchase& for each year4 At the
re@uest of the Asia -e*e(opment Hoar&, the
''??<''
agreement )as re*ise& by pro*i&ing for the organiLation of the Iranian Opium Purchasing Association, the opium business of
that company to be &i*i&e& e@ua((y bet)een the t)o tra&ing companies4
The 0pecia( 0er*ice OrganiLations estab(ishe& in cities an& to)n un&er the 1hina ;>pe&itionary Force )ere entruste& )ith the
sa(e of the opium4 The ;conomic -i*ision of the Asia -e*e(opment Hoar& state& the re@uirements of opium in Corth, 1entra(
an& 0outh 1hina an& arrange& for its &istribution4 Profits from the sa(es of opium )ere transferre& to the Asia -e*e(opment
Hoar&4 At a (ater &ate, a ,enera( Opium 0uppression Hureau )as create&, an& the opium tra&e )as a&ministere& by the
+eno*ation ,o*ernment, )hich )as to a certain e>tent supporte& by the profits from the sa(e of opium4 Hut e*en at that time, the
4o'A'9n an& the Japanese Army Hea&@uarters in 1entra( 1hina )ere sti(( responsib(e for po(icy ma'ing )ith regar& to the opium
tra&e4
From time to time, measures )ere a&opte& ostensib(y to contro( or re&uce the traffic4 One e>amp(e )as the ,enera( Opium
0uppression Hureau, )hich as organiLe& in "#A? an& at about the same time the +eno*ation ,o*ernment set asi&e [$$$ a
month for opium suppression propagan&a4 Cot)ithstan&ing these an& other measures a&opte&, the traffic continue& to increase4
The e>p(anation may be foun& in the cryptic e*i&ence of Hara&a, Kuma'ichi, Japanese Mi(itary AttachZ at 0hanghai from "#A<
to "#A#4 He say, I8hen I )as hea& of the To'umu Hu I recei*e& instructions through mi(itary channe(s to pro*i&e opium for the
''??7''
1hinese peop(e by estab(ishing an opium suppression boar&4I
In June "#A<, at a meeting of the A&*isory 1ommittee on Traffic Opium of the 9eague of Cations, it )as state& open(y that the
increase in i((icit traffic in 1hina coinci&e& )ith the Japanese a&*ances4
Inner Mon*olia
Fo((o)ing the )ith&ra)a( of 1hinese troops from Corth 1hahar after the 1hing--OHIHA+A Agreement of "#A., as a(rea&y
re(ate&, Japanese inf(uence )as fe(t in the pro*inces of 1hahar an& 0uiyuan4 thereafter, the farmers )ere encourage& to raise
more opium4 As a resu(t, pro&uction of opium )as substantia((y increase&4
>orth China
In Corth 1hina, particu(ar(y in Hopeh an& 0hantung, after the Tang'u Truce of "#AA, an& the estab(ishment of the &emi(itariLe&
Lone, the 1hinese )ere unab(e to contro( the &rug traffic4 There then fo((o)e& a tremen&ous increase in the number of &rug
a&&icts, the &istribution of the &rugs being han&(e& by *arious companies an& associations contro((e& by Japanese4
After the occupation of Tientsin in "#A<, there )as a notab(e increase in the use of narcotics4 The Japanese concession in
Tientsin became 'no)n as the center of heroin manufacturing4 Cot (ess than t)o hun&re& heroin factories )ere estab(ishe& in the
Japanese concession, an& it )as state& before the 9eague of Cations A&*isory 1ommittee on Traffic in Opium in
''??&''
May "#A<, that it )as common 'no)(e&ge that a(most #$h of a(( i((icit )hite &rugs in the )or(& )ere of Japanese origin
manufacture& in Tientsin, -airen an& the other cities of Manchuria an& Corth 1hina4
Central China
Here again, substantia((y the same story is to(&4 In Can'ing, opium consumption ha& been practica((y )ipe& out before "#A<4 After the
occupation by the Japanese troops, the tra&e in narcotics became pub(ic an& )as e*en a&*ertise& in ne)spapers4 As )as estab(ishe& in
an ear(ier part of this chapter, the profits ma&e in the &rug traffic monopo(y )ere enormous4 Hy the autumn of "#A#, the month(y
re*enue from the sa(e of opium in Can'ing )as estimate& at [A,$$$,$$$4 It is therefore ob*ious, ha*ing regar& to the magnitu&e of the
traffic in Manchuria, Corth, 1entra(, an& 0outh 1hina, ho) *a(uab(e the traffic )as to the Japanese ,o*ernment e*en if ta'en on(y in
terms of re*enue4
8e &o not consi&er it necessary to *ie any further &etai(s of the traffic in &rugsD it is sufficient to say that in 0hanghai, in Fu'ien
Pro*ince, an& K)antung Pro*ince in 0outh 1hina an& e(se)here after "#A<, upon occupation of each pro*ince an& (arge center by the
Japanese, the traffic in &rugs increase& on a sca(e correspon&ing to that in other parts of the country )hich has a(rea&y been &escribe&4
''??(D
Tab(e of 1ontents ee Pre*ious 1hapter (/% e Ce>t 1hapter (!%
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0ource5 Internationa( Mi(itary Tribuna( for the Far ;ast (IMTF;% Ju&gment
http566)))4ibib(io4net6hyper)ar6PTO6IMTF;6IMTF;-.a4htm(
Japan@s 6an-Asianism and the 0egitimac' of Imperial 2orld Crder, !")!D!"#7
&' Cemil A'din
@ne o% the most striking aspe&ts o% the international history o% the 19+<s is the revival and o%%i&ial endorsement o% a pan/2sian
vision o% regional #orld order in 0apan. 4he pan/2sian dis&ourse o% East/West &iviliGational di%%eren&e and &omparison #as
in%luential in various intelle&tual &ir&les in 2sia. But during the 19*<s8 as a politi&al pro$e&t o% 2sian solidarity8 it #as irrelevant %or
0apan7s %oreign poli&y8 and it did not have any international momentum or movement. 4he period a%ter the .an&hurian )n&ident
in 19+18 ho#ever8 #itnessed a pro&ess :y #hi&h pan/2sianist ideas and pro$e&ts :e&ame part o% 0apan7s o%%i&ial %oreign poli&y
rhetori&. L1M 2%ter 19++ 0apan7s pan/2sian internationalism :egan to overshado# li:eral internationalism8 gradually :e&oming the
mainstream vision o% an alternative #orld order. 4his pro&ess &ulminated in the de&laration o% the Breater East 2sia ?oprosperity
Sphere in 19H<8 a pro$e&t that relied heavily on the rhetori& o% pan/2sian internationalism. )n 19H+8 seventeen years a%ter the
ine%%e&tual 19*= 1agasaki pan/2siati& &on%eren&e that #as ridi&uled :y o%%i&ial and li:eral &ir&les in 0apan8 the 0apanese
government itsel% hosted a Breater East 2sia ?on%eren&e to #hi&h it invited the leaders o% the Philippines8 Burma8 the provin&ial
government o% )ndia8 the 1anking government o% ?hina8 .an&hukuo8 and 4hailand.
Biven that pan/2sianist a&tivists had regularly e;pressed strong opposition to 0apan7s %oreign poli&y up to the 19+<s8 and a#are
o% the la&k o% politi&al &lout o% 2sianist &ir&les during the 19*<s8 0apan7s apparent endorsement o% pan/2sianism in its o%%i&ial
Nreturn to 2siaO a%ter 19++ raises a ma$or Euestion. Ho# &an #e understand the predominan&e o% pan/2sianist dis&ourses in
0apanese intelle&tuals &ir&les in the 19+<sT Why #ould 0apan7s politi&al elite8 #ith its proven re&ord o% &ooperation #ith Western
po#ers :ased on a realisti& assessment o% the trends o% the time8 &hoose to endorse an anti/Western dis&ourse o% 2sianism as
its o%%i&ial poli&y during the late 19+<sT
,8plaining Japan@s Cfficial E4eturn to AsiaF
)n the literature8 the pro&ess o% transition %rom a poli&y o% pro/Western &apitalist internationalism in the 19*<s to a very di%%erent
poli&y aiming to &reate a regional order in East 2sia has :een attri:uted to a &omple; set o% interrelated %a&tors8 :oth &ontingent
and stru&tural. (or the sake o% &larity8 ) &ategoriGe the e;planations o% the previous historiography into t#o groups8 #hi&h are
distin&t :ut not ne&essarily in &on%li&t! those that emphasiGe domesti& politi&al &auses o% the &hange and those that stress
&hanges in the international environment.
2&&ording to domesti& poli&yQdriven e;planations8 2sianism #as the %oreign poli&y ideology espoused :y the e;pansionist8
militarist8 and &onservative segments o% 0apanese so&iety. (rederi&k Ii&kinson has tra&ed :a&k to the period o% World War )
3WW)5 the origins o% t#o distin&t agendas %or 0apan7s diploma&y and national mission8 one li:eral and pro/British and the other
&hara&teriGed :y pro/Berman8 anti/li:eral8 and 2sianist tenden&ies. 4he 2sianist and &onservative group8 mostly &lustered
around Yamagata 2ritomo8 &ould not implement its poli&y visions during the 191<s :e&ause the li:eral group prevailed in
domesti& politi&s. By identi%ying t#o distin&t visions o% 0apan7s national identity and t#o &orresponding international poli&ies in
response to the opportunities presented :y WW)8 Ii&kinson7s study su&&ess%ully demonstrates that %oreign poli&y de&isions
should not :e regarded as automati& responses to international trends and immediate e;ternal &hallenges :ut rather :e seen as
results o% the :alan&e o% po#er in domesti& politi&s among groups that have &ompeting visions o% their national identity and
mission. 2&&ording to Ii&kinson8 pan/2sianism #as one su&h grand vision8 #hi&h aimed to esta:lish 0apan7s leadership in 2sia
:y e;&luding Western po#ers %rom the region in the name o% ra&ial solidarity and &iviliGational harmony.L*M
@ther studies on the 19*<s have argued that mem:ers o% the &onservative antili:eral politi&al &amp8 o%ten identi%ied #ith pan/
2sianist in&linations8 &ontinued to agitate %or an e;pansionist poli&y at a time #hen their voi&es #ere overshado#ed :y the
li:eralism o% the 4aishZ demo&ra&y and the &apitalist internationalism o% Shidehara diploma&y. 2&&ording to Ai&hard Storry7s
early #ork8 #hi&h o%%ers a history o% 0apanese ultranationalism :ased on the materials o% the 4okyo War ?rimes 4ri:unal8 the
persisten&e and violen&e displayed :y right/#ing groups #as a:le to #eaken and eventually to overturn the prevailing
atmosphere o% 4aishZ demo&ra&y and li:eral diploma&y. (or Storry8 %or e;ample8 pan/2sianist thinker [ka#a Sh\mei #as one o%
the 2sianist Ndou:le patriotsO #ho in%luen&ed young military o%%i&ers and played a great role in the transition to the e;pansionist
19+<s.L+M ?hristopher SGpilman strengthened this argument in his study o% 6okuhonsha8 the main &onservative organiGation o%
inter#ar 0apan8 noting that anti/Western and antili:eral trends in 0apan had high/ranking supporters and strong organiGational
solidarity during the 19*<s and thus #ere a:le to e;ert disproportionate in%luen&e as a result o% their popularity among the
:ureau&rati& and military elite.LHM )n his resear&h on the House o% Peers8 BenGo Yamamoto %urther demonstrated the appeal and
predominan&e o% #hat he des&ri:ed as an Nilli:eralO agenda among 0apan7s top politi&al elite %rom the 19*<s to the late 19+<s8
leading to their %inal triumph in domesti& politi&s paralleling the adoption o% an aggressive ?hina poli&y.L,M
4his %o&us on the domesti& politi&al &omponents o% the transition to the pan/2sianist poli&ies o% the 19+<s has o:vious merit.
2sianism8 ho#ever8 &ould not al#ays :e uniEuely identi%ied as the e;pansionist ideology o% &onservative antili:erals8 as 0apan7s
li:erals also envisioned a spe&ial role %or 0apan in 2sia8 #hether as the disseminator o% a higher &iviliGation to :a&k#ard areas or
as the leading %or&e in e&onomi& development and politi&al &ooperation in the region. .oreover8 an aggressive poli&y in
.an&huria #as not the monopoly o% 0apanese 2sianists. 2s demonstrated :y Louise Young8 there e;isted #ithin 0apanese
so&iety an over#helming &onsensus &on&erning poli&y in .an&huria8 #hi&h &ut a&ross the lines dividing li:erals and
&onservatives.L=M 4he ma$ority o% 0apan7s politi&al and intelle&tual elite8 in&luding the pro/Western internationalists8 supported the
ne# orientation in %oreign poli&y sym:oliGed :y the #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations. (or e;ample8 1ito:e )naGZ8 reputed
%or his li:eral internationalism8 #as #illing to de%end 0apan7s poli&y in ?hina that led to the .an&hurian )n&ident8 even to the point
o% a&&epting 0apan7s #ithdra#al in 19+* %rom the League o% 1ations8 in #hi&h he had served %or so many years.L7M 2nother
li:eral internationalist8 Sumoto .otosada8 #ent on le&ture tours in 19+1 to Europe and the 'nited States in an attempt to e;plain
0apan7s position on the .an&hurian )n&ident. Iuring his spee&hes8 .otosada o%ten re%erred to the idea o% a 0apan/led regional
order in East 2sia separate %rom the European/:ased league system. 0ust %ive years :e%ore the .an&hurian )n&ident8 Sumoto
had a%%irmed 0apan7s pro/League internationalism in his &ritiEue o% the 1agasaki pan/2siati& &on%eren&e o% 19*=. 0apan7s li:eral
internationalists apparently turned to pan/2sianism #hen they sa# a tension :et#een 0apanese national interests and the
de&isions o% the League o% 1ations.LM
/ito&e InaGH at the 0eague of /ations
4he 2sianist dis&ourse o% 0apan7s transnational identity had many di%%erent versions8 ranging %rom a do&trine o% regional
solidarity to anti/Western visions o% &iviliGational revival8 and it #as not limited to &onservative &ir&les. (or e;ample8 during the
19+<s8 many 0apanese intelle&tuals #ho had no previous &onne&tion #ith &onservative radi&al nationalist groups8 su&h as the
mem:ers o% the 6yoto S&hool o% Philosophy or the semio%%i&ial think tank ShZ#a 6enky\kai8 also utiliGed anti/Western rhetori&
and advo&ated the revival o% 0apan7s 2sian identity.L9M 4his indi&ates an area o% overlap in the #orldvie#s o% li:erals and
antili:erals #ith respe&t to 0apan7s 2sian identity and its international mission in 2sia8 as #ell as their shared diagnosis o% the
international system during the 19*<s. )t also sho#s that the theories o% the &lash o% &iviliGations and 0apan7s mission in 2sia
#ere part o% a &ommon vo&a:ulary8 #hi&h #ould then have di%%erent politi&al &onnotations depending on the intelle&tual &limate.
(or e;ample8 those promoting '.S./0apan %riendship #ould %rame their e%%orts as a dialogue o% harmony among the di%%erent
&iviliGations o% East and West8 thus &on%irming a vision o% the #orld as divided into di%%erent ra&e and &iviliGation groups :eyond
the nations. )n that sense8 many leading 0apanese intelle&tuals #ho had no ties to the &onservative radi&al nationalist groups
ended up &ontri:uting to the legitima&y o% the pan/2sianist program in some #ay8 either through their theories on over&oming
modernity and Euro&entrism or through their sear&h %or an alternative modernity in the 0apanese and 2sian &ultural traditions.
L1<M
4he se&ond ma$or approa&h to the Euestion o% 0apan7s adoption o% 2sianist rhetori& in %oreign poli&y emphasiGes that the
stru&tural trans%ormations in the international system in East 2sia &omplemented &hanges in the domesti& po#er &on%igurations
to &reate a situation that led to the triumph o% antili:eral and 2sianist pro$e&ts. 2kira )riye and 0ames ?ro#ley have argued that
0apanese poli&ies during the 19+<s #ere largely a response to &hanges in the trends o% the times as per&eived :y the 0apanese
elite. 2 per&eived sense o% an international legitima&y &risis and 0apan7s isolation a%ter the .an&hurian )n&ident #as a&&elerated
:y the impa&t o% &hanged #orld &onditions. Aegionalism :e&ame the trend o% the time8 making the &reation o% a regional order in
East 2sia a more %easi:le poli&y8 in harmony #ith the %lo# o% #orld opinion. 2s )riye noted8 N:y 19+1 all indi&ations seem to
suggest that the neo/mer&antilist #orld/vie# o% .atsuoka #as more realisti& than Shidehara7s rational8 laisseG/%aire image8 #hi&h
had apparently %ailed to produ&e tangi:le results.OL11M 4he &apitalist internationalism o% the 19*<s #as not only denied altogether
:y (as&ist Bermany and So&ialist Aussia :ut also hal%/a:andoned in the &on&ept o% the pan/2meri&an trade :lo& and e&onomi&
nationalism o% the 'nited States and the idea o% the sterling trade :lo& in England.L1*M )n short8 0apan7s poli&y shi%t %rom li:eral
internationalism to 2sian regionalism &ould :e &onsidered a %un&tion $ust as mu&h o% other po#ers7 poli&ies in the &hanging
international system o% the late 19+<s as o% 0apan7s o#n domesti& politi&s.
4he end o% the party &a:inet system in 19+* and the in&reasing po#er o% the military in politi&al de&isions &reated a dis&ontinuity
in the history o% 0apan7s domesti& politi&al order in terms o% demo&rati& parti&ipation and popular e;pression. 0apan &ontinued to
:e a &onstitutional state8 ho#ever8 #ith normally %un&tioning domesti& politi&s in a&&ordan&e #ith the intri&a&ies o% the .ei$i
?onstitution.L1+M )n his study on the 19+<s8 ?ro#ley re%utes the idea o% a &onservative or right/#ing takeover o% the 0apanese
leadership :y %o&using on &ontinuity in the No%%i&ial mindO and the Nde&ision/making pro&ess.O ?ro#ley sho#s that all the poli&y
de&isions o% the 0apanese government during the 19+<s #ere made :y responsi:le politi&al and military leaders in the interest o%
national de%ense and national poli&y.L1HM
4he historiography that %o&uses on 0apan7s response to &hanges in the international environment attri:utes an important role to
ideology and &ulture in shaping 0apanese per&eptions o% #orld events8 #ithout limiting %o&us to right/#ing or militarist groups. )t
is in this &onte;t that an 2sianist #orldvie# a:out #orld &ultures and international order :e&omes relevant %or determining the
per&eptions and de&isions o% 0apanese leaders. )riye has dis&ussed the role o% key notions su&h as isolation and sel%/su%%i&ien&y
in the psy&hology o% 0apanese de&ision makers8 sho#ing ho# the per&eption that 0apan stood uneasily :et#een East and West
in%luen&ed the poli&y/making mood.
)n this vie#8 the notions that the elite held &on&erning the threats and opportunities presented to 0apan :y the ne# glo:al
developments should thus :e regarded as more signi%i&ant than the impa&t o% antili:eral right/#ing movements asso&iated #ith
pan/2sianism. 2 similar approa&h attri:utes 0apan7s turn to anti/Westernism not to the in%luen&e o% pan/2sianist groups in
parti&ular :ut rather to the general &hara&teristi&s o% 0apanese nationalism. Hayashi (usao7s &ontroversial assertion that the
NPa&i%i& War #as one phase o% an 2sian Hundred Years7 War to drive out the @&&idental invaderO presents a generaliGed
%ormulation that portrays 2sianist ideas as a permanent part o% mainstream 0apanese nationalism.L1,M 4his emphasis on the
anti/Western histori&al memory o% 0apanese nationalism depi&ts 2sianism as a #idely held &on&eption a:out 0apan7s
transnational identity rather than an e;&lusively radi&al ideology monopoliGed :y ultranationalists or &onservatives. .ark Peattie
and 0ames ?ro#ley &on&ur #ith Hayashi7s assessment o% the importan&e o% anti/Western histori&al memory em:edded in
0apanese nationalism as an ideologi&al %a&tor8 although they do not share his revisionist agenda.L1=M
Sin&e #e kno#8 ho#ever8 that mainstream nationalism in 0apan had &hanging per&eptions o% the West8 it #ould :e ina&&urate to
&hara&teriGe anti/Westernism as a single &onstant position in the history o% 0apanese nationalism %rom the @pium War to the
Breater East 2sia War. .oreover8 the 0apanese intelle&tual elite remained &losely linked to trends and ideas in Europe and the
'nited States. Iuring the 19+<s8 there #as no ne# e;pansion o% the West in 2sia to #hi&h the surge in 0apanese nationalism
might :e attri:utedF on the &ontrary8 the West #as per&eived to :e in a phase o% glo:al de&line and retreat.L17M 4hus the very
assumption that there #as a &onstant asso&iation :et#een 0apanese nationalism and resistan&e to Western e;pansion re%le&ts
the in%luen&e o% the o%%i&ial pan/2sianist dis&ourse o% #artime 0apan rather than a&&urately &hara&teriGing ho# images o% the
West and &iviliGational identity intera&ted #ith 0apanese %oreign poli&y.
2ithdrawal from the 0eague of /ations as a (urning 6oint
4here had :een pan/2sianists in 0apan sin&e the turn o% the t#entieth &entury8 and some &ontinued to #ork %or the &ause they
:elieved in espe&ially %rom 19<, to the 19+<s8 espe&ially under the um:rella o% patrioti& 2sianist organiGations su&h as
6okury\kai and Benyosha. 4hese patrioti& 2sianists represented a minority8 i% not a marginal opinion8 in shaping 0apanese
%oreign poli&y. 4hey o%ten &omplained a:out the negle&t to #hi&h they had :een su:$e&ted :y the 0apanese elite. )n the
a%termath o% the .an&hurian )n&ident o% 19+1 and 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations the %ollo#ing year8 ho#ever8
traditional 2sianists %ound a very re&eptive audien&e %or their ideas among 0apanese :ureau&rats and army o%%i&ers.
4he story told :y Waka:ayashi Han8 a 6okury\kai 2sianist #ho spe&ialiGed in the )slami& #orld8 is very telling in this regard.
Waka:ayashi :e&ame interested in the .uslim #orld a%ter a visit to )ndia #ith the Burmese Buddhist monk and anti&olonial
nationalist '. @ttama in 191*.L1M His dis&overy o% )ndian .uslims led him to undertake %urther resear&h a:out )slam in 2sia.L19M
(or t#enty years8 he #orked &losely #ith a small &ir&le o% )slam e;perts #ithin 6okury\kai led :y 4anaka )ppei8 arguing that i%
0apan &ould develop &loser ties #ith the &oloniGed .uslims o% 2sia8 its e%%orts to :e&ome the leader o% an a#akening and
independent 2sia &ould :ene%it %rom .uslim support.L*<M 2&&ording to Waka:ayashi8 ho#ever8 his small group neither a&hieved
any result nor re&eived any support %rom the government8 and he :e&ame pessimisti& a:out its %uture su&&ess.L*1M 4hen in 19+*
4Zyama .itsuru and '&hida AyZhei sent Waka:ayashi to o:serve the meeting o% the League o% 1ations in Beneva that
addressed the Euestion o% re&ogniGing the state o% .an&hukuo. 4here8 Waka:ayashi #itnessed the de&ision o% 0apanese
diplomats to #ithdra# %rom the league upon its re%usal to re&ogniGe .an&hukuo. )t #as only during his trip :a&k to 0apan8
Waka:ayashi notes8 that he re&ogniGed a &hange o% attitude to#ard his group7s 2sianist ideas on the part o% 0apanese military
o%%i&ers. )n the long trip %rom Europe to 0apan8 he e;plained to )sogai Aensuke8 a lieutenant &olonel in the 0apanese army the
:ene%its that attention to the .uslim #orld &ould :ring to 0apan7s East 2sian poli&y. )sogai later &onta&ted Waka:ayashi and
introdu&ed him to 2rmy .inister 2raki Sadao.L**M Waka:ayashi7s story o% #hat %ollo#ed is a narrative o% triumph8 as the
0apanese army :egan to implement a pan/2sianist )slam poli&y in ?hina and supported the a&tivities o% the 6okury\kai. )t is
&lear %rom his story that 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations #as a turning point in the 0apanese government7s
attitude to the pan/2sianist ideas o% 0apan7s &ooperation #ith .uslim nationalities against the Western &olonial presen&e.
2uto:iographi&al ane&dotes o% other pan/2sianist a&tivists e;hi:it a similar pattern. 4he most in%luential pan/2sianist8 [ka#a
Sh\mei8 had the similar e;perien&e o% %inding a surprising shi%t in 0apanese o%%i&ial poli&y and intelle&tual li%e to#ard positions
more to his liking in the mid/19+<s8 more than t#o de&ades a%ter his initial &ommitment o% the &ause o% 2sianism.
[ka#a Sh\mei7s :iography during the 19+<s took an ironi& turn8 as he #as put on trial and imprisoned %or his involvement in a
%ailed military &oup to &hange 0apan7s domesti& politi&s at the very time his 2sianist pro$e&ts #ere re&eiving the support o% the
0apanese government. 2s head o% the East 2sia E&onomi& Aesear&h Bureau o% the .an&hurian Aail#ay ?ompany a%ter 19*98
[ka#a naturally #as %amiliar #ith 0apanese interests in .an&huria. (reEuently visiting .an&huria and ?hina8 he &ame to kno#
the leading military %igures o% the 6#antung 2rmy personally. (rom 19*9 on#ard8 [ka#a argued that a solution to the
.an&hurian pro:lem #as essential %or :oth 2sian revival and the re&onstru&tion o% 0apan. )n 19* [ka#a met #ith the
.an&hurian #arlord ?hang Hs]eh/liang in an e%%ort to &onvin&e him to %orm a stronger politi&al union #ith 0apan :ased on
N?on%u&ian politi&al values.OL*+M Both a respe&ted s&holar o% &olonial studies and a radi&al nationalist8 [ka#a on&e gave a
le&ture on the ne&essity o% &reating an independent .an&huria/.ongolia to an audien&e that in&luded top military o%%i&ers o% the
19+<s8 most nota:ly8 )tagaki SeishirZ8 1agata 4etsuGan8 and 4Z$Z Hideki.L*HM He #ent on a le&ture tour in 0apan :e%ore and a%ter
the .an&hurian )n&ident8 e;pressing his &onvi&tion that .an&huria #as not only a legitimate e&onomi& and se&urity sphere %or
0apan :ut a&tually represented the li%eline o% 0apan7s national poli&y.
Like so many other 0apanese intelle&tuals and leaders8 [ka#a #as outspoken a:out the importan&e o% prote&ting 0apanese
interests in .an&huria8 and he %avored radi&al a&tion to se&ure these interests against the &laims o% ?hinese nationalism. (or
[ka#a8 0apan7s Nsa&ri%i&eO in the Sino/0apanese and Ausso/0apanese #ars &reated the histori&al legitima&y %or its treaty
privileges in .an&huria. ?riti&iGing the anti/0apanese movement in ?hina8 [ka#a argued that i% 0apan did not a&t to prote&t its
rights in .an&huria8 it #ould endanger its position in 6orea and 4ai#an as #ell. He &ondemned the 0apanese leaders o% the late
19*<s %or not :eing a:le to sho# the &ourage and determination ne&essary to %ind a long/term solution to the .an&hurian
pro:lem :e&ause o% their su:missive &ommitment to international &ooperation #ith the Western po#ers. His arguments &an
&learly :e &onstrued as o%%ering en&ouragement %or the radi&al a&tions or&hestrated :y the 6#antung 2rmy.L*,M ?iting these
%a&ts8 the prose&ution at the 4okyo War ?rimes 4ri:unal argued that there #as a link :et#een [ka#a7s pan/2sianist ideas and
the .an&hurian )n&ident8 a key step in &onstru&ting the ideologi&al :a&kground o% the tri:unal7s thesis a:out the long/term
0apanese &onspira&y to invade 2sia.L*=M
Ckawa Shumei left% and Ishihara 1an?i
)t is impossi:le to attri:ute the .an&hurian )n&ident or postQ.an&hurian )n&ident 0apanese poli&ies spe&i%i&ally to the ideology o%
the pan/2sianists. 4he %a&t that pan/2sianist [ka#a Sh\mei had le&tured on the issue o% .an&huria and had kno#n some o% the
military leaders did not ne&essarily make him an ideologue o% the .an&hurian )n&ident8 sin&e there #ere many others8 in&luding
those identi%ied as li:erals at the time8 #ho advo&ated a similarly radi&al poli&y in .an&huria.L*7M )t is help%ul to &ompare
[ka#a7s arguments on .an&huria #ith the #ritings o% AZyama .asami&hi 319,Q19<58 a li:eral intelle&tual o% the time #ho #as
#ell respe&ted internationally and in%luential in 0apanese poli&y &ir&les. AZyama8 #ho presented his analysis o% 0apan7s relations
#ith .an&huria to an international audien&e a%%iliated #ith the )nstitute o% Pa&i%i& Aelations t#o years :e%ore the .an&hurian
)n&ident8 held that 0apan7s esta:lished interests in .an&huria deserved international approval.L*M )n a later poli&y report on
.an&huria8 AZyama pla&ed :lame %or the .an&hurian )n&ident on the e;isting international pea&e stru&tures and the re%usal to
a&kno#ledge the spe&ial relations :et#een ?hina and 0apan8 not on the a&tions o% the 6#antung 2rmy. [ka#a7s #ritings a:out
the need to de%end 0apanese rights in .an&huria against ?hinese nationalist demands did not di%%er su:stantially %rom AZyama7s
insisten&e on the prote&tion o% 0apan7s vital interests.L*9M
4o'ama Masamichi
4he nature o% the pan/2sianist approa&h to the .an&hurian )n&ident :e&ame apparent only a%ter the in&ident8 #hen intelle&tuals
like [ka#a %ormulated laudatory &hara&teriGations o% the esta:lishment o% .an&hukuo :oth as a vi&tory against the &orruption o%
:usiness &onglomerates 3Gai:atsu5 and politi&al parties at home8 and as a :rave de%ense o% 0apan7s &ontinental poli&y against
2meri&an8 British8 and Soviet opposition.L+<M [ka#a retroa&tively o%%ered a moral $usti%i&ation %or the .an&hurian )n&ident #ithin
the %rame#ork o% a pan/2sianist &ritiEue o% 0apan7s %oreign poli&y :et#een 19<, and 19+1. His interpretation o% the in&ident as a
&orre&tion o% the misguided &ourse o% pro/Western diploma&y8 espe&ially sin&e the Ausso/0apanese War8 di%%ered signi%i&antly
%rom AZyama .asami&hi7s $usti%i&ation o% the .an&hurian )n&ident as a pra&ti&al response to the &hanging &onditions o% the
region. [ka#a #rote!
@ur vi&tory over Aussia inspired hope and &ourage in the &ountries e;ploited under the pressure o% the ?au&asian &olonialists.
But8 :e%ore long8 0apan gave in to the (ran&o/0apanese 2greement and the revised 2nglo/0apanese 2llian&e8 a&tions that
shattered the hopes o% no:le Cietnamese and )ndian patriots #ho sought independen&e %or their &ountries. . . . Ho#ever8 the
mistakes in 0apanese poli&y #ere later re&ti%ied de&isively :y the %oundation o% .an&hukuo. 0apan a:andoned &ooperation #ith
the 2nglo/2meri&ans8 the &hie% instigators suppressing the 2sian people. 4he %oundation o% .an&hukuo #as the %irst step in
a&hieving a great Nrenas&ent 2sia.OL+1M
[ka#a similarly applauded 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations.L+*M 2s sho#n in the previous &hapter8 [ka#a had
al#ays regarded the league as an instrument o% Western &olonial po#ers and o%ten urged the 0apanese government to &reate a
League o% 2sian 1ations as an alternative.L++M2%ter 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the league in 19++8 [ka#a7s ideas seemed in
harmony #ith the poli&ies o% the 0apanese government %or the %irst time in the history o% his 2sianist a&tivism8 dating :a&k to
191+.
0eague of /ations Assem&l', !"):
2s the %oreign poli&y [ka#a had envisioned :egan to :e implemented8 he #as put on trial %or his involvement in the .ay 1,8
19+*8 assassination o% Prime .inister )nukai 4suyoshi.L+HM 2%ter his arrest on 0une 1,8 19+*8 the &ourt %ound [ka#a guilty o%
providing guns and money to &onspirators during the planning stage o% the assassination. )n (e:ruary 19+H8 he re&eived a
%i%teen/year prison senten&e8 ho#ever8 :et#een appeals and paroles he spent less than t#o years in prison8 :et#een 0une 19+=
and @&to:er 19+7.L+,M Bet#een 19+1 to 19+,8 the dominant visions o% 0apanese %oreign poli&y and domesti& politi&s &hanged so
dramati&ally that8 :y early 19+,8 [ka#a no longer needed to #ork through se&retive radi&al organiGations to a&hieve his
ideologi&al goals. )n (e:ruary 19+,8 he marked the end o% his &areer as an a&tivist promoting the ShZ#a Aestoration in domesti&
politi&s and pan/2sianism in %oreign poli&y :y dis:anding the last organiGation he esta:lished8 0inmukai.L+=M 0apan itsel% #as
approa&hing the state o% military mo:iliGation #hile endorsing an 2sianist %oreign poli&y agenda8 making radi&al a&tivism %or the
same purpose pointless.
)nukai 4suyoshi
2lthough his image had :een tarnished :y his involvement in the .ay 1, assassination8 shortly a%ter his release %rom prison8
[ka#a #as appointed to head the &ontinental &ampus o% HZsei 'niversity. )n .ay 19+8 he #as reinstated to his position as
dire&tor o% the East 2sia E&onomi& Aesear&h Bureau in 4okyo. Ba&k in his position o% managing one o% the largest resear&h
institutes in 0apan8 he a&tively promoted a pan/2sianist agenda #ith the $ournal he edited8 entitled Shin 2$ia 31e# 2sia5. His
position as editor allo#ed him to o:serve8 &omment on8 and in%luen&e 0apan7s 2sia poli&y in the period %ollo#ing the o%%i&ial
de&laration o% the N1e# @rder in East 2siaO in 1ovem:er 19+.L+7M )n his %irst editorial8 pu:lished $ust a month :e%ore the
Berman invasion o% Poland8 [ka#a predi&ted that the out:reak o% #ar in Europe #ould usher in a ne# era in #hi&h nationalist
movements in 2sia #ould %ind their &han&e to a&hieve independen&e. He also urged the 0apanese government to support these
anti&olonial movements #ith the goal o% a&&elerating their pro&ess o% national li:eration and simultaneously &reating %uture allies
%or 0apan. Pointing out that 0apan7s mission in 2sia #as gaining greater urgen&y8 [ka#a e;pressed his hope that the 0apanese
pu:li&8 #hi&h #as not kno#ledgea:le even a:out the re&ent developments in ?hina8 #ould :e&ome :etter in%ormed a:out the
&onditions and peoples o% 2sia in general.L+M
2s the 0apanese government :egan to use the slogan N1e# @rder in East 2siaO to des&ri:e its %oreign poli&y8 [ka#a :e&ame
&on&erned a:out the 0apanese pu:li&7s la&k o% preparedness8 in terms o% their kno#ledge a:out 2sian so&ieties and &ultures8 %or
a serious pan/2sian poli&y. )n order to edu&ate young 0apanese a:out the &ulture and politi&s o% 2sia and prepare them %or
positions in the servi&e o% 0apan8 [ka#a re&eived government %unds to esta:lish a spe&ial s&hool o%%ering instru&tion in 2sian
studies. 4he t#o/year pro%essional s&hool8 the most &on&rete produ&t o% [ka#a7s 2sianist vision8 #as esta:lished in .ay 19+
as a tea&hing institute a%%iliated #ith the East 2sian E&onomi& Aesear&h Bureau in 4okyo8 #ith %unds %rom the .an&hurian
Aail#ay ?ompany8 the army8 and the (oreign .inistry. 2ll e;penses o% the admitted students #ere paid :y the s&hool8 #hi&h
#as #idely kno#n as the [ka#a 0uku 3[ka#a S&hool58 although it #as named the ShZ#a Bogaku 6enky\$o 3ShZ#a Language
Aesear&h )nstitute5. )n return %or re&eiving tuition and a stipend %or t#o years8 the students #ere o:ligated to #ork %or the
0apanese government in overseas regions su&h as Southeast 2sia %or appro;imately ten years. Ea&h year8 the s&hool re&ruited
t#enty students around the age o% seventeen. )n their %irst year8 students had to learn either English or (ren&h as their primary
%oreign language8 along #ith an additional language to :e sele&ted %rom among Hindu8 'rdu8 4hai8 and .alay. 2%ter the se&ond
year o% the s&hool8 2ra:i&8 Persian8 and 4urkish #ere added to the ele&tive language &ourse o%%erings.
4he [ka#a 0uku represented a pra&ti&al implementation o% [ka#a Sh\mei7s long/held pan/2sianist vision o% merging a &olonial
&ultural poli&y #ith anti&olonial ideology. He aimed to edu&ate a :ody o% 0apanese :ureau&rats #ho &ould understand the &ulture
and language o% 2sian peoples and take a position o% leadership among them. 2&&ording to his students8 [ka#a o%ten noted the
apparent unreadiness o% the 0apanese Empire %or a great pan/2sian &ause8 underlining the urgen&y he per&eived in his tea&hing
mission. He en&ouraged students to %orm personal %riendship #ith 2sian peoples and esta:lish :onds o% solidarity that #ould last
even i% 0apan lost the #ar.L+9M
2 retrospe&tive assessment o% 0apan7s #artime &ultural poli&ies in ne#ly o&&upied Southeast 2sia sho#s that8 #ith a %e#
e;&eptions8 &ultural poli&ies #ere in %a&t developed ad ho& :y administrators %a&ed #ith the reality o% ruling a large population
they kne# little a:out.LH<M [ka#a 0uku &omplemented the other 2sianist program that :rought students %rom Southeast 2sia to
0apan %or training. .ost o% the graduating students o% [ka#a 0uku did %ind employment in the military administration o% the
Southeast 2sian region during the era o% the Breater East 2sia ?oprosperity Sphere.LH1M
4he &ontent o% pan/2sianist edu&ation at [ka#a 0uku re%le&ted a synthesis :et#een the s&holarly/idealisti& vision o% 2sian
li:eration and pragmati& goals o% 0apan7s #artime military e;pansion. [ka#a himsel% taught &lasses on &olonial history8 the
N0apanese spirit8O )slam8 and @riental history. His le&ture notes %or the &lasses entitled NHistory o% .odern European ?olonialismO
and N)ntrodu&tion to )slamO later :e&ame the :asis %or :ooks #ith these titles. Students praised [ka#a as a dedi&ated edu&ator8
&iting his in%ormative and &lear le&tures8 his hard #ork8 and his &lose relationship #ith students.LH*M (rom time to time8 high/
ranking army generals su&h as Ioihara 6en$i8 )tagaki SeishirZ8 .atsui )#ane8 4Z$Z Hideki8 and @kamura Sei$i #ould visit the
[ka#a 0uku and le&ture students on 0apan7s 2sia poli&y.LH+M )ndian nationalist Aash Behari Bose and .uslim immigrant %rom
Aussia Jur:an 2li #ere among the part/time language and history instru&tors o% the s&hool8 giving students a %irsthand
en&ounter #ith the anti&olonial nationalist thinking o% 2sian e;iles in 0apan. )t #as during this time that [ka#a pioneered 0apan7s
rapidly gro#ing %ield o% )slami& studies not only through his o#n #ritings :ut also :y supporting young s&holars and pur&hasing
li:rary &olle&tions on )slami& studies %rom Europe in his &apa&ity as dire&tor o% the East 2sia E&onomi& Aesear&h )nstitute.LHHM
Iur&an Ali standing, second left% with Inukai (su'oshi seated, second left% and (o'ama Mitsuru seated, second
right%+
)t #ould :e mistaken to assume that8 :e%ore Pearl Har:or8 0apan7s 2sianists advo&ated #ar #ith the 'nited States :ased on
their vision o% East/West &on%li&t. (rom the time o% the .an&hurian )n&ident in 0uly 19+7 to the Pearl Har:or atta&k in Ie&em:er
19H18 %or e;ample8 [ka#a Sh\mei &autioned against entering into &on%li&t #ith the 'nited States #hile advo&ating a southern
advan&e :y 0apan that #ould target the &olonies o% Britain8 (ran&e8 and the 1etherlands in Southeast 2sia. With this goal in
mind8 he urged a Eui&k resolution to the Sino/0apanese &on%li&t. Parti&ularly as pan/2sianists :e&ame a#are o% an approa&hing
#ar in Europe8 #ith all the impli&ations that su&h a #ar &arried %or the &oloniGed areas in 2sia8 they %ound rene#ed %aith in 2sia7s
ultimate rise to independen&eF destiny seemed to have presented 0apan #ith an ideal opportunity to lead the li:eration o% 2sia
%rom Western &olonialism. (or pan/2sianists8 a southern advan&e #as as mu&h a pra&ti&al opportunity as it #as a moral
imperative8 sin&e neither the British nor the Iut&h #ere in a position to resist 0apanese military pressure8 parti&ularly i% 0apan
&ould a&t in &ooperation #ith native nationalist movements in Southeast 2sia. )t is in this spirit that [ka#a Sh\mei proposed the
&reation o% a Southeast L2sianM ?ommon ?ooperative Aegion 34Znan 6yZdZken5 to se&ure the politi&al and e&onomi& unity o%
li:erated Southeast 2sia #ith 0apan. With this histori&al opportunity8 there &ould emerge a ne# #orld order :ased on three
regional :lo&s8 Euro/2%ri&a8 2meri&a8 and East/Southeast 2sia.LH,M .ean#hile8 realiGing the danger that &ooperation :et#een
Europe and 2meri&a &ould present to 0apan8 [ka#a Sh\mei advo&ated a poli&y o% keeping the 'nited States neutral.LH=M He
re%rained %rom making anti/2meri&an statements in his editorials and urged the improvement o% e&onomi& ties8 espe&ially #ith
$oint pro$e&ts in .an&huria and ?hina8 in a :id to se&ure '.S. neutrality in the event o% a %uture British/0apanese &on%li&t.
4hus8 %rom 19+ up until the Pearl Har:or atta&k8 [ka#a Sh\mei #as involved in a pro$e&t o% developing trade ties :et#een
0apan and the 'nited States. 4here had :een an e&onomi& diploma&y to#ard the 'nited States that aimed at &ooperation in the
industrialiGation o% .an&huria :et#een 19+7 and 19H<.LH7M Endorsing )shi#ara 6an$i7s vision o% the &reation o% a sel%/su%%i&ient
military industry in .an&hukuo8 :ut re&ogniGing the insu%%i&ien&y o% the ma&hine tool industry in the region8 military and industrial
leaders in .an&huria aimed to attra&t a higher level o% '.S. investment and te&hnology. )n %a&t8 .an&huria :e&ame more heavily
dependent on 2meri&an &apital and te&hnology than it #as on European investments. Beyond the goal o% industrialiGing
.an&huria8 2yuka#a Yoshisuke8 the president o% the .an&hurian )ndustrial Ievelopment ?orporation and the %ounder o% the
1issan &onglomerate8 also hoped to avoid #ar :et#een the 'nited States and 0apan :y %ostering mutual e&onomi& ties.
[ka#a Sh\mei7s personal &ommitment to the improvement o% e&onomi& relations #ith the 'nited States stemmed more %rom his
interest in '.S. neutrality than %rom &onsiderations o% e&onomi& rationality. He :elieved it #as possi:le %or 0apan to avoid '.S.
intervention in its &on%rontation #ith the ?hinese 1ationalist government and the European &olonial po#ers. )t #as [ka#a7s
e;pe&tation that the strong trade relationships and $oint investments they shared #ith 0apan in .an&huria #ould lead the
2meri&ans to #ithdra# their support %rom the 1ationalist government o% ?hina. )n making these poli&y suggestions8 [ka#a relied
on his assumptions a:out the 2meri&an national &hara&ter as :eing &on&erned primarily #ith :usiness interests rather than
prin&ipled %oreign poli&ies. He also &onsidered that the 'nited States had less to lose :y giving up its support %or the government
o% ?hiang 6ai/shek than Britain did.LHM With these assessments and goals8 [ka#a :e&ame personally involved in an e%%ort :y
the Pan/Pa&i%i& 4rading and 1avigation ?ompany to :arter mineral ores %rom ?hina %or gasoline %rom the 'nited States. His
pro$e&t %ailed as a result o% di%%i&ulties #ith the intri&a&ies o% '.S. trade regulations. 1evertheless8 [ka#a7s desire to insulate the
'.S %rom 0apan7s #ar in ?hina8 in addition to his #illingness to make use o% '.S. trade in the development o% .an&huria8 should
:e noted as an indi&ation that he #as not8 at least #here pra&ti&al poli&y matters #ere &on&erned8 a &onsistent advo&ate o% an
inevita:le #ar :et#een the 'nited States and 0apan.LH9M
@n&e the %ighting :et#een the 'nited States and 0apan :egan8 ho#ever8 [ka#a Sh\mei immediately took on the task o%
o%%ering a histori&al $usti%i&ation %or the #ar as 0apan7s response to a &entury o% 2nglo/2meri&an aggression in East 2sia. He
pre%erred the term N2nglo/2meri&an aggressionO to NWestern aggression8O a &ontemporary e;pression that allo#ed pan/2sianist
thinkers to e;&lude Bermany %rom their anti/Western rhetori&. Even so8 #hen [ka#a dis&ussed the histori&al and philosophi&al
:asis o% the Breater East 2sia War8 he again spoke a:out the &on%rontation o% East and West as i% ?hina did not :elong to the
East or Bermany to the West. )t #as during his radio le&tures on this topi& delivered :et#een Ie&em:er 1H and Ie&em:er *, o%
19H18 that [ka#a &redited himsel% %or the prophe&y he had made :a&k in 19*H in his :ook N2sia8 Europe and 0apanO o% an
inevita:le #ar :et#een Eastern and Western &iviliGations8 represented :y 0apan and the 'nited States. He des&ri:ed the :ooks
purposes as %ollo#s!
%irst8 to let the pa&i%ists re&onsider their #rong attitude :y &lari%ying the histori&al signi%i&an&e o% #arF se&ond8 to sho# that #orld
history8 in its true sense o% the #ord8 is nothing :ut a &hroni&le o% antagonism8 struggle and uni%i&ation :et#een the @rient and
the @&&identF third8 to reveal the &ultural &hara&teristi&s o% the East and the West #hi&h had :een :lended into the history o% the
#orldF %ourth8 to give a logi&al %oundation to Pan/2sianismF last8 :ut not least8 to point out that a #ar is inevita:le :et#een the
East and the 2nglo/2meri&an po#ers %or the esta:lishment o% a ne# #orld. .oreover8 ) tried to &lari%y the su:lime mission o%
0apan in the &oming #orld #ar. ) &on&luded the :ook as %ollo#s! N1o#8 East and West have respe&tively attained their ultimate
goals. . . . 2s history %ully proves8 in &reating a ne# #orld8 a li%e/and/death struggle :et#een the &hampion o% the East and that o%
the West is inevita:le. 4his logi& proved true #hen 2meri&a &hallenged 0apan.O .y predi&tion proved &orre&t a%ter the passage
o% 1= years.L,<M
Su&h sel%/promoting re%eren&es to his predi&tion o% 0apan7s #ar #ith the 'nited States led to [ka#a7s indi&tment at the 4okyo
War ?rimes 4ri:unal.L,1M Iuring the trial8 he pointed out that his #ritings in 19*H did not ne&essarily &onstitute a plan %or a
0apanese atta&k8 as he #as merely &ommenting on the inevita:ility o% #ar :et#een &iviliGations :ased on the ideas o% the
Aussian philosopher Soloviev.L,*M )n %a&t8 he o%%ered a more histori&al reinterpretation o% his 19*H &lash o% &iviliGation thesis
#hile under '.S. interrogation. 2l:eit %or opportunisti& reasons8 pan/2sianists opposed #ar #ith the 'nited States :e%ore 19H1.
.oreover8 in the a%termath o% the )mmigration 2&t o% 19*H8 theories o% a &lash :et#een the 'S2 and 0apan #as a popular topi&
:eyond 2sianist &ir&les. Yet the easy transition :y the pan/2sianists to &lash o% &iviliGation theories to $usti%y the #ar #ith the
'nited States in the immediate a%termath o% the Pearl Har:or atta&k also signi%ies the %le;i:le utiliGation o% the ideas o% Eastern
and Western &iviliGation8 and the histori&al memory o% Western &olonialism8 %or the ends o% 0apan7s o#n imperial e;pansion.
2sianist 0ournals and @rganiGations
(rom the .an&hurian )n&ident in 19+1 to the end o% WW))8 [ka#a Sh\mei #as only one o% the many intelle&tual voi&es trying to
&lari%y the &ontent and goals o% the am:ivalent notion o% 2sian solidarity and 0apan7s 2sian mission. Espe&ially a%ter 0apan7s
#ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations8 a&tivities related to the ideals and dis&ourse o% pan/2sianism gained momentum as
support %rom the government8 the military8 and :usiness &ir&les in&reased. 4here #as a signi%i&ant gap8 ho#ever8 :et#een the
dis&ourse o% &iviliGation redu&ing all glo:al &on%li&ts to a Euestion o% &lashes :et#een distin&t ra&es or ma$or &iviliGations and the
reality o% the state o% international a%%airs. 2round the time o% the Ausso/0apanese War8 a vision o% ra&ial solidarity and
&iviliGational allian&e seemed to :e an appealing international strategy %or the politi&al pro$e&ts o% the rising nationalist
movements8 #hi&h per&eived a united poli&y in the West o% imperialism to#ard their 2sian &olonies. Iuring the late 19+<s8
ho#ever8 the Western #orld no longer seemed su&h a uni%ied %ront as a result o% sharp politi&al and ideologi&al divisions in
Europe. 2nd 0apan7s &hallenge to the international order #as not :ased on ra&ial divisions8 either. Within East 2sia8 the ma$or
&on%li&t #as not :et#een East and West :ut :et#een 0apanese imperialism8 on the one hand8 and ?hinese and 6orean
nationalism8 on the other.
(rom 19++ on#ard8 there #as a dramati& in&rease in the num:er o% 2sianist organiGations8 pu:li&ations8 and events. 4hey aimed
not only at demonstrating the sin&erity o% 0apan7s Nreturn to 2siaO :ut also at guarding against a per&eived state o% international
isolation %or 0apan a%ter its #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations. 2sianist pu:li&ations and events also aimed at &onvin&ing
:oth the 0apanese pu:li& and 2sian nationalists that &iviliGational and ra&ial distin&tions #ere in %a&t to :e regarded as the
primary &onsideration in international relations. But the empty repetition o% slogans a:out the &on%li&t :et#een &iviliGations and
ra&es did not su&&eed in &reating any su:stantial ideology a:le to a&&ount %or the &omple; glo:al politi&s o% the 19+<s. )nstead8
2sianism :e&ame less and less &redi:le in the %a&e o% 0apan7s %ull/s&ale #ar against ?hinese nationalism. AealiGing this8
2sianists pursued ideologi&al &redi:ility :y attempting to revive and reinvent the lega&y o% the early 2sian internationalism dating
:a&k to the period %rom 19<, to 191H. 2t the same time8 li:eral and so&ialist &onverts to 2sianism during the late 19+<s in%used
ne# &ontent and vigor into the nearly e;hausted &on&ept o% 2sian &ommunity and solidarity.
4he reinvention o% pan/2sianist ideology %ollo#ing the .an&hurian )n&ident &an :est :e seen in the sudden in&rease in the
num:er o% 2sianist $ournals and organiGations supported :y military8 politi&al8 and :usiness authorities. )n 19++8 the same year
0apan le%t the League o% 1ations8 Aash Behari Bose and Jur:an 2li8 t#o 2sianist e;iles #ho had lived in 0apan during the
19*<s8 :egan to re&eive %unding %or the purpose o% pu:lishing $ournals addressed to )ndia and the .uslim World. Aash Behari
Bose pu:lished 4he 1e# 2siaQShin 2$ia8 a monthly periodi&al in a dual English/ and 0apanese/language %ormat.L,+M 4he
government o% )ndia :anned the entry and sale o% 4he 1e# 2sia #ithin the territories it &ontrolled.L,HM 4he $ournal seemed to
have supporters in Southeast 2sia8 as eviden&ed :y the &onta&t :et#een )ndonesian nationalist leader .uhammed Hatta and
Aash Behari Bose.L,,M
2lmost hal% the $ournal #as devoted to &overage o% ne#s a:out the )ndian independen&e movement8 taking a tone sympatheti&
to the radi&al #ing led :y Su:has ?handra Bose.L,=M 1either 0apanese pan/2sianism nor 4he 1e# 2sia8 ho#ever8 re&eived
support %rom su&h prominent leaders o% the )ndian national movement as Bandhi8 1ehru8 4agore8 and Su:has ?handra Bose8 all
o% #hom #ere very &riti&al o% 0apanese aggression in ?hina. Iespite the a:sen&e o% interest in a 0apan/&entered pan/2sianist
vision among )ndian nationalists8 the $ournal re%erred to the pro/0apanese statement :y 4agore :a&k in 191=8 even though
4agore had radi&ally &hanged his vie#s o% 0apan :y the 19+<s.L,7M Even 4araknath Ias8 the one )ndian nationalist #ho
:esto#ed great hopes on 0apan7s leadership o% 2sian nationalism during WW)8 #rote to 4he 1e# 2sia that 0apan had done
nothing to improve )ndo/0apanese relations %or a:out t#o de&ades8 e;pressing skepti&ism over the motivations :ehind 0apan7s
attempt to Nreturn to 2siaO a%ter su&h a long period o% indi%%eren&e to nationalist movements.L,M
4he 1e# 2sia in&luded international ne#s %rom the perspe&tive o% the East/West &on%li&t and domesti& ne#s on the a&tivities o%
various 2sianist asso&iations in 0apan8 su&h as the visits to 4okyo o% 2sian or 2%ri&an 2meri&an %igures o% repute8 or the
a#arding o% s&holarships to students %rom 2sia.L,9M 4he $ournal re%rained %rom pu:lishing any ne#s or arti&les &riti&al o% the
&reation o% .an&hukuo and maintained silen&e on the su:$e&t o% ?hinese nationalism. 2%ter dis&ussing the Sino/0apanese
&on%li&t in a tone o% regret8 Aash Behari Bose suggested that )ndia should mediate :et#een the t#o nations to rea&h a pea&e%ul
settlement.L=<M With regard to the &lash o% &iviliGations and ra&es8 arti&les in 4he 1e# 2sia emphasiGed that #hat 2sians #anted
#as national li:eration8 #ith the possi:ility o% a ra&ial &on%li&t thus depending entirely on the attitude that the Western po#ers
&hose to assume to#ard the independen&e movements!L=1M
4he non/#hite peoples are no# &ons&ious o% the distressing %a&t that they have hitherto :een mer&ilessly e;ploited and
inhumanly humiliated. 4he intensity o% this &ons&iousness is the measure o% their &hallenge to the #hite man. @ne thing is
&ertain8 and that is that the East and the West &annot &oales&e8 unless the West %ully realiGes its immeasura:le %olly o% ra&e/
superiority &ons&iousness8 &ompletely a:andons its mis&hievous poli&y o% e;ploitation8 and immediately makes ample amends
%or the untold #rongs it has in%li&ted on the non/#hite peoples o% the earth.L=*M
)n 4he 1e# 2sia7s editorials on 0apanese %oreign poli&y8 Aash Behari Bose urged the 0apanese government to &ooperate #ith
the 'nited States8 ?hina8 and the Soviet 'nion in a move to eliminate British &olonial &ontrol in 2sia. (or him8 Britain #as the
root o% all pro:lems in the region8 in&luding 0apan7s isolation in the international &ommunity. 2s early as 19+H8 Behari Bose
#arned that 0apan needed to maintain good relations #ith the 'nited States8 as only Britain #ould :ene%it %rom a &on%li&t
:et#een that &ountry and 0apan! NBritain is not a:le to %ight 0apan singly and there%ore #aiting %or her opportunity8 #hen 0apan
may :e involved in a #ar #ith 2meri&a. . . . 2n 2meri&an/0apanese War #ill #eaken these t#o great po#ers #ho are serious
rivals o% Breat Britain. 4hose 2meri&ans and 0apanese #ho are real patriots should do their :est to promote 2meri&an/0apanese
%riendship.OL=+M
While Aash Behari Bose edited a $ournal addressing primarily )ndia8 Jur:an 2li #as pu:lishing Yani Yapon .uh:iri 31e# 0apan
$ournal58 #hi&h aimed its message at the .uslim #orld.L=HM 2lthough the $ournal #as in 4urkish8 the &over page o% the magaGine
in&luded a 0apanese su:title8 des&ri:ing it as Nthe only $ournal that introdu&es 0apan to the .uslim #orld.O Several 0apanese
&ompanies provided support to the small .uslim &ommunity in 4okyo %or their e%%orts in the pu:li&ation o% Yani Yapon .uh:iri8
#hi&h #as seen as an e%%e&tive means %or the &reation o% an in%ormation net#ork linking 0apan and the .uslim #orld. )n spite o%
the $ournal7s limited &ir&ulation8 the very %a&t that 4okyo #as hosting a magaGine pu:lished :y .uslims #as e;pe&ted to have
propaganda value in &ultivating pro/0apanese sentiments #ithin a .uslim audien&e.
2round the same time that Yani Yapon .uh:iri :egan pu:li&ation in 19++8 several other attempts at net#orking #ith the .uslim
#orld #ere promoted #ith the support o% the 0apanese army in .an&huria. 4hese ne# attempts :ene%ited %rom the &onta&ts
6okury\kai had esta:lished in the .uslim #orld and the 4urkish 4atar diaspora net#ork in East 2sia. )n a daring e;periment in
19++8 a prin&e %rom the a:olished @ttoman dynasty8 2:d]l 6erim E%endi 319<HQ19+,5 #as invited to 0apan8 presuma:ly to
&onsider his potential &ontri:ution to 0apan7s poli&y to#ard the .uslims o% ?entral 2sia in &ase o% a &on%li&t #ith the Soviet
'nion. 2lthough the plan #as soon a:andoned8 it e;empli%ied the re&kless and unrealisti& pro$e&ts that 2sianists #ere #illing to
&onsider at the e;pense o% $eopardiGing 0apan7s diplomati& relations #ith the 4urkish Aepu:li&.L=,M )n the same year8 2:durreid
^:rahim8 the %amous pan/)slamist #hose travel memoirs more than t#o de&ades earlier had populariGed a pro/0apanese image
in the .uslim #orld8 &urrently leading an isolated and unevent%ul li%e in 4urkey8 re&eived an invitation to visit 4okyo. ^:rahim
&olla:orated #ith the 2sianist pro$e&ts rea&hing out to the .uslim #orld until his death in 19HH in 4okyo.L==M
)t #as also in 19++ that several high/level military and &ivilian leaders esta:lished the Breater 2sia 2sso&iation 3Iai 2$ia 6yZkai5.
L=7M 4he Breater 2sia 2sso&iation not only promoted regional unity in East 2sia :ut also advo&ated solidarity among West and
Southeast 2sian so&ieties. 6onoe (umimaro8 Beneral .atsui )#ane8 and Beneral )shi#ara 6an$i #ere among its prominent
mem:ers.L=M 4he Breater 2sia 2sso&iation pu:lished a monthly $ournal titled Iai 2$ia Shugi 3Breater 2sianism58 #hi&h :e&ame
the most important pan/2sianist $ournal during that period8 o%%ering a #ide range o% ne#s and opinion arti&les &overing all o% 2sia8
in&luding .uslim West 2sia8 Southeast 2sia8 and ?entral 2sia. [ka#a Sh\mei8 1akatani 4akeyo8L=9M Aash Behari Bose and
many 2sianist %igures in the military %reEuently #rote %or this $ournal. 4he &ontent and dis&ourse o% Iai 2$ia Shugi :e&ame an
in%luential sour&e in shaping the o%%i&ial language o% pan/2sianism during the late 19+<s8 in%luen&ing the N1e# @rder in East
2siaO pro&lamation o% the 6onoe (umimaro &a:inet in 19+.L7<M
(o'ama Mitsuru honors 4ash 3ehari 3ose
4he dis&ourse o% 2sian identity represented in Iai 2$ia Shugi #as per%e&tly in harmony #ith the :roader 2sia vie# o% [ka#a
Sh\mei7s ideology8 as it seemed to regard )ndia and the .uslim #orld as $ust as important as East and Southeast 2sia. 4aking
this &ontinental 2sia perspe&tive8 Iai 2$ia 6yZkai made an important &ontri:ution to 2sianist thought #ith its introdu&tion o% ne#s
and in%ormation a:out the politi&al8 e&onomi&8 and so&ial trends o% the entire 2sian #orld8 %rom ?hina and )ndia to )ran and
4urkey.L71M )n %oreign poli&y8 Iai 2$ia Shugi #as highly anti/British and8 strikingly8 not anti/2meri&an. Iis&ussions o% the &on%li&t
and &lash o% interests :et#een England and 0apan started as early as 19++8L7*M and gradually the $ournal7s &all %or a ne# #orld
order turned to a more radi&al re$e&tion o% European hegemony in 2sia. 4he $ournal8 ho#ever8 did not &arry any vision o% &on%li&t
#ith the 'nited States that &ould have indi&ated the path to #ar. Beginning in 19+8 it a&tively promoted the &on&ept o% N1e#
2sia8O o%%ering enthusiasti& intelle&tual support %or the government7s de&laration o% the N1e# @rder in East 2sia.OL7+M
Iespite the $ournal7s endorsement o% &ooperation among 2sian nations8 there #as no genuine dialogue #ith 2sian intelle&tuals
and nationalist movements in the pages o% Iai 2$ia Shugi. When it &laimed to present an 2sian perspe&tive8 the $ournal al#ays
&onsulted the same small group o% e;iled nationalists in 0apan.L7HM 4his arti%i&ial perspe&tive tended to give the $ournal a sel%/
&ongratulatory tone8 #hi&h :e&ame typi&al o% 0apanese pan/2sianism during the late 19+<sF 0apanese readers re&eived the
impression that 2sian nationalists eagerly looked to 0apan %or leadership. )n reality8 e;pe&tation o% 0apanese leadership against
Western &olonialism #as mu&h #eaker among the nationalist movements o% the 19+<s &ompared to the period in the a%termath
o% 19<,. Still8 the $ournal tried to &onvin&e the 0apanese pu:li& that pan/2sianism &ould :e a plausi:le and positive alternative to
the de&lining Euro&entri& #orld order in 2sia.L7,M
)n addition to the :oom o% $ournals and organiGations8 an in&reasing degree o% net#orking #ith di%%erent 2sian &ountries took
pla&e8 primarily involving students and intelle&tuals. When one o% )ndonesia7s most prominent nationalist leaders8 .uhammad
Hatta8 visited 0apan in 19++8 he #as sho#ered #ith media attention and re&eived an enthusiasti& #el&ome %rom the Breater 2sia
2sso&iation as the NBandhi o% the 1etherlands East )ndies.O Hatta had previously e;pressed &riti&ism o% 0apanese imperialism in
?hina %ollo#ing the .an&hurian )n&identF ho#ever8 a%ter his trip8 he moderated his position on the 0apanese Nreturn to 2siaO and
advo&ated )ndonesian &ooperation #ith the li:eral8 progressive8 and idealisti& segments o% 0apanese so&iety8 suggesting that
)ndonesian nationalists should &hallenge the 0apanese to :e sin&ere in their pan/2sianist rhetori&. Iuring his visit to 0apan in the
%all o% 19+,8 2hmad Su:ard$o8 another )ndonesian nationalist leader8 e;pressed his :elie% that 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the
League o% 1ations and the revival o% the pan/2sianist dis&ourse represented a very positive turning point in 2sian history. )t is
important to note that8 despite their &autious approa&h to 0apan7s o%%i&ial 2sianism8 neither Hatta nor Su:ard$o had anything
positive to say a:out the League o% 1ations.L7=M .ean#hile8 various 2sianist organiGations tried to in&rease the num:er o%
)ndonesian students attending 0apanese universities8 #ith most o% these students :e&oming mem:ers o% pan/2sianist
organiGations during their stays in 0apan.
)n 19+H the 0apanese government esta:lished a semio%%i&ial agen&y8 6okusai Bunka ShinkZkai 3So&iety %or )nternational ?ultural
Aelations58 #ith the purpose o% introdu&ing 0apanese &ulture to other parts o% the #orld and improving &ultural ties #ith
European8 2meri&an8 and 2sian so&ieties.L77M 2lthough the initial %o&us o% the organiGation emphasiGed Europe and the 'nited
States8 6okusai Bunka ShinkZkai gradually e;panded the %unding it devoted to &ultural intera&tions #ith 2sian so&ieties.L7M
2s the num:er o% &ultural and politi&al asso&iations8 $ournals8 and :ooks %o&using on 2sia gre# dramati&ally a%ter 19++8 the
0apanese pu:li&7s interpretation o% international events :egan to :e shaped more :y their &ons&iousness o% ra&ial di%%eren&e and
2sian identity. 4he :est e;ample o% the po#er that an internationalist ra&e identity held over the 0apanese imagination #as the
popular rea&tion to the )talian invasion o% Ethiopia8 #hen strong pro/Ethiopian sentiments &aused pro:lems %or 0apan7s
diplomati& relations #ith )taly. 4he mainstream 0apanese media #as %ull o% anti/)talian and pro/Ethiopian &ommentaries8 #ith
re%eren&es to the &on%li&t as another instan&e o% the struggle :et#een the #hite ra&e and &olored ra&es.L79M Su&h over#helming
sympathy %or the Ethiopian resistan&e &aused diplomati& tension :et#een 0apan and )taly8 despite the 0apanese (oreign
.inistry7s poli&y o% keeping good relations #ith )taly.L<M .ean#hile8 the highly pro/Ethiopian pu:li& response to the Ethiopian
&risis attra&ted the attention o% 2%ri&an 2meri&an intelle&tuals8 prompting a visit to 0apan :y W. E. B. Iu Bois. 4he #arm
re&eption Iu Bois met during his 19+= visit to .an&huria and 0apan8 &om:ined #ith his per&eption o% a genuine 0apanese pu:li&
interest in the struggle o% 2%ri&ans and 2%ri&an 2meri&ans8 &onvin&ed him o% the sin&erity :ehind 0apan7s &laim %or leadership o%
the &olored ra&es. Iu Bois &ontinued to #rite a:out the legitima&y o% 0apan7s a&tions in 2sia in the %rame#ork o% the importan&e
o% ra&e in international a%%airs8 even in the %a&e o% 0apanese atro&ities in ?hina. Predi&ta:ly8 pro/0apanese &omments :y Iu Bois
re&eived great &overage in 0apanese papers in a sel%/righteous a%%irmation o% 0apanese poli&ies.L1M
<u 3ois in Japan
@verall8 the small group o% 0apan7s 2sian &olla:orators8 together #ith the 2sian and 2%ri&an 2meri&an intelle&tuals #ho
e;pressed support %or 0apan7s 2sianist pro$e&ts8 #ere very important in allo#ing 0apanese intelle&tuals to &onvin&e themselves
that their ideas o% the 1e# @rder in East 2sia and the Breater East 2sia ?oprosperity Sphere #ere di%%erent %rom Western
imperialism. 2s 1aoki Sakai has pointed out8 the ideologues o% 0apan7s o%%i&ial pan/2sianism mani%ested a kind o% Nnar&issismO
that impelled them repeatedly to Euote those individuals #ho praised the 0apanese or #ho hoped to re&eive support %rom 0apan
against Western &olonial rule.L*M 4hrough magni%i&ation o% these mani%estations o% pro/0apanese e;pressions8 many o% #hi&h
dated :a&k to the de&ade a%ter the Ausso/0apanese War8 0apanese leaders depi&ted the 0apanese Empire as a ?oprosperity
Sphere that purported to represent the #ill o% all its &olonial su:$e&ts.
When 0apan %irst :egan the pro&ess o% &oloniGing 4ai#an and 6orea and re&eived rights in .an&huria8 its poli&ies &ould :e
$usti%ied in international la# through re%eren&es to the ideals o% progress and development %avored :y other &olonial po#ers. )n
the starkly di%%erent international &limate o% the 19+<s8 the vo&a:ulary o% :enevolent &olonialism had to :e repla&ed :y the
dis&ourse o% pan/2sian solidarity to $usti%y 0apanese imperialism. By 19H< there #ere many 0apanese8 espe&ially in the young
generation8 #ho :elieved in their 2sian identity and the dis&ourses o% 2sian li:eration propagated :y multiple sour&es #ithin
0apan.L+M
Asianist Ideolog' of the !")$s
Pan/2sianism did not have a de%ined ideology or a systemati& do&trine. (ormulating an ideology that #as :oth realisti& and
intelle&tually appealing proved to :e the greatest &hallenge %a&ed :y o%%i&ial 2sianism in the 19+<s. Early pan/2sianism derived
its appeal %rom its opposition to the intelle&tual %oundations o% the Euro&entri& international order #hile &laiming to :e in harmony
#ith 0apan7s national interest through the idea o% regional leadership in the pro$e&t o% an 2sian .onroe Io&trine. )n the 19+<s8
#hen pan/2sianist ideology took on a more assertive &hallenge to the Euro&entri& #orld order8 a ne# generation o% intelle&tuals
struggled to in$e&t a degree o% international legitima&y and realism into the idea o% 2sianism :y modi%ying the &ontent o% the ra&ial
&on%li&t thesis #ith re%eren&e to regionalism and geopoliti&s. .oreover8 a strong tide o% intelle&tual &ritiEues o% Western modernity
during the 19+<s ended up strengthening the anti/Western dis&ourse o% pan/2sianism.
4he &harter o% Iai 2$ia 6yZkai8 promulgated in 19++ a%ter 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations8 #as a %ar &ry %rom the
&autious language o% the early 2sian .onroe Io&trine developed during the 191<s!
)n &ulture8 politi&s8 e&onomi&s8 geography8 and ra&e8 2sia is a :ody o% &ommon destiny. 4he true pea&e8 prosperity8 and
development o% 2sian peoples are %easi:le only on the :asis o% their &ons&iousness o% 2sia as one entity and an organi& union
thereo%. . . . 4he heavy responsi:ility %or re&onstru&tion and ordering o% 2sia rests upon the shoulders o% )mperial 0apan. . . . no#
is the time %or 0apan to &on&entrate all its &ultural8 politi&al8 e&onomi&8 and organiGational po#er to take one step to#ard the
re&onstru&tion and union in 2sia. . . . 4he %ormulation o% the Breater 2sia (ederation is the histori&al mission %a&ing the
0apanese people today.LHM
)n the early stages a%ter 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations8 s&holars o% international relations su&h as 6amika#a
Hikomatsu and AZyama .asami&hi &riti&iGed the idea o% Breat 2sianism advo&ated :y Iai 2$ia 6yZkai8 &alling it :oth unrealisti&
and ana&hronisti&. 4hey suggested that instead o% pursuing an anti/Western vision o% 2sian solidarity8 0apan should &reate a (ar
Eastern League using the League o% 1ations as its model. 4his plan #as :ased on a li:eral internationalist agenda #ithout any
emphasis on the prima&y o% ra&e and &iviliGation.L,M 2t that stage8 s&holars like AZyama .asami&hi #ere maintaining their
resistan&e to an in&reasingly pervasive 2sianist tenden&y to analyGe and reorder 0apan7s relations #ith the rest o% the #orld in
terms o% ra&ial and &iviliGational :lo&s and &on%li&ts among them. AZyama noted that he deli:erately de&ided Nnot to give a
leading position to the Euestion o% ra&e and &ultureO in his #ritings and poli&y suggestions.L=M )n the end8 ho#ever8 AZyama
&apitulated to this &onvention8 o%%ering realpolitik su:stan&e to the slogans o% o%%i&ial pan/2sianism. He in&orporated the idea o% a
distin&t East 2sian &ulture in his ela:orate support o% the 1e# @rder in East 2sia8 although it is true that the &ore o% his
arguments relied more on the &on&epts o% regionalism.L7M 0apan7s li:eral intelle&tuals &ould rede%ine the idea o% East 2sian
&ommunity 3kyZdZtai5 as a %orm o% regionalism that #ould :ring a:out a rationaliGation o% e&onomi& and so&ial intera&tion in the
region.LM
Be&ause o% harsh &ritiEues %rom leading 2sian nationalists8 su&h as Bandhi and 1ehru8 o% 0apanese poli&ies in ?hina during the
19+<s8 o%%i&ial 2sianism #as :ased on highly repetitive re%eren&es to the events and ideas o% the 2sian internationalism o% the
19<,Q191H period8 #hen there #as an interest in 0apanese leadership in di%%erent parts o% 2sia. @ne o% the :est e;amples o% this
attempt to over&ome the emptiness o% an imposed notion o% 2sian unity through re%eren&es to early 2sianism &an :e seen in the
response [ka#a Sh\mei o%%ered to the &ondemnation o% 0apanese 2sianism :y leaders o% the )ndian 1ational ?ongress. Even
at the time #hen 0apan #as sponsoring the )ndian 1ational 2rmy7s %ight against British rule8 :oth Bandhi and 1ehru denoun&ed
0apanese &olonialism. )n an open letter to them8 [ka#a re&ounted his e;perien&es during WW) in $oining )ndian nationalists to
&ampaign %or the li:eration o% )ndia8 regardless o% 0apan7s pro/Western poli&y at the time o% the 2nglo/0apanese 2llian&e. (or
[ka#a8 this histori&al :a&kground o% )ndian/0apanese &olla:oration sho#ed that the ideals o% o%%i&ial pan/2sianism during the
Breater East 2sia War had altruisti& histori&al roots8 re%le&ting a genuine interest in aiding the de&oloniGation o% 2sia.L9M )t #as
during su&h a sear&h %or the histori&al roots o% 2sianism that @kakura 4enshin #as made an i&on o% pan/2sian thought. 2ll o%
@kakura7s #orks8 in&luding a previously unpu:lished manus&ript %rom his 19<1 trip to )ndia &alled 2#akening o% the East8 #ere
pu:lished in :oth English and 0apanese editions :et#een 19+ and 19H,.L9<M )n the same Euest to reinvent early 2sian
internationalism8 :ooks :y [ka#a Sh\mei8 Paul Ai&hard8 and 4araknath Ias %rom the period o% WW) #ere reprinted a%ter more
than t#enty years.L91M
Ckakura (enshin
)t #as the presen&e o% ne# &onverts %rom the so&ialist and li:eral intelle&tual traditions8 ho#ever8 that in$e&ted ne# energy and
vitality to 2sianism. )n the #ritings o% .iki 6iyoshi8 a leading mem:er o% the ShZ#a 6enky\kai8 #e &an see the 2sianist dis&ourse
o% &iviliGation in its most sophisti&ated %ormulation8 polished #ith the Berman tradition o% the philosophy o% history.L9*M 2&&ording
to .iki8 the over/WesterniGation o% #orld &ultures and the Euro&entri& &hara&ter o% the so&ial s&ien&es posed a glo:al politi&al
pro:lem. Borro#ing the sel%/&ritiEue o% European thought during the inter#ar period8 .iki e;pressed the &onvi&tion that Western
&iviliGation #as in the pro&ess o% sel%/destru&tion and &ould no longer dominate the %ate o% 2sia. (rom this o:servation8 he
pro&eeded to the &on&lusion that 0apan should uphold its &iviliGational mission to %a&ilitate 2sian unity and &ooperation and
eliminate Western &olonialism. (or .iki8 2sian &ooperation under 0apanese leadership #ould serve the interests o% pea&e and
harmony8 as #ell as li:eration and ra&ial eEuality.L9+M
Miki 1i'oshi second left% at a meeting of the ShHwa 1enk'Jkai
.iki7s arguments dre# on re%le&tions on modernity and Euro&entrism in the #ritings o% the inter#ar era in :oth Europe and
0apan. 'ltimately8 ho#ever8 they resem:led the ideas o% @kakura 4enshin and [ka#a Sh\mei in their :asi& tenet8 namely8 :elie%
in the &ollapse o% the Euro&entri& #orld order and the &orresponding ne&essity to o%%er an alternative order :ased on 2sian
values and politi&al solidarity. @ther &onverts to 2sianism8 su&h as the %amous so&ialists Sano .ana:u8 1a:eyama Sada&hika8
and 2kamatsu 6atsumaro8 o%%ered their o#n interpretations o% the &ontent o% pan/2sianist thought.L9HM 4hese %ormer so&ialists
des&ri:ed their per&eption o% the #orld in terms o% a division into a proletarian East and a :ourgeois West. )t #as their :elie% that
the %usion :et#een the West8 NreorganiGed :y the proletariat8O and the East8 Na#akened through the in%luen&e o% Pan/2sianism8O
#ould &reate a ne# #orld order that #ould %inally esta:lish #orld pea&e and unity.L9,M 4heir retreat %rom ?omintern so&ialism
#as a&&ompanied :y a shi%t in allegian&e to 2sian internationalism.
What united the ideology o% su&h diverse groups and %igures as the Breater 2sia 2sso&iation8 [ka#a Sh\mei8 and the ne#
&onverts to 2sianism su&h as .iki 6iyoshi8 #as the dis&ourse o% &iviliGation &entral to all their arguments. Ci&tor 6os&hmann
have a&&ounted %or the di%%eren&es among these pan/2sianist visions :y making a distin&tion :et#een esoteri& and e;oteri&
versions o% 2sianism. 2&&ording to 6os&hmann8 popular organiGations su&h as the Breater 2sia 2sso&iation presented the
e;oteri& 2sianism that had the po#er to appeal to 0apanese pu:li& opinion8 #hile ShZ#a Aesear&h )nstitute intelle&tuals su&h as
.iki 6iyoshi produ&ed an esoteri& version o% 2sianism that #as more relevant to rational poli&y making and legitimiGation in the
eyes o% the presumed #orld pu:li& opinion. East/West &iviliGation dis&ourse8 ho#ever8 united :oth the more sophisti&ated
s&holarly ela:orations o% 2sianism and those that appealed to the :roader domesti& pu:li& opinion. 4his e;plains the striking
similarities :et#een the pan/2sianist ideas o% [ka#a Sh\mei and .iki 6iyoshi8 despite their dramati&ally di%%erent intelle&tual
and politi&al :a&kgrounds. Cery mu&h like [ka#a Sh\mei8 .iki 6iyoshi :ased his argument on the &onvi&tion that Euro&entrism
or Western &iviliGation had to :e over&ome8 #hile the &iviliGational lega&y o% 2sia &ould :e&ome the :asis %or an alternative.
Bradually8 these ideas turned into #ell/kno#n slogans8 %reEuently repeated i% not al#ays &learly de%ined. 4he %ollo#ing
am:iguous %ormulation :y the Breater 2sia 2sso&iation summed up the slogans that #ere &ommon to all versions o% 2sianism!
N)t goes #ithout saying that the &ultures o% Europe are in&apa:le o% res&uing themselves any more8 mu&h less the #orld at large.
4he ne# potential po#er lies #ith the third &iviliGation. )t makes :oth Eastern and Western &iviliGations &ome alive through
Dmusu:i7 or harmonious &om:ination. 4his is #hat &an produ&e a ne# order in ?hina8 and 0apan may right%ully serve as a
&atalyst %or this &om:ination.OL9=M
4he &entral tension in #orld politi&s8 a&&ording to this 2sianist dis&ourse o% &iviliGation8 #as :et#een East and West8 and thus
2sianism helped serve to redu&e all #orld &on%li&ts to this redu&tionist %rame#ork. @n&e the #ar :et#een 0apan and the 'nited
States started8 su&h rhetori& served a very use%ul politi&al purpose :y pla&ing the %o&us on the &on%li&t #ith the Western po#ers
and &overing up the sense o% guilt some 0apanese may other#ise have %elt a:out their &ountry7s aggression in ?hina. 4hus a
great num:er o% 0apanese intelle&tuals may have %elt relieved a%ter the out:reak o% #ar #ith the 'S2. 4hey &ould mo:iliGe their
ideas %or the glori%i&ation and $usti%i&ation o% the Pa&i%i& War in the name o% over&oming modernity and East/West &on%rontation.
(or e;ample8 the parti&ipants in the %amous #artime &on%eren&e N@ver&oming .odernityO utiliGed a #ide array o% philosophies
and theories to link 0apan7s military &on%li&t #ith the intelle&tual attempts to over&ome the pro:lems o% Euro&entri& modernity.L97M
)t #as thus the intelle&tual lega&y o% early 2sianism in the %orm o% a dis&ourse o% 2sian &iviliGation that &reated similarities
:et#een the ideology o% old/time 2sianists su&h as [ka#a Sh\mei and that o% the ne# &onverts to 2sianism during the 19+<s8
#hose disparate :elie%s &onverged in their o:sessive and &onstant :laming o% the imagined West %or the pro:lems o% the
international order.
2artime Asian Internationalism and Its 6ostwar 0egac'
4hroughout the Pa&i%i& War8 pan/2sianists like [ka#a Sh\mei devoted all their energies to the servi&e o% the 0apanese state
and the pro$e&t o% the Breater East 2sia ?oprosperity Sphere. )n addition to pu:lishing :ooks and $ournals advo&ating the ideals
o% 2sianism8 [ka#a &ontinued to head the administration o% the East 2sian E&onomi& Aesear&h )nstitute and to run his
pro%essional s&hool.L9M 2mong these e%%orts8 he sa# it as parti&ularly important to &lari%y 0apan7s #ar aims and e;plain the
origins and goals o% the Breater East 2sia War. 4he main 2sianist pro$e&t [ka#a &losely %ollo#ed during the #ar #as the
esta:lishment o% the )ndian 1ational 2rmy8 an event that gave a sense o% %inal a&hievement to [ka#a a%ter three de&ades o%
advo&ating 0apanese support %or )ndian independen&e.
4he &reation o% the )ndian 1ational 2rmy 3)125 in 19H*8 #ith its ranks &omposed o% )ndian soldiers %rom the surrendered British
troops in Singapore8 :e&ame the most memora:le pro$e&t to em:ody pan/2sianist slogans. 4he )12 #as intended to %ight
alongside the 0apanese army against the British %or&es at the Burmese/)ndian :order. )t is no# &lear that the initial su&&ess o%
the 0apanese plans %or the &reation o% an )ndian army &an :e attri:uted more to the &ontri:utions o% idealisti& 0apanese %igures
on the ground than to any planning in 4okyo.L99M .a$or (u$i#ara )#ai&hi 319<Q19=5 gained the trust o% )ndian o%%i&ers mainly
through his o#n sin&ere &ommitment to the pro$e&t o% )ndian independen&e. )n %a&t8 upon (u$i#ara7s departure8 )12 &ommander
.ohan Singh soon &lashed #ith the ne# liaison o%%i&er and attempted to dis:and the H<8<<</man army he had &reated.L1<<M 4he
o:$e&tion o% .ohan Singh and other )ndian o%%i&ers to the appointment o% Aash Behari Bose to the top position in the ne#ly
&reated army marked another point o% &risis8 one that sho#s the agen&y o% )ndian &olla:orators in the #hole pro$e&t.L1<1M
Su:has ?handra Bose7s #illingness to &ooperate #ith 0apan8 %ollo#ed :y his se&ret su:marine trip %rom Bermany to 0apan in
19H*8 saved the )ndian 1ational 2rmy pro$e&t8 #hen it %a&ed a &risis provoked :y disagreement :et#een the 0apanese and
)ndian sides. ?handra Bose #as a #ell/respe&ted leader o% the )ndian nationalist movement #ho &ould :oth gain the loyalty o%
the )ndian o%%i&ers and assert authority over the 0apanese liaison o%%i&ers. (or a long time8 he had advo&ated &ooperation #ith
anti/British po#ers in order to #in independen&e %or )ndia8 in &ontrast to the poli&y o% passive resistan&e advo&ated :y Bandhi.
He sa# a great opportunity in Berman and 0apanese support %or the li:eration o% )ndia and #illingly &olla:orated #ith :oth
po#ers. Soon a%ter his arrival in Singapore8 ?handra Bose took over the leadership o% the )12 and %ormed the Provisional
Bovernment o% (ree )ndia. 2lthough the a&tual engagement :et#een the )ndian 1ational 2rmy and their British enemies at
)mphal resulted in de%eat %or the )ndian side8 the mere e;isten&e o% a provisional government and an army had a positive
psy&hologi&al impa&t on the )ndian nationalist movement as a #hole.L1<*M
(rom his arrival at Singapore until his death in a plane &rash at the end o% the Pa&i%i& War8 Su:has ?handra Bose visited 4okyo
several times during the #ar. 4he spee&h he made as the leader o% the Provisional Bovernment o% (ree )ndia at the Breater East
2sia ?on%eren&e in 19H+ to the heads o% state o% si; nations o% the ?oprosperity Sphere 30apan8 ?hina8 .an&huria8 the
Philippines8 Burma8 and 4hailand8 all re&ogniGed as independent :y 0apan5 demonstrated the links :et#een the %ailure o% the
League o% 1ations system and the 1e# @rder in East 2sia that 0apan had de&lared its intention to esta:lish in the &onte;t o% its
#ar aims. Bose :egan his spee&h :y re&alling his %rustration #ith the League o% 1ations! O.y thoughts also #ent :a&k to the
2ssem:ly o% the League o% 1ations8 that League o% 1ations along #hose &orridors and lo::ies ) spent many a day8 kno&king at
one door a%ter another8 in the vain attempt to o:tain a hearing %or the &ause o% )ndian %reedom.O L1<+M 2&&ording to Bose8 the
Breater East 2sia ?on%eren&e organiGed :y the 0apanese government as an alternative to the League o% 1ations #as re&eptive
to nationalist voi&es in 2sia in a #ay none o% the European/&entered international organiGations had ever :een. .ean#hile8 he
gave several radio spee&hes and le&tured to the 0apanese pu:li&8 helping to enhan&e the popular 0apanese &on%iden&e in the
li:eration mission o% the Pa&i%i& War.
Su&has Chandra 3ose in a (ok'o speech in !"#7
What pan/2sianists like [ka#a Sh\mei never realiGed #as that8 %or nationalist leaders like Su:has ?handra Bose8 pan/2sianism
#as merely one o% the means to rea&h national independen&e8 not a goal in itsel%.L1<HM )n one o% his &onversations #ith [ka#a
Sh\mei a:out the %uture o% the )ndian national movement8 Su:has ?handra Bose talked a:out the possi:ility o% re&eiving Soviet
support against the British Empire i% Bermany #as de%eated on the European %ront. [ka#a #as surprised that Bose &ould think
o% &ooperating #ith the Soviets and asked him #hy he #ould &olla:orate #ith the Soviet 'nion i% he #as against ?ommunism. )n
response8 Bose pointed out that he #as prepared Nto shake hands even #ith Satan himsel% to drive out the British %rom
)ndia.OL1<,M )t did not o&&ur to [ka#a that 0apan might #ell :e one Satan #ith #hom ?handra Bose had to &ooperate. )n %a&t8
?handra Bose sa# 0apan as a di%%erent ally %rom Aussia or Bermany :e&ause o% the 2sian identity &ommon to :oth )ndia and
0apan. )n the end8 ho#ever8 Bose7s nationalist agenda #as the main motive %or &olla:oration8 rather than a vision o% 2sian
regionalism under 0apanese leadership. )n a sense8 the legitima&y o% #artime pan/2sianism intimately depended on the idea o%
national sel%/determination.
(or [ka#a Sh\mei8 on the other hand8 2sian de&oloniGation #as unthinka:le in the a:sen&e o% 0apan7s uniEue mission to lead
the %ree 2sia. He re%rained8 ho#ever8 %rom stating spe&i%i&ally #hat kind 2sian %ederation #ould repla&e the old order.
'nsurprisingly8 [ka#a7s vision o% the %uture 2sia #as am:iguous8 and his #artime #ritings %o&used more on the history and
ideology o% 2sianism. 4he 0apanese government8 on the other hand8 had to &lari%y its #ar aims and post#ar visions mu&h more
&learly than [ka#a did8 espe&ially in response to the appeal o% the 2tlanti& ?harter. )nitially8 0apanese leaders de%ined the %irst
stage o% the ne# #orld order they envisioned %or 2sia_namely8 the e;pulsion o% Western hegemony and the elimination o%
Western interests_#ithout spe&i%ying &learly #hat #ould happen a%ter the Western po#ers #ere gone. 4hey assumed that8
on&e Western e;ploitation #as over and trade :et#een 2sian nations #as esta:lished8 2sia #ould develop very %ast. 4hey also
hoped that the ne# 2sia #ould &ooperate #ith a Berman/dominated Europe to &reate a #orld order :ased on regional e&onomi&
:lo&s.L1<=M 2s 0apanese leaders soughtthe %urther &ooperation o% lo&al nationalist movements during the later stages o% the #ar8
they eventually &lari%ied their o#n #ar aims as an alternative to the 2tlanti& ?harter.L1<7M
2s the de&larations o% the 19*= 1agasaki pan/2siati& &on%eren&e had looked similar to the prin&iples o% the League o% 1ations8
so the Breater East 2sia ?on%eren&e de&laration also looked like a modi%i&ation o% the 2tlanti& ?harter8 #ith slight alterations
a%%ording sensitivity to the &ultural traditions o% non/Western so&ieties. (or e;ample8 the prin&iples de&lared on 1ovem:er 78
19H+8 in 4okyo a%%irmed the national sel%/determination o% 2sian so&ieties8 #ith the only ma$or di%%eren&e %rom the 2tlanti& ?harter
:eing a &all %or the Na:olition o% ra&ial dis&riminationO and the &ultivation o% 2sian &ultural heritages.L1<M Iuring the Breater East
2sia War8 the %ier&e &ompetition :et#een the 2llied Po#ers and 0apan in propaganda :attles and psy&hologi&al #ar%are had
a&&elerated the pa&e o% de&oloniGation. 1ot only did 0apan %eel the need to respond to the 2tlanti& ?harter8 :ut the 2llied Po#ers
also had to respond to the pan/2sianist &hallenge to the inter#ar &olonial order. (or instan&e8 '.S. @%%i&e o% Strategi& Servi&es
3@SS5 reports on psy&hologi&al #ar%are in Southeast 2sia held that 0apan7s 2sianist propaganda #as generally very su&&ess%ul.
)n response8 the @SS suggested that the vision o% a 'nited 1ations organiGation and a ne# #orld order should :e emphasiGed8
taking &are not to make any re%eren&e to the &ontinuation o% the British8 (ren&h8 and Iut&h empires.L1<9M .ore important8 there
#as a gro#ing a#areness among '.S. #artime leaders8 in&luding President Aoosevelt8 that they had to &ounter the #idespread
pan/2sian notions o% solidarity spread :y 0apan :y o%%ering a ne# vision o% a post#ar order that at least re&ogniGed the national
demands o% )ndia and ?hina. 4here #as also a se&ond &on&ern :eyond the &ompetition #ith 0apan! ho# to assure the support o%
?hina and later )ndia in the post#ar international order. 4hese &on&erns led to re&ognition that the pre/WW)) &olonial dis&ourses
o% ra&ial in%eriority and the reality o% the &olonial su:$ugation o% )ndia and ?hina should not &ontinue8 even i% 0apan #ere punished
:y a national/ra&ial isolation.L11<M )t is against the :a&kground o% this &on&ern #ith pan/2sianism that Aoosevelt re&ommended
that ?hur&hill give )ndia more sel%/government in order to improve the #ar e%%orts against 0apan.L111M
2s a matter o% %a&t8 a%ter the end o% the Breater East 2sia War8 the pre#ar imperial order #ould not :e reesta:lished. When
[ka#a Sh\mei listened to the emperor7s radio announ&ement o% 0apan7s surrender8 on 2ugust 1,8 19H,8 he thought that %our
de&ades o% his #ork Nto#ard the revival o% 2sia LhadM disappeared like a soap :u::le.OL11*M Yet8 although it #as true that
0apanese pan/2sianism as a politi&al movement #ould disappear8 the de&oloniGation o% 2sia #ould :e &ompleted :y the 19,<s.
.ore important8 the 2sianist dis&ourse o% an East/West &iviliGational &on%li&t #ould like#ise survive the post/WW)) period.
4he period immediately a%ter WW)) #itnessed nationalist revolutions %rom )ndonesia to Cietnam %ighting against the returning
Iut&h and (ren&h &olonialism. Even in )ndia8 despite ?handra Bose7s death in a plane &rash and the dissolution o% his army at
the end o% WW))8 the )ndian national movement rushed to the moral and legal de%ense o% the o%%i&ers o% the 0apanese/sponsored
)ndian 1ational 2rmy8 #ho #ere indi&ted %or treason against the British Empire. 2s 4ilak Aa$ Sareen #rote8 the trial o% the )12
o%%i&ers revitaliGed the nationalist movement in )ndia8 a&tually &reating a ne# turning point in the )ndian national movement8
demoraliGed a%ter WW)).L11+M .ean#hile8 at the 4okyo War ?rimes 4ri:unal8 the lega&y o% the pre#ar 2sian dis&ourse o%
&iviliGation #ould :e played out in %ull in the &on%li&t o% opinion :et#een the )ndian Aadha:inod Pal and the other $udges.
[ka#a Sh\mei #as indi&ted as a ?lass 2 #ar &riminal :y the 4okyo War ?rimes 4ri:unal :ased on his role as an ideologue o%
right/#ing pan/2sianism. Both the prose&ution and the %inal verdi&t used [ka#a7s #ritings e;tensively in the &onstru&tion o% their
&ase &harging the a&&used 0apanese leaders #ith &onspira&y to &ommit aggression8 even though &harges against [ka#a
himsel% #ere dropped #hen he #as diagnosed #ith :rain syphilis in the early stages o% the tri:unal. While the ma$ority o% $udges
%ound the a&&used 0apanese leaders guilty o% the &harges8 0udge Aadha:inod Pal #rote a long dissenting opinion asserting that
0apanese de&ision making leading up to the Pa&i%i& War did not &onstitute a &rime in international la#. )t is a testimony to
Aadha:inod Pal7s e;pertise in international la# and his sharp politi&al and legal a&umen that his long dissenting opinion is no#
as #ell remem:ered as the 4okyo 4ri:unal itsel%. 4he su:stan&e o% Pal7s dissenting $udgment derived %rom his ideas o%
international la# and his &ommitment to a $ust trial untainted :y the politi&s o% Nvi&tor7s $usti&e.O )t is also evident that Pal7s
:a&kground in &olonial Bengal and his sympathies %or the )ndian 1ational 2rmy under the leadership o% Su:has ?handra Bose
had an impa&t on the &ontent o% his dissenting $udgment. 4his :a&kground may have also in%luen&ed his %ailure to speak out
against the use o% his dissenting $udgment :y 0apanese right/#ing revisionists.
Monument to 4adha&inod 6al in Japan
Ai&hard .inear and 0ohn Io#er have agreed #ith many o% Pal7s legal arguments in their dis&ussion o% the neo&olonial &onte;t o%
the 4okyo 4ri:unal and their &ritiEue o% the negative impa&t o% the 4okyo trial on :oth international $usti&e and 0apan7s
a&&eptan&e o% responsi:ility %or the Pa&i%i& War.L11HM 2s 4imothy Brook has demonstrated8 ho#ever8 0usti&e Pal7s anti&olonial
sensi:ilities led him to re%rain %rom making any meaning%ul $udgment on 0apan7s responsi:ility %or the 1anking .assa&re.L11,M
Pal7s anti&olonial stan&e led him to #ithhold &omment on 0apan7s #ar &rimes against ?hinese &ivilians in 1anking and
else#here. 4he ma$ority o% the $udges8 on the other hand8 &ondemned 0apanese imperialism in the name o% international $usti&e
at the same time that Western po#ers #ere trying to reesta:lish their &olonial hegemony.L11=M 4hus8 in a sense8 the &olor lines
that pan/2sianism emphasiGed #ere a&ted out on the :en&hes o% the 4okyo 4ri:unal8 indi&ating one o% the many #ays the
lega&ies o% the pan/2sianist dis&ourse o% &iviliGation and ra&e survived in the post#ar period8 shaping the per&eption o% :oth the
&old #ar and de&oloniGation in &ontemporary history.
Conclusion
0apanese pan/2sianism gained unpre&edented o%%i&ial support among the elites o% the 0apanese Empire in the a%termath o% the
.an&hurian )n&ident and 0apan7s de&ision to #ithdra# %rom the League o% 1ations. 4he 0apanese government de&lared its
Nreturn to 2siaO :y appropriating an already e;isting pan/2sianist alternative to the Euro&entri& #orld order only #hen its empire
#as &hallenged internally :y nationalist movements and e;ternally :y the other great po#ers. 4he very %a&t that 0apan7s elites
sa# something pra&ti&al and use%ul in the pan/2sian slogans and net#orks to help $usti%y the multiethni& 2sian empire o% 0apan
indi&ates :oth the &ontinuing intelle&tual vitality o% 2sianist &ritiEues o% the inter#ar/era #orld order and the potential appeal o%
the 2sianist slogans o% East/West relations and ra&ial identity to :roader 0apanese pu:li& opinion. Pan/2sianism allo#ed the
0apanese Empire to implement more rigorous and in&lusive assimilation poli&ies and e;hi:it a high level o% international
&on%iden&e and sel%/righteousness in an era #hen imperialism #as glo:ally delegitimiGed. Yet it #as partly a nostalgi& and
nar&issisti& ideology8 making %reEuent re%eren&es to the post/19<, 2sian nationalist admiration o% 0apan #ithout re&ogniGing the
%a&t that :oth the nature o% nationalism and the image o% 0apan had &hanged dramati&ally %rom 19<, to the late 19+<s.
0apanese pan/2sianists sa# a great opportunity in the une;pe&ted patronage o% their ideas :y the 0apanese government and
military authorities a%ter 19++. 4hroughout the 19+<s8 the radi&al anti/Western tradition #ithin 2sianism #as %o&used on the end
o% European empires in 2sia8 espe&ially on the #eakness o% British Empire8 #ithout advo&ating or re&ommending any 0apanese
&hallenge to the 'nited States. Pearl Har:or #as thus an undesira:le development %or pan/2sianists in 0apan8 even though they
rushed to glori%y and $usti%y it via a dis&ourse o% East/West &iviliGational or yello#/#hite ra&ial &on%li&ts. .ean#hile8 ne# &onverts
to 2sianism %rom di%%erent segments o% 0apanese intelle&tual li%e added pra&ti&al and poli&y/oriented &ontent to the am:ivalent
slogans o% 2sian solidarity via so&ial s&ien&e theories o% regional &ooperation and multiethni& &ommunities. Iespite its internal
parado;es and its tensions #ith the logi& o% 0apanese imperialism8 pan/2sianism nevertheless allo#ed 0apan to &ondu&t a
relatively su&&ess%ul propaganda &ampaign against Western imperialism in Southeast 2sia #hile motivating numerous idealist
0apanese a&tivists and their &olla:orators. Pan/2sianist propaganda8 a&&ompanied :y 0apan7s o#n imperial e;pansion during
WW))8 did &ontri:ute to the end o% Western empires8 partly :y %or&ing the 2llied po#ers to %ormulate and promise a more
in&lusive and nonimperialisti& #orld order at the end o% WW))8 and partly :y stimulating anti/&olonial thought and &on%iden&e in
the possi:ility o% de%eating European &oloniGers among &oloniGed 2sian nations.
(his article is developed from Cemil A'din, (he 6olitics of Anti-2esternism in Asia5 .isions of 2orld Crder in 6an-
Islamic and 6an-Asian (hought /ew York5 Colum&ia 9niversit' 6ress :$$>% pp5 !K!-!*"+ For more information a&out
the &ook, please see+ 6osted at Japan Focus on March !:, :$$*+
Cemil A'din is assistant professor of histor', 9niversit' of /orth Carolina, Charlotte and a post-doctoral Fellow at
6rinceton 9niversit', /ear ,astern Studies <epartment in :$$>-$*+ 4ecent pu&lications include L3e'ond ,urocentrism=
JapanMs Islamic Studies during the ,ra of the ;reater ,ast Asia 2ar !")>-!"#7%,L in 4enee 2orringer, ed+, 6rinceton
6apers5 Interdisciplinar' Journal of Middle ,astern Studies, .olume NI.5 (he Islamic Middle ,ast and Japan5
6erceptions, Aspirations, and the 3irth of Intra-Asian Modernit', Januar' :$$>+
/otes
L1M. 4he .an&hurian )n&ident o% 19+1 initiated a pro&ess that led to the esta:lishment o% a 0apanese/&ontrolled puppet government in
.an&huria and 0apan7s #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations. 0apan7s 6#antung army guarding the South .an&hurian Aail#ays :om:ed
parts o% the rail#ay in .ukden to &reate a prete;t to o&&upy .an&huria #ith the ostensi:le purpose o% providing se&urity against ?hinese
nationalists in Septem:er 19+1. )nstead o% #ithdra#ing %rom the o&&upied territories8 the 0apanese government &reated the puppet state
.an&hukuo in (e:ruary 19+*. 1onre&ognition o% this state :y the League o% 1ations :e&ame the reason %or 0apanese #ithdra#al %rom the
league in 19++.
L*M. (rederi&k Ii&kinson8 War and 1ational Aeinvention! 0apan in the Breat War8 191HQ1919 3?am:ridge! Harvard 'niversity Press8 *<<15.
L+M. Ai&hard Storry8 4he Iou:le Patriots! 2 Study o% 0apanese 1ationalism 3Boston! Houghton .i%%lin8 19,75.
LHM. ?hristopher SGpilman8 N?onservatism and )ts Enemies in Pre#ar 0apan! 4he ?ase o% Hiranuma 6ii&hirZ and the 6okuhonsha8O
Hitotsu:ashi 0ournal o% So&ial Studies +<8 no. * 3Ie&em:er 1995! 1<1Q1++.
L,M. BenGo Yamamoto8 NIe%ending 0apan7s ?iviliGation and ?iviliGing .ission in 2sia! 4he Aesilien&e and 4riumph o% )lli:eralism in the House
o% Peers8 1919Q19+HO 3Ph.I. diss.8 Yale 'niversity8 19995. See also 2rima 4atsuo8 4he (ailure o% (reedom! 2 Portrait o% .odern 0apanese
)ntelle&tuals 3?am:ridge! Harvard 'niversity Press8 19=95. (or a previous #ork on this topi& that %o&uses more on the %ailure o% the li:erals to
%ight the antili:erals8 see 4oru 4akemoto8 4he (ailure o% Li:eralism in 0apan! Shidehara 6i$uro7s En&ounter #ith 2nti/Li:erals 3Washington8
I.?.! 'niversity Press o% 2meri&a8 1975.
L=M. Louise Young8 0apan7s 4otal Empire! .an&huria and the ?ulture o% Wartime Empire 3Berkeley! 'niversity o% ?ali%ornia Press8 1995.
L7M (or 1ito:e )naGZ7s arguments $usti%ying 0apan7s .an&huria poli&y8 see 4homas W. Burkman8 N4he Beneva Spirit8O in 0ohn (. Ho#es8 ed.8
1ito:e )naGZ! 0apan7s Bridge 2&ross the Pa&i%i& 3Boulder8 ?olo.! Westvie#8 199,58 *<HQ*<9. See also Beorge @shiro8 N4he End! 19*9Q19++8O
in Ho#es8 1ito:e )naGZ8 *,,Q*,.
LM. (or Sumoto7s de%ense o% the .an&hurian )n&ident :e%ore international audien&es in the 'nited States and Europe8 see Sumoto .otosada8
4he @rigin and History o% the 2nti/0apanese .ovement in ?hina 34okyo! Herald8 19+*5F and idem8 0apan in .an&huria and .ongolia 34okyo!
Herald8 19+15. (or 1ito:e )naGZ7s opinion on the .an&hurian )n&ident8 see 1ito:e )naGZ8 N0apan and the League o% 1ations8O in 4he Works o%
1ito:e )naGZ 34okyo! 'niversity o% 4okyo Press8 197*58 H!*+HQ*+9F and idem8 N4he .an&hurian Juestion and Sino/2meri&an Aelations8O in
4he Works o% 1ito:e )naGZ8 H!**1Q*++.
L9M. (or a dis&ussion o% ShZ#a 6enky\kai8 see 0. Ci&tor 6os&hmann8 N2sianism7s 2m:ivalent Lega&y8O in Peter 0. 6atGenstein and 4akashi
Shiraishi8 eds.8 1et#ork Po#er! 0apan and 2sia 3)tha&a! ?ornell 'niversity Press8 199758 9<Q9H. ShZ#a 6enky\kai 319++Q19H<5 #as la:eled in
the popular press as 6onoe (umimaro7s :rain trust. Espe&ially during 6onoe7s tenure as prime minister 319+7Q19+98 19H<Q19H158 ShZ#a
6enky\kai #as preo&&upied #ith %ormulating the East 2sian ?ooperative Body and the 1e# @rder .ovement. 4he mem:ership o% the
asso&iation in&luded s&holars and $ournalists %rom di%%erent ideologi&al :a&kgrounds. (or the anti/Western ideas o% the 6yoto S&hool
philosophers8 see 0ohn Io#er8 War Without .er&y! Aa&e and Po#er in the Pa&i%i& War 31e# York! Pantheon8 19=58 **7.
L1<M. Harry Harootunian8 @ver&ome :y .odernity! History8 ?ulture8 and ?ommunity in )nter#ar 0apan 3Prin&eton! Prin&eton 'niversity Press8
*<<<5F Ste%an 4anaka8 0apan7s @rient! Aendering Pasts into History 3Berkeley! 'niversity o% ?ali%ornia Press8 199+5F 6evin Ioak8 Ireams o%
Ii%%eren&e! 4he 0apan Aomanti& S&hool and the ?risis o% .odernity 3Berkeley8 'niversity o% ?ali%ornia Press8 199H5. 4here is an ongoing
de:ate a:out the relationship o% the pro/#ar nature o% the 6yoto S&hool philosophy and its vision o% over&oming modernity. See 'eda
ShiGuteru8 N1ishida8 1ationalism8 and the War in Juestion8O in 0ames Heisig and 0ohn .oraldo8 eds.8 Aude 2#akenings! Sen8 the 6yoto
S&hool8 and the Juestion o% 1ationalism 3Honolulu! 'niversity o% Ha#ai7i Press8 199,58 77Q1<=F Yusa .i&hiko8 N1ishida and 4otalitarianism! 2
Philosopher7s Aesistan&e8O in Heisig and .oraldo8 Aude 2#akenings8 1<7Q1+1F and 2ndre# (een:erg8 N4he Pro:lem o% .odernity in the
Philosophy o% 1ishida8O in Heisig and .oraldo8 Aude 2#akenings8 1,1Q17+.
L11M. 2kira )riye8 N4he (ailure o% E&onomi& E;pansionism! 191Q19+18O in Bernard S. Sil:erman and H. I. Harootunian8 eds.8 0apan in ?rises!
Essays on 4aishZ Iemo&ra&y 3Prin&eton! Prin&eton 'niversity Press8 197H58 *=,.
L1*M. 0ames B. ?ro#ley8 N2 1e# 2sian @rder! Some 1otes on Pre#ar 0apanese 1ationalism8O in Sil:erman and Harootunian8 0apan in ?rises8
*7+.
L1+M. 4his &ontinuity in &hange #as theoriGed :y 2ndre# Bordon as the transition %rom imperial demo&ra&y to imperial %as&ism. See 2ndre#
Bordon8 La:or and )mperial Iemo&ra&y in Pre#ar 0apan 3Berkeley! 'niversity o% ?ali%ornia Press8 19915.
L1HM. N?on%ronted :y a %ormida:le &luster o% diplomati&8 e&onomi&8 and military pro:lems8 the )mperial government Lo% 0apanM resorted to a
series o% potential solutions! .an&hukuo8 a 0apanese .onroe Io&trine8 Hirota7s three prin&iples8 an advan&e to the South Seas8 a national
de%ense state8 and the re$uvenation o% ?hinaO 30ames B. ?ro#ley8 N)ntelle&tuals as Cisionaries o% the 1e# 2sian @rder8O in 0ames W. .orley8
ed.8 Iilemmas o% Bro#th in Pre#ar 0apan 3Prin&eton! Prin&eton 'niversity Press8 197158 +9,5. Similarly8 Ben/2mi Shillony has demonstrated
that8 even at the peak o% the Pa&i%i& War8 0apan did not deviate %rom the normal %un&tioning o% the .ei$i ?onstitution. See Ben/2mi Shillony8
Politi&s and ?ulture in Wartime 0apan 31e# York! @;%ord 'niversity Press8 1915.
L1,M. Hayashi (usao8 IaitZa SensZ 6Zteiron8 * vols. 34okyo! Ban&hZ Sho:Z8 19=HQ19=,58 &ited in ?ro#ley8 N2 1e# 2sian @rder8O *97Q*9.
L1=M (or e;ample8 .ark Peattie has argued that )shi#ara 6an$i7s vie#s N#ere part o% this surging anti/Western nationalism during the inter#ar
period8 and his &on&ept o% a (inal War must :e seen as a reinvigoration o% a persistent8 i% long/muted8 theme o% &hallenge to the West
throughout 0apan7s modern history to 19H,O 3.ark A. Peattie8 )shi#ara 6an$i and 0apan7s ?on%rontation #ith the West LPrin&eton! Prin&eton
'niversity Press8 197,M8 +=5.
L17M. (or a good e;ample o% the per&eption o% Western retreat %rom 2sia8 see 1o/Yong Park8 Aetreat o% the West! 4he White .an7s 2dventure
in Eastern 2sia 3Boston! Hale8 ?ushman8 and (lint8 19+75.
L1M. '. @ttama 3179Q19+95 #as an in%luential %igure in Burmese nationalism. )n%luen&ed :y :oth the )ndian 1ational ?ongress and the
0apanese model8 @ttama denoun&ed British &olonial rule. He #as imprisoned :y the British authorities %or a very long time8 ultimately dying in
prison. (or [ka#a7s praise o% @ttama8 see [ka#a Sh\mei8 N@ttama HZshi o @mou8O in [ka#a Sh\mei Sensh\8 7 vols.8 ed. [ka#a Sh\mei
Sensh\ 6ankZkai 34okyo! [ka#a Sh\mei Sensh\ 6ankZkai8 19=1Q197H58 *!91+Q91,.
L19M Selùk Esen:el8 N0apanese )nterest in the @ttoman Empire8O in Bert Edstrom8 ed.8 4he 0apanese and Europe! )mages and Per&eptions
3Ai&hmond8 Surrey8 '.6.! ?urGon8 *<<<58 11*Q1*<F El/.osta%a AeGraGi8 NPan/2sianism and the 0apanese )slam! Hatano 'hZ. (rom Espionage
to Pan/)slamist 2&tivity8O 2nnals o% the 0apan 2sso&iation %or .iddle East Studies8 no. 1* 319975! 9Q11*.
L*<M. 4anaka )ppei #as a s&holar o% ?hina and Buddhism. He &onverted to )slam and per%ormed pilgrimages to .e&&a in 19*, and 19++.
Waka:ayashi des&ri:es 4anaka )ppei as a %ighter %or NSonnZ Y\koku8O meaning NAevere the Emperor8 and :e a Patriot8O despite the %a&t that
4anaka :e&ame a .uslim and adopted the name Ha$i 1ur .uhammad in 191.
L*1M. His :rother8 Waka:ayashi 6y\man8 #orked %or the same &ause8 operating under&over as a mer&hant among ?hinese .uslims until he
died in ?hangsha in 19*H. (or Waka:ayashi7s re%le&tions on the history o% the 6okury\kai &ir&le o% )slam poli&y advo&ates8 see Waka:ayashi
Han8 6aikyZ Sekai to 1ihon 34okyo! Waka:ayashi Han8 19+758 1Q+.
L**M. Waka:ayashi8 6aikyZ Sekai to 1ihon8 +Q7. 2raki Sadao 3177Q19==5 #as a leader in the )mperial Way %a&tion o% the army.
L*+M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 N?ho Bakuryo Shi o 4aGuneru no 6iO 31ovem:er 19*58 in [ka#a Sh\mei Sensh\8 H!,91.
L*HM. ?hristopher SGpilman8 N4he Iream o% @ne 2sia! [ka#a Sh\mei and 0apanese Pan/2sianism8O in H. (uess8 ed.8 4he 0apanese Empire in
East 2sia and )ts Post#ar Lega&y 3.uni&h! Berman )nstitute o% 0apanese Studies8 19958 ,1.
L*,M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 N.anmZ .ondai no 6Zsatsu8O Bekkan 1ihon8 no. 7, 30une 19+158 reprinted in [ka#a Sh\mei Sensh\8 *!=H9Q=+.
L*=M. See 2#aya 6entaro and Yoshida Yutada8 eds.8 )nternational Prose&ution Se&tion 3)PS5 34okyo! 4okyo Iaigaku Shuppankai8 19<58
*+!+9=Q+9. Iuring the interrogation8 [ka#a &on&eded that he kne# something #ould happen :ut noted that many others at that time had the
same kno#ledge and it #as not a se&ret.
L*7M. (or instan&e8 as the :iography o% )shi#ara 6an$i8 the military :rain o% the .an&hurian )n&ident8 &on%irms8 ideas a:out a %inal #ar and East/
West &on%rontation8 #hi&h #ere very important in [ka#a Sh\mei7s pan/2sianism8 #ere &ommonly shared :y other European8 2meri&an8 and
0apanese thinkers8 and [ka#a #as not the main inspiration %or )shi#ara7s plans. See Peattie8 )shi#ara 6an$i8 *7Q=.
L*M. William .iles (let&her8 4he Sear&h %or a 1e# @rder! )ntelle&tuals and (as&ism in Pre#ar 0apan 3?hapel Hill! 'niversity o% 1orth ?arolina
Press8 19*58 *9Q+<. (or the detailed arguments o% AZyama on the issue o% .an&huria poli&y8 see also AZyama .asami&hi8 0apan7s Position
in .an&huria 34okyo! )nstitute o% Pa&i%i& AelationsQ0apan ?oun&il8 19*95.
L*9M. Even in 0une 19+18 shortly :e%ore the .an&hurian )n&ident8 #hen [ka#a #arned that a #ar &ould :reak out :et#een ?hina and 0apan at
a slight provo&ation and suggested the ne&essity o% a radi&al &hange in poli&y in .an&huria8 his ideas still #ere not e;&eptional enough to
single him out as an instigator o% 6#antung 2rmy o%%i&ers. See [ka#a8 N.anmZ .ondai no 6Zsatsu8O =79Q=*.
L+<M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 N1i$y\ no 1ankyoku ni tai suru 6akugo8O Bekkan 1ihon8 .ay 19+*8 reprinted in [ka#a Sh\mei Sensh\8 H!=*9Q=+1F and
idem8 N.anshu Shin 6okka no 6ensetsu8O Bekkan 1ihon8 0uly 19+*8 in [ka#a Sh\mei 6ankei .on$o8 ed. [ka#a Sh\mei 6ankei .on$o
6ankZkai 34okyo! (uyZ ShohZ Shuppan8 19958 *HHQ*H.
L+1M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 NIaitZ 6yZeiken no Aekishiteki 6onkyo8O in Iai 1ippon Benron HZkokukai8 ed.8 6okka to Bunka 34okyo! IZmei
4s\shinsha8 19H+58 *9QH+.
L+*M. (or [ka#a Sh\mei7s main arti&le on the #ithdra#al %rom the League o% 1ations8 see N6okusai Aenmei to 1ihon8O 4ZyZ8 .ay 19+*8
reprinted in [ka#a Sh\mei 6ankei .on$o8 *+*.
L++M. (or [ka#a7s advo&a&y o% the #ithdra#al %rom the league :e%ore the .an&hurian )n&ident8 see [ka#a Sh\mei8 N1ihon no 6okusai ?hii @
6okoromiru8O IaitZ Bunka8 .ay 19*98 reprinted in [ka#a Sh\mei 6ankei .on$o8 *+HQ*H+.
L+HM. )nukai #as assassinated :y a group o% radi&al nationalist army &adets and naval o%%i&ers. [ka#a Sh\mei #as indi&ted8 and %ound guilty8 o%
providing material assistan&e to this group. )t is ironi& that he ended up &ontri:uting to )nukai 4suyoshi7s assasination8 as pan/2sianists usually
vie#ed )nukai positively8 and the 19*= 1agasaki pan/2siati& &on%eren&e honored him as one o% the 2sian politi&ians #ho aided the &ause o%
2sian people7s a#akening.
L+,M. 4he %i%teen/year prison senten&e [ka#a re&eived on (e:ruary +8 19+H8 #as redu&ed to %ive years on @&to:er *H8 19+,. Be&ause o% health
pro:lems8 he #as allo#ed to postpone his prison term until 0une 1=8 19+=. He #as %inally paroled on @&to:er 1+8 19+7. See [tsuka 4akehiro8
[ka#a Sh\mei to 6indai 1ihon 34okyo! .okutakusha8 199<58 **<.
L+=M. )n the a%termath o% the .an&hurian )n&ident8 [ka#a esta:lished 0inmukai 3So&iety o% 0inmu5 as a ne# nationalist organiGation in the
a%termath o% the .an&hurian )n&ident8 #ith hopes o% rea&hing a larger audien&e and &reating a :roader popular :ase %or his radi&al nationalist
and 2sianist movement. [ka#a Sh\mei7s trial and imprisonment must have played a role in his de&ision to dis:and the group. .oreover8 a%ter
the &oup o% (e:ruary *=8 19+=8 an event that led to the e;e&ution o% 6ita )kki as the &ivilian ideologue o% the military &onspirators8 the
authorities :egan to sho# less toleran&e %or radi&al nationalist organiGations.
L+7M. 4he $ournal #as pu:lished :y .antetsu 4Za 6eiGai ?hZsakyoku in 4okyo %rom 2ugust 19+9 to (e:ruary 19HH.
L+M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 editorial8 Shin 2$ia 18 no. 1 32ugust 19+95! *Q+.
L+9M. 4aGa#a 4akuya8 .usurimu 1ippon 34okyo! Sho Bakkan8 19958 1H,Q1H=.
LH<M. See Brant 6. Boodman8 ed.8 0apanese ?ultural Poli&ies in Southeast 2sia Iuring World War * 31e# York! St. .artin7s8 199158 *Q,.
LH1M. BotZ 6en7i&hi8 N DBright Lega&y7 or D2:ortive (lo#er7! )ndonesian Students in 0apan Iuring World War *8O in Boodman8 0apanese ?ultural
Poli&ies in Southeast 2sia Iuring World War *8 7Q+,. See also Brant 6. Boodman8 2n E;periment in Wartime )nter/?ultural Aelations!
Philippine Students in 0apan8 19H+Q19H, 3)tha&a! ?ornell 'niversity Southeast 2sia Program8 19=*5.
LH*M. Students o% [ka#a #ere the leading %igures in [ka#a Sh\mei 6enshZkai and organiGed the pu:li&ation o% his &olle&ted #orks and other
related materials. See Harada 6Zki&hi8 [ka#a Sh\mei Hakushi no shZgai 3Yamagata/ken Sakata/shi! [ka#a Sh\mei 6enshZkai8 19*5.
LH+M. (or a personal a&&ount o% the [ka#a 0uku %rom the memoirs o% students8 see 4aGa#a8 .usurimu 1ippon8 1*9Q1H*.
LHHM. (or the evaluation o% [ka#a7s )slami& studies8 see 4akeu&hi Yoshimi8 N[ka#a Sh\mei no 2$ia 6enky\8O in Hashika#a BunsZ8 ed.8 [ka#a
Sh\mei Sh\F 34okyo! ?hikuma Sho:Z8 197,58 +91Q+9H.
LH,M. See [ka#a Sh\mei8 N4aisen no Sento to 2$ia no Shorai o 6ataru Sadankai8O Shin 2$ia *8 no. + 32ugust 19H<5! 1*=. See also [ka#a
Sh\mei8 N1anhZ .ondai8O in Yoshioka 1agayoshi8 ed.8 Sekai no IZkZ to 4Za .ondai 34okyo! Senrin 6yZkai8 19H158 +HQ+,.
LH=M. [ka#a8 editorial8 Shin 2$ia 18 no. 1 32ugust 19+95! +.
LH7M. Haruo )gu&hi8 'n%inished Business! 2yuka#a Yoshisuke and '.S./0apan Aelations8 19+7Q19,+ 3?am:ridge! Harvard East 2sia
.onographs8 *<<15.
LHM. See [tsuka 4akehiro8 [ka#a Sh\mei! 2ru (ukkZ 6akushin Shugisha no ShisZ 34okyo!8 ?h\Z 6Zronsha8 199,58 1=<Q17<F 6usunoki
Seii&hirZ8 N[ka#a Sh\mei no tai/Bei Seisaku8O 1ihon Aekishi8 no. H7H 31ovem:er 1975! ,HQ7<.
LH9M. See [tsuka 4akehiro8 NShZ#a 0yunendai no [ka#a Sh\mei8O in [ka#a Sh\mei to 6indai 1ihon8 **7Q*,*.
L,<M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 2 History o% 2nglo/2meri&an 2ggression in East 2sia8 trans. Yoshio @ga#a and P. B. ?larke 34okyo! IaitZa Shuppan
6a:ushiki 6aisha8 19HH58 1Q+.
L,1M (or the #ay the prose&ution used this re%eren&e8 see 2#aya and Yoshida8 )nternational Prose&ution Se&tion 3)PS58 *+!+19.
L,*M. ):id.8 *+!+<+Q+<=.
L,+M. 4he 1e# 2sia8 edited :y Aash Behari Bose in 4okyo %rom 19++ to 19+75.
L,HM. 4he &ontent o% 4he 1e# 2sia in&luded many o% the arguments e;pounded :y [ka#a Sh\mei8 unsurprisingly8 given the &lose ties that had
e;isted :et#een [ka#a and Bose sin&e 191,. (or e;ample8 the &ontent in 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. ,Q= 3Septem:erQ@&to:er 19++5! 18 is very
similar to the #ritings o% [ka#a in (ukkZ 2$ia no Shomondai and 2$ia8 Yoroppa8 1ihon.
L,,M. (or ne#s a:out .uhammad Hatta8 see 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. 1+Q1H 3.ayQ0une 19+H5! H.
L,=M. 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. 17Q1 3Septem:erQ@&to:er 19+H58 &ontains e;tensive &overage o% ?handra Bose7s ideas.
L,7M. 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. ,Q= 3Septem:erQ@&to:er 19++5! +. (or 4agore7s &ritiEue o% 0apan during the late 19+<s8 see Sel$ko ?ipris8 NSedu&ed
:y 1ationalism! Yone 1ogu&hi7s D4erri:le .istake7. Ie:ating the ?hina/0apan War With 4agoreO 0apan (o&us.
L,M. 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. 7Q 31ovem:erQIe&em:er 19++5! +.
L,9M. 1e#s a:out the visit to 0apan o% the 2%ri&an 2meri&an poet Langston Hughes #as a&&ompanied :y in%ormation a:out the issue o% #hite
dis&rimination against :la&ks in the 'nited StatesF see Shin 2$ia8 no. H 32ugust 19++5! *. )n another instan&e8 the Pan/2siati& ?ultural
2sso&iation de&lared its goal to invite students %rom 4urkey8 2%ghanistan8 Persia8 )ndia8 and East 2sian and Southeast 2sian regions to 0apan.
See Shin 2$ia8 nos. 7Q 31ovem:erQIe&em:er 19++5! H.
L=<M. Shin 2$ia8 nos. ,Q= 3Septem:erQ@&to:er 19++5! *.
L=1M. (or a lengthy &ommentary on the rise o% the &olored and de&line o% the #hite ra&es8 see Shin 2$ia8 no. 17Q1 3Septem:er/@&to:er 19+H5!
1.
L=*M. 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. 7Q 31ovem:erQIe&em:er 19++5! *. )ndi&ating his &olor/:lind loyalty to universal prin&iples8 Bose #rote a:out his
admiration %or 2:raham Lin&oln8 des&ri:ing him as the leader #ho taught the #orld the meaning o% li:eration. See 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. *+Q*H
3.ar&hQ2pril 19+,5! *.
L=+M. 4he 1e# 2sia8 nos. 1+Q1H 3.ayQ0une 19+H5! +. See also nos. 17Q1 3Septem:erQ@&to:er 19+H5! H.
L=HM. Yani Yapon .uh:iri #as edited :y Jur:an 2li in 4okyo %rom 19++ to 19+. 4he $ournal o%ten &ontained dida&ti& arti&les a:out the history8
e&onomy8 and &ulture o% 0apan8 as #ell as &arrying ne#s a:out the 4atar 4urkish diaspora living #ithin the :oundaries o% the 0apanese
Empire. Sin&e there #as a large 4atar .uslim &ommunity in .an&huria8 the $ournal in&luded ne#s a:out .an&hukuo8 the .an&hu dynasty8 and
developments in ?hina as #ell.
L=,M. (or the :a&kground o% 2:d]l 6erim E%endi in&ident and other .uslim a&tivists #ho visited 0apan a%ter 19++8 see Selùk Esen:el8 N0apan7s
Blo:al ?laim to 2sia and the World o% )slam! 4ransnational 1ationalism and World Po#er8 19<<Q19H,8O 2meri&an Histori&al Aevie# 1<98 no. H
3@&to:er *<<H5! 11,9Q11=*.
L==M. 2:durreabid ^c:rahim looked to 0apanese e;pansion in the north against the Soviet 'nion #ith the hope that this #ould allo# the .uslim
regions o% ?entral 2sia to a&hieve independen&e. )nitially8 this idea had many supporters #ithin the 0apanese army as #ell. Ho#ever8 &lashes
:et#een 0apanese and Soviet %or&es in 1omonhan8 .ongolia8 during the summer o% 19+9 &onvin&ed the military authorities o% 0apan that
Soviet military po#er &ould not :e easily &hallenged8 strengthening the southern advan&e theory. (or the relationship :et#een 6okury\kai and
2:durreabid ^c:rahim8 see Selùk Esen:el8 N0apanese )nterest in the @ttoman Empire8O in Edstrom8 4he 0apanese and Europe8 9,Q1*HF see
also Selùk Esen:el8 1adir @G:ek8 ^csmail 4]rko^blu8 (ranòis Beorgeon8 and 2hmet '&ar8 N@Gel Iosya! 2:durresid ):rahim 3*58O 4oplumsal
4arih H8 no. *< 32ugust 199,5! =Q*+.
L=7M. See Storry8 4he Iou:le Patriots8 1H9.
L=M. )n %a&t8 Beneral )shi#ara 6an$i7s 4Za Aenmei 6yZkai 3East 2sia League 2sso&iation58 %ounded in 19+98 #as :ased on ideas also
advo&ated :y Iai 2$ia 6yZkai. See Peattie8 )shi#ara 6an$i and 0apan7s ?on%rontation #ith the West8 *1Q**.
L=9M. 1akatani 4akeyZ :e&ame a proli%i& #riter in 2sianist pu:li&ations o% the 19+<s. 1akatani #as in%luen&ed :y [ka#a Sh\mei during his
student years at 4okyo 'niversity and later :e&ame a mem:er o% several organiGations led :y [ka#a. He took a leading position in :oth Iai
2$ia 6yZkai and its $ournals. (or his memoirs8 see 1akatani 4akeyZ8 ShZ#a IZranki no 6aisZ_1akatani 4akeyZ 6aikoroku8 * vols. 34okyo!
4airy\sha8 1995.
L7<M. 6os&hmann8 N2sianism7s 2m:ivalent Lega&y8O 9Q9<.
L71M. (or e;ample see8 @ku:Z 6Z$i8 NShinkZ 4oruko 1o 6okumin Shugi HyZshiki8O Iai 2$ia Shugi ,8 no. , 3.ay 19+75! ,Q1<. By late 19+H8 the
ne#s se&tion #as divided into %ive parts8 devoted to .an&huria8 ?hina8 )ndia8 Southeast 2sia8 and West 2sia.
L7*M. See N1i&hi Ei ShZtotsu no HitsuyZsei8O Iai 2$ia Shugi 18 no. 1* 3Ie&em:er 19++5! ++Q+.
L7+M. See NShin 2$ia 6ensetsu 1o Shin Shin1en8O Iai 2$ia Shugi =8 no. 1 30anuary 19+5! *Q19. Both [ka#a and Aash Behari Bose used the
same N1e# 2siaO as titles o% their $ournals.
L7HM. )n a roundta:le dis&ussion on nationalist movements in 2sia8 %our )ndians 3in&luding Behari Bose58 t#o 2nnamese8 t#o )ndonesians8 and
one .an&hurian nationalist o%%ered &ontri:utions. 1aitZ ?hish\8 .itsuka#a 6ametarZ8 and 1akatani 4akeyZ8 all three &lose to [ka#a Sh\mei8
#ere among the ten parti&ipants representing the 0apanese side o% the organiGation. See N2$ia .inGoku 'ndo! Sadankai8O Iai 2$ia Shugi +8 no.
+ 3.ar&h 19+,5! ,1Q=*.
L7,M. )t #as only during the Pa&i%i& War that the same &ir&le o% 0apanese 2sianists :egan to pu:lish an English/language magaGine in
Shanghai8 2siati& 2sia8 in order to rea&h a larger non/0apanese readership #ith more parti&ipation %rom non/0apanese 2sian intelle&tuals.
Pu:li&ation :egan in 0anuary 19H1 and &ontinued %or at least %ive monthly issues.
L7=M. BotZ 6en7i&hi8 N4he )ndonesian Perspe&tive8O in 2kira )riye8 ed.8 Pearl Har:or and the ?oming o% the Pa&i%i& War 3Boston! Bed%ord and St.
.artin7s8 199958 *<7Q*19.
L77M. 2kira )riye8 ?ultural )nternationalism and World @rder 3Baltimore! 0ohns Hopkins 'niversity Press8 199758 119Q1**F Ao:ert S. S&h#antes8
N0apan7s ?ultural (oreign Poli&ies8O in 0ames .orley8 ed.8 0apan7s (oreign Poli&y8 1=Q19H1! 2 Aesear&h Buide 31e# York! ?olum:ia
'niversity Press8 197H58 179Q1<.
L7M. Shi:asaki 2tsushi8 6indai 1ihon no 6okusai Bunka 6Zry\! 6okusai Bunka ShinkZkai no SZsetsu to 4enkai8 19+HQ19H, 34okyo! Y\shindZ
6Z:unsha8 19995. (or e;ample8 it #as through the support o% 6okusai Bunka ShinkZkai that t#o .uslim intelle&tuals8 2mir Lahiri and .ian
2:dul 2GiG8 #ere a:le to visit 0apan to prepare :ooks advo&ating 2sian solidarity! .ian 2:dul 2GiG 3%ormer president o% the 2ll/)ndia .oslem
League58 4he ?res&ent in the Land o% the Aising Sun 3London! Blades8 19H15F and 2mar Lahiri8 0apanese .odernism 34okyo! Hokuseido8
19+95F idem8 .ikado7s .ission 34okyo! 0apan 4imes8 19H<5.
L79M. (or e;ample8 the $ournal Iai 2$ia Shugi printed arti&les on the )talian/Ethiopian &on%li&t #ith a pro/Ethiopian &hara&ter8 in&luding those
sent :y 0apanese &orrespondents %rom 2ddis 2:a:a8 in ea&h o% the t#elve months o% 19+,. 4here #as also regular ne#s on Ethiopia in the
se&tion devoted to West 2sia. (or e;ample8 see the %ive arti&les on Ethiopia in Iai 2$ia Shugi +8 no. 32ugust 19+,5! +*Q,+.
L<M. 0. ?alvitt ?larke )))8 N0apan and )taly SEua::le @ver Ethiopia! 4he Sugimura 2%%air o% 0uly 19+,8O in Sele&ted 2nnual Pro&eedings o% the
(lorida ?on%eren&e o% Historians = 3Ie&em:er 19995! 9Q*<.
L1M. 4akemoto Yuko8 NW. E. B. Iu:ois to 1ihon8O Shien ,H8 no. * 3.ar&h 199H5! 79Q9=. 2lso see .ar& Balli&&hio8 Bla&k )nternationalism in
2sia8 19,Q19H,! 4he 2%ri&an 2meri&an En&ounter #ith 0apan and ?hina 3?hapel Hill! 'niversity o% 1orth ?arolina Press8 *<<<58 7HQ7,.
L*M. 1aoki Sakai8 N4ZyZ no 0iritsu to daitZ/2 kyZeiken8O 0okyo8 no. H 3Ie&em:er 199H5! 1+.
L+M. (or a good e;ample o% a 0apanese #ho &om:ined the li:eration vision o% pan/2sian identity8 sometimes #ith highly &riti&al vie#s on the
poli&ies o% the 0apanese state8 see .ariko 2sano 4amanoi8 NPan/2sianism in the Iiary o% .orisaku .inato 319*HQ19H,5 and the Sui&ide o%
.ishima Yukio 319*,Q197<58O in .ariko 2sano 4amanoi8 ed.8 ?rossed Histories! .an&huria in the 2ge o% Empire 3Honolulu! 'niversity o%
Ha#ai7i Press8 *<<,58 1HQ*<=.
LHM. Juoted in 4homas W. Burkman8 N1ito:e )naGZ! (rom World @rder to Aegional @rder8O in 0. 4homas Aimer8 ed.8 ?ulture and )dentity!
0apanese )ntelle&tuals Iuring the )nter#ar Years 3Prin&eton! Prin&eton 'niversity Press8 199<58 *11.
L,M. ):id.8 *1*Q*1+. Burkman dis&usses an arti&le :y 6amika#a Hikomatsu8 N2sia AengZ ka 6yokutZ Aenmei kaTO 6okka Bakkai Sasshi H78
no. 7 30uly 19++5! 9<Q1<<.
L=M. AZyama .asami&hi8 4Z/2 to Sekai 34okyo! 6aiGZsha8 19H158 1H1Q1H*8 Euoted in .i#a 6imitada8 N0apanese Poli&ies and ?on&epts %or a
Aegional @rder in 2sia8 19+Q19H<8O in 0. White8 .. 'megaki8 and 4. Havens8 eds.8 4he 2m:ivalen&e o% 1ationalism! .odern 0apan Bet#een
East and West 31e# York! 'niversity Press o% 2meri&a8 199<58 1H9.
L7M. AZyama .asami&hi8 (oreign Poli&y o% 0apan8 191HQ19+9 34okyo! )nstitute o% Pa&i%i& AelationsQ0apanese ?oun&il8 19H15.
LM. (or an argument that sho#s the proto/2sianist vie#s o% 0apanese li:erals during the 19*<s8 see Han 0ung/Sun8 NAationaliGing the @rient!
4he DEast 2sia ?ooperative ?ommunity7 in Pre#ar 0apan8O .onumenta 1ipponi&a =<8 no. H 3Winter *<<,58 H1Q,1H.
L9M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 NBandhi #o 4Z Shite )ndo$in ni 2tauO and N1ehru o 4Z Shite )ndo$in ni 2tauO 319H*58 in Shin 2$ia ShZron 34okyo! 1ihon
HyZronsha8 19HH58 reprinted in [ka#a Sh\mei Sensh\8 *!9*,Q9+.
L9<M. (or some e;amples o% the %lood o% pu:li&ations on @kakura8 see 6iyomi AokurZ8 @kakura 4enshin den8 34okyo! 6eiGZsha8 19+5F @kakura
6akuGZ8 @kakura 4enshin Sensh\ 34okyo! Aikugeisha8 19+95F and 6iyomi AokurZ8 Senkakusha @kakura 4enshin 34okyo! 2toriesha8 19H*5.
See also @kakura 6akuGZ8 0apan7s )nnate Cirility! Sele&tions %rom @kakura and 1ito:e 34okyo! Hokuseido8 19H+5.
L91M. (or e;amples o% the pu:li&ation and repu:li&ation o% the :ooks o% Ias8 Paul Ai&hard8 and [ka#a a%ter the post/19+7 0apan/?hina #ar8
see 4araknath Ias8 )ndo Iokuritsu Aon 34okyo! Haku:unkan8 19HH5F and LPaulM Aisharu8 4sugu 1ihon 6oku8 trans. [ka#a Sh\mei 34okyo!
Seinen Sho:Z8 19H15.
L9*M. (or a re&ent assessment o% .iki 6iyoshi7s 2sianist ideas8 see Harootunian8 @ver&ome :y .odernity8 +9HQ+99. See also 6os&hmann8
N2sianism7s 2m:ivalent Lega&y8O 9<Q9H.
L9+M. ?ro#ley8 NN2 1e# 2sian @rder8O *7Q*79.
L9HM. Bermaine Hoston7s study o% the #ritings o% post/tenko Sano .ana:u sho#s the importan&e o% her interest in Eastern spirituality and
intelle&tual tradition8 as #ell as her :elie% in 0apanese e;&eptionalism8 in leading her to sear&h %or a 0apanese &onte;t %or adopting &ertain &ore
ideals o% .ar;ism. See Bermaine 2. Hoston8 N)kkoku Shakai/Shugi! Sano .ana:u and the Limits o% .ar;ism as ?ultural ?riti&ism8O in Aimer8
?ulture and )dentity8 1=Q19<.
L9,M. Beorge Be&kmann8 N4he Aadi&al Le%t and the (ailure o% ?ommunism8O in .orley8 Iilemmas o% Bro#th in Pre#ar 0apan8 17<.
L9=M. (rom .i#a8 N0apanese Poli&ies and ?on&epts %or a Aegional @rder in 2sia8O 1H*.
L97M. .inamoto AyZen8 NSymposium on D@ver&oming .odernity87 O in Heisig and .oraldo8 Aude 2#akenings8 197Q**9.
L9M. 2ll the :ooks [ka#a pu:lished during the #artime years attempted to de%ine the ideology o% the Breater East 2sia ?oprosperity Sphere
and 0apan7s #ar aims. See [ka#a Sh\mei8 Iai 4Za ?hitsu$yo 6ensetsu 34okyo! Iai )&hi Sho:Z8 19H+5F idem8 Shin 2$ia ShZronF and idem8
Shin 4ZyZ Seishin 34okyo! ShinkyZ Shuppan 6a:ushiki 6aisha8 19H,5.
L99M. (or a des&ription o% the ideas o% 2sian solidarity as they %un&tioned in 0apanese &olla:oration #ith )ndian and Burmese nationalists8 see
Louis .. 2llen8 N(u$i#ara and SuGuki! Patterns o% 2sian Li:eration8O in William H. 1e#ell8 ed.8 0apan in 2sia 3Singapore! Singapore 'niversity
Press8 19158 +Q1<+.
L1<<M. 2 similar idealist 2sianism &an :e seen in the 0apanese &ooperation #ith the nationalist leadership o% Burma. 2s Louis 2llen has sho#n8
a &on%li&t emerged among 0apanese o%%i&ers involved in the Burmese government #hen @%%i&er SuGuki 6ei$i %rom .inami 6ikan took the side o%
Burmese nationalism and asked %or immediate independen&e8 #hile Beneral )shii o:$e&ted to this on the grounds o% military interest. See 2llen8
N(u$i#ara and SuGuki.O
L1<1M. @:$e&tion to the leadership o% Aash Behari Bose is another indi&ation o% the ine%%e&tiveness o% 0apanese pan/2sianists7 politi&al
net#orks. 2lthough 0apan7s 2sianist &ir&les had al#ays presented Behari Bose as the representative voi&e o% )ndian nationalism8 it :e&ame
apparent that he did not have a reputation su%%i&ient to play a role in the pro$e&t o% the )ndian 1ational 2rmy. See 4ilak Aa$ Sareen8 0apan and
the )ndian 1ational 2rmy 31e# Ielhi! .ounto8 199=58 +,Q*. See also (u$i#ara )#ai&hi8 0apanese 2rmy )ntelligen&e @perations in South East
2sia Iuring World War )) 3Singapore! Sele&t8 19+5.
L1<*M. Sareen8 0apan and the )ndian 1ational 2rmy8 **Q*+=.
L1<+M. Juoted in 0oy&e Le:ra8 NBose7s )n%luen&e on the (ormulation o% 0apanese Poli&y to#ard )ndia and the )128O in )nternational 1eta$i
Seminar 3?al&utta! 1eta$i Aesear&h Bureau8 197,58 +=1.
L1<HM. [ka#a Sh\mei8 NBosu/shi no Aai&hZ8O Shin 2$ia ,8 no. 7 319H+5! 1.
L1<,M. Juoted in Le:ra8 NBose7s )n%luen&e on the (ormulation o% 0apanese Poli&y8O +=.
L1<=M. 2kira )riye8 NWartime 0apanese Planning %or Post#ar 2sia8O in )an 1ish8 ed.8 2nglo/0apanese 2lienation8 1919Q19,* 3?am:ridge!
?am:ridge 'niversity Press8 19*5! 77Q91.
L1<7M. 4he :est des&ription o% 0apanese #ar aims remains 2kira )riye8 Po#er and ?ulture! 4he 0apanese 2meri&an War8 19H1Q19H,
3?am:ridge! Harvard 'niversity Press8 1915.
L1<M. 4he Breater East 2sia &on%eren&e did not allo# %or any representation %rom not/yet/independent regions under 0apanese o&&upation8
su&h as )ndonesia and Cietnam. Similar &ontradi&tions e;isted in the 2tlanti& ?harter 2llian&e8 #hi&h like#ise had not :een prepared to
envision a %ully de&oloniGed 2sia. )n %a&t8 immediately a%ter the end o% the #ar8 the (ren&h8 British8 and Iut&h governments rushed to re&laim
their &olonial possessions in 2sia.
L1<9M. @ne report made the %ollo#ing suggestion as a means to #in support %or the 2llied &ause! NPlay up 2meri&an and 'nited 1ations #ar
aimsF play do#n our asso&iation #ith Breat Britain in the East. . . . Io not re%er to British .alaya sin&e many inha:itants o% .alaya #ill not #ish
to see .alaya revert to its old status under British &ontrolO 3@%%i&e o% Strategi& Servi&es8 Aesear&h and 2nalysis Bran&h8 N0apanese 2ttempts at
)ndo&trination o% Youth in @&&upied 2reas8O .ar&h *+8 19H+8 mi&ro%ilm8 1<5.
L11<M. ?hristopher 4horne8 2llies o% a 6ind! 4he 'nited States8 Britain and the War 2gainst 0apan8 19H1Q19H, 31e# York! @;%ord 'niversity
Press8 19758 1,7Q1,9.
L111M. ):id.8 *H*Q*H+.
L11*M. [ka#a Sh\mei8 entry %or 2ugust 1,8 19H,8 [ka#a Sh\mei 1ikki 34okyo! )#asaki Baku$itsu Shuppansha8 19=58 +91.
L11+M. Sareen8 0apan and the )ndian 1ational 2rmy8 *+HQ*+=.
L11HM. Ai&hard .inear8 Ci&tor7s 0usti&e! 4he 4okyo War ?rimes 4ri:unal 3Prin&eton! Prin&eton 'niversity Press8 19715F 0ohn Io#er8 Em:ra&ing
Ie%eat 31e# York! 1orton8 199958 HH+QHH.
L11,M. 4imothy Brook8 N4he 4okyo 0udgment and the Aape o% 1anking8O 0ournal o% 2sian Studies =<8 no. + 32ugust *<<15! =9+.
L11=M. Aadha:inod Pal :e&ame the hero o% the revisionist right in 0apan in the post#ar period. He himsel% revealed his long/lasting sympathies
to 0apan during his &ele:rated visit to 0apan in 19== upon the invitation o% 0apanese right/#ing revisionist groups. 0usti&e Pal de&lared ho# he
had admired 0apan sin&e his youth :e&ause 0apan had N&onsistently stood up against the WestO #ith Nthe spirit o% independen&e that &an say
Dno.7 O 4hen8 he urged the 0apanese people on&e again to resist the N%lood o% WesterniGationO #ith inspiration %rom Eastern &iviliGation. (or Pal7s
spee&hes during his 19== visit to 0apan8 see Aadha:inod Pal8 2i Aa:u 0apan! Paru Hakase BenkZroku8 ed. Paru Hakase 6angei 0imukyo$u
34okyo! 4ZkyZ Sai:an 6ankZkai8 19==5
0ource5 http566)))4:apanfocus4org6-1emi(-Ay&in6!#.
1omman&er-in-chief of the 1hina ;>pe&itionary Army Basu:i O'amura ((eft% presents the Japanese Instrument of 0urren&er to
,enera( He Bing@in at Can'ing, 1hina on 0eptember #, "#/.4
The Manchurian Incident, the League of Nations and the Origins of the acific !ar" !hat the
#eneva archives revea$
Yoshi%a&a Tatsuhiko
At 09($ p#m# on Sept# ($ of this year& " was standing in front of the Sept# ($ 5istory /useum in
Shenyang& )hina# "t was raining# A siren went off# "t sounded like the wailing of a fire engine#
?n this day each year& Shenyang holds a ceremony to mark the anniversary of a military crackdown
against the city's unsuspecting citi.ens by the "mperial apanese Army# This year was the :+th anniversary
of that event#
apanese forces swiftly overran a vast area of northeastern )hina# The annual ceremony seeks to keep this
memory alive# "t is also serves as a prayer for peace#
The wailing of the siren& reminiscent of an air-raid alert& lasted three minutes# 5igh school students&
soldiers and armed police officers all turned out for the ceremony and stood rigidly at attention in the rain#
Two days later& " was in the nearby city of Fushun to attend a symposium on the Second Sino-apanese
!ar 7(06:-(0%1;# There& " had the une4pected pleasure of meeting @hang Lushi& a %1-year grandson of
@hang @uolin& who was known in the Anglish-speaking world as the !arlord of /anchuria until his
assassination by apanese agents three years before the /anchurian "ncident#
'hang 'uo$in
@hang told me the organi.ers of the symposium had asked him to attend# 5is uncle& @hang Bueliang& was
@hang @uolin's son# 5e became the effective ruler of /anchuria and much of northeastern )hina after his
father's assassination& but remained e4iled from his domain after the /anchurian "ncident#
"n (0%0& he was transferred to Taiwan& where all other members of the @hang clan also relocated#
@hang Lushi& too& did not return to his ancestral city of Shenyang until /ay this year# According to Lushi&
his uncle was reluctant to talk about the past# 5owever& he often mentioned to family members that he
*could never figure out what the apanese thought about the )hinese people#*
The year after the <wantung Army 7see Fact File; staged the /anchurian "ncident& the League of =ations
sought to investigate the cause from an ob3ective standpoint and try to resolve the Sino-apanese conflict#
The international body dispatched a commission to )hina& headed by Cictor 2ulwer-Lytton& the second Aarl
of Lytton#
The commission put together what is known as the Lytton Deport& which portrayed apan in a very
different light from what most apanese citi.ens believed at the time# As a result& apan withdrew from the
League of =ations& and became increasingly 4enophobic and hostile toward the !est#
!hat sort of people did Lytton meet in )hinaE !hat were the stories he heard& and what did he seeE To
find answers& " decided to retrace his footsteps in )hina#
Co((unist arty the greater ene(y
!hy did the League of =ations send the Lytton )ommission to )hina in the first placeE At the time of the
/anchurian "ncident& the top priority of )hiang <ai-shek's nationalist government& whose capital was
=anking 7now called =an3ing;& was to eliminate the )ommunist Party as the *arch enemy* at home& rather
than stand up to the invading apanese army# )hiang immediately appealed to the League of =ations to
deal with the apanese invasion& thereby putting the problem in the international arena#
March )*+,, Lytton Co((ission at Yasukuni Shrine" Lytton is second $eft
For the League of =ations that was born after !orld !ar "& the /anchurian "ncident represented the first
ma3or international conflict# apan was a permanent member of the )ouncil& which effectively controlled
the world body# )hina had only become a nonpermanent member four days before the /anchurian
"ncident# "n other words& the positions of apan and )hina were in reverse of what they are today in the
Fnited =ations Security )ouncil& where )hina is a permanent member and apan is not#
According to the Lytton Deport& the team arrived in apan in February (06,# Fsui <atsumi& professor
emeritus at the Fniversity of Tsukuba& notes in his book that the Lytton )ommission met with Prime
/inister "nukai Tsuyoshi and other top government officials in Tokyo and heard them out#
Army /inister Araki Sadao is >uoted as stating candidly9 *apan cannot accommodate its growing
population in its small territory# apan has to seek the resources it needs from the Asian continent ### # "
doubt that )hina has a legitimate government# /y personal belief is that )hina cannot be regarded as a
unified& civili.ed nation#*
"n )hina& the team met with )hiang and other top =anking officials& and then moved on to 2eiping
7present-day 2ei3ing;& where they were met by @hang Bueliang and others# @hang& who had been driven
out of /anchuria& hosted a welcoming reception and gave an impassioned speech#
'hang -ue$iang
*Athnically& politically and economically& the Three =ortheastern Provinces 7/anchuria; are an integral part
of )hina&* @hang asserted# *The true cause of the conflict is that apan has become 3ealous of )hina for
moving toward unification# apan is trying to sei.e the Three =ortheastern Provinces#*
!as )hina capable of national unificationE ?n this point& the )hinese and the apanese disagreed
completely#
.enied contact
Lytton was most interested in& but also had the hardest time& talking to ordinary citi.ens of /anchuria to
hear their stories# This was because the apanese government and its puppet& /anchukuo& prevented the
Lytton )ommission from coming in contact with the citi.enry on the prete4t of ensuring the safety of the
team members# The Lytton Deport notes to the effect that meetings with citi.ens *were always conducted
amid e4treme difficulties and in secret#*
5ow did the citi.ens approach Lytton and his team and what did they tell themE !ang ian4ue& a curator
at the Sept# ($ 5istory /useum& gave me a name9 Gong Tianmin& a banker who was in Fengtian 7present-
day Shenyang; at the time#
According to !ang& more than (--&--- citi.ens of Fengtian fled to 2eiping and other cities# 2ut Gong
stayed put& and began organi.ing a resistance movement against the invading apanese# 5e organi.ed
)hristian youths into a volunteer army& and urged them to write letters to the Lytton )ommission#
The Lytton Deport actually mentions that many letters were received from students and young people who
refused to recogni.e /anchukuo#
"n uly ,--1& the Shenyang Avening =ews& a local daily& ran a story about Gong's activities& based on an
interview with his son& Gong Huo4ian# The article says that when Gong and his eight partners learned of
the imminent arrival of the Lytton )ommission& he determined to tell the members that the /anchurian
"ncident had been planned and e4ecuted by the apanese& and that the new /anchurian regime was a
puppet of the apanese government# To substantiate his accusations& Gong secretly collected material
evidence and compiled the information into a booklet# Titled *Truth&* the booklet was entrusted to the
safekeeping of an Anglish clergyman residing in Shenyang# The clergyman& in turn& invited Lytton to dinner
at his home and handed him the booklet# The article also notes that the clergyman and Lytton happened
to be related#
"s this story accurateE !hen " asked !ang& he replied& *"t's a familiar story& but its historic authenticity
has not been verified# And we haven't confirmed what happened to the booklet& either#*
" asked a third party to arrange an interview with Gong Huo4ian& but the re>uest was turned down for
reasons that were never >uite clear to me# Feeling at a loss& " pinned my last hope on the library at the
Fnited =ations ?ffice in Geneva& where archival materials concerning the League of =ations are kept#
*Iid Lytton really receive 'Truth'E* " in>uired at the library# Two days later& the library responded to the
effect that the booklet had been located among League-related materials#
League of Nations /ead0uarters, #eneva
2ound in the style of a photo album with its front cover lined with blue fabric& the booklet was encased in a
bag made of matching fabric# ?n the bag& the word *Truth* was embroidered in pink#
The booklet contains :1 information items& and some of the more prominent among them are titled as
follows9
7(; List of names of innocent citi.ens who were shot by apanese soldiers after Sept# ($& (06(J
7,; List of rewritten and deleted passages in school te4tbooksJ and
76; Letters censored by the apanese military police#
Attached to the booklet was a ,:-page typewritten letter in Anglish e4plaining each item# Some of these
pieces of evidence were obtained at great personal risk& the letter notes& and goes on to describe the
premeditated nature of the Liutiaohu "ncident and the subse>uent apanese violation of )hinese
sovereignty& as well as the apanese military's role in the establishment of /anchukuo#
The dynamiting of a section of the apanese-owned South /anchuria Dailway was used as a prete4t for
apan's armed invasion& the letter states# The founding of /anchukuo was directed and manipulated by the
apanese& it adds#
The letter concludes with this desperate plea9 Please remember that more than 01 percent of the
/anchurian population is )hinese# The )hinese people desire to remain )hinese& and will do so forever#
All nine people who participated in the compilation of this booklet signed their names and identified their
professions# 5owever& the booklet " saw was missing all parts pertaining to anything that might suggest
their identities# Perhaps they were removed by the League of =ations to protect their safety#
Chinese nationa$ senti(ent rises
The Lytton )ommission received (&11- letters while it was in /anchuria# According to the Lytton Deport&
*all but two letters* were vehemently hostile toward the apanese and the *new /anchurian government#*
The report concluded to the effect9 5aving carefully e4amined the evidence& presented at official and
private meetings as well as through letters and statements& we have concluded that the 'new /anchurian
government' is perceived by the )hinese people as a puppet of the apanese government& and that it does
not have the support of the )hinese public# As for the operations of the apanese Army& the report refuted
the apanese claim of self-defense#
Sensing that the Lytton Deport was not going to be in its favor& apan proclaimed /anchukuo as an
independent state in September (06, 3ust days before the report was released# The following year& apan
was the sole voice of dissent when the League of =ations adopted a resolution against recognition of
/anchukuo's statehood# "ts permanent )ouncil membership notwithstanding& apan withdrew from the
League#
!ith the number of )hinese people who lived through the /anchurian "ncident diminishing every year& "
asked a local historian in Shenyang to find a survivor& and was introduced to @hao Li.hi# At 01& he was
living in a home for the elderly#
2orn and raised in the northernmost province of 5eilong3iang& )hao was an impoverished tenant farmer at
the time of the /anchurian "ncident# *!e all felt the Guomindang had abandoned us northeasterners&* he
recalled# The year after the incident& he said& apanese soldiers came to his village# @hao 3oined a local
resistance movement against the apanese& and eventually became a guerrilla fighter#
Participating in anti-apanese activities awakened a sense of national identity in the )hinese people# 2u
Ping& director of the "nstitute of /odern 5istory at the )hinese Academy of Social Sciences& noted9 *The
)hinese awareness of their own national identity& which began to bud around the time of the ?pium !ar&
surged with the September ($ "ncident and remained strong throughout the Second Sino-apanese !ar#
The /anchurian "ncident served as the cue for the )hinese to unite#*
'hang -ue$iang 1)*2)3,22)4
The eldest son of @hang @uolin 7($:1-(0,$;& @hang Bueliang& inherited his father's *!arlord of /anchuria*
mantle upon the latter's assassination at the hands of the apanese military in (0,$& and declared his
support for the Guomindang nationalist government of )hiang <ai-shek#
"n (06+& @hang put )hiang under house arrest in an attempt to get him to discontinue his policy of
nonresistance against the apanese and fighting the communists# )hiang's physical confinement resulted
in the Guomindang and the )ommunist Party forming a united front against the apanese military# @hang&
however& would be put under house arrest and eventually transferred to Taiwan in (0%0#
Lytton Co((ission
The Lytton )ommission was dispatched by the League of =ations to investigate the /anchurian "ncident#
5eaded by Cictor 2ulwer-Lytton& a former 2ritish governor of 2engal and son of a former Ciceroy of "ndia&
the commission consisted of five members representing 2ritain& the Fnited States& France& Germany and
"taly# The Lytton )ommission toured apan and )hina from February (06,& and compiled the Lytton Deport
in autumn of that year# The commission refuted the apanese claim that /anchukuo was a result of a
spontaneous independence movement# 2ut it also took apan's interests into consideration and proposed
the creation of an autonomous government under the auspices of the League of =ations& with apan
playing a central role#
The &or$d in the )*,2s
"nternational society in the (0,-s gave rise to a cooperative order known as the !ashington System# The
League of =ations was established in hopes of bringing international disputes to negotiated settlements#
The early years of the decade saw the signing of several treaties at the !ashington =aval )onference#
Among them were the Five-Power Treaty that limited the naval capabilities of its five signatories& and the
=ine-Power Treaty that affirmed )hina's sovereignty and territorial integrity#
"n (0,$& the war-renouncing Pact of Paris& also known as the <ellogg-2riand Pact& was signed in the
French capital#
/eanwhile& the Soviet Fnion and communism--the outcome of the (0(: Dussian Devolution--were
perceived as threats by the "mperial apanese Army#
Then came the Great Iepression of (0,0# Yamamuro Shinichi& a <yoto Fniversity professor& notes in his
book that in (06(& it was a common practice among apanese farmers to sell their daughters# Also that
year& the ranks of undernourished children swelled& while labor disputes spiked to a pre-!orld !ar ""
record level amid rampant 3oblessness in cities#
The following year& family suicides occurred with unprecedented fre>uency& and the nation's suicide rate
registered a record high& based on statistics on causes of death that were first compiled in (0--#
These desperate economic and social circumstances formed a backdrop to the creation of /anchukuo in
(06,#
5act 5i$e6 Manchurian Incident
The /anchurian "ncident was the starting point of apan's invasion of northeastern )hina 7/anchuria; and
"nner /ongolia# 2y a narrow definition& the duration of the *incident* spans from the dynamiting of the
South /anchurian Dailway near Liutiaohu on Sept# ($& (06(& to the conclusion of the Tangku cease-fire
treaty on /ay 6(& (066# 2y a broader definition& it went on until the /arco Polo 2ridge "ncident of uly :&
(06:& that triggered the all-out& so-called Aight-Year !ar# "n )hina& the /anchurian "ncident is referred to
as the September ($ "ncident#
To avoid being accused of violations of international law and war-renouncing treaties& the apanese
government of the time obtained )abinet approval to refer to the military operations in /anchuria as 3ihen
7incident;& not war proper#
As spoils of its victory in the Dusso-apanese !ar 7(0-%-(0-1;& apan had come into possession of Lushun
and Ialian as leased territories& as well as control over the South /anchuria Dailway# These holdings were
referred to as *special rights and interests&* and apan valued them greatly# !hen a move to regain them
surged in )hina& apan's <wantung Army& which was permanently stationed in /anchuria& blew up a
section of the South /anchurian Dailway near Liutiaohu in suburban Fengtian 7present-day Shenyang;&
and passed it off as a sabotage by the )hinese military to 3ustify the invasion of /anchuria# This was the
Liutiaohu "ncident#
The <wantung Army sought to sei.e control of /anchuria and eastern "nner /ongolia# 2ut as the top brass
of the "mperial apanese Army did not approve& the government created the puppet regime of /anchukuo&
installing Pu Yi& the last Hing emperor& as its nominal ruler#
u Yi
5act 5i$e6 K&antung 7r(y
The <wantung Army was a unit of the "mperial apanese Army stationed permanently in the <wantung
Leased Territory on the Liaodong Peninsula& where Lushun and Ialian are situated# <wantung means *east
of Shanhaiguan&* an area at the eastern end of the Great !all of )hina#
The unit was originally established to defend the <wantung Leased Territory and the apanese-controlled
South /anchurian Dailway# "t was reorgani.ed in (0(0 and came to be called the <wantung Army#
Fntil the /anchurian "ncident in (06(& the army was a little over (-&----strong# The <wantung Army was
responsible for planning the assassination of @hang @uolin as well as orchestrating the Liutiaohu "ncident#
After the /anchurian "ncident& the troop strength was reinforced to suppress anti-apanese resistance and
engage in campaigns to invade northern )hina and "nner /ongolia# The notorious :6( Fnit& which
conducted human e4periments to develop chemical weapons& was a unit of the <wantung Army#
K&antung 7r(y so$diers in the fie$d
Tokyo's Shin-?kubo district in Shin3uku !ard is a melting pot of Asian cultures# The streets echo to the
sounds of <orean& )hinese& /ongolian& Cietnamese& Thai and /alaysian with smells of traditional foods
emanating from ethnic restaurants that line the streets# ?ne is run by a native of the Yanbian <orean
Autonomous Prefecture in northeastern )hina& where the apanese puppet state of /anchukuo was
established decades ago#
5o Soodong& %6& a visiting researcher at 5itotsubashi Fniversity& took me to the restaurant& saying it
offers a taste of his hometown# 5o's father moved to Yanbian from southern <orea with his family in (06$&
when he was $ years old#
"n <orea& a apanese colony at the time& many farmers were deprived of their land& causing them financial
distress# They had no choice but to cross the border to seek new hori.ons in northeastern )hina# The
move was accelerated by apan's immigration policy& which aimed to bolster its presence in /anchuria#
Two things crossed my mind while " was talking with 5o& whose specialty is studying <orean settlers in
/anchuria# " began to ponder the historical ties between /anchukuo and former apanese colonies such as
<orea and Taiwan# " also wondered about the link between /anchukuo and modern-day apan& as
symboli.ed by the Shin-?kubo district's cultural mi4#
apan has a rising population of foreign residents--as if to make up for the nation's shrinking population
and declining birthrates# apan had ,#-$1 million foreign residents from ($$ countries as of the end of
,--+& up nearly 1- percent from a decade earlier# The figure accounts for (#+ percent of the overall
population# !ith people from so many cultural backgrounds co-e4isting& " thought there were lessons to be
learned from /anchukuo's failed policy of Go.oku <yowa#
The slogan advocated by "mperial apan literally translates as five races living in harmony# "n /anchukuo's
case& they were 5an& /anchu& /ongolian& <orean and apanese# !hen " asked 5o for his view& he said
people should regard this period of history based on the recognition that Go.oku <yowa was an outright
*lie#*
" flew to )hangchun& which went by the apanese-designated name of 5sinking when it was the capital of
/anchukuo# The city resembles a virtual theme park of living history# "t is dotted with buildings that apan
erected based on grand city planning during the /anchukuo era# /any of the imposing structures are still
used as universities& hospitals and other facilities#
The building that housed the former State )ouncil& the supreme organ of the /anchukuo government& is a
mi4 of traditional !estern and )hinese architectural styles# "t looks like the Iiet building in Tokyo#
" was particularly surprised when " saw the magnificent building in the city center that had served as the
command of the <wantung Army# ?ne look was enough to make me reali.e that apan had ruled over
/anchukuo# That is because the building resembles a apanese castle# Today& it is occupied by the )hinese
)ommunist Party's ilin province committee& the supreme authority of this region# "t clearly shows how
power changed hands#
" then met @hang @hi>iang& 11& an official at the provincial archives& whose 3ob is to organi.e and store
documents on the military police and other organs during the /anchukuo era# !hen " asked why the
committee is using the building of an aggressor instead of ra.ing it& @hang cited two reasons#
First& the building was still relatively new when /anchukuo collapsed following apan's defeat in !orld !ar
"" in (0%1# The structure was built by )hinese even though it was designed by apanese# *"t was natural
7for the )hinese people; to use what they had built with their own blood and sweat&* @hang said#
The second reason is that the building has been preserved for the purpose of providing *patriotic
education* to young )hinese# *Things that date back to the time when )hina was invaded--if left as they
used to be--can serve as a living testimony to history&* @hang said#
)8 years of occupation
Cisitors to the building are indeed reminded of the fact that they are standing on land that used to be
/anchukuo# A metal pla>ue on the facade notes that it is a historic site of !ei /an.houguo 7false
/anchukuo;# " wondered about the use of the word *false* since the structure is a solid relic of
/anchukuo#
"n )hina& the period from the /anchurian 7/ukden; "ncident in (06( to the collapse of /anchukuo in (0%1
is called the (% years of Iongbei Lun4ian& or occupation of northeastern )hina# The term connotes the
period of )hinese people's humiliation at having their land and dignity trampled on by apanese
aggressors#
Twenty years ago& a pro3ect got under way to document the history of apanese occupation of
northeastern )hina# " visited the ilin Provincial Academy of Social Sciences to meet with Sun iwu& $(&
who serves as the pro3ect's editor in chief# *False /anchukuo means not recogni.ing /anchukuo&* he said#
*"t is a country established by apan& the country which took our land#*
Fnder the /anchukuo regime& )hinese children were re>uired to study the apanese language from
elementary school# Sun remembers that his teacher called him an *idiot* and hit him when he could not
distinguish the pronunciations of the apanese words tabako 7tobacco; and tamago 7egg;# Teachers did not
reprimand apanese pupils even when they beat )hinese children# The children were also segregated
during morning assembly#
Sun said he thought Go.oku <yowa was a 3oke and his antipathy toward apan kept growing#
From the late (0$-s to the late (00-s& Sun and his colleagues interviewed more than (-- farmers who
lived in communities where apanese settlers arrived during the /anchukuo era# The interviews uncovered
the agony of )hinese farmers who were deprived of their land by the "mperial apanese Army# The farmers
had no choice but to flee to the mountains and reclaim barren wasteland or to work as tenant farmers
under apanese settlers& many of whom were also poor#
Sun said they& too& were victims of apanese aggression and that some of them had friendly relations with
)hinese farmers# 2ut he added9 *Generally speaking& the apanese had a sense of superiority# They
believed they were a superior race and thought the )hinese were inferior#*
Such a mentality was symboli.ed by the way students were re>uired to bow in the direction of the "mperial
Palace each day# First& they had to bow in the direction of Tokyo& where Amperor 5irohito& posthumously
known as Amperor Showa& lived& and then in the direction of the palace where the /anchukuo emperor
resided# Aven schoolchildren understood that /anchukuo was a apanese puppet state because of the
order in which they observed the ritual#
5o& the 5itotsubashi Fniversity researcher& was born in )hina's Yanbian <orean Autonomous Prefecture
near the border with =orth <orea# "t was chilly at the airport in the prefectural capital of Yan3i& and the
city's cold must have been hard on people who came from southern <orea during the /anchukuo period#
Still& the <orean population in the region rose after <orea became a apanese colony and& in particular&
after the establishment of /anchukuo#
Sun )hunri& %0& director of the "nstitute of =ationalities at Yanbian Fniversity& said there were two groups
of <orean immigrants# They were either people who fled their native land because they detested apanese
colonial rule or had been stripped of their land because they failed to present ownership certificates in a
land survey launched by apanese authorities& or for some other reasons# "n either case& apan's colonial
policy played a key role in accelerating the movement#
!hile <orean immigration to northeastern )hina can be traced back to the (:th century& it gained
momentum after apan established supremacy in the region# According to Sun& the number of <oreans
topped ( million by the /anchurian "ncident and peaked at ,#6 million during the /anchukuo era# 5e said
many <oreans hoped to try their luck after apan established /anchukuo and launched a campaign to
promote the notion of ?do Dakudo 7paradise of benevolent government; in <orea#
*Iespite strong anti-apanese sentiment& many <oreans had developed a sense of resignation that they
were no match for apan&* Sun said# *Some <oreans& meanwhile& came to develop a sense of superiority
as they were treated like apanese#*
"n (06+& apan started a planned immigration policy# The plan called for moving ( million apanese
farming households over a ,--year period to raise the number of apanese immigrants to (- percent of
/anchuria's overall population# The government failed to recruit enough apanese to achieve the target
and tried to encourage (-&--- <orean households to settle each year#
7nti39apanese (ove(ents
At the same time& the apanese military had a hard time controlling movements among <oreans against
/anchukuo and apan# The military kept <orean farmers in secluded hamlets to prevent them from
developing contact with anti-apanese elements#
/onuments dedicated to anti-apanese fighters can be found across the Yanbian <orean Autonomous
Prefecture# They are a testament to the intensity of apanese oppression and the large number of people
who fell victim to it#
in @he.hu& 1$& a prefectural museum researcher& said the region has a 6$-year history of anti-apanese
movements because they started in (0-:& when apan opened a branch of its resident general of <orea#
Tai&anese in Manchuria
ust as <orea was linked to /anchuria because it was a apanese colony& Taiwan also developed ties with
northeastern )hina#
5su 5sueh-chi 7Bu Bue3i;& 1%& who heads Academia Sinica's "nstitute of Taiwan 5istory in Taipei& has since
the (00-s conducted research on Taiwanese who lived in /anchuria# !hen she studied the February ,$&
(0%:& massacre of residents by the Guomindang government and the oppression that followed& 5su
noticed that many victims had returned from /anchuria#
Desearchers on apanese colonial rule had focused on Taiwanese who 3oined the Guomindang in
)hong>ing in southwestern )hina but not on those who went to /anchuria& she said# !hen she gathered
information on some :-- people who lived in /anchuria& 5su was impressed with the large number of
doctors involved# Graduates of the /anchuria medical college alone topped (--& followed by government
employees#
5su said many Taiwanese went to /anchuria where they were treated e>ually as apanese and could play
active roles in society# *Taiwan at the time had few institutes of higher education&* she said# *Landing 3obs
was not easy& and there was a wide gap in wages between Taiwanese and apanese workers#* "n addition&
many young people went to /anchuria because they admired Bie ieshi& a Taiwan native who became
/anchukuo's first foreign minister& according to 5su#
5su interviewed some 1- people who had returned from /anchuria& but they were reluctant to talk# The
returnees feared for their safety because Bie ieshi was labeled a *traitor to )hina* after !orld !ar ""# ?ne
of those 5su interviewed was Li Shui>ing& who was among the first graduates of <enkoku Fniversity
7national foundation university;& /anchukuo's highest institution of learning#
Li& $0& said he was passionate about the ideal of Go.oku <yowa when he entered the school# "t had
<orean& Dussian and /ongolian students in addition to apanese and )hinese# Li spent si4 years living with
them in a dormitory# *" still retain close ties with old students who are like my brothers&* he said in fluent
apanese#
Li was poor& and the tuition-free <enkoku Fniversity was like a dream come true# The school not only paid
for meals and other living e4penses but also provided students with an allowance# !hile it was common in
/anchukuo for apanese to eat rice and for )hinese to sup on gaoliang grain& students at the dormitory
ate the same meals in protest against such discrimination# Looking back on his e4perience& Li said that
<enkoku Fniversity entered a period of turmoil around (0%- in its third year and eventually collapsed#
The <wantung Army cracked down on dissidents at the end of (0%(& when apan entered into war against
the Fnited States and 2ritain# Some <enkoku Fniversity students were arrested and died in prison#
Iuring the Guomindang government's crackdown on Taiwanese residents in (0%:& Li's 3unior in school was
killed# !hile Li himself spent , (8, years in prison& he believes he was fortunate to have attended <enkoku
Fniversity# *" was able to learn to see things from different viewpoints because " went to school with
people of different nationalities&* he said#
2ut that was inside the school walls# ?utside& /anchukuo was full of inconsistencies#
Manchukuo and the Myth of #o%oku Kyo&a
A )hinese official was installed as the top administrator in name only# Deal power was in the hands of the
apanese# To begin with& /anchukuo had no nationality law# Legally& /anchukuo citi.ens did not e4ist#
Li said there was no need for a nationality law because apan had planned to anne4 /anchukuo# "f Li's
reasoning is correct& it should not be surprising that /anchukuo developed ties with Taiwan and <orea&
which were already apanese colonies#
"n interviews for this story& many people used the term& a *sense of superiority&* in reference to apanese
people they came across during the /anchukuo era# !ith such a *sense* on the apanese side& it is little
wonder that the slogan of Go.oku <yowa ended in a lie#
5ow should we build a modern society to live in harmony with people of different racesE "n searching for
an answer& " reali.ed that " need to reflect on whether deep down "& too& look down on foreign people and
cultures#
5act 5i$e6 u Yi
Pu Yi 7(0-+-(0+:;& or Amperor Buantong& was the last emperor of the Hing Iynasty# 5is family name was
Aisin-Gioro# 5e ascended to the throne in (0-$& when he was , years old& and abdicated in (0(,& following
the Binhai Devolution#
Pu Yi was held by apanese military forces during the /anchurian "ncident and installed as leader of
/anchukuo when it was established in (06,# 5e was crowned emperor of /anchukuo two years later&
taking the name Amperor <angde#
Pu Yi was captured by the Soviet Fnion after apan's defeat in !orld !ar ""# 5e was convicted of being a
war criminal in )hina in (01- but was granted special pardon in (010# "n his autobiography& Pu Yi wrote9
*The <wantung Army was like a high-voltage power source& and " was like a motor that reacted with
precision and alacrity#*
5act 5i$e6 Manchukuo
/anchukuo was established in northeastern )hina in (06, on land apan occupied as a result of the
/anchurian "ncident the year before# "t is generally accepted that /anchukuo was a apanese puppet
state& with Pu Yi& the last emperor of the Hing Iynasty& as the token ruler# The Hing Iynasty was founded
by the /anchus#
The <wantung Army& or the "mperial apanese Army based in /anchuria& thought it could avoid
international criticism against /anchukuo if it installed Pu Yi& a /anchu& as head of state# 2ut the League
of =ations refused to recogni.e /anchukuo as such#
/anchukuo was recogni.ed by only about ,- countries& including Germany and "taly& apan's allies in
!orld !ar ""& and Thailand& 2urma and other countries that were under apanese control during the Pacific
!ar#
/anchukuo covered an area of (#6 million s>uare kilometers& about 6#% times the si.e of present-day
apan# The state e4tended over what is now the three northeastern )hinese provinces of Liaoning& ilin
and 5eilong3iang as well as parts of the "nner /ongolian Autonomous Degion and 5ebei province#
"ts population increased to %, million by (0%-& up from 6- million at the time it was established# )hinese
accounted for about 0- percent of the total population& followed by <oreans and /ongolians# apanese
formed a minority of only about , percent# Some ,6-&--- apanese civilians lived there when /anchukuo
was established# The number had risen to (#11 million by the time apan was defeated in !orld !ar ""# ?f
them& more than ,--&--- died during repatriation#
/ore than +--&--- apanese soldiers and civilian settlers& who were mobili.ed by the army immediately
before apan's defeat& were detained by the Soviet Fnion and were sent to Siberia# /ore than +-&--- of
them died in internment#
5act 5i$e6 #o%oku Kyo&a and Odo :akudo
"mperial apan used these two slogans both at home and abroad as ideals of /anchukuo& with the
propaganda particularly aimed at inspiring apanese#
Go.oku <yowa& which called for the five races of 5an& /anchu& /ongolian& <orean and apanese to live in
harmony& was initially advocated by members of the Federation of Youth in /anchuria& which was
organi.ed by civilian apanese residents in /anchuria# "ts leaders included ?.awa <aisaku& the father of
conductor ?.awa Sei3i#
apanese residents represented less than ( percent of the total population when /anchukuo was
established# Anti-apanese sentiment grew among the 5an& who accounted for an overwhelming ma3ority
of residents# Fnder such circumstances& the apanese had no other choice but to advocate *harmony#*
?do Dakudo calls for building a paradise in which all people can live happily under *benevolent
government&* instead of oppressive rule enforced by military power# Still& apan advocating this ideal was
a parado4 from the start because it established /anchukuo by force#
This is a s$ight$y abbreviated version of a t&o3part artic$e that appeared in the Internationa$
/era$d Tribune;7sahi Shinbun on Nove(ber +2,,22<" osted at 9apan 5ocus on .ece(ber ),
,22<"
http566)))4:apanfocus4org6-BoshiLa)a-Tatsuhi'o6.#A
9ist of Japanese 1entra( Han'ers an& ,o*ernment Officia(s
Go;ernors o. the 0an- o. Japan:
Mr4 0higetoshi Boshihara (October !, "??--ecember "#, "??<%
Mr4 Tetsunosu'e Tomita (February ", "???-0eptember A, "??#%
Mr4 Koichiro Ka)a&a (0eptember A, "??#-Co*ember <, "?#!%
Haron Banosu'e I)asa'i (Co*ember "", "?#! -October $, "?#?%
Mr4 Tatsuo Bamamoto (October $, "?#?-October "#, "#$A%
Haron 0higeyoshi Matsuo (October $, "#$A-June ", "#""%
Mr4 Kore'iyo Ta'ahashi (June ", "#""-February $, "#"A%
Jiscount Bataro Mishima (February ?, "#"A-March <, "#"#%
Mr4 Junnosu'e Inoue (March "A, "#"#-0eptember , "#AD May "$, "#<-June ", "#?%
Mr4 Otohi'o Ichi'i (0eptember ., "#A-May "$, "#<%
Mr4 Hisaa'ira Hi:i'ata (June ", "#?-June /, "#A.%
Mr4 ;igo Fu'ai (June /, "#A.-February #, "#A<%
Mr4 0eihin I'e&a (February #, "#A<-Ju(y <, "#A<%
Mr4 Toyotaro Bu'i (Ju(y <, "#A<-March "?, "#//%
Jiscount KeiLo 0hibusa)a (March "?, "#//-October #, "#/.%
/mperors o. Japan under the Mei$i Constitution:
;mperor Mutsuhito (Mei:i ;mperor, %5 +eign, February A, "?!<-Ju(y A$, "#"
;mperor Boshihito (Taisho ;mperor, c%5 +eign, Ju(y A$, "#"--ecember ., "#!
;mperor Hirohito (0ho)a ;mperor, {%5 +eign, -ecember ., "#!-January <, "#?#
Prime Ministers o. Imperial Japan:
Came Assume& Office 9eft Office Po(itica( Party
ItM Hirobumi
!
-ecember "??. A$ Apri( "??? Cone
Kuro&a Kiyota'a
4
A$ Apri( "??? . October "??# Cone
0an:M 0anetomi

. October "??# / -ecember "??# Cone
Bamagata Aritomo
* ,
/ -ecember "??# ! May "?#" Cone
Matsu'ata Masayoshi
U c
! May "?#" ? August "?# Cone
ItM Hirobumi
!
? August "?# A" August "?#! Cone
Cote5 -uring this inter*a(, Pri*y 1ounci( 1hairman Kuro&a Kiyota'a )as the Acting Prime Minister4
Matsu'ata Masayoshi
U c
"? 0eptember "?#! " January "?#? Cone
ItM Hirobumi
!
" January "?#? A$ June "?#? Cone
]'uma 0higenobu

A$ June "?#? ? Co*ember "?#?
KenseitM
(1onstitutiona( Party%
Bamagata Aritomo
* ,
? Co*ember "?#? "# October "#$$ Cone
ItM Hirobumi
!
"# October "#$$ "$ May "#$"
+i''en 0eiy^'ai
(Frien&s of 1onstitutiona( ,o*ernment%
Cote5 -uring this inter*a(, Pri*y 1ounci( 1hairman 0aion:i Kinmochi )as the Acting Prime Minister4
Katsura TarM
T S7
June "#$" < January "#$!
Cone
(+etire& ,enera(%
0aion:i Kinmochi
"#$ %&
< January "#$! "/ Ju(y "#$?
+i''en 0eiy^'ai
Katsura TarM
T S7
"/ Ju(y "#$? A$ August "#""
Cone
(+etire& ,enera(%
0aion:i Kinmochi
"#$ %&
A$ August "#"" " -ecember "#"
+i''en 0eiy^'ai
Katsura TarM
T S7
" -ecember "#" $ February "#"A
Cone
(+etire& ,enera(%
Bamamoto ,onbee
*@ NO
$ February "#"A "! Apri( "#"/ Mi(itary (Ca*y%
]'uma 0higenobu

"! Apri( "#"/ # October "#"!
+i''en -Mshi'ai
(1onstitutiona( Association of Frien&s%
Terauchi Masata'e
$ cd
# October "#"! # 0eptember "#"? Mi(itary (Army%
Hara Ta'ashi

# 0eptember "#"? / Co*ember "#"
+i''en 0eiy^'ai
Ta'ahashi Kore'iyo

"A Co*ember "#" " June "#
+i''en 0eiy^'ai
KatM TomosaburM
7
" June "# / August "#A Mi(itary (Ca*y%
Bamamoto ,onbee
*@ NO
0eptember "#A < January "#/ Mi(itary (Ca*y%
Kiyoura Keigo

< January "#/ "" June "#/ Cone
KatM Ta'aa'i

"" June "#/
? January "#! Kensei'ai
8a'atsu'i +ei:irM
n7
A$ January "#! $ Apri( "#<
Kensei'ai
Tana'a ,iichi
4 6
$ Apri( "#< Ju(y "##
+i''en 0eiy^'ai
Hamaguchi Osachi

Ju(y "## "/ Apri( "#A"
+i''en Minseit
(1onstitutiona( -emocratic Party%
8a'atsu'i +ei:irM
n7
"/ Apri( "#A" "A -ecember "#A"
+i''en MinseitM
(1onstitutiona( -emocratic Party%
Inu'ai Tsuyoshi
d
"A -ecember "#A" ". May "#A
+i''en 0eiy^'ai
0aitM Ma'oto

! May "#A ? Ju(y "#A/ Mi(itary (Ca*y%
O'a&a Keisu'e
4
? Ju(y "#A/ # March "#A! Mi(itary (Ca*y%
Hirota KM'i
4 d
# March "#A! February "#A< Cone
Hayashi 0en:^rM
7
February "#A< / June "#A< Mi(itary (Army%
Konoe Fumimaro
!
/ June "#A< . January "#A# Cone
Hiranuma KiichirM
H 67
. January "#A# A$ August "#A# Cone
Abe Cobuyu'i
w
A$ August "#A# "! January "#/$ Mi(itary (Army%
Bonai Mitsumasa

"! January "#/$ Ju(y "#/$ Mi(itary (Ca*y%
Konoe Fumimaro
!
Ju(y "#/$ "? October "#/" Taisei Bo'usan'ai
(Imperia( +u(e Assistance Association%
TM:M Hi&e'i
G
"? October "#/" Ju(y "#//
Taisei Bo'usan'ai
Koiso Kunia'i
5z ^{
Ju(y "#// < Apri( "#/. Mi(itary (Army%
0uLu'i KantarM
ZS7
< Apri( "#/. "< August "#/.
Taisei Bo'usan'ai
Cote5 A(( names of Prime Minister on this (ist begin )ith (ast name4 (i4e4 To:o Hi&e'i (;ng(ish5 Hi&e'i To:o%%
Minister o. the (rmy o. Imperial Japan:
]yama I)ao ( -ecember "??.-"< May "?#"%
Ta'ashima Tomonosu'e ("< May "?#"-? August "?#%
]yama I)ao (? August "?#-A" August "?#!%
0aigM Tsugumichi (A" August "?#!-"? 0eptember "?#!%
]yama I)ao ("? 0eptember "?#!-$ 0eptember "?#!%
Ta'ashima Tomonosu'e ($ 0eptember "?#!-" January "?#?%
Katsura TarM (" January "?#?-A -ecember "#$$%
Ko&ama ,entarM (A -ecember "#$$-< March "#$%
Terauchi Masata'e (< March "#$-A$ August "#""%
Ishimoto 0hinro'u (A$ August "#""- Apri( "#"%
7ehara B^sa'u (. Apri( "#"-" -ecember "#"%
Kigoshi Basutsuna (" -ecember "#"-/ June "#"A%
Kusunose Bu'ihi'o (/ June "#"A-"! Apri( "#"/%
O'a Ichinosu'e ("! Apri( "#"/-A$ March "#"!%
]shima KenQichi (A$ March "#"!-# 0eptember "#"?%
Tana'a ,iichi (# 0eptember "#"?-# June "#"%
Bamanashi HanLM (# June "#"-/ August "#A%
Tana'a ,iichi (/ August "#A- 0eptember "#A%
7ga'i KaLushige ( 0eptember "#A-$ Apri( "#<%
0hira'a)a Boshinori ($ Apri( "#<- Ju(y "##%
7ga'i KaLushige ( Ju(y "##-"/ Apri( "#A"%
Minami JirM ("/ Apri( "#A"-"A -ecember "#A"%
Ara'i 0a&ao ("A -ecember "#A"-A January "#A/%
Hayashi 0en:^rM (A January "#A/-. 0eptember "#A.%
Ka)ashima Boshiyu'i (. 0eptember "#A.-# March "#A!%
Terauchi Hisaichi (# March "#A!- February "#A<%
Ca'amura KMtarM ( February "#A<-# February "#A<%
0ugiyama Ha:ime (# February "#A<-A June "#A?%
Itaga'i 0eishirM (A June "#A?-A$ August "#A#%
Hata 0hunro'u (A$ August "#A#- Ju(y "#/$%
TM:M Hi&e'i ( Ju(y "#/$- Ju(y "#//%
0ugiyama Ha:ime ( Ju(y "#//-< Apri( "#/.%
Anami Korechi'a (< Apri( "#/.-"/ August "#/.%
Higashi'uni Caruhi'o ("< August "#/.-A August "#/.%
0himomura 0a&amu (A August "#/.-" -ecember "#/.%
Minister o. the >a;y o. Imperial Japan:
0aigM Tsugumichi ( -ecember "??.-"< May "?#$%
Kabayama 0u'enori ("< May "?#$-? August "?#%
Cire Kagenori (? August "?#-"" March "?#A%
0aigM Tsugumichi ("" March "?#A--? Co*ember "?#?%
Bamamoto ,onnohyMe (? Co*ember "?#?-< January "#$!%
0aitM Ma'oto (< January "#$!- -"! Apri( "#"/%
Bashiro +o'urM ("! Apri( "#"/-? October "#".%
KatM TomosaburM (? October "#".-". May "#A%
Ta'arabe Ta'eshi (". May "#A-< January "#/%
Mura'ami Ka'uichi (< January "#/-"" June "#/%
Ta'arabe Ta'eshi ("" June "#/-$ Apri( "#<%
O'a&a Keisu'e ($ Apri( "#<- Ju(y "##%
Ta'arabe Ta'eshi ( Ju(y "##-A October "#A$%
Abo Kiyo'aLu (A October "#A$-"A -ecember "#A"%
]sumi Mineo ("A -ecember "#A"-! May "#A%
O'a&a Keisu'e (! May "#A-# January "#AA%
]sumi Mineo (# January "#AA-# March "#A!%
Cagano Osami (# March "#A!- February "#A<%
Mitsumasa Bonai ( February "#A<-A$ August "#A#%
Boshi&a Wengo (A$ August "#A#-. 0eptember "#/$%
Oi'a)a KoshirM (. 0eptember "#/$-"? October "#/"%
0hima&a 0higetarM ("? October "#/"-"< Ju(y "#//%
Comura Cao'uni ("< Ju(y "#//- Ju(y "#//%
Mitsumasa Bonai ( Ju(y "#//-" -ecember "#/.%
Japanese Go;ernor-General o. ,ai6an:
A&mira( 2Jiscount3 0u'enori Kabayama (May "?#.-June "?#!%
9t4 ,en4 2Jiscount3 TarM Katsura (June "?#!-October "?#!%
9t4 ,en4 2Haron3 Maresu'e Cogi (October "?#!-January "?#?%
9t4 ,en4 2Haron3 ,entarM Ko&ama (February "?#?-Apri( "#$!%
,enera( 2Jiscount3 0amata 0a'uma (Apri( "#$!-May "#".%
,enera( 2Haron3 Teibi An&M (May "#".-June "#"?%
9t4 ,en4 Moto:iro A'ashi (June "#"?-Co*ember "#"#%
Haron Ken:irM -en (Co*ember "#"#-0eptember "#A%
Ka'ichi 7chi&a (0eptember "#A-0eptember "#/%
Ta'io ILa)a (0eptember "#/-Ju(y "#!%
Mitsunoshin Kamiyama (Ju(y "#!-June "#?%
Ta'e:i Ka)amura (June "#?-Ju(y "##%
;iLM IshiLu'a (Ju(y "##-January "#A"%
Masahiro ]ta (January "#A"-March "#A%
Hiroshi Minami (March "#A-May "#A%
KenLM Ca'aga)a (May "#A-0eptember "#A!%
A&mira( 0eiLM Kobayashi (0eptember "#A!-Co*ember "#/$%
Japanese Fesident-General o. Korea:
Hirobumi ItM (-ecember ", "#$.-June "/, "#$#%
Haron Arasu'e 0one (June "/, "#$#-May A$, "#"$%
Fie(& Marsha( Masata'e Terauchi (May A$, "#"$-Oct4 ", "#"$%
Japanese Go;ernor-General o. Korea:
Fie(& Marsha( Masata'e Terauchi (Oct4 ", "#"$-Oct4 #, "#"!%
Fie(& Marsha( Boshimichi Hasega)a ("#"!-"#"#%
Jiscount (A&mira(% Ma'oto 0aitM ("st term% (August ", "#"#-
Apri( "/, "#<%
,en4 KaLushige 7ga'i ("st term% ("#<%
,en4 HanLM Bamanashi ("#<-"##%
Jiscount (A&mira(% Ma'oto 0aitM (n& term% (August "<, "##-
June "<, "#A"%
,en4 KaLushige 7ga'i (n& term% ("#A"-"#A!%
,en4 JirM Minami ("#A!-"#/%
,en4 Kunia'i Koiso (June "., "#/-Ju(y , "#//%
,en4 Cobuyu'i Abe (Ju(y , "#// -0eptember ", "#/.%
A&mira( Kiyoshi Hasega)a (-ec4 "!, "#/$--ec4 A$, "#//%
,enera( +i'ichi An&M (-ecember A$, "#//-October ., "#/.%
Cote5 A(( names of Army an& Ca*y ministers on this (ist begin )ith (ast name4 (i4e4 To:o Hi&e'i (;ng(ish5 Hi&e'i To:o%%
;ng(ish-Japanese Trans(ations
/n*lish Japanese Pronun'iation
Han' of Japan
<@vw
Nippon 5ink
Han' for Internationa( 0ett(ements
Bvw
4okusai 4essai 5ink
9eague of Cations
BK
4okusai Renmei
8or(& 8ar II
n>
Dai'ni;i Sekai Taisen
0ino-Japanese 8ar
<>?
Nicchusens
+usso-Japanese 8ar
<=>?
Nichi'Ro Sens
Treaty of 0himonose'i
Jgh
Shimonoseki 3yaku
Taft-Katsura Agreement ("#$.%
T
4atsura'Tafuto 4ytei
,ent(emenQs Agreement of "#$<
<h
Nichibei Shinshi 4yyaku
Japan=Korea Treaty of "#"$
(Japan=Korea Anne>ation Treaty%
<èfgh
Nikkan .eig 3yaku
The T)enty-One -eman&s (1hina - "#".%
E6g
Taika Ni;8ichika; !ky8
February ! Inci&ent (February !, "#A!%

Ni'niroku ;iken
Can'ing Massacre ("#A<%
m
Nankin 3iken
Mu'&en Inci&ent (0eptember "?, "#A"%

Mansh8 3ihen
0outh Manchurian +ai(roa& 1ompany
m)rstu
Minami Mansh8 Tetsud 4abukishi 4aisha
,reater ;ast Asia 1o-Prosperity 0phere
G
Dai't'a 4yeiken
Tripartite Pact
<BD
Nichi'doku'i Sangoku 5un;i Domei
0o*iet-Japanese Ceutra(ity Pact
<gh
Nisso 1h8ritsu 3yaku
;mperor of Japan 2His Imperia( Ma:esty3

Tenno .eika

Naikaku sri dai;in
Japanese Minister for Foreign Affairs

5aimu Dai;in
Japanese Ministry for Foreign Affairs

5aimush
Japanese Ambassa&or to America
B<@B
Eai'/eikoku'Nihon'koku'taishi
Japanese ;mbassy in America
B<@B
Eai'/eikoku'Nihon'koku'taishikan
1onsu(ate ,enera( of Japan at Hono(u(u

Eai'.onoruru'Nihon'koku'S'Ry;ikan
1onsu( ,enera( of Japan at Hono(u(u

Eai'.onoruru'Nihon'koku'S'Ry;i
Imperia( Japanese Ca*y
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Imperia( Japanese Army
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Army Ministry of Japan
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Minister of the Ca*y
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