Bolshevik Revolution

& The Rise and Fall of Soviet Union:

Organized Crime?
By William P. Litynski
From the Grassy Knoll in
Yekaterinburg, Russia:
Lone Gunman or Patsy?
The Assassination of Czar Nicholas II of Russia and His Family on July 17, 191
Czar Nicholas II of Russia and his !ife and children "ose for a family "ortrait# $eated left to ri%ht& 'arie, (ueen Ale)andra of
Russia, Czar Nicholas II of Russia, Anastasia, and Ale)ei *front+, standin% left to ri%ht& -l%a and Tatiana# Czar Nicholas II of
Russia and his family !ere summarily e)ecuted .y Russian Communists in /e0aterin.ur%, Russia on July 17, 191#
Front page photo: Charles Bohlen (left) watches U.S. m!assa"or to So#iet Union #erell $arriman (center) shake han"s with
So#iet Commissar %osef Stalin "&ring a meeting at 'alta Conference in Fe!r&ary ()*+. #erell $arriman was an international
!anker (partner of Brown Brothers $arriman , Co. in -ew 'ork City). a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations from ()01
to ()23. an" a mem!er of Sk&ll , Bones at 'ale Uni#ersity.
1olshe2i0 Re2olution&
A Faustian 1ar%ain or a $atanic Ritual3
1917: Year of the nake
/&ssian Comm&nist terrorist (an" s&specte" 4erman agent) 5la"imir Lenin (right. hol"ing an &m!rella) takes a stroll in the
streets of Stockholm. Swe"en on pril (1. ()(6 78arch 1(. ()(6 /&ssian 7%&lian9 calen"ar9. Lenin an" his comra"es "eparte"
:&rich. Swit;erlan" a!oar" a 4erman !o<car train on pril 3. ()(6. =he >mperial 4erman go#ernment escorte" Lenin his
comra"es a!oar" a ?seale"@ train from the SwissA4erman !or"er to Berlin an" later from Berlin to the Baltic Sea. Lenin met with
his 4erman ?sponsors@ (4erman intelligent agents) in Berlin an" apparently recei#e" money !efore ret&rning to Petrogra" to
esta!lish a Comm&nist regime in /&ssia. (According to the Chinese calendar, 1917 was known as Year of the Snake.)
(Photo: http:BBwww.c""c.#t.e"&Bmar<istsBarchi#eBleninBme"iaBimageB()(6.htm)
!olshe"ik Re"olution: # Foreign $ntrigue %onsore& by 'all treet(Fe&eral Reser"e !ankers?: 'em.ers of the Federal
Reser2e 1oard "ose for a %rou" "ortrait in circa 1917# Cloc0!ise, .e%innin% from left& 4illiam 5# 'cAdoo *$ecretary of the
Treasury+, John $0elton 4illiams *Com"troller of the Currency+, Adol"h C# 'iller, Frederic A# 6elano, un0no!n, 4#7#5#
Hardin% *5o2ernor of the Federal Reser2e+, 7aul 4ar.ur% *8ice 5o2ernor of the Federal Reser2e+, and Charles $# Hamlin#
*7hoto& Harris 9 :!in% Collection;<i.rary of Con%ress+
Frederic A# 6elano=s ne"he! Fran0lin 6elano Roose2elt !as the Assistant $ecretary of the Na2y from 191> to 19?@, Frederic
A# 6elano=s father *and Fran0lin 6elano Roose2elt=s %randfather+ 4arren 6elano Jr# !as a "artner of Russell 9 Com"any
o"ium syndicate and a !ealthy dru% dealer#
7aul 4ar.ur% !as .orn and raised in Ham.ur%, 5ermany# Paul 'arburg)s brother Feli* 'arburg +as a Partner of Kuhn,
Loeb , -o., a /e+ish banking firm in 0e+ York -ity, in 19171 Paul 'arburg)s brother 2a* 'arburg +as a /e+ish
banker +ho o+ne& an& o%erate& 2.2. 'arburg banking firm in 3amburg, Germany in 1917 an& 4ollaborate& +ith
Kaiser 'ilhelm $$ of Germany &uring 'orl& 'ar $.

5eneral 7aul 2on Hinden.ur% *left+, Aaiser 4ilhelm II of 5ermany *center+, and 5eneral :rich <udendorff re2ie! .attle "lans
at the 5erman 5eneral HeadBuarters in 1917# 7aul 2on Hinden.ur% ser2ed as the Chief of the 5erman 5eneral $taff from
Au%ust ?9, 191C until July >, 1919# The 5erman 5eneral $taff "ro"osed the idea of .rin%in% 8ladimir <enin into Russia in an
attem"t to stir chaos in Russia and end the Russian military "resence in the :astern Front#
Faustian !argain& Faust ma0es a "act !ith the 6e2il
DNo! the ser%ent !as more su.til than any .east of the field !hich the <-R6 5od had made# And he said unto the !oman,
/ea, hath 5od said, /e shall not eat of e2ery tree of the %arden3 And the !oman said unto the ser"ent, 4e may eat of the fruit
of the trees of the %arden& 1ut of the fruit of the tree !hich is in the midst of the %arden, 5od hath said, /e shall not eat of it,
neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die# And the ser"ent said unto the !oman, /e shall not surely die& For 5od doth 0no! that in
the day ye eat thereof, then your eyes shall .e o"ened, and ye shall .e as %ods, 0no!in% %ood and e2il# And !hen the !oman
sa! that the tree !as %ood for food, and that it !as "leasant to the eyes, and a tree to .e desired to ma0e one !ise, she too0 of
the fruit thereof, and did eat, and %a2e also unto her hus.and !ith her, and he did eat# And the eyes of them .oth !ere o"ened,
and they 0ne! that they !ere na0ed, and they se!ed fi% lea2es to%ether, and made themsel2es a"rons# And they heard the 2oice
of the <-R6 5od !al0in% in the %arden in the cool of the day& and Adam and his !ife hid themsel2es from the "resence of the
<-R6 5od amon%st the trees of the %arden# And the <-R6 5od called unto Adam, and said unto him, 4here art thou3 And
he said, I heard thy 2oice in the %arden, and I !as afraid, .ecause I !as na0ed, and I hid myself# And he said, 4ho told thee that
thou !ast na0ed3 Hast thou eaten of the tree, !hereof I commanded thee that thou shouldest not eat3 And the man said, The
!oman !hom thou %a2est to .e !ith me, she %a2e me of the tree, and I did eat# And the <-R6 5od said unto the !oman, 4hat
is this that thou hast done3 And the !oman said, 5he ser%ent beguile& me, an& $ &i& eat. And the <-R6 5od said unto the
ser"ent, 1ecause thou hast done this, thou art cursed a.o2e all cattle, and a.o2e e2ery .east of the field, u"on thy .elly shalt
thou %o, and dust shalt thou eat all the days of thy life& And I !ill "ut enmity .et!een thee and the !oman, and .et!een thy seed
and her seed, it shall .ruise thy head, and thou shalt .ruise his heel# Ento the !oman he said, I !ill %reatly multi"ly thy sorro!
and thy conce"tion, in sorro! thou shalt .rin% forth children, and thy desire shall .e to thy hus.and, and he shall rule o2er thee#
And unto Adam he said, 1ecause thou hast hear0ened unto the 2oice of thy !ife, and hast eaten of the tree, of !hich I
commanded thee, sayin%, Thou shalt not eat of it& cursed is the %round for thy sa0e, in sorro! shalt thou eat of it all the days of
thy life, Thorns also and thistles shall it .rin% forth to thee, and thou shalt eat the her. of the field, In the s!eat of thy face shalt
thou eat .read, till thou return unto the %round, for out of it !ast thou ta0en& for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return#
And Adam called his !ifeFs name :2e, .ecause she !as the mother of all li2in%# Ento Adam also and to his !ife did the <-R6
5od ma0e coats of s0ins, and clothed them# And the <-R6 5od said, 1ehold, the man is .ecome as one of us, to 0no! %ood
and e2il& and no!, lest he "ut forth his hand, and ta0e also of the tree of life, and eat, and li2e for e2er& Therefore the <-R6 5od
sent him forth from the %arden of :den, to till the %round from !hence he !as ta0en# $o he dro2e out the man, and he "laced at
the east of the %arden of :den Cheru.ims, and a flamin% s!ord !hich turned e2ery !ay, to 0ee" the !ay of the tree of life#G
H 5enesis >&1I?J, -ld Testament *Ain% James 8ersion *AJ8++
The Chinese Kodiac *Calendar+
Year of the 6ragon:
1J@@, 1J1?, 1J?J, 1J>C, 1JJ, 1JC@, 1J7?, 1JJ, 1J9C
1L@, 1L?@, 1L>?, 1LJJ, 1LLC, 1LC, 1L@, 1L9?
1C@J, 1C1C, 1C?, 1CJ@, 1CL?, 1CCJ, 1C7C, 1C
17@@, 171?, 17?J, 17>C, 17J, 17C@, 177?, 17J, 179C
1@, 1?@, 1>?, 1JJ, 1LC, 1C, 1@, 19?
19@J, 191C, 19?, 19J@, 19L?, 19CJ, 197C, 19
?@@@, ?@1?, ?@?J, ?@>C, ?@J, ?@C@, ?@7?, ?@J, ?@9C
Year of the nake:
1J@1, 1J1>, 1J?L, 1J>7, 1JJ9, 1JC1, 1J7>, 1JL, 1J97
1L@9, 1L?1, 1L>>, 1LJL, 1LL7, 1LC9, 1L1, 1L9>
1C@L, 1C17, 1C?9, 1CJ1, 1CL>, 1CCL, 1C77, 1C9
17@1, 171>, 17?L, 17>7, 17J9, 17C1, 177>, 17L, 1797
1@9, 1?1, 1>>, 1JL, 1L7, 1C9, 11, 19>
19@L, 1917, 19?9, 19J1, 19L>, 19CL, 1977, 199
?@@1, ?@1>, ?@?L, ?@>7, ?@J9, ?@C1, ?@7>, ?@L, ?@97
Year of the 3orse:
1J@?, 1J1J, 1J?C, 1J>, 1JL@, 1JC?, 1J7J, 1JC, 1J9
1L1@, 1L??, 1L>J, 1LJC, 1LL, 1L7@, 1L?, 1L9J
1C@C, 1C1, 1C>@, 1CJ?, 1CLJ, 1CCC, 1C7, 1C9@
17@?, 171J, 17?C, 17>, 17L@, 17C?, 177J, 17C, 179
11@, 1??, 1>J, 1JC, 1L, 17@, 1?, 19J
19@C, 191, 19>@, 19J?, 19LJ, 19CC, 197, 199@
?@@?, ?@1J, ?@?C, ?@>, ?@L@, ?@C?, ?@7J, ?@C, ?@9
Year of the Goat:
1J@>, 1J1L, 1J?7, 1J>9, 1JL1, 1JC>, 1J7L, 1J7, 1J99
1L11, 1L?>, 1L>L, 1LJ7, 1LL9, 1L71, 1L>, 1L9L
1C@7, 1C19, 1C>1, 1CJ>, 1CLL, 1CC7, 1C79, 1C91
17@>, 171L, 17?7, 17>9, 17L1, 17C>, 177L, 177, 1799
111, 1?>, 1>L, 1J7, 1L9, 171, 1>, 19L
19@7, 1919, 19>1, 19J>, 19LL, 19C7, 1979, 1991
?@@>, ?@1L, ?@?7, ?@>9, ?@L1, ?@C>, ?@7L, ?@7, ?@99
Year of the 2onkey:
1J@J, 1J1C, 1J?, 1JJ@, 1JL?, 1JCJ, 1J7C, 1J
1L@@, 1L1?, 1L?J, 1L>C, 1LJ, 1LC@, 1L7?, 1LJ, 1L9C
1C@, 1C?@, 1C>?, 1CJJ, 1CLC, 1CC, 1C@, 1C9?
17@J, 171C, 17?, 17J@, 17L?, 17CJ, 177C, 17
1@@, 11?, 1?J, 1>C, 1J, 1C@, 17?, 1J, 19C
19@, 19?@, 19>?, 19JJ, 19LC, 19C, 19@, 199?
?@@J, ?@1C, ?@?, ?@J@, ?@L?, ?@CJ, ?@7C, ?@
Year of the Rooster:
1J@L, 1J17, 1J?9, 1JJ1, 1JL>, 1JCL, 1J77, 1J9
1L@1, 1L1>, 1L?L, 1L>7, 1LJ9, 1LC1, 1L7>, 1LL, 1L97
1C@9, 1C?1, 1C>>, 1CJL, 1CL7, 1CC9, 1C1, 1C9>
17@L, 1717, 17?9, 17J1, 17L>, 17CL, 1777, 179
1@1, 11>, 1?L, 1>7, 1J9, 1C1, 17>, 1L, 197
19@9, 19?1, 19>>, 19JL, 19L7, 19C9, 191, 199>
?@@L, ?@17, ?@?9, ?@J1, ?@L>, ?@CL, ?@77, ?@9
Year of the 6og:
1J@C, 1J1, 1J>@, 1JJ?, 1JLJ, 1JCC, 1J7, 1J9@
1L@?, 1L1J, 1L?C, 1L>, 1LL@, 1LC?, 1L7J, 1LC, 1L9
1C1@, 1C??, 1C>J, 1CJC, 1CL, 1C7@, 1C?, 1C9J
17@C, 171, 17>@, 17J?, 17LJ, 17CC, 177, 179@
1@?, 11J, 1?C, 1>, 1L@, 1C?, 17J, 1C, 19
191@, 19??, 19>J, 19JC, 19L, 197@, 19?, 199J
?@@C, ?@1, ?@>@, ?@J?, ?@LJ, ?@CC, ?@7, ?@9@
Year of the Pig:
1J@7, 1J19, 1J>1, 1JJ>, 1JLL, 1JC7, 1J79, 1J91
1L@>, 1L1L, 1L?7, 1L>9, 1LL1, 1LC>, 1L7L, 1L7, 1L99
1C11, 1C?>, 1C>L, 1CJ7, 1CL9, 1C71, 1C>, 1C9L
17@7, 1719, 17>1, 17J>, 17LL, 17C7, 1779, 1791
1@>, 11L, 1?7, 1>9, 1L1, 1C>, 17L, 17, 199
1911, 19?>, 19>L, 19J7, 19L9, 1971, 19>, 199L
?@@7, ?@19, ?@>1, ?@J>, ?@LL, ?@C7, ?@79, ?@91
Year of the Rat:
1J@, 1J?@, 1J>?, 1JJJ, 1JLC, 1JC, 1J@, 1J9?
1L@J, 1L1C, 1L?, 1LJ@, 1LL?, 1LCJ, 1L7C, 1L
1C@@, 1C1?, 1C?J, 1C>C, 1CJ, 1CC@, 1C7?, 1CJ, 1C9C
17@, 17?@, 17>?, 17JJ, 17LC, 17C, 17@, 179?
1@J, 11C, 1?, 1J@, 1L?, 1CJ, 17C, 1
19@@, 191?, 19?J, 19>C, 19J, 19C@, 197?, 19J, 199C
?@@, ?@?@, ?@>?, ?@JJ, ?@LC, ?@C, ?@@, ?@9?
Year of the 7* 8!ull9:
1J@9, 1J?1, 1J>>, 1JJL, 1JL7, 1JC9, 1J1, 1J9>
1L@L, 1L17, 1L?9, 1LJ1, 1LL>, 1LCL, 1L77, 1L9
1C@1, 1C1>, 1C?L, 1C>7, 1CJ9, 1CC1, 1C7>, 1CL, 1C97
17@9, 17?1, 17>>, 17JL, 17L7, 17C9, 171, 179>
1@L, 117, 1?9, 1J1, 1L>, 1CL, 177, 19
19@1, 191>, 19?L, 19>7, 19J9, 19C1, 197>, 19L, 1997
?@@9, ?@?1, ?@>>, ?@JL, ?@L7, ?@C9, ?@1, ?@9>
Year of the 5iger:
1J1@, 1J??, 1J>J, 1JJC, 1JL, 1J7@, 1J?, 1J9J
1L@C, 1L1, 1L>@, 1LJ?, 1LLJ, 1LCC, 1L7, 1L9@
1C@?, 1C1J, 1C?C, 1C>, 1CL@, 1CC?, 1C7J, 1CC, 1C9
171@, 17??, 17>J, 17JC, 17L, 177@, 17?, 179J
1@C, 11, 1>@, 1J?, 1LJ, 1CC, 17, 19@
19@?, 191J, 19?C, 19>, 19L@, 19C?, 197J, 19C, 199
?@1@, ?@??, ?@>J, ?@JC, ?@L, ?@7@, ?@?, ?@9J
Year of the Rabbit:
1J11, 1J?>, 1J>L, 1JJ7, 1JL9, 1J71, 1J>, 1J9L
1L@7, 1L19, 1L>1, 1LJ>, 1LLL, 1LC7, 1L79, 1L91
1C@>, 1C1L, 1C?7, 1C>9, 1CL1, 1CC>, 1C7L, 1C7, 1C99
1711, 17?>, 17>L, 17J7, 17L9, 1771, 17>, 179L
1@7, 119, 1>1, 1J>, 1LL, 1C7, 179, 191
19@>, 191L, 19?7, 19>9, 19L1, 19C>, 197L, 197, 1999
?@11, ?@?>, ?@>L, ?@J7, ?@L9, ?@71, ?@>, ?@9L
'aMor Historical :2ents in the /ear of the $na0e
/anuary 1:, ;7 !.-.: Roman <m%ire is establishe&1 #ugustus -aesar be4omes the first <m%eror of the Roman <m%ire
Au%ust 9, 117 A#6#& 6eath of TraMan, :m"eror of the Roman :m"ire
#ugust ;=, 1=>?: 5he -on"i4tion an& <*e4ution of 4ottish rebel 'illiam 'alla4e in Lon&on for 3igh 5reason
June ?, 1>9& -ttoman Tur0ish 'uslim army attac0s the $er.ian Christian army at the 1attle of Aoso2o#
#ugust ;;, 1@A?: King Ri4har& $$$ of <nglan& is kille& in a4tion at the !attle of !os+orth Fiel& in <nglan&.
2ay ;?, 1?;1: -harles B, 3oly Roman <m%eror, issue& the <&i4t of 'orms &e4laring 2artin Luther a hereti4.
#ugust 1?;1& 1attle of Tenochtitlan and the Fall of the Aztec :m"ire N"resentIday 'e)icoO
0o"ember ?, 1:>?: Gun%o+&er Plot in Lon&on 8Guy Fa+kes9
-cto.er 1CJ1& The Irish Re.ellion of 1CJ1
Fe.ruary 1>, 1C9& Ascension of Ain% 4illiam III of :n%land and his !ife (ueen 'ary II of :n%land
/anuary 1A, 17>1: <stablishment of the King&om of Prussia
17>1: <stablishment of Yale Cni"ersity in -onne4ti4ut
February A, 17;?: 6eath of -Dar Peter $ of Russia 8Peter the Great9 in t. Petersburg, Russia
6e4ember 1:, 177=: !oston 5ea Party
74tober 1A, 1797: 5he Fall of 5he 2ost erene Re%ubli4 of Beni4e
'arch ?L, 1?1& 1e%innin% of the 5ree0 4ar of Inde"endence
2ay ?, 1A;1: 6eath of 0a%oleon !ona%arte
$e"tem.er ?7, 1?1& Conclusion of the 'e)ican 4ar of Inde"endence
1A;1: Georg 'ilhelm Frie&ri4h 3egel)s book Elements of the Philosophy of Right is %ublishe& in !erlin
1A==: <stablishment of kull an& !ones, a atani4 se4ret so4iety at Yale Cni"ersity
'arch >, 1JL& Florida .ecame a $tate !ithin the Enited $tates of America
6ecem.er ?9, 1JL& Anne)ation of Te)as
'arch C, 1L7& Dred Scott v. Sanford case decided .y the E#$# $u"reme Court
1A:9: <stablishment of the Yasukuni hrine in 5okyo, /a%an
'arch 1>, 11& Assassination of Czar Ale)ander II of Russia in $t# 7eters.ur%, Russia
July ?, 11& Assassination of E#$# 7resident James A# 5arfield
January 17, 19>& A.dication *o2erthro!+ of (ueen <iliuo0alani of Ha!aii
-cto.er ?, 19>& Assassination of 'ayor of Chica%o Carter Henry Harrison $r#
'ay ?7I?, 19@L& Im"erial Ja"anese Na2y defeats the Russian Na2y at the 1attle of Tsushima
January ??, 19@L& 1loody $unday 'assacre in $t# 7eters.ur%, Russia
July 19@L& TaftIAatsura A%reement is esta.lished, leadin% to the Ja"anese colonization of Aorea
$e"tem.er L, 19@L& $i%nin% of the Treaty of 7ortsmouth *"eace treaty endin% RussoIJa"anese 4ar+ .y Ja"an and Russia
2ar4h 1?, 1917: #b&i4ation of -Dar 0i4holas $$ of Russia
0o"ember ;, 1917: !ritish %oliti4ian #rthur !alfour +rites a letter to Lor& Roths4hil&, later kno+n as E!alfour 6e4larationF
0o"ember 7, 1917: !eginning of the !olshe"ik Re"olution 874tober Re"olution9 in Russia
6e4ember 11, 1917: !ritish Fiel& 2arshal <&mun& #llenby)s gran& entran4e into /erusalem
June 1J, 19?9& /oun% 7lan *5erman !ar re"arations "ayment "lan+ is finalized at 7aris, France
-cto.er >, 19?9& 6eath of 5erman Forei%n 'inister 5usta2 $tresemann
-cto.er ?I?9, 19?9& $toc0 'ar0et Crash in Ne! /or0 City and 1e%innin% of the 5reat 6e"ression
/une @, 19@1: 6eath of Kaiser 'ilhelm $$ of Germany
June ??, 19J1& Nazi 5erman In2asion of the $o2iet Enion *-"eration 1ar.arossa+
Au%ust ?L, 19J1I$e"tem.er 17, 19J1& An%loI$o2iet In2asion of Iran *-"eration Countenance+
6e4ember 7, 19@1: $m%erial /a%anese 0a"y atta4k on Pearl 3arbor 83a+aii9
2ar4h ?, 19?=: 6eath of o"iet &i4tator /ose%h talin
July ?7, 19L>& Aorean 4ar Armistice
Au%ust 19, 19L>& -2erthro! *Cou" d=etat+ of Iran=s 7rime 'inister 'ohammad 'ossade%h
January ?J, 19CL& 6eath of former 7rime 'inister of 5reat 1ritain $ir 4inston Churchill
No2em.er 11, 19CL& Rhodesia=s 7rime 'inister Ian $mith declares a DEnilateral 6eclaration of Inde"endenceG from 5reat 1ritain
January 7, 199& 6eath of :m"eror Hirohito of Ja"an
June >, 199& 6eath of 5rand Ayatollah Ruhollah Ahomeini *$u"reme <eader of Iran+
June J, 199& Tiananmen $Buare 'assacre in 1eiMin%, Communist China
0o"ember 9, 19A9: Fall of the !erlin 'all
e%tember 11, ;>>1: 9G11 5rage&y in 0e+ York -ity 8'orl& 5ra&e -enter9 an& 'ashington, 6.-. 8Pentagon9
Comm&nism: SatanicA%ewish ConspiracyC
Le !aidoich "ronstein
7Leon =rotsky9
(-o#em!er 6. (26)A&g&st 0(. ()*D)
So#iet Commissar of War (()()A()0+)
!r. #arl $einrich %ar&, 'h.!.
(8ay +. (2(2A8arch (*. (221)
CoAa&thor of Communist ManifestoE
recei#e" a Ph.F. at Uni#. of Berlin in (2*(
(ladi)ir *l+ich ,l+ano
75la"imir ?-ikolai@ Lenin9
(pril 00. (26DA%an&ary 0(. ()0*)
First Commissar of So#iet Union (()(6A()0*)
-ro) ./ssia 0ith Loe1 /&ssian %ewish terrorists Leon =rotsky (left). 5la"imir Lenin (center). an" Le# Gamene# appear at the secon"
Comm&nist Party Congress in ()(). (Photo: -ew 'ork P&!lic Li!rary)
Russian Re2olutionary 'i0hail 1a0unin=s 6escri"tion of
Aarl 'ar)& In His -!n 4ords
'i0hail 1a0unin *11JI17C+
D2ar* is a /e+ an& is surroun&e& by a 4ro+& of little, more or less intelligent, s4heming, agile, s%e4ulating
/e+s, Hust as /e+s are e"ery+here (( 4ommer4ial an& banking agents, +riters, %oliti4ians, 4orres%on&ents for
ne+s%a%ers of all sha&es1 in short, literary brokers, Hust as they are finan4ial brokers, +ith one foot in the bank
an& the other in the so4ialist mo"ement, an& their arses sitting u%on the German %ress. 5hey ha"e grabbe&
hol& of all ne+s%a%ers, an& you 4an imagine +hat a nauseating literature is the out4ome of itI0o+ this entire
/e+ish +orl&, +hi4h 4onstitutes an e*%loiting se4t, a %eo%le of lee4hes, a "ora4ious %arasite, 4losely an&
intimately 4onne4te& +ith another, regar&less not only of frontiers but of %oliti4al &ifferen4es as +ell (( this
/e+ish +orl& is to&ay largely at the &is%osal of 2ar* or Roths4hil&. I am sure that, on the one hand, the
Rothschilds a""reciate the merits of 'ar), and that on the other hand, 'ar) feels an instincti2e inclination and a %reat
res"ect for the Rothschilds# This may seem stran%e# 4hat could there .e in common .et!een communism and hi%h
finance3 Ho hoP 5he 4ommunism of 2ar* seeks a strong state 4entraliDation, an& +here this e*ists, there the
%arasiti4 /e+ish nation (( +hi4h s%e4ulates u%on the labor of %eo%le (( +ill al+ays fin& the means for its
e*isten4e###In reality, this !ould .e for the "roletariat a .arrac0Ire%ime, under !hich the !or0in%men and the
!or0in%!omen, con2erted into a uniform mass, !ould rise, fall aslee", !or0, and li2e at the .eat of the drum# The
"ri2ile%e of rulin% !ould .e in the hands of the s0illed and the learned, !ith a !ide sco"e left for "rofita.le croo0ed
deals carried on .y the Je!s, !ho !ould .e attracted .y the enormous e)tension of the international s"eculations of
the national .an0s###G
H 'ichael 1a0unin, Polemique contre les Juifs *Polemic against the Jews+, 17?
Bla&imir Lenin 'as Part(/e+ish, ays 6e4lassifie& KG! Files
By Emmanuel Grynszpan !e "emps #orldcrunch
June 1J, ?@11
"his post is in partnership with #orldcrunch$ a new glo%al & news site that translates stories of note in foreign languages into English.
"he article %elow was originally pu%lished in !e "emps.
*'-$C-4+ I A recently o"ened e)hi.ition in 'osco!Fs $tate Historical 'useum is sheddin% some li%ht on a lon%I%uarded Russian
secret& the ori%ins of $o2iet foundin% father 8ladimir <enin# <eninFs maternal %randfather, the e)hi.ition re2ealed, !as .orn Je!ish#
This fascinatin% morsel of information, %leaned from declassified A51 files, is not a minor detail in a country !here antiI$emitism
!as a reco%nized state doctrine for decades# $tartin% in the 19>@s, the $o2iet re%ime I s"urred on .y its leader Jose"h $talin I launched
a 2iolent discriminatory cam"ai%n a%ainst Je!ish citizens# *$ee the To" ?L 7olitical Icons& <enin+
1orn in 17@, <enin identified himself sim"ly as QRussian#Q His official .io%ra"hy only mentions his Russian, 5erman and $!edish
ori%ins# 1ut one of the e)hi.itionFs "riceless "ieces adds a 0ey ne! element to the official narrati2e#
In a letter !ritten to $talin in 19>? I si) years after <eninFs death I Anna Elyano2a, <eninFs older sister, !rote that their maternal
%randfather Qcame from a "oor Je!ish family and !as, accordin% to his .a"tismal certificate, the son of 'oses 1lan0#Q 1lan0 !as .orn
in Khitomir, E0raine# In her letter, Anna Elyano2a said her .rother Qhad al!ays thou%ht hi%hly of Je!s#Q $he also ur%ed $talin to
re2eal <eninFs Je!ish .ac0%round, concludin% that Qit !ould .e !ron% to hide it from the masses#Q
$talin, ho!e2er, ordered Anna Elyano2a to 0ee" <eninFs Je!ish roots under !ra"s# A fe! years later $talin .e%an to "ur%e Je!s from
amon% the leaders of the Russian re2olution# 7rior to his death in 19L>, furthermore, he !as "re"arin% to send the !hole Je!ish
"o"ulation li2in% in the $o2iet Enion to concentration cam"s in $i.eria#
'ost "ro2incial Russian to!ns ha2e a main road named Q<enin $treet#Q /ou can usually find sho"s sellin% lu)ury %oods and .an0in%
centers there# They tend to contain all the flashiest sym.ols of the countryFs no! ca"italist society# *$ee TI':Fs "hotoessay& The
1olshe2i0 -cto.er Re2olution+
In the middle of 2irtually e2ery central sBuare, includin% in 1elarus and in E0raine, there is a hi%hIrise statue of <enin loo0in% do!n
on the ro!dy sho"0ee"ers# The <enin "arado) e2en %oes further# <enin is re2ered .y RussiaFs radical frin%e I "eo"le !ho feel
nostal%ic for the $o2iet re%ime in %eneral, and for antiI$emitic $talinism in "articular#
The QCult of <eninQ has its "hysical focal "oint in 'osco!Fs Red $Buare, !here <eninFs mummified .ody is on "ermanent dis"lay in a
mausoleum# In the "ast, $o2iet citizens !ere e)"ected to carry out "il%rima%es to the Communist leaderFs restin% "lace# *7hotos&
Ale0sander $olzhenitsyn 191 N:'O ?@@+
<eninFs le%acy is the su.Mect of de.ate# $ome Russian Communists !ant <eninFs cult to endure fore2er# 1ut there are Russian -rthodo)
Christians !ho loathe <enin .ecause he destroyed Tsarism and .ecause he turned atheism into a cornerstone of the official ideolo%y#
The latter, li0e many ordinary Russian "eo"le, !ant the man to .e .uried I !ith or !ithout the honors reser2ed for a statesman#
Russians !ho .e%an their !or0in% li2es after the fall of the communist system often see thin%s in the same am.i2alent !ay# Q$o2iet
children almost re%arded 5randfather <enin as $anta Claus,Q says 6aria 1eliae2a, a thirtyIyearIold financial analyst !ho loo0s .ac0 at
the $o2iet era !ith nostal%ia# Q1ut later, I heard that the 5ermans sent him to Russia in an armored train to tri%%er the Russian
re2olution# I also heard that he ordered the destruction of a.out 1@@ churches,Q the "racticin% -rthodo) adds disa""ro2in%ly#
6aria !asnFt "articularly mo2ed one !ay or the other !hen she heard the $o2iet idol had Je!ish roots# QHe had elements of %ood and
e2il in him# He "ut his mar0 on Russian history# No!, he needs to .e .uried#Q
7olitical e)"ert 1oris Aa%arlits0i, a former dissident and "roud <eninist, says Qthe Russian authorities are usin% the de.ate a.out
<eninFs Je!ish .ac0%round and a.out his .urial as a "rete)t for ta0in% "eo"leFs mind off the real "ro.lems and issues facin% our
society#Q
:2en if latent antiI$emitism does not "lay an acti2e role in contem"orary Russian "olitics, the <enin e)hi.ition could end u" cuttin%
into the famed re2olutionaryFs endurin% "o"ularity# It mi%ht also con2ince authorities to once and for all "ut his em.almed .ody to rest#
$ource& htt"&;;ne!s#yahoo#com;s;time;?@11@C1J;!lRtime;@L99?@77J1>@@
%oint Fistri!&tion Committee meeting takes place on &g&st (3. ()(2. %ews of the Unite" States of merica who ha#e "istri!&te" twel#e
million "ollars of the relief moneys raise" !y merican %ewry since the !eginning of Worl" War >. 2aco3 Schiff. philanthropist. international
!anker an" one of the fo&n"ers of the merican %ewish $istorical Society. appears in the lower right corner.
Seate" from left to right are: -eli& %. 0ar3/rg. of G&hn Loe! , Co.. Chairman of the CommitteeE /a!!i aron =eitel!a&m. Correspon"ing
Secretary of the %oint Fistri!&tion CommitteeE 8rs. F. Frie"man. official stenographerE Fr. Boris F. Bogen. organi;er of the !ranch of the
Committee in $ollan" an" a "irector of the -ational Conference of CharitiesE Leon San"ers. Presi"ent of the >n"epen"ent Hr"er of Brith
!rahamE $arry Fishcel. =reas&rer of the Central /elief CommitteeE Sholem sch. note" 'i""ish writer an" 5ice Chairman of PeopleIs /elief
CommitteeE le<an"er Gahn. Chairman of the PeopleIs /elief CommitteeE %aco! 8ilchE 8iss $arriet Lowenstein. woman lawyer an"
Comptroller of %oint Fistri!&tion CommitteeE Colonel 8oses Schonen!ergE /a!!i 8.:. 8argolies. Presi"ent of the g&"as $a!onimE >srael
Frie"lan"er. %ewish =heological Seminary of -'E Pa&l Baerwal". ssociate =reas&rer of the CommitteeE %&li&s Le#yE Peter Wiernik. Chairman
of the Central /elief Committee an" e"itor of the %ewish 8orning %o&rnalE 8eyer 4illis. assistant e"itor of Forwar"E Colonel $arry C&tler.
Chairman of the %ewish Welfare Boar"E Cyr&s "ler. Presi"ent of Fropsey College an" the %ewish =heological SeminaryE rth&r Lehman.
=reas&rer of the Committee an" mem!er of Lehman Bros.
Stan"ing from left to right: !raham :&cker. PeopleIs /elief CommitteeE >sa"ore $ershfiel". who esta!lishe" comm&nication !etween %ewish
families in J&rope an" mericaE /a!!i 8eyer Berlin. 5ice Presi"ent of the Central /elief CommitteeE Stanley Bero. Central /elief CommitteeE
Lo&is =opkisE 8orris Jngelman. financial secretary of the Central /elief Committee an" originator of the plan for merican /elief for the %ewish
War S&fferers. (Photo: merican %ewish $istorical SocietyB http:BBwww.flickr.comBphotosBcenterKforKLewishKhistoryB1*0D)+1*))B)
The Im"endin% Catastro"he and Ho! to Com.at It
1y 8# I# <enin, 1917
0ationalisation of the !anks
The .an0s, as !e 0no!, are centres of modern economic life, the "rinci"al ner2e centres of the !hole ca"italist
economic system# To tal0 a.out Qre%ulatin% economic lifeQ and yet e2ade the Buestion of the nationalisation of the .an0s
means either .etrayin% the most "rofound i%norance or decei2in% the Qcommon "eo"leQ .y florid !ords and
%randiloBuent "romises !ith the deli.erate intention of not fulfillin% these "romises#
It is a.surd to control and re%ulate deli2eries of %rain, or the "roduction and distri.ution of %oods %enerally, !ithout controllin%
and re%ulatin% .an0 o"erations# It is li0e tryin% to snatch at odd 0o"e0s and closin% one=s eyes to millions of ru.les# 1an0s
no!adays are so closely and intimately .ound u" !ith trade *in %rain and e2erythin% else+ and !ith industry that !ithout Qlayin%
handsQ on the .an0s nothin% of any 2alue, nothin% Dre2olutionaryIdemocraticG, can .e accom"lished#
1ut "erha"s for the state to Qlay handsQ on the .an0s is a 2ery difficult and com"licated o"eration3 They usually try to scare
"hilistines !ith this 2ery ideaSthat is, the ca"italists and their defenders try it, .ecause it is to their ad2anta%e to do so#
In reality, ho!e2er, nationalisation of the .an0s, !hich !ould not de"ri2e any Do!nerG of a sin%le 0o"e0, "resents a.solutely no
technical or cultural difficulties, and is .ein% delayed e)clusi2ely .ecause of the 2ile %reed of an insi%nificant handful of rich
"eo"le# If nationalisation of the .an0s is so often confused !ith the confiscation of "ri2ate "ro"erty, it is the .our%eois "ress,
!hich has an interest in decei2in% the "u.lic, that is to .lame for this !ides"read confusion#
5he o+nershi% of the 4a%ital +iel&e& by an& 4on4entrate& in the banks is 4ertifie& by %rinte& an& +ritten 4ertifi4ates
4alle& shares, bon&s, bills, re4ei%ts, et4. 0ot a single one of these 4ertifi4ates +oul& be in"ali&ate& or altere& if the banks
+ere nationalise&, i.e., if all the banks +ere amalgamate& into a single state bank. 'hoe"er o+ne& fifteen rubles on a
sa"ings a44ount +oul& 4ontinue to be the o+ner of fifteen rubles after the nationalisation of the banks1 an& +hoe"er ha&
fifteen million rubles +oul& 4ontinue after the nationalisation of the banks to ha"e fifteen million rubles in the form of
shares, bon&s, bills, 4ommer4ial 4ertifi4ates an& so on.
4hat, then, is the si%nificance of nationalisation of the .an0s3
$t is that no effe4ti"e 4ontrol of any kin& o"er the in&i"i&ual banks an& their o%erations is %ossible 8e"en if 4ommer4ial
se4re4y, et4., +ere abolishe&9 be4ause it is im%ossible to kee% tra4k of the e*tremely 4om%le*, in"ol"e& an& +ily tri4ks
that are use& in &ra+ing u% balan4e sheets. foun&ing fi4titious enter%rises an& subsi&iaries, enlisting the ser"i4es of
figurehea&s, an& so on, an& so forth. 7nly the amalgamation of all banks into one, +hi4h in itself +oul& im%ly no 4hange
+hate"er in res%e4t of o+nershi%. an& +hi4h, +e re%eat, +oul& not &e%ri"e any o+ner of a single ko%ek, +oul& make it
possible to e*er4ise real 4ontrolJ%ro"i&e&, of 4ourse, all the other measures in&i4ate& abo"e +ere 4arrie& out. 7nly by
nationalising the banks can the state put itself in a position to kno+ +here an& ho+, +hen4e an& +hen, millions an&
billions of rubles flo+. #n& only 4ontrol o"er the banks, o"er the 4entre, o"er the %i"ot an& 4hief me4hanism of 4a%italist
4ir4ulation, +oul& make it %ossible to organise real an& not fi4titious 4ontrol o"er all e4onomi4 life, o"er the %ro&u4tion
an& &istribution of sta%le goo&s, an& organise that Kregulation of e4onomi4 lifeK +hi4h other+ise is ine"itably &oome& to
remain a ministerial %hrase &esigne& to fool the 4ommon %eo%le. 7nly 4ontrol o"er banking o%erations, %ro"i&e& they
+ere 4on4entrate& in a single state bank, +oul& make it %ossible, if 4ertain other easily(%ra4ti4able measures +ere
a&o%te&, to organise the effe4ti"e 4olle4tion of in4ome ta* in su4h a +ay as to %re"ent the 4on4ealment of %ro%erty an&
in4omes1 for at %resent the in4ome ta* is "ery largely a fi4tion.
Nationalisation of the .an0s has only to .e decreed and it !ould .e carried out .y the directors and em"loyees themsel2es# No
s"ecial machinery, no s"ecial "re"aratory ste"s on the "art of the state !ould .e reBuired, for this is a measure that can .e
effected .y a sin%le decree, Qat a sin%le stro0eQ# It !as made economically feasi.le .y ca"italism itself once it had de2elo"ed to
the sta%e of .ills, shares, .onds and so on# All that is reBuired is to unify accountancy# And if the re2olutionaryIdemocratic
%o2ernment !ere to decide that immediately, .y tele%ra"h, meetin%s of mana%ers and em"loyees should .e called in e2ery city,
and conferences in e2ery re%ion and in the country as a !hole, for the immediate amal%amation of all .an0s into a sin%le state
.an0, this reform !ould .e carried out in a fe! !ee0s# -f course, it !ould .e the mana%ers and the hi%her .an0 officials !ho
!ould offer resistance, !ho !ould try to decei2e the state, delay matters, and so on, for these %entlemen !ould lose their hi%hly
remunerati2e "osts and the o""ortunity of "erformin% hi%hly "rofita.le fraudulent o"erations# "hat is the heart of the matter# 1ut
there is not the sli%htest technical difficulty in the !ay of the amal%amation of the .an0s, and if the state "o!er !ere
re2olutionary not only in !ord *i#e#, if it did not fear to do a!ay !ith inertia and routine+, if it !ere democratic not only in !ord
*i#e#, if it acted in the interests of the maMority of the "eo"le and not of a handful of rich men+, it !ould .e enou%h to decree
confiscation of "ro"erty and im"risonment as the "enalty for mana%ers, .oard mem.ers and .i% shareholders for the sli%htest
delay or for attem"tin% to conceal documents and accounts# It !ould .e enou%h, for e)am"le, to or%anise the "oorer em"loyees
separately and to re!ard them for detectin% fraud and delay on the "art of the rich for nationalisation of the .an0s to .e effected
as smoothly and ra"idly as can .e#
5he a&"antages a44ruing to the +hole %eo%le from nationalisation of the banksJnot to the +orkers es%e4ially 8for the
+orkers ha"e little to &o +ith banks9 but to the mass of %easants an& small in&ustrialistsJ+oul& be enormous. 5he
sa"ing in labour +oul& be giganti4, an&, assuming that the state +oul& retain the former number of bank em%loyees,
nationalisation +oul& be a highly im%ortant ste% to+ar&s making the use of the banks uni"ersal, to+ar&s in4reasing the
number of their bran4hes, %utting their o%erations +ithin easier rea4h, et4., et4. 5he a"ailability of 4re&it on easy terms
for the small o+ners, for the %easants, +oul& in4rease immensely. #s to the state, it +oul& for the first time be in a
%osition first to review all the 4hief monetary o%erations, +hi4h +oul& be un4on4eale&, then to control them, then to
regulate e4onomi4 life, an& finally to obtain millions an& billions for maHor state transa4tions, +ithout %aying the
4a%italist gentlemen sky(high E4ommissionsF for their Eser"i4esF. 5hat is the reasonJan& the only reasonJ+hy all the
4a%italists, all the bourgeois %rofessors, all the bourgeoisie, an& all the Plekhano"s, Potreso"s an& -o., +ho ser"e them,
are %re%are& to fight tooth an& nail against nationalisation of the banks an& in"ent thousan&s of e*4uses to %re"ent the
a&o%tion of this "ery easy an& "ery %ressing measure, although e"en from the stan&%oint of the E&efen4eF of the 4ountry,
i.e., from the military stan&%oint, this measure +oul& %ro"i&e a giganti4 a&"antage an& +oul& tremen&ously enhan4e the
Kmilitary mightK of the 4ountry.
The follo!in% o.Mection mi%ht .e raised& !hy do such ad2anced states as 5ermany and the E#$#A# Qre%ulate economic lifeQ so
ma%nificently !ithout e2en thin0in% of nationalisin% the .an0s3
1ecause, !e re"ly, %oth these states are not merely ca"italist, .ut also im"erialist states, althou%h one of them is a monarchy and
the other a re"u.lic# As such, they carry out the reforms they need .y reactionaryI.ureaucratic methods, !hereas !e are
s"ea0in% here of re2olutionaryIdemocratic methods#
This Qlittle differenceQ is of maMor im"ortance# In most cases it is Qnot the customQ to thin0 of it# The term Qre2olutionary
democracyQ has .ecome !ith us *es"ecially amon% the $ocialistIRe2olutionaries and 'enshe2i0s+ almost a con2entional "hrase,
li0e the e)"ression Qthan0 5odQ, !hich is also used .y "eo"le !ho are not so i%norant as to .elie2e in 5od, or li0e the
e)"ression Qhonoura.le citizenQ, !hich is sometimes used e2en in addressin% staff mem.ers of Dyen or 'edinstvo, althou%h
nearly e2ery.ody %uesses that these ne!s"a"ers ha2e .een founded and are maintained .y the ca"italists in the interests of the
ca"italists, and that there is therefore 2ery little Dhonoura.leG a.out the "seudoIsocialists contri.utin% to these ne!s"a"ers#
If !e do not em"loy the "hrase Qre2olutionary democracyQ as a stereoty"ed ceremonial "hrase, as a con2entional e"ithet, .ut
reflect on its meanin%, !e find that to .e a democrat means rec0onin% in reality !ith the interests of the maMority of the "eo"le
and not the minority, and that to .e a re2olutionary means destroyin% e2erythin% harmful and o.solete in the most resolute and
ruthless manner#
Neither in America nor in 5ermany, as far as !e 0no!, is any claim laid .y either the %o2ernment or the rulin% classes to the
name Qre2olutionary democratsQ, to !hich our $ocialistIRe2olutionaries and 'enshe2i0s lay claim *and !hich they "rostitute+#
In 5ermany there are only four 2ery lar%e "ri2ate .an0s of national im"ortance# In America there are only two# It is easier, more
con2enient, more "rofita.le for the financial ma%nates of those .an0s to unite "ri2ately, surre"titiously, in a reactionary and not
a re2olutionary !ay, in a .ureaucratic and not a democratic !ay, .ri.in% %o2ernment officials *this is the %eneral rule .oth in
America and in Germany+, and "reser2in% the "ri2ate character of the .an0s in order to "reser2e secrecy of o"erations, to mil0
the state of millions u"on millions in Dsu"erI"rofitsG, and to ma0e financial frauds "ossi.le#
1oth America and 5ermany Qre%ulate economic lifeQ in such a !ay as to create conditions of war&time penal servitude for the
!or0ers *and "artly for the "easants+ and a paradise for the .an0ers and ca"italists# Their re%ulation consists in DsBueezin%G the
!or0ers to the "oint of star2ation, !hile the ca"italists are %uaranteed *surre"titiously, in a reactionaryI.ureaucratic fashion+
"rofits higher than .efore the !ar#
$uch a course is Buite "ossi.le in re"u.licanIim"erialist Russia too# Indeed, it is the course .ein% follo!ed not only .y the
'ilyu0o2s and $hin%aryo2s, .ut also .y Aerens0y in "artnershi" !ith Tereshchen0o, Ne0raso2, 1ernats0y, 7ro0o"o2ich and
Co#, !ho also uphold, in a reactionaryI.ureaucratic manner, the Din2iola.ilityG of the .an0s and their sacred ri%ht to fa.ulous
"rofits# $o let us .etter tell the truth, namely, that in re"u.lican Russia they !ant to re%ulate economic life in a reactionaryI
.ureaucratic manner, .ut DoftenG find it difficult to do so o!in% to the e)istence of the D$o2ietsG, !hich Aornilo2 No# 1 did not
mana%e to dis.and, .ut !hich Aornilo2 No# ? !ill try to dis.and#
That !ould .e the truth# And this sim"le if .itter truth is more useful for the enli%htenment of the "eo"le than the honeyed lies
a.out DourG, D%reatG, Dre2olutionaryG democracy#
T T T
Nationalisation of the .an0s !ould %reatly facilitate the simultaneous nationalisation of the insurance .usiness, i#e#, the
amal%amation of all the insurance com"anies into one, the centralisation of their o"erations, and state control o2er them# Here,
too, con%resses of insurance com"any em"loyees could carry out this amal%amation immediately and !ithout any %reat effort,
"ro2ided a re2olutionaryIdemocratic %o2ernment decreed this and ordered directors and .i% shareholders to effect the
amal%amation !ithout the sli%htest delay and held e2ery one of them strictly accounta.le for it# The ca"italists ha2e in2ested
hundreds of millions of ru.les in the insurance .usiness, the !or0 is all done .y the em"loyees# The amal%amation of this
.usiness !ould lead to lo!er insurance "remiums, !ould "ro2ide a host of facilities and con2eniences for the insured and !ould
ma0e it "ossi.le to increase their num.er !ithout increasin% e)"enditure of effort and funds# A.solutely nothin% .ut the inertia,
routine and selfIinterest of a handful of holders of remunerati2e Mo.s are delayin% this reform, !hich, amon% other thin%s, !ould
enhance the country=s defence "otential .y economisin% national la.our and creatin% a num.er of hi%hly im"ortant o""ortunities
to Qre%ulate economic lifeQ not in !ord, .ut in deed#
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#mar)ists#or%;archi2e;lenin;!or0s;1917;ichtci;@J#htm
DThe .yzantine financial intri%ues of the early 19@@s .ound Je!ish .an0ers ti%htly to the state# The diatri.es a%ainst Je!ish .an0ers
actually stood reality on its head, for they didn=t e)"loit 5ermany so much as ser2e its im"erial esca"ades to a fault# This 2ery
intimacy !ith the %o2ernment !ould ma0e it hard for them to react later on !hen "ersecution and terror came from the state itself#
The Auhn, <oe. connection also im"licated '#'# 4ar.ur% in more "olitical !or0# -utra%ed .y the "o%roms a%ainst Russian Je!s,
NJaco.O $chiff made it a "oint of honor to finance Ja"an in its 19@JI@L !ar a%ainst Russia and e2en "aid for distri.ution of antiIczarist
"ro"a%anda to Russian "risoners# In s"rin% 19@J, he shoc0ed Ja"an=s financial commissioner, 1aron Aore0iyo Ta0ahashi, .y
2olunteerin% to under!rite half the tenImillionI"ound loan sou%ht .y the Im"erial Ja"anese 5o2ernment in <ondon and Ne! /or0#
This first of fi2e maMor Auhn, <oe. loans to Ja"an !as a""ro2ed .y Ain% :d!ard 8II at a luncheon !ith $chiff and $ir :rnest Cassel#
4hen Ja"an !as ready for a third loan in 19@L, $chiff thou%ht Ne! /or0 !as saturated !ith Ja"anese .onds and as0ed 'a)
N4ar.ur%O to o"en a 5erman mar0et# To ensure that such a ste" conformed to 5erman "olicy, 'a) remem.ered, DI did !hat e2ery
u"standin% .an0er has to do in such case, I !ent to the Forei%n 'inistry in 1erlin#G The Aru"" firm had !arned the Forei%n -ffice
that 5ermany !ould lose munitions contracts if the third Ja"anese loan !ere "laced entirely in Ne! /or0 and <ondon# $o EnderI
$ecretary of $tate Arthur Kimmermann endorsed the mo2e and authorized 'a) to ne%otiate !ith Ja"an# 1efore "roceedin% !ith his
second Ja"anese loan, 'a) met the Aaiser a.oard his yacht to %et his official im"rimatur# This second issue !as ten times
o2ersu.scri.ed, stren%thenin% Ja"an=s hand at the 7ortsmouth "eace conference# That 'a) suddenly mana%ed a maMor strate%ic
transaction !as a stunnin% achie2ement for a firm that Must a fe! years earlier had .een a "ro2incial "o!er# 'a) o!ed this
.rea0throu%h to his .rothers= "resence at Auhn, <oe., .ut he had a.ly e)"loited the o""ortunity# He ne%otiated the first loan in
<ondon !ith Aore0iyo Ta0ahashi, later Ja"anese finance minister and "rime minister# Ta0ahashi ne2er for%ot the fa2or, later tellin%
'a), if DI ha2e distin%uished myself in any !ay in my life, it is, to my %reat a""reciation, due to your %ood!ill and friendshi" !hich
you !ere 0ind enou%h to e)tend to me in old times#G After the !ar !ith Russia, Ta0ahashi 2isited Ham.ur%, and in 19@C NJaco.O
$chiff 2isited Ja"an# $chiff had a rare "ri2ate lunch !ith the 'i0ado at the Im"erial 7alace, !here he !as decorated !ith the -rder of
the Risin% $un# At one dinner, he sat .eside Ta0ahashi=s teena%e dau%hter, 4a0i0o, and casually in2ited her to Ne! /or0, .ut
Ta0ahashi too0 the in2itation Buite literally# To $chiff=s astonishment, 4a0i0o ended u" %oin% .ac0 !ith him and li2in% !ith the
$chiffs for three years#G H "he #ar%urgs .y Ron Cherno!, "# 11@I111
D1ecause the House of 'itsui, an ancient Ja"anese dynasty, had o"ened a Ham.ur% .ranch, family mem.ers "eriodically dro""ed in
on the 4ar.ur%s# -nce 1aron 'itsui came to dinner and, as he ram.led on a.out la.or relations in Ja"anese, 'a) mischie2ously
learned o2er and !his"ered to Charlotte that the .aron !anted to 0no! if 'a)=s son, :ric, !ould marry his dau%hter# -n another 2isit,
1aron 'itsui and his "artner, Ta0uma 6an, as0ed ho! the 4ar.ur%s 0e"t "eace in the family# They told 'a) and Carl 'elchior
a.out .attles inside the 'itsui clan and as0ed ho! to sto" them# 'a) re"lied that the 4ar.ur%s Buarreled as much as any family# He
and 'elchior su%%ested that 'itsui di2ide its o"erations into se"arate .an0in%, shi""in%, insurance, and e)"ort com"anies, each
su"er2ised .y a different family mem.er !ho then re"orted to a central firm# In this !ay, 'a) too0 credit for su%%estin% to the
Ja"anese the zai%atsu or con%lomerate structure that !ould dominate their economy# In %ratitude, 'itsui sent 'a) a !a) Ja"anese
%eneral in a cas0et#G H "he #ar%urgs .y Ron Cherno!, "# 111
DThe influence of these Je!ish .an0ers %re! in tandem !ith the "ros"erity of America# Just as 4all $treet too0 o2er from <ondon as
the !orld=s .an0er in the early t!entieth century, so American Je!s assumed res"onsi.ility from the Rothschilds and other :uro"ean
Je!s for sufferin% Je!s e2ery!here# The !atershed e2ent !as "ro.a.ly the Aishine2 "o%rom of A"ril 19@>, in !hich the czarist
%o2ernment cons"ired# This massacre H ruled .y .lind mo. fury H .y the Romanian .order near the 1lac0 $ea left fortyIfi2e Je!s
dead, more than fi2e hundred inMured, and t!o thousand families homeless# These num.ers terrified a Je!ish community !hose
senses !eren=t yet dulled .y the unuttera.le horror of the Holocaust# From a selfish stand"oint, American Je!s feared that the
massacre mi%ht stimulate an un!anted flood of destitute Russian Je!ish immi%rants to the Enited $tates, !ith an attendant .ac0lash#
Jaco. $chiff mo.ilized the American Je!ish Community and %ot 7resident Theodore Roose2elt to "rotest to Russia, !hich !as
$chiff=s im"laca.le foe# He unashamedly used his financial influence to th!art the czar at e2ery turn# As he .oasted to <ord
Rothschild in 19@J, DI "ride myself that all the efforts, !hich at 2arious times durin% the "ast four or fi2e years ha2e .een made .y
Russia to %ain the fa2or of the American mar0et for its loans, I ha2e .een a.le to .rin% to nau%ht#G At one "oint, $chiff "ressed Teddy
Roose2elt to conduct a Rou%h Rider assault, "atterned after the American in2asion of Cu.a, a%ainst Russia# In 19@L, another set of
deadly "o%roms left t!o thousand Russians Je!s dead, inMured, or homeless# This led Jaco. $chiff, Cyrus Adler, and others to create
the American Je!ish Committee a year later# It !as the first %rou" to coordinate the action of American Je!s and the first American
or%anization to su""ort Je!s !orld!ide# 6ra!n "redominantly from the 5ermanIJe!ish %randees, it reflected their stress u"on
assimilation and American "atriotism instead of !orld!ide Kionist loyalty or anythin% that mi%ht smac0 of radicalism or Ddual
loyalty#G Ine2ita.ly, they !ere accused .y "oor Je!s of .ein% latterIday DCourt Je!s,G !ho !ished to curry fa2or !ith the nonIJe!ish
!orld# $chiff and other Je!ish merchant "rinces felt alarmed .y Kionism .ecause it claimed a uni2ersal Je!ish loyalty !hile they
!ere strenuously assertin% their "rimary loyalty to America# They sa! no necessary incom"ati.ility in .ein% .oth "atriotic citizens
and "ious Je!sUThou%h not a Kionist, $chiff su""orted many "roMects in 7alestine, includin% the Je!ish A%ricultural :)"eriment
$tation and the He.re! Technical Institute in Haifa# He and Feli) 4ar.ur% !ould re%ard 7alestine as a s"iritual home for Judaism
rather than a future nationIstate, .ut !ould .e no less acti2e or in2ol2ed for all that# In 19@C, $chiff !arned in "he (ew 'or) "imes,
DIt is Buite e2ident that there is a serious .rea0 comin% .et!een those !ho !ish to force the formation of a distinct He.raic element in
the Enited $tates, as distinct from those of us !ho desire to .e American in attachment, thou%ht and actionUG Indeed, the .rea0
!ould .e dee", .itter, and "rotracted#G H "he #ar%urgs .y Ron Cherno!, "# 1@@I1@1
KI-NI$' 2ersus 1-<$H:8I$'& A $tru%%le for the $oul of the Je!ish 7eo"le
1y the Rt# Hon# 4inston $# Churchill N7rime 'inister of 5reat 1ritain durin% 4orld 4ar IIO
$LLC5R#5<6 C06#Y 3<R#L6, Lon&on, February A, 19;>.
$-': "eo"le li0e Je!s and some do not, .ut no thou%htful man can dou.t the fact that they are .eyond all Buestion the most
formida.le and the most remar0a.le race !hich has e2er a""eared in the !orld#
6israeli, the Je! 7rime 'inister of :n%land, and <eader of the Conser2ati2e 7arty, !ho !as al!ays true to his race and "roud of
his ori%in, said on a !ellI0no!n occasion& QThe <ord deals !ith the nations as the nations deal !ith the Je!s#Q Certainly !hen
!e loo0 at the misera.le state of Russia, !here of all countries in the !orld the Je!s !ere the most cruelly treated, and contrast
it !ith the fortunes of our o!n country, !hich seems to ha2e .een so "ro2identially "reser2ed amid the a!ful "erils of these
times, !e must admit that nothin% that has since ha""ened in the history of the !orld has falsified the truth of 6israeliFs
confident assertion#
5ood and 1ad Je!s
The conflict .et!een %ood and e2il !hich "roceeds unceasin%ly in the .reast of man no!here reaches such an intensity as in the
Je!ish race# The dual nature of man0ind is no!here more stron%ly or more terri.ly e)em"lified# 4e o!e to the Je!s in the
Christian re2elation a system of ethics !hich, e2en if it !ere entirely se"arated from the su"ernatural, !ould .e incom"ara.ly
the most "recious "ossession of man0ind, !orth in fact the fruits of all other !isdom and learnin% "ut to%ether# -n that system
and .y that faith there has .een .uilt out of the !rec0 of the Roman :m"ire the !hole of our e)istin% ci2ilization#
And it may !ell .e that this same astoundin% race may at the "resent time .e in the actual "rocess of "roducin% another system
of morals and "hiloso"hy, as male2olent as Christianity !as .ene2olent, !hich, if not arrested, !ould shatter irretrie2a.ly all
that Christianity has rendered "ossi.le# It !ould almost seem as if the %os"el of Christ and the %os"el of Antichrist !ere destined
to ori%inate amon% the same "eo"le, and that this mystic and mysterious race had .een chosen for the su"reme manifestations,
.oth of the di2ine and the dia.olical#
FNationalF Je!s
There can .e no %reater mista0e than to attri.ute to each indi2idual a reco%niza.le share in the Bualities !hich ma0e u" the
national character# There are all sorts of men II %ood, .ad and, for the most "art, indifferent II in e2ery country, and in e2ery
race# Nothin% is more !ron% than to deny to an indi2idual, on account of race or ori%in, his ri%ht to .e Mud%ed on his "ersonal
merits and conduct# In a "eo"le of "eculiar %enius li0e the Je!s, contrasts are more 2i2id, the e)tremes are more !idely
se"arated, the resultin% conseBuences are more decisi2e#
At the "resent fateful "eriod there are three main lines of "olitical conce"tion amon% the Je!s# t!o of !hich are hel"ful and
ho"eful in a 2ery hi%h de%ree to humanity, and the third a.solutely destructi2e#
First there are the Je!s !ho, d!ellin% in e2ery country throu%hout the !orld, identify themsel2es !ith that country, enter into its
national life and, !hile adherin% faithfully to their o!n reli%ion, re%ard themsel2es as citizens in the fullest sense of the $tate
!hich has recei2ed them# $uch a Je! li2in% in :n%land !ould say, QI am an :n%lish man "ractisin% the Je!ish faith#Q This is a
!orthy conce"tion, and useful in the hi%hest de%ree# 4e in 5reat 1ritain !ell 0no! that durin% the %reat stru%%le the influence
of !hat may .e called the QNational Je!sQ in many lands !as cast "re"onderatin%ly on the side of the Allies, and in our o!n
Army Je!ish soldiers ha2e "layed a most distin%uished "art, some risin% to the command of armies, others !innin% the 8ictoria
Cross for 2alour#
The National Russian Je!s, in s"ite of the disa.ilities under !hich they ha2e suffered, ha2e mana%ed to "lay an honora.le and
useful "art in the national life e2en of Russia# As .an0ers and industrialists they ha2e strenuously "romoted the de2elo"ment of
RussiaFs economic resources, and they !ere foremost in the creation of those remar0a.le or%anizations, the Russian CoI
o"erati2e $ocieties# In "olitics their su""ort has .een %i2en, for the most "art, to li.eral and "ro%ressi2e mo2ements, and they
ha2e .een amon% the staunchest u"holder of friendshi" !ith France and 5reat 1ritain#
International Je!s
In 2iolent o""osition to all this s"here of Je!ish effort rise the schemes of the International Je!s# The adherents of this sinister
confederacy are mostly men reared u" amon% the unha""y "o"ulations of countries !here Je!s are "ersecuted on account of
their race# 'ost, if not all, of them ha2e forsa0en the faith of their forefathers, and di2orced from their minds all s"iritual ho"es
of the ne)t !orld# This mo2ement amon% the Je!s is not ne!# From the days of $"artacusI4eishau"t to those of Aarl 'ar), and
do!n to Trots0y *Russia+, 1ela Aun *Hun%ary+, Rosa <u)em.our% *5ermany+, and :mma 5oldman *Enited $tates+, this !orldI
!ide cons"iracy for the o2erthro! of ci2ilization and for the reconstitution of society on the .asis of arrested de2elo"ment, of
en2ious male2olence, and im"ossi.le eBuality, has .een steadily %ro!in%# It "layed, as a modern !riter, 'rs# 4e.ster, has so
a.ly sho!n, a definitely reco%niza.le "art in the tra%edy of the French Re2olution# It has .een the mains"rin% of e2ery
su.2ersi2e mo2ement durin% the Nineteenth Century, and no! at last this .and of e)traordinary "ersonalities from the
under!orld of the %reat cities of :uro"e and America ha2e %ri""ed the Russian "eo"le .y the hair of their heads and ha2e
.ecome "ractically the undis"uted masters of that enormous em"ire#
Terrorist Je!s
5here is no nee& to e*aggerate the %art %laye& in the 4reation of !olshe"ism an& in the a4tual bringing about of the
Russian Re"olution, by these international an& for the most %art atheisti4al /e+s, it is 4ertainly a "ery great one1 it
%robably out+eighs all others. 'ith the notable e*4e%tion of Lenin, the maHority of the lea&ing figures are /e+s.
2oreo"er, the %rin4i%al ins%iration an& &ri"ing %o+er 4omes from the /e+ish lea&ers. 5hus 54hit4herin, a %ure Russian,
is e4li%se& by his nominal subor&inate Lit"inoff, an& the influen4e of Russians like !ukharin or Luna4harski 4annot be
4om%are& +ith the %o+er of 5rotsky, or of Lino"ieff, the 6i4tator of the Re& -ita&el 8Petrogra&9 or of Krassin or Ra&ek
(( all /e+s. $n the o"iet institutions the %re&ominan4e of /e+s is e"en more astonishing. #n& the %rominent, if not in&ee&
the %rin4i%al, %art in the system of terrorism a%%lie& by the <*traor&inary -ommissions for -ombating -ounter(
Re"olution has been taken by /e+s, an& in some notable 4ases by /e+esses. 5he same e"il %rominen4e +as obtaine& by
/e+s in the brief %erio& of terror &uring +hi4h !ela Kun rule& in 3ungary. 5he same %henomenon has been %resente& in
Germany 8es%e4ially in !a"aria9, so far as this ma&ness has been allo+e& to %rey u%on the tem%orary %rostration of the
German %eo%le. #lthough in all these 4ountries there are many non(/e+s e"ery +hit as ba& as the +orst of the /e+ish
re"olutionaries, the %art %laye& by the latter in %ro%ortion to their numbers in the %o%ulation is astonishing.
F7rotector of the Je!sF
Needless to say, the most intense "assions of re2en%e ha2e .een e)cited in the .reasts of the Russian "eo"le# 4here2er 5eneral
6eni0inFs authority could reach, "rotection !as al!ays accorded to the Je!ish "o"ulation, and strenuous efforts !ere made .y
his officers to "re2ent re"risals and to "unish those %uilty of them# $o much !as this the case that the 7etlurist "ro"a%anda
a%ainst 5eneral 6eni0in denounced him as the 7rotector of the Je!s# The 'isses Healy, nieces of 'r# Tim Healy, in relatin%
their "ersonal e)"eriences in Aieff, ha2e declared that to their 0no!led%e on more than one occasion officers !ho committed
offenses a%ainst Je!s !ere reduced to the ran0s and sent out of the city to the front# 1ut the hordes of .ri%ands .y !hom the
!hole# 2ast e)"anse of the Russian :m"ire is .ecomin% infested do not hesitate to %ratify their lust for .lood and for re2en%e at
the e)"ense of the innocent Je!ish "o"ulation !hene2er an o""ortunity occurs# The .ri%and 'a0hno, the hordes of 7etlura and
of 5re%orieff, !ho si%nalized their e2ery success .y the most .rutal massacres, e2ery!here found amon% the halfIstu"efied,
halfIinfuriated "o"ulation an ea%er res"onse to antiI$emitism in its !orst and foulest forms#
The fact that in many cases Je!ish interests and Je!ish "laces of !orshi" are e)ce"ted .y the 1olshe2i0s from their uni2ersal
hostility has tended more and more to associate the Je!ish race in Russia !ith the 2illainies, !hich are no! .ein% "er"etrated#
This is an inMustice on millions of hel"less "eo"le, most of !hom are themsel2es sufferers from the re2olutionary re%ime# It
.ecomes, therefore, s"ecially im"ortant to foster and de2elo" any stron%lyImar0ed Je!ish mo2ement !hich leads directly a!ay
from these fatal associations# And it is here that Kionism has such a dee" si%nificance for the !hole !orld at the "resent time#
A Home for the Je!s
Kionism offers the third s"here to the "olitical conce"tions of the Je!ish race# In 2iolent contrast to international communism, it
"resents to the Je! a national idea of a commandin% character# it has fallen to the 1ritish 5o2ernment, as the result of the
conBuest of 7alestine, to ha2e the o""ortunity and the res"onsi.ility of securin% for the Je!ish race all o2er the !orld a home
and centre of national life# The statesmanshi" and historic sense of 'r# 1alfour !ere "rom"t to seize this o""ortunity#
6eclarations ha2e no! .een made !hich ha2e irre2oca.ly decided the "olicy of 5reat 1ritain# The fiery ener%ies of 6r#
4eissmann, the leader, for "ractical "ur"oses, of the Kionist "roMect# .ac0ed .y many of the most "rominent 1ritish Je!s, and
su""orted .y the full authority of <ord Allen.y, are all directed to achie2in% the success of this ins"irin% mo2ement#
-f course, 7alestine is far too small to accommodate more than a fraction of the Je!ish race, nor do the maMority of national
Je!s !ish to %o there# 1ut if, as may !ell ha""en, there should .e created in our o!n lifetime .y the .an0s of the Jordan a
Je!ish $tate under the "rotection of the 1ritish Cro!n, !hich mi%ht com"rise three or four millions of Je!s, an e2ent !ould
ha2e occurred in the history of the !orld !hich !ould, from e2ery "oint of 2ie!, .e .eneficial, and !ould .e es"ecially in
harmony !ith the truest interests of the 1ritish :m"ire#
Kionism has already .ecome a factor in the "olitical con2ulsions of Russia, as a "o!erful com"etin% influence in 1olshe2i0
circles !ith the international communistic system# Nothin% could .e more si%nificant than the fury !ith !hich Trots0y has
attac0ed the Kionists %enerally, and 6r# 4eissmann in "articular# The cruel "enetration of his mind lea2es him in no dou.t that
his schemes of a !orldI!ide communistic $tate under Je!ish domination are directly th!arted and hindered .y this ne! ideal,
!hich directs the ener%ies and the ho"es of Je!s in e2ery land to!ards a sim"ler, a truer, and a far more attaina.le %oal# The
stru%%le !hich is no! .e%innin% .et!een the Kionist and 1olshe2i0 Je!s is little less than a stru%%le for the soul of the Je!ish
"eo"le#
6uty of <oyal Je!s
It is "articularly im"ortant in these circumstances that the national Je!s in e2ery country !ho are loyal to the land of their
ado"tion should come for!ard on e2ery occasion, as many of them in :n%land ha2e already done, and ta0e a "rominent "art in
e2ery measure for com.atin% the 1olshe2i0 cons"iracy# In this !ay they !ill .e a.le to 2indicate the honor of the Je!ish name
and ma0e it clear to all the !orld that the 1olshe2i0 mo2ement is not a Je!ish mo2ement, .ut is re"udiated 2ehemently .y the
%reat mass of the Je!ish race#
1ut a ne%ati2e resistance to 1olshe2ism in any field is not enou%h# 7ositi2e and "ractica.le alternati2es are needed in the moral
as !ell as in the social s"here, and in .uildin% u" !ith the utmost "ossi.le ra"idity a Je!ish national centre in 7alestine !hich
may .ecome not only a refu%e to the o""ressed from the unha""y lands of Central :uro"e, .ut !hich !ill also .e a sym.ol of
Je!ish unity and the tem"le of Je!ish %lory, a tas0 is "resented on !hich many .lessin%s rest#
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#f""#co#u0;.oo0cha"ters;4$C;4$C!rote19?@#html
# 4o%y of the $LLC5R#5<6 C06#Y 3<R#L6, Lon&on, February A, 19;>.
DThe a""arent disa""earance of the 7olish "ro.lem !as not to .e "ermanent# It created also for Russia a ne! internal difficulty, the
Je!ish "ro.lem, for Catherine had %uaranteed their e)istin% ri%hts to all the inha.itants in the anne)ed territories# Amon% them !ere
"erha"s a million Je!s# In 'usco2ite Russia, Je!s had not .een tolerated, occasional Je!ish "hysicians had ris0ed their li2es in the
ser2ice of the rulers, and Je!ish merchants had .een "ermitted to ma0e .rief 2isits, .ut "ermanent residence of Je!s in the Russian
realm !as strictly for.idden# 8i%orous efforts had .een made to root out the fe! thousands of Je!s !ho had .ecome Russian su.Mects
.y 2irtue of the anne)ation of $molens0 and "art of <ittle Russia in 1CC7# :2en Catherine the 5reat, in her most Dli.eralG "hase,
a!are that Dit !as only ei%ht days since Catherine had come to the throneG and that Dshe had to deal !ith a "ious "eo"le,G had not
dared to act contrary to the sentiment e)"ressed .y :m"ress :liza.eth H DFrom the enemies of Christ I desire neither %ain nor "rofit#G
6es"ite the ad2ice of the $enate that Russia=s economy !ould .enefit from the admission of Je!s, CatherineFs edict of 6ecem.er J,
17C?, "ermittin% forei%ners to settle in Russia, s"ecifically e)cluded Je!s# The :m"ress consoled herself in her *emoirs .y addin%&
DThus often it is not sufficient to .e enli%htened, to ha2e the .est intentions and the "o!er to .rin% them into e)ecution# 1ut ho! often
rash Mud%ments are e)"ressed a.out !ise decisions#G (uite o""osite had .een the "olicy of 7oland and, conseBuently, of <ithuania
also# 4hen "ersecution dro2e the Je!s from the 5ermanies, they !ere !elcomed .y 0in%s and no.les !ho, !ith no nati2e .our%eoisie,
%ladly em"loyed them as efficient .usiness a%ents# 5he /e+s ha& not been integrate& into Polish so4iety but, as in other 'estern
lan&s in an earlier age, ha& been gi"en a s%e4ial status un&er royal %rote4tion. 5hey +ere not subHe4t to the or&inary Hu&i4ial
an& a&ministrati"e authorities1 in ea4h maHor to+n they +ere authoriDe& to ele4t their o+n offi4ials1 their kahal 84ommunity9
+as gi"en +i&e Huris&i4tion o"er religious an& e4onomi4 matters, go"erne& by the la+ of 2oses. In cases of dis"ute .et!een a
Je! and a Christian, the case !as tried .efore a s"ecial Christian officer, the DJe!ish Mud%e,G a""ointed .y the 0in% or his
re"resentati2es from nominees of the Je!ish elders# The )ahal or%anization !as dominated .y the ra..inate and .y the small minority
of !ealthy Je!s !ho farmed the ta)es and "erformed other fiscal ser2ices for the cro!n and the landed ma%nates *pani+# 5hus,
Polish(Lithuanian /e+ry ha& li"e& among, but &istin4t from, the general %o%ulation. 5hey +ere set a%art, not only by their
religion an& by the s%e4ial Hu&i4ial an& fis4al regime, but by language, &ress, an& 4ultural tra&itions. 5hey s%oke the &iale4ti4
German they ha& brought from their o+n homes, +hi4h be4ame the basis of Yi&&ish. 5hey +ere generally restri4te& to s%e4ial
streets 8ghettos9, an& the -hur4h insiste& on their +earing a s%e4ial 4ostume1 they themsel"es, in their religious ortho&o*y,
4hose to +ear &istin4ti"e bear&s an& earlo4ks. 5hey ha& also their o+n s4hools, the elementary he&er an& the more a&"an4e&
a4a&emy, the yeshi"a1 these s4hools, +hi4h +ere for boys only, 4on4entrate& stri4tly on !ibli4al an& 5almu&i4 stu&ies. $ecular
learnin% !as rare, e2en the reno!ned $olomon <uria (c. 1L1@I7>+ had condemned as useless to Je!s the teachin%s of Dthe
uncircumcised Aristotle#G The Je!ish "hysicians of the 7olish 0in%s !ere therefore dra!n mainly from the refu%ee $e"hardic Je!s of
$"ain and Italy, the local Ash0enazi Je!s li2ed in a closed !orld of tradition, in !hich "hiloso"hy !as condemned as Dthe harlot#G
$till more im"ortantly, "erha"s, the Je!s "erformed s"ecial economic roles# Althou%h they constituted a.out oneIei%hth of the total
"o"ulation of the country, a 7olish census in the late ei%hteenth century found only fourteen Je!ish families en%a%ed in a%riculture# -n
the other hand, they controlled threeIfourths of the e)"ort trade# No!here a maMority, they formed a %ood third of the "o"ulation of the
to!ns, lar%e and small# A %reat many of them !ere artisans, .ut it has .een estimated that a.out oneIhalf of them li2ed, in !hole or in
"art, .y leasin% from the landlords the ri%ht to sell liBuor# 'ost of the 2illa%e ta2ern0ee"ers !ere themsel2es des"erately "oor, .ut they
!ere !idely re%arded as e)"loiters of the "easantry, in conMunction !ith the sale of s"irits, they 2ended other %oods, .ou%ht u"
a%ricultural "roduce, and leased meado!s, !oodlots, and fish"onds *hence the term arendar$ from the <atin !ord for Drent,G !hich
.ecame almost a synonym for the rural Je!+# The "easantry had al!ays reacted hostilely, !hen o""ortunity offered, to this alien
element in their midst# 4ith the %radual %ro!th of a %entile .our%eoisie, li2in% under the D'a%de.ur% <a!G .ut feelin% the
com"etition of the Je!s, .itterness increased, as in earlier centuries it had in the 4est# The 7olish masses !ere "rone to %i2e credence
to !ild stories of ritual murders# The .est efforts of the 0in%s and no.les !ere not al!ays a.le to 0ee" antiI$emitism in chec0, the city
ma%istracies freBuently failed to %i2e the necessary "rotection a%ainst mo. 2iolence# 7articularly in the 7olish u)raine$ the Je!s
suffered fri%htfully, alon% !ith the 7olish no.ility and their retainers, at the hands of re.ellious cossac0s and "easant haidama)s *a
term deri2ed from a Tur0ish !ord for D.anditsG+# -ne of the most nota.le instances !as the massacre of Eman, near Aie2 *17C?+, in
!hich some t!enty thousand 7oles and Je!s, !ho had fled thither from the surroundin% area, !ere slau%htered in a 2ast "o%rom#
7recarious as !as the "osition of the Je!s in the Rzecz 7os"olita, it !as a %olden a%e com"ared to !hat !as in store for them !hen
suddenly "lun%ed into DHoly Russia#G Catherine=s "romise at the time of the First 7artition to "reser2e Dthe free e)ercise of reli%ion
and the in2iola.ility of "ro"erty for one and allG !as initially im"lemented .y confirmation of the )ahal structure in 4hite Russia
*177C+# In 17>, ho!e2er, an edict de"ri2ed the )ahals of all .ut their s"iritual Murisdiction and fiscal res"onsi.ilities, thenceforth the
Je!s of 4hite Russia !ere to .e su.Mect to the Murisdiction of the to!n ma%istracies, in the election of !hich they !ere su""osed to
share on an eBual .asis !ith Christian merchants and .ur%hers# In 17C, they !ere %uaranteed "ro"ortionate re"resentation on the .asis
of the ne! Charter to the To!ns of 17L# The effort of Je!ish merchants to e)tend their acti2ities from 4hite Russia to $molens0 and
'osco! e2o0ed loud "rotest, as a result, a decree of 1791 initiated formally the "olicy of the 7ale of $ettlement, Je!s mi%ht reside
only in the ne!ly anne)ed "ro2inces or in Ne! Russia, the s"arsely settled "ro2inces that had recently .een ta0en from Tur0ey#
Follo!in% the $econd 7artition of 7oland, the area of the 7ale !as e)tended to include, not only Russia=s ne! acBuisitions, .ut the
!hole of <ittle Russia, includin% e2en Aie2 *179J+# At the same time, Je!s throu%hout the 7ale !ere reBuired to enroll in the merchant
or .ur%her classes, on "enalty of total e)"ulsion, and to "ay dou.le the rate of normal ta)ation# It !as small consolation that .y the end
of CatherineFs rei%n official documents !ere usin% the term 'evrei *He.re!s+ instead of the ori%inal "eMorati2e +hid#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# ?L1I?L>
American Am.assador 6a2id Ro!land Francis= -"inion Re%ardin%
American Je!s and Russian Je!s& In His -!n 4ords
6a2id Ro!land Francis
E#$# Am.assador to Russia *'ay L, 191CINo2em.er 7, 191+
DThe mission u"on !hich I ha2e started is a 2ery difficult one and !ill reBuire the most delicate !or0# 5he /e+s shoul& not
e*%e4t us to regulate the internal affairs of Russia, as +e +oul& not %ermit any 4ountry to interfere +ith the ena4tment of
our la+s or a&ministration thereof. If our ne! treaty !ith Russia should "ro2ide that all citizens of the Enited $tates should .e
in eBual ri%hts !ith the citizens of the most fa2ored nation !ith !hich Russia has relations and should contain a reci"rocal
clause a""lyin% to the ri%hts of Russians in the Enited $tates, our Je!ish friends should certainly .e satisfied# /ou are a!are
that Russia has a.out ?@,@@@,@@@ Chinese su.Mects !hom the Enited $tates e)cludes from residence or citizenshi"#G
H E#$# Am.assador to RussiaIdesi%nate 6a2id Ro!land Francis, in his letter to Charles $# Hamlin, 5o2ernor Nlater ChairmanO of
the Federal Reser2e 1oard, A"ril ?@, 191C
*$ource& Dollars and Diplomacy/ ,m%assador David .owland 0rancis and the 0all of "sarism$ 1213&14, :dited .y Jamie H#
Coc0field, "# 1J+
DThe tas0 Nof .ein% am.assador to RussiaO is a difficult one, and the difficulties are numerous and im"osin%# 5he /e+s of the
Cnite& tates e*%e4t that 4ountry to regulate the la+s of Russia +hile, at the same time, they +oul& resent any attem%te&
interferen4e on the %art of that 4ountry or any other to influen4e in the slightest &egree our internal affairs. As I !rote
$ecretary <ansin% yesterday, !hich is my second letter to him since clearin% from Ne! /or0, the Je!s should .e satisfied !ith
the commercial treaty !hich !ill affect all classes in our country in the same manner that it !ould li0e classes in other countries
or in the most fa2ored nationUIf the treaty should contain an o.li%ation that !ould .ind Russia and also .ind the Enited $tates
each to %rant to citizens of the other hi%h contractin% "arty the same "ri2ile%es of 2isit and residence that it %rants to the most
fa2ored nations !ith !hich it has relations, that is all they could reasona.ly as0 or e)"ect#G
H E#$# Am.assador to RussiaIdesi%nate 6a2id Ro!land Francis, in his letter to $ecretary of the Treasury 4illiam 5# 'cAdoo
on A"ril ?1, 191C
*$ource& Dollars and Diplomacy/ ,m%assador David .owland 0rancis and the 0all of "sarism$ 1213&14, :dited .y Jamie H#
Coc0field, "# 1J+
DI shall assume my di"lomatic duties immediately after arri2al at the Russian ca"ital, and from !hat I ha2e heard I shall find
more than enou%h to occu"y my time and thou%ht# Ha2in% ne2er .een to Russia, I claim no acBuaintance !ith the character of
her "eo"le, I am told that they are 2ery courteous, 2ery a""roacha.le, 0indIhearted, and confidin%# 2y first +ork +ill be
negotiating a 4ommer4ial treaty, as the one +e ha& +ith Russia, ma&e in 1A=;, +as abrogate& in 191; by Presi&ent 5aft
be4ause Russia +oul& not obser"e %ass%orts gi"en to #meri4an 4itiDens if they +ere /e+s. I !ill not here enter u"on a
discussion of this Je!ish Buestion, to !hich I ha2e .een %i2in% considera.le attention of late, than to say that it has t!o sides#
5he /e+s of #meri4a are "ery unreasonable if they &eman&, as they a%%ear to be &oing, that +e regulate the &omesti4
affairs of Russia. If Russia should "resume to tell us ho! to handle the Ne%ro "ro.lem, !e !ould 2ery "ro.a.ly resent it, in
fact, !e !ould .roo0 no interference !ith our la!s e)cludin% the Chinese, althou%h Russia has ?@,@@@,@@@ Chinese su.Mects#
Russia is today the most interestin% country on earth .ecause of her immense area, her enormous "o"ulation a""ro)imatin%
?@@,@@@,@@@, and her 2aried and immeasura.le resources# If Je!ish o""osition should "re2ent the a""ro2in% of any commercial
treaty I may ne%otiate, the result !ill .e a 2ery stron% antiI$emitic feelin% throu%hout the Enited $tates# No! is the time for us
to esta.lish close commercial relations !ith Russia#G
H E#$# Am.assador to RussiaIdesi%nate 6a2id Ro!land Francis, in his letter to 'r# J# Charles Ca.anna, $t# <ouis 6airy Co# in
$t# <ouis, 'issouri, A"ril ?L, 191C
*$ource& Dollars and Diplomacy/ ,m%assador David .owland 0rancis and the 0all of "sarism$ 1213&14, :dited .y Jamie H#
Coc0field, "# 1L+
D$ ha"e only time to +rite you that if the /e+s of the Cnite& tates, +ho number har&ly ;M of the %o%ulation, insist u%on
interfering +ith the establishment of &ire4t 4ommer4ial relations bet+een Russia an& the Cnite& tates at this Hun4ture,
they +ill not only antagoniDe the 4ommer4ial interests at our 4ountry, but +ill en4ourage an anti(emiti4 sentiment
throughout the Cnite& tates +hi4h +ill result to the great &etriment of the /e+s of our 4ountry. 7lease say to $enator
NCharles $"aldin%O Thomas that in my Mud%ment no commercial treaty can .e ne%otiated !ith Russia !hich !ill s"ecify
"articularly that American "ass"orts %i2en to Je!s shall .e honored# If !e can secure a "ro2ision in the treaty that !ill
%uarantee to citizens of the Enited $tates the same ri%hts and "ri2ile%es of 2isit and residence in Russia that are %ranted to the
citizens of the most fa2ored nation !ith !hich Russia has any relations, the Je!s of our country should .e satisfied there!ith# -f
course, such a treaty !ill sti"ulate that the Enited $tates !ill e)tend to citizens of Russia only such ri%hts and "ri2ile%es of 2isit
and citizenshi" as are e)tended to the citizens of the most fa2ored nation !ith !hich the Enited $tates has any relations, as our
la!s !ill not "ermit the Enited $tates to %rant to citizens of Russia the una.rid%ed ri%ht of 2isit and residence# Russia, as you
0no!, has ?@,@@@,@@@ 'on%olian su.Mects !hom the la!s of the Enited $tates !ill not %rant the ri%ht of citizenshi"# I shall .e
"leased to hear from you, and also from $enator Thomas on this su.Mect#G
H E#$# Am.assador to RussiaIdesi%nate 6a2id Ro!land Francis, in his letter to Hon# 4illiam 'al.urn, Treasury 6e"artment,
A"ril ?L, 191C
*$ource& Dollars and Diplomacy/ ,m%assador David .owland 0rancis and the 0all of "sarism$ 1213&14, :dited .y Jamie H#
Coc0field, "# 1LI1C+
DAs I ha2e !ritten heretofore to either you or $ecretary <ansin%, there is no &oubt that if the /e+s +ere gi"en absolutely
eNual rights of resi&en4e, %rofession, et4., in Russia an& the right to o+n lan&, they +oul& be4ome %ossessors of the entire
<m%ire +ithin a 4om%arati"ely short time. Nor do I thin0 that this fear is !holly !ithout foundation# The "easant !ould stand
no sho! !hate2er !ith the desi%nin%, usurious, and "itiless Je!# I ha2e no "reMudice a%ainst the Je!s as a class nor as a race, in
fact many of them, li0e -scar $traus, I admire, and some of my "ersonal friends are Je!s NPO In Russia, ho!e2er, it seems that
!hile all of the Je!s are not s"ies, a decided maMority of the s"ies are Je!s# In 7etro%rad no! a 2ery rich Je! is in "rison,
ha2in% .een arrested se2eral !ee0s a%o# His name is Reu.enstein, and he !as the "resident of a .an0# There are a num.er of
char%es a%ainst him, his !ife and his mistress !ere also im"risoned# It is said that he .ou%ht u" all the su%ar Nfor s"eculationO,
and if so, I thin0 he should .e im"risoned for life# It is a daily occurrence to see hundreds of "eo"le standin% in line hours or
more to .uy su%ar, and then they can %et only one "ound each# <"ery money(making s4heme of a re%rehensible 4hara4ter is
tra4e& to a /e+. These "eo"le Nthe RussiansO are 2ery reli%ious, at least in form, and the Je!s ma0e fun of their reli%ion# These
and many other causes conduce to ma0e Je!s un"o"ular in Russia#G
H E#$# Am.assador to Russia 6a2id Ro!land Francis, in his letter to $tate 6e"artment Counselor Fran0 <# 7ol0, Au%ust >@,
191C
*$ource& Dollars and Diplomacy/ ,m%assador David .owland 0rancis and the 0all of "sarism$ 1213&14, :dited .y Jamie H#
Coc0field, "# L@+
DI ha2e not .een a.le to ne%otiate a commercial treaty, nor do the "ros"ects thereof a""ear 2ery "romisin% as all three of the
"olitical "arties in the Enited $tates ha2e declared a%ainst commercial treaties !ith any country not %rantin% to its su.Mects the
ri%ht of e)"atriation# Furthermore, the "reMudice in Russia a%ainst the Je!s is %ro!in%, in fact, it is much stron%er today than it
!as si) months a%o, so I hear e2en from those !ho are friendly to the Je!s# If you !ere in Russia, you could understand it
.etter# The army is 2ery .itter a%ainst the Je!s .ecause they claim the Je!s are the first to run in a .attle and that if the Je!s are
not all s"ies, at least 9LV of the s"ies are Je!s# $u%ar is a 2ery scarce commodity in 7etro%rad and throu%hout Russia, and the
Je!s are said to .e res"onsi.le therefore .ecause some of the shre!der ones ha2e .ou%ht u" the su""ly# 7f 4ourse this is not
for %ubli4ation nor e"en for re%etition in #meri4a, +here it seems all three of the %oliti4al %arties are angling for the
/e+ish "ote an& +here the /e+s are "ery %otential [sic] in finan4ial 4ir4les as +ell as in the ne+s%a%er +orl&. $f the
business interests of #meri4a begin to realiDe that their 4ommer4e +ith this great 4ountry is interfere& +ith be4ause of
/e+ish influen4e in #meri4a, there +ill gro+ u% in our 4ountry an anti(emiti4 feeling +hi4h +ill be "ery unfortunate for
the /e+s.G
H E#$# Am.assador to Russia 6a2id Ro!land Francis, in his letter to 'r# 4#A# 1i).y, 7resident of the <aclede 5as Com"any in
$t# <ouis, 'issouri, $e"tem.er J, 191C
*$ource& Dollars and Diplomacy/ ,m%assador David .owland 0rancis and the 0all of "sarism$ 1213&14, :dited .y Jamie H#
Coc0field, "# L1+
American Je!ish "olitician E#$# $enator Jaco. Ja2its 2isits 'osco!, $o2iet Enion in an undated "hoto# Jaco. Ja2its !as a
mem.er of the Council on Forei%n Relations, a "ri2ate forei%n affairs or%anization in Ne! /or0 City#
*7hoto& Time <ife;htt"&;;forum#.ody.uildin%#com;sho!thread#"h"3tW1J>9CJ>@19"a%eW1@+
American Je!ish "olitician E#$# $enator Jaco. Ja2its 2isits 'osco!, $o2iet Enion in an undated "hoto# Jaco. Ja2its !as a
mem.er of the Council on Forei%n Relations, a "ri2ate forei%n affairs or%anization in Ne! /or0 City#
*7hoto& Time <ife;htt"&;;forum#.ody.uildin%#com;sho!thread#"h"3tW1J>9CJ>@19"a%eW9+
From /&ssia With Lo#eC
So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# (center) an" his interpreter n"rei 5a#ilo# (0
n"
right) a"mire $ollywoo" actress an" ?se< sym!ol@ %ill St.
%ohn (0
n"
left) at a pool party hel" at the home of U.S. Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on (right) in San Clemente. California on %&ne 0+. ()61. %ill St.
%ohn coAstarre" with Sean Connery in the %ames Bon" mo#ie Diamonds Are Forever. (Wally 8c-ameeBCH/B>S)
D-orru%t the young, get them a+ay from religion. Get them intereste& in se*. 2ake them su%erfi4ial, &estroy their
rugge&ness. 5et control of all means of "u.licity and there.y& Get the %eo%les) min& off their go"ernment by fo4using their
attention on athleti4s, se*y books an& %lays, an& other tri"ialities. 6i"i&e the %eo%le into hostile grou%s by 4onstantly
har%ing on 4ontro"ersial matters of no im%ortan4e. 6estroy the %eo%leOs faith in their natural lea&ers by hol&ing u% the
latter to ri&i4ule, 4ontem%t an& obloNuy. Al!ays "reach true democracy .ut seize "o!er as fast and as ruthlessly as "ossi.le#
:ncoura%e %o2ernment e)tra2a%ance, destroy its credit, "roduce fear !ith risin% "rices, inflation and %eneral discontent# Foment
unnecessary stri0es in 2ital industries, encoura%e ci2il disorders and foster a soft and lenient attitude on the "art of %o2ernment
to!ards such disorders# !y s%e4ious argument 4ause the break&o+n of the ol& moral "irtues: honesty, sobriety, 4ontinen4e,
faith in the %le&ge& +or&, rugge&ness. -ause the registration of all firearms on some %rete*t, +ith the "ie+ of
4onfis4ating them an& lea"ing the %o%ulation &efenseless.G H 8ladimir <enin, 19?1
/e" rmy comman"er Leon =rotsky (right of po"i&m) watches the crow" as 5la"imir Lenin "eli#ers a speech at S#er"lo#
SM&are in 8oscow. So#iet /&ssia on 8ay +. ()0D.
Karl ar!"s Ten #lanks
(. !olition of property in lan" an" application of all rents of lan" to p&!lic p&rposes.
0. hea#y progressi#e or gra"&ate" income ta<.
1. !olition of all rights of inheritance.
*. Confiscation of the property of all emigrants an" re!els.
+. Centrali;ation of cre"it in the !anks of the state. !y means of a national !ank with state capital an" an e<cl&si#e monopoly.
3. Centrali;ation of the means of comm&nication an" transport in the han"s of the state.
6. J<tension of factories an" instr&ments of pro"&ction owne" !y the stateE the !ringing into c&lti#ation of waste lan"s. an" the
impro#ement of the soil generally in accor"ance with a common plan.
2. JM&al o!ligation of all to work. Jsta!lishment of in"&strial armies. especially for agric&lt&re.
). Com!ination of agric&lt&re with man&fact&ring in"&striesE gra"&al a!olition of all the "istinction !etween town an" co&ntry !y a
more eM&a!le "istri!&tion of the pop&lace o#er the co&ntry.
(D. Free e"&cation 7in"octrination9 for all chil"ren in p&!lic schools. !olition of chil"renNs factory la!or in its present form.
Com!ination of e"&cation with in"&strial pro"&ction. etc.

Manifesto of the Communist Party (4erman: Manifest der Kommunistischen Partei). also known as The Communist Manifesto. was p&!lishe"
on -e3r/ar+ 41, 1565. Das Kapital was written !y Garl 8ar< an" e"ite" !y Frie"rich JngelsE Das Kapital was p&!lishe" in (236.

Garl 8ar< (left. !orn 8ay +. (2(2E "ie" 8arch (*. (221) an" Frie"rich Jngels (right. !orn -o#em!er 02. (20DE "ie" &g&st +. (2)+) were the
coAa&thor of The Communist Manifesto. Garl 8ar<Ns greatAgran"father was Salomon Fa#i" BarentACohen. an" Garl 8ar<Ns greatAgreat
gran"father was Barent Cohen. British %ewish !anker -athan 8eyer /othschil"Ns wife was $annah BarentACohen. the "a&ghter of Le#i
BarentACohen an" gran""a&ghter of Barent Cohen.
=he a!orte" 4erman /e#ol&tion in Berlin. Pr&ssia 74ermany9 on %arch 19, 1565. >n the painting one can recogni;e in the mi""le an" on the
!ottom e"ge the flag of the monarchist /e#ol&tionaries. =hey wante" a &nifie" 4ermany with a monarch at its hea". Hn the right si"e one can
see two flags of the rep&!lican /e#ol&tionaries. =hey wante" a /ep&!lic !ase" on the French e<ample an" therefore constr&cte" their flag
with #ertical stripes. in the style of the French =ricolor. =he or"er of the three colors on the first 4erman =ricolors #arie". #le)ens 0en7el
on %etternich resigned as -oreign %inister of A/stria on %arch 18, 1565 after angry resi"ents of 5ienna "eman"e" his resignation.
painting of a street !attle at So&fflot !arrica"es at /&e So&fflot Street in Paris. France on 2/ne 46, 1565.
DThe international $ocialist mo2ement !as .oth a "roduct of the nineteenth century and a re2ulsion a%ainst it# It !as rooted in some of
the characteristics of the century, such as its industrialism, its o"timism, its .elief in "ro%ress, its humanitarianism, its scientific
materialism, and its democracy, .ut it !as in re2olt a%ainst its laissez faire, its middleclass domination, its nationalism, its ur.an slums,
and its em"hasis on the "riceI"rofit system as the dominant factor in all human 2alues# This does not mean that all $ocialists had the
same .eliefs or that these .eliefs did not chan%e !ith the "assin% years# -n the contrary, there !ere almost as many different 0inds of
$ocialism as there !ere $ocialists, and the .eliefs cate%orized under this term chan%ed from year to year and from country to country#
Industrialism, es"ecially in its early years, .rou%ht !ith it social and economic conditions !hich !ere admittedly horri.le# Human
.ein%s !ere .rou%ht to%ether around factories to form %reat ne! cities !hich !ere sordid and unsanitary# In many cases, these "ersons
!ere reduced to conditions of animality !hich shoc0 the ima%ination# Cro!ded to%ether in !ant and disease, !ith no leisure and no
security, com"letely de"endent on a !ee0ly !a%e !hich !as less than a "ittance, they !or0ed t!el2e to fifteen hours a day for si)
days in the !ee0 amon% dusty and dan%erous machines !ith no "rotection a%ainst ine2ita.le accidents, disease, or old a%e, and
returned at ni%ht to cro!ded rooms !ithout adeBuate food and lac0in% li%ht, fresh air, heat, "ure !ater, or sanitation# These conditions
ha2e .een descri.ed for us in the !ritin%s of no2elists such as 6ic0ens in :n%land, Hu%o or Kola in France, in the re"orts of
"arliamentary committees such as the $adler Committee of 1>? or <ord Ashley=s Committee in 1J?, and in numerous "ri2ate studies
li0e In 6ar0est :n%land .y 5eneral 4illiam 1ooth of the $al2ation Army# Just at the end of the century, "ri2ate scientific studies of
these conditions .e%an to a""ear in :n%land, led .y Charles 1ooth=s !ife and !a%our of the People in !ondon or 1# $ee.ohm
Ro!ntree=s Poverty$ a Study of "own !ife# The $ocialist mo2ement !as a reaction a%ainst these de"lora.le conditions of the !or0in%
masses# It has .een customary to di2ide this mo2ement into t!o "arts at the year 1J, the earlier "art .ein% called Qthe "eriod of the
Eto"ian $ocialistsQ !hile the later "art has .een called Qthe "eriod of scientific $ocialism#Q The di2idin% line .et!een the t!o "arts is
mar0ed .y the "u.lication in 1J of The Communist 'anifesto of Aarl 'ar) and Friedrich :n%els# This !or0, !hich .e%an !ith the
ominous sentence, QA s"ectre is hauntin% :uro"eSthe s"ectre of Communism,Q and ended !ith the trum"et .last, Q4or0ers of the
!orld, unitePQ is %enerally re%arded as the seed from !hich de2elo"ed, in the t!entieth century, Russian 1olshe2ism and $talinism#
$uch a 2ie! is undou.tedly an o2ersim"lification, for the de2elo"ment of $ocialist ideolo%y is full of t!ists and turns and mi%ht !ell
ha2e %ro!n alon% Buite different "aths if the history of the mo2ement itself had .een different# The history of the $ocialist mo2ement
may .e di2ided into three "eriods associated !ith the three $ocialist Internationals# The First International lasted from 1CJ to 17C
and !as as much anarchistic as $ocialistic# It ! as finally disru"ted .y the contro2ersies of these t!o %rou"s# The $econd International
!as the $ocialist International, founded in 19# This .ecame increasin%ly conser2ati2e and !as disru"ted .y the Communists durin%
4orld 4ar I# The Third, or Communist, International !as or%anized in 1919 .y dissident elements from the $econd International# As a
result of the contro2ersies of these three mo2ements, the !hole antica"italist ideolo%y, !hich .e%an as a confused re2olt a%ainst the
economic and social conditions of industrialism in 1J, .ecame sorted out into four chief schools# These schools .ecame increasin%ly
doctrinaire and increasin%ly .itter in their relationshi"s# 5he basi4 &i"ision +ithin the o4ialist mo"ement after 1A@A +as bet+een
those +ho +ishe& to abolish or re&u4e the fun4tions of the state an& those +ho +ishe& to in4rease these fun4tions by gi"ing
e4onomi4 a4ti"ities to the state. 5he former &i"ision 4ame in time to in4lu&e the anar4hists an& the syn&i4alists, +hile the latter
&i"ision 4ame to in4lu&e the o4ialists an& the -ommunists. In %eneral the former di2ision .elie2ed that man !as innately %ood and
that all coerci2e "o!er !as .ad, !ith "u.lic authority the !orst form of such coerci2e "o!er# All of the !orldFs e2il, accordin% to the
anarchists, arose .ecause manFs innate %oodness !as corru"ted and distorted .y coerci2e "o!er# The remedy, they felt, !as to destroy
the state# This !ould lead to the disa""earance of all other forms of coerci2e "o!er and to the li.eration of the innate %oodness of man#
The sim"lest !ay to destroy the state, they felt, !ould .e to assassinate the chief of the state, this !ould act as a s"ar0 to i%nite a
!holesale u"risin% of o""ressed humanity a%ainst all forms of coerci2e "o!er# These 2ie!s led to numerous assassinations of 2arious
"olitical leaders, includin% a 0in% of Italy and a "resident of the Enited $tates, in the "eriod 19LI19@L# $yndicalism !as a some!hat
more realistic and later 2ersion of anarchism# It !as eBually determined to a.olish all "u.lic authority, .ut did not rely on the innate
%oodness of indi2iduals for the continuance of social life# Rather it aimed to re"lace "u.lic authority .y 2oluntary associations of
indi2iduals to su""ly the com"anionshi" and mana%ement of social life !hich, accordin% to these thin0ers, the state had so si%nally
failed to "ro2ide# The chief of such 2oluntary associations re"lacin% the state !ould .e la.or unions# Accordin% to the syndicalists, the
state !as to .e destroyed, not .y the assassination of indi2idual heads of states, .ut .y a %eneral stri0e of the !or0ers or%anized in
la.or unions# $uch a stri0e !ould %i2e the !or0ers a "o!erful es"rit de cor"s .ased on a sense of their "o!er and solidarity# 1y
ma0in% all forms of coercion im"ossi.le, the %eneral stri0e !ould destroy the state and re"lace it .y a fle)i.le federation of free
associations of !or0ers *syndicates+# AnarchismFs most 2i%orous "ro"onent !as the Russian e)ile 'ichael 1a0unin *11JI17C+# His
doctrines had considera.le a""eal in Russia itself, .ut in !estern :uro"e they !ere !idely acce"ted only in $"ain, es"ecially
1arcelona, and in "arts of Italy !here economic and "sycholo%ical conditions !ere some!hat similar to those in Russia# $yndicalism
flourished in the same areas at a later date, althou%h its chief theorists !ere French, led .y 5eor%es $orel *1J7I19??+# The second
%rou" of radical social theorists !as fundamentally o""osed to the anarchoIsyndicalists, althou%h this fact !as reco%nized only
%radually# This second %rou" !ished to !iden the "o!er and sco"e of %o2ernments .y %i2in% them a dominant role in economic life#
In the course of time, the confusions !ithin this second %rou" .e%an to sort themsel2es out, and the %rou" di2ided into t!o chief
schools& the $ocialists and the Communists# These t!o schools !ere further a"art in or%anization and in their acti2ities than they !ere
in their theories, .ecause the $ocialists .ecame increasin%ly moderate and e2en conser2ati2e in their acti2ities, !hile remainin%
relati2ely re2olutionary in their theories# Ho!e2er, as their theories %radually follo!ed their acti2ities in the direction of moderation,
in the "eriod of the $econd International *19I1919+, 2iolent contro2ersies arose .et!een those !ho "retended to remain loyal to the
re2olutionary ideas of Aarl 'ar) and those !ho !ished to re2ise these ideas in a more moderate direction to ada"t them to !hat they
considered to .e chan%in% social and economic conditions# The strict inter"reters of Aarl 'ar) came to .e 0no!n as Communists,
!hile the more moderate re2isionist %rou" came to .e 0no!n as $ocialists# The ri2alries of the t!o %rou"s ultimately disru"ted the
$econd International as !ell as the la.or mo2ement as a !hole, so that antiIla.or re%imes !ere a.le to come to "o!er in much of
:uro"e in the "eriod 191I19>9# This disru"tion and failure of the !or0in%Iclass mo2ement is one of the chief factors in :uro"ean
history in the t!entieth century and, accordin%ly, reBuires at least a .rief sur2ey of its nature and .ac0%round#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, Cha"ter ?> *The International $ocialist 'o2ement+, "# >7LI>7
DThe ideas of Aarl 'ar) *11I1>+ and of his associate Friedrich :n%els *1?@I19L+ !ere "u.lished in the Communist
'anifesto of 1J and in their threeI2olume o"us, 6as Aa"ital *1C7I19J+# Althou%h they !ere aroused .y the de"lora.le
conditions of the :uro"ean !or0in% classes under industrialism, the chief sources of the ideas themsel2es !ere to .e found in the
idealism of He%el, the materialism of the ancient 5ree0 atomists *es"ecially 6emocritus+, and the theories of the :n%lish
classical economists *es"ecially Ricardo+# 'ar) deri2ed from He%el !hat has come to .e 0no!n as the Qhistorical dialectic#Q
This theory maintained that all historical e2ents !ere the result of a stru%%le .et!een o""osin% forces !hich ultimately mer%ed
to create a situation !hich !as different from either# Any e)istin% or%anization of society or of ideas *thesis+ calls forth, in time,
an o""osition *antiIthesis+# These t!o stru%%le !ith each other and %i2e rise to the e2ents of history, until finally the t!o fuse
into a ne! or%anization *synthesis+# This synthesis in turn .ecomes esta.lished as a ne! thesis to a ne! o""osition or antithesis,
and the stru%%le continues, as history continues# A chief element in 'ar)ist theory !as the economic inter"retation of history#
Accordin% to this 2ie!, the economic or%anization of any society !as the .asic as"ect of that society, since all other as"ects,
such as "olitical, social, intellectual, or reli%ious, reflected the or%anization and "o!ers of the economic le2el# From Ricardo,
'ar) deri2ed the theory that the 2alue of economic %oods !as .ased on the amount of la.or "ut into them# A""lyin% this idea to
industrial society !here la.or o.tains !a%es !hich reflect only "art of the 2alue of the "roduct they are ma0in%, 'ar) decided
that la.or !as .ein% e)"loited# $uch e)"loitation !as "ossi.le, he .elie2ed, .ecause the !or0in% classes did not o!n the
Qinstruments of "roductionQ *that is, factories, land, and tools+ .ut had allo!ed these, .y le%al chicanery, to fall into the hands of
the "ossessin% classes# In this !ay, the ca"italistic system of "roduction had di2ided society into t!o antithetical classes& the
.our%eoisie !ho o!ned the instruments of "roduction and the "roletariat !ho li2ed from sellin% their la.or# The "roletariat,
ho!e2er, !ere ro..ed of "art of their "roduct .y the fact that their !a%es re"resented only a "ortion of the 2alue of their la.or,
the Qsur"lus 2alueQ of !hich they !ere de"ri2ed %oin% to the .our%eoisie as "rofits# The .our%eoisie !ere a.le to maintain this
e)"loitati2e system .ecause the economic, social, intellectual, and reli%ious "ortions of society reflected the e)"loitati2e nature
of the economic system# The money !hich the .our%eoisie too0 from the "roletariat in the economic system made it "ossi.le for
them to dominate the "olitical system *includin% the "olice and the army+, the social system *includin% family life and
education+, as !ell as the reli%ious system and the intellectual as"ects of society *includin% the arts, literature, "hiloso"hy, and
all the a2enues of "u.licity for these+# From these three conce"ts of the historical dialectic, economic determinism, and the la.or
theory of 2alue, 'ar) .uilt u" a com"licated theory of "ast and future history# He .elie2ed that Qall history is the history of class
stru%%les#Q Just as in antiBuity, history !as concerned !ith the stru%%les of free men and sla2es or of "le.ians and "atricians, so,
in the 'iddle A%es, it !as concerned !ith the stru%%les of serfs and lords, and, in modern times, !ith the stru%%les of "roletariat
and .our%eoisie# :ach "ri2ile%ed %rou" arises from o""osition to an earlier "ri2ile%ed %rou", "lays its necessary role in historical
"ro%ress, and is, in time, successfully challen%ed .y those it has .een e)"loitin%# Thus the .our%eoisie rose from e)"loited serfs
to challen%e successfully the older "ri2ile%ed %rou" of feudal lords and mo2ed into a "eriod of .our%eois su"remacy in !hich it
contri.uted to history a fully ca"italized industrial society .ut !ill .e challen%ed, in its turn, .y the risin% "o!er of the la.orin%
masses# To 'ar), the re2olution of the "roletariat !as not only ine2ita.le .ut !ould ine2ita.ly .e successful, and !ould %i2e
rise to an entirely ne! society !ith a "roletariat system of %o2ernment, social life, intellectual "atterns, and reli%ious
or%anization# The Qine2ita.le re2olutionQ must lead to an Qine2ita.le 2ictory of the "roletariatQ .ecause the "ri2ile%ed "osition of
the .our%eoisie allo!ed them to "ractice a merciless e)"loitation of the "roletariat, "ressin% these la.orin% masses do!n!ard to
a le2el of .are su.sistence, .ecause la.or, ha2in% .ecome nothin% .ut a commodity for sale for !a%es in the com"etiti2e mar0et,
!ould naturally fall to the le2el !hich !ould Must allo! the necessary su""ly of la.or to sur2i2e# From such e)"loitation, the
.our%eoisie !ould .ecome richer and richer and fe!er and fe!er in num.ers, and acBuire o!nershi" of all "ro"erty in the
society !hile the "roletariat !ould .ecome "oorer and "oorer and more and more numerous and .e dri2en closer and closer to
des"eration# :2entually, the .our%eoisie !ould .ecome so fe! and the "roletariat !ould .ecome so numerous that the latter
could rise u" in their !rath and ta0e o2er the instruments of "roduction and thus control of the !hole society# Accordin% to this
theory, the Qine2ita.le re2olutionQ !ould occur in tile most ad2anced industrial country .ecause only after a lon% "eriod of
industrialism !ould the re2olutionary situation .ecome acute and !ould the society itself .e eBui""ed !ith factories a.le to
su""ort a $ocialist system# -nce the re2olution has ta0en "lace, there !ill .e esta.lished a Qdictatorshi" of the "roletariatQ durin%
!hich the "olitical, social, military, intellectual, and reli%ious as"ects of society !ill .e transformed in a $ocialist fashion# At the
end of this "eriod, full $ocialism !ill he esta.lished, the state !ill disa""ear, and a Qclassless societyQ !ill come into e)istence#
At this "oint history !ill end# This rather sur"risin% conclusion to the historical "rocess !ould occur .ecause 'ar) had defined
history as the "rocess of class stru%%le and had defined the state as the instrument of class e)"loitation# $ince, in the $ocialist
state, there !ill .e no e)"loitation and thus no classes, there !ill .e no class stru%%les and no need for a state#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, Cha"ter ?> *The International $ocialist 'o2ement+, "# >7I>@
'a" of the 5erman Confederation, 11LI1CC
Karl ar!: $e%ish Satanist or &evil"s 'dvo(ate?
)odfather of Communism: *n +is O%n ,ords
Aarl 'ar)=s 7oems
D6er $"ielmannG *DThe FiddlerG+ .y Aarl 'ar)

"hat art God neither wants nor wists$
5t leaps to the %rain from -ell6s %lac) mists.
"ill heart6s %ewitched$ till senses reel/
With Satan I have struck my deal
DThe 7ale 'aidenG .y Aarl 'ar)
7"hus heaven 56ve forfeited$
5 )now it full well.
!y soul" once true to #od"
Is chosen for hell8
DIn2ocation of -ne in 6es"airG 1y Aarl 'ar)
7So a god has snatched from me my all
5n the curse and rac) of destiny.
,ll his worlds are gone %eyond recall
(othing %ut revenge is left for me.

5 shall %uild my throne high overhead$
9old$ tremendous shall its summit %e.
0or its %ulwar)$ supersitious dreads.
0or its marshal$ %lac)est agony....8
7"hen 5 will %e a%le to wal) triumphantly$
li)e a god$ through the ruins of their )ingdom.
Every word of mine is fire and action.
*y %reast is equal to that of the creator.8
Aarl 'ar)=s Hatred of 5od

DThen I !ill .e a.le to !al0 trium"hantly li0e a %od, throu%h
the ruins of their 0in%dom# :2ery !ord of mine is fire and
action# 'y .reast is eNual to that of the -reator#G
H Aarl 'ar)

DFor me he .eats the time and %i2es the si%ns# :2en more
.oldly I "lay the dance of death#G H Aarl 'ar)

D/ou !ill sin0 do!n and I shall follo! lau%hin%, !his"erin%
in your ear Xdescend=, come !ith me my friend#G H Aarl 'ar)

D$ee this s!ord3 The Prin4e of 6arkness sold it to me#G
H Aarl 'ar)
D$oon I shall em.race eternity to my .reast, and soon I shall
ho!l %i%antic curses on man0ind#G H Aarl 'ar)
DI shall .uild my throne hi%h o2erhead# Cold, tremendous shall
its summit .e#G H Aarl 'ar)
75 wish to avenge myself against the :ne who rules a%ove.8 ;
<arl *ar=
7-istory is the >udge$ the proletariat its e=ecutioner.8
; <arl *ar=$ ,pril 1?$ 1@A3 BPaul Johnson$ C"he
5ntellectualsC$ Stoc)holm$ 12@2$ p. 4?.D
AAR< 'ARY& ANTII$:'IT:T

D4e 0no! that .ehind e2ery tyrant stands a Je!, as a Jesuit stands .ehind e2ery 7o"e#G
I Aarl 'ar), 1LC, from the Ne! /or0 Tri.une

D###if it !ere not for the Je!s !ho steal the treasures of man0ind#G
I Aarl 'ar), 1LC, from the Ne! /or0 Tri.une

DThey !ere li0e the contem"orary usurers !ho stand .ehind tyrants and tyrannies, and the maMority of them are Je!ish#G
I Aarl 'ar), 1LC, from the Ne! /or0 Tri.une

DThe fact that the Je!s ha2e .ecome so stron% as to endan%er the life of the !orld causes us to disclose their or%anization, their
"ur"ose, that its stench mi%ht a!a0en the !or0ers of the !orld to fi%ht and eliminate such a can0er#G
I Aarl 'ar), 1LC, from the Ne! /or0 Tri.une

D$Buash the Je!ish ca"italists# Han% them from lam" "osts# Tread them under foot#G
I Aarl 'ar), 1LC, from the Ne! /or0 Tri.une

'ARY HAT:6 5:R'AN$

D1eatin% is the only means of resurrectin% the 5ermans#G
D###the stu"id 5erman "eo"le###their dis%ustin% national narro!ness#G
D5ermans, Chinese, and Je!s ha2e to com"ared !ith "eddlers and small merchants#G


'ARY HAT:6 $<A8IC 7:-7<:

The follo!in% "hrases that 'ar) used to descri.e the 7oles, Czechs, Russians, $er.s, Croats, $lo2enians, and other $la2ic
"eo"le# *1+ Dthe $la2ic riffraff,G *?+ Dretro%rade races,G *>+ Dca..a%e eaters,G *J+ Dethnic trash#G

DTheir 2ery name N$la2sO !ill 2anish#G
I Aarl 'ar), 1J

'ARY& ANTII1<ACA, RACI$T :YTRA-R6INAIR:

DIt is no! a.solutely clear to me that, as .oth the sha"e of his head and the te)ture of his hair sho!s, he *<assalle+ is descended
from the Ne%roes !ho Moined 'osesF fli%ht from :%y"t *unless his mother or %randmother on the "aternal side hy.ridized !ith a
ni%%er+# The "ushiness of the fello! is also ni%%erIli0e#G

D4ithout sla2ery, North America, the most "ro%ressi2e of countries, !ould .e transformed into a "atriarchal country# 4i"e
North America from the ma" of the !orld and you !ill ha2e anarchy II the com"lete decay of modern commerce and
ci2ilization# A.olish sla2ery and you !ill ha2e !i"ed America off the ma" of nations#G

NTNote& Aarl 'ar) !as a Je!#O
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#rense#com;"oliticsJ;mar)satan#htm
Karl ar!"s Comrades: *n +is O%n ,ords
Comrade Ro.ert 'u%a.e&
E0igger(likeF
Comrade Josi" 1roz Tito&
E4abbage eatersF
Comrade :ric Honec0er&
Ethe stu%i& German %eo%leF
Comrade <eon Trots0y&
E/e+ish 4a%italistsF
Comrade 8ladimir <enin *left+ and Comrade Jose"h $talin&
Ethe la"i4 riffraffF
Comrade Chou :nIlai *left+ and Comrade 'ao TseItun%&
E%e&&lers an& small mer4hantsF
DThe -72$0G '7RL6 '#R !ill cause not only reactionary classes and dynasties, .ut entire
reactionary "eo"les, to disa""ear from the face of the earth# And that !ill .e "ro%ress#G H Aarl 'ar)
The Karl ar! Bod- Count:
1>>,>>>,>>> DEAD & Counting
Chinese socialist "elegates atten" the =hir" Congress of the J&ropean Branch of the Chinese Socialist 'o&th Leag&e in Paris. France in the
early ()0Ds. Cho& Jnlai is seate" in the front row. fo&rth from left. Feng Oiaoping (?Father@) is seate" in the !ack row. thir" from right.
(So&rce: Deng Xiaoping My Father !y Feng 8aomao)
$o Chi 8inh #isits in France in ()()A()0D to atten" the Paris Peace Conference an" participate in Comm&nist mo#ements. $o Chi 8inh li#e"
in e<ile in China "&ring the ()0Ds to escape persec&tion in French >n"ochina.
(Photo: http:BBrationalre#ol&tion.netBwarBamericanKin#ol#ementKinK#ietnam.htm)
Che 5ue2ara 2isits 'osco!, $o2iet Russia in 19CJ#
$o2iet leader 'i0hail 5or.ache2 stands in front of the 1randen.ur% 5ate in :ast 1erlin on A"ril 1C, 19C#
*7hoto& 5erman Federal Archi2es+
DFurther %lo.al "ro%ress is no! "ossi.le only throu%h a Buest for uni2ersal consensus in the
mo2ement to!ards a ne+ +orl& or&er#G
H 'i0hail 5or.ache2, in a s"eech deli2ered at the Enited Nations in 6ecem.er 19
Comm&nistAtraine" homose<&al ra! terrorist 'asser rafat. the Chairman of the Palestine Li!eration Hrgani;ation (PLH).
stan"s in front of the Bran"en!&rg 4ate in Jast Berlin. Jast 4ermany on -o#em!er 0. ()6(. Jast Berlin was the capital of the
Comm&nist state of Jast 4ermany. also known as the 4erman Femocratic /ep&!lic (Deutsche Demo!ratische "epu#li!). from
()*) to ())D.
Comm&nist flags of (left to right) '&gosla#ia. Jast 4ermany. an" /e" 5ietnam
Cu.a=s Communist ruler Fidel Castro meets !ith mem.ers of the :ast 5erman army and $tasi a%ents in front of the
1randen.ur% 5ate in :ast 1erlin on June 1J, 197?# *5erman Federal Archi2e+
military para"e is hel" in front of the 8a&sole&m (LeninNs =om!) on /e" SM&are in 8oscow. So#iet Union on 8ay Fay in ()3(.
(=ime Life Photo)
=he ol" G4B hea"M&arters at L&!yanka in 8oscow. =he G4B was fo&n"e" !y Polish !orn P>ron Feli<N J"m&n"o#ich F;er;hinsky.
(Photo: Flickr)
=he /e" SM&are. LeninNs =om!. an" the Gremlin in 8oscow
7relude to the 1olshe2i0 Re2olution&
The 6ecline of the House of Romano2
Czar Nicholas II of Russia and his !ife :m"ress Ale)andra Fyodoro2na are coronated in $t# 7eters.ur%, Russia on 'ay ?C, 19C#
DThe in2asion of 11? !as the most serious challen%e to the Russian $tate since the in2asion of Charles YII of $!eden in 17@9# The
de2elo"ment of Russia since that time is !ell sym.olized .y the immense .ronze statue of 7eter the 5reat erected .y the most famous
of his successors, Catherine II# >t sho!s the ma0er of modern Russia mounted on a horse !hich e2en he controls only !ith difficulty,
he "oints to!ards the ri2er Ne2a and the city !hich he had .uilt# Inscri.ed u"on the hu%e %ranite .loc0 !hich su""orts the rider are the
sim"le !ords, in Russian and in <atin& F7etro 7rimo Catherina $ecundaF# In this laconic fashion did the t!o illustrious state.uilders
%reet one another# This statue ins"ired 7ush0in to !rite one of his %reatest "oems, FThe 1ronze HorsemanF# In it he ima%ines 7eterFs
thou%hts as he sur2eys the city of his creationUG
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# 1L
D$t# 7eters.ur% had .een intended .y its founder to .e a fortress and a "ort, it .ecame, durin% the ei%hteenth century, one of the most
.eautiful cities in :uro"e# Im"erial "alaces, the houses of the no.ility and the merchants, theatres and schools, arose on the
inhos"ita.le marshes# They !ere the !or0 of forei%n architects# $t 7eters.ur% al!ays had a lar%e forei%n "o"ulation includin% a
su.stantial :n%lish and $cottish colony# From this e)otic city, the 8enice of the North, the rulers of Russia surrounded .y their
courtiers, soldiers and .ureaucrats, loo0ed out!ard at a :uro"e !hich seemed similar to their o!n ca"ital and in!ard at a land !hich
seemed stran%e and forei%n# /et the inha.itants of that land acce"ted !ith little criticism their 5ermanI.orn autocrats and FrenchI
s"ea0in% court no.ility# The alternati2e to autocracy !as thou%ht to .e anarchy# $t 7eters.ur% mi%ht .e a .urden u"on the "eo"le of
Russia .ut it !as also a centre of authority, a "rotection a%ainst forei%n in2asion and internal disorder#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# 1C
D#uto4ra4y +as Russia)s %e4uliar institution. It !as far older than 7eter the 5reat# He had made it !or0 more efficiently,
$talin made it !or0 .etter than the Romano2s# 6urin% the nineteenth century many of the most intelli%ent su.Mects of the Tsar
criticised the "rinci"les of autocracy, .ut for most Russians it !as an acce"ta.le form of %o2ernment# The reasons for this %o
dee" into the Russian "ast# The a.sence of clearly mar0ed %eo%ra"hical frontiers tended to encoura%e dis"ersion, autocracy
countered this tendency# #uto4ra4y e*%resse& the religious an& 4ultural unity of a %eo%le +ho 4ontinue& to belie"e that the
7rtho&o* form of -hristianity +as 4loser to the s%irit of /esus -hrist than any other. 2os4o+ be4ame the heir of the
authoritarianism of !yDantium. Russia ha& neither a reformation, nor a religious +ar, nor a 4a%italist 4lass.
ConseBuently her history lac0ed the sha"e of :n%lish de2elo"ment I a sha"e !hich :n%land transmitted to the Enited $tates#
<nglish history of the se"enteenth an& eighteenth 4enturies is in essen4e the re4or& of ho+ 4ohesi"e so4ial 4lasses ero&e&.
the %o+er of the monar4hy. #s ea4h 4lass +on free&om for itself it ga"e an e*am%le to another 4lass. 5his struggle +as
fought +ithin the frame+ork of a so"ereign legal system. 5he i&ea of La+ +as more im%ortant than the i&ea of the tate.
5he la+s +ere the rules by +hi4h the %oliti4al game +as %laye&. $n the en&, <nglish &e"elo%ment ten&e& to re&u4e the
tate to little more than a referee. o4iety +as e"erything an& go"ernment +as nothing: li.erty !as !ides"read .ut so !as
ineBuality# 5he <nglish &e"elo%ment +as hateful to most Russians in the nineteenth 4entury. 5hey sa+ it as nothing but
an e*4use for the a%%li4ation of Hungle la+, an& thought little of the boaste& <nglish free&om. 5hey thought that it +as
merely a free&om for the strong to o%%ress the +eak. 5hey thought that free&om +as &angerous be4ause it ga"e free rein
to the +orst instin4ts of the +orst men. 5hey thought that the <nglish system +as both nai"e an& irreligious: it faile& to
take into a44ount the great fa4t of original sin. :nli%htened Russians realised that their country needed chan%e# In "articular,
they understood the need to ada"t it to the Industrial Re2olution, .ut they !anted to do this !ithout ado"tin% an :n%lish ty"e of
"arliamentary democracy# They thou%ht that chan%e should .e initiated and "ushed throu%h .y an enli%htened autocrat# 7eter the
5reat had modernised Russia& there seemed to .e no reason !hy one of his nineteenthIcentury successors should not imitate his
achie2ement# Russian "olitical thou%ht !as al!ays more attracted .y the idea of eBuality than .y that of li.erty# Autocracy !as
alle%ed to create eBuality# All !ere eBually the su.Mects of the most hi%h Tsar# His unfettered !ill !as more humane than any
im"ersonal le%al system# The .elief in autocracy has .een one of the constant features of Russian history#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# 1CI17
D!y the beginning of the nineteenth 4entury the stru4ture of serf&om +as 4om%lete. $t +as the +ork of the Romano"
&ynasty1 its %rofoun&er results +ere a4ti"e until 1917. 5he 4on&ition of the %easants +as a trage&y for themsel"es, an
ins%iration for the 4ons4ien4e(stri4ken intelligentsia an& an in4reasingly &iffi4ult %roblem to su44essi"e go"ernments. 5he
%easantry +ere Russia. 5hey %ai& nearly all the ta*es, they %ro"i&e& the foo&, they +ere the hor&es of &omesti4 ser"ants,
they &ie& in the +ars, they star"e& freNuently an& suffere& al+ays. In this %reat sea of 2illa%e fol0 the .uildin%s and
ci2ilisation of 'osco! and $t 7eters.ur% reflected "erha"s in the %litter of some local manor house, seemed an irrele2ant
intrusion# The rulers of Russia mi%ht .e "lannin% !ar or "eace, their attention mi%ht .e fi)ed u"on 7aris, 1erlin, <ondon or
'anchester, .ut their li2in% !as .ein% earned for them .y the "lou%hman on the ste""es and the "easant craftsman in the forests#
It is not sur"risin% that one of the %reat themes of nineteenthIcentury Russian literature is the su"erficiality of to!n life in an
essentially "easant land# Tolstoy is the %reat master of this contrast and .oth in his no2els and his o!n life constantly stressed the
need for a social conscience !hich !ould "lace the "easant and the countryside at the centre of interest# It !as, ho!e2er, a "art
of the tra%edy of nineteenthIcentury Russia that the condition of the "easantry could only .e im"ro2ed .y lar%eIscale
ur.anisation# It may .e that those !ho, li0e Tolstoy, admired and lo2ed the 2illa%er, did much harm .y tryin% to "reser2e a
"icturesBue !ay of life !hich the de2elo"ments of the century made increasin%ly "roducti2e of "o2erty#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, Cha"ter > *The 7easants& $erfdom, :manci"ation, 6iscontent
and Re2olution& IooI1917+, "# C
DThe ei%hteenthIcentury rulers of Russia had .een outstandin%ly successful in their conduct of forei%n "olicy# 7eter the 5reat
had esta.lished Russia u"on the shores of the 5ulf of Finland, his successors "ushed the frontiers !est!ard and south!ard#
Catherine the 5reat occu"ied the !hole of eastern 7oland *177?I179L+ and %a2e Russia a common frontier !ith 7russia and
Austria# $he also com"leted the !or0 of 7eter the 5reat .y defeatin% the Tur0s and anne)in% the northern coast of the 1lac0 $ea#
This tas0 !as finished in 17># 5he ne+ fortress of e"asto%ol, 4onstru4te& for -atherine by ir amuel !entham,
symbolise& the fa4t that Russia +as not 4onfine& to the !alti4 alone. The 1altic "ro2ed to .e no more than a !indo! into
:uro"e, .ut the 1lac0 $ea .ecame a door throu%h !hich nineteenthIcentury Russia ho"ed to dominate the eastern
'editerranean# Its "orts ecli"sed those of the 1altic in their commercial acti2ities# The mo2ement south .ecame the most
im"ortant in Russian nineteenthIcentury history# Tur0ey alone could not ha2e halted it# 1ehind Tur0ey stood 1ritain, that "o!er
!hich !as in most res"ects the e)act antithesis of autocratic Russia# Here !as one of the tra%ic "arado)es of the nineteenth
century# 1ritain successfully resisted the Russian dri2e to!ards the 'editerranean, she maintained the inte%rity of Tur0ey# Then,
in 191L, !hen .y a stran%e re2ersal of fortunes Russia and 1ritain fou%ht on the same side, 1ritain !as una.le to %et throu%h to
her ally .ecause Tur0ey stood in the !ay# 1ritish hostility !as already foreshado!ed !hen Catherine the 5reat died *179C+# 1ut
the ma" at that date sho!ed nothin% .ut success for the 7etrine $tate in the field of forei%n "olicy#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# 17I19
DThrou%hout Russia, the "easants concentrated u"on the culti2ation of %rain# Rye !as the sta"le food .ut !heat and .arley !ere
%ro!n increasin%ly as the e)"ort mar0et e)"anded durin% the century# The climate and soil of the centre and the north made it
im"ossi.le for the "easants to satisfy e2en modest needs .y a%riculture alone# The %a" !as filled "artly .y a !ides"read and
intensi2e "easant handcraft industry and "artly .y emi%ration to the ne! lands of the south and southI!est# It !as only durin%
the nineteenth century that these ne! lands filled u", o2er"o"ulation !as to .e one of the maMor factors in the "easant "ro.lem#
6urin% the centuries !hen serfdom !as %ro!in%, the e)act contrary had .een the case , in fact the main reason for the %ro!th of
serfdom !as to "re2ent the scarce la.ourers from driftin% a!ay to!ards the frontiers# $outh of the forest line, the soil !as !ell
suited to %rain %ro!in%# 1ut althou%h this .lac0 earth !as rich it !as so !astefully farmed .y hordes of "easants that its yield
"er acre remained su.stantially .elo! that of the much "oorer land of North America# None of the chan%es of the nineteenth
century had much effect u"on the "roducti2eness of "easant a%riculture# :2en in 1917 the "rimiti2e so)ha$ a "lou%h !hich
scratched the surface of the soil rather than turnin% it o2er, !as still in %eneral use# $n 1A>> there +ere about =@ million
%easants in a total %o%ulation of =: million. -f these a.out 19 Z million !ere su.Mect to "ri2ate landlords and the rest !ere
state serfs# In %eneral terms the %o2ernment, and es"ecially Catherine II, had entered into an un!ritten contract !ith the no.ility&
in return for %i2in% u" their claim to "olitical "o!er the no.les had .een allo!ed to enMoy com"lete "o!er o2er their serfs# A
no.leman mi%ht o!n a dozen or a hundred thousand serfs# It made no difference to his "o!er o2er them# He !as a little autocrat
!ithin the %reat autocracy# The $tate used him as its a%ent for "easant affairs, its local F%ratuitous chief of "oliceF# The landlord
could ma0e any chan%e he li0ed in the a%ricultural arran%ements of the 2illa%e, he could, for e)am"le, fa0e for his o!n use the
2alua.le meado! and forest ri%hts# He could seize the "easantFs mo2a.le %oods, order him to marry or not to marry, sell him
a!ay from the land !ithout his family, ta0e his sons and dau%hters into domestic ser2ice, send him to the "ri2ately o!ned mines
in the Erals, command him to .ecome a musician or actor# The a%ed and the sic0 could .e turned out of the 2illa%e, the
recalcitrant could .e trans"orted to $i.eria, sent into the army for t!entyIfi2e years, im"risoned or 0nouted H that !as the
customary "unishment# The murder of oneFs serfs !as "rohi.ited .y the la!, .ut since the "easants !ere for.idden to com"lain
to the officials a.out their lords, murder freBuently occurred and !ent un"unished# In the forest re%ions the landlords forced the
"ayment of rent Bo%rohD at an ar.itrary rate !hich too0 into account the earnin%s of "easant craftsmen# In the ste""e lands,
ho!e2er, !here the "roduce of the soil !as mar0eta.le, the landlords com"elled their serfs to do %arshchina or forced la.our#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, Cha"ter > *The 7easants& $erfdom, :manci"ation, 6iscontent
and Re2olution& IooI1917+, "# C9I71
DThe forei%n "olicy of Russia in the first half of the nineteenth century !as characterized .y a not unnatural am.i2alence#
Enresol2ed "ro.lems of national interest, arisin% from earlier territorial %ains, necessarily continued to dri2e her to further
e)"ansion# No!here is the truth of the sayin%, DThe a""etite %ro!s !ith eatin%,G more clearly e)em"lified than in RussiaFs
relations !ith Tur0ey# -ri%inally "urely defensi2e, directed at chec0in% the destructi2e raids of the Crimean Tatars, Russian
"olicy and Russian arms had under Catherine %i2en her a !holly defensi.le frontier, the northern shore line of the 1lac0 $ea#
The natural seBuel had .een her D5ree0 "roMect,G desi%ned to seat her %randson on the throne of a reIcreated Christian em"ire at
Constantino"le# $uch futile dreams a"art, the consolidation of Russian "o!er o2er <ittle Russia and the acBuisition of Ne!
Russia had laid the .asis for a ne! national Russian interest. 5he %ossibility of gro+ing +heat, an& the mounting &eman&
for +heat in the 'est, ma&e 4ontrol of the traits, the narro+ outlet from the !la4k ea to the 2e&iterranean, of
%aramount im%ortan4e to Russia. $t +as not suffi4ient to se4ure guarantees for %ea4eful 4ommer4e1 in an un4ertain
+orl&, in +hi4h Einternational la+F remains a fi4tion, only military 4ontrol of the essential %assage 4oul& really satisfy
Russian national interests. Yet this Russian 4ra"ing, natural though it might be, seeme& to threaten to &isturb the
balan4e of the +orl&. $t +as naturally regar&e& by the mistress of the seas as a s%e4ial mena4e to her %re&ominan4e. $f
Russia +as &etermine& to se4ure 4ontrol of the traits P the !os%orus an& 6ar&anelles P Great !ritain +as no less
&etermine& to %re"ent it. 5hus +as brought into fo4us the &ominant theme of nineteenth(4entury &i%loma4y, the E4ol&
+arF +age& bet+een !ritain an& Russia, in +hi4h !ritain %ersistently %ursue& a %oli4y of E4ontainmentF of any Russian
e*%ansion in any Nuarter +hi4h <nglan& 4oul& effe4ti"ely rea4h. The Buarrel had, of course, still !ider im"lications# 1ritain
had "layed the lionFs role in destroyin% the "o!er of France and in tum.lin% the :uro"ean dictatorshi" of Na"oleon, .ut this
tremendous 2ictory had not .een attained sin%leIhanded# 'uch as Russia had o!ed to 1ritish su.sidies, the fact remained that
!ithout the massed military mi%ht of Russia the 1attle of <ei"zi% and the cam"ai%n around 7aris in 11J !ould ha2e .een
im"ossi.le# There !as no Buestion that, ne)t to 5reat 1ritain, Russia !as the leadin% !orld "o!er# It !as ine2ita.le, then, that
in the 2ery moment of trium"h there should de2elo" a stron% "olarity .et!een 5reat 1ritain and Russia# Ine2ita.le is a !ord at
!hich e2ery historian shies, .ut it is the ine2ita.ility of s"ecific e2ents, not of %eneral trends, that chiefly %i2es him "ause# There
!as no reason to .e sur"rised that, less than si) months after the a.dication of Na"oleon, the 2ictorious allies, led on o""osite
sides .y 5reat 1ritain and .y Russia, should .e threatenin% each other !ith !ar o2er the 7olish Buestion# Tem"orary community
of lar%er interests momentarily "re2ented o"en conflict# Thou%h Ale)anderFs mystically concei2ed DHoly AllianceG !as
sidetrac0ed, the Concert of :uro"e found e)"ression in the (uadru"le *later (uintu"le+ Alliance# $tron%er than Russia=s nati2e
e)"ansionist tendencies !as RussiaFs desire to "reser2e the status Buo arri2ed at .y the Treaty of 7aris *11J+ and .y the Final
Act of the Con%ress of 8ienna *11L+# 6etermined to "reser2e intact the e)istin% re%ime in Russia itself, it had .een only natural
for Ale)ander I and, in lar%e measure, for his .rother Nicholas I, to !ish to "reser2e also the e)istin% international re%ime# 5his
+as the basis for Russia)s role as Ethe gen&arme of <uro%e,F rea&y to stam% out any+here any mo"ement threatening
the establishe& or&er.G H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# ?JI?L
DAs the end of the century a""roached, Russia in her o!n !ay sho!ed many of the si%ns of !hat in the 4est has come to .e
0no!n as Cla fin du siecle.C This !as "articularly true of domestic de2elo"ments# In international de2elo"ments, Russia at this
time sho!ed less clearly the sti%mata of a""roachin% catastro"he# Internal tension did not "re2ent Russia from continuin% the
e)"ansion of her territory# Throu%hout the centuries, Russia has some!hat resem.led an amoe.a, "ushin% out "seudo"odia less
in res"onse to internal stimuli than to a.sence of e)ternal resistance# In the remote Far :ast, so lon% as China remained
"o!erful, she had .een a.le to thro! .ac0 the ad2ance of Russian fur traders and cossac0s, e2en des"ite the am.itions of 7eter#
In the nineteenth century, ho!e2er, ChinaFs !ea0ness !as made manifest .y the easy military successes of the :n%lish and the
French in their im"erialist "ressure on the hide.ound Celestial Ain%dom# Ta0in% ad2anta%e of the situation created .y their
threat to 7e0in% *1L+, the Russian %o2ernorI%eneral of :astern $i.eria, N# N# 'ura2ie2, !ith a fe! hundred men, anne)ed the
enormous area of the left .an0 of the Amur# ChinaFs attem"t to re"udiate the treaties of Tientsin !ith :n%land and France not
only cost her further concessions to those "o!ers .ut ena.led 'ura2ie2 DAmurs0yG *Dof the AmurG+ to secure treaty
confirmation of his conBuest and cession as !ell of the e)tensi2e coastal "ro2ince as far south as the "ort of 8ladi2osto0,
already founded .y 'ura2ie2 *1C@+# Russia further stren%thened her "osition in the Far :ast .y cedin% to Ja"an the distant
Aurile Islands in e)chan%e for the southern half of $a0halin, close offshore *17L+# In the meantime *1C7+, she had successfully
ne%otiated the sale to the Enited $tates of Alas0a and the Aleutian Islands, for the seemin%ly enormous sum of [7 million, then
des"erately needed .y the Russian treasury# 6efense of these o2erseas territories !ould ha2e reBuired that Russia ha2e na2al
"o!er in the 7acific# Closer to home, the "eriod of the D5reat ReformsG had also !itnessed the firm esta.lishment of Russian
"o!er o2er defenseless nei%h.ors# As early as 7aulFs rei%n, some of the chieftains in the Caucasus, cau%ht .et!een the ri2al
"ressures of Tur0ey and 7ersia, had a""ealed to Russia for aid# Ale)ander I, in a tenIyear !ar !ith 7ersia *1@JI1>+, had !on
suzerainty o2er "art of 5eor%ia *the coastline !as held .y Tur0ey+, 6a%hestan, and Azer.aiMan *once .riefly !on .y 7eter+#
RussiaFs %ri" on the Caucasus had .een stren%thened .y Tur0ey=s forced cession of most of the 1lac0 $ea shore line *.ut not
includin% 1atum+ in 1?9 and .y 7ersiaFs surrender of a "art of Armenia *1?+# The hardy mountaineers of the Caucasus,
ho!e2er, lon% %a2e the Russians much trou.le, althou%h their o!n ethnic differences, em"hasized .y the ru%%ed and .ro0en
character of the re%ion, made it difficult for them to coo"erate harmoniously !ith each other# In 1L7, the Russian 2iceroy,
7rince 1ariatins0y, launched a determined attac0 on $hamil, a 'oslem imam !ho had .ecome the soul of resistance in
6a%hestan, .y 1L9, $hamil had .een forced to surrender and !as de"orted to Russia# In connection !ith :manci"ation, the
Russian %o2ernment sou%ht to .ind the nati2e chiefs, the natural leaders of the local "o"ulation, to the interests of the Russian
state .y %i2in% them and their "rinci"al follo!ers s"ecially fa2ora.le terms# The last focus of acti2e resistance !as dealt !ith .y
enforced emi%ration of the Cher0esses *or Circassians+ from their mountain homes to assi%ned areas in the "lains or on the
seacoast, some t!o hundred thousand of them a2ailed themsel2es of the alternati2e of emi%ratin% to Tur0ey *1CJ+, !here
num.ers of them ser2ed as irre%ulars in the -ttoman forces under the name of .ashiI.azou0s# In still another conti%uous area,
Russia "ushed out her effecti2e frontiers# The TurcoITatar "astoral nomads of Central Asia had once .een the terror of the
a%ricultural "o"ulation of the forest zone# For centuries they had .arred the ste""e to Russian settlement, until 1J@ they had
le2ied tri.ute on 'usco2y# As late as 1717, they had still .een a.le to destroy the army sent a%ainst them .y 7eter the 5reat,
althou%h authority in Tur0estan !as shared .y se2eral 'oslem rulers# In the nineteenth century, ho!e2er, the illIor%anized
nomads !ere no match for Russia=s disci"lined armies, !hich had seriously to contend only !ith the ri%ors of the climate and
!ith miles of arid desert# ConseBuently the "o!er 2acuum !as %radually filled in, on much the same "rinci"le that has made it
necessary for other countries constantly to e)"and the frontier in order to "rotect their e)istin% territories# In the rei%ns of
Ale)ander I and Nicholas I, the Air%hiz had .een firmly su.Mected .y esta.lishment of chains of fortified "osts as far as the $yrI
6aria# ConBuest of the three maMor 0hanates of Ahi2a, 1u0hara, and Ao0and !as effected on the initiati2e of the local Russian
military %o2ernors, "ro2o0ed .y fanatical raids of these 'oslems# Tash0ent, the chief commercial center of the re%ion, !as
occu"ied in 1CL, $amar0and, the sacred .urial "lace of Timur the <ame, in 1C# In 1CC !as esta.lished the office of
%o2ernorI%eneral of Tur0estan, further local collisions follo!ed# In the end, the emir of 1u0hara *1C+ and the 0han of Ahi2a
*17>+ a%reed to acce"t de"endent status as the "rice of not losin% their thrones alto%ether, the 0hanate of Ao0and, more
stu..orn, !as totally eliminated *17C+# It remained only to reduce the semiIinde"endent Tur0men and Ez.e0 tri.esmen# 1y
1L, the Russian frontier marched !ith that of Af%hanistan, a de2elo"ment !hich further em.ittered di"lomatic relations !ith
5reat 1ritain# 7articularly in 1J, !hen the Russian anne)ation of 'er2 "ro2o0ed in <ondon a Dfit of 'er2ousness,G :n%land
made !arli0e "re"arations for the defense of the Ahy.er 7ass into India, !hich the 1ritish na2y alone could not ho"e to "rotect#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >J1I>J>
DIn addition to the ne! "ro.lems created .y Russian ad2ances in the 'iddle and Far :ast, t!o old "ro.lems, su""osedly settled
.y Catherine the 5reat, reasserted themsel2es# -ne !as the eternal 7olish Buestion# Ale)ander II, on a 2isit to 4arsa! in 1LC,
had .idden the 7oles for%et their Dsenseless dreamsG of national inde"endence# /et, in the reform atmos"here, he had "ermitted
7olish emi%res in the 4est and 7olish e)iles in $i.eria to return home# The actual administration of 7oland, under the authority
of the 2iceroy, !as entrusted to a 7ole, 'arBuis 4ielo"ols0i# The 7oles= ho"es !ere so raised that they sta%ed numerous
"eaceful .ut dramatic demonstrations# In 1C1, Ale)ander too0 the further and, as it "ro2ed, fatally "ro2ocati2e, ste" of a%ain
se"aratin% the %o2ernment of the DCon%ress 0in%domG from that of Russia& central authority !as entrusted to a state council
made u" of 7oles a""ointed .y the ruler, local %o2ernment !as "ut in the hands of elected "ro2incial councils# Instead of
satisfyin% the 7oles, these concessions !hetted their a""etite, at the same time, it di2ided them into t!o "arties, the D4hitesG
and the DReds#G The 4hites, stron% amon% the no.ility, o.Mected to 4ielo"ols0i=s o.2ious intention of see0in% the su""ort of
the middle class, the Reds !ere dissatisfied !ith the inadeBuately democratic character of the %o2ernmental or%ans# 1oth "arties
refused to .e content !ith anythin% less than restoration of the frontiers of 177?, .efore the First 7artition# 4ielo"ols0i=s effort
to "ersist in his middle course led to attem"ts at his assassination# In 1C>, his unsuccessful effort to ease the tension .y
conscri"tin% the restless ur.an youth "ro2ed catastro"hic# -n a January ni%ht, at many "oints in 7oland and also in the
<ithuanian "ro2inces, armed .ands slau%htered the Russian soldiers in their .arrac0s# Thus !as .e%un the second 7olish
re.ellion# Enli0e 1>@, 7oland had in 1C> no army, no %o2ernment, no system of finance# Instead of !ar, the 7oles could !a%e
only a %uerilla stru%%le, !hich !as ruthlessly re"ressed# Re"eated attem"ts of France and other 4estern "o!ers *not includin%
7russia+ to inter2ene di"lomatically !ere flatly reMected, "u.lication of Chancellor 5orcha0o2Fs note assertin% RussiaFs ri%hts
"roduced a flood of enthusiastically "atriotic addresses from 2irtually e2ery element in Russia, e2en from the "ersecuted
schismatics# In 1CJ, order !as restored# The 2ery name of 7oland !as !i"ed from the ma", the DCon%ress 0in%domG !as
con2erted into Dthe 8istula re%ionG and administrati2ely inte%rated into the :m"ire of All the Russias# Ese of the Russian
lan%ua%e !as made o.li%atory in the schools, the courts, and for all "u.lic .usiness# A Russian uni2ersity !as founded in
4arsa!# The Eniate Church !as ordered reunited !ith the -rthodo) Church# To dri2e dee"er the !ed%e .et!een the 7olish
classes, the "easants !ere, e2en !hile the re2olt !as still .urnin%, %i2en s"ecially fa2ora.le treatment in the matter of land
allotments# In the <ithuanian "ro2inces of Russia, s"ecially 2i%orous efforts !ere made to root out the 7olonizin% influences that
had in2ol2ed !estern Russia also in the u"risin%# In the south!estern "ro2inces of Russia, some!hat similar measures !ere
a""lied# Here the 2ictims !ere not 7oles .ut <ittle Russians *no! called E0rainians+# $ince the ei%hteenth century, there had
.e%un to de2elo" a literature in the distincti2e <ittle Russian lan%ua%e# This mo2ement, li0e other nationalist manifestations
throu%hout the em"ire, had suffered from the re"ressi2e acti2ities of Nicholas I, the "oet $he2chen0o *11JIC1+ had .een drafted
into the army and sent as a "ri2ate soldier to ser2e in the Erals# The <ittle Russian mo2ement, thou%h it refused to sym"athize
!ith the 7oles, the former o""ressors of the E0raine, had lin0s !ith 5reat Russian narodnichestvo. In 1C>, the 'inister of the
Interior *the same 8aluie2 !ho had attem"ted to sa.ota%e :manci"ation+ for.ade the "u.lication in <ittle Russian of D.oo0s for
"o"ular readin%#G His reason !as that
there has not .een and cannot .e any s"ecial <ittle Russian lan%ua%e, and that their dialect, used .y the common "eo"le,
is the Russian lan%ua%e, corru"ted .y 7olish influence# # #
In 17C, more se2ere measures !ere ta0en, !ith the conseBuence that the <ittle Russian "rotest tended to .ecome "olitical
instead of merely cultural#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >J>I>JJ
DThe second old "ro.lem !hich 2e)ed the em"ire in the "ostIreform "eriod !as necessarily the most central "ro.lem of forei%n
relations for almost landloc0ed Russia# This !as the "ro.lem of Tur0ey and the $traits# The !ay for resum"tion of a for!ard
"olicy in this direction !as o"ened durin% the FrancoI7russian 4ar of 17@I71, durin% that crisis, no 4estern "o!er !as in a
"osition to o""ose Russia=s unilateral re"udiation of the 1lac0 $ea clauses of the Treaty of 7aris of 1LC# -nce a%ain Russian
fortresses !ere to line the northern and eastern shores of the 1lac0 $ea, once a%ain a Russian fleet, in uncontested control of that
sea, mi%ht ena.le Russia to stri0e at Tur0ey and to su""ort land attac0s from .oth ends, across the 1al0ans and throu%h the
Caucasus# Enfortunately for Russia, the o""ortunity H e2en the necessity H for action arose .efore she !as ready, and in a !ay
that im"eded decisi2e action# The army reform of 17J could not immediately .ear the fruit of hei%htened military efficiency,
!hile construction of a ne! 1lac0 $ea fleet, ham"ered .y financial difficulties, had .een delayed# 'oreo2er, the situation that
arose in Tur0ey in2ited action in terms of rescuin% Dlittle .rotherG $la2s, .ut the Russian %o2ernment could not 2i%orously
em.race a 7anI$la2 "olicy, not only .ecause it !ould endan%er her relations !ith Austria .ut .ecause of her o!n attitude to!ard
7oles and <ittle Russians# In 17L, the $er.s in Herze%o2ina rose a%ainst the Tur0ish ta) system# 4hile the :uro"ean "o!ers
Mointly ur%ed reform on the Tur0ish %o2ernment, the re2olt s"read amon% the 1ul%ar "easants *17C+# Threatened also !ith a
D/oun% Tur0G re2olt, the 7orte in its des"air unleashed on the Christian 1ul%ars the irre%ulars, the .ashiI.azou0s# The ci2ilized
!orld !as shoc0ed at !hat 5ladstone du..ed the D1ul%arian atrocitiesG, the 7o!ers a%reed to im"ose reforms on Tur0ey,
althou%h :n%landFs dread of Russian e)"ansion led her to dissent# 'ean!hile, the $er.s and the 'ontene%rins attac0ed the
Tur0s, Russian 2olunteers rushed to aid them, !hile in Russia itself a ferment de2elo"ed similar to that directed a%ainst the 4est
in the 7olish matter# The sultan "u.lished a 4esternIstyle constitution and informed the 7o!ers that for him no! to decree the
reforms they demanded !ould .e unconstitutional# A fresh international conference at Constantino"le *January, 177+
ne2ertheless threatened Moint inter2ention, in !hich e2en :n%land e)"ressed !illin%ness to Moin# Tur0ey remained o.durate, and
Russia declared !ar *A"ril, 177+# There seemed reason to .elie2e that this !ar !ould .e no re"etition of the disastrous Crimean
4ar# :n%land !as committed to drastic reforms in Tur0ey, France !as im"otent, Austria !as neutralized, this time not .y
%ratitude, .ut .y her secret Reichstadt a%reement *17>+ !ith Russia, 5ermanyFs "osition !as clearly !hat 1ismarc0 later
formulated in his assertion *1L+ that the 1al0ans !ere Dnot !orth the .ones of a sin%le 7omeranian %renadier#G Russia !as
"rom"tly Moined .y Rumania, thus the !ay !as o"en for a direct attac0 across the 6anu.e# -nly the deficiencies of the Russian
hi%h command and the incom"leteness of her military reforms "rotracted the stru%%le# Ne2ertheless, .y the end of the year, the
Russian armies had forced their !ay throu%h the $hi"0a 7ass across the 1al0ans and once more stood under the !alls of
Constantino"le, in Asia, Aars had for the third time .een ta0en, and :rzerum !as threatened# As in the "ast, Russian successes
alarmed :n%land& a fleet !as sent into the $ea of 'armora, as 1ismarc0 "hrased it, the conflict .et!een the !hale and the
ele"hant seemed imminent# The Tur0s, ho!e2er, felt constrained to acce"t the Russian terms, and the "reliminaries of "eace
!ere si%ned at $an $tefano early in 17# The "rinci"al "oint of this treaty that !as 2ital for Russia "ro2ided for the
esta.lishment of an autonomous 1ul%aria, e)tendin% from the 6anu.e to the Ae%ean and from the 1lac0 $ea !est!ard to
include 'acedonia# This !as in direct 2iolation of the Reichstadt a%reement !ith Austria# The ne! "rinci"ality, e)"ected to .e a
Russian "rotectorate, !ould %i2e Russia her lon%Isou%ht "re"onderance of "o!er in the re%ion of the $traits# :n%land o"enly,
Austria more cautiously, threatened Russia !ith !ar# The situation !as sa2ed .y 1ismarc0Fs offer to ser2e as an Dhonest .ro0er#G
An international con%ress !as assem.led at 1erlin to consider the !hole "ro.lem# The u"shot !as humiliatin% disa""ointment
for Russia# To .e sure, Russia retained some of the fruits of her 2ictory# $he reco2ered from her Rumanian ally the "art of
1essara.ia surrendered in 1LC, Rumania .ein% %i2en the Tur0ish 6o.rudMa in e)chan%e# Aars this time remained in the hands
of Russia, !hich recei2ed also the sea"ort of 1atum, thou%h as an o"en, not a military, "ort# 1ul%aria did indeed recei2e
autonomy, .ut it !as not the D1i%G 1ul%aria of !hich Russia had dreamed# Instead of the 1ul%aria of $an $tefano, the
autonomous "rinci"ality fronted only on the 1lac0 $ea, moreo2er, the autonomy of the zone south of the 1al0ans, 0no!n as
:astern Rumelia, !as to .e on a more restricted .asis than that of 1ul%aria "ro"er# The furious reaction of the frustrated Russian
"u.lic .oded no %ood for the future of relations .et!een the %o2ernment and the "eo"le# 7articularly distressin% !as the
"arado)ical fact that 1ul%aria !as %i2en a constitution, !hile her "rotector remained an autocracy# Nor !as it only in Russia that
the em"ire=s "resti%e !as diminished# 1ul%aria soon e2icted her Russian ad2isers *1L+, !hile $er.ia and Rumania turned for
su""ort to AustriaIHun%ary# In the international field, Russia !as left isolated, her sullen resentment at 1ismarc0=s D.etrayalG
of her interests led that statesman to conclude a formal alliance !ith the Ha"s.ur%s *179+#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >JLI>JC
DIn the international field, Russia !as left isolated, her sullen resentment at 1ismarc0=s D.etrayalG of her interests led that
statesman to conclude a formal alliance !ith the Ha"s.ur%s *179+# 1ismarc0Fs %enius did ena.le him to succeed in "artially
restorin% the Drei)aiser%und *11+, that "ale %host of the oneItime Concert of :uro"e# The a%reement .et!een 5ermany,
AustriaIHun%ary, and Russia !as, ho!e2er, an unsta.le one# Russia did not .ecome a mem.er of the Tri"le Alliance *1?+, and
in 17 1ismarc0 !as a.le to secure, not a rene!al of the tri"artite a%reement, .ut only a se"arate DreinsuranceG treaty !ith
Russia# In 19, Ale)ander III made his famous toast to the "rince of 'ontene%ro& DTo RussiaFs only sincere and faithful
friend#G This steadily %ro!in% isolation of Russia %radually dro2e her onto a ne! "ath# As normally ha""ens !hen t!o
countries are treated as "ariahs .y a dominant third "o!er, France and Russia mo2ed into e2er closer relations# France could
su""ly the ca"ital !hich Russia so .adly needed for industrial and es"ecially for rail!ay e)"ansion, Russia had the man"o!er
!hich could .e "oured across the 5erman .order in case of a fresh out.rea0 of hostilities .et!een 5ermany and France#
6emocratic, antiIclerical, and re"u.lican France, %lad to .e a.le to slee" at ni%ht !ithout !orryin% a.out noises alon% the Rhine,
unBuestionin%ly acce"ted the ideolo%ically stran%e, "olitically Buite natural, alliance !ith autocratic, -rthodo), and antiIli.eral
Russia# #s so often before, Russia +as Nuite +illing to re4ei"e the material benefits of 'estern 4i"iliDation +ithout being
aske& to %arti4i%ate s%iritually, Holy Russia seemed to ha2e less to fear from atheist French money than from the a.ru"t
termination of the career of 1ismarc0, !ho had so firmly .elie2ed in the necessity to D0ee" o"en the !ire to $t# 7eters.ur%#G 1y
19J, the 6ual Alliance !as an accom"lished fact, and the .alance of "o!er on the Continent had .ecome uneasy# It !as,
ho!e2er, o.2ious .oth to the Russian %o2ernment and to its French military mentors that, "endin% reeBui"ment of its artillery,
the Russian army could not face the realities of !ar# Accordin%ly, the Russian %o2ernment launched in 19 a mo2ement for
!orld "eace and disarmament# An international 7eace Con%ress met at The Ha%ue for t!o months in 199 and discussed 2arious
"ro.lems# It e2en recommended the esta.lishment of an international court of ar.itration, its maMor "ractical conseBuence !as to
.e the sa2in% of Russia from :n%lish !rath as a result of the 6o%%er 1an0 incident of 19@L# 7rofessed addiction to !orld "eace
did not "re2ent Russia from a""roachin% the .rin0 of limited !ar# $n 1A91, +ith the ai& of Fren4h loans alrea&y 4ontra4te&,
4onstru4tion of the long(%lanne& 5rans(iberian rail+ay +as begun. $n 1A9?, +ith the ba4king of both Fran4e an&
Germany, Russia e*erte& &i%lomati4 %ressure to for4e /a%an to renoun4e the Liaotung Peninsula in southern 2an4huria,
+hi4h she ha& +on in +ar +ith -hina. In 19C, China a%reed to allo! construction of a rail!ay across 'anchuria, immensely
shortenin% the milea%e from Ir0uts0 to 8ladi2osto0# The Chinese :astern Rail!ay and the RussoIChinese 1an0 !hich financed
it !ere the first fruits of French im"erialism o"eratin% under the cloa0 of Russian "o!er# In 19CI97, Russian attention !as
.riefly di2erted to the $traits, Russia e2en concluded !ith AustriaIHun%ary a secret a%reement, ne2er im"lemented, for di2ision
of the remainin% Tur0ish s"oils# In 19, ho!e2er, 5ermany=s enforced DleaseG of the Aiaocho! territory in the $hantun%
7eninsula "reci"itated a similar Russian lease of the <iaotun% 7eninsula# In her turn, e2er !atchful a%ainst Russian e)"ansion,
5reat 1ritain leased 4eiIHaiI4ei across the $trait from 7ort Arthur# 6es"ite 2ery considera.le e)tension of territory and the
.eatin% do!n of nationalist mo2ements !ithin the em"ire, RussiaFs e)ternal "olicies failed to restore the earlier international
"osition of the autocracy# Internally, the "ostIreform de2elo"ments did not !or0 out in a !ay fa2ora.le to maintenance of the
autocratic re%ime# If :manci"ation !as not the ine2ita.le "relude to Re2olution, it did fail to sol2e Qthe "easant BuestionQ and
"ermitted the ra"id rise of a ne! force incom"ati.le !ith the historic autocracy#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >JCI>J
DIn the nineteenth century most historians re%arded Russia as "art of :uro"e .ut it is no! .ecomin% increasin%ly clear that
Russia is another ci2ilization Buite se"arate from 4estern Ci2ilization# 1oth of these ci2ilizations are descended from Classical
Ci2ilization, .ut the connection !ith this "redecessor !as made so differently that t!o Buite different traditions came into
e)istence# Russian traditions !ere deri2ed from 1yzantium directly, 4estern traditions !ere deri2ed from the more moderate
Classical Ci2ilization indirectly, ha2in% "assed throu%h the 6ar0 A%es !hen there !as no state or %o2ernment in the 4est#
Russian ci2ilization !as created from three sources ori%inally& *1+ the $la2 "eo"le, *?+ 8i0in% in2aders from the north, and *>+
the 1yzantine tradition from the south# These three !ere fused to%ether as the result of a common e)"erience arisin% from
Russia=s e)"osed %eo%ra"hical "osition on the !estern ed%e of a %reat flatIland stretchin% for thousands of miles to the east# This
flatIland is di2ided horizontally into three zones of !hich the most southern is o"en "lain, !hile the most northern is o"en .ush
and tundra# The middle zone is forest# The southern zone *or ste""es+ consists of t!o "arts& the southern is a salty "lain !hich is
"ractically useless, !hile the northern "art, ne)t to the forest, is the famous .lac0Iearth re%ion of rich a%ricultural soil#
Enfortunately the eastern "ortion of this %reat :urasian "lain has .een %ettin% steadily drier for thousands of years, !ith the
conseBuence that the EralIAltaicIs"ea0in% "eo"les of central and eastIcentral Asia, "eo"les li0e the Huns, 1ul%ars, 'a%yars,
'on%ols, and Tur0s, ha2e "ushed !est!ard re"eatedly alon% the ste""e corridor .et!een the Erals and the Cas"ian $ea, ma0in%
the .lac0Iearth ste""es dan%erous for sedentary a%ricultural "eo"les# The $la2s first a""eared more than t!o thousand years a%o
as a "eaceful, e2asi2e "eo"le, !ith an economy .ased on huntin% and rudimentary a%riculture, in the forests of eastern 7oland#
These "eo"le slo!ly increased in num.ers, mo2in% northeast!ard throu%h the forests, mi)in% !ith the scattered Finnish huntin%
"eo"le !ho !ere there already# A.out A#6# 7@@ or so, the Northmen, !hom !e 0no! as 8i0in%s, came do!n from the 1altic
$ea, .y !ay of the ri2ers of eastern :uro"e, and e2entually reached the 1lac0 $ea and attac0ed Constantino"le# These Northmen
!ere tryin% to ma0e a !ay of life out of militarism, seizin% .ooty and sla2es, im"osin% tri.ute on conBuered "eo"les, collectin%
furs, honey, and !a) from the timid $la2s lur0in% in their forests, and e)chan%in% these for the colorful "roducts of the
1yzantine south# In time the Northmen set u" fortified tradin% "osts alon% their ri2er hi%h!ays, nota.ly at No2%orod in the
north, at $molens0 in the center, and at Aie2 in the south# They married $la2 !omen and im"osed on the rudimentary
a%riculturalIhuntin% economy of the $la2s a su"erstructure of a tri.uteIcollectin% state !ith an e)"loitati2e, militaristic,
commercial economy# 5his 4reate& the %attern of a t+o(4lass Russian so4iety +hi4h has 4ontinue& e"er sin4e, mu4h
intensifie& by subseNuent histori4al e"ents. $n time the ruling 4lass of Russia be4ame a4Nuainte& +ith !yDantine 4ulture.
5hey +ere &aDDle& by it, an& sought to im%ort it into their +il&erness &omains in the north. $n this +ay they im%ose& on
the la" %eo%les many of the a44essories of the !yDantine <m%ire, su4h as 7rtho&o* -hristianity, the !yDantine
al%habet, the !yDantine 4alen&ar, the use& of &ome& e44lesiasti4al ar4hite4ture, the name -Dar 8-aesar9 for their ruler,
an& innumerable other traits. 2ost im%ortant of all, they im%orte& the !yDantine totalitarian auto4ra4y, un&er +hi4h all
as%e4ts of life, in4lu&ing %oliti4al, e4onomi4, intelle4tual, an& religious, +ere regar&e& as &e%artments of go"ernment,
un&er the 4ontrol of an auto4rati4 ruler. 5hese beliefs +ere %art of the Greek tra&ition, an& +ere base& ultimately on
Greek inability to &istinguish bet+een state an& so4iety. in4e so4iety in4lu&es all human a4ti"ities, the Greeks ha&
assume& that the state must in4lu&e all human a4ti"ities. In the days of Classical 5reece this allIinclusi2e entity !as called
the polis, a term !hich meant .oth society and state, in the later Roman "eriod this allIinclusi2e entity !as called the im"erium#
The only difference !as that the "olis !as sometimes *as in 7ericles=s Athens a.out JL@ 1#C#+ democratic, !hile the im"erium
!as al!ays a military autocracy# 1oth !ere totalitarian, so that reli%ion and economic life !ere re%arded as s"heres of
%o2ernmental acti2ity# 5his totalitarian auto4rati4 tra&ition +as 4arrie& on to the !yDantine <m%ire an& %asse& from it to
the Russian state in the north an& to the later 7ttoman <m%ire in the south. $n the north this !yDantine tra&ition
4ombine& +ith the e*%erien4e of the 0orthmen to intensify the t+o(4lass stru4ture of la" so4iety. $n the ne+ la" 8or
7rtho&o*9 -i"iliDation this fusion, fitting together the !yDantine tra&ition an& the Biking tra&ition, 4reate& Russia. From
!yDantium 4ame auto4ra4y an& the i&ea of the state as an absolute %o+er an& as a totalitarian %o+er, as +ell as su4h
im%ortant a%%li4ations of these %rin4i%les as the i&ea that the state shoul& 4ontrol thought an& religion, that the -hur4h
shoul& be a bran4h of the go"ernment, that la+ is an ena4tment of the state, an& that the ruler is semi(&i"ine. From the
Bikings 4ame the i&ea that the state is a foreign im%ortation, base& on militarism an& su%%orte& by booty an& tribute,
that e4onomi4 inno"ations are the fun4tion of the go"ernment, that %o+er rather than la+ is the basis of so4ial life, an&
that so4iety, +ith its %eo%le an& its %ro%erty, is the %ri"ate %ro%erty of a foreign ruler. 5hese 4on4e%ts of the Russian
system must be em%hasiDe& be4ause they are so foreign to our o+n tra&itions. In the 4est, the Roman :m"ire *!hich
continued in the :ast as the 1yzantine :m"ire+ disa""eared in J7C and, althou%h many efforts !ere made to re2i2e it, there !as
clearly a "eriod, a.out 9@@, !hen there !as no em"ire, no state, and no "u.lic authority in the 4est# 5he state &isa%%eare&, yet
so4iety 4ontinue&. o also, religious an& e4onomi4 life 4ontinue&. 5his 4learly sho+e& that the state an& so4iety +ere not
the same thing, that so4iety +as the basi4 entity, an& that the state +as a 4ro+ning, but not essential, 4a% to the so4ial
stru4ture. 5his e*%erien4e ha& re"olutionary effe4ts. $t +as &is4o"ere& that man 4an li"e +ithout a state1 this be4ame the
basis of 'estern liberalism. $t +as &is4o"ere& that the state, if it e*ists, must ser"e men an& that it is in4orre4t to belie"e
that the %ur%ose of men is to ser"e the state. $t +as &is4o"ere& that e4onomi4 life, religious life, la+, an& %ri"ate %ro%erty
4an all e*ist an& fun4tion effe4ti"ely +ithout a state. From this emerge& laisseD(faire, se%aration of -hur4h an& tate,
rule of la+, an& the san4tity of %ri"ate %ro%erty. $n Rome, in !yDantium, an& in Russia, la+ +as regar&e& as an
ena4tment of a su%reme %o+er. $n the 'est, +hen no su%reme %o+er e*iste&, it +as &is4o"ere& that la+ still e*iste& as
the bo&y of rules +hi4h go"ern so4ial life. 5hus la+ +as foun& by obser"ation in the 'est, not ena4te& by auto4ra4y as in
the <ast. 5his meant that authority +as establishe& by la+ an& un&er the la+ in the 'est, +hile authority +as
establishe& by %o+er an& abo"e the la+ in the <ast. 5he 'est felt that the rules of e4onomi4 life +ere foun& an& not
ena4te&1 that in&i"i&uals ha& rights in&e%en&ent of, an& e"en o%%ose& to, %ubli4 authority1 that grou%s 4oul& e*ist, as the
-hur4h e*iste&, by right an& not by %ri"ilege, an& +ithout the nee& to ha"e any 4harter of in4or%oration entitling them
to e*ist as a grou% or a4t as a grou%1 that grou%s or in&i"i&uals 4oul& o+n %ro%erty as a right an& not as a %ri"ilege an&
that su4h %ro%erty 4oul& not be taken by for4e but must be taken by establishe& %ro4ess of la+. It !as em"hasized in the
4est that the !ay a thin% !as done !as more im"ortant than !hat !as done, !hile in the :ast !hat !as done !as far more
si%nificant than the !ay in !hich it !as done# 5here +as also another basi4 &istin4tion bet+een 'estern -i"iliDation an&
Russian -i"iliDation. 5his +as &eri"e& from the history of -hristianity. This ne! faith came into Classical Ci2ilization from
$emitic society#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, Cha"ter 7 *Creation of the Russian Ci2ilization+, "# 1I>
DThe $la2s !ere su.Mected at first to the 8i0in% e)"loitati2e system# These 8i0in%s co"ied 1yzantine culture, and did it 2ery
consciously, in their reli%ion, in their !ritin%, in their state, in their la!s, in art, architecture, "hiloso"hy, and literature# These rulers
!ere outsiders !ho inno2ated all the "olitical, reli%ious, economic, and intellectual life of the ne! ci2ilization# There !as no state&
forei%ners .rou%ht one in# There !as no or%anized reli%ion& one !as im"orted from 1yzantium and im"osed on the $la2s# The $la2
economic life !as on a lo! le2el, a forest su.sistence economy !ith huntin% and rudimentary a%riculture& on this the 8i0in%s im"osed
an international tradin% system# There !as no reli%iousI"hiloso"hic outloo0& the ne! $tateIChurch su"erstructure im"osed on the
$la2s an outloo0 deri2ed from 5ree0 dualistic idealism# And, finally, the :ast ne2er e)"erienced a 6ar0 A%es to sho! it that society is
distinct from the state and more fundamental than the state# This summary .rin%s Russian society do!n to a.out 1?@@# In the ne)t si)
hundred years ne! e)"eriences merely intensified the Russian de2elo"ment# These e)"eriences arose from the fact that the ne!
Russian society found itself cau%ht .et!een the "o"ulation "ressures of the raiders from the ste""es to the east and the "ressure of the
ad2ancin% technolo%y of 4estern Ci2ilization# The "ressure of the EralIAltaic s"ea0ers from the eastern ste""es culminated in the
'on%ol *Tarter+ in2asions after 1?@@# The 'on%ols conBuered Russia and esta.lished a tri.uteI%atherin% system !hich continued for
%enerations# Thus there continued to .e a forei%n e)"loitin% system im"osed o2er the $la2 "eo"le# In time the 'on%ols made the
"rinces of 'osco! their chief tri.ute collectors for most of Russia# A little later the 'on%ols made a court of hi%hest a""eal in
'osco!, so that .oth money and Mudicial cases flo!ed to 'osco!# These continued to flo! e2en after the "rinces of 'osco! *1>@+
led the successful re2olt !hich eMected the 'on%ols# As the "o"ulation "ressure from the :ast decreased, the technolo%ical "ressure
from the 4est increased *after 1L@@+# 1y 4estern technolo%y !e mean such thin%s as %un"o!der and firearms, .etter a%riculture,
countin% and "u.lic finance, sanitation, "rintin%, and the s"read of education# Russia did not %et the full im"act of these "ressures until
late, and then from secondary sources, such as $!eden and 7oland, rather than from :n%land or France# Ho!e2er, Russia !as
hammered out .et!een the "ressures from the :ast and those from the 4est# The result of this hammerin% !as the Russian autocracy,
a military, tri.uteI%atherin% machine su"erim"osed on the $la2 "o"ulation# The "o2erty of this "o"ulation made it im"ossi.le for them
to %et firearms or any other ad2anta%es of 4estern technolo%y# -nly the state had these thin%s, .ut the state could afford them only .y
drainin% !ealth from the "eo"le# This drainin% of !ealth from .elo! u"!ard "ro2ided arms and 4estern technolo%y for the rulers .ut
0e"t the ruled too "oor to o.tain these thin%s, so that all "o!er !as concentrated at the to"# The continued "ressure from the 4est
made it im"ossi.le for the rulers to use the !ealth that accumulated in their hands to finance economic im"ro2ements !hich mi%ht
ha2e raised the standards of li2in% of the ruled, since this accumulation had to .e used to increase Russian "o!er rather than Russian
!ealth# As a conseBuence, "ressure do!n!ard increased and the autocracy .ecame more autocratic# In order to %et a .ureaucracy for
the army and for %o2ernment ser2ice, the landlords !ere %i2en "ersonal "o!ers o2er the "easants, creatin% a system of serfdom in the
:ast Must at the time that medie2al serfdom !as disa""earin% in the 4est# 7ri2ate "ro"erty, "ersonal freedom, and direct contact !ith
the state *for ta)ation or for Mustice+ !ere lost to the Russian serfs# The landlords !ere %i2en these "o!ers so that the landlords !ould
.e free to fi%ht and !illin% to fi%ht for 'osco! or to ser2e in 'osco!=s autocracy# 1y 17>@ the direct "ressure of the 4est u"on
Russia .e%an to !ea0en some!hat .ecause of the decline of $!eden, of 7oland, and of Tur0ey, !hile 7russia !as too occu"ied !ith
Austria and !ith France to "ress 2ery forci.ly on Russia# Thus, the $la2s, usin% an ado"ted 4estern technolo%y of a rudimentary
character, !ere a.le to im"ose their su"remacy on the "eo"les to the :ast# The "easants of Russia, see0in% to esca"e from the "ressures
of serfdom in the area !est of the Erals, .e%an to flee east!ard, and e2entually reached the 7acific# The Russian state made e2ery
effort to sto" this mo2ement .ecause it felt that the "easants must remain to !or0 the land and "ay ta)es if the landlords !ere to .e
a.le to maintain the military autocracy !hich !as considered necessary# :2entually the autocracy follo!ed the "easants east!ard, and
Russian society came to occu"y the !hole of northern Asia# As the "ressure from the :ast and the "ressure from the 4est declined,
the autocracy, ins"ired "erha"s .y "o!erful reli%ious feelin%s, .e%an to ha2e a .ad conscience to!ard its o!n "eo"le# At the same
time it still sou%ht to !esternize itself# It .ecame increasin%ly clear that this "rocess of !esternization could not .e restricted to the
autocracy itself, .ut must .e e)tended do!n!ard to include the Russian "eo"le# The autocracy found, in 11?, that it could not defeat
Na"oleonFs army !ithout callin% on the Russian "eo"le# Its ina.ility to defeat the 4estern allies in the Crimean 4ar of 1LJI1LC, and
the %ro!in% threat of the Central 7o!ers after the AustroI5erman alliance of 179, made it clear that Russia must .e !esternized, in
technolo%y if not in ideolo%y, throu%hout all classes of the society, in order to sur2i2e# This meant, 2ery s"ecifically, that Russia had to
o.tain the A%ricultural Re2olution and industrialism, .ut these in turn reBuired that a.ility to read and !rite .e e)tended to the
"easants and that the rural "o"ulation .e reduced and the ur.an "o"ulation .e increased# These needs, a%ain, meant that serfdom had to
.e a.olished and that modern sanitation had to .e introduced# Thus one need led to another, so that the !hole society had to .e
reformed# In ty"ically Russian fashion all these thin%s !ere underta0en .y %o2ernment action, .ut as one reform led to another it
.ecame a Buestion !hether the autocracy and the landed u""er classes !ould .e !illin% to allo! the reform mo2ement to %o so far as
to Meo"ardize their "o!er and "ri2ile%es# For e)am"le, the a.olition of serfdom made it necessary for the landed no.ility to cease to
re%ard the "easants as "ri2ate "ro"erty !hose only contact !ith the state !as throu%h themsel2es# $imilarly, industrialism and
ur.anism !ould create ne! social classes of .our%eoisie and !or0ers# These ne! classes ine2ita.ly !ould ma0e "olitical and social
demands 2ery distasteful to the autocracy and the landed no.ility# If the reforms led to demands for nationalism, ho! could a dynastic
monarchy such as the Romano2 autocracy yield to such demands !ithout ris0in% the loss of Finland, 7oland, the E0raine, or Armenia3
As lon% as the desire to !esternize and the .ad conscience of the u""er classes !or0ed to%ether, reform ad2anced# 1ut as soon as the
lo!er classes .e%an to ma0e demands, reaction a""eared# -n this .asis the history of Russia !as an alternation of reform and reaction
from the ei%hteenth century to the Re2olution of 1917# 7eter the 5reat *1C9I17?L+ and Catherine the 5reat *17C?I179C+ !ere
su""orters of !esternization and reform# 7aul I *179CI1@1+ !as a reactionary# Ale)ander I *1@1I1?L+ and Ale)ander II *1LLI11+
!ere reformers, !hile Nicholas I *1?LI1LL+ and Ale)ander III *11I19J+ !ere reactionaries# As a conseBuence of these 2arious
acti2ities, .y r CJ serfdom had .een a.olished, and a fairly modern system of la!, of Mustice, and of education had .een esta.lished,
local %o2ernment had .een some!hat modernized, a fairly %ood financial and fiscal system had .een esta.lished, and an army .ased
on uni2ersal military ser2ice *.ut lac0in% in eBui"ment+ had .een created# -n the other hand, the autocracy continued, !ith full "o!er
in the hands of !ea0 men, su.Mect to all 0inds of "ersonal intri%ues of the .asest 0ind, the freed serfs had no adeBuate lands, the ne!ly
literate !ere su.Mect to a ruthless censorshi" !hich tried to control their readin%, !ritin%, and thin0in%, the ne!ly freed and ne!ly
ur.anized !ere su.Mect to constant "olice su"er2ision, the nonIRussian "eo"les of the em"ire !ere su.Mected to !a2es of Russification
and 7anI$la2ism, the Mudicial system and the fiscal system !ere administered !ith an ar.itrary disre%ard of all "ersonal ri%hts or
eBuity, and, in %eneral, the autocracy !as .oth tyrannical and !ea0# The first "eriod of reform in the nineteenth century, that under
Ale)ander I, resulted from a fusion of t!o factors& the QconscienceIstric0en %entryQ and the !esternizin% autocracy# Ale)ander himself
re"resented .oth factors# As a result of his reforms and those of his %randmother, Catherine the 5reat, e2en earlier, there a""eared in
Russia, for the first time, a ne! educated class !hich !as !ider than the %entry, .ein% recruited from sons of -rthodo) "riests or of
state officials *includin% army officers+ and, in %eneral, from the frin%es of the autocracy and the %entry# 4hen the autocracy .ecame
reactionary under Nicholas I, this ne!ly educated %rou", !ith some su""ort from the conscienceIstric0en %entry, formed a
re2olutionary %rou" %enerally called the QIntelli%entsia#Q At first this ne! %rou" !as "roI4estern, .ut later it .ecame increasin%ly antiI
4estern and Q$la2o"hileQ .ecause of its disillusionment !ith the 4est# In %eneral, the 4esternizers ar%ued that Russia !as merely a
.ac0!ard and .ar.aric frin%e of 4estern Ci2ilization, that it had made no cultural contri.ution of its o!n in its "ast, and that it must
"ass throu%h the same economic, "olitical, and social de2elo"ments as the 4est# The 4esternizers !ished to s"eed u" these
de2elo"ments# The $la2o"hiles insisted that Russia !as an entirely different ci2ilization from 4estern Ci2ilization and !as much
su"erior .ecause it had a "rofound s"irituality *as contrasted !ith 4estern materialism+, it had a dee" irrationality in intimate touch
!ith 2ital forces and sim"le li2in% 2irtues *in contrast to 4estern rationality, artificiality, and hy"ocrisy+, it had its o!n nati2e form of
social or%anization, the "easant 2illa%e *commune+ "ro2idin% a fully satisfyin% social and emotional life *in contrast to 4estern
frustration of atomistic indi2idualism in sordid cities+, and that a $ocialist society could .e .uilt in Russia out of the sim"le selfI
%o2ernin%, coo"erati2e "easant commune !ithout any need to "ass alon% the 4estern route mar0ed .y industrialism, .our%eoisie
su"remacy, or "arliamentary democracy# As industrialism %re! in the 4est, in the "eriod 1>@I1L@, the Russian 4esternizers li0e 7#
/# Chaadaye2 *179>I1LC+ and Ale)ander Herzen *11?I17@+ .ecame increasin%ly disillusioned !ith the 4est, es"ecially !ith its
ur.an slums, factory system, social disor%anization, middleIclass moneyI%ru..in% and "ettiness, its a.solutist state, and its ad2anced
!ea"ons# -ri%inally the 4esternizers in Russia had .een ins"ired .y French thin0ers, !hile the $la2o"hiles had .een ins"ired .y
5erman thin0ers li0e $chellin% and He%el, so that the shift from 4esternizers to $la2o"hiles mar0ed a shift from French to 5ermanic
teachers# The $la2o"hiles su""orted orthodo)y and monarchy, althou%h they !ere 2ery critical of the e)istin% -rthodo) Church and
of the e)istin% autocracy# They claimed that the latter !as a 5ermanic im"ortation, and that the former, instead of remainin% a nati2e
or%anic %ro!th of $la2ic s"irituality, had .ecome little more than a tool of autocracy# Instead of su""ortin% these institutions, many
$la2o"hiles !ent out into the 2illa%es to %et in touch !ith "ure $la2ic s"irituality and 2irtue in the sha"e of the untutored "easant#
These missionaries, called Qnarodni0i,Q !ere %reeted !ith unconcealed sus"icion and distaste .y the "easants, .ecause they !ere cityI
.red stran%ers, !ere educated, and e)"ressed antiIChurch and antiI%o2ernmental ideas# Already disillusioned !ith the 4est, the
Church, and the %o2ernment, and no! reMected .y the "easants, the Intelli%entsia could find no social %rou" on !hich to .ase a reform
"ro%ram# The result !as the %ro!th of nihilism and of anarchism# Nihilism !as a reMection of all con2entions in the name of
indi2idualism, .oth of these conce"ts understood in a Russian sense# $ince man is a man and not an animal .ecause of his indi2idual
de2elo"ment and %ro!th in a society made u" of con2entions, the nihilist reMection of con2entions ser2ed to destroy man rather than to
li.erate him as they e)"ected# The destruction of con2entions !ould not raise man to .e an an%el, .ut !ould lo!er him to .e an
animal# 'oreo2er, the indi2idual that the nihilists sou%ht to li.erate .y this destruction of con2entions !as not !hat 4estern culture
understands .y the !ord Qindi2idual#Q Rather it !as Qhumanity#Q The nihilists had no res"ect !hate2er for the concrete indi2idual or
for indi2idual "ersonality# Rather, .y destroyin% all con2entions and stri""in% all "ersons na0ed of all con2entional distinctions, they
ho"ed to sin0 e2eryone, and es"ecially themsel2es, into the amor"hous, indistin%uisha.le mass of humanity# The nihilists !ere
com"letely atheist materialist, irrational, doctrinaire, des"otic, and 2iolent# They reMected all thou%ht of self so lon% as humanity
suffered, they Q.ecame atheists .ecause they could not acce"t a Creator 4ho made an e2il, incom"lete !orld full of sufferin%Q, they
reMected all thou%ht, all art, all idealism, all con2entions, .ecause these !ere su"erficial, unnecessary lu)uries and therefore e2il, they
reMected marria%e, .ecause it !as con2entional .onda%e on the freedom of lo2e, they reMected "ri2ate "ro"erty, .ecause it !as a tool of
indi2idual o""ression, some e2en reMected clothin% as a corru"tion of natural innocence, they reMected 2ice and licentiousness as
unnecessary u""erIclass lu)uries, as Ni0olai 1erdyae2 "ut it& QIt is -rthodo) asceticism turned inside out, and asceticism !ithout
5race# At the .ase of Russian nihilism, !hen %ras"ed in its "urity and de"th, lies the -rthodo) reMection of the !orld # # #, the
ac0no!led%ment of the sinfulness of all riches and lu)ury, of all creati2e "rofusion in art and in thou%ht#### Nihilism considers as sinful
lu)ury not only art, meta"hysics, and s"iritual 2alues, .ut reli%ion also#### Nihilism is a demand for na0edness, for the stri""in% of
oneself of all the tra""in%s of culture, for the annihilation of all historical traditions, for the settin% free of the natural man#### The
intellectual asceticism of nihilism found e)"ression in materialism, any more su.tle "hiloso"hy !as "roclaimed a sin#### Not to .e a
materialist !as to .e ta0en as a moral sus"ect# If you !ere not a materialist, then you !ere in fa2our of the ensla2ement of man .oth
intellectually and "olitically#Q *N# 1erdyae2, :rigin of .ussian 9ommunism *<ondon, 5eoffrey 1les, 19J+, "# JL#+ This fantastic
"hiloso"hy is of %reat si%nificance .ecause it "re"ared the %round for 1olshe2ism# -ut of the same s"iritual sic0ness !hich "roduced
nihilism emer%ed anarchism# To the anarchist, as re2ealed .y the founder of the mo2ement, 'i0hail 1a0unin *11JI17C+, the chief of
all ensla2in% and needless con2entionalities !as the state# The disco2ery that the state !as not identical !ith society, a disco2ery
!hich the 4est had made a thousand years earlier than Russia, could ha2e .een a li.eratin% disco2ery to Russia if, li0e the 4est, the
Russians had .een !illin% to acce"t .oth state and society, each in its "ro"er "lace# 1ut this !as Buite im"ossi.le in the Russian
tradition of fanatical totalitarianism# To this tradition the totalitarian state had .een found e2il and must, accordin%ly, .e com"letely
destroyed, and re"laced .y the totalitarian society in !hich the indi2idual could .e a.sor.ed# Anarchism !as the ne)t ste" after the
disillusionment of the narodni0i and the a%itations of the nihilists# The re2olutionary Intelli%entsia, una.le to find any social %rou" on
!hich to .ase a reform "ro%ram, and con2inced of the e2il of all con2entional esta.lishments and of the latent "erfection in the
Russian masses, ado"ted a "ro%ram of "ure "olitical direct action of the sim"lest 0ind& assassination# 'erely .y 0illin% the leaders of
states *not only in Russia .ut throu%hout the !orld+, %o2ernments could .e eliminated and the masses freed for social coo"eration and
a%rarian $ocialism# From this .ac0%round came the assassination of Czar Ale)ander II in 11, of Ain% Hum.ert of Italy in 19@@, of
7resident 'cAinley in 19@1, as !ell as many anarchist outra%es in Russia, $"ain, and Italy in the "eriod 19@I191@# The failure of
%o2ernments to disa""ear in the face of this terrorist a%itation, es"ecially in Russia, !here the o""ression of autocracy increased after
11, led, little .y little, to a fadin% of the Intelli%entsia=s faith in destructi2e 2iolence as a constructi2e action, as !ell as in the
satisfyin% "easant commune, and in the sur2i2al of natural innocence in the unthin0in% masses#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, Cha"ter 7 *Creation of the Russian Ci2ilization+, "# CI91
D-n the e2e of the First 4orld 4ar, the Russian economy !as in a 2ery du.ious state of health# As !e ha2e said, it !as a
"atch!or0 affair, 2ery much lac0in% in inte%ration, 2ery de"endent on forei%n and %o2ernment su""ort, rac0ed .y la.or
distur.ances, and, !hat !as e2en more threatenin%, .y la.or distur.ances .ased on "olitical rather than on economic moti2es,
and shot throu%h !ith all 0inds of technolo%ical !ea0nesses and discords# As an e)am"le of the last, !e mi%ht mention the fact
that o2er half of RussiaFs "i% iron !as made !ith charcoal as late as 19@@ and some of RussiaFs most "romisin% natural resources
!ere left unused as a result of the restricti2e outloo0 of mono"oly ca"italists# The failure to de2elo" a domestic mar0et left costs
of distri.ution fantastically hi%h and left the Russian "er ca"ita consum"tion of almost all im"ortant commodities fantastically
lo!# 'oreo2er, to ma0e matters !orse, Russia as a conseBuence of these thin%s !as losin% %round in the race of "roduction !ith
France, 5ermany, and the Enited $tates# These economic de2elo"ments had "rofound "olitical effects under the !ea0I!illed
Czar Nicholas II *19JI1917+# For a.out a decade Nicholas tried to com.ine ruthless ci2il re"ression, economic ad2ance, and an
im"erialist forei%n "olicy in the 1al0ans and the Far :ast, !ith "ious !orld!ide "u.licity for "eace and uni2ersal disarmament,
domestic distractions li0e antiI$emitic massacres *"o%roms+, for%ed terroristic documents, and fa0ed terroristic attem"ts on the
li2es of hi%h officials, includin% himself# This unli0ely melan%e colla"sed com"letely in 19@LI19@# 4hen Count 4itte
attem"ted to .e%in some 0ind of constitutional de2elo"ment .y %ettin% in touch !ith the functionin% units of local %o2ernment
*the zemst2os, !hich had .een effecti2e in the famine of 191+, he !as ousted from his "osition .y an intri%ue led .y the
murderous 'inister of Interior 8yachesla2 7leh2e *19@>+# The ci2il head of the -rthodo) Church, Aonstantin 7o.edonostse2
*1?7I19@7+ "ersecuted all dissentin% reli%ions, !hile allo!in% the -rthodo) Church to .ecome en2elo"ed in i%norance and
corru"tion# 'ost Roman Catholic monasteries in 7oland !ere confiscated, !hile "riests of that reli%ion !ere for.idden to lea2e
their 2illa%es# In Finland construction of <utheran churches !as for.idden, and schools of this reli%ion !ere ta0en o2er .y the
'osco! %o2ernment# The Je!s !ere "ersecuted, restricted to certain "ro2inces *the 7ale+, e)cluded form most economic
acti2ities, su.Mected to hea2y ta)es *e2en on their reli%ious acti2ities+, and allo!ed to form only ten "ercent of the "u"ils in
schools *e2e in 2illa%es !hich !ere almost com"letely Je!ish and !here the schools !ere su""orted entirely .y Je!ish ta)es+#
Hundreds of Je!s !ere massacred and thousands of their .uildin%s !rec0ed in systematic threeIday "o%roms tolerated and
sometimes encoura%ed .y the "olice# 'arria%es *and children+ of Roman Catholic Eniates !ere made ille%itimate# The
'oslems in Asia and else!here !ere also "ersecuted# :2ery effort !as made to Russify nonIRussian national %rou"s, es"ecially
on the !estern frontiers# The Finns, 1altic 5ermans, and 7oles !ere not allo!ed to use their o!n lan%ua%es in "u.lic life, and
had to use Russian e2en in "ri2ate schools and e2en on the "rimary le2el# Administrati2e autonomy in these areas, e2en that
solemnly "romised to Finland lon% .efore, !as destroyed, and they !ere dominated .y Russian "olice, Russian education, and
the Russian Army# The "eo"les of these areas !ere su.Mected to military conscri"tion more ri%orously than the Russians
themsel2es, and !ere Russified !hile in the ran0s# A%ainst the Russians themsel2es, un.elie2a.le e)tremes of es"iona%e,
counteres"iona%e, censorshi", "ro2ocation, im"risonment !ithout trial, and outri%ht .rutality !ere em"loyed# The
re2olutionaries res"onded !ith similar measures cro!ned .y assassination# No one could trust anyone else, .ecause
re2olutionaries !ere in the "olice, and mem.ers of the "olice !ere in the hi%hest ran0s of the re2olutionaries# 5eor%i 5a"on, a
"riest secretly in the "ay of the %o2ernment, !as encoura%ed to form la.or unions and lead !or0ersF a%itations in order to
increase the em"loyersF de"endence on the autocracy, .ut !hen, in 19@L, 5a"on led a mass march of !or0ers to the 4inter
7alace to "resent a "etition to the czar, they !ere attac0ed .y the troo"s and hundreds !ere shot# 5a"on !as murdered the
follo!in% year .y the re2olutionaries as a traitor# In order to discredit the re2olutionaries, the central 7olice 6e"artment in $t#
7eters.ur% Q"rinted at the %o2ernment e)"ense 2iolent a""eals to riotQ !hich !ere circulated all o2er the country .y an
or%anization of reactionaries# In one year *19@C+ the %o2ernment e)iled >L,@@@ "ersons !ithout trial and e)ecuted o2er C@@
"ersons under a ne! decree !hich fi)ed the death "enalty for ordinary crimes li0e ro..ery or insults to officials# In the three
years 19@CI19@, L,1J@ officials !ere 0illed or !ounded, and ?,>? arrested "ersons !ere e)ecuted# In 19@9 it !as re2ealed that
a "olice a%ent, Azeff, had .een a mem.er of the Central Committee of the $ocialist Re2olutionaries for years and had
"artici"ated in "lots to murder hi%h officials, includin% 7leh2e and the 5rand 6u0e $er%ius, !ithout !arnin% these# The former
chief of "olice !ho re2ealed this fact !as sent to "rison for doin% so# Ender conditions such as these no sensi.le %o2ernment
!as "ossi.le and all a""eals for moderation !ere crushed .et!een the e)tremists from .oth sides# The defeats of Russian forces
in the !ar !ith Ja"an in 19@JI19@L .rou%ht e2ents to a head# All dissatisfied %rou"s .e%an to a%itate, culminatin% in a successful
%eneral stri0e in -cto.er 19@L# The em"eror .e%an to offer "olitical reforms, althou%h !hat !as e)tended one day !as
freBuently ta0en .ac0 shortly after# A consultati2e assem.ly, the 6uma, !as esta.lished, elected on a .road suffra%e .ut .y 2ery
com"licated "rocedures desi%ned to reduce the democratic element# In the face of a%rarian atrocities, endless stri0es, and
mutinies in .oth the army and na2y, the censorshi" !as tem"orarily lifted, and the first 6uma met *'ay 19@C+# It had a num.er
of a.le men and !as dominated .y t!o hastily or%anized "olitical "arties, the Cadets *some!hat left of Center+ and the
-cto.rists *some!hat ri%ht of Center+# 7lans for !holesale reform !ere in the !ind, and, !hen the czarFs chief minister reMected
such "lans, he !as o2er!helmin%ly censured .y the 6uma#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, Cha"ter 7 *Creation of the Russian Ci2ilization+, "# 97I99
DThe %eneral trend of intellectual de2elo"ment in Russia in the years .efore 191J could hardly .e re%arded as ho"eful# To .e
sure, there !ere considera.le ad2ances in some fields such as literacy, natural science, mathematics, and economic thou%ht, .ut
these contri.uted little to any %ro!th of moderation or to RussiaFs %reatest intellectual need, a more inte%rated outloo0 on life#
The influence of the old -rthodo) reli%ious attitude continued e2en in those !ho most em"hatically reMected it# The .asic
attitude of the 4estern tradition had %ro!n to!ard di2ersity and toleration, .ased on the .elief that e2ery as"ect of life and of
human e)"erience and e2ery indi2idual has some "lace in the com"le) structure of reality if that "lace can only .e found and
that, accordin%ly, unity of the !hole of life can .e reached .y !ay of di2ersity rather than .y any com"ulsory uniformity# This
idea !as entirely forei%n to the Russian mind# Any Russian thin0er, and hordes of other Russians !ith no ca"acity for thou%ht,
!ere dri2en .y an insatia.le thirst to find the D0eyG to life and to truth# -nce this D0eyG has .een found, all other as"ects of
human e)"erience must .e reMected as e2il, and all men must .e com"elled to acce"t that 0ey as the !hole of life in a dreadful
unity of uniformity# To ma0e matters !orse, many Russian thin0ers sou%ht to analyze the com"le)ities of human e)"erience .y
"olarizin% these into antitheses of mutually e)clusi2e dualisms& 4esterners 2ersus $la2o"hiles, indi2idualism 2ersus community,
freedom 2ersus fate, re2olutionary 2ersus reactionary, nature 2ersus con2entions, autocracy 2ersus anarchy, and such# There !as
no lo%ical correlation .et!een these, so that indi2idual thin0ers freBuently em.raced either side of any antithesis, formin% an
incredi.le mi)ture of emotionally held faiths# 'oreo2er, indi2idual thin0ers freBuently shifted from one side to another, or e2en
oscillated .ac0 and forth .et!een the e)tremes of these dualisms# In the most ty"ical Russian minds .oth e)tremes !ere held
simultaneously, re%ardless of lo%ical com"ati.ility, in some 0ind of hi%her mystic unity .eyond rational analysis# Thus, Russian
thou%ht "ro2ides us !ith stri0in% e)am"les of 5odIinto)icated atheists, re2olutionary reactionaries, 2iolent nonresisters,
.elli%erent "acifists, com"ulsory li.erators, and indi2idualistic totalitarians# The .asic characteristic of Russian thou%ht is its
e)tremism# This too0 t!o forms& *1+ any "ortion of human e)"erience to !hich alle%iance !as %i2en .ecame the !hole truth,
demandin% total alle%iance, all else .ein% e2il dece"tion, and *?+ e2ery li2in% "erson !as e)"ected to acce"t this same "ortion or
.e damned as a minion of antiIChrist# Those !ho em.raced the state !ere e)"ected to em.race it as an autocracy in !hich the
indi2idual had no ri%hts, else their alle%iance !as not "ure, those !ho denied the state !ere e)"ected to reMect it utterly .y
ado"tin% anarchism# Those !ho .ecame materialists had to .ecome com"lete nihilists !ithout "lace for any con2ention,
ceremony, or sentiment# Those !ho Buestioned some minor as"ect of the reli%ious system !ere e)"ected to .ecome militant
atheists, and if they did not ta0e this ste" themsel2es, !ere dri2en to it .y the cler%y# Those !ho !ere considered to .e s"iritual
or said they !ere s"iritual !ere for%i2en e2ery 0ind of corru"tion and lechery *li0e Ras"utin+ .ecause such material as"ects !ere
irrele2ant# Those !ho sym"athized !ith the o""ressed !ere e)"ected to .ury themsel2es in the masses, li2in% li0e them, eatin%
di0e them, dressin% li0e them, and renouncin% all culture and thou%ht *if they .elie2ed the masses lac0ed these thin%s+# The
e)tremism of Russian thin0ers can .e seen in their attitudes to!ard such .asic as"ects of human e)"erience as "ro"erty, reason,
the state, art, se), or "o!er# Al!ays there !as a fanatical tendency to eliminate as sinful and e2il anythin% e)ce"t the one as"ect
!hich the thin0er considered to .e the 0ey to the cosmos# Ale)ei Ahomya0o2 *1@JI1C@+, a $la2o"hile, !anted to reMect reason
com"letely, re%ardin% it as Dthe mortal sin of the 4est,G !hile F\dor 6ostoe2s0i *1?1I11+ !ent so far in this direction that he
!ished to destroy all lo%ic and all arithmetic, see0in%, he said, Dto free humanity from the tyranny of t!o "lus t!o eBuals four#G
'any Russian thin0ers, lon% .efore the $o2iets, re%arded all "ro"erty as sinful# -thers felt the same !ay a.out se)# <eo Tolstoi,
the %reat no2elist and essayist *1?I191@+, considered all "ro"erty and all se) to .e e2il# 4estern thou%ht, !hich has usually
tried to find a "lace in the cosmos for e2erythin% and has felt that anythin% is acce"ta.le in its "ro"er "lace, recoils from such
fanaticism# The 4est, for e)am"le, has rarely felt it necessary to Mustify the e)istence of art, .ut many thin0ers in Russia *li0e
7lato lon% a%o+ ha2e reMected all art as e2il# Tolstoi, amon% others, had moments *as in the essay #hat 5s ,rtF -f 197 or :n
Sha)espeare and the Drama of 19@>+ !hen he denounced most art and literature, includin% his o!n no2els, as 2ain, irrele2ant,
and satanic# $imilarly the 4est, !hile it has sometimes loo0ed as0ance at se) and more freBuently has o2erIem"hasized it, has
%enerally felt that se) had a "ro"er function in its "ro"er "lace# In Russia, ho!e2er, many thin0ers includin% once a%ain Tolstoi
*The Areutzer $onata of 19+, ha2e insisted that se) !as e2il in all "laces and under all circumstances, and most sinful in
marria%e# The disru"ti2e effects of such ideas u"on social or family life can .e seen in the later years of TolstoiFs "ersonal life,
culminatin% in his last final hatred of his lon%Isufferin% !ife !hom he came to re%ard as the instrument of his fall from %race#
1ut !hile Tolstoi "raised marria%e !ithout se), other Russians, !ith e2en %reater 2ehemence, "raised se) !ithout marria%e,
re%ardin% this social institution as an unnecessary im"ediment in the "ath of "ure human im"ulse# In some !ays !e find in
Tolstoi the culmination of Russian thou%ht# He reMected all "o!er, all 2iolence, most art, all se), all "u.lic authority, and all
"ro"erty as e2il# To him the 0ey of the uni2erse !as to he found in ChristFs inMunction, DResist not e2il#G All other as"ects of
ChristFs teachin%s e)ce"t those !hich flo! directly from this !ere reMected, includin% any .elief in ChristFs di2inity or in a
"ersonal 5od# From this inMunction flo!ed Tolstoi=s ideas of non2iolence and nonresistance and his faith that only in this !ay
could manFs ca"acity for a s"iritual lo2e so "o!erful that it could sol2e all social "ro.lems he li.erated# This idea of Tolstoi,
althou%h .ased on ChristFs inMunction, is not so much a reflection of Christianity as it is of the .asic Russian assum"tion that any
"hysical defeat must re"resent a s"iritual 2ictory, and that the latter could .e achie2ed only throu%h the former# $uch a "oint of
2ie! could .e held only .y "ersons to !hom all "ros"erity or ha""iness is not only irrele2ant .ut sinful# And this "oint of 2ie!
could .e held !ith such fanaticism only .y "ersons to !hom life, family, or any o.Mecti2e %ain is !orthless# This is a dominant
idea in all the Russian Intelli%entsia, an idea %oin% .ac0 throu%h 7lato to ancient Asia& All o.Mecti2e reality is of no im"ortance
e)ce"t as sym.ols for some su.Mecti2e truth# This !as, of course, the "oint of 2ie! of the Neo"latonic thin0ers of the early
Christian "eriod# It !as %enerally the "oint of 2ie! of the early Christian heretics and of those 4estern heretics li0e the Cathari
*Al.i%enses+ !ho !ere deri2ed from this :astern "hiloso"hic "osition# In modern Russian thou%ht it is !ell re"resented .y
6ostoe2s0i, !ho !hile chronolo%ically earlier than Tolstoi is s"iritually later# To 6ostoe2s0i e2ery o.Mect and e2ery act is
merely a sym.ol for some elusi2e s"iritual truth# From this "oint of 2ie! comes an outloo0 !hich ma0es his characters almost
incom"rehensi.le to the a2era%e "erson in the 4estern tradition& if such a character o.tains a fortune, he cries, DI am ruinedPG If
he is acBuitted on a murder char%e, or seems li0ely to .e, he e)claims, QI am condemned,Q and see0s to incriminate himself in
order to ensure the "unishment !hich is so necessary for his o!n s"iritual selfIacBuittal# If he deli.erately misses his o""onent
in a duel, he has a %uilty conscience, and says, DI should not ha2e inMured him thus, I should ha2e 0illed himPG In each case the
s"ea0er cares nothin% a.out "ro"erty, "unishment, or life# He cares only a.out s"iritual 2alues& asceticism, %uilt, remorse, inMury
to oneFs selfIres"ect# In the same !ay, the early reli%ious thin0ers, .oth Christian and nonIChristian, re%arded all o.Mects as
sym.ols for s"iritual 2alues, all tem"oral success as an inhi.ition on s"iritual life, and felt that !ealth could .e o.tained only .y
%ettin% rid of "ro"erty, life could .e found only .y dyin% *a direct Buotation from 7lato+, eternity could .e found only if time
ended, and the soul could .e freed only if the .ody !ere ensla2ed# Thus, as late as 191@ !hen Tolstoi died, Russia remained true
to its 5ree0I1yzantine intellectual tradition# 4e ha2e noted that 6ostoe2s0i, !ho li2ed sli%htly .efore Tolstoi, ne2ertheless had
ideas !hich !ere chronolo%ically in ad2ance of TolstoiFs ideas# In fact, in many !ays, 6ostoe2s0i !as a "recursor of the
1olshe2i0s# -on4entrating his attention on %o"erty, 4rime, an& human misery, al+ays seeking the real meaning behin&
e"ery o"ert a4t or +or&, he e"entually rea4he& a %osition +here the &istin4tion bet+een a%%earan4e an& signifi4an4e
be4ame so +i&e that these t+o +ere in 4ontra&i4tion +ith ea4h other. 5his 4ontra&i4tion +as really the struggle bet+een
Go& an& the 6e"il in the soul of man. in4e this struggle is +ithout en&, there is no solution to menOs %roblems e*4e%t to
fa4e suffering resolutely. u4h suffering %urges men of all artifi4iality an& Hoins them together in one mass. $n this mass
the Russian %eo%le, be4ause of their greater suffering an& their greater s%irituality, are the ho%e of the +orl& an& must
sa"e the +orl& from the materialism, "iolen4e, an& selfishness of 'estern 4i"iliDation. 5he Russian %eo%le, on the other
han&, fille& +ith self(sa4rifi4e, an& +ith no allegian4e to lu*ury or material gain, an& %urifie& by suffering +hi4h makes
them the brothers of all other suffering %eo%le, +ill sa"e the +orl& by taking u% the s+or& of righteousness against the
for4es of e"il stemming from <uro%e. -onstantino%le +ill be seiDe&, all the la"s +ill be liberate&, an& <uro%e an& the
+orl& +ill be for4e& into free&om by 4onNuest, so that 2os4o+ many be4ome the 5hir& Rome. !efore Russia is fit to sa"e
the +orl& in this +ay, ho+e"er, the Russian intelle4tuals must merge themsel"es in the great mass of the suffering
Russian %eo%le, an& the Russian %eo%le must a&o%t <uro%eOs s4ien4e an& te4hnology un4ontaminate& by any <uro%ean
i&eology. 5he bloo& s%ille& in this effort to e*ten& la" brotherhoo& to the +hole +orl& by for4e +ill ai& the 4ause, for
suffering share& +ill make men one. This mystical $la2 im"erialism !ith its a"ocaly"tical o2ertones !as .y no means
uniBuely 6ostoe2s0iFs# It !as held in a 2a%ue and im"licit fashion .y many Russian thin0ers, and had a !ide a""eal to the
unthin0in% masses# It !as im"lied in much of the "ro"a%anda of 7anI$la2ism, and .ecame semiofficial !ith the %ro!th of this
"ro"a%anda after 19@# It !as !ides"read amon% the -rthodo) cler%y, !ho em"hasized the rei%n of ri%hteousness !hich !ould
follo! the millennialist esta.lishment of 'osco! as the DThird Rome#G It !as e)"licitly stated in a .oo0, .ussia and Europe,
"u.lished in 1C9 .y Nicholas 6anile2s0y *1??I1L+# $uch ideas, as !e shall see, did not die out !ith the "assin% of the
Romano2 autocracy in 1917, .ut .ecame e2en more influential, mer%in% !ith the <eninist re2ision of 'ar)ism to "ro2ide the
ideolo%y of $o2iet Russia after 1917#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, Cha"ter 7 *Creation of the Russian Ci2ilization+, "# 1@1I1@L
5he #ssassination of -Dar #le*an&er $$ of Russia 82ar4h 1=, 1AA19
C;ar le<an"er >> of /&ssia was assassinate" in St. Peters!&rg. /&ssia on 8arch (1. (22( when Polish re!els threw a !om!
towar" the C;ar. C;ar le<an"er >> of /&ssia r&le" /&ssia from (2++ to (22(. C;ar le<an"er >>Ns son C;ar le<an"er >>> of
/&ssia wo&l" ass&me the throne an" &se the assassination as a prete<t to initiate pogroms against the %ews. 5la"imir LeninNs
!rother leksan"r >lyich Ulyano# was hange" in 8ay (226 after he attempte" to assassinate C;ar le<an"er >>>.
DIn 1@ there !ere a.out fi2e million Je!s in the !orld# -f these only a.out fifteen "er cent li2ed in !estern :uro"e# The 2ast
maMority H a.out se2entyIfi2e "er cent H !ere s"read throu%hout Russia, 7oland and the 1al0ans, !here they li2ed for the most
"art in "o2erty and de%radation# For centuries they had .een confined to their o!n %hettoes and rural settlements, su.Mected to
constant antiI$emitic attac0s of a most .rutal 0ind and to occasional "o%roms, !hich reflected official "reMudice and
indifference# Their situation im"ro2ed durin% the rei%n of the more enli%htened Ale)ander II *1LLI1+, .ut the relief !as only
tem"orary, for the Tsar !as assassinated in the streets of $t# 7eters.ur% in 'arch 11 and, !orse still, one of his murderers !as
a Je!# Ale)ander=s successor inau%urated a "olicy of reactionary terror desi%ned to root out all disaffection# The old
anta%onism to!ards the Je!s re2i2ed# There !ere fresh "o%roms and antiI$emitic riots# Finally, in 1?, the notorious 'ay
<a!s !ere "romul%ated, 2iciously restrictin% Je!ish residence and commerce# Hundreds of thousands of families !ere
u"rooted and forced into the already o2ercro!ded ur.an %hettoes# Thin%s !ere no .etter in the areas outside Russian control#
The 1al0an $tates had %enerally disre%arded the terms of the 1erlin Treaty# Je!s in those countries suffered constant arson and
lootin% !hile their sufferin%s !ere i%nored .y the authorities# It !as only in Russia, ho!e2er, that antiI$emitism !as
%o2ernment "olicy# It !as the declared o.Mecti2e of the rulers to sBueeze the community so hard that a third of the "eo"le !ould
die, a third !ould .e assimilated into the 5entile "o"ulation and a third !ould emi%rate# The last of these o.Mecti2es !as
certainly achie2ed# 'ultitudes of men, !omen and children made their !ay to 5ermany, Austria, France, :n%land and the E$A,
often arri2in% !ith nothin% more than the clothes they stood u" in#G
H .othschild/ "he #ealth and Power of a Dynasty .y 6ere0 4ilson *19+, "# ?1
The 7ale of $ettlement in the Russian :m"ire
C;arina Catherine >> (?=he 4reat@) of /&ssia esta!lishe" the Pale of Settlement in (6)( as a territory for /&ssian %ews to li#e. Create" &n"er
press&re to ri" 8oscow of %ewish !&siness competition an" Qe#ilQ infl&ence on the /&ssian masses. the Pale of Settlement incl&"e" the
territory of presentA"ay Polan". Lat#ia. Lith&ania. Ukraine an" Belor&ssia. 8ore than )DR of /&ssian %ews were force" to li#e in the poor
con"itions of the Pale. which ma"e &p only *R of imperial /&ssia. Still. the %ewish pop&lation in /&ssia grew from (.3 million in (20D to +.3
million in ()(D. J#en within the Pale. %ews were "iscriminate" againstE they pai" "o&!le ta<es. were for!i""en to lease lan". r&n ta#erns or
recei#e higher e"&cation. li!erali;ation perio" in the (23Ds. which grante" %ews some pri#ileges was re#erse" &n"er the 8ay Laws of (220.
=hese laws restricte" %ews in the Pale to &r!an areas. which were often o#ercrow"e" an" offere" limite" economic opport&nities. >n a""ition
tho&san"s of %ews fell #ictim to "e#astating pogroms in the (26Ds an" (22Ds. =he pogroms. !oycotts an" other antiASemitic "epre"ations
%ews face" in the Pale le" to mass immigration to the Unite" States (two million !etween (22( an" ()(*) as well as a string of other
"e#elopments. s&ch as the contro#ersial $askalah mo#ement. which so&ght to mo"erni;e %ewish c&lt&re. :ionism also took hol" in the Pale.
Hnly after the o#erthrow of the C;arist regime in ()(6 was the Pale of Settlement a!olishe".
So&rce: http:BBwww.Lewish#irt&alli!rary.orgBLso&rceB$istoryBpale.html
Im"erial Russian Cro!n Je!els& The 1a0u -il Fields
The 1a0u -il Fields in the late 19@s near 1a0u, Russia
The -ttoman :m"ire conBuered 1a0u on $e"tem.er 1JI1L, 191 and relinBuished its control of 1a0u to the 1ritish :m"ire on -cto.er
>@, 191, !hen the -ttoman Tur0ish %o2ernment a%reed to the Armistice of 'oudros# The Armistice of 'oudros ended the hostilities
in the 'iddle :astern theater .et!een the -ttoman :m"ire and the 1ritish :m"ire and its allies# Azer.aiMan !as esta.lished as a de
facto inde"endent nation on 'ay ?, 191 !ith its ca"ital at 1a0u des"ite 1ritish army occu"ation of Azer.aiMan and the city of 1a0u#
The 1olshe2i0s conBuered Azer.aiMan and the city of 1a0u as !ell as the 1a0u oil fields on the ni%ht of A"ril ?7I?, 19?@ and
immediately "ersecuted the oil .arons li2in% in 1a0u and 0illed an estimated J@,@@@ Azer.aiManis#
D1a0u H already inefficient .efore the out.rea0 of 2iolence, .ecause of antiBuated machinery H !ould ne2er a%ain .e the same#
And e2en if the a%itation calmed, couldn=t it start u" a%ain3 The .est e2idence is that the Rothschilds !ere already loo0in% for a
!ay out of Russia at this time# 6isaffection .ecame a decision to sell .y 19@9, acti2e ne%otiatons !ith the lo%ical "urchaser %ot
under !ay t!o years later# The di2estment too0 the form of a sale of Rothschild holdin%s H @ "ercent of 1nito *the "roduction
and refinin% o"eration of 1a0u and 1atum+, the same share of the mar0etin% com"any 'azout H to Royal 6utch, their "artner in
$tandard Russe# <ater it !ould .e said that the Rothschilds had foreseen the a""roachin% colla"se of the czarist re%ime and
mo2ed to cut their losses# 1ut the .est student fo that time and "lace sees the decision to !ithdra! as strictly financial# To
:dmond de Rothschild, the famlily=s senior oil e)"ert, it !ould ha2e made sense to let tested "artners H Royal 6utch and $hell H
ta0e o2er the ris0# $till later a $o2iet historian !ith access to .an0in% archi2es came to a similar conclusion# -il !as a %ro!th
industry, .ut the Rotshchilds 0ne! that they !ould ne2er .e a.le to com"ete !ith Royal 6utch e)"eerience in e)traction and
refinery o"erations, not to s"ea0 of its !orld mar0et# Their real trade, after all, !as .an0in%# $o they=d sell Russian $tandard
chea" *it !as losin% money+, !hile they %ot more ca"ital out of 1onito and 'azout than these com"anies !ere !orth# The
ne%otiations !ere e)actin% all the same, condlcluded only in 6ecem.er 1911, the final a%reement to .e ratified .y all "arties on
Fe.ruary ?1 of the follo!in% year# In the end the family !as "aid in shares H C@ "ercent of the 2alue of their holdin%s in Royal
6utch stoc0, J@ "ercent in $hell H thus %i2in% them a siza.le sta0e in the %lo.al o"erations of the mer%ed %iant, !ith a "ro2ision
that they !ould continue to recei2e .onuses from their former 1nito fields in any year that "roduction e)ceeded a %i2en amount#
They remained friends, the Rothschilds and the 6utch# In 191>, !hen e)"andin% o"erations called for a si%nificant increase in
ca"ital, Royal 6utch !ent to the French mar0et !ith its ne! shares, the syndicate of under!riters !as com"osed of 1anBue de
7aris et des 7aysI1as, Credit <yonnais, $ociete 5enerale H and 6e Rothschild Freres#G
H "he 0rench .othschilds/ "he Great Ban)ing Dynasty through "wo "ur%ulent 9enturies .y Her.ert R# <ottman, "# 1J>I1JJ
DIt !as "erha"s ine2ita.le that a "o!erful com"etitor !ould emer%e to challen%e the No.el "rimacy in 1a0u and Russia# 4hat
<ud2i% may not ha2e e)"ected !as that the threat !ould come from another influential :uro"ean family H the French .ranch of
the House of Rothschild# 1arons Al"honse and :dmond de Rothschild !ere sons of a %reat financial dynasty !hose interests
s"anned in2estment .an0in%, minin%, oil, and rail!ays# The .rothers themsel2es o!ned refineries in 'arseilles and the Adriatic
"ort of Fiume# For them, 1a0u !as an o""ortunity to .uy lo!Icost crude to refine in Fiume H and, not so incidentally, to mount
a credi.le challen%e to Roc0efeller=s dominance in :uro"e# From the time of their arri2al in 1a0u in 1>, the Rothschilds
al!ays seemed to .e a tar%et of mischief# <e2 Naussim.aum, the son of an oilman, !rote a "ro.a.ly e)a%%erated account of
ho! the .rothers !ere 2ictimized for refusin% to hire 0otchi %uards# The hired %unmen retaliated .y committin% a series of
.ur%laries, after !hich the Rothschilds %ot the messa%e and "ut them on the "ayroll# 1ut e2en then, the .est the .rothers could
mana%e !as a sort of catastro"hic "rotection "lan co2erin% maMor crimes, the stillIdis%runtled 0otchis reser2ed the ri%ht to
en%a%e in occasional minor thie2ery on Rothschild "ro"erty#G
H "he :il and "he Glory/ "he Pursuit of Empire and 0ortune on the 9aspian Sea .y $te2e <e8ine, "# ?1
DFor a time, the railroad=s success !as tem"ered .y .ottlenec0s that de2elo"ed in the Caucasus mountains, !here stee" %rades
slo!ed train traffic from 1a0u and harsh !eather sometimes halted it alto%ether# The main cul"rit !as the >,?@@Ifoot $uram
7ass, so difficult a clim. that t!o en%ines !ere reBuired to "ull Must ei%ht tan0ers o2er the crest at a time# Ra"idly, crude oil
a!aitin% shi"ment to 1atumi !as .ac0in% u" in 1a0u# The lo%ical fi) seemed to .e a "i"eline, one far more am.itious than any
.uilt thus far in or around 1a0u# At first, Czar Ale)ander=s court !ould ha2e none of it# The o""osition there !as
understanda.le# The Cro!n !as earnin% enormous tariffs from the railroad, antici"ation of this !indfall had .een a main reason
for $t# 7eters.ur%=s ori%inal 0eenness in the "roMect# Neither did the czar=s a2aricious a%ents in 1a0u su""ort a "i"eline# There
!ere endless !ays in !hich they could meddle !ith the mo2ement of tan0er cars on the railroad in order to %enerate .ri.es from
oilmen an)ious that their shi"ments of crude .e e)"edited# 1a0u=s oilmen finally struc0 a com"romise !ith the Cro!n, a%reein%
to a scaledI.ac0 "i"eline "roMect that 0e"t the trains runnin% at least "art of the distance# In 1C, No.el, the Rothschilds, and
Keynala.din Ta%iye2 formed an alliance of con2enience, usin% four hundred tons of Alfred No.el=s dynamite to "unch throu%h
the $uram 7ass and clear a "ath for their "i"eline# The line that they laid from 1a0u terminated se2entyIei%ht miles short of
1atumi, .ut it did surmount the mountains and s"eed the shi"ment of oil# $e2enteen years later, in 19@C, the line !ould .e
e)tended the remainin% distance to the "ort, at a total cost of [1? million#G
H "he :il and "he Glory/ "he Pursuit of Empire and 0ortune on the 9aspian Sea .y $te2e <e8ine, "# ?>I?J
D1y 19@1, 1a0u !as "roducin% a maMority of the !orld=s oil su""ly, and the com"any that <ud2i% No.el had .uilt !as satisfyin%
9 "ercent of this %lo.al demand# It ran0ed amon% the !orld=s lar%est commercial enter"rises, em"loyin% more than t!el2e
thousand "eo"le !ith an annual "ayroll of [?#L million# 1y 191C, the com"any !ould .e trans"ortin% its oil on the !orld=s
lar%est "ri2ate fleet#G H "he :il and "he Glory/ "he Pursuit of Empire and 0ortune on the 9aspian Sea .y $te2e <e8ine, "# ?C
DThe continuin% insta.ility in and around 1a0u in the years .efore and after the Russian Re2olution made !estern oilmen
understanda.ly ner2ous The "ort !as under the control of the 1olshe2i0s, then the 1ritish H inter2enin% from their out"ost in
7ersia H then the Tur0s, then the 1ritish a%ain# 1ut throu%h it all, oil field deals !ent on, and one of the most a%%ressi2e "layers
!as Henri 6eterdin%, the %am.lin%Iminded chief e)ecuti2e of Royal 6utch;$hell# $hort .ut massi2e and "o!erful, !ith li2ely
.lac0 eyes and a !hite moustache, he !as called the Na"oleon of oil .y his detractors# In 191>, 6eterdin% too0 o2er the
Rothschild holdin%s in 1a0u and 1atumi in e)chan%e for ?#9 million "ounds= !orth of Royal 6utch stoc0# Thirty years earlier,
Al"honse and :dmond de Rothschild, sons of one of :uro"e=s most influential Je!ish families, had mana%ed to esta.lish
themsel2es in the Russian :m"ire des"ite "rohi.itions a%ainst Je!s o!nin% or rentin% land# No!, ho!e2er, the .rothers !ere
lea2in%, discoura%ed .y the e2ents in Russia and fearful of risin% antiI$emitism# The transaction made the Rothschilds the
lar%est indi2idual shareholders in Royal 6utch# 6eterdin% ne)t .ou%ht "ros"ecti2e oil "ro"erty in 5rozny, the ca"ital of the land
of the unruly Chechens, located ?@ miles north of 1a0u#G
H "he :il and "he Glory/ "he Pursuit of Empire and 0ortune on the 9aspian Sea .y $te2e <e8ine, "# >?
D1ut 6eterdin% !as not alone in e)"ectin% another 1a0u !indfall# Roc0efeller=s $tandard -il of Ne! Jersey N:))onO early in
1919 a%reed to "ay inde"endent Azer.aiMan [>?@,@@@ in French francs for ele2en "lots of unde2elo"ed 1a0u oil land# $ister
com"any $tandard -il of Ne! /or0 N'o.ilO ne%otiated a si)Imonth 2irtual mono"oly on 1a0u oil shi"ments# The first deal
"roceeded unchallen%ed, .ut not the second one H 6eterdin% ur%ed 1ritain=s 1a0u %o2ernor %eneral, 4#'# Thomson, to derail it#
Thomson, !ho enMoyed 2eto "o!er o2er decisions .y the Dinde"endentG %o2ernment, e)ercised his authority# 5reat 1ritain=s
An%loI7ersian -il Com"any Nlater renamed 1ritish 7etroleumO chose to ne%otiate !ith the 1olshe2i0s and si%ned an a%reement
!ith a trade commissar to .uy 5rozny oil lands# To 6eterdin%=s cha%rin, the deal included Royal 6utch "ro"erties that the
re2olutionaries had confiscated# 1ut the 1olshe2i0 leadershi" later 2etoed the a%reement# $tandard of Jersey commenced tal0s
!ith a no!Ihum.led :manuel No.el, !ho fi%ured that his oil em"ire !as lost to the re2olution .ut sensed that a "artner a.le to
in2o0e American di"lomatic influence mi%ht hel" him reclaim it#G
H "he :il and "he Glory/ "he Pursuit of Empire and 0ortune on the 9aspian Sea .y $te2e <e8ine, "# >>
DIt !as only in the 17@s that "ri2ate in2estments !ere allo!ed to this "art of the Russian :m"ire# Indeed, in the history of
1a0u oil, it is im"ossi.le not to note the in2estment of forei%n com"anies, es"ecially the No.el family# Ro.ert No.el !as the
first of the No.els to understand the im"ortance of the oil industry in 1a0u# He con2inced his .rother <ud!i% to in2est in oil
e)traction# In 17>, they esta.lished the No.el 1rothers -il :)tractin% 7artnershi"# Than0s to his s0illful leadershi", <ud!i%, a
talented en%ineer, de2elo"ed many in2entions that hel"ed modernize the technolo%y related to oil "roduction# The No.el
1rothers Com"any, for e)am"le, .ou%ht the first tan0er in the Cas"ian $ea, in order to reduce trans"ort e)"anses# 6ue to the
success of that first tan0er, the No.el 1rothers .uilt an entire fleet of tan0ers, %i2in% names to the shi"s such as 'oses, $"inoza,
and 6ar!in# The tan0ers increased the turno2er of %oods to such an e)tent that, .y 19@, 1a0u had .ecome the .usiest "ort in
the !orld# In addition, the No.el 1rothers !ere first to introduce rail!ay tan0s for oil trans"ortation# In 1>, a rail!ay !as
laid from 1a0u to T.ilisi, ena.lin% the oil to .e trans"orted .y trains# In 197, they .uilt a "i"eline !hich reduced the e)"enses
of trans"ortation .y fi2e times and "aid for itself !ithin a sin%le year# The "i"eline, the lar%est in the !orld at that time, !as
.uilt from 1a0u to 1atumi on the 1lac0 $ea Coast, a distance of > 0ilometers# All this modernization allo!ed the No.el
1rothers to ta0e the lead in the oil .usiness .y 19@@, and to %ain tremendous "rofit durin% the J7 years of their "artnershi" in
Azer.aiMan# The Rothschild Com"any and $hell, lead .y $amuel 'ar0us, !ere also in2ol2ed in oil "roduction in 1a0u# 'ore
than L@ "er cent of the oil e)traction, and 7L "er cent of the oil "roduction commerce, !ere held .y these three forei%n
com"anies# -il turned 1a0u into a centre of !orld oil commerce and ena.led it to e)ert an incredi.le influence on the entire
economic de2elo"ment of the Caucasus#G
H Energy and Security in the 9aucasus .y :mmanuel Aara%iannis, "# 1C
D6urin% 4orld 4ar I, Azer.aiMan !as "roducin% a maMor "art of oil !orld oil su""ly and the usa%e had already e)"anded into
motor 2ehicles and diesel en%ines of the na2al 2essels# It !as an im"ortant commodity to the industrial countries of the !orld#
In 1917, the fall of the Russian :m"ire created a serious 2acuum on the Caucasian front# The desire to control 1a0u=s oil fields
caused fierce com"etition amon% 5erman, Tur0ish, and 1ritish forces# At the end of the !ar, the 2ictory of the :ntente states
!as in many res"ects connected !ith their control o2er the im"ortant oil re%ions# In fact, Azer.aiMan=s oil .ecame a maMor factor
in the 2ictory of 191# Accordin% to 1ritish 7rime 'inister <loyd 5eor%e, thou%h :ntente states had an ad2anta%e o2er their
ri2als to!ards the end of the !ar, military o"erations could ha2e .een "rolon%ed and it !ould ha2e .een difficult to "redict the
final result had the 5erman .loc mana%ed to %ain control o2er the 1a0u oil fields# 'ean!hile, the situation in Azer.aiMan
.ecame more com"licated due to international circumstances, es"ecially after the defeat of 5ermany and Tur0ey in 4orld 4ar
I# -n ? 'ay 191, Azer.aiMan declared inde"endence# -n >@ -cto.er 191, Tur0ey si%ned an armistice !ith the :ntente in
'udros# In accordance !ith the conditions of that a%reement, 1ritish troo"s !ere de"loyed in Azer.aiMan, 0ee"in% the
Azer.aiMani oil industry under 1ritish control# In the summer of 1919, ho!e2er, the Allied re%ime !as dismissed and 1ritish
troo"s !ithdre! from 1a0u# :ncoura%ed .y the 1ritish !ithdra!al, the threat from $o2iet Russia si%nificantly increased# -n
the ni%ht of ?7I? A"ril 19?@, the Russian ele2enth army crossed the Azer.aiMani .order and reoccu"ied Azer.aiMan=s oil fields#
The 1olshe2i0 re%ime .enefited si%nificantly from the !ealth of Azer.aiMan=s oil# <ater on, <enin !rote& X4e all 0no! that our
industries stood idle .ecause of lac0 of fuelUno! !e control the .asis for an economy ca"a.le of su""ortin% our industries=#G
H Energy and Security in the 9aucasus .y :mmanuel Aara%iannis, "# 1CI17
D6urin% 4orld 4ar II, Azer.aiMan=s oil fields !ere a strate%ic o.Mecti2e in Nazi 5ermany=s cam"ai%n a%ainst the $o2iet Enion#
-n the e2e of !hat came to .e 0no!n as XThe 5reat 7atriotic 4ar=, 1a0u !as the cradle of the $o2iet oil industry, and as such,
the maMor su""lier of oil and oil "roducts for the Red Army# In 19J@, for e)am"le, ??#? million tons of oil !ere e)tracted from
1a0u !hich com"rised nearly 7? "er cent of all the oil e)tracted in the entire E$$R# Hitler !as determined to conBuer
Azer.aiMan from the .e%innin% of the !ar .ecause the interru"tion of Azer.aiMani oil su""lies on any lar%e scale could "ossi.ly
result in the colla"se of $o2iet !ar effort# 'oreo2er, if the 5erman army !ould ha2e ca"tured the oil fields of Azer.aiMan,
Hitler !as con2inced that the Third Reich !ould .e selfIsufficient !ithin in o!n .orders, and thus in2ulnera.le# 1y late July
19J?, Hitler=s Buest for 1a0u seemed !ell on its !ay to achie2in% his %oal# The 5ermans had already ca"tured the city of
Rosto2 in North Caucasus and se2ered the main oil "i"eline from Azer.aiMan# The determination to ca"ture 1a0u !as so intense
that the date for the final attac0 and seizure had .een fi)ed H $e"tem.er ?L, 19J?# A fe! days "rior, Hitler=s %enerals "resented
him !ith a lar%e decorated ca0e !hich de"icted the Cas"ian $ea and 1a0u# 6ocumentary films sho! ho! amused Hitler !as at
the %esture and ho! he chose the most desira.le "iece H 1a0u H for himself# Fortunately, the attac0 ne2er occurred, and 5erman
forces !ere defeated .efore they e2er reached Azer.aiMan#G
H Energy and Security in the 9aucasus .y :mmanuel Aara%iannis, "# 17I1
D'any tycoons and middleIclass "rofessionals !ere sym"athetic contri.utors to the 1olshe2i0s# 1erta Nussim.aum, !ife of an
oil .aron and mother of the !riter :ssad 1ey, !as a 1olshe2i0 sym"athizer# D'y mother,G :ssad 1ey says, Dfinanced $talin=s
illicit communist "ress !ith her diamonds#G It remains astonishin% ho! the Rothschilds and other oil .arons, amon% the richest
tycoons in :uro"e, funded the 1olshe2i0s, !ho !ould ultimately destroy their interests# Alliluye2 remem.ered these
Rothschild contri.utions# The Rothschild mana%in% director, 6a2id <andau, re%ularly contri.uted to 1olshe2i0 funds, as
recorded .y the -0hrana H !hose a%ents noted ho!, !hen $talin !as runnin% the 1a0u 7arty, a 1olshe2i0 cler0 in one of the oil
com"anies D!as not acti2e in o"erations .ut concentrated on collectin% donations and %ot money from <andau of the
Rothschilds#G It is li0ely that <andau met $talin "ersonally# Another Rothschild e)ecuti2e, 6r# Feli) $omary, a .an0er !ith the
Austrian .ranch of the family and later a distin%uished academic, claims he !as sent to 1a0u to settle a stri0e# He "aid $talin
the money# The stri0e ended# $talin re%ularly met another to" .usinessman, Ale)ander 'ancho, mana%in% director of the
$hi.ae2 and 1i.iI:i.at oil com"anies# D4e often %ot money from 'ancho for our or%anization,G recalls I2an 8atse0, one of
$talin=s henchmen# DIn such cases, Comrade $talin came to me# Comrade $talin also 0ne! him !ell#G :ither 'ancho !as a
committed sym"athizer or $talin !as .lac0mailin% him, .ecause the .usinessman cou%hed u" cash on reBuest at e2en the
shortest notice# $talin !as also runnin% "rotectionIrac0ets and 0idna""in%s# 'any tycoons "aid if they did not !ish their
oilfields to catch fire or DaccidentsG to .efall their families# It is hard to differentiate donations from "rotectionImoney, .ecause
the felonies $talin no! unleashed on them included Dro..eries, assaults, e)tortion of rich families, and 0idna""in% their children
on the streets of 1a0u in .road dayli%ht and then demandin% ransom in the name of some Xre2olutionary committee,=G states
$a%irash2ili, !ho 0ne! him in 1a0u#G H 'oung Stalin .y $imon $e.a% 'ontefiore, "# 197
D$talin settled Aato and <addie, their .a.y, in the a"artment of an oil !or0er and "lun%ed himself into a life of .anditry,
es"iona%e, e)tortion and a%itation, the mur0iest years of his entire career# 7ro.a.ly a%ain on the Rothschild "ayroll, he soon
mo2ed his little family outside 1a0u city into a DTartar house !ith a lo! ceilin% on the 1ailo2 7eninsula !hich he rented from
its Tur0ish o!ner,G Must a.o2e a ca2e, ri%ht on the seasideUAl!ays dressed in his trademar0 .lac0 fedora, $talin %a2e a s"eech
on 17 June 19@7, the 2ery day he arri2ed, and thre! himself into his editin% of the t!o 1olshe2i0 ne!s"a"ers, Ba)ins)y
Proletary and Gudo) *4histle+, he immediately set a.out dominatin% the 7arty there !ith his .rand of a%%ressi2e "olitics,
terrorist intimidation and %an%ster fundIraisin%# :2ery!here in Russia, DThe reaction had trium"hed, all li.erties destroyed and
re2olutionary "arties smashed,G recalls Tatiana 8uli0h, .ut 1a0u, ruled as much .y the oil com"anies and corru"t "olicemen as
.y the Tsar=s %o2ernors, follo!ed its o!n rules# $talin !as on the run in Tiflis, .ut for a fe! months .efore $toly"in=s ne)t
crac0do!n he could stroll the 1a0u streets# Tiflis, said $talin contem"tuously, had .een a "arochial DmarshG .ut 1a0u D!as one
of the re2olutionary centres of Russia,G its oil 2ital to the Tsar and the 4est, its !or0ers a true "roletariat, its streets 2iolent and
la!less# 1a0u, !rote $talin, D!ould .e my second .a"tism of fire#G 1a0u !as a city of Dde.auchery, des"otism and
e)tra2a%ance,G and a t!ili%ht zone of Dsmo0e and %loom#G Its o!n %o2ernor called it Dthe most dan%erous "lace in Russia#G For
$talin, it !as the D-il Ain%dom#G H 'oung Stalin .y $imon $e.a% 'ontefiore, "# 1CI17
D1a0u !as created .y one dynasty# $!edish .y ori%in, Russian .y o""ortunity and international .y instinct, the No.els made
their first for tune sellin% land mines to Tsar Nicholas I, .ut in 179, the year of 1a0u=s first DfountainG of oil, the .rothers
<ud!i% and Ro.ert No.el founded the No.el 1rothers -il Com"any in the to!n 0no!n mainly for the ancient Koroastrian
tem"le !here 'a%i "riests tended their holy oilIfuelled flames# The drillin% had already started, entre"reneurs struc0 oil in
s"ectacular %ushers# The No.els started to .uy u" land "articularly in !hat .ecame the 1lac0 City# Another .rother, Alfred,
in2ented dynamite, .ut <ud!i%=s in2ention of the oil tan0er !as almost as im"ortant# The French Rothschilds follo!ed the
No.els into 1a0u# 1y the 1@s, 1aron Al"honse de Rothschild=s Cas"ian 1lac0 $ea -il Com"any !as the second .i%%est
"roducer H and its !or0ers li2ed in the industrial to!nshi" called the 4hite City# 1y 19@1, 1a0u "roduced half the !orld=s oil H
and the No.el 7rize, esta.lished that year, !as funded on its "rofits#G
H 'oung Stalin .y $imon $e.a% 'ontefiore, "# 17
map of ;er!aiLan (incl&"ing the city of Bak&). rmenia. 4eorgia. an" the "isp&te" territories
8ap of ;er!aiLan an" the so&thern Ca&cas&s region in ()(2 "&ring Worl" War >
7ortrait .y the artist 5eor%es 1ec0er of the coronation of Czar Ale)ander III and :m"ress 'aria Fyodoro2na, !hich too0 "lace on
'ay ?7, 1> at the Es"ens0y $o.or Cathedral of the 'osco! Aremlin# -n the left of the dais can .e seen his youn% son and heir, the
Tsare2ich Nicholas, and .ehind Nicholas can .e seen a youn% 5rand 6u0e 5eor%e#

Czar Ale)ander II of Russia *left+, !ho ruled Russia from 'arch ?, 1LL until his death .y assassination on 'arch 1>, 11, and his
son Czar Ale)ander III of Russia, !ho ruled Russia from 'arch 1>, 11 until his death on No2em.er 1, 19J, allo!ed the No.els
and the Rothschilds to acBuire oil in 1a0u, an ancient city located on the Cas"ian $ea#

=he -o!el Brothers. left to right: /o!ert -o!el ((20)A(2)3). L&"wig -o!el ((21(A(222). an" lfre" -o!el ((211A(2)3)
lfre" -o!el was a sharehol"er of the -o!el !rothersN oil company in Bak&. /&ssia who in#ente" the "ynamite an" esta!lishe" the -o!el
Pri;es. L&"wig -o!el in#ente" the oil tanker ship.
DIn the end, Count $er%ei 4itte, the Russian finance minister, s"i0ed the scheme for a %rand alliance of $tandard -il !ith the No.els
and RothschildsUAll the !hile, Russia 0e"t "um"in% crude oil and .y the late 19@s .riefly o2ertoo0 the Enited $tates in oil
"roduction, e2en thou%h $tandard -il handily ecli"sed it in refinin%U#In 1J, 6utch drillers .e%an "ros"ectin% for oil in $umatra and
si) years later recei2ed a royal charter to e)"loit 6utch :ast Indian reser2es, christenin% their com"any Royal 6utch# 'ean!hile,
another a%%ressi2e contender !aited in the !in%s# In 191, the enter"risin% <ondon merchant 'arcus $amuel si%ned a contract !ith
the Rothschilds to mar0et their 0erosene in the Far :ast# $amuel used the $uez Canal to s"eed the e)"ort of Russian 0erosene to Asian
mar0ets# -il had ta0en four months to tra2el from Ne! /or0 to the Far :ast .ut no! reached it from 1atumi in a month# :2en thou%h
$amuel desi%ned a customImade .ul0 tan0er, the *ure=, to conform to the canal=s strict reBuirements, $tandard -il hired <ondon
solicitors to so! dou.ts a.out the "roMect, s"readin% nasty rumors a.out a D"o!erful %rou" of financiers and merchantsG under
DHe.re! influenceG !ho "lanned to ta0e tan0ers throu%h the canal# Roc0efeller later ranted a%ainst Dour Asiatic com"etitors
controlled .y Je!ish men !ho cry X4olfP 4olfP $tandard -il Com"anyPG and 0ee" mo2in% in and %ettin% control of mar0ets#GU
4ardin% off this 2er.al sa.ota%e, $amuel mana%ed to defeat $tandard -il decisi2ely, and his trademar0 red oilcans H in contrast to
$tandard=s .lue cans H soon .ecame 0no!n throu%hout Asia# 1y 19?, !ith oil "roduction .oomin% in 1urma and Ja2a, $tandard -il
.elatedly reco%nized the need for concerted action in Asian mar0ets# It tried in 2ain to .uy the .usiness of .oth Royal 6utch and
'arcus $amuel, !ho renamed his com"any $hell Trans"ort and Tradin% Com"any in 197 to honor his family=s old seashellI.o)
.usiness# $tandard e2en stoo"ed to tradin% for Russian 0erosene in order to ser2e .etter its Asian customers# It finally set u" a series
of Asian stations and assi%ned a small army of a%ents to $han%hai, Calcutta, 1om.ay, /o0ohama, Ao.e, Na%asa0i, and $in%a"ore#
These o"erati2es sold $tandard 0erosene in tin cans !ith !ooden frames .ecause Asian customers recycled the tin as roofin% and
turned the !ooden cases into household o.Mects# For all these smart mar0etin% "loys, $tandard -il !as forced to coe)ist !ith Royal
6utch and $hell, !hich mer%ed to create a ri2al em"ire in the early 19@@s#G
H "itan/ "he !ife of John D. .oc)efeller$ Sr. .y Ron Cherno!, "# ?JI?J9
The information card on 5eor%ianI.orn Russian 1olshe2i0ICommunist terrorist and alle%ed Rothschild a%ent Josef $talin
*6ecem.er 1, 17I'arch L, 19L>+, from the files of the Tsarist secret "olice in $t# 7eters.ur%, Russia# Josef $talin=s real
name !as Iosif 8issariono2ich 6zhu%ash2ili#

Baron lphonse "e /othschil" (left. Fe!r&ary (. (206A8ay 03. ()D+) an" his yo&nger !rother J"mon" "e /othschil" (&g&st ().
(2*+A-o#em!er 0. ()1*) were the sons of Baron %ames "e /othschil" ((6)0A(232). Baron %ames "e /othschil" was the
!rother of -athan 8eyer /othschil" an" the son of 8ayer mschel /othschil" ((6**A(2(0). the fo&n"er an" ?go"father@ of the
/othschil" Fynasty.
DThe Allied cause had floated to 2ictory u"on a !a2e of oil#G
H <ord Curzon, at a 2ictory .anBuet in <ondon on No2em.er 1, 191
7hoto of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia *left+ and 7rince 5eor%e of 5reat 1ritain *later Ain% 5eor%e 8+ "ose for a "ortrait in <ondon
in circa 19@L#
Aaiser 4ilhelm II of 5ermany *left+ !ears a Russian army uniform !hile Czar Nicholas II of Russia !ears a 5erman army
uniform durin% a %rou" "ortrait ta0en in circa 19@L# *5erman Federal Archi2es+
Russo(/a%anese 'ar 8February 19>@(e%tember 19>?9
!attle of Port #rthur: 7rint sho!s, in the fore%round, a Russian .attleshi" e)"lodin% under .om.ardment from Ja"anese
.attleshi"s, a line of Ja"anese .attleshi"s, "ositioned on the ri%ht, fire on a line of Russian .attleshi"s on the left, in a sur"rise
na2al assault on the Russian fleet at the 1attle of 7ort Arthur *<]shun+ in the RussoIJa"anese 4ar *, (ichi&.o SensG+
on Fe.ruary I9, 19@J# *7hoto& <i.rary of Con%ress+
Ja"an issued a declaration of !ar on Fe.ruary , 19@J, ho!e2er, three hours .efore Ja"an=s declaration of !ar !as recei2ed .y
the Russian %o2ernment in $t# 7eters.ur%, the Im"erial Ja"anese Na2y attac0ed the Russian Far :ast Fleet at 7ort Arthur durin%
a darin% ni%ht raid conducted .y Admiral Heihachiro To%o# The Im"erial Ja"anese Na2y en%a%ed in another sur"rise attac0 on
nearly > years later at 7earl Har.or# Ja"an acBuired the southern half of the $a0halin Island from Russia and the Chinese "ort
of 7ort Arthur from Russia at the end of the RussoIJa"anese 4ar, !hich .e%an on Fe.ruary , 19@J and ended on $e"tem.er L,
19@L#
1attle of 'u0den& The Im"erial Ja"anese Army attac0 the Russian Army durin% the 1attle of 'u0den that lasted from Fe.ruary
?@, 19@L to 'arch 1@, 19@L# The Im"erial Ja"anese Army routed the Russian Army at the 1attle of 'u0den and occu"ied the
city of 'u0den on 'arch 1@, 19@L#
Im"erial Ja"anese Army 5eneral 'aresu0e No%i *second ro!, second from left+ and the Russian Army 5eneral Anatoly 'i0hailo2ich
$toessel *second ro!, second from ri%ht+ "ose for a %rou" "ortrait after the surrender of the Russian forces in 7ort Arthur *Ja"anese&
RyoMun, Chinese& <ushun+ on January ?, 19@L# The $ie%e of 7ort Arthur lasted from Au%ust 1, 19@J to January ?, 19@L# The Im"erial
Ja"anese military suffered 9J,@@@I11@,@@@ casualties !hile the Russian military suffered 1L,@@@ casualties# Russian Army 5eneral
Anatoly 'i0hailo2ich $toessel !as courtImartialed and sentenced to death in 19@ for surrenderin% 7ort Arthur, ho!e2er, Czar
Nicholas II of Russia "ardoned him in 19@9 and allo!ed the %eneral to continue his military ser2ice#
Im"erial Ja"anese Army soldiers cross the /alu Ri2er into 'anchuria *China+ in A"ril 19@J# The Im"erial Ja"anese Army defeated
the Russian Army at the 1attle of /alu Ri2er in A"ril 19@J#

<eft& The Im"erial Ja"anese Na2y defeats the Russian Na2y at the 1attle of Tsushima on 'ay ?7I?, 19@L#
Ri%ht& Admiral Heihachiro To%o, !ho !as the commander of the Ja"anese na2al fleet durin% the 1attle of Tsushima, a""ears on
the front co2er of the No2em.er , 19?C edition of "ime ma%azine#
A!antun% *+ 7refectural -ffice in 6airen *6alian+
6airen City Hall in 6airen *6alian, +, A!antun% <eased Territory
A 2ie! of the har.or and to!n at <ushun *+, formerly 7ort Arthur and RyoMun, from an old Ja"anese fortification#
Tsesare2ich Nicholas of Russia *the future Czar Nicholas II of Russia+ rides in a ric0asha! durin% his 2isit to Na%asa0i, Ja"an in
191# Tsesare2ich Nicholas of Russia 2isited Ayoto, Ja"an in 'ay 191# /a%anese %oli4eman 5su&a anDQ 81A??(1A919
attem%te& to assassinate 5sesare"i4h 0i4holas of Russia +ith a s+or& on 2ay 11, 1A911 the assassination attem%t, kno+n
as the 7tsu $n4i&ent, o44urre& near Kyoto. 5sesare"i4h 0i4holas of Russia +as left +ith a s4ar on the right si&e of his
forehea&. :m"eror 'eiMi of Ja"an 2isited Tsesare2ich Nicholas of Russia a.oard a Russian !arshi" in Ao.e har.or shortly
after the failed assassination attem"t# Czar Nicholas II of Russia assumed the throne on No2em.er 1, 19J#
*$ource& Na%asa0i City <i.rary Archi2es+
Ja"anese "oliceman Tsuda $anzo, "er"etrator of the -tsu Incident
Tsare2ich Nicholas of Russia *center, later Czar Nicholas II of Russia+ a""ears !ith Cro!n 7rince of $iam 'aha 8aMirunhis
*left+ and Ain% Chulalon%0orn of $iam *ri%ht+ durin% his 2isit to 1an%0o0, $iam NThailandO in 'arch 191# Ain% Chulalon%0orn
of $iam %o2erned $iam from -cto.er 1, 1C until his death on -cto.er ?>, 191@#
7rince 5eor%e of 5reece and Tsare2ich Nicholas Ale)andro2ich of Russia ride in their Minri0ishas in 191#
Je!ish Financial Intri%ue3 Jaco. $chiff, 'a) 4ar.ur%, and the RussoIJa"anese 4ar

<eft to ri%ht& Jaco. H# $chiff, Aore0iyo Ta0ahashi, and 'a) 4ar.ur%
DThe .yzantine financial intri%ues of the early 19@@s .ound Je!ish .an0ers ti%htly to the state# The diatri.es a%ainst Je!ish
.an0ers actually stood reality on its head, for they didn=t e)"loit 5ermany so much as ser2e its im"erial esca"ades to a fault#
This 2ery intimacy !ith the %o2ernment !ould ma0e it hard for them to react later on !hen "ersecution and terror came from
the state itself# The Auhn, <oe. connection also im"licated '#'# 4ar.ur% in more "olitical !or0# -utra%ed .y the "o%roms
a%ainst Russian Je!s, NJaco.O $chiff made it a "oint of honor to finance Ja"an in its 19@JI@L !ar a%ainst Russia and e2en "aid
for distri.ution of antiIczarist "ro"a%anda to Russian "risoners# In s"rin% 19@J, he shoc0ed Ja"an=s financial commissioner,
1aron Aore0iyo Ta0ahashi, .y 2olunteerin% to under!rite half the tenImillionI"ound loan sou%ht .y the Im"erial Ja"anese
5o2ernment in <ondon and Ne! /or0# This first of fi2e maMor Auhn, <oe. loans to Ja"an !as a""ro2ed .y Ain% :d!ard 8II at
a luncheon !ith $chiff and $ir :rnest Cassel# 4hen Ja"an !as ready for a third loan in 19@L, $chiff thou%ht Ne! /or0 !as
saturated !ith Ja"anese .onds and as0ed 'a) N4ar.ur%O to o"en a 5erman mar0et# To ensure that such a ste" conformed to
5erman "olicy, 'a) remem.ered, DI did !hat e2ery u"standin% .an0er has to do in such case, I !ent to the Forei%n 'inistry in
1erlin#G The Aru"" firm had !arned the Forei%n -ffice that 5ermany !ould lose munitions contracts if the third Ja"anese loan
!ere "laced entirely in Ne! /or0 and <ondon# $o EnderI$ecretary of $tate Arthur Kimmermann endorsed the mo2e and
authorized 'a) to ne%otiate !ith Ja"an# 1efore "roceedin% !ith his second Ja"anese loan, 'a) met the Aaiser a.oard his yacht
to %et his official im"rimatur# This second issue !as ten times o2ersu.scri.ed, stren%thenin% Ja"an=s hand at the 7ortsmouth
"eace conference# That 'a) suddenly mana%ed a maMor strate%ic transaction !as a stunnin% achie2ement for a firm that Must a
fe! years earlier had .een a "ro2incial "o!er# 'a) o!ed this .rea0throu%h to his .rothers= "resence at Auhn, <oe., .ut he had
a.ly e)"loited the o""ortunity# He ne%otiated the first loan in <ondon !ith Aore0iyo Ta0ahashi, later Ja"anese finance minister
and "rime minister# 5akahashi ne"er forgot the fa"or, later telling 2a*, if E$ ha"e &istinguishe& myself in any +ay in my
life, it is, to my great a%%re4iation, &ue to your goo&+ill an& frien&shi% +hi4h you +ere kin& enough to e*ten& to me in
ol& times.F #fter the +ar +ith Russia, 5akahashi "isite& 3amburg, an& in 19>: R/a4obS 4hiff "isite& /a%an. 4hiff ha&
a rare %ri"ate lun4h +ith the 2ika&o at the $m%erial Pala4e, +here he +as &e4orate& +ith the 7r&er of the Rising un.
At one dinner, he sat .eside Ta0ahashi=s teena%e dau%hter, 4a0i0o, and casually in2ited her to Ne! /or0, .ut Ta0ahashi too0
the in2itation Buite literally# To $chiff=s astonishment, 4a0i0o ended u" %oin% .ac0 !ith him and li2in% !ith the $chiffs for
three years#G H "he #ar%urgs .y Ron Cherno!, "# 11@I111
D1ecause the House of 'itsui, an ancient Ja"anese dynasty, had o"ened a Ham.ur% .ranch, family mem.ers "eriodically
dro""ed in on the 4ar.ur%s# -nce 1aron 'itsui came to dinner and, as he ram.led on a.out la.or relations in Ja"anese, 'a)
mischie2ously learned o2er and !his"ered to Charlotte that the .aron !anted to 0no! if 'a)=s son, :ric, !ould marry his
dau%hter# -n another 2isit, 1aron 'itsui and his "artner, Ta0uma 6an, as0ed ho! the 4ar.ur%s 0e"t "eace in the family# They
told 'a) and Carl 'elchior a.out .attles inside the 'itsui clan and as0ed ho! to sto" them# 'a) re"lied that the 4ar.ur%s
Buarreled as much as any family# He and 'elchior su%%ested that 'itsui di2ide its o"erations into se"arate .an0in%, shi""in%,
insurance, and e)"ort com"anies, each su"er2ised .y a different family mem.er !ho then re"orted to a central firm# In this !ay,
'a) too0 credit for su%%estin% to the Ja"anese the zai%atsu or con%lomerate structure that !ould dominate their economy# In
%ratitude, 'itsui sent 'a) a !a) Ja"anese %eneral in a cas0et#G H "he #ar%urgs .y Ron Cherno!, "# 111
U.S. Secretary of War William $owar" =aft speaks with %apanese "ignitaries while lea#ing the "ock at 'okohama. %apan in %&ly
()D+. Secretary of War William $owar" =aft met with =aro Gats&ra. the Prime 8inister of %apan. in =okyo. %apan on %&ly 06.
()D+. =he =aftAGats&ra 8emoran"&m (commonly calle" the =aftSGats&ra greement) consists of notes containing portions of a
long. confi"ential con#ersation !etween %apanese Prime 8inister =aro Gats&ra an" U.S. Secretary of War William $owar" =aft
hel" in =okyo. %apan on %&ly 06. ()D+. (Photo: Li!rary of Congress)
U.S. Presi"ent =heo"ore /oose#elt (center) meets with %apanese 8inister of Foreign ffairs %&tarT Gom&ra (LL.B. $ar#ar" (262. secon" from
right). %apanese 8inister to the U.S. Gogoro =akahira (right). /&ssian en#oy 8. Sergi&s Witte. an" /&ssian m!assa"or to the U.S. Baron
/osen at the signing of the =reaty of Portsmo&th in Portsmo&th. -ew $ampshire on Septem!er +. ()D+. %apan acM&ire" Port rth&r (later
rename" Gwant&ng) an" so&thern portion of Sakhalin >slan" from /&ssia in a peace treaty.
merican. /&ssian. an" %apanese en#oys pose for a gro&p portrait at the Portsmo&th =reaty /eception in Portsmo&th. -ew $ampshire.
U.S.. in Septem!er ()D+. Fartmo&th College is locate" in $ano#er. -ew $ampshire. U.S..
DThe for!ard "olicy of Russia in the Far :ast under Nicholas II had, as earlier noted, o!ed its dri2e to the interests of French
in2estment rather than of .usiness o""ortunities for Russian ca"italists# Russian acBuisition of 7ort Arthur had, ho!e2er,
alarmed 5reat 1ritain and offended Ja"an, their ans!er !as the An%loIJa"anese alliance of 19@?# Faced !ith this de2elo"ment,
Russia made an a%reement !ith China, "romisin% to !ithdra! from 'anchuria the troo"s she had "oured in durin% the 1o)er
Re.ellion *19@@+# It !as at this Muncture that the e)"erienced "oliceman, 7le2e, succeeded to the 'inistry of the Interior, in
!hich "ost he soon !as a.le to o2erreach the influence of the cautious 4itte# 7le2e !as not a2erse to a Dlittle !ar,G in the ho"e
that some %lorious .loodlettin% !ould relie2e tensions at home# In addition, a "o!erful court cliBue, influenced .y the
s"ectacular 1ezo.razo2, !as tem"ted .y the "ossi.ilities of lucrati2e return .y e)"loitin% the resources of the area# Not content
!ith 'anchuria, !hich Ja"an !as !illin% to concede as a Russian s"here of interest, an attem"t !as made to e)tend o"erations
to the tim.er and mineral "otentialities of Aorea, !hich Ja"an re%arded as definitely !ithin her s"here of e)"ansion# After
almost a year of ne%otiations, failin% to recei2e a satisfactory re"ly to her "ro"osals, Ja"an .ro0e off di"lomatic relations !ith
Russia *Fe.ruary L, 19@J+ and launched a sudden attac0 on Russian !arshi"s at Chemul"o and 7ort Arthur *Fe.ruary 9+# Thou%h
the "hysical dama%e done .y Ja"anese tor"edoes !as not 2ery %reat, the "sycholo%ical effect "aralyzed the Russian na2y,
des"ite the coura%e of some of its admirals# For Russia, the !ar in the main resol2ed itself into the "ro.lem of maintainin% and
su""lyin% an army at the end of o2er L,L@@ miles *'osco! to 8ladi2osto0+ of sin%leItrac0 rail!ay, still not Buite com"leted#
The initiati2e could not .e denied to the Ja"anese# 5eneral Auro"at0in=s land forces, .adly ser2ed .y military intelli%ence,
suffered re"eated defeats in detail# The Ja"anese fleet suffered hea2ily from mines, .ut efforts of successi2e Russian admirals to
use their su"erior fi%htin% stren%th !ere foiled .y their o!n deaths in .attles# 1esie%ed .y land, 7ort Arthur !as surrendered
*January 1, 19@L+# The illIassorted Russian 1altic fleet had .een sent in -cto.er, 19@J, to ma0e the lon% 2oya%e around Africa,
!ithout "ossi.ilities of adeBuate refuelin% or of cleanin% the shi"s= .ottoms .efore %oin% into action# In its "assa%e across the
North $ea, it o"ened fire on the :n%lish 6o%%er 1an0 fishin% fleet, !hich it mistoo0 for Ja"anese tor"edo .oats *-cto.er ?1+,
and !ar !ith 5reat 1ritain !as narro!ly a2erted .y international ar.itration# The fleet reached the China $ea se2en months
later, in no condition either for fi%ht or for fli%ht, interce"ted .y Admiral To%o in the $trait of Tsushima *'ay ?7I?, 19@L+, it
!as annihilated# 'ean!hile, Auro"at0in had .een defeated, thou%h not routed, in a fifteenIday .attle .efore 'u0den# Ja"an=s
2ictories !ere !on at the "rice of financial e)haustion and e)tremely hea2y sacrifice of li2es# Russia, financed .y French loans,
mi%ht ha2e continued the stru%%le, .ut the alarmin% state of affairs at home .oded ill for the success of e2en the most heroic
efforts# 1oth sides therefore acce"ted an American in2itation, issued June , to discuss "eace at 7ortsmouth, Ne! Ham"shire,
the idea had .een su%%ested to the tsar .y the 5erman Aaiser on June ># After three !ee0s of ne%otiations, durin% !hich 4itte
o.durately refused to consider "ayment of an indemnity, the Ja"anese suddenly acce"ted his offer *Au%ust ?9+ of half the island
of $a0halin in lieu of cash# The terms of the treaty si%ned at 7ortsmouth *$e"tem.er L+ surrendered to Ja"an the <iaotun%
7eninsula, !ith 7ort Arthur and 6alny# Russia a%reed to e2acuate 'anchuria and reco%nized Ja"anFs s"ecial "osition in Aorea#
4itte !as re!arded .y .ein% made a Count, des"ite %eneral relief at esca"e from this foolish !ar, 4itte !as freBuently referred
to thereafter as DCount of 7ortsmouthG or DCount HalfI$a0halin#GG
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >7I>79
/ale Eni2ersity 5raduates and Their -ccu"ation durin% the RussoIJa"anese 4ar
Jllis $enry /o!erts
B.. 'ale (2+D
=reas&rer of the Unite"
States ((2)6A()D+)
$enry Waters =aft
B.. 'ale (22D
Partner of Ca"wala"er.
Wickersham , =aft 7law
firm in -ew 'ork City9
((2))A()*+)
William $owar" =aft
B.. 'ale (262
U.S. Secretary of War
(Fe!r&ary (. ()D*A
%&ne 1D. ()D2)
4eorge P. Wetmore
B.. 'ale (236
U.S. Senator
(/A/ho"e >slan". (2)+A
()D6. ()D2A()(1)
Cha&ncey 8. Fepew
B.. 'ale (2+3
U.S. Senator (/A-ew
'ork. (2))A()(()
Fa#i" %osiah Brewer
B.. 'ale (2+3
%&stice of the U.S.
S&preme Co&rt
((22)A()(D)
Frank B. Bran"egee
B.. 'ale (22+
U.S. Congressman
/AConn.. ()D0A()D+)
Francis B&rton $arrison
(B.. 'ale (2)+
U.S. Congressman
(FA-ew 'ork. ()D1A()D+.
()D6A()(1)
%ohn Fal;ell
B.. 'ale (23+
U.S. Congressman
(/APenn.. (226A()(1)
Charles -ewell Fowler
B.. 'ale (263
U.S. Congressman (/A
-ew %ersey. (2)+A()(()
$enry Billings Brown
B.. 'ale (2+3
%&stice of the U.S.
S&preme Co&rt
((2)(A()D3)
LeBaron Bra"for" Colt
B.. 'ale (232
%&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of
ppeals for the First
Circ&it 7Boston9
((22*A()(1)
William G. =ownsen"
B.. 'ale (26(
%&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of
ppeals for the Secon"
Circ&it 7-ew 'ork City9
(()D0A()D6)
Htto =. Bannar"
B.. 'ale (263
Presi"ent of -ew 'ork
=r&st Co. (()D*A()(3)
/o!ert Weeks "e Forest
B.. 'ale (26D
4eneral Co&nsel of
Central /ailroa" of -ew
%ersey ((26*A()0*)
Lloy" Wheaton Bowers
B.. 'ale (26)
4eneral Co&nsel of
Chicago , -orthwestern
/ailway Co. ((2)1A()D))
%ames 8&lfor" =ownsen"
B.. 'ale (26*
4eneral Co&nsel of J.>.
"& Pont "e -emo&rs
Pow"er Co. (()D1A()(1)
%ohn William Sterling
B.. 'ale (23*
CoAFo&n"er of Shearman
, Sterling
7law firm in -ew 'ork City9
((261A()(2)
rth&r =wining $a"ley
B.. 'ale (263
Presi"ent of 'ale
Uni#ersity ((2))A()0()
Cyr&s -orthrop
B.. 'ale (2+6
Presi"ent of Uni#ersity of
8innesota ((22*A()(()
'ale Uni#ersity 4ra"&ates an" =heir Hcc&pation "&ring the /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
4o#ernment Hfficials:
William $owar" =aft (B.. (262. S,B (262) S U.S. Secretary of War (Fe!r&ary (. ()D*A%&ne 1D. ()D2)
$enry 8. $oyt. %r. (B.. (262. S,G (262) S Solicitor 4eneral of the Unite" States (()D1A()D))
Jllis $enry /o!erts (B.. (2+D. S,B (2+D) S =reas&rer of the Unite" States ((2)6A()D+)
William =orrey $arris (B.. (2+2) S U.S. Commissioner of J"&cation ((22)A()D3)
$er!ert Gno< Smith (B.. (2)() S U.S. Fep&ty Commissioner of Corporations. U.S. Fepartment of Commerce an" La!or (()D1A()D6)
%ohn 4reen Bra"y (B.. (26*) S 4o#ernor of the =erritory of laska ((2)6A()D3)
5ictor $. 8etcalf (LL.B. (263) S U.S. Secretary of Commerce an" La!or (()D*A()D3)E U.S. Congressman (/ACalifornia. (2))A()D*)
>rwin B. La&ghlin (B.. (2)1. S,G (2)1) S Secon" Secretary of the merican Legation at =okyo. %apan (()D+A()D3)E Pri#ate Secretary to the
U.S. 8inister to %apan (()D1A()D+)
$er!ert Wolcott Bowen (B.. (262) S U.S. 8inister to 5ene;&ela (()D(A()D+)
William $arrison Bra"ley (B.. (260. S,G (260) S U.S. Cons&l in 8anchester. Jnglan" (()D1A()D+)
William Williams (B.. (22*) S U.S. Commissioner of >mmigration for the Port of -ew 'ork at Jllis >slan" (()D0A()D+. ()D)A()(1)
8organ $awley Beach (B.. (220. S,G (220) S U.S. ttorney for the Fistrict of Col&m!ia (()D1A()D+)
Fre" =homas F&!ois (B.. (260. S,G (260) S U.S. Senator (/. FA>"aho. (2)(A(2)6. ()D(A()D6)
4eorge Pea!o"y Wetmore (B.. (236. S,B (236) S U.S. Senator (/A/ho"e >slan". (2)+A()D6. ()D2A()(1)
Cha&ncey 8. Fepew (B.. (2+3. S,B (2+3) S U.S. Senator (/A-ew 'ork. (2))A()(()
lfre" B. Gittre"ge (B.. (220. LL.B. (22+) S U.S. Senator (/ASo&th Fakota. ()D(A()D))
Francis -ewlan"s (B.. (2+)) S U.S. Senator (FA-e#a"a. ()D1A()(6)
%ohn Fal;ell (B.. (23+. S,G (23+) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (/APennsyl#ania. (226A()(1)
=homas $e"ge (B.. (236. S,B (236) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (/A>owa. (2))A()D6)
Charles -ewell Fowler (B.. (263. S,B (263) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (/A-ew %ersey. (2)+A()(()
%ohn /. =hayer (B.. (23)) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (FA8assach&setts. (2))A()D+)
Frank Bosworth Bran"egee (B.. (22+. S,B (22+) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (/AConnectic&t. ()D0A()D+)
Francis B&rton $arrison (B.. (2)+. S,B (2)+) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (FA-ew 'ork. ()D1A()D+. ()D6A()(1)
Fa#i" %osiah Brewer (B.. (2+3) S %&stice of the U.S. S&preme Co&rt ((22)A()(D)
$enry Billings Brown (B.. (2+3) S %&stice of the U.S. S&preme Co&rt ((2)(A()D3)
LeBaron Bra"for" Colt (B.. (232. S,B (232) S %&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of ppeals for the First Circ&it 7Boston9 ((22*A()(1)
William Gneelan" =ownsen" (B.. (26(. S,B (26() S %&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of ppeals for the Secon" Circ&it 7-ew 'ork City9 (()D0A()D6)
4eorge Chan"ler $olt (B.. (233. S,B (233) S %&"ge of U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the So&thern Fistrict of -ew 'ork 7-ew 'ork City9 (()D1A()(*)
%ames Perry Platt (B.. (261. S,G (261) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Fistrict of Connectic&t (()D0A()(1)
Jlmer Bragg "ams (B.. (23+) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Jastern Fistrict of 8isso&ri ((2)+A()D+)
J"war" 4. Bra"for" >> (B.. (232) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Fistrict of Felaware ((2)6A()(2)
J"war" Beers =homas (B.. (26D) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Jastern Fistrict of -ew 'ork ((2)2A()D3)
/o!ert W. rch!al" (B.. (26(. S,G (26() S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the 8i""le Fistrict of Pennsyl#ania (()D(A()(()
$enry Clay 8cFowell (B.. (22*. S,G (22*) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Western Fistrict of 5irginia (()D(A()1()
Charles Fraser 8acLean (B.. (23*. S,B (23*) S %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of -ew 'ork ((2)3A()D))
lmet Francis %enks (B.. (26+. S,B (26+) S %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of -ew 'ork ((2)2A()0*)
%ohn Proctor Clarke (B.. (262) S %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of -ew 'ork (()D(A()03)
%oseph rth&r B&rr (B.. (26() S %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of -ew 'ork (()D*A()(+)
%ohn l!ert 8atthewman (B.. (2)*) S Chief %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of $awaii (()D*A()())
Leonar" 8ayhew Faggett (B.. (22*. LL.B (226) S Corporation Co&nsel of -ew $a#en. Connectic&t (()D(A()D2)
rth&r Leffingwell Shipman (B.. (223. LL.B. (222. S,B (223) S Corporation Co&nsel of $artfor". Connectic&t (()D*A()D2. ()(DA()(0)
%ohn Prescott Gellogg (B.. (220. S,G (220) S Corporation Co&nsel of City of Water!&ry. Connectic&t ((2)3A()D). ()((A()(0)
8ontgomery $are (B.. (2)1) S ssistant Corporation Co&nsel for -ew 'ork City (()D(A()D3)
%ohn William Beckwith (B.. (22)) S ssistant Corporation Co&nsel for Chicago (()D1A()(()
/o!ert /&therfor" 8cCormick (B.. ()D1. S,G ()D1) S 8em!er of Chicago City Co&ncil (()D*A()D3)E Presi"ent of Sanitary Fistrict of Chicago
(()D+A()(D)E J"itor an" P&!lisher of The Chicago Tri#une
%ames J#erett Wheeler (B.. (2)0. LL.B. (2)*) S 8em!er of City Co&ncil of -ew $a#en. Connectic&t (()DDA()D*)
%ohn Payne St&"ley (LL.B. (26+) S 8ayor of -ew $a#en. Connectic&t (()D(A()D2)
$omer S. C&mmings (Ph.B. (2)(. LL.B. (2)1) S 8ayor of Stamfor". Connectic&t (()DDA()D0. ()D*A()D3)
J"win F. Sweet (B.. (26(. S,B (26() S 8ayor of 4ran" /api"s. 8ichigan (()D*A()D3)
8orihiro >chihara (Ph.F. (2)0) S 8ayor of 'okohama. %apan (()D1A()D3)E Presi"ent of the Bank of Chosen at Seo&l. Gorea (()D)A()(+)
Lawyers:
%ames 8&lfor" =ownsen" (B.. (26*. S,B (26*) S 4eneral Co&nsel of J.>. "& Pont "e -emo&rs Pow"er Company (()D1A()(1)
/o!ert Weeks "e Forest (B.. (26D. S,G (26D) S 4eneral Co&nsel of Central /ailroa" of -ew %ersey ((26*A()0*)
Lloy" Wheaton Bowers (B.. (26). S,B (26)) S 4eneral Co&nsel of Chicago , -orthwestern /ailway Company ((2)1A()D))
=homas =hacher (B.. (26(. S,B (26() S CoAFo&n"er an" 8em!er of Simpson. =hacher , Bartlett 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 ((26+A()())
Philip 4. Bartlett (B.. (22(. S,B (22() S Partner of Simpson. =hacher , Bartlett ((2)DA()1()
=homas 8ills Fay (B.. (223. LL.B. (222. S,B (223) S 8em!er of Simpson. =hacher , Bartlett ((2)2A()(6)
$enry Waters =aft (B.. (22D. S,B (22D) S Partner of Ca"wala"er. Wickersham , =aft 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 ((2))A()*+)
%ohn William Sterling (B.. (23*. S,B (23*) S CoAFo&n"er an" 8em!er of Shearman , Sterling 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 ((261A()(2)
%ohn nson 4ar#er (B.. (26+. S,G (26+) S Partner ((22*A()(2) an" Senior Partner (()(2A()13) of Shearman , Sterling
$enry FeForest Bal"win (B.. (22+. S,B (22+) S 8em!er of Lor". Fay , Lor" 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 (()DDA()*6)
Charles Wheeler Pierson (B.. (223. S,B (223) S 8em!er of le<an"er , 4reen 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 (()DDA()0))
Fre"erick Gings!&ry C&rtis (B.. (22*) S 8em!er of C&rtis. 8alletAPre#ost. Colt , 8osle 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 ((22)A()03)
$er!ert Parsons (B.. (2)D. S,G (2)D) S 8em!er of Parsons. Closson , 8cll#aine 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 ((2)+A()0+)
Charles P. $owlan" (B.. (2)() S 8em!er of 8&rray. Prentice , $owlan" 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 (()DDA()0()
$enry Fletcher (B.. (2)2) S 8em!er of Fletcher. Sillcocks , Leahy 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 (()D0A()0D)
llen War"ner J#arts (B.. (23)) S 8em!er of J#arts. Choate , Sherman 7an" pre"ecessor firms9 7-ew 'ork City9 ((26*A()1))
=homas =ownsen" Sherman (B.. (26*. LL.B. Col&m!ia (263) S 8em!er of J#arts. Choate , Sherman 7an" pre"ecessor firms9 ((26+A()1()E
greatAgran"son of /oger Sherman
B&sinessmen an" %o&rnalists:
Htto =. Bannar" (B.. (263. S,B (263) S Presi"ent of -ew 'ork =r&st Company (()D*A()(3)
Jl!ri"ge Clinton Cooke (B.. (266E S,B (266) S Presi"ent of 8inneapolis =r&st Company (()D1A()0D)
/o!ert 8acy 4allaway (B.. (2+2) S Presi"ent of 8erchants -ational Bank 7-ew 'ork City9 ((2)0A()(6)
/o!ert W. $&ntington %r. (B.. (22). S,G (22)) S Presi"ent of Connectic&t 4eneral Life >ns&rance Co. (()D(A()13)
$arry Payne Whitney (B.. (2)*. S,B (2)*) S 8em!er of the !oar" of "irectors of 4&aranty =r&st Co. of -ew 'ork ((2))A()1D)
Charles 8arshall Brown (B.. (2)() S Secretary an" =reas&rer of Colonial Steel Company 7Pitts!&rgh9 (()D(A()(6)
Charles $opkins Clark (B.. (26(. S,B (26() S Presi"ent an" J"itorAinAChief of $artford Courant ((2)DA()03)
William $. Cowles (B.. (226. S,B (226) S P&!lisher of %po!ane %po!esman&"evie' ((2)1A()*3)
J"war" nthony Bra"for" (B.. (261. S,G (261) S 8em!er of the staff of The (e' )or! Times ((26*A()02)
College "ministrators an" Professors:
rth&r =wining $a"ley (B.. (263. S,B (263) S Presi"ent of 'ale Uni#ersity ((2))A()0()
GenLiro 'amagawa (Ph.B. (26+) S Presi"ent of =okyo >mperial Uni#ersity (()D(A()D+. ()(1A()0D)E 8em!er of $o&se of Peers (()D*A()01)
William /ainey $arper (Ph.F. (26+) S Presi"ent of the Uni#ersity of Chicago ((2)(A()D3)
Cyr&s -orthrop (B.. (2+6. LL.B. (2+). S,B (2+6) S Presi"ent of Uni#ersity of 8innesota ((22*A()(()
&stin Scott (B.. (23)) S Presi"ent of /&tgers College ((2)(A()D3)
$orace B&mstea" (B.. (231) S Presi"ent of tlanta Uni#ersity ((222A()D6)
We!ster 8errifiel" (B.. (266) S Presi"ent of Uni#ersity of -orth Fakota ((2)(A()D))
Frank Strong (B.. (22*) S Chancellor of Uni#ersity of Gansas (()D0A()0D)
4eorge W. Girchwey (B.. (26)) S Fean of Col&m!ia Law School (()D(A()(D)
4eorge Chase (B.. (26D. #ale"ictorian) S Fean of -ew 'ork Law School ((2)(A()0*)
-athan Fa#is !!ott (B.. (266. S,G (266) S Fean of Stanfor" Uni#ersity Law School ((2)*A()D6)
William =hayer Smith (B.. (23D. S,B (23D) S Fean of Fartmo&th 8e"ical School ((2)3A()D))
4eorge F&tton Watro&s (B.. (26). LL.B. (221) S Professor of Law at 'ale Law School ((2)+A()0D)
$enry Walcott Farnam (B.. (26*. S,B (26*) S Professor of Political Jconomy at 'ale Uni#ersity ((22DA()(0)
>r#ing Fisher (B.. (222. Ph.F. (2)(. S,B (222) S Professor of Political Jconomy at 'ale Uni#ersity ((2)1A()1+)
4&sta# 4r&ener (B.. (22*. S,B (22*) S Professor of 4erman at 'ale Uni#ersity ((2)0A()02)
/o!ert -elson Corwin (B.. (226. S,B (226) S Professor of 4erman at 'ale Uni#ersity ((2))A()11)
$oratio 8cLeo" /eynol"s (B.. (22D) S =alcott Professor of the 4reek Lang&age an" Literat&re at 'ale Uni#ersity ((2)1A()00)
Charlton 8. Lewis (B.. (223. S,B (223) S Jmily Sanfor" Professor of Jnglish at 'ale Uni#ersity ((2))A()01)
%ames W. >ngersoll (B.. (2)0. S,B (2)0) S Professor of Latin at 'ale Uni#ersity ((2)6A()0()
Charles Foster Gent (B.. (22). Ph.F. (2)() S Woolsey Professor of Bi!lical Literat&re at 'ale Uni#ersity (()D(A()0+)
J"war" Salis!&ry Fana (B.. (26D. S,G (26D) S Professor of Physics at 'ale Uni#ersity ((2)DA()(6)
Fwight Whitney Learne" (B.. (26D. Ph.F. (261. S,B (26D) S Professor of Chinese $istory. Bi!lical =heology. an" 4reek at Foshisha
College in Gyoto. %apan ((263A()02)
$enry =aylor =erry (B.. (23)) S Professor of Jnglish Law at Uni#ersity of =okyo ((2)*A()(0)
%ohn =r&m!&ll Swift (B.. (22*) S Lect&rer on the Jnglish lang&age in =okyo >mperial Uni#ersity (()DDA()06)
William Stewart $alste" (B.. (26*) S S&rgeonAinAChief of %ohns $opkins $ospital at Baltimore ((2)DA()00)
%ohn Lo&is Jwell (B.. (23+. S,B (23+) S Professor of Ch&rch $istory an" $e!rew J<egesis at $owar" Uni#ersity 7Wash.. F.C.9 ((2)(A()(D)
Warren &stin "ams (B.. (223. Ph.F. (2)+) S Professor of 4erman at Fartmo&th College (()D*A()**)
%ohn Seymo&r =hacher (B.. (266. S,B (266) S Professor of Clinical 8e"icine at Col&m!ia Uni#ersity (()D1A()(2)
4eorge J. 5incent (B.. (22+. S,G (22+) S Professor of Sociology at Uni#ersity of Chicago (()D*A()(()
$enry $er!ert Fonal"son (B.. (26). S,G (26)) S Professor of -e&rology at Uni#ersity of Chicago ((2)0A()D3)
Hrgani;ation J<ec&ti#es:
Franklin &g&st&s 4aylor" (B.. (263) S 4eneral Secretary of the /&ssian '8C in St. Peters!&rg. /&ssia ((2))A()(6)
=homas F. Fa#ies (B.. (2+1. S,B (2+1) S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop for the Jpiscopal Fiocese of 8ichigan ((22)A()D+)
Boy" 5incent (B.. (236. S,G (236) S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop for the Jpiscopal Fiocese of So&thern Hhio (()D*A()0))
Cha&ncey B. Brewster (B.. (232. S,B (232) S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop for the Jpiscopal Fiocese of Connectic&t ((2))A()02)
J"win Ste#ens Lines (B.. (260. S,G (260) S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop for the Jpiscopal Fiocese of -ewark. -ew %ersey (()D1A()06)
Fre"eric W. Geator (B.. (22D. LL.B. (220. S,G (22D) S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop for the Jpiscopal Fiocese of Hlympia. Wa. (()D0A()0*)
Cortlan"t Whitehea" (B.. (231) S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop for the Jpiscopal Fiocese of Pitts!&rgh. Pennsyl#ania ((220A()00)E 4ran"
Chaplain of the 4ran" Lo"ge of Pennsyl#ania Free an" ccepte" 8asons ((221A()0()
Sereno Fwight -ickerson (B.. (2*+. S,B (2*+) S /ecor"ing 4ran" Secretary of the 4ran" Lo"ge of 8assach&setts ((22(A()D2)
William $. Welch (B.. (26D. S,B (26D) S Presi"ent of the !oar" of "irectors of /ockefeller >nstit&te for 8e"ical /esearch (()D(A()1*)
Faniel Coit 4ilman (B.. (2+0. S,B (2+0) S Presi"ent of Carnegie >nstit&tion of Washington (()D0A()D+)E Presi"ent of the -ational Ci#il
Ser#ice /eform Leag&e (()D(A()D6)
Fa#i" %ames B&rrell (B.. (236. S,G (236) S Pastor of 8ar!le Collegiate Ch&rch in -ew 'ork City ((2)(A()03)
$enry l!ert Stimson (B.. (23+. S,B (23+) S Pastor of 8anhattan Ch&rch in -ew 'ork City ((2)3A()(6)
%oseph F. B&rrell (B.. (22(. S,B (22() S Pastor of Classon #en&e Ch&rch in Brooklyn 7-ew 'ork City9 ((2)0A()())
-ote: !!re#iations for 'ale Uni#ersity gra"&ates: S,B U Sk&ll , BonesE S,G U Scroll , Gey
$ar#ar" Uni#ersity 4ra"&ates an" =heir Hcc&pation "&ring the /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
Fe"eral 4o#ernment Hfficials:
=heo"ore /oose#elt (B.. (22D) S Presi"ent of the Unite" States (()D(A()D))
William $enry 8oo"y (B.. (263) S Secretary of the -a#y (()D0A()D*)E U.S. ttorney 4eneral (()D*A()D3)
Charles $allam Geep (.B. (220. LL.B. (22+) S ssistant Secretary of the =reas&ry (()D1A()D6)
J"win 5. 8organ (.B. (2)D) S U.S. 8inister to Gorea (%&ne 03. ()D+A-o#em!er (6. ()D+)
/ichar" =heo"ore 4reener (.B. (26D) S U.S. Cons&l to 5la"i#ostok. /&ssia ((2)2A()D+)E first fricanAmerican $ar#ar" gra"&ate
/oger Sherman 4reene (.B. ()D() S U.S. 5ice Cons&l to -agasaki. %apan (()D*A()D+)E U.S. Cons&l at $ar!in. China (()D)A()(()
%oseph $o"ges Choate (B.. (2+0. LL.B. (2+*) S U.S. m!assa"or to 4reat Britain (8arch 3. (2))A8ay 01. ()D+)
Charlemagne =ower (B.. (260) S U.S. m!assa"or to /&ssia ((2))A()D0)E U.S. m!assa"or to 4ermany (()D0A()D2)
Bellamy Storer (B.. (236) S U.S. m!assa"or to &striaA$&ngary (()D0A()D3)
4eorge #on L. 8eyer (B.. (26)) S U.S. m!assa"or to >taly (Fe!r&ary *. ()D(April (. ()D+)E U.S. m!assa"or to /&ssia (()D+A()D6)
%ohn W. /i""le (B.. (226) S U.S. Cons&l 4eneral in Jgypt (8arch 02. ()D*A%&ne ). ()D+)E U.S. m!assa"or to /&ssia (()D6A()D))
$enry Ca!ot Lo"ge Sr. (B.. (26(. LL.B. (26*. Ph.F. (263) S U.S. Senator (/A8assach&setts. (2)1A()0*)
Boies Penrose (B.. (22() S U.S. Senator (/APennsyl#ania. (2)6A()0()
4eorge J"m&n" Foss (B.. (22+) S U.S. Congressman (/A>llinois. (2)+A()(1. ()(+A()())
$enry Sherman Bo&tell (B.. (263) S U.S. Congressman (/A>llinois. (2)6A()(()
L&ci&s -. Litta&er (B.. (262) S U.S. Congressman (/A-ew 'ork. (2)6A()D6)
&g&st&s Pea!o"y 4ar"ner (B.. (223) S U.S. Congressman (/A8assach&setts. ()D0A()(6)
-icholas Longworth (B.. (2)() S U.S. Congressman (/AHhio. ()D1A()(1. ()(+A()1()
Hli#er Wen"ell $olmes %r. (B.. (23(. LL.B. (233) S %&stice of the U.S. S&preme Co&rt (()D0A()10)
%ohn Gel#ey /ichar"s (B.. (266) S %&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of ppeals for the Si<th Circ&it (()D1A()D))
Francis Ca!ot Lowell (B.. (263. LL.B. (26)) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Fistrict of 8assach&setts ((2)2A()D+)
$er!ert P&tnam (B.. (221) S Li!rarian of Congress ((2))A()1))
Beekman Winthrop (B.. (2)6) S 4o#ernor of P&erto /ico (()D*A()D6)
%ohn Percy -iel"s (.B. (22). LL.B. (2)0) S U.S. ttorney for the Fistrict of Felaware (()D1A()(3)
State an" Local 4o#ernment Hfficials:
lfre" Ste"man $artwell (B.. (2+2. LL.B. (236) S %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of the =erritory of $awaii (()D*A()(()
%ames =yn"ale 8itchell (B.. (2++) S Chief %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of Pennsyl#ania (()D1A()D))
William Cale! Loring (B.. (260. LL.B. (26*) S %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of 8assach&setts ((2))A()())
$enry -ewton Shel"on (.B. (231) S %&stice of the S&perior Co&rt of 8assach&setts ((2)*A()D+)
$er!ert Parker (.B. (2)3) S ttorney 4eneral of 8assach&setts (()D(A()D+)
8arc&s Ca&ffman Sloss (.B. (2)D. LL.B. (2)1) S %&"ge of the S&perior Co&rt of the City an" Co&nty of San Francisco (()D(A()D3)
!!ot Low 8ills (.B. (22() S 8em!er. Hregon State $o&se of /ep. (()D*AD+)E Presi"ent. First -ational Bank of Portlan" 7Hregon9 (()D1A06)
Lo&is "ams Frothingham (.B. (2)1. LL.B. (2)3) S 8em!er (()D(AD+) an" Speaker (()D*A()D+) of 8ass. State $o&se of /epresentati#es
/o!ert L&ce (.B. (220) S 8em!er of the 8assach&setts State $o&se of /epresentati#es ((2)). ()D(A()D2)
%ames rnol" Lowell (.B. (2)(. LL.B. (2)*) S 8em!er of the 8assach&setts State $o&se of /epresentati#es (()D*A()D3)
4eorge Fickson 8arkham (.B. (22() S 8em!er of City Co&ncil of St. Lo&is. 8isso&ri (()D(A()D+)
/o!ert 4rant (.B. (261. Ph.F. (263. LL.B. (26)) S %&"ge of the Pro!ate Co&rt an" Co&rt of >nsol#ency for S&ffolk Co&nty 7Boston9.
8assach&setts ((2)1A()01)
Bankers:
&g&st Belmont %r. (.B. (26*) S $ea" of &g&st Belmont , Co.. !ankers. -ew 'ork City ((2)DA()0*)
%ohn Pierpont ?%ack@ 8organ %r. (.B. (22)) S 8em!er of %.P. 8organ , Co. (()D(A()(1)
Pa&l %. Sachs (.B. ()DD) S Partner of 4ol"man. Sachs , Co. (()D*A()(*)
4eorge Ca!ot Lee (.B. (2)*) S 8em!er of Lee $igginson , Co. (()DDAc.()12)
=homas W. Lamont (.B. (2)0) S Secretary. =reas&rer. an" 5ice Presi"ent of Bankers =r&st Company (()D1A()D))
J"war" Perci#al 8erritt (.B. (220) S 8em!er of Blo"get. 8erritt , Co. 7!anking firm in Boston9 ((2)1A()(D)
/&ssell 4reen Fessen"en (.B. (2)D) S Presi"ent an" Chairman of merican =r&st Company 7!anking firm in Boston9 (()D6A()06)
B&sinessmen:
Fre"erick Perry Fish (.B. (26+) S Presi"ent of merican =elephone , =elegraph Co. 7=,=9 (()D(A()D6)
/o!ert =o"" Lincoln (B.. (23*) S Presi"ent of =he P&llman Co. ((2)6A()(()
$owar" Jlliott (C.J. (22() S Presi"ent of -orthern Pacific /ailway Co. (()D1A()(1)
Fre"eric . Felano (.B. (22+) S 4eneral 8anager at Chicago office. Chicago. B&rlington , V&incy /ailroa" Co. (%&ly (. ()D(A%an. (D. ()D+)
Charles -orman Fay (B.. (23)) S Presi"ent of /emingtonASholes Company 7man&fact&rers of typewriters in Chicago9 ((2)3A()D))
"olph&s Williamson 4reen (.B. (231) S CoAFo&n"er an" Presi"ent of -ational Bisc&it Company 7-a!isco9 (()D+)
$ammon" Lamont (.B. (223) S 8anaging J"itor of (e' )or! *vening Post (()DDA()D3)
Sam&el Fennis Warren (.B. (26+. LL.B. (266) S Partner of S.F. Warren , Co. 7paper man&fact&rers in Boston9 ((22)A()(D)
Fiske Warren (B.. (22*) S Partner of S.F. Warren , Co. 7paper man&fact&rers in Boston9 ((22)A()(2)
Fre"eric Cromwell (B.. (231) S =reas&rer an" =r&stee of 8&t&al Life >ns&rance Company of -ew 'ork
College "ministrators an" Professors:
Charles William Jliot (.B. (2+1) S Presi"ent of $ar#ar" Uni#ersity ((23)A()D))
William FeWitt $y"e (B.. (26)) S Presi"ent of Bow"oin College ((22+A()(6)
Bartholomew Francis 4riffin (.B. (2))) S Presi"ent of Hah& College 7$onol&l&9 (()D0A()00)
4eorge J"man"s 8errill (B.. (23)) S Presi"ent of Colgate Uni#ersity ((2))A()D2)
Charles Franklin =hwing (B..(263) S Presi"ent of Western /eser#e Uni#ersity ((2)DA()0()
Prince L&cien Camp!ell (.B.(223) S Presi"ent of Uni#ersity of Hregon (()D0A()0+)
%ames Barr mes (B.. (232. LL.B. (260) S Fean of $ar#ar" Law School ((2)+A()(D)
Francis 4reenwoo" Pea!o"y (.B. (23)) S Fean of $ar#ar" Fi#inity School (()D(A()D+)
William Lam!ert /ichar"son (.B. (23*. 8.F. (236) S Fean of Fac&lty of 8e"icine at $ar#ar" Uni#ersity ((2))A()D6)
%oseph French %ohnson (.B. (262) S Fean of School of Commerce. cco&nts an" Finance at -ew 'ork Uni#ersity (()D1A()0+)
8arshall Solomon Snow (.B. (23+) S Fean of Washington Uni#ersity in St. Lo&is 78isso&ri9 ((263A()(0)
$oratio Ste#ens White (.B. (261) S Professor of 4erman at $ar#ar" Uni#ersity (()D0A()())
J&gene Wam!a&gh (.B. (263. LL.B. (22D) S Professor of Law at $ar#ar" Uni#ersity ((2)0A()0+)
%ohn Jliot Wolff (.B. (26). Ph.F. (22)) S Professor of Petrography an" 8ineralogy at $ar#ar" Uni#ersity ((2)+A()01)
Sam&el Williston (.B. (220. LL.B. (222) S Wel" Professor of Law at $ar#ar" Uni#ersity (()D1A()())
=heo"ore William /ichar"s (.B. (223. Ph.F. (222) S Professor of Chemistry at $ar#ar" Uni#ersity (()D(A()02)
4eorge Folger Canfiel" (.B. (26+E LL.B. (22D) S Professor of Law at Col&m!ia Uni#ersity ((2)*Ac.()())
%ames $ar#ey /o!inson (.B. (226) S Professor of $istory at Col&m!ia Uni#ersity ((2)+A()())
Charles &g&st&s Strong (.B. (22+) S Professor of Psychology at Col&m!ia Uni#ersity (()D1A()(D)E marrie" Bessie /ockefeller. "a&ghter of
%ohn F. /ockefeller Sr.
%ames La&rence La&ghlin (.B. (261E Ph.F. (263) S Professor of Political Jconomy at Uni#ersity of Chicago ((2)0A()(3)
%ames /ichar" %ewett (.B. (22*) S Professor of ra!ic Lang&age an" Literat&re at Uni#ersity of Chicago (()D0A()(()
/o!ert $errick (.B. (2)D) S ssociate Professor of Jnglish at Uni#ersity of Chicago (()D(A()D+)
$enry Schofiel" (.B. (226. LL.B. (2)D) S Professor of Law at -orthwestern Uni#ersity 7>llinois9 (()D0A()(2)
Fre"erick 4reen (.B. (22). LL.B. (2)1) S Professor of Law at Uni#ersity of >llinois (()D*Ac.()02)
J#arts Bo&tell 4reene (.B. (2)D. .8. (2)(. Ph.F. (2)1) S Professor of $istory at Uni#. of >llinois ((2)6A()01)E !rother of %erome F. 4reene
Wil"er Fwight Bancroft (.B. (222) S Professor of Physical Chemistry at Cornell Uni#ersity (()D1A()16)
William %&lian l!ert Bliss (.B. (222) S Professor of Physics at %ohns $opkins Uni#ersity (()D(A()02)
/eynol"s Fri#er Brown (.B. (2)D) S Professor of Law at Uni#ersity of Pennsyl#ania ((2)6A()13)
William 8acFonal" (.B. (2)0) S Professor of $istory at Brown Uni#ersity (()D(A()(6)
Hthers:
Charles $owlan" /&ssell (.B. (260. LL.B. Col&m!ia (26*) S 8em!er of Stetson. %ennings , /&ssell 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 ((2)*A()0()
J"m&n" Lincoln Baylies (.B. (26). LL.B. (220) S 8em!er of Carter. Le"yar" , 8il!&rn 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 (()D*A()03)
William =homas (.B. (261. LL.B. (263) S 8em!er of =homas. Bee"y. Presley , Paramore 7law firm in San Francisco9
J"gar %&"son /ich (.B. (226. LL.B. (2)() S 4eneral Solicitor of Boston , 8aine /ailroa" (()D1A()(+)
$ollis /&ssell Bailey (.B. (266E LL.B. (262) S Chairman of 8assach&setts Boar" of Bar J<aminers (()D1A()1()E Femocrat
William Lawrence (.B. (26() S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop for the Jpiscopal Fiocese of 8assach&setts ((2)1A()03)
4eorge ngier 4or"on (.B. (22() S 8inister of Hl" So&th Ch&rch in Boston ((22*A()06)
&g&st&s 8en"on Lor" (.B. (221) S 8inister of First Congregational (Unitarian) Ch&rch in Pro#i"ence. /ho"e >slan" ((2)DA()1()
Charles Jlliott St. %ohn (.B. (26)) S Secretary of merican Unitarian ssociation in Boston (()DDA()D6)
BenLamin 8organ $arro" (B.. (2+3) S 8em!er of Panama Canal Commission (()D*A()D6)E City Jngineer of -ew Hrleans ((222A(2)0)E Chief
State Jngineer of Lo&isiana ((266A(22D)E 8em!er of U.S. 8ississippi /i#er Commission ((26)A()D*)
&g&stine $ear" (B.. (2*6) S U.S. 8inister to Gorea ((2)DA(2)1)
%&tarT Gom&ra (LL.B. (262) S %apanese 8inister of Foreign ffairs (()D(A()D3. ()D2A()(()
J"war" $. Stro!el (B.. (266) S 4eneral "#iser to the 4o#ernment of Siam 7=hailan"9 (()D1A()D6)
J"war" B. Frew (B.. (231) S Commissioner of the Chinese >mperial 8aritime C&stoms ((23)A()D2)
$enry Fer"inan" 8errill (B.. (26*) S Commissioner of the Chinese >mperial 8aritime C&stoms ((226A()(3)
-ote: Fre"eric . Felano was Franklin Felano /oose#eltNs &ncleE Franklin Felano /oose#eltNs mother was Sara Felano. the sister of Fre"eric
. Felano. Fre"eric . Felano was !orn in $ong Gong on Septem!er (D. (231.
Princeton Uni#ersity 4ra"&ates an" =heir Hcc&pation "&ring the /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
4o#ernment Hfficials:
/ichar" Wayne Parker (.B. (236) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA-ew %ersey. (2)+A()((. ()(*A()(). ()0(A()01)
>ra Wells Woo" (.B. (266) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA-ew %ersey. ()D*A()(1)
%oseph $olt 4aines (.B. (223) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanAWest 5irginia. ()D(A()(()
/ichmon" Pearson (.B. (260) S U.S. 8inister to Persia (()D1A()D6)
Sam&el /. 4&mmere (.B. (26D) S U.S. Cons&l 4eneral at =angier 78orocco9 ((2)2A()D+)
4eorge 4ray (.B. (2+)) S %&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of ppeals for the =hir" Circ&it 7Phila"elphia9 ((2))A()(*)
%ohn Bayar" 8cPherson (.B. (233) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Jastern Fistrict of Pennsyl#ania ((2))A()(0)
%ohn %ay %ackson. %r. (.B. (2*+) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the -orthern Fistrict of West 5irginia (()D(A()D+)
%oseph Cross (.B. (23+) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Fistrict of -ew %ersey (8arch (6. ()D+AHcto!er 0). ()(1)E 8em!er of -ew
%ersey State Senate ((2))A()D+)
4eorge B. 8cClellan %r. (.B. (223) S 8ayor of -ew 'ork City (%an&ary (. ()D*AFecem!er 1(. ()D))
Frank S. Gat;en!ach %r. (.B. (22)) S 8ayor of =renton. -ew %ersey (()D(A()D6)
William Franklin $enney (.B. (26*) S 8ayor of $artfor". Connectic&t (()D*A()D2)
Charles n"rew =alcott (.B. (26)) S 8ayor of Utica. -ew 'ork (()D0A()D3)
William S. 4&mmere (.B. (26D) S Chief %&stice of the S&preme Co&rt of -ew %ersey (()D(A()11)
8ahlon Pitney (.B. (26)) S %&"ge of the S&preme Co&rt of -ew %ersey (()D(A()D2)
/o!ert $. 8cCarter (.B. (26)) S ttorney 4eneral of -ew %ersey (()D1A()D2)
Hthers:
Woo"row Wilson (.B. (26)) S Presi"ent of Princeton Uni#ersity (()D0A()(D)
Winthrop 8ore Faniels (.B. (222) S Professor of Political Jconomy at Princeton Uni#ersity ((2)0A()(()E Professor of =ransportation at 'ale
Uni#ersity (()01A()*D)
William 8cGi!!in (.B. (23)) S Presi"ent of Lane =heological Seminary in Cincinnati. Hhio (()D*A()0+)
Franklin Spencer Spal"ing (.B. (226) S Protestant Jpiscopal Bishop of the Fiocese of Utah (()D*A()(*)
William %ames 8cGittrick (.B. (263) S Pastor of First Ch&rch in St. Lo&is. 8isso&ri ((2))A()(3)
William %ames /ei" %r. (.B. (2)1) S Pastor of First Ch&rch in Pitts!&rgh. Pennsyl#ania (()D0A()*1)
Wilton 8erleASmith (.B. (266) S Pastor of Central Ch&rch in -ew 'ork City ((22)A()0D)
4raham Lee (.B. (22)) S Christian 8issionary in Pyongyang. Gorea ((2)0A()(0)
Fartmo&th College 4ra"&ates an" /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
Charles Faniel =enney (.B. (262) S Presi"ent of >mperial Chinese Uni#ersity at =ientsin. China ((2)+A()D3)E Chinese Secretary at merican
Legation in Peking (8arch ((. ()D2A8arch 1(. ()(0)
William %ewett =&cker (.B. (23() S Presi"ent of Fartmo&th College ((2)1A()D))
4eorge &g&st&s 4ates (.B. (261) S Presi"ent of Pomona College 7Claremont. California9 (()D0A()D))
l!ert Jllis Frost (.B. (260) S =reas&rer of Uni#ersity of Pitts!&rgh ((2)0A()D))
$enry J!en B&rnham (.B. (23+) S U.S. Senator (/ep&!licanA-ew $ampshire. ()D(A()(1)
/e"fiel" Proctor (.B. (2+() S U.S. Senator (/ep&!licanA5ermont. (2)(A()D2)
Fa#i" %ohnson Foster (.B. (22D) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA5ermont. ()D(A()(0)
Sam&el Walker 8cCall (.B. (26*) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA8assach&setts. (2)1A()(1)
Sam&el Lelan" Powers (.B. (26*) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA8assach&setts. ()D(A()D+)
Charles V&incy =irrell (.B. (233) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA8assach&setts. ()D(A()(D)
Walter $enry San!orn (.B. (236) S %&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of ppeals for the Jighth Circ&it 7St. Lo&is9 ((2)0A()02)
Charles n"rew Willar" (.B. (266) S U.S. =erritorial %&"ge of the Philippine >slan"s (()D(A()D))
Frank -aismith Parsons (.B. (26*) S Chief %&stice of the -ew $ampshire S&preme Co&rt (()D0A()0*)
4eorge $&tchins Bingham (.B. (226) S %&stice of the -ew $ampshire S&preme Co&rt (()D0A()(1)
$arry B. =hayer (.B. (26)) S 5ice Presi"ent of Western Jlectric Company (()D0A()D2)
Charles $enry =reat (.B. (231) S Collector of >nternal /e#en&e for the Wall Street Fistrict ((2)3A()D+)E =reas&rer of the U.S. (()D+A()D))
Sam&el $enry $&"son (.B. (22+) S First ssistant Corporation Co&nsel of Boston (()D*A()D3)
Col&m!ia Uni#ersity 4ra"&ates , /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
-icholas 8&rray B&tler (B.. (220E 8.. (221E Ph.F. (22*) S Presi"ent of Col&m!ia Uni#ersity (()D0A()*+)
Fre"eric /. Co&"ert (B.. (2)DE .8. (2)(E Ph.F. (2)*) S 8em!er of Co&"ert Brothers 7law firm in -ew 'ork City9 ((2)+A()++)
J./.. Seligman (B.. (26)E LL.B. (22*E Ph.F. (22+) S 8c5ickar Professor of Political Jconomy an" Finance at Col&m!ia Uni#. (()D*A()1()
William =. Sa!ine (B.. (2+)) S Pastor of the First /eforme" Jpiscopalian Ch&rch in -ew 'ork City ((26*A()D6)
Jmile $enry Lacom!e (B.. (231E LL.B. (23+) S %&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of ppeals for the Secon" Circ&it ((2)(A()(3)
4eorge Lockhart /i#es (B.. (232. LL.B. (261) S Corporation Co&nsel of -ew 'ork City (()D0A()D*)
Bernar" Frachman (B.. (220. Ph.F. $ei"el!erg (22*) S /a!!i of Congregation :ichron Jphraim in -ew 'ork City ((22)A()*+)E Professor of
Bi!le an" /a!!inical Co"es at %ewish =heological Seminary of merica (()D0A()D2)
Brown Uni#ersity 4ra"&ates an" /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
%ohn $ay (.B. (2+2) S U.S. Secretary of State ((2)2A()D+)
&g&st&s 8iller (.B. (26() S 8ayor of Pro#i"ence. /ho"e >slan" (()D1A()D+)
rth&r Lewis Brown (.B. (263) S %&"ge of the U.S. Fistrict Co&rt for the Fistrict of /ho"e >slan" ((2)3A()06)
Franklin J. Brooks (.B. (221) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanAColora"o. ()D1A()D6)
%ames B&rrill ngell (.B. (2*)) S Presi"ent of Uni#ersity of 8ichigan ((26(A()D))
William $.P. Fa&nce (.B. (22D) S Presi"ent of Brown Uni#ersity ((2))A()0))
%ohn F. /ockefeller %r. (.B. (2)6) S =r&stee of /ockefeller >nstit&te for 8e"ical /esearch (()D(A()+*)
mherst College 4ra"&ates an" /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
Fre"erick $&ntington 4illett (.B. (26*) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (/ep&!licanA8assach&setts. (2)1A()0+)
4eorge Pelton Lawrence (.B. (22D) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (/ep&!licanA8assach&setts. (2)6A()(1)
$enry =homas /ainey (.B. (221) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (FemocratA>llinois. ()D1A()0(. ()01A()1*)
J"war" 8&rray Bassett (.B. (22*) S 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (FemocratA -ew 'ork. ()D1A()D+)
L&ci&s Fayette Clark 4ar#in (.B. (230) S 4o#ernor of /ho"e >slan" (()D1A()D+)
4eorge $er!ert Utter (.B. (266) S 4o#ernor of /ho"e >slan" (()D+A()D6)E Lie&tenant 4o#ernor of /ho"e >slan" (()D*A()D+)
Charles F. Stearns (.B. (22)) S ttorney 4eneral of /ho"e >slan" (()D(A()D+)
William . Ging (.B. (262) S ttorney 4eneral of Connectic&t (()D1A()D6)
Cale! /. Layton %r. (.B. (261) S Secretary of State of Felaware (()D(A()D+)
Walter Wyman (.B. (26D) S S&rgeon 4eneral of the Unite" States ((2)(A()(()
4eorge $arris (.B. (233) S Presi"ent of mherst College ((2))A()(0)
/&sh /hees (.B. (221) S Presi"ent of Uni#ersity of /ochester (()DDA()1+)
William Foster Peirce (.B. (222) S Presi"ent of Genyon College 7Hhio9 ((2)3A()16)
%ames 4riswol" 8errill (.B. (231) S Presi"ent of Fisk Uni#ersity 7!lack college in -ash#ille. =ennessee9 ((2))A()D2)
$er!ert 4ar"iner Lor" (.B. (26() S Professor of Philosophy at Col&m!ia Uni#ersity (()DDA()0()
Charles $enry Parkh&rst (.B. (233) S Pastor of 8a"ison SM&are Pres!yterian Ch&rch in -ew 'ork City ((22DA()(2)
Williams College 4ra"&ates an" /&ssoA%apanese War (()D*A()D+)
$enry $opkins (B.. (2+2) S Presi"ent of Williams College (()D0A()D2)
4ran#ille Stanley $all (B.. (236) S Presi"ent of Clark Uni#ersity ((222A()0D)
William Ball 4il!ert (B.. (232) S %&"ge of the U.S. Co&rt of ppeals for the -inth Circ&it ((2)0A()1()
8ichael J"war" Friscoll (B.. (266) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA-ew 'ork. (2))A()(1)
4eorge -ewell So&thwick (B.. (22*) S U.S. Congressman (/ep&!licanA-ew 'ork. (2)+A(2)). ()D(A()(()
/ichar" chilles Ballinger (B.. (22*) S 8ayor of Seattle. Washington (()D*A()D3)
-ote: Prominent newspaper p&!lisher 0illia) .andol9h $earst was a 8em!er of the U.S. $o&se of /epresentati#es (FemocratA-ew 'ork)
from 8arch *. ()D1 to 8arch 1. ()D6.
Russian Revolution of ./01
A $o2iet "oster cele.ratin% the 1attleshi" 7otem0in re.ellion durin% the Russian Re2olution of 19@L
/&ssian Statesmen "&ring the /&ssoA%apanese War
Co/nt (ladi)ir
:ikola+eich La)sdorf
Foreign 8inister of /&ssia
(()DDA()D3)
C
o/nt (ladi)ir
#okotso
Prime 8inister of /&ssia
(Sept. (2. ()((AFe!. (0.
()(*)E Finance 8inister of
/&ssia (()D*A()D+E
()D3A()(*)
Co/nt Sergei 0itte
Prime 8inister of /&ssia
(()D+A()D3)E
Finance 8inister of
/&ssia ((2)0A()D1)E
/&ssian en#oy to the
Portsmo&th Conference
(()D+)
"aron .o)an .osen
/&ssian 8inister to %apan
((2)6A(2)2. ()D1A()D*)E
/&ssian m!assa"or to
the Unite" States (()D*A
()(()
-ikolay 8&ra#ie#
8inister of %&stice of
/&ssia ((2)*A()D+)
"lood+ S/nda+ %assacre1 C;arist /&ssian >mperial 4&ar" sol"iers fire on the /&ssian people in St. Peters!&rg. /&ssia on
%an&ary 00. ()D+ "&ring the /&ssoA%apanese War. 5la"imir Lenin li#e" in e<ile in :&rich. Swit;erlan" after the faile" ()D+
/e#ol&tion. Leon =rotsky li#e" in 5ienna. &stria from ()D6 to ()(*. in Paris from ()(* to ()(3. an" in -ew 'ork City from
%an&ary ()(6 to 8arch ()(6.
Je!ish 2ictims of "o%roms in Russia in 19@L

5rand 6u0e $er%ei Ale)andro2ich of Russia *left "hoto+, !ho ser2ed as the 5o2ernor 5eneral of 'osco! from 191 to January
19@L and ser2ed as the Commander of the 'osco! military district in 19@L, !as assassinated and instantly 0illed *and
disinte%rated+ .y a .om. thro!n .y ?7IyearIold Russian terrorist I2an Aalyaye2 *ri%ht "hoto+ in 'osco!, Russia on the
afternoon of Fe.ruary 17, 19@L# 5rand 6u0e $er%ei !as the youn%er .rother of Czar Ale)ander III of Russia and uncle of Czar
Nicholas II of Russia#
The carria%e of 5rand 6u0e $er%ei after his assassination in 'osco!, Russia on Fe.ruary 17, 19@L#
DThese economic de2elo"ments had "rofound "olitical effects under the !ea0I!illed Czar Nicholas II *19JI1917+# For a.out a
decade Nicholas tried to com.ine ruthless ci2il re"ression, economic ad2ance, and an im"erialist forei%n "olicy in the 1al0ans
and the Far :ast, !ith "ious !orld!ide "u.licity for "eace and uni2ersal disarmament, domestic distractions li0e antiI$emitic
massacres *"o%roms+, for%ed terroristic documents, and fa0ed terroristic attem"ts on the li2es of hi%h officials, includin%
himself# This unli0ely melan%e colla"sed com"letely in 19@LI19@# 4hen Count 4itte attem"ted to .e%in some 0ind of
constitutional de2elo"ment .y %ettin% in touch !ith the functionin% units of local %o2ernment *the zemst2os, !hich had .een
effecti2e in the famine of 191+, he !as ousted from his "osition .y an intri%ue led .y the murderous 'inister of Interior
8yachesla2 7leh2e *19@>+# The ci2il head of the -rthodo) Church, Aonstantin 7o.edonostse2 *1?7I19@7+ "ersecuted all
dissentin% reli%ions, !hile allo!in% the -rthodo) Church to .ecome en2elo"ed in i%norance and corru"tion# 'ost Roman
Catholic monasteries in 7oland !ere confiscated, !hile "riests of that reli%ion !ere for.idden to lea2e their 2illa%es# In Finland
construction of <utheran churches !as for.idden, and schools of this reli%ion !ere ta0en o2er .y the 'osco! %o2ernment# The
Je!s !ere "ersecuted, restricted to certain "ro2inces *the 7ale+, e)cluded from most economic acti2ities, su.Mected to hea2y
ta)es *e2en on their reli%ious acti2ities+, and allo!ed to form only ten "ercent of the "u"ils in schools *e2e in 2illa%es !hich
!ere almost com"letely Je!ish and !here the schools !ere su""orted entirely .y Je!ish ta)es+# Hundreds of Je!s !ere
massacred and thousands of their .uildin%s !rec0ed in systematic threeIday "o%roms tolerated and sometimes encoura%ed .y
the "olice# 'arria%es *and children+ of Roman Catholic Eniates !ere made ille%itimate# The 'oslems in Asia and else!here
!ere also "ersecuted# :2ery effort !as made to Russify nonIRussian national %rou"s, es"ecially on the !estern frontiers# The
Finns, 1altic 5ermans, and 7oles !ere not allo!ed to use their o!n lan%ua%es in "u.lic life, and had to use Russian e2en in
"ri2ate schools and e2en on the "rimary le2el# Administrati2e autonomy in these areas, e2en that solemnly "romised to Finland
lon% .efore, !as destroyed, and they !ere dominated .y Russian "olice, Russian education, and the Russian Army# The "eo"les
of these areas !ere su.Mected to military conscri"tion more ri%orously than the Russians themsel2es, and !ere Russified !hile in
the ran0s# A%ainst the Russians themsel2es, un.elie2a.le e)tremes of es"iona%e, counteres"iona%e, censorshi", "ro2ocation,
im"risonment !ithout trial, and outri%ht .rutality !ere em"loyed# The re2olutionaries res"onded !ith similar measures cro!ned
.y assassination# No one could trust anyone else, .ecause re2olutionaries !ere in the "olice, and mem.ers of the "olice !ere in
the hi%hest ran0s of the re2olutionaries# 5eor%i 5a"on, a "riest secretly in the "ay of the %o2ernment, !as encoura%ed to form
la.or unions and lead !or0ersF a%itations in order to increase the em"loyers= de"endence on the autocracy, .ut !hen, in 19@L,
5a"on led a mass march of !or0ers to the 4inter 7alace to "resent a "etition to the czar, they !ere attac0ed .y the troo"s and
hundreds !ere shot# 5a"on !as murdered the follo!in% year .y the re2olutionaries as a traitor# $n or&er to &is4re&it the
re"olutionaries, the 4entral Poli4e 6e%artment in t. Petersburg E%rinte& at the go"ernment e*%ense "iolent a%%eals to
riotF +hi4h +ere 4ir4ulate& all o"er the 4ountry by an organiDation of rea4tionaries. In one year *19@C+ the %o2ernment
e)iled >L,@@@ "ersons !ithout trial and e)ecuted o2er C@@ "ersons under a ne! decree !hich fi)ed the death "enalty for ordinary
crimes li0e ro..ery or insults to officials# In the three years 19@CI19@, L,1J@ officials !ere 0illed or !ounded, and ?,>?
arrested "ersons !ere e)ecuted# $n 19>9 it +as re"eale& that a %oli4e agent, #Deff, ha& been a member of the -entral
-ommittee of the o4ialist Re"olutionaries for years an& ha& %arti4i%ate& in %lots to mur&er high offi4ials, in4lu&ing
Pleh"e an& the Gran& 6uke ergius, +ithout +arning these. 5he former 4hief of %oli4e +ho re"eale& this fa4t +as sent to
%rison for &oing so. Cn&er 4on&itions su4h as these no sensible go"ernment +as %ossible an& all a%%eals for mo&eration
+ere 4rushe& bet+een the e*tremists from both si&es. The defeats of Russian forces in the !ar !ith Ja"an in 19@JI19@L
.rou%ht e2ents to a head# All dissatisfied %rou"s .e%an to a%itate, culminatin% in a successful %eneral stri0e in -cto.er 19@L#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# 9I99
DThe !ar had enhanced "olitical discontent in Russia and had tended to "aralyze the %o2ernment=s re"ression of its
manifestations# 7le2e, the arch"ractitioner of reaction, !as assassinated *July ?, 19@J+# His successor, 7rince $2iato"ol0I
'irs0y, seemed the herald of a DRussian s"rin%,G in2itin% the confidence of the "ress and "u.lic# In conference !ith $hi"o2, a
meetin% of zemst2o mem.ers !as "ermitted to discuss reform at $t# 7eters.ur% *No2em.er 19I??+# #n*ious to a"ert
re"olution, they re4ommen&e& %ro4lamation of amnesty an& of 4i"il liberties for all, e"en in4lu&ing the %easants. #mong
their %ro%osals +ere free&om of 4ons4ien4e1 free&om of s%ee4h, assembly, an& asso4iation1 free&om of the %ress1 an&
in"iolability of the %erson an& of &omi4ile. Thou%h all a%reed on the need for esta.lishment of an elected national assem.ly, a
2ery considera.le minority, includin% $hi"o2, fa2ored the %rant to it of ad2isory functions only# $ome of the <i.erators, !ho
had .een soundin% out the 7oles and the $R=s on the "ossi.ility of concerted action, attem"ted to antici"ate %rant of the
"ro"osed reforms .y foundin% outs"o0en ne!s"a"ers, the %o2ernment re"lied .y intensifyin% the censorshi"# In 6ecem.er,
19@J, 2arious cate%ories of "rofessional "eo"le H !riters, la!yers, "rofessors, Mournalists, en%ineers, doctors H had imitated the
French re2olutionists of 1J .y holdin% a series of D.anBuetsG in su""ort of the reform "ro%ram# 6istur.ances occurred in
connection !ith the dis"atch of recruits and reser2ists to the Far :ast# A 2a%uely !orded edict of 6ecem.er ?L instructed the
ministers to "re"are drafts of a num.er of su%%ested reforms .ut i%nored the idea of a re"resentati2e assem.ly# Another edict
condemned the reformers as !illful distur.ers of the "eace# This %entlemanly %ame of announcin% the im"erial intention to
DinitiateG reforms !hile re"ressin% those !ho !ere as0in% for them !as .rou%ht to an a.ru"t halt .y D1loody $undayG *January
??, 19@L, freBuently referred to .y its date in the Russian calendar, January 9+# 5a"on=s or%anization of !or0ers, licensed .y the
"olice, !as tendin% to act li0e a .onaIfide trade union# The em"loyersF demand that the %o2ernment dissol2e the or%anization
!as refused# 4hen they attem"ted a loc0out, the !or0ers decided to "resent to the D<ittle FatherG a "etition settin% forth their
%rie2ances a%ainst the em"loyers, in the e)citement, a num.er of the "olitical demands of the intellectuals !ere incor"orated#
'onster "eaceful demonstrations, carryin% "ictures of the tsar, con2er%ed to!ard the 4inter 7alace, they !ere fired on .y
troo"s, 5a"on .ein% amon% the first to fall, unhurt# This "anic0y and sa2a%e action of the %o2ernment had .een intended to
"re2ent re"etition of the scenes at 8ersailles in 179# It "ro2o0ed a !a2e of stri0es, the mo2ement !as s"read o2er the country
.y !or0ers hastily e)"elled from the ca"ital .y 5eneral Tre"o2, ne!ly a""ointed 5o2ernorI5eneral of $t# 7eters.ur%# An a""eal
early in Fe.ruary .y Ao0o2tso2, 'inister of Finance, to the em"loyers to ma0e concessions that !ould Buiet the !or0ers !as
met .y the firm ans!er, .oth in $t# 7eters.ur% and in 'osco!, that only %eneral "olitical reforms, includin% ci2il ri%hts for all,
could remedy the situation# The intellectuals intensified their a%itation, throu%hout Russia the uni2ersities closed do!n in
"rotest# There !as a !a2e also of murders of "olice officials, es"ecially in the Je!ish 7ale and in the Caucasus# The
assassination of 5rand 6u0e $er%e, 5o2ernorI5eneral of 'osco! *Fe.ruary 17+ "ro2o0ed in the %eneral "u.lic only a sli%ht
feelin% of re2ulsion a%ainst re2olutionary terrorism# In 7oland, !here the National 6emocrats or%anized a successful .oycott of
the Russian lan%ua%e, and in the Caucasus, !here Christian Armenians and Tatar 'oslems !a%ed a sort of ci2il !ar, martial la!
!as "roclaimed# A ne! 'inister of the Interior, 1uly%in, attem"ted a""easement#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >79I>@
DTa0en all to%ether, the or%anized and 2ocal o""osition to the autocracy !as !ea0 in num.ers and ho"elessly di2ided# There !as little
"ossi.ility of effecti2e coo"eration .et!een the $ocialist Re2olutionary 7arty, the Russian $ocial 6emocratic 4or0ers= 7arty *itself
s"lit into 'enshe2i0s and 1olshe2i0s+, the Enion of <i.eration, and the Kemst2o Constitutionalists, to say nothin% of minor %rou"s,
or%anized chiefly on nationalist lines# Neither their o.Mecti2es nor their methods a%reed, and the influence of many of the leaders !as
further !ea0ened .y the ine2ita.le fact that they !ere of necessity in emi%ration# Ender such circumstances there !as no %reat chance
of the autocracy .ein% o2erthro!n# There remained the "ossi.ility that under certain circumstances it mi%ht colla"se of its o!n
!ea0ness and from the lac0 of su""ort from any si%nificant element outside .ureaucratic circles# The class !ith the most reason to
su""ort the autocracy !as the no.ility# 1ut, des"ite the "ains the %o2ernment had .een at to "rotect the no.les from inMury to their
economic interests, the no.ility had suffered irre"ara.le loss# In 1L, the state had esta.lished a No.les= <and 1an0, set u"
in consideration of the needs of no.le landholdin%, !hich in many localities has .een ruined .y the scantiness of economic
resources and .y the ti%htness of credit # # # in order that the no.les may there.y .e more attracted to "ermanent residence on
their estates, !here it .ehoo2es them "rimarily to de2ote themsel2es to the !or0 reBuired of them as an o.li%ation of their
ran0#G
Not!ithstandin% s"ecially fa2ora.le interest rates, the result had .een that .y 19@J more than oneIthird of the land still in no.le hands
!as mort%a%ed to this .an0, to say nothin% of other credit institutions, and arrears in "ayments !ere risin%# 'oreo2er, the total
landholdin%s of the no.les had .een decreasin% !ith mountin% ra"idity, .y 19@L they retained only L? million of the 7> million
dessiatines they had still o!ned in 177# In the .lac0Isoil re%ion, a relati2ely small num.er of no.les had successfully ada"ted
themsel2es to ca"italist a%ricultural techniBues and had "roduced a dis"ro"ortionate share *a.out oneIfifth+ of the %rain "ut on the
mar0et# /et the role of the no.ility in or%anizin% economic acti2ity !as no lon%er a.le to su""ort their sur2i2in% "olitical "ri2ile%es#
:2en had they not sho!n a mar0ed tendency to sul0 at home and lea2e the %o2ernment to its o!n de2ices, they no lon%er had the
stren%th to "lay their old role as the rulin% class# A num.er of them, indeed, !ere cons"icuous amon% the ad2ocates of "olitical reform
and of a constitution# The "lace the no.les had once held in the economic life of the country had, !ith the ra"id rise of lar%eIscale
industry, "assed to the ca"italist entre"reneurs# This class !as totally e)cluded from the formulation of %o2ernment "olicy# $o lon% as
$er%e 4itte held the "ost of 'inister of Finance *19?I19@>+, they had little reason to com"lain# 4itte=s "rotecti2e tariff "olicy, his
em"hasis on indirect ta)ation *includin% the s"irit mono"oly+, his "romotion of rail!ay construction *!ith minimal attention to merely
strate%ic needs+, his soundImoney "olicy, his encoura%ement of the in2estment of forei%n ca"ital, his %o2ernment loans and su.sidies,
his softI"edalin% of la.or le%islationIthese "olicies !ere e2erythin% that the industrialists could as0 for# The insecurity of their "osition
!as, ho!e2er, made clear .y 4itte=s D"romotionG in 19@> to the su"ernumerary "ost of 7resident of the Council of 'inisters and .y
the rise of 7le2e, a""ointed 'inister of the Interior in 19@?, to dominance in ministerial counsels# 7articularly annoyin% to
industrialists !as a "olice scheme, launched in 19@1, to "lay off the !or0ers a%ainst the em"loyers and at the same time to smo0e out
mem.ers of the re2olutionary "arties# Ender the %uidance of Ku.ato2, a 'osco! "u.lic official !ho had himself .een a re2olutionary,
!ere or%anized a num.er of "seudo trade unions, !hich e2en conducted stri0es# At -dessa, in 19@>, a "oliceIins"ired stri0e %ot so far
out of hand that the troo"s had to .e called out# Ku.ato2 !as re.u0ed, .ut his idea !as not a.andoned# In 19@J a D"oliceIsocialistG
or%anization !as founded at $t# 7eters.ur%, under the direction of a youn% "riest, Father 5a"on# :2en !ithout .enefit of "olice
ins"iration, the !or0ers had in the 19@=s en%a%ed in a num.er of maMor stri0es, !hich the socialists had tried to use for "ro"a%anda
"ur"oses# A stri0e simultaneously affectin% nineteen cotton factories in $t# 7eters.ur% in 19C for a t!el2eIhour day had so alarmed
4itte that he had carried throu%h le%al esta.lishment of an ele2enIandIaIhalfIhour day# 6es"ite the 2i%orous efforts of the socialists,
the stri0e mo2ement remained almost !holly confined to economic "ur"oses# Althou%h they !ere en%a%in% in ille%al acti2ities, the
!or0ers !ere concerned !ith im"ro2ement of their material condition, not !ith remote "olitical o.Mecti2es# Nor !as the mo2ement
more than s"oradic& only in 19 did it affect more than 1 "ercent of the factories, only in 197 and 199 did the num.er of stri0ers
a""roach J "ercent of the total num.er of factory !or0ers# /et, althou%h trade unions remained ille%al, .oth the de%ree of
or%anization and the demonstrati2e character of the stri0es steadily increased, it !ould .e hard to determine !hether D"oliceI
socialismG or Dsocial democracyG had the %reater influence in these res"ects, insofar as either one !as in2ol2ed at all# In 19@>, a !a2e
of 2iolent stri0es, startin% at Rosto2, s!e"t across southern Russia from -dessa to 1a0u# It !as said that o2er fi2e hundred factories
*o2er > "ercent of the total num.er in Russia+ and ??L,@@@ !or0ers *o2er A "ercent of the total+ !ere affected, the slo%ans of the
stri0ers ran%ed from demand for an ei%htIhour day to demands for "olitical freedoms# The mo2ement !as crushed .y em"loyment of
Cossac0s, lar%e num.ers of "artici"ants !ere su.Mected to "unishment# In 19@J, the stri0e mo2ement dro""ed off to the lo!est fi%ures
in the rei%n of Nicholas II, .ut it had .ecome o.2ious enou%h that the "roletarian !or0ers constituted a 2olatile mass, as ca"a.le of
e)"lodin% as !as the "easantry from !hich it !as not too clearly differentia.le# It !as e2ident also that, thou%h the "rimary im"ulse
must .e %i2en in terms of economic moti2ations, the Russian !or0ers, once e)cited, !ould acce"t also "olitical o.Mecti2es# The
"easantry itself remained the chief conundrum# It had sho!n little res"onse to the "ro2ocati2e a""eals of re2olutionaries, yet it had not
remained Buiescent under the "ressure of e2erI"resent economic distress# :2ery year there !ere scores of s"oradic distur.ances,
includin% arson and murder, on the "art of the "easants# In 19@?, in t!o southern "ro2inces, these too0 es"ecially serious form, thou%h
they !ere Buic0ly and ri%orously su""ressed .y the troo"s# The fact that the 19@? trou.les occurred in an area !here the Dre"artitionalG
commune "re2ailed caused much disBuiet# 4itte .e%an to 2eer a!ay from his former faith in the commune, in 19@>, the remnant of
the Dcircular %uaranteeG *collecti2e res"onsi.ility for "ayment of ta)es and redem"tion dues+ !as a.olished# 4itte, ho!e2er, !as
en%a%ed in a .itter and losin% Buarrel !ith his collea%ues in the ministry, and the %o2ernment remained uncertain and hesitant#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >7JI>7C
D-n the 2ery e2e of re2olution, the situation some!hat resem.led that of France in 179# A monarchy !hich had lar%ely lost the
confidence of its su.Mects and !as .e%innin% to feel unsure e2en of itself, a no.ility !ith little more than decorati2e functions, a
risin% .our%eoisie, a restless lo!er class in the to!ns, and an o""ressed "easantry !ere elements of insta.ility that added u", not
to a united re2olutionary ur%e, .ut to se2eral dis"arate and uncoordinated currents# In fundamental !ays, ho!e2er, there !as no
"arallelism .et!een the France of 179 and the Russia of 19@L H or of 1917# Amon% many differences !ere the e)istence in
Russia of lar%eIscale ca"italist industry and of a "easantry !ith no in%rained sense of indi2idual "ro"erty ri%hts in land# #
s%e4ial, if relati"ely minor, %e4uliarity of the Russian situation +as the restlessness of the %eo%les of the bor&erlan&s, +ho
"iolently resente& some of the stu%i&ities of the offi4ial %oli4y of Russifi4ation. 5he Little Russians +ere sho+ing
in4reasing 4ons4iousness of themsel"es as &istin4t from the Great Russians, the influ) of the latter into the risin% industrial
area of the 6onets coal .asin created added friction# In 4hite Russia, the com"le)ities of ethnic differentiation !ere further
em.roiled .y the stu..orn stru%%le for sur2i2al of the Eniate Church# !oth in 'hite Russia an& in the Little Russian
Ckraine, the 4ontinuing o%%ression of the /e+ish minority, 4ro+&e& into the to+ns, remaine& a sour4e of trouble. The
re2i2al of maMor "o%roms, not discoura%ed .y the %o2ernment, could not fail to dri2e a dis"ro"ortionate num.er of Je!s into
re2olutionary acti2ity, the Aishine2 massacre *19@>+ !as to cost 7le2e his life in the follo!in% year# 7oland remained hostile#
Here the ri%idity of the "olicy of Russification had .een carried e2en to the "oint of allo!in% the teachin% of 7olish literature
only in the Russian lan%ua%e# The e)clusion of 7oles from all %o2ernment "osts in their nati2e country turned many of them to
.usiness acti2ity, the ra"id rise of factory industry, in such ne! centers as <odz, also stimulated the %ro!th of a 7olish middle
class and of a 7olish socialist mo2ement as !ell# The influence of the landed no.ility !as diminished, and a National
6emocratic 7arty !as or%anized *197+, its chief s"o0esman !as Roman 6mo!s0i, !ho o"enly !or0ed for autonomy rather
than inde"endence# In the 1altic "ro2inces, the official dri2e a%ainst the traditional 5erman culture of the middle class "layed
into the hands of the su.mer%ed a.ori%inal <ettoI<ithuanian and :stonian "o"ulation, .ut these "eo"les, ho!e2er %lad to .e
relie2ed of 5erman dominance, had no desire to acce"t Russification in its stead, they contri.uted to the trou.les of the Russian
%o2ernment .y endea2orin% to assert their o!n ri%ht to national e)istence# Parti4ularly gra"e +as the situation in Finlan&.
6es%ite the fa4t that on his a44ession 0i4holas $$ ha& 4onfirme& its histori4 4onstitutional liberties an& %ri"ileges, Finlan&
+as for4ibly 4on"erte& into a military &istri4t of the Russian <m%ire, an& the %o+ers of the Finnish 6iet +ere 4urtaile&
81A999. # %erio& of %assi"e resistan4e +as met +ith further measures of Russifi4ation. $n &es%air a Finn assassinate& the
Russian Go"ernor(General 819>@9. In the east, as in the !est, Russia !as faced !ith increasin% nationalist resistance# In the
Caucasus, the three "rinci"al "eo"les !ere the 5eor%ians, dominated .y their nati2e no.ility, the Armenians, lar%ely middleI
class, and the 'oslem Tatars, !ho su""lied most of the industrial !or0ers# Russia=s Armenians had .een much stimulated .y
emi%rants from Tur0ey, fleein% massacre .y the Aurds in 19JI9L# In 19@>, 7le2e turned them 2iolently a%ainst the Russian
%o2ernment .y ta0in% o2er control of their church funds# :thnic and reli%ious difficulties !ere much e)acer.ated .y the ra"id
%ro!th of the Cas"ian oil industry, 1a0u .ecame one of the chief centers of la.or distur.ances in the !hole em"ire# In Central
Asia, too, Russia=s efforts to Dci2ilizeG the 'oslem "o"ulation, so recently .rou%ht under im"erial control, .red serious hostility#
Thou%h the "eo"les of that re%ion !ere dee"ly di2ided amon% themsel2es, they tended to ma0e common cause a%ainst the
centralizin% efforts of the autocracy# $till farther to the east, the effort to e)tend Russian "o!er, this time .eyond the limits of
her ac0no!led%ed territory, .rou%ht on forei%n !ar# Com.ined !ith humiliatin% defeat, this e"isode !as to .e the decisi2e factor
in "reci"itatin% re2olt in Russia itself#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# >7CI>7
Josef $talin 9 The 19@7 Tiflis 1an0 Ro..ery *June ?C, 19@7+
The 19@7 Tiflis 1an0 Ro..ery *also 0no!n as the /ere2an $Buare :)"ro"riation+ !as an armed ro..ery that occurred in the 5eor%ian
city of Tiflis *no! T.ilisi, 5eor%ia+ on June ?C, 19@7# 7rominent 1olshe2i0s met in 1erlin in A"ril 19@7 to discuss sta%in% a ro..ery
to o.tain funds to "urchase !ea"ons, attendees included 8ladimir <enin, <eonid Arasin, Ale)ander 1o%dano2, Jose"h $talin, and
'a)im <it2ino2# The %rou" decided that $talin *then 0no!n .y his earlier nom de %uerre Ao.a+ should or%anize a .an0 ro..ery in the
city of Tiflis# $talin and his ro..ers 0illed J@ "eo"le *includin% .an0 security %uards+ !ith %uns, %renades, and .om.s and seized an
estimated >J1,@@@ ru.les *[> million+ from the $tate 1an0 in Tiflis on June ?C, 19@7, *7hoto& /ere2an $Buare in Tiflis, 5eor%ia,
Russian :m"ire, scene of the 19@7 ro..ery+
The information card on DI# 8# $talinG, from the files of the Tsarist secret "olice in $aint 7eters.ur%, ta0en in 1911# $talin !as
an informant for the -0hrana, the Russian Tsarist secret "olice#
Lone Gunman or Patsy?
The Assassination of 7rime 'inister of Russia 7yotr $toly"in *$e"tem.er 1J, 1911+

<eft& 7yotr Ar0adye2ich $toly"in *1C?I1911+, the 7rime 'inister of Russia *July ?1, 19@CI$e"tem.er 1, 1911+
Ri%ht& 6mitry 5ri%oriye2ich 1o%ro2 *17I1911, .orn 'orde0hai 5ersh0o2ich 1o%ro2+, the Je!ish assassin of the Russian
7rime 'inister 7yotr $toly"in and an alle%ed mem.er of the -0hrana *secret "olice of the Russian :m"ire+
Prime 2inister of Russia Pyotr toly%in +as shot by a Elone gunmanF H ?JIyearIold Je!ish assassin 6mitry 1o%ro2 H in the
Aie2 -"era House in Aie2, E0raine *Russia+ on $e"tem.er 1J, 1911, in front of Czar Nicholas II and t!o of his dau%hters#
7rime 'inister of Russia 7yotr $toly"in died from %unshot !ounds in Aie2 on $e"tem.er 1, 1911# 6mitry 1o%ro2 !as tried,
con2icted, and e)ecuted in Aie2 on $e"tem.er ?J, 1911#
Former $nterior 2inister of Russia
Pyotr 0ikolaye"i4h 6urno"o)s 2emoran&um 8February, 191@9
# Future #nglo(German 'ar 'ill !e4ome an #rme& -onfli4t bet+een 5+o Grou%s of Po+ers
The central factor of the "eriod of !orld history throu%h !hich !e are no! "assin% is the ri2alry .et!een :n%land and
5ermany# This ri2alry must ine2ita.ly lead to an armed stru%%le .et!een them, the issue of !hich !ill, in all "ro.a.ility, "ro2e
fatal to the 2anBuished side# The interests of these t!o "o!ers are far too incom"ati.le, and their simultaneous e)istence as
!orld "o!ers !ill sooner or later "ro2e im"ossi.le# -n the one hand, there is an insular $tate, !hose !orld im"ortance rests
u"on its domination of the sea, its !orld trade, and its innumera.le colonies# -n the other, there is a "o!erful continental
em"ire, !hose limited territory is insufficient for an increased "o"ulation# It has therefore o"enly and candidly declared that its
future is on the seas# It has, !ith fa.ulous s"eed, de2elo"ed an enormous !orld commerce, .uilt for its "rotection a formida.le
na2y, and, !ith its famous trademar0, D'ade in 5ermany,G created a mortal dan%er to the industrial and economic "ros"erity of
its ri2al# Naturally, :n%land cannot yield !ithout a fi%ht, and .et!een her and 5ermany a stru%%le for life or death is ine2ita.le#
The armed conflict im"endin% as a result of this ri2alry cannot .e confined to a duel .et!een :n%land and 5ermany alone# Their
resources are far too uneBual, and, at the same time, they are not sufficiently 2ulnera.le to each other# 5ermany could "ro2o0e
re.ellion in India, in $outh Africa, and, es"ecially, a dan%erous re.ellion in Ireland, and "aralyze :n%lish sea trade .y means of
"ri2ateerin% and, "erha"s, su.marine !arfare, there.y creatin% for 5reat 1ritain difficulties in her food su""ly, .ut, in s"ite of all
the darin% of the 5erman military leaders, they !ould scarcely ris0 landin% in :n%land, unless a fortunate accident hel"ed them
to destroy or a""recia.ly to !ea0en the :n%lish na2y# As for :n%land, she !ill find 5ermany a.solutely in2ulnera.le# All that
she may achie2e is to seize the 5erman colonies, sto" 5erman sea trade, and, in the most fa2ora.le e2ent, annihilate the 5erman
na2y, .ut nothin% more# This, ho!e2er, !ould not force the enemy to sue for "eace# There is no dou.t, therefore, that :n%land
!ill attem"t the means she has more than once used !ith success, and !ill ris0 armed action only after securin% "artici"ation in
the !ar, on her o!n side, of "o!ers stron%er in a strate%ical sense# 1ut since 5ermany, for her o!n "art, !ill not .e found
isolated, the future An%loI5erman !ar !ill undou.tedly .e transformed into an armed conflict .et!een t!o %rou"s of "o!ers,
one !ith a 5erman, the other !ith an :n%lish orientation#
$t $s 3ar& to 6is4o"er #ny Real #&"antages to Russia in Ra%%ro4hement +ith <nglan&
Entil the RussoIJa"anese 4ar, Russian "olicy has neither orientation# From the time of the rei%n of :m"eror Ale)ander 111,
Russia had a defensi2e alliance !ith France, so firm as to assure common action .y .oth "o!ers in the e2ent of attac0 u"on
either, .ut, at the same time, not so close as to o.li%ate either to su""ort unfailin%ly, !ith armed force, all "olitical actions and
claims of the ally# At the same time, the Russian Court maintained the traditional friendly relations, .ased u"on ties of .lood,
!ith the Court of 1erlin# -!in% "recisely to this conMuncture, "eace amon% the %reat "o!ers !as not distur.ed in the course of a
%reat many years, in s"ite of the "resence of a.undant com.usti.le material in :uro"e# France, .y her alliance !ith Russia, !as
%uaranteed a%ainst attac0 .y 5ermany, the latter !as safe, than0s to the tried "acifism and friendshi" of Russia, from revanche
am.itions on the "art of France, and Russia !as secured, than0s to 5ermanyFs need of maintainin% amica.le relations !ith her,
a%ainst e)cessi2e intri%ues .y AustriaIHun%ary in the 1al0an "eninsula# <astly, :n%land, isolated and held in chec0 .y her
ri2alry !ith Russia in 7ersia, .y her di"lomatsF traditional fear of our ad2ance on India, and .y strained relations !ith France,
es"ecially nota.le at the time of the !ellI0no!n Fashoda incident, 2ie!ed !ith alarm the increase of 5ermanyFs na2al "o!er,
!ithout, ho!e2er, ris0in% an acti2e ste"#
The RussoIJa"anese 4ar radically chan%ed the relations amon% the %reat "o!ers and .rou%ht :n%land out of her isolation# As
!e 0no!, all throu%h the RussoIJa"anese 4ar, :n%land and America o.ser2ed .ene2olent neutrality to!ard Ja"an, !hile !e
enMoyed a similar .ene2olent neutrality from France and 5ermany# Here, it !ould seem, should ha2e .een the ince"tion of the
most natural "olitical com.ination for us# 1ut after the !ar, our di"lomacy faced a.ru"tly a.out and definitely entered u"on the
road to!ard ra""rochement !ith :n%land# France !as dra!n into the or.it of 1ritish "olicy, there !as formed a %rou" of "o!ers
of the Tri"le :ntente, !ith :n%land "layin% the dominant "art, and a clash, sooner or later, !ith the "o!ers %rou"in% themsel2es
around 5ermany .ecame ine2ita.le#

No!, !hat ad2anta%es did the renunciation of our traditional "olicy of distrust of :n%land and the ru"ture of nei%h.orly, if not
friendly, relations !ith 5ermany "romise us then and at "resent3

Considerin% !ith any de%ree of care the e2ents !hich ha2e ta0en "lace since the Treaty of 7ortsmouth, !e find it difficult to
"ercei2e any "ractical ad2anta%es %ained .y us in ra""rochement !ith :n%land# The only .enefitIim"ro2ed relations !ith Ja"anI
is scarcely a result of the RussoI:n%lish ra""rochement# There is no reason !hy Russia and Ja"an should not li2e in "eace, there
seems to .e nothin% o2er !hich they need Buarrel# All RussiaFs o.Mecti2es in the Far :ast, if correctly understood, are entirely
com"ati.le !ith Ja"anFs interests# These o.Mecti2es, in their essentials, are 2ery modest# The too .road s!ee" of the ima%ination
of o2erzealous e)ecuti2e officials, !ithout .asis in %enuine national interests, on the one hand, and the e)cessi2e ner2ousness
and im"ressiona.ility of Ja"an, on the other, !hich erroneously re%arded these dreams as a consistently e)ecuted "olicyIthese
!ere the thin%s that "ro2o0ed a clash !hich a more ca"a.le di"lomacy !ould ha2e mana%ed to a2oid#
Russia needs neither Aorea nor e2en 7ort Arthur# An outlet to the o"en sea is undou.tedly useful, .ut the sea in itself is, after all,
not a mar0et, .ut merely a road to a more ad2anta%eous deli2ery of %oods at the consumin% mar0ets# As a matter of fact, !e do
not "ossess, and shall not for a lon% time "ossess any %oods in the Far :ast that "romise any considera.le "rofits in e)"ortation
a.road# Nor are there any mar0ets for the e)"ort of our "roducts# 4e cannot e)"ect a %reat su""ly of our e)"ort commodities to
%o to industrially and a%riculturally de2elo"ed America, to "oor, .ut li0e!ise industrial, Ja"an, or e2en to the maritime sections
of China and remoter mar0ets, !here our e)"orts !ould ine2ita.ly meet the com"etition of %oods from the industrially stron%er
ri2al "o!ers# There remains the interior of China, !ith !hich our trade is carried on, chiefly o2erland# ConseBuently, an o"en
"ort !ould aid the im"ort of forei%n merchandise more than the e)"ort of our o!n "roducts#
Ja"an, on her "art, no matter !hat is said, has no desire for our Far :astern "ossessions# The Ja"anese are .y nature a southern
"eo"le, and the harsh en2ironment of our Far :astern .orderland cannot attract them# 4e 0no! that e2en !ithin Ja"an itself
northern /ezo is s"arsely "o"ulated, !hile a""arently Ja"anese colonization is ma0in% little head!ay e2en in the southern "art
of $a0halin Island, ceded to Ja"an under the Treaty of 7ortsmouth# After ta0in% "ossession of Aorea and Formosa, Ja"an !ill
hardly %o farther north, and her am.itions, it may .e assumed, !ill turn rather in the direction of the 7hili""ine Islands, IndoI
China, Ja2a, $umatra, and 1orneo# The most she mi%ht desire !ould .e the acBuisition, for "urely commercial reasons, of a fe!
more sections of the 'anchurian rail!ay#
In a !ord, "eacea.le coe)istence, nay, more, a close ra""rochement, .et!een Russia and Ja"an in the Far :ast is "erfectly
natural, re%ardless of any mediation .y :n%land# The %rounds for a%reement are selfIe2ident# Ja"an is not a rich country, and the
simultaneous u"0ee" of a stron% army and a "o!erful na2y is hard for her# Her insular situation dri2es her to stren%then her
na2al "o!er, and alliance !ith Russia !ould allo! her to de2ote all her attention to her na2y, es"ecially 2ital in 2ie! of her
imminent ri2alry !ith America, lea2in% the "rotection of her interests on the continent to Russia# -n our "art, !e, ha2in% the
Ja"anese na2y to "rotect our 7acific coast, could %i2e u" once for all the dream, im"ossi.le to us, of creatin% a na2y in the Far
:ast#
Thus, so far as our relations !ith Ja"an are concerned, the ra""rochement !ith :n%land has yielded us no real ad2anta%e# And it
has %ained us nothin% in the sense of stren%thenin% our "osition in 'anchuria, 'on%olia, or e2en the Elian%hai territory, !here
the uncertainty of our "osition .ears !itness that the a%reement !ith :n%land has certainly not freed the hands of our di"lomats#
-n the contrary, our attem"t to esta.lish relations !ith Ti.et met !ith shar" o""osition from :n%land#
In 7ersia, also, our "osition has .een no .etter since the conclusion of this a%reement# :2ery one recalls our "redominant
influence in that country under the $hah NasrI:ddin, that is, e)actly at a time !hen our relations !ith :n%land !ere most
strained# From the moment of our accord !ith the latter, !e ha2e found oursel2es dra!n into a num.er of stran%e attem"ts to
im"ose u"on the 7ersian "eo"le an entirely needless constitution, !ith the result that !e oursel2es contri.uted to the o2erthro!,
for the .enefit of our in2eterate enemies, of a monarch !ho !as de2oted to Russia# That is, not only ha2e !e %ained nothin%, .ut
!e ha2e suffered a loss all alon% the line, ruinin% our "resti%e and !astin% many millions of ru.les, e2en the "recious .lood of
Russian soldiers, !ho !ere treacherously slain and, to "lease :n%land, not e2en a2en%ed#
The !orst results, ho!e2er, of the accord !ith :n%landIIand of the conseBuent discord !ith 5ermanyIIha2e .een felt in the
Near :ast# As !e 0no!, it !as 1ismarc0 !ho coined that !in%ed "hrase a.out the 1al0an "ro.lem not .ein% !orth to 5ermany
the .ones of a sin%le 7omeranian %renadier# <ater the 1al0an com"lications .e%an to attract much more attention from 5erman
di"lomacy, !hich had ta0en the Q$ic0 'anQ under its "rotection, .ut e2en then 5ermany, for a lon% time, failed to sho! any
inclination to endan%er relations !ith Russia in the interests of 1al0an affairs# The "roofs are "atent# 6urin% the "eriod of the
RussoIJa"anese 4ar and the ensuin% turmoil in our country, it !ould ha2e .een 2ery easy for Austria to realize her cherished
am.itions in the 1al0an "eninsula# 1ut at that time Russia had not yet lin0ed her destinies !ith :n%land, and AustriaIHun%ary
!as forced to lose an o""ortunity most aus"icious for her "ur"oses#

No sooner had !e ta0en the road to closer accord !ith :n%land, ho!e2er, than there immediately follo!ed the anne)ation of
1osnia and Herze%o2ina, a ste" !hich mi%ht ha2e .een ta0en so easily and "ainlessly in 19@L or 19@C# Ne)t came the Al.anian
Buestion and the com.ination !ith the 7rince of 4ied# Russian di"lomacy attem"ted to ans!er Austrian intri%ue .y formin% a
1al0an lea%ue, .ut this com.ination, as mi%ht ha2e .een e)"ected, "ro2ed to .e Buite un!or0a.le# Intended to .e directed
a%ainst Austria, it immediately turned on Tur0ey and fell a"art in the "rocess of di2idin% the s"oils ta0en from the latter# The
final result !as merely the definite attachment of Tur0ey to 5ermany, in !hom, not !ithout %ood reason, she sees her sole
"rotector# In short, the RussoI1ritish ra""rochement e2idently seems to Tur0ey as tantamount to :n%landFs renouncin% her
traditional "olicy of closin% the 6ardanelles to us, !hile the creation of the 1al0an lea%ue, under the aus"ices of Russia,
a""eared as a direct threat to the continued e)istence of Tur0ey as a :uro"ean "o!er#
To sum u", the An%loIRussian accord has .rou%ht us nothin% of "ractical 2alue u" to this time, !hile for the future, it threatens
us !ith an ine2ita.le armed clash !ith 5ermany#

Fun&amental #lignments in the -oming 'ar
Ender !hat conditions !ill this clash occur and !hat !ill .e its "ro.a.le conseBuences3 The fundamental %rou"in%s in a future
!ar are selfIe2ident& Russia, France, and :n%land, on the one side, !ith 5ermany, Austria, and Tur0ey, on the other# It is more
than li0ely that other "o!ers, too, !ill "artici"ate in that !ar, de"endin% u"on circumstances as they may e)ist at the !arFs
out.rea0# 1ut, !hether the immediate cause for the !ar is furnished .y another clash of conflictin% interests in the 1al0ans, or
.y a colonial incident, such as that of Al%eciras, the fundamental ali%nment !ill remain unchan%ed#
Italy, if she has any conce"tion of her real interests, !ill not Moin the 5erman side# For "olitical as !ell as economic reasons, she
undou.tedly ho"es to e)"and her "resent territory# $uch an e)"ansion may .e achie2ed only at the e)"ense of Austria, on one
hand, and Tur0ey, on the other# It is, therefore, natural for Italy not to Moin that "arty !hich !ould safe%uard the territorial
inte%rity of the countries at !hose e)"ense she ho"es to realize her as"irations# Furthermore, it is not out of the Buestion that
Italy !ould Moin the antiI5erman coalition, if the scales of !ar should incline in its fa2or, in order to secure for herself the most
fa2ora.le conditions in sharin% the su.seBuent di2ision of s"oils#
In this res"ect, the "osition of Italy is similar to the "ro.a.le "osition of Rumania, !hich, it may .e assumed, !ill remain neutral
until the scales of fortune fa2or one or another side# Then, animated .y normal "olitical selfIinterest, she !ill attach herself to
the 2ictors, to .e re!arded at the e)"ense of either Russia or Austria# -f the other 1al0an $tates, $er.ia and 'ontene%ro !ill
unBuestiona.ly Moin the side o""osin% Austria, !hile 1ul%aria and Al.ania *if .y that time they ha2e not yet formed at least the
em.ryo of a $tate+ !ill ta0e their stand a%ainst the $er.ian side# 5reece !ill in all "ro.a.ility remain neutral or ma0e common
cause !ith the side o""osin% Tur0ey, .ut that only after the issue has .een more or less determined# The "artici"ation of other
"o!ers !ill .e incidental, and $!eden ou%ht to .e feared, of course, in the ran0s of our foes#
Ender such circumstances, a stru%%le !ith 5ermany "resents to us enormous difficulties, and !ill reBuire countless sacrifices#
4ar !ill not find the enemy un"re"ared, and the de%ree of his "re"aredness !ill "ro.a.ly e)ceed our most e)a%%erated
calculations# It should not .e thou%ht that this readiness is due to 5ermanyFs o!n desire for !ar# $he needs no !ar, so lon% as
she can attain her o.MectIthe end of e)clusi2e domination of the seas# 1ut, once this 2ital o.Mect is o""osed .y the coalition,
5ermany !ill not shrin0 from !ar, and, of course, !ill e2en try to "ro2o0e it, choosin% the most aus"icious moment#
5he 2ain !ur&en of the 'ar 'ill Fall on Russia
The main .urden of the !ar !ill undou.tedly fall on us, since :n%land is hardly ca"a.le of ta0in% a considera.le "art in a
continental !ar, !hile France, "oor in man "o!er, !ill "ro.a.ly adhere to strictly defensi2e tactics, in 2ie! of the enormous
losses .y !hich !ar !ill .e attended under "resent conditions of military techniBue# The "art of a .atterin%Iram, ma0in% a
.reach in the 2ery thic0 of the 5erman defense, !ill .e ours, !ith many factors a%ainst us to !hich !e shall ha2e to de2ote %reat
effort and attention#
From the sum of these unfa2ora.le factors !e should deduct the Far :ast# 1oth America and Ja"anIIthe former fundamentally,
and the latter .y 2irtue of her "resent "olitical orientationIIare hostile to 5ermany, and there is no reason to e)"ect them to act
on the 5erman side# Furthermore, the !ar, re%ardless of its issue, !ill !ea0en Russia and di2ert her attention to the 4est, a fact
!hich, of course, ser2es .oth Ja"anese and American interests# Thus, our rear !ill .e sufficiently secure in the Far :ast, and the
most that can ha""en there !ill .e the e)tortion from us of some concessions of an economic nature in return for .ene2olent
neutrality# Indeed, it is "ossi.le that America or Ja"an may Moin the antiI5erman side, .ut, of course, merely as usur"ers of one
or the other of the un"rotected 5erman colonies#
There can .e no dou.t, ho!e2er, as to an out.urst of hatred for us in 7ersia, and a "ro.a.le unrest amon% the 'oslems of the
Caucasus and Tur0estan, it is "ossi.le that Af%hanistan, as a result of that unrest, may act a%ainst us, and, finally, !e must
foresee 2ery un"leasant com"lications in 7oland and Finland# In the latter, a re.ellion !ill undou.tedly .rea0 out if $!eden is
found in the ran0s of our enemies# As for 7oland, it is not to .e e)"ected that !e can hold her a%ainst our enemy durin% the !ar#
And after she is in his "o!er, he !ill undou.tedly endea2or to "ro2o0e an insurrection !hich, !hile not in reality 2ery
dan%erous, must .e considered, ne2ertheless, as one of the factors unfa2ora.le to us, es"ecially since the influence of our allies
may induce us to ta0e such measures in our relations !ith 7oland as !ill "ro2e more dan%erous to us than any o"en re2olt#
Are !e "re"ared for so stu..orn a !ar as the future !ar of the :uro"ean nations !ill undou.tedly .ecome3 This Buestion !e
must ans!er, !ithout e2asion, in the ne%ati2e# That much has .een done for our defense since the Ja"anese !ar, I am the last
"erson to deny, .ut e2en so, it is Buite inadeBuate considerin% the un"recedented scale on !hich a future !ar !ill ine2ita.ly .e
fou%ht# The fault lies, in a considera.le measure, in our youn% le%islati2e institutions, !hich ha2e ta0en a dilettante interest in
our defenses, .ut are far from %ras"in% the seriousness of the "olitical situation arisin% from the ne! orientation !hich, !ith the
sym"athy of the "u.lic, has .een follo!ed in recent years .y our 'inistry of Forei%n Affairs#
The enormous num.er of still unconsidered le%islati2e .ills of the !ar and na2y de"artments may ser2e as "roof of this& for
e)am"le, the "lan of the or%anization of our national defense "ro"osed to the 6uma as early as the days of $ecretary of $tate
$toly"in# It cannot .e denied that, in the matter of military instruction, accordin% to the re"orts of s"ecialists, !e ha2e achie2ed
su.stantial im"ro2ements, as com"ared !ith the time .efore the Ja"anese 4ar# Accordin% to the same s"ecialists, our field
artillery lea2es nothin% to .e desired, the %un is entirely satisfactory, and the eBui"ment con2enient and "ractical# /et, it must .e
admitted that there are su.stantial shortcomin%s in the or%anization of our defenses#
In this re%ard !e must note, first of all, the insufficiency of our !ar su""lies, !hich, certainly, cannot .e .lamed u"on the !ar
de"artment, since the su""ly schedules are still far from .ein% e)ecuted, o!in% to the lo! "roducti2ity of our factories# This
insufficiency of munitions is the more si%nificant since, in the em.ryonic condition of our industries, !e shall, durin% the !ar,
ha2e no o""ortunity to ma0e u" the re2ealed shorta%e .y our o!n efforts, and the closin% of the 1altic as !ell as the 1lac0 $ea
!ill "re2ent the im"ortation from a.road of the defense materials !hich !e lac0#

Another circumstance unfa2ora.le to our defense is its far too %reat de"endence, %enerally s"ea0in%, u"on forei%n industry, a
fact !hich, in connection !ith the a.o2e noted interru"tion of more or less con2enient communications !ith a.road, !ill create
a series of o.stacles difficult to o2ercome# The Buantity of our hea2y artillery, the im"ortance of !hich !as demonstrated in the
Ja"anese 4ar, is far too inadeBuate, and there are fe! machine %uns# The or%anization of our fortress defenses has scarcely .een
started, and e2en the fortress of Re2al, !hich is to defend the road to the ca"ital, is not yet finished#
The net!or0 of strate%ic rail!ays is inadeBuate# The rail!ays "ossess a rollin% stoc0 sufficient, "erha"s, for normal traffic, .ut
not commensurate !ith the colossal demands !hich !ill .e made u"on them in the e2ent of a :uro"ean !ar# <astly, it should
not .e for%otten that the im"endin% !ar !ill .e fou%ht amon% the most ci2ilized and technically most ad2anced nations# :2ery
"re2ious !ar has in2aria.ly .een follo!ed .y somethin% ne! in the realm of military techniBue, .ut the technical .ac0!ardness
of our industries does not create fa2ora.le conditions for our ado"tion of the ne! in2entions#
5he Bital $nterests of Germany an& Russia 6o 0ot -onfli4t
All these factors are hardly %i2en "ro"er thou%ht .y our di"lomats, !hose .eha2ior to!ard 5ermany is, in some res"ects, e2en
a%%ressi2e, and may unduly hasten the moment of armed conflict, a moment !hich, of course, is really ine2ita.le in 2ie! of our
1ritish orientation#
The Buestion is !hether this orientation is correct, and !hether e2en a fa2ora.le issue of the !ar "romises us such ad2anta%es as
!ould com"ensate us for all the hardshi"s and sacrifices !hich must attend a !ar un"aralleled in its "ro.a.le strain#
The 2ital interests of Russia and 5ermany do not conflict# There are fundamental %rounds for a "eacea.le e)istence of these t!o
$tates# 5ermany=s future lies on the sea, that is, in a realm !here Russia, essentially the most continental of the %reat "o!ers,
has no interests !hate2er# 4e ha2e no o2erseas colonies, and shall "ro.a.ly ne2er ha2e them, and communication .et!een the
2arious "arts of our em"ire is easier o2erland than .y !ater# No sur"lus "o"ulation demandin% territorial e)"ansion is 2isi.le,
.ut, e2en from the 2ie!"oint of ne! conBuests, !hat can !e %ain from a 2ictory o2er 5ermany3 7osen, or :ast 7russia3 1ut
!hy do !e need these re%ions, densely "o"ulated as they are .y 7oles, !hen !e find it difficult enou%h to mana%e our o!n
Russian 7oles3 4hy encoura%e centri"etal tendencies, that ha2e not ceased e2en to this day in the 8istula territory, .y
incor"oratin% in the Russian $tate the restless 7osnanian and :ast 7russian 7oles, !hose national demands e2en the 5erman
5o2ernment, !hich is more firm than the Russian, cannot stifle3
:)actly the same thin% a""lies to 5alicia# It is o.2iously disad2anta%eous to us to anne), in the interests of national
sentimentalism, a territory that has lost e2ery 2ital connection !ith our fatherland# For, to%ether !ith a ne%li%i.le handful of
5alicians, Russian in s"irit, ho! many 7oles, Je!s, and E0rainian Eniates !e !ould recei2eP The soIcalled E0rainian, or
'aze""ist, mo2ement is not a menace to us at "resent, .ut !e should not ena.le it to e)"and .y increasin% the num.er of
tur.ulent E0rainian elements, for in this mo2ement there undou.tedly lies the seed of an e)tremely dan%erous <ittle Russian
se"aratism !hich, under fa2ora.le conditions, may assume Buite une)"ected "ro"ortions#
The o.2ious aim of our di"lomacy in the ra""rochement !ith :n%land has .een to o"en the $traits# 1ut a !ar !ith 5ermany
seems hardly necessary for the attainment of this o.Mect, for it !as :n%land, and not 5ermany at all, that closed our outlet from
the 1lac0 $ea# 4as it not .ecause !e made sure of the coo"eration of the later "o!er, that !e freed oursel2es in 171 from the
humiliatin% restrictions im"osed u"on us .y :n%land under the Treaty of 7aris3
Also, there is reason to .elie2e that the 5ermans !ould a%ree sooner than the :n%lish to let us ha2e the $traits, in !hich they
ha2e only a sli%ht interest, and at the "rice of !hich they !ould %ladly "urchase our alliance#
'oreo2er, !e should not cherish any e)a%%erated ho"es from our occu"ation of the $traits# Their acBuisition !ould .e
ad2anta%eous to us only as they ser2ed to close the 1lac0 $ea to others, ma0in% it an inland sea for us, safe from enemy attac0#
The $traits !ould not %i2e us an outlet to the o"en sea, ho!e2er, since on the other side of them there lies a sea consistin%
almost !holly of territorial !aters, a sea dotted !ith numerous islands !here the 1ritish na2y, for instance, !ould ha2e no
trou.le !hate2er in closin% to us e2ery inlet and outlet, irres"ecti2e of the $traits# Therefore, Russia mi%ht safely !elcome an
arran%ement !hich, !hile not turnin% the $traits o2er to our direct control, !ould safe%uard us a%ainst a "enetration of the 1lac0
$ea .y an enemy fleet# $uch an arran%ement, attaina.le under fa2ora.le circumstances !ithout any !ar, has the additional
ad2anta%e that it !ould not 2iolate the interests of the 1al0an $tates, !hich !ould not re%ard our seizure of the $traits !ithout
alarm and Buite natural Mealousy#
In TransICaucasia !e could, as a result of !ar, e)"and territorially only at the e)"ense of re%ions inha.ited .y Armenians, a
mo2e !hich is hardly desira.le in 2ie! of the re2olutionary character of "resent Armenian sentiment, and of its dream of a
%reater Armenia, and in this re%ion, 5ermany, !ere !e allied to her, !ould certainly "lace e2en fe!er o.stacles in our !ay than
:n%land# Those territorial and economic acBuisitions !hich mi%ht really "ro2e useful to us are a2aila.le only in "laces !here
our am.itions may meet o""osition from :n%land, .ut .y no means from 5ermany# 7ersia, the 7amir, AuldMa, Aash%ar,
6zun%aria, 'on%olia, the Elian%hai territoryIall these are re%ions !here the interests of Russia and 5ermany do not conflict,
!hereas the interests of Russia and :n%land ha2e clashed there re"eatedly#
And 5ermany is in e)actly the same situation !ith res"ect to Russia# $he could seize from us, in case of a successful !ar, only
such territories as !ould .e of sli%ht 2alue to her, and .ecause of their "o"ulation, !ould "ro2e of little use for colonization, the
8istula territory, !ith a 7olishI<ithuanian "o"ulation, and the 1altic "ro2inces, !ith a <ettishI:stonian "o"ulation, are all
eBually tur.ulent and antiI5erman#
Russia)s <4onomi4 #&"antages an& 0ee&s 6o 0ot -onfli4t +ith Germany)s
It may .e ar%ued, ho!e2er, that, under modern conditions in the 2arious nations, territorial acBuisitions are of secondary
im"ortance, !hile economic interests ta0e first ran0# 1ut in this field, a%ain, RussiaFs ad2anta%es and needs do not conflict !ith
5ermanyFs as much as is .elie2ed# It is, of course, undenia.le that the e)istin% RussoI5erman trade a%reements are
disad2anta%eous to our a%riculture and ad2anta%eous to 5ermanyFs, .ut it !ould .e hardly fair to ascri.e this circumstance to the
treachery and unfriendliness of 5ermany#
It should not .e for%otten that these a%reements are in many of their sections ad2anta%eous to us# The Russian dele%ates !ho
concluded these a%reements !ere confirmed "rota%onists of a de2elo"ment of Russian industry at any cost, and they
undou.tedly made a deli.erate sacrifice, at least to some e)tent, of the interests of Russian a%riculture to the interests of Russian
industry# Furthermore, !e ou%ht not to for%et that 5ermany is far from .ein% the direct consumer of the %reater share of our
a%ricultural e)"orts a.road# For the %reater share of our a%ricultural "roduce, 5ermany acts merely as middleman, and so it is for
us and the consumin% mar0ets to esta.lish direct relations and thus a2oid the e)"ensi2e 5erman mediation# <astly, !e should
0ee" in mind that the commercial relations of $tates de"end on their "olitical understandin%s, for no country finds ad2anta%e in
the economic !ea0enin% of an ally .ut, con2ersely, "rofits .y the ruin of a "olitical foe# In short, e2en thou%h it .e o.2ious that
the e)istin% RussoI5erman commercial treaties are not to our ad2anta%e, and that 5ermany, in concludin% them, a2ailed herself
of a situation that ha""ened to .e in her fa2orIin other !ords, forced us to the !allIthis action should ha2e .een e)"ected from
5ermany and thou%ht of# It should not, ho!e2er, .e loo0ed u"on as a mar0 of hostility to!ard us, .ut rather as an e)"ression of
healthy national selfIinterest, !orthy of our emulation# Aside from that, !e o.ser2e, in the case of AustriaIHun%ary, an
a%ricultural country that is in a far %reater economic de"endence u"on 5ermany than ours, .ut ne2ertheless, is not "re2ented
from attainin% an a%ricultural de2elo"ment such as !e may only dream of#
In 2ie! of !hat has .een said, it !ould seem that the conclusion of a commercial treaty !ith 5ermany, entirely acce"ta.le to
Russia, .y no means reBuires that 5ermany first .e crushed# It !ill .e Buite sufficient to maintain nei%h.orly relations !ith her,
to ma0e a careful estimate of our real interests in the 2arious .ranches of national economy, and to en%a%e in lon%, insistent
.ar%ainin% !ith 5erman dele%ates, !ho may .e e)"ected to "rotect the interests of their o!n fatherland and not ours#
1ut I !ould %o still further and say that the ruin of 5ermany, from the 2ie!"oint of our trade !ith her, !ould .e
disad2anta%eous to us# Her defeat !ould unBuestiona.ly end in a "eace dictated from the 2ie!"oint of :n%landFs economic
interests# The latter !ill e)"loit to the farthest limit any success that falls to her lot, and !e !ill only lose, in a ruined 5ermany
!ithout sea routes, a mar0et !hich, after all, is 2alua.le to us for our other!ise unmar0eta.le "roducts#
In res"ect to 5ermanyFs economic future, the interests of Russia and :n%land are diametrically o""osed# For :n%land, it is
"rofita.le to 0ill 5ermanyFs maritime trade and industry, turnin% her into a "oor and, if "ossi.le, a%ricultural country# For us, it is
of ad2anta%e for 5ermany to de2elo" her seaI%oin% commerce and the industry !hich ser2es it, so as to su""ly the remotest
!orld mar0ets, and at the same time o"en her domestic mar0et to our a%ricultural "roducts, to su""ly her lar%e !or0in%
"o"ulation#
1ut, aside from the commercial treaties, it has .een customary to "oint out the o""ressi2e character of 5erman domination in
Russian economic life, and the systematic "enetration of 5erman colonization into our country, as re"resentin% a manifest "eril
to the Russian $tate# 4e .elie2e, ho!e2er, that fears on these %rounds are considera.ly e)a%%erated# The famous Q6ran% nach
-stenQ !as in its o!n time natural and understanda.le, since 5ermanyFs land could not accommodate her increased "o"ulation,
and the sur"lus !as dri2en in the direction of the least resistance, i#e#, into a less densely "o"ulated nei%h.orin% country# The
5erman 5o2ernment !as com"elled to reco%nize the ine2ita.ility of this mo2ement, .ut could hardly loo0 u"on it as to its o!n
interests# For, after all, it !as 5ermans !ho !ere .ein% lost to the influence of the 5erman $tate, thus reducin% the man "o!er
of their o!n country# Indeed, the 5erman 5o2ernment made such strenuous efforts to "reser2e the connection .et!een its
emi%rants and their old fatherland that it ado"ted e2en the unusual method of toleratin% dual citizenshi"# It is certain, ho!e2er,
that a considera.le "ro"ortion of 5erman emi%rants definitely and irre2oca.ly settled in their ne! homes, and slo!ly .ro0e their
ties !ith the old country# This fact, o.2iously incom"ati.le !ith 5ermanyFs $tate interests, seems to ha2e .een one of the
incenti2es !hich started her u"on a colonial "olicy and maritime commerce, "re2iously so alien to her# And at "resent, as the
5erman colonies increase and there is an attendant %ro!th of 5erman industry and na2al commerce, the 5erman colonization
mo2ement decreases, in a measure, and the day is not remote !hen the Q6ran% nach -stenQ !ill .ecome nothin% more than a
su.Mect for history#
In any case, the 5erman colonization, !hich undou.tedly conflicts !ith our $tate interests, must .e sto""ed, and here, a%ain,
friendly relations !ith 5ermany cannot harm us# To e)"ress a "reference for a 5erman orientation does not im"ly the ad2ocacy
of Russian 2assala%e to 5ermany, and, !hile maintainin% friendly and nei%h.orly intercourse !ith her, !e must not sacrifice our
$tate interests to this o.Mect# 1ut 5ermany herself !ill not o.Mect to measures a%ainst the continued flo! of 5erman colonists
into Russia# To her, it is of %reater .enefit to turn the !a2e of emi%ration to!ard her o!n colonies# 'oreo2er, e2en .efore
5ermany had colonies, !hen her industry !as not yet sufficiently de2elo"ed to em"loy the entire "o"ulation, the 5erman
5o2ernment did not feel Mustified in "rotestin% a%ainst the restricti2e measures that !ere ado"ted a%ainst forei%n colonization
durin% the rei%n of Ale)ander III#
As re%ards the 5erman domination in the field of our economic life, this "henomenon hardly Mustifies the com"laints usually
2oiced a%ainst it# Russia is far too "oor, .oth in ca"ital and in industrial enter"rise, to %et alon% !ithout a lar%e im"ort of forei%n
ca"ital# A certain amount of de"endence u"on some 0ind of forei%n ca"ital is, therefore, una2oida.le, until such time as the
industrial enter"rise and material resources of our "o"ulation de2elo" to a "oint !here !e may entirely fore%o the ser2ices of
forei%n in2estors and their money# 1ut as lon% as !e do reBuire them, 5erman ca"ital is more ad2anta%eous to us than any other#
First and foremost, this ca"ital is chea"er than any other, .ein% satisfied !ith the lo!est mar%in of "rofit# This, to a lar%e e)tent,
e)"lains the relati2e chea"ness of 5erman "roducts, and their %radual dis"lacement of 1ritish "roducts in the mar0ets of the
!orld# The lo!er demands of 5erman ca"ital, as re%ards returns, ha2e for their conseBuence 5ermanyFs readiness to in2est in
enter"rises !hich, .ecause of their relati2ely small returns, are shunned .y other forei%n in2estor,# Also, as a result of that
relati2e chea"ness of 5erman ca"ital, its influ) into Russia is attended .y a smaller outflo! of in2estorsF "rofits from Russia, as
com"ared !ith French and :n%lish in2estments, and so a lar%er amount of ru.les remain in Russia# 'oreo2er, a considera.le
"ro"ortion of the "rofits made on 5erman in2estments in Russian industry do not lea2e our country at all, .ut are s"ent in
Russia#

Enli0e the :n%lish or French, the 5erman ca"italists, in most cases, come to stay in Russia, themsel2es, !ith their money# It is
this 2ery 5erman characteristic !hich e)"lains in a considera.le de%ree the amazin% num.er of 5erman industrialists,
manufacturers, and mill o!ners in our midst, as com"ared !ith the 1ritish and French#

The latter li2e in their o!n countries, remo2in% from Russia the "rofits "roduced .y their enter"rises, do!n to the last 0o"e0#
The 5erman in2estors, on the contrary, li2e in Russia for lon% "eriods, and not infreBuently settle do!n "ermanently# 4hate2er
may .e said to the contrary, the fact is that the 5ermans, unli0e other forei%ners, soon feel at home in Russia and ra"idly .ecome
Russianized# 4ho has not seen Frenchmen and :n%lishmen, for e)am"le, !ho ha2e s"ent almost their !hole li2es in Russia and
yet do not s"ea0 a !ord of Russian3 -n the other hand, are there many 5ermans here !ho cannot ma0e themsel2es understood
in Russian, e2en thou%h it .e !ith a stron% accent and in .ro0en s"eech3 Nay, moreI!ho has not seen %enuine Russians,
orthodo), loyal !ith all their hearts dedicated to the "rinci"les of the Russian $tate, and yet only one or t!o %enerations remo2ed
from their 5erman emi%rant ancestry3 <astly, !e must not for%et that 5ermany herself is, to a certain e)tent, interested in our
economic !ellI.ein%# In this re%ard, 5ermany differs, to our ad2anta%e, from other countries, !hich are interested e)clusi2ely in
o.tainin% the lar%est "ossi.le returns from ca"ital in2ested in Russia, e2en at the cost of the economic ruin of this country#
5ermany, ho!e2er, in her ca"acity of "ermanentIalthou%h, of course, not unselfishImiddleman for our forei%n trade, has an
interest in "reser2in% the "roducti2e resources of our country, as a source of "rofita.le intermediary o"erations for her#

<"en a Bi4tory o"er Germany Promises Russia an <*4ee&ingly Cnfa"orable Pros%e4t
In any case, e2en if !e !ere to admit the necessity for eradicatin% 5erman domination in the field of our economic life, e2en at
the "rice of a total .anishment of 5erman ca"ital from Russian industry, a""ro"riate measures could .e ta0en# it !ould seem,
!ithout !ar a%ainst 5ermany# $uch a !ar !ill demand such enormous e)"enditures that they !ill many times e)ceed the more
than dou.tful ad2anta%es to us in the a.olition of the 5erman NeconomicO domination# 'ore than that, the result of such a !ar
!ill .e an economic situation com"ared !ith !hich the yo0e of 5erman ca"ital !ill seem easy#
For there can .e no dou.t that the !ar !ill necessitate e)"enditures !hich are .eyond RussiaFs limited financial means# 4e shall
ha2e to o.tain credit from allied and neutral countries, .ut this !ill not .e %ranted %ratuitously# As to !hat !ill ha""en if the !ar
should end disastrously for us, I do not !ish to discuss no!# The financial and economic conseBuences of defeat can .e neither
calculated nor foreIseen, and !ill undou.tedly s"ell the total ruin of our entire national economy#
1ut e2en 2ictory "romises us e)tremely unfa2ora.le financial "ros"ects, a totally ruined 5ermany !ill not .e in a "osition to
com"ensate us for the cost in2ol2ed# 6ictated in the interest of :n%land, the "eace treaty !ill not afford 5ermany o""ortunity
for sufficient economic recu"eration to co2er our !ar e)"enditures, e2en at a distant time# The little !hich !e may "erha"s
succeed in e)tortin% from her !ill ha2e to .e shared !ith our allies, and to our share there !ill fall .ut ne%li%i.le crum.s,
com"ared !ith the !ar cost# 'eantime, !e shall ha2e to "ay our !ar loans, not !ithout "ressure .y the allies# For, after the
destruction of 5erman "o!er, !e shall no lon%er .e necessary to them# Nay, more, our "olitical mi%ht, enhanced .y our 2ictory,
!ill induce them to !ea0en us, at least economically# And so it is ine2ita.le that, e2en after a 2ictorious conclusion of the !ar,
!e shall fall into the same sort of financial and economic de"endence u"on our creditors, com"ared !ith !hich our "resent
de"endence u"on 5erman ca"ital !ill seem ideal#
Ho!e2er, no matter ho! sad may .e the# economic "ros"ects !hich face us as a result of union !ith :n%land, and, .y that
to0en, of !ar !ith 5ermany, they are still of secondary im"ortance !hen !e thin0 of the "olitical conseBuences of this
fundamentally unnatural alliance#
# truggle !et+een Russia an& Germany $s Profoun&ly Cn&esirable to !oth i&es, as $t #mounts to a 'eakening
of the 2onar4hist Prin4i%le
It should not .e for%otten that Russia and 5ermany are the re"resentati2es of the conser2ati2e "rinci"le in the ci2ilized !orld, as
o""osed to the democratic "rinci"le, incarnated in :n%land and, to an infinitely lesser de%ree, in France# $tran%e as it may seem,
:n%land, monarchistic and conser2ati2e to the marro! at home, has in her forei%n relations al!ays acted as the "rotector of the
most dema%o%ical tendencies, in2aria.ly encoura%in% all "o"ular mo2ements aimin% at the !ea0enin% of the monarchical
"rinci"le#
From this "oint of 2ie!, a stru%%le .et!een 5ermany and Russia, re%ardless of its issue, is "rofoundly undesira.le to .oth sides,
as undou.tedly in2ol2in% the !ea0enin% of the conser2ati2e "rinci"le in the !orld of !hich the a.o2eInamed t!o %reat "o!ers
are the only relia.le .ul!ar0s# 'ore than that, one must realize that under the e)ce"tional conditions !hich e)ist, a %eneral
:uro"ean !ar is mortally dan%erous .oth for Russia and 5ermany, no matter !ho !ins# It is our firm con2iction, .ased u"on a
lon% and careful study of all contem"orary su.2ersi2e tendencies, that there must ine2ita.ly .rea0 out in the defeated country a
social re2olution !hich, .y the 2ery nature of thin%s, !ill s"read to the country of the 2ictor#
6urin% the many years of "eacea.le nei%h.orly e)istence, the t!o countries ha2e .ecome united .y many ties, and a social
u"hea2al in one is .ound to affect the other# That these trou.les !ill .e of a social, and not a "olitical, nature cannot .e dou.ted,
and this !ill hold true, not only as re%ards Russia, .ut for 5ermany as !ell# An es"ecially fa2ora.le soil for social u"hea2als is
found in Russia, !here the masses undou.tedly "rofess, unconsciously, the "rinci"les of $ocialism# In s"ite of the s"irit of
anta%onism to the 5o2ernment in Russian society, as unconscious as the $ocialism of the .road masses of the "eo"le, a "olitical
re2olution is not "ossi.le in Russia, and any re2olutionary mo2ement ine2ita.ly must de%enerate into a $ocialist mo2ement# The
o""onents of the %o2ernment ha2e no "o"ular su""ort# The "eo"le see no difference .et!een a %o2ernment official and an
intellectual# The Russian masses, !hether !or0men or "easants, are not loo0in% for "olitical ri%hts, !hich they neither !ant nor
com"rehend#
The "easant dreams of o.tainin% a %ratuitous share of some.ody elseFs land, the !or0man, of %ettin% hold of the entire ca"ital
and "rofits of the manufacturer# 1eyond this, they ha2e no as"irations# If these slo%ans are scattered far and !ide amon% the
"o"ulace, and the 5o2ernment "ermits a%itation alon% these lines, Russia !ill .e flun% into anarchy, such as she suffered in the
e2erImemora.le "eriod of trou.les in 19@LI19@C# 4ar !ith 5ermany !ould create e)ce"tionally fa2ora.le conditions for such
a%itation# As already stated, this !ar is "re%nant !ith enormous difficulties for us, and cannot turn out to .e a mere trium"hal
march to 1erlin# 1oth military disaster,I"artial ones, let us ho"eIand all 0inds of shortcomin%s in our su""ly are ine2ita.le# In the
e)cessi2e ner2ousness and s"irit of o""osition of our society, these e2ents !ill .e %i2en an e)a%%erated im"ortance, and all the
.lame !ill .e laid on the 5o2ernment#
It !ill .e !ell if the 5o2ernment does not yield, .ut declares directly that in time of !ar no criticism of the %o2ernmental
authority is to .e tolerated, and resolutely su""resses all o""osition# In the a.sence of any really stron% hold on the "eo"le .y the
o""osition, this !ould settle the affair# The "eo"le did not heed the !riters of the 4i.or% 'anifesto, in its time, and they !ill
not follo! them no!#
1ut a !orse thin% may ha""en& the %o2ernment authority may ma0e concessions, may try to come to an a%reement !ith the
o""osition, and there.y !ea0en itself Must !hen the $ocialist elements are ready for action# :2en thou%h it may sound li0e a
"arado), the fact is that a%reement !ith the o""osition in Russia "ositi2ely !ea0ens the 5o2ernment# The trou.le is that our
o""osition refuses to rec0on !ith the fact that it re"resents no real force# The Russian o""osition is intellectual throu%hout, and
this is its !ea0ness, .ecause .et!een the intelli%entsia and the "eo"le there is a "rofound %ulf of mutual misunderstandin% and
distrust# 4e need an artificial election la!, indeed, !e reBuire the direct influence of the %o2ernmental authority, to assure the
election to the $tate 6uma of e2en the most zealous cham"ions of "o"ular ri%hts# <et the 5o2ernment refuse to su""ort the
elections, lea2in% them to their natural course, and the le%islati2e institutions !ould not see !ithin their !alls a sin%le
intellectual, outside of a fe! dema%o%ic a%itators# Ho!e2er insistent the mem.ers of our le%islati2e institutions may .e that the
"eo"le confide in them, the "easant !ould rather .elie2e the landless %o2ernment official than the -cto.rist landlord in the
6uma, !hile the !or0in%man treats the !a%eIearnin% factory ins"ector !ith more confidence than the le%islatin% manufacturer,
e2en thou%h the latter "rofesses e2ery "rinci"le of the Cadet "arty#
It is more than stran%e, under these circumstances, that the %o2ernmental authority should .e as0ed to rec0on seriously !ith the
o""osition, that it should for this "ur"ose renounce the role of im"artial re%ulator of social relationshi"s, and come out .efore the
.road masses of the "eo"le as the o.edient or%an of the class as"irations of the intellectual and "ro"ertied minority of the
"o"ulation# The o""osition demands that the 5o2ernment should .e res"onsi.le to it, re"resentati2e of a class, and should o.ey
the "arliament !hich it artificially created# *<et us recall that famous e)"ression of 8# Na.o0o2& D<et the e)ecuti2e "o!er
su.mit to the le%islati2e "o!erPG In other !ords, the o""osition demands that the 5o2ernment should ado"t the "sycholo%y of a
sa2a%e, and !orshi" the idol !hich he himself made#

Russia 'ill be Flung into 3o%eless #nar4hy, the $ssue of 'hi4h 'ill be 3ar& to Foresee
If the !ar ends in 2ictory, the "uttin% do!n of the $ocialist mo2ement !ill not offer any insurmounta.le o.stacles# There !ill .e
a%rarian trou.les, as a result of a%itation for com"ensatin% the soldiers !ith additional land allotments, there !ill .e la.or
trou.les durin% the transition from the "ro.a.ly increased !a%es of !ar time to normal schedules, and this, it is to .e ho"ed, !ill
.e all, so lon% as the !a2e of the 5erman social re2olution has not reached us# 1ut in the e2ent of defeat, the "ossi.ility of !hich
in a stru%%le !ith a foe li0e 5ermany cannot .e o2erloo0ed, social re2olution in its most e)treme form is ine2ita.le#
As has already .een said, the trou.le !ill start !ith the .lamin% of the 5o2ernment for all disasters# In the le%islati2e institutions
a .itter cam"ai%n a%ainst the 5o2ernment !ill .e%in, follo!ed .y re2olutionary a%itations throu%hout the country, !ith $ocialist
slo%ans, ca"a.le of arousin% and rallyin% the masses, .e%innin% !ith the di2ision of the land and succeeded .y a di2ision of all
2alua.les and "ro"erty# The defeated army, ha2in% lost its most de"enda.le men, and carried a!ay .y the tide of "rimiti2e
"easant desire for land, !ill find itself too demoralized to ser2e as a .ul!ar0 of la! and order# The le%islati2e institutions and
the intellectual o""osition "arties, lac0in% real authority in the eyes of the "eo"le, !ill .e "o!erless to stem the "o"ular tide,
aroused .y themsel2es, and Russia !ill .e flun% into ho"eless anarchy, the issue of !hich cannot .e foreseen#
Germany, in -ase of 6efeat, is 6estine& to uffer o4ial C%hea"als 0o Less than those of Russia
No matter ho! stran%e it may a""ear at first si%ht, considerin% the e)traordinary "oise of the 5erman character, 5ermany,
li0e!ise, is destined to suffer, in case o defeat, no lesser social u"hea2als# The effect of a disastrous !ar u"on the "o"ulation !ill
.e too se2ere not to .rin% to the surface destructi2e tendencies, no! dee"ly hidden# The "eculiar social order of modern
5ermany rests u"on the actually "redominant influence of the a%rarians, 7russian Jun0erdom and "ro"ertied "easants#
These elements are the .ul!ar0 of the "rofoundly conser2ati2e 5erman re%ime headed .y 7russia# The 2ital interests of these
classes demand a "rotecti2e economic "olicy to!ards a%riculture, im"ort duties on %rain, and conseBuently, hi%h "rice for all
farm "roducts# 1ut 5ermany, !ith her limited territory and increasin% "o"ulation, has lon% a%o turned from an a%ricultural into
an industrial $tate, so that "rotection of a%riculture is, in effect, a matter of ta)in% the lar%er "art of the "o"ulation for the .enefit
of the smaller# To this maMority, there is a com"ensation in the e)tensi2e de2elo"ment of the e)"ort of 5erman industrial
"roducts to the most distant mar0ets, so that the ad2anta%es deri2ed there.y ena.le the industrialists and !or0in% "eo"le to "ay
the hi%her "rices for the farm "roducts consumed at home#
6efeated, 5ermany !ill lose her !orld mar0ets and maritime commerce, for the aim of the !arIon the "art of its real insti%ator,
:n%landI!ill .e the destruction of 5erman com"etition# After this has .een achie2ed, the la.orin% masses, de"ri2ed not only of
hi%her .ut of any and all !a%es, ha2in% suffered %reatly durin% the !ar, and .ein%, naturally, em.ittered, !ill offer fertile soil for
antiIa%rarian and later antiIsocial "ro"a%anda .y the $ocialist "arties#
These "arties, in turn, ma0in% use of the outra%ed "atriotic sentiment amon% the "eo"le, o!in% to the loss of the !ar, their
e)as"eration at the militarists and the feudal .ur%her re%ime that .etrayed them, !ill a.andon the road of "eacea.le e2olution
!hich they ha2e thus far .een follo!in% so steadily, and ta0e a "urely re2olutionary "ath# $ome "art !ill also .e "layed,
es"ecially in the e2ent of a%rarian trou.les in nei%h.orin% Russia, .y the class of landless farmhands, !hich is Buite numerous in
5ermany# A"art from this, there !ill .e a re2i2al of the hitherto concealed se"aratist tendencies in southern 5ermany, and the
hidden anta%onism of 1a2aria to domination .y 7russia !ill emer%e in all its intensity# In short, a situation !ill .e created !hich
*in %ra2ity+ !ill .e little .etter than that in Russia#
Pea4e #mong the -i"iliDe& 0ations is $m%erile& -hiefly by the 6esire of <nglan& to Retain 3er Banishing
6omination of the eas
A summary of all that has .een stated a.o2e must lead to the conclusion that a ra""rochement !ith :n%land does not "romise us
any .enefits, and that the :n%lish orientation of our di"lomacy is essentially !ron%# 4e do not tra2el the same road as :n%land,
she should .e left to %o her o!n !ay, and !e must not Buarrel on her account !ith 5ermany#
The Tri"le :ntente is an artificial com.ination, !ithout a .asis of real interest# It has nothin% to loo0 for!ard to# The future
.elon%s to a close and incom"ara.ly more 2ital ra""rochement of Russia, 5ermany, France *reconciled !ith 5ermany+, and
Ja"an *allied to Russia .y a strictly defensi2e union+# A "olitical com.ination li0e this, lac0in% all a%%ressi2eness to!ard other
$tates, !ould safe%uard for many years the "eace of the ci2ilized nations, threatened, not .y the militant intentions of 5ermany,
as :n%lish di"lomacy is tryin% to sho!, .ut solely .y the "erfectly natural stri2in% of :n%land to retain at all costs her 2anishin%
domination of the seas# In this direction, and not in the fruitless search of a .asis for an accord !ith :n%land, !hich is in its 2ery
nature contrary to our national "lans and aims, should all the efforts of our di"lomacy .e concentrated#
It %oes !ithout sayin% that 5ermany, on her "art, must meet our desire to restore our !ellItested relations and friendly alliance
!ith her, and to ela.orate, in closest a%reement !ith us, such terms of our nei%h.orly e)istence as to afford no .asis for antiI
5erman a%itation on the "art of our constitutionalIli.eral "arties, !hich, .y their 2ery nature, are forced to adhere, not to a
Conser2ati2e 5erman, .ut to a li.eral :n%lish orientation#

Fe.ruary, 191J
7# N# 6urno2o
7yotr Ni0olaye2ich 6urno2o *1JLI191L+
7rominent $tatesmen durin% the -cto.er Re2olution *No2em.er , 1917+
!aid .owland -rancis
U.S. m!assa"or to
/&ssia (8ay +. ()(3A-o#.
6. ()(2)E 4o#ernor of
8isso&ri ((22)A(2)1)
.o3ert Lansing
U.S. Secretary of State
(%&ne 0*. ()(+ S
Fe!r&ary (1. ()0D)
:ewton !. "aker
U.S. Secretary of War
(()(3A()0()
!aid Llo+d ;eorge
Prime 8inister of 4reat
Britain (Fecem!er 6.
()(3AHcto!er 00. ()00)
Arth/r 2. "alfo/r
Foreign Secretary of
4reat Britain (()(3A()())
2aco3 $. Schiff
Partner of G&hn. Loe! ,
Company 7!anking firm in
-ew 'ork City9
<lih/ .oot
Presi"ent of Carnegie
Jn"owment for
>nternational Peace
(()(DA()0+)E 8em!er of
the /oot Commission
Ale&ander #erensk+
Prime 8inister of /&ssia
(%&ly 0(. ()(6A-o#em!er
6. ()(6)
C
o/nt (ladi)ir
#okotso
Prime 8inister of /&ssia
(Sept. (2. ()((AFe!. (0.
()(*)E Finance 8inister of
/&ssia (()D*A()D+E
()D3A()(*)
'rince ;eorg+ Lo
Prime 8inister of /&ssia
(8arch (+. ()(6A%&ly 0(.
()(6)
"oris (. St=r)er
Prime 8inister of /&ssia
(0 Fe!r&ary ()(3 S 01
-o#. ()(3)E Fie" in prison
on Septem!er ). ()(6
Sergei !. Sa7ono
Foreign 8inister of /&ssia
(()(DA()(3)
'+otr "ark
Finance 8inister of
/&ssia (()(*A()(6)
:ikolai 'okrosk+
Foreign 8inister of /&ssia
(()(3A()(6)
Ale&ander 'roto9o9o
>nterior 8inister of /&ssia
(Septem!er ()(3A
Fe!r&ary ()(6)
*an '. Shi9o
4o#ernor of the State
Bank of the /&ssian
Jmpire (()(0A()(6)
%ikhail .od7ianko
Chairman of the State
F&ma (()((A()(6)
*an Shchegloito
8inister of %&stice of
/&ssia (()D3A()(+)E
J<ec&te" !y the
Bolshe#iks in ()(2
Co/nt Ale&ander
*7olsk+
/&ssian m!assa"or to
France (()(DA()(6)E
Foreign 8inister of /&ssia
(()D3A()(D)

;eorge "akh)eteff
/&ssian m!assa"or to
the Unite" States
(()((A()(6)
Bolshevik Revolution &
Russian Civil ,ar (()(6A()00)
8ladimir <enin addresses a cro!d durin% 'ay 6ay ceremonies in 'osco!, Russia in 'ay 191# Bla&imir Lenin sur"i"e&
t+o maHor assassination attem%ts in 191A. The first assassination attem"t occurred in 7etro%rad on January 1J, 191, !hen
assassins am.ushed <enin in his automo.ile after a s"eech, <enin esca"ed unharmed from that incident# The second
assassination attem"t occurred in 'osco! on Au%ust >@, 191, !hen a Dlone %unmanG named Fanya /efimo2na Aa"lan *a
female socialist+ shot <enin three times !ith a "istol H the first .ullet struc0 his arm, the second .ullet his Ma! and nec0, and the
third .ullet missed him# *Cul2er 7ictures+
/&ssian %ewish Comm&nist terrorist Leon =rotsky "eli#ers a speech to a gro&p of Bolshe#iks. (Photo: Un"erwoo" , Un"erwoo"BCH/B>S)
DI ha2e Must .een called to the "hone and heard that $molny Institute, 1olshe2i0 HeadBuarters, has formally announced that a
re2olution similar to that in Russia has .e%un in 5ermany# 5he !olshe"ik lea&ers here, most of +hom are /e+s an& 9> %er
4ent of +hom are returne& e*iles, 4are little for Russia or any other 4ountry but are internationalists an& they are trying
to start a +orl&+i&e so4ial re"olution. If such a re2olution can %et a foothold in 5ermany !here the "eo"le are o.seBuious to
those a.o2e them and domineerin% and tyrannical to those .eneath them and !here or%anization and system has o.tained such a
foothold as it ne2er had in history .efore, I .e%in to fear for the institutions not only of :n%land .ut of the Re"u.lic of France
and the thou%ht arises in my mind !hether our o!n institutions are safe#G
H E#$# Am.assador to Russia 6a2id Ro!land Francis, January 191
From .ussia from the ,merican Em%assy .y 6a2id R# Francis *Ne! /or0& 19?1+, "# ?1J
=he /&ssian imperial family pose for a portrait in ()(1. Left to right: 4ran" F&chess 8aria. =sarina le<an"ra. 4ran"
F&chesses Hlga an" =atiana. =sar -icholas >>. an" 4ran" F&chess nastasia. =sare#ich le<ei sits in front of his parents. =sar
-icholas >> of /&ssia a!"icate" his throne on 8arch (+. ()(6. =sar -icholas >> an" his family were assassinate" !y the
Bolshe#iks 7Comm&nists9 in /&ssia in the early morning ho&rs of %&ly (6. ()(2.
4rigori Jfimo#ich /asp&tin an" his a"oring women of the /&ssian no!ility pose for a portrait in ()(3 (L&st prior to his m&r"er).
/asp&tin was a spirit&al a"#iser an" confi"ante to =sarina le<an"ra. /asp&tin was assassinate" in St. Peters!&rg. /&ssia on
the morning of Fecem!er 1D. ()(3. (Un"erwoo" , Un"erwoo")
=he !asement in a ho&se in 'ekaterin!&rg. /&ssia where a gro&p of Bolshe#iks. on LeninNs or"ers. e<ec&te" the C;ar an" his
family in the early morning ho&rs of %&ly (6. ()(2. (=ime Life)

<eon Trots0y II one of <eninFs closest collea%ues II had re2ealed years earlier that <enin and $2erdlo2 had to%ether
made the decision to "ut the Tsar and his family to death# Recallin% a con2ersation in 191, Trots0y !rote&
2y ne*t "isit to 2os4o+ took %la4e after the Rtem%oraryS fall of <katerinburg Rto anti(-ommunist for4esS.
%eaking +ith "er&lo", $ aske& in %assing: E7h yes, an& +here is the 5sar?F
EFinishe&,F he re%lie&. E3e has been shot.F
E#n& +here is the family?F
E5he family along +ith him.F
E#ll of them?,K $ aske&, a%%arently +ith a tra4e of sur%rise.
E#ll of them,K re%lie& "er&lo". E'hat about it?F 3e +as +aiting to see my rea4tion. $ ma&e no re%ly.
E#n& +ho ma&e the &e4ision?,F $ aske&.
E'e &e4i&e& it here. $lyi4h RLeninS belie"e& that +e shoul&n)t lea"e the 'hites a li"e banner to rally aroun&,
es%e4ially un&er the %resent &iffi4ult 4ir4umstan4es.F
$ aske& no further Nuestions an& 4onsi&ere& the matter 4lose&.F
From an A"ril 19>L entry in DTrots0yFs 6iary in :)ileG
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#ihr#or%;Mhr;21J;21Jn1"IJR4e.er#html
Russian soldiers demonstrate in the streets of 7etro%rad, Russia in Fe.ruary 1917# Czar Nicholas II of Russia a.dicated his
throne on 'arch 1L, 1917# Czar Nicholas II and his family !ere assassinated .y the 1olshe2i0s NCommunistsO in Russia on July
17, 191#
Female Russian soldiers %uard the 4inter 7alace in 7etro%rad, Russia in 1917 !hile Aerens0y !as the 7rime 'inister#
Ale)ander Aerens0y *?
nd
ri%ht+ ser2es as 'inister of 4ar in the "ro2isional Russian %o2ernment in 'ay 1917#
6urin% the summer of 1917, Russian soldiers, hearin% re"orts that the Im"erial 5erman ca2alry ha2e .ro0en throu%h Russian
lines, thro! do!n their %uns and run in full fli%ht, retreatin% in an attem"t to a2oid .ein% ca"tured or 0illed .y the 5ermans#
*<FIllustration+
7olice officers *soldiers3+ 0ill Russian "rotesters !ith machine %uns at the Ne2s0y 7ros"e0t in 7etro%rad *$t# 7eters.ur%+ on July
J, 1917# 8ladimir <enin and <eon Trots0y !ere li2in% in 7etro%rad on July J, 1917#
Russian soldiers and ci2ilians "rotest in Russia durin% the "olitical unrest in 1917 months .efore the 1olshe2i0 Re2olution#
*$ource& .ussia 1214/ "he Hnpu%lished .evolution .y Jonathan $anders+
Russian !or0ers eat in dila"idated conditions in Czarist Russia#
*$ource& .ussia 1214/ "he Hnpu%lished .evolution .y Jonathan $anders+
'em.ers of the Russian no.ility eat lu)uriously at a "alace in $t# 7eters.ur%, Russia durin% 4orld 4ar I#
*$ource& .ussia 1214/ "he Hnpu%lished .evolution .y Jonathan $anders+
=he /oot 8ission in ()(6: Fiplomatic >ntrig&eC
'em.ers of the Root 'ission at the 4inter 7alace in 7etro%rad *$t# 7eters.ur%+, Russia in 1917# $eated from left to ri%ht& Cyrus Hall
'cCormic0, Charles Richard Crane, James 6uncan, E#$# Army 5eneral Hu%h <eno) $cott, :lihu Root, E#$# Am.assador to Russia
6a2id Ro!land Francis, E#$# Na2y Admiral James Henry 5lennon, 6r# John Ralei%h 'ott, $amuel Readin% 1ertron, and Charles
:d!ard Russell, those standin% in the second ro!, not mem.ers of the mission, are unidentified# Crane, Root, and 1ertron !ere
mem.ers of the Council on Forei%n Relations# amuel Rea&ing !ertron +as a member of kull , !ones at Yale Cni"ersity.
*7hoto& Soviet&,merican .elations$ 1214&12EI/ Jolume 1$ .ussia !eaves the #ar .y 5eor%e F# Aennan+
'em.ers of the 7resident=s s"ecial di"lomatic mission to Russia *Root 'ission+ at the 4inter 7alace in 7etro%rad *$t#
7eters.ur%+, Russia in 1917# $eated from left to ri%ht& Cyrus Hall 'cCormic0, Charles Richard Crane, James 6uncan, 5eneral
Hu%h <eno) $cott, :lihu Root, 6a2id Ro!land Francis *E#$# Am.assador to Russia+, Admiral James Henry 5lennon, 6r# John
Ralei%h 'ott, $amuel Readin% 1ertron, and Charles :d!ard Russell, those standin% in the second ro!, not mem.ers of the
mission, are unidentified# <lihu Root +as the Presi&ent of -arnegie <n&o+ment for $nternational Pea4e in 19171 amuel
Rea&ing !ertron +as a member of kull , !ones, a se4ret so4iety at Yale Cni"ersity.
:lihu Root, the 7resident of Carne%ie :ndo!ment for International 7eace, %reets 5eneral Ale0sei Ale0see2ich 1rusilo2
*1rusiloff+, Commander in Chief of the Russian Army, at a railroad station in 'o%hile2, Russia# 1rusilo2 later ser2ed in the
$o2iet Red Army out of "atriotism des"ite dee" reser2ations a.out communism#
'em.ers of 7resident 4oodro! 4ilson=s $"ecial 6i"lomatic 'ission to Russia in 1917# 'em.ers of the 'ission standin%
amon% those in the front ro! are, from left to ri%ht& Charles :d!ard Russell, E#$# Army 5eneral Hu%h <eno) $cott, E#$#
Am.assador to Russia 6a2id Ro!land Francis, and <lihu Root, to the ri%ht of Root is Leon 5rotsky, and standin% .ehind Root,
a little to the ri%ht, at the front of the cro!ded room, is Bla&imir Lenin# *7hoto& <i.rary of Con%ress+
Jlih& /oot. the 'resident of Carnegie <ndow)ent for *nternational 'eace an" merican special en#oy to /&ssia. sits insi"e
the room of Catherine the 4reat in the Winter Palace in Petrogra" 7St. Peters!&rg9. /&ssia in ()(6.
Sam&el /. Bertron (S,B (22+) 7somewhere in the rear of the photo9 was a mem!er of the Special Fiplomatic 8ission to /&ssia 7also known as
the /oot 8ission9 in ()(6.
D1et!een 1917 and 19?1 the $o2iets "ushed their control of Russia into $i.eria and the Caucasus# As !e ha2e noted, the Enited
$tates inter2ened in $i.eria alon% the TransI$i.erian Railroad# Histories of E#$# inter2ention .y 5eor%e Aennan and the $o2iets
maintain this !as an antiI$o2iet inter2ention# In fact, it !as nothin% of the 0ind# The E#$# s"read troo"s alon% the $i.erian railroad
only to 0ee" out the Ja"anese, not to 0ee" out the $o2iets# 4hen they left throu%h 8ladi2osto0, the $o2iet authorities %a2e American
forces a resoundin% sendIoff# 1ut this is yet another untold story, not in the te)t.oo0s# The immediate "ro.lem facin% the $o2iets !as
to restore silent Russian factories# This needed ra! materials, technical s0ills and !or0in% ca"ital# The 0ey to Russian reconstruction
!as the oil fields of the Caucasus# The Caucasus oil fields are a maMor se%ment of Russian natural resource !ealth# 1a0u, the most
im"ortant field, !as de2elo"ed in the 17@s# In 19@@ it !as "roducin% more crude oil than the Enited $tates, and in 19@1 more than
half of the total !orld crude out"ut# The Caucasus oil fields sur2i2ed Re2olution and Inter2ention !ithout maMor structural dama%e
and .ecame a si%nificant factor in $o2iet economic reco2ery, %eneratin% a.out ?@ "ercent of all e)"orts .y 2alue, the lar%est sin%le
source of forei%n e)chan%e#G
H ,mericaKs Secret Esta%lishment/ ,n 5ntroduction to the :rder of S)ull L Bones .y Antony C# $utton, "# 1J9
D/ou !ill ha2e a re2olution, a terri.le re2olution# 4hat course it ta0es !ill de"end much on !hat 'r# Roc0efeller tells 'r# Ha%ue to
do# 'r# Roc0efeller is a sym.ol of the American rulin% class and 'r# Ha%ue is a sym.ol of its "olitical tools#G
H <eon Trots0y, in "he (ew 'or) "imes, 6ecem.er 1>, 19># *Ha%ue !as a Ne! Jersey "olitician+
$ource& #all Street and "he Bolshevi) .evolution 1y Antony C# $utton
D6ear 'r# 7resident& I am in sym"athy !ith the $o2iet form of %o2ernment as that .est suited for the Russian "eo"le###G
H <etter to 7resident 4oodro! 4ilson *-cto.er 17, 191+ from 4illiam <a!rence $aunders, chairman, In%ersollIRand Cor"#,
director, American International Cor"#, and de"uty chairman of the Federal Reser2e 1an0 of Ne! /or0
$ource& #all Street and "he Bolshevi) .evolution 1y Antony C# $utton
4illiam 1oyce Thom"son *.ottom left, seated+ !as a -lass ! 6ire4tor of the Fe&eral Reser"e !ank of 0e+ York from 191@ to
1919 and one of the ori%inal ?11 mem.ers of the Council on Forei%n Relations#
*7hoto& Soviet&,merican .elations$ 1214&12EI/ Jolume 1$ .ussia !eaves the #ar .y 5eor%e F# Aennan+
D4hat moti2e e)"lains this coalition of ca"italists and 1olshe2i0s3 Russia !as then S and is today S the lar%est unta""ed mar0et in
the !orld# 'oreo2er, Russia, then and no!, constituted the %reatest "otential com"etiti2e threat to American industrial and financial
su"remacy# *A %lance at a !orld ma" is sufficient to s"otli%ht the %eo%ra"hical difference .et!een the 2ast land mass of Russia and the
smaller Enited $tates#+ 4all $treet must ha2e cold shi2ers !hen it 2isualizes Russia as a second su"er American industrial %iant# 1ut
!hy allo! Russia to .ecome a com"etitor and a challen%e to E#$# su"remacy3 In the late nineteenth century, 'or%an;Roc0efeller, and
5u%%enheim had demonstrated their mono"olistic "rocli2ities# In .ailroads and .egulation 1@44&1213 5a.riel Aol0o has
demonstrated ho! the railroad o!ners, not the farmers, !anted state control of railroads in order to "reser2e their mono"oly and
a.olish com"etition# $o the sim"lest e)"lanation of our e2idence is that a syndicate of 4all $treet financiers enlar%ed their mono"oly
am.itions and .roadened horizons on a %lo.al scale# $he gigantic Russian market was to be converted into a captive market and a
technical colony to be e%ploited by a few high&powered 'merican financiers and the corporations under their control 4hat the
Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade Commission under the thum. of American industry could achie2e for that
industry at home, a "lanned socialist %o2ernment could achie2e for it a.road S %i2en suita.le su""ort and inducements from 4all
$treet and 4ashin%ton, 6#C# Finally, lest this e)"lanation seem too radical, remem.er that it +as 5rotsky +ho a%%ointe& tsarist
generals to 4onsoli&ate the Re& #rmy, that it !as Trots0y !ho a""ealed for American officers to control re2olutionary Russia and
inter2ene in .ehalf of the $o2iets, that it !as Trots0y !ho sBuashed first the li.ertarian element in the Russian Re2olution and then the
!or0ers and "easants, and that recorded history totally i%nores the 7@@,@@@Iman 5reen Army com"osed of e)I1olshe2i0s, an%ered at
.etrayal of the re2olution, !ho fou%ht the 4hites and the Reds# In other !ords, !e are su%%estin% that the 1olshe2i0 Re2olution !as
an alliance of statists& statist re2olutionaries and statist financiers ali%ned a%ainst the %enuine re2olutionary li.ertarian elements in
Russia# The Buestion no! in the readers= minds must .e, !ere these .an0ers also secret 1olshe2i0s3 No, of course not# The financiers
!ere !ithout ideolo%y# It !ould .e a %ross misinter"retation to assume that assistance for the 1olshe2ists !as ideolo%ically moti2ated,
in any narro! sense# The financiers !ere power&motivated and therefore assisted any "olitical 2ehicle that !ould %i2e them an entree
to "o!er& Trots0y, <enin, the tsar, Aolcha0, 6eni0in S all recei2ed aid, more or less# All, that is, .ut those !ho !anted a truly free
indi2idualist society#G H #all Street and the Bolshevi) .evolution .y Antony C# $utton, Cha"ter 11
Leon =rotsky (real name Le# Fa#i"o#ich Bronstein) arri#es in Petrogra" 7St. Peters!&rg9. /&ssia on 8ay *. ()(6. Leon >rotsk+ lied in :ew
York Cit+ fro) 2an/ar+ 1917 to %arch 1917. =he Hcto!er /e#ol&tion an" the o#erthrow of the Pro#isional /&ssian 4o#ernment !egan
in Petrogra" 7St. Peters!&rg9. /&ssia on :oe)3er 7, 1917. Leon =rotskyNs 12
th
!irth"ay. Leon =rotsky was !orn in /&ssia on
:oe)3er 7, 1579.
53< 1917 #2<R$-#0 R<6 -R7 2$$70 57 RC$#
'em.ers from 4all $treet financial community and their affiliations
James 4# Andre!s *<i%%ett 9 'yers To.acco+
Ro.ert I# 1arr *Chase National 1an0+
Henry $# 1ro!n *c;o 4illiam 1# Thom"son+
4illiam Cochran *'cCann Co#+
Cornelius Aelleher *c;o 4illiam 1# Thom"son+
4illiam 5# Nicholson *$!ift 9 Co#+
'alcolm 7irnie *Hazen, 4hi""le 9 Fuller+
H# 1# Redfield *$tetson, Jennin%s 9 Russell+
Raymond Ro.ins *minin% "romoter+
Harold H# $!ift *$!ift 9 Co#+
Thomas 6ay Thacher *attorney, mem.er of $im"son, Thacher 9 1artlett la! firm, mem.er of $0ull 9 1ones at /ale Eni2ersity+
4illiam 1oyce Thom"son *6irector of the Federal Reser2e 1an0 of Ne! /or0+
Allen 4ard!ell *attorney, mem.er of $tetson, Jennin%s 9 Russell la! firm, mem.er of $croll 9 Aey at /ale Eni2ersity+
5eor%e C# 4hi""le *Hazen, 4hi""le 9 Fuller+
Frederic0 '# Corse *National City 1an0+
Her.ert A# 'a%nuson *recommended .y confidential a%ent of Colonel 4illiam 1oyce Thom"son+

Left to right: =homas Fay =hacher. William Boyce =hompson. llen War"well
The $i%nin% of Russian 4ar <oan in 1917# $ho!n& Constantine -nou, Russian :m.assy, Fran0 <# 7ol0, $er%e E%het, Russian
:m.assy, $ecretary of the Treasury 4illiam 5# 'cAdoo *seated, second from left+, and Ender $ecretary of $tate Fran0 <# 7ol0
*seated, second from ri%ht+# Fran0 <# 7ol0 %raduated from /ale Eni2ersity, Fran0 <# 7ol0 !as a mem.er of the Council on
Forei%n Relations# *7hoto& National 7hoto Com"any Collection;<i.rary of Con%ress 7rints and 7hoto%ra"hs 6i2ision+
htt"&;;!!!#loc#%o2;"ictures;item;n"c?@@@11JC7;3sidW17edd1d..1dad@9f9J>aCc>9Jdc.1

Left photo: Boris . Bakhmeteff was the /&ssian m!assa"or to the Unite" States from ()(6 to ()00. when the Unite" States no longer
recogni;e" the C;aristBPro#isional (?White@) 4o#ernment of /&ssia as the legitimate go#ernment of /&ssia. "oris A. "akh)eteff was a
)e)3er of the Co/ncil on -oreign .elations fro) 196? to 19@?.
/ight photo: le<an"er Fyo"oro#ich Gerensky ((22(A()6D) was the Prime 8inister of /&ssia from %&ly 0(. ()(6 &ntil -o#em!er 6. ()(6.
Gerensky went into e<ile in France "&ring the Bolshe#ik /e#ol&tion an" li#e" in -ew 'ork City from ()*D &ntil his "eath in ()6D. Gerensky
s&pporte" /&ssiaNs participation in Worl" War > following the a!"ication of C;ar -icholas >> "espite mass "esertion an" m&tiny !y /&ssian
sol"iers.
Leon =rotsky inspects the /e" rmy in ()0(.
8em!ers of the 7merican9 /e" Cross Commission pose for photographers in /&ssia in ()(6.
LeninNs rri#al from Swit;erlan" #ia Berlin , =he Hcto!er /e#ol&tion
/&ssian Comm&nist terrorist 5la"imir Lenin (right. hol"ing an &m!rella) takes a stroll in the streets of Stockholm. Swe"en on pril (1. ()(6
78arch 1(. ()(6 /&ssian 7%&lian9 calen"ar9. Lenin an" his comra"es "eparte" :&rich. Swit;erlan" a!oar" a 4erman !o<car train on pril 3.
()(6. =he >mperial 4erman go#ernment escorte" Lenin his comra"es a!oar" a ?seale"@ train from the SwissA4erman !or"er to Berlin an"
later from Berlin to the Baltic Sea. Lenin met with his 4erman ?sponsors@ (4erman intelligent agents) in Berlin an" apparently recei#e" money
!efore ret&rning to Petrogra" to esta!lish a Comm&nist regime in /&ssia.
(Photo: http:BBwww.c""c.#t.e"&Bmar<istsBarchi#eBleninBme"iaBimageB()(6.htm)

5odfathers of the $o2iet Enion& 8ladimir <enin *left+ and <eon Trots0y
/e" rmy comman"er Leon =rotsky (right of po"i&m) watches the crow" as 5la"imir Lenin "eli#ers a speech at S#er"lo#
SM&are in 8oscow on 8ay +. ()0D.

Left: Fake passport &se" !y 5la"imir Lenin to cross into Finlan" to escape Pro#isional /&ssian go#ernment.
(Photo: http:BBwww.c""c.#t.e"&Bmar<istsBarchi#eBleninBme"iaBimageB()(6.htm)
/ight: large gro&p of So#iet sol"iers reenacts the storming of the Winter Palace in Petrogra" on the thir" anni#ersary of the !eginning of the
Bolshe#ik /e#ol&tion on -o#em!er 6. ()0D.
4erman officers escort /&ssian %ewish Comm&nist terrorist Leon =rotsky (center) at a train station in BrestALit#osk on Fecem!er 06. ()(6 as
Leon =rotsky an" his /&ssian "elegates prepare to atten" the BrestALito#sk Peace Conference. (Photo: CH/B>S)
4ermany. &stria an" /&ssia sign the =reaty of BrestALito#sk on 8arch 1. ()(2. en"ing /&ssiaIs in#ol#ement in Worl" War >. an" lea"ing to
the in"epen"ence of Finlan". Jstonia. Lat#ia. Lith&ania. Polan". an" Ukraine (&ntil ()0D). (Photo: 4erman Fe"eral rchi#es)
/&ssian Comm&nist lea"er 5la"imir Lenin presi"es o#er a meeting of the Bolshe#ik Co&ncil of PeopleIs Commissars. or So#narkom. in ()(6
atten"e" !y Leon =rotsky. (Photo: W $&ltonAFe&tsch CollectionBCH/B>S)
=he Jighth Bolshe#ik Party Congress in ()(). Stalin appears with Lenin an" his fellow Commissars. 8. >. Galinin is on LeninNs left.
A "ortrait of Ne! /or0 City .usinessman 4illiam <a!rence $aunders *7hoto& <i.rary of Con%ress+
E6ear 2r. Presi&ent: $ am in sym%athy +ith the o"iet form of go"ernment as that best suite& for the Russian %eo%le...F
H <etter to E#$# 7resident 4oodro! 4ilson *-cto.er 17, 191+ from 4illiam <a!rence $aunders, Chairman of the .oard of
In%ersollIRand Cor"#, director of American International Cor"#, and 6e"uty Chairman of the Federal Reser2e 1an0 of Ne!
/or0 *$ource& #all Street and "he Bolshevi) .evolution 1y Antony C# $utton+
Allied 'ilitary Inter2ention in Russia *191I1919+
$oldiers and sailors from many countries are lined u" in front of the Allied HeadBuarters 1uildin% in 8ladi2osto0, Russia in
$e"tem.er 191# The 2arious fla%s flyin% in front of the Allied HeadBuarters 1uildin% include the *from left to ri%ht+ American
fla%, French fla%, 1ritish *military3+ fla%, and Im"erial Ja"anese fla%# *7hoto& Ender!ood 9 Ender!ood+
painting of the lan"ing of the %apanese army at 5la"i#ostok. /&ssia "&ring the /&ssian Ci#il War in ()(). =he two ships in the !ackgro&n"
appear to !e merican #essels with merican stars an" stripes flags hoiste" atop the ships. =he ?tricolor flag@ "isplaye" !elow the %apanese
flag (?/ising S&n@) on a flagpole on the right is the pro#isional /&ssian flag representing ?White /&ssia.@ (Painting: =okyo: Sho!i"o , Co.)
%apanese marines (left) are seen stan"ing at attention as merican troops in 5la"i#ostok march in a para"e on &g&st (. ()(2 in front of the
!&il"ing occ&pie" !y the staff of the C;echoASlo#aks. (Photo: Un"erwoo" , Un"erwoo"B-ational rchi#es)
http:BBwww."o"me"ia.os".milBF5>CK5iewBStillKFetails.cfmCSF-U$FS-))D0D(1,%P4PathUBssetsBStillB()))BFoFB$FAS-A))AD0D(1.%P4
$i%nal Cor"s 7hoto%ra"hic Enit !ith American :)"editionary Force in Archan%el, Russia durin% the Russian Ci2il 4ar on June
?L, 1919# <ieutenant Charles I# Reid *left+ and 'aster $i%nal :lectrician 5rier '# $hot!ell *ri%ht+ o"erate a mo2ie camera# In
the .ac0%round is the 'onastery Church of Archan%el# *7hoto& 'ilitary 7hotos+
The Czech <e%ion as it is a.out to em.ar0 east across $i.eria in the ho"e of %ettin% home II .y sea 2ia 8ladi2osto0#
*7hoto& E#$# $i%nal Cor"s, National Archi2es+
American soldier ladlin% out sou" to a Russian "risoner in Archan%el, Russia durin% the Russian Ci2il 4ar
*7hoto& E#$# $i%nal Cor"s, National Archi2es+
1ritish troo"s arri2e in Archan%el, Russia in early 1919 to re"lace the American troo"s !ho !ill .e %oin% home#
*7hoto& E#$# $i%nal Cor"s, National Archi2es+
American soldiers escort 17 of their dead on a railroad trac0 out of Romonofs0a, $i.eria durin% the Russian Ci2il 4ar
*National Archi2es+
Im"erial Ja"anese Army troo"s march in 8ladi2osto0, Russia in 19?1 durin% the Russian Ci2il 4ar#
=he >ll&stration of =he Si!erian War an" the Bolshe#ik /e#ol&tion: =he %apanese rmy occ&pies 5ragaeschensk 7Blago#eshchensk9 in ()().
(>ll&stration: Sho!i"o , Co. (=okyo)BU.S. Li!rary of Congress)
>mperial %apanese military occ&pation of the /&ssian city of Gha!aro#sk "&ring the /&ssian Ci#il War in ()(). (>ll&stration: Sho!i"o , Co.
(=okyo)BU.S. Li!rary of Congress)
Russian Ci2il 4ar *1917I19??+
Russian 4hite soldiers stand o2er the .odies of dead 1olshe2i0s in 1919 durin% the Russian Ci2il 4ar# *The 1ettmann Archi2e+
Leon =rotsky an" his So#iet /e" rmy &tili;e" armore" trains "&ring the /&ssian Ci#il War.
gro&p of /&ssian sol"iers stan" ne<t to the remains of what appears to !e /&ssian Comm&nist re!els an" So#iet /e" rmy sol"iers.
(Photo: Lt. William C %onesBllie" J<pe"itionary Force Si!eria)
Red Army troo"s ad2ance a%ainst the 4hite Army in the Crimea in late 1919 durin% the Russian Ci2il 4ar#
6etails of the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0 that the 1olshe2i0s si%ned on 'arch >, 191
'a" of area under 1olshe2i0 control in 1919
'a" of AntiI1olshe2i0 -ccu"ied Territories in 1919 and 19?@
Leon =rotsky gathers with the mem!ers of the (0th Congress of /&ssian Comm&nists in the Gremlin in 8oscow on %&ne (0. ()01. Le#
Gamene# also appears. s&!stit&ting for Lenin. (Photo: CH/B>S)
'em.ers of the Russian se"aratist Far :astern Re"u.lic %o2ernment# The "hoto !as ta0en in No2em.er, 19?1# The DFar
:astern Re"u.licG lasted from 19?@ until 19?? !hen the $o2iet Red Army in2aded 8ladi2osto0 in 19??#
Prominent -ommissars of the o"iet Cnion 81917(19919
Le# Gamene#
Fep&ty Chairman of the
Co&ncil of PeopleIs
Commissars of the So#iet
Union (()01A()03)
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
A/g/st 4@, 198A
Leon =rotsky
So#iet Commissar of War
(()()A()0+)E So#iet
Commissar of Foreign
ffairs (()(6A()(2)
Assassinated in %e&ico
on A/g/st 41, 196?
5la"imir Lenin
Commissar of the So#iet
Union (()(6A()0*)
4rigori Sokolniko#
So#iet 7PeopleNs9
Commissar of Finance
(()00A()03)
%/rdered in 9rison on
%a+ 41, 1989
-ikolai Pa#lo#ich
Bry&khano#
So#iet 7PeopleNs9
Commissar of Finance
(()03A()1D)
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
Se9te)3er 1, 1985
-ikolay Grestinsky
So#iet m!assa"or to
4ermany (()0(A()1D)E
PeopleIs Commissar for
Finance of the /&ssian
SFS/ (()(2A()00)E
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
%arch 1@, 1985
4enrikh 4rigorye#ich
'ago"a
PeopleIs Commissar for
>nternal ffairs (-G5F)
(()1*A()13)
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
%arch 1@, 1985
le<ei /yko#
Chairman of the Co&ncil
of PeopleIs Commissars
of the So#iet Union (()0*A
()1D)E <&ec/ted in
%oscow on %arch 1@,
1985
-ikolai B&kharin
Chairman of the
Comm&nist >nternational
(Comintern. ()03A()0))E
J"itorAinAChief of Pravda
(()(2A()0))E
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
%arch 1@, 1985
Christian /ako#sky
So#iet m!assa"or to
France (()0+A()06)E
Chairman of the Co&ncil
of PeopleIs Commissars
of the Ukrainian SS/
(()()A()01)E <&ec/ted
on Se9te)3er 11, 1961
"olph !ramo#ich %offe
So#iet m!assa"or to
China (()00A()01)E $ea"
of So#iet "elegation to
BrestALito#sk conference
(()(6A()(2)
5yachesla# /&"olfo#ich
8en;hinsky
Chairman of the H4PU
(()03A()1*)
5las Ch&!ar
So#iet 7PeopleNs9
Commissar of Finance
(()16A()12)E
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
-e3r/ar+ 4A, 1989
-ikolai >#ano#ich 'e;ho#
PeopleIs Commissar for
>nternal ffairs (-G5F)
(Septem!er 03. ()13 S
%an&ary 06. ()16)
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
-e3r/ar+ 6, 196?
4rigory :ino#ie#
$ea" of the Comm&nist
>nternationalE <&ec/ted
on A/g/st 4@, 198A
4rigory Petro#sky
PeopleIs Commissar of
-G5F 7/&ssia9
(-o#em!er (6.
()(6 S 8arch 1D. ()())
rseny :#ere#
So#iet 8inister of Finance
(()12A()*2. ()*2A()3D)
Leoni" Grasin
So#iet m!assa"or to
France (()0*A()0+)E
So#iet 7PeopleIs9
Commissar for Foreign
=ra"e (()01A()0+)
8oisei Uritsky
Chief of Cheka of
Petrogra" (8arch (D.
()(2A&g. (6. ()(2)E
Assassinated on
A/g/st 17, 1915
n"rei B&!no#
Chief of So#iet /e" rmy
Political Firectory
(()0*A()0))
-ikita Ghr&shche#
First Secretary of the
Comm&nist Party of the
So#iet Union (()+1A()3*)
Leoni" Bre;hne#
SecretaryA4eneral of the
So#iet Comm&nist Party
(()33A()20)
%osef Stalin
Commissar of the So#iet
Union (()0*A()+1)E
PeopleIs Commissar for
Fefence (()*(A()*6)
leksei Gosygin
Premier of the So#iet
Union (()3*A()2D)
8ikhail 4or!ache#
SecretaryA4eneral of the
So#iet Comm&nist Party
(()2+A())()
4eorgy Chicherin
So#iet 7PeopleIs9
Commissar for Foreign
ffairs (()(2A()1D)
8a<im 8a<imo#ich
Lit#ino#
Foreign 8inister of the
So#iet Union (()1DA()1))
So#iet m!assa"or to the
U.S. (()*(A()*1)
5yachesla# 8oloto#
Foreign 8inister of the
So#iet Union (()1)A()*).
()+1A()+3)
n"rey 5yshinsky
Foreign 8inister of the
So#iet Union (()*)A()+1)
n"rei 4romyko
Foreign 8inister of the
So#iet Union (()+6A()2+)E
So#iet m!assa"or to the
U.S. (()*1A()*3)
natoly Fo!rynin
So#iet m!assa"or to the
U.S. (()30A()23)
J"&ar" She#ar"na";e
Foreign 8inister of the
So#iet Union (()2+A
())D)E Presi"ent of
4eorgia (())0A0DD1)
Gonstantin Umansky
So#iet m!assa"or to the
U.S. (()1)A()*()E So#iet
m!assa"or to 8e<ico
(()*1A()*+)
-ikolai B&lganin
So#iet 8inister of Fefence
(()*6A()*). ()+1A()++)
an" Premier of the So#iet
Union (()++A()+2)
Gliment 5oroshilo#
PeopleIs Commissar for
Fefence (()0+A()*D)E
Chairman of Presi"i&m of
the S&preme So#iet of the
So#iet Union (()+1A()3D)
8ikhail >#ano#ich Galinin
Chairman of the
Presi"i&m of the S&preme
So#iet of the So#iet Union
(()00A()*3)
'&ri n"ropo#
Chairman of the
Committee for State
Sec&rity (G4B)
(()36A()20)
Feli< F;er;hinsky
ina&g&ral Firector of
Cheka (So#iet
intelligence. later G4B)
(()(6A()00)E Firector of
the H4PU (()01A()03)
La#rentiy Pa#lo#ich Beria
So#iet 8inister of >nternal
ffairs (()12A()*+. ()+1)E
hea" of atomic research
program in late ()*DsE
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
!ece)3er 48, 19@8
Sergei Gr&glo#
So#iet 8inister of >nternal
ffairs (()*+A()+1. ()+1A
()+3)
Prominent %ewish Comm&nists (So#iet Union. 4ermany. , $&ngary)
Hun%arian Communist a%ent 1ela Aun *formerly 1^la Aohn+, the Forei%n 'inister of the Hun%arian $o2iet Re"u.lic, deli2ers a
s"eech in 1uda"est, Hun%ary in 1919# 5he 3ungarian o"iet Re%ubli4 laste& from 2ar4h ;1, 1919 to #ugust 1, 1919. 1ela Aun
had launched a Dred terrorG of secret "olice a%ainst DenemiesG of the re%ime !hile in office# 1ela Aun, a Je!ish Communist, !as a
mem.er of the $o2iet Communist 7arty, 1ela Aun !as arrested .y the $o2iet secret "olice and tried in 'osco! in 19>, 1ela Aun
!as e)ecuted in Au%ust 19>#
<eft "hoto& :u%en <e2ine *'ay 1@, 1> H July L, 1919+, a Je!ish Communist .orn in $t# 7eters.ur%, Russia, !as the leader of the
1a2arian $o2iet Re"u.lic from A"ril 1?, 1919 to 'ay >, 1919# <e2ine !as e)iled to $i.eria for his "artici"ation in the Russian
Re2olution of 19@L# <e2ine !as arrested .y 5erman authorities, found %uilty, and !as shot .y firin% sBuad in $tadelheim 7rison in
'unich on July L, 1919#
/ight photos: ;er)an S9artacist Co))/nist re3els .osa L/&e)3/rg (left) and #arl Lie3knecht were e&ec/ted 3+ the
;er)an ar)+ in "erlin d/ring the failed S9artac/s /9rising in "erlin on 2an/ar+ 1@, 1919. Both /osa L&<em!&rg an"
Garl Lie!knecht came from mi""leAclass %ewish families. /osa L&<em!&rg met /&ssian Comm&nist 5la"imir Lenin at the
/&ssian Social FemocratsN Fifth Party Fay in Lon"on in ()D6.

Left: Leon =rotsky 7Le# Fa#i"o#ich Bronstein9 (So#iet 8ilitary Commissar. ()()A()0+)
Center: Le# Boriso#ich 7/o;enfel"9 Gamene# (Fep&ty Chairman of the Co&ncil of PeopleIs Commissars of the So#iet Union. ()01A()03)
/ight: 4rigory 'ako#le#ich Sokolniko# (So#iet Finance Commissar. ()00A()03)

Left: "olph !ramo#ich %offe ((221A()06). $ea" of So#iet "elegation to BrestALito#sk conference (()(6A()(2)
Center: 4rigory 'e#see#ich :ino#ie# ((221A()13). $ea" of the Comm&nist >nternationalE e<ec&te" on &g&st 0+. ()13
/>ght: 8oisei Solomono#ich Uritsky ((261A()(2). Chief of Cheka of Petrogra" (8arch (D. ()(2A&g. (6. ()(2)E assassinate" on &g. (6. ()(2
<e2 1oriso2itch Aamenie2 *left+ a""ears !ith $o2iet ruler 8ladimir Ilyich <enin in circa 19?@I19??#
DThe corru"tion, incom"etence, and o""ression of the czarist re%ime !as for%otten at the out.rea0 of !ar in 191J as most Russians, e2en
those !ho !ere sent into .attle !ith inadeBuate trainin% and inadeBuate !ea"onsF rallied to the cause of Holy 'other Russia in an out.urst of
"atriotism# This loyalty sur2i2ed the early disasters of 191J and 191L and !as a.le to rally sufficiently to su""ort the %reat 1rusilo2 offensi2e
a%ainst Austria in 191C# 1ut the tremendous losses of men and su""lies in this endless !arfare, the %ro!in% reco%nition of the com"lete
incom"etence and corru"tion of the %o2ernment, and the %ro!in% rumors of the "ernicious influence of the czarina and Ras"utin o2er the czar
ser2ed to destroy any taste that the Russian masses mi%ht ha2e had, for the !ar# This !ea0enin% of morale !as accelerated .y the se2ere
!inter and semiIstar2ation of 191CI1917# 7u.lic discontent sho!ed itself in 'arch 1917, !hen stri0es and riotin% .e%an in 7etro%rad# Troo"s
in the ca"ital refused to su""ress these a%itations, and the %o2ernment soon found itself to .e hel"less# 4hen it tried to dissol2e the 6uma,
that .ody refused to .e intimidated, and formed a "ro2isional %o2ernment under 7rince <2o2# In this ne! re%ime there !as only one
$ocialist, 'inister of Justice Ale)ander Aerens0y# Althou%h the ne! %o2ernment forced the a.dication of the czar, reco%nized the
inde"endence of Finland and 7oland, and esta.lished a full system of ci2il li.erties, it "ost"oned any fundamental social and economic
chan%es until the esta.lishment of a future constituent assem.ly, and it made e2ery effort to continue the !ar# In this !ay it failed to satisfy
the desires of lar%e num.ers of Russians for land, .read, and "eace# 7o!erful "u.lic feelin% a%ainst efforts to continue the !ar forced the
resi%nation of se2eral of the more moderate mem.ers of the %o2ernment, includin% 7rince <2o2, !ho !as re"laced .y Aerens0y# The more
radical $ocialists had .een released from "rison or had returned from e)ile *in some cases, such as <enin, .y 5erman assistance+, their
a%itations for "eace and land !on adherents from a much !ider %rou" than their o!n su""orters, and es"ecially amon% the "easantry, !ho
!ere 2ery remote from $ocialist sym"athies or ideas .ut !ere insistin% on an end to the !ar and a more eBuita.le system of land o!nershi"#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# >LI>C
DIn $t# 7eters.ur% and 'osco! and in a fe! other cities, assem.lies of !or0ers, soldiers, and "easants, called so2iets, !ere formed .y the
more radical $ocialists in o""osition to the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment# The 1olshe2i0 %rou", under <eninFs leadershi", "ut on a "o!erful
"ro"a%anda cam"ai%n to re"lace the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment .y a nation!ide system of so2iets and to ado"t an immediate "ro%ram of "eace
and land distri.ution# It cannot .e said that the 1olshe2i0 %rou" !on many con2erts or increased in size 2ery ra"idly, .ut their constant
a%itation did ser2e to neutralize or alienate su""ort for the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment, es"ecially amon% the soldiers of the t!o chief cities# -n
No2em.er 7, 1917, the 1olshe2i0 %rou" seized the centers of %o2ernment in $t# 7eters.ur% and !as a.le to hold them .ecause of the refusal
of the local military contin%ents to su""ort the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment# 4ithin t!entyIfour hours this re2olutionary %rou" issued a series of
decrees !hich a.olished the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment, ordered the transfer of all "u.lic authority in Russia to so2iets of !or0ers, soldiers, and
"easants, set u" a central e)ecuti2e of the 1olshe2i0 leaders, called the DCouncil of 7eo"leFs Commissars,G and ordered the end of the !ar
!ith 5ermany and the distri.ution of lar%e landIholdin%s to the "easants# The 1olshe2i0s had no illusions a.out their "osition in Russia at
the end of 1917# They 0ne! that they formed an infinitesimal %rou" in that 2ast country and that they had .een a.le to seize "o!er .ecause
they !ere a decisi2e and ruthless minority amon% a %reat mass of "ersons !ho had .een neutralized .y "ro"a%anda# There !as considera.le
dou.t a.out ho! lon% this neutralized condition !ould continue# 'oreo2er, the 1olshe2i0s !ere con2inced, in o.edience to 'ar)ist theory,
that no real $ocialist system could .e set u" in a country as industrially .ac0!ard as Russia# And finally, there !as %ra2e dou.t if the 4estern
7o!ers !ould stand idly .y and "ermit the 1olshe2i0s to ta0e Russia out of the !ar or attem"t to esta.lish a $ocialist economic system# To
the 1olshe2i0s it seemed to .e Buite clear that they must sim"ly try to sur2i2e on a dayItoday .asis, ho"e to 0ee" the %reat mass of Russians
neutralized .y the achie2ement of "eace, .read, and land, and trust that the ra"id ad2ent of a $ocialist re2olution in industrially ad2anced
5ermany !ould "ro2ide Russia !ith an economic and "olitical ally !hich could remedy the !ea0nesses and .ac0!ardness of Russia itself#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# >C
DFrom 1917 to 19?1 Russia "assed throu%h a "eriod of almost incredi.le "olitical and economic chaos# 4ith counterre2olutionary
mo2ements and forei%n inter2entionist forces a""earin% on all sides, the area under 1olshe2i0 control !as reduced at one time to little more
than the central "ortions of :uro"ean Russia# 4ithin the country there !as e)treme economic and social colla"se# Industrial "roduction !as
disor%anized .y the disru"tion of trans"ortation, the inadeBuate su""ly of ra! materials and credit, and the confusions arisin% from the !ar,
so that there !as an almost com"lete lac0 of such "roducts as clothin%, shoes, or a%ricultural tools# 1y 19?@ industrial "roduction in %eneral
!as a.out 1> "ercent of the 191> fi%ure# #t the same time, %a%er money +as %rinte& so freely to %ay for the 4osts of +ar, 4i"il +ar, an&
the o%eration of the go"ernment that %ri4es rose ra%i&ly an& the ruble be4ame almost +orthless. The %eneral inde) of "rices !as only
three times the 191> le2el in 1917 .ut rose to more than 1C,@@@ times that le2el .y the end of 19?@# Ena.le to %et either industrial "roducts or
sound money for their "roduce the "easants "lanted only for their o!n needs or hoarded their sur"luses# Acrea%e under cro"s !as reduced .y
at least oneIthird in 191CI19?@, !hile yields fell e2en more ra"idly, from 7J million tons of %rain in 191C to >@ million tons in 1919 and to
less than ?@ million tons in 19?@# The decrease in 19?@ resulted from drou%ht, this .ecame so much !orse in 19?1 that the cro"s failed
com"letely# <oss of life in these t!o years of famine reached fi2e million, althou%h the American Relief Administration came into the
country and fed as many as ten million "ersons a day *in Au%ust 19??+# In the course of this chaos and tra%edy the 1olshe2i0 re%ime !as
a.le to sur2i2e, to crush counterre2olutionary mo2ements, and to eliminate forei%n inter2entionists# They !ere a.le to do this .ecause their
o""onents !ere di2ided, indecisi2e, or neutralized, !hile they !ere 2i%orous, decisi2e, and com"letely ruthless# The chief sources of
1olshe2i0 stren%th !ere to .e found in the Red Army and the secret "olice, the neutrality of the "easants, and the su""ort of the "roletariat
!or0ers in industry and trans"ortation# The secret "olice *Che0a+ !as made u" of fanatical and ruthless Communists !ho systematically
murdered all real or "otential o""onents# The Red Army !as recruited from the old czarist army .ut !as re!arded .y hi%h "ay and fa2ora.le
food rations# Althou%h the economic system colla"sed almost com"letely, and the "easants refused to su""ly, or e2en "roduce, food for the
city "o"ulation, the 1olshe2i0s esta.lished a system of food reBuisitions from, the "easants and distri.uted this food .y a rationin% system
!hich re!arded their su""orters# The murder of the im"erial family .y the 1olshe2i0s in July 191 remo2ed this "ossi.le nucleus for the
counterre2olutionary forces, !hile the %eneral refusal of these forces to acce"t the re2olutionary distri.ution of a%ricultural lands 0e"t the
"easants neutral in s"ite of the 1olshe2i0 %rain reBuisitions# 'oreo2er, the "easants !ere di2ided amon% themsel2es .y the 1olshe2i0 success
in s"littin% them so that the "oorer "easants .anded to%ether to di2ert much of the .urden of %rain reBuisitions onto their more affluent
nei%h.ors#G H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# >CI>
DThe most acute "ro.lem facin% the re2olutionary re%ime at the end of 1917 !as the !ar !ith 5ermany# At first the 1olshe2i0s
tried to end the fi%htin% !ithout any formal "eace, .ut the 5ermans continued to ad2ance, and the 1olshe2i0s !ere com"elled to
si%n the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0 *'arch 191+# 1y this treaty Russia lost all the !estern .orderlands, includin% 7oland, the
E0raine, and the 1altic areas# The 5erman forces tried, !ith little success, to o.tain economic resources from the E0raine, and
soon ad2anced far .eyond the .oundaries esta.lished at 1restI<ito2s0 to occu"y the 6on 8alley, the Crimea, and the Caucasus#
In 2arious "arts of Russia, nota.ly in the south and the east, counterIre2olutionary armies called Q4hitesQ too0 the field to
o2erthro! the 1olshe2i0s# The Cossac0s of the 6on under <# 5# Aornilo2, Anton 6eni0in, and 7\tr 4ran%el occu"ied the
Caucasus, the Crimea, and the E0raine after the 5ermans !ithdre! from these areas# In $i.eria a conser2ati2e %o2ernment
under Admiral Ale0sandr Aolcha0 !as set u" at -ms0 and announced its intention to ta0e o2er all of Russia *late 191+# A
%rou" of J@,@@@ armed Czechoslo2a0s !ho had deserted from the Ha.s.ur% armies to fi%ht for Russia turned a%ainst the
1olshe2i0s and, !hile .ein% e2acuated to the east alon% the TransI$i.erian Rail!ay, seized control of that route from the 8ol%a
to 8ladi2osto0 *summer 191+# 8arious outside 7o!ers also inter2ened in the Russian chaos# An allied e)"editionary force
in2aded northern Russia from 'urmans0 and Archan%el, !hile a force of Ja"anese and another of Americans landed at
8ladi2osto0 and "ushed !est!ard for hundreds of miles# The 1ritish seized the oil fields of the Cas"ian re%ion *late 191+,
!hile the French occu"ied "arts of the E0raine a.out -dessa *'arch 1919+# A%ainst these 2arious forces the 1olshe2i0s fou%ht
!ith %ro!in% success, usin% the ne! Red Army and the Che0a, su""orted .y the nationalized industrial and a%rarian systems#
4hile these fou%ht to "reser2e the re2olutionary re%ime !ithin Russia, 2arious sym"athizers !ere or%anized outside the country#
The Third International !as or%anized under 5ri%ori Kino2ie2 to encoura%e re2olutionary mo2ements in other countries# Its only
nota.le success !as in Hun%ary !here a 1olshe2i0 re%ime under 1^la Aun !as a.le to maintain itself for a fe! months *'archI
Au%ust 1919+# 1y 19?@ Russia !as in com"lete confusion# At this "oint the ne! 7olish %o2ernment in2aded Russia, occu"yin%
much of the E0raine# A 1olshe2i0 counterattac0 dro2e the 7oles .ac0 to 4arsa! !here they called u"on the :ntente 7o!ers for
assistance# 5eneral 4ey%and !as sent !ith a military mission and su""lies# Thus su""orted, 7oland !as a.le to reIin2ade
Russia and im"ose the Treaty of Ri%a *'arch 19?1+# This treaty esta.lished a 7olishIRussian .oundary 1L@ miles east of the
tentati2e DCurzon <ineG !hich had .een dra!n alon% the ethno%ra"hic frontier .y the 4estern 7o!ers in 1919# 1y this act
7oland too0 !ithin its .oundaries se2eral millions of E0rainians and 4hite Russians and ensured a hi%h le2el of $o2ietI7olish
enmity for the ne)t t!enty years#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# >I>9
D'uch of the .urden of this turmoil and conflict !as im"osed on the Russian "easantry .y the a%ricultural reBuisitions and the
!hole system of soIcalled D4ar Communism#G #s %art of this system not only +ere all agri4ultural 4ro%s 4onsi&ere& to be
go"ernment %ro%erty but all %ri"ate tra&e an& 4ommer4e +ere also forbi&&en, the .an0s !ere nationalized, !hile all
industrial "lants of o2er fi2e !or0ers and all craft enter"rises of o2er ten !or0ers !ere nationalized *19?@+# This system of
e)treme Communism !as far from .ein% a success, and "easant o""osition steadily increased in s"ite of the se2ere "unishments
inflicted for 2iolations of the re%ulations# As counterre2olutionary mo2ements !ere su""ressed and forei%n inter2entionists
%radually !ithdre!, o""osition to the system of "olitical o""ression and D4ar CommunismG increased# This culminated in
"easant u"risin%s, ur.an riots, and a mutiny of the sailors at Aronstadt *'arch 19?1+# 4ithin a !ee0 a turnin% "oint !as "assed,
the !hole system of D4ar CommunismG and of "easant reBuisitionin% !as a.andoned in fa2or of a DNe! :conomic 7olicyG of
free commercial acti2ity in a%ricultural and other commodities, !ith the reesta.lishment of the "rofit moti2e and of "ri2ate
o!nershi" in small industries and in small landholdin%# ReBuisitionin% !as re"laced .y a system of moderate ta)ation, and the
"ressures of the secret "olice, of censorshi", and of the %o2ernment %enerally !ere rela)ed# As a result of these tactics, there !as
a dramatic increase in economic "ros"erity and in "olitical sta.ility# This im"ro2ement continued for t!o years, until, .y late
19?>, "olitical unrest and economic "ro.lems a%ain .ecame acute# At the same time, the a""roachin% death of <enin
com"licated these "ro.lems !ith a stru%%le for "o!er amon% <enin=s successors#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# >9
D1ecause the "olitical or%anization of the 1olshe2i0 re%ime in its first fe! years !as on a trialIandIerror .asis, its chief outlines !ere
not esta.lished until a.out 19?># These outlines had t!o Buite different as"ects, the constitutional and the "olitical# Constitutionally
the country !as or%anized *in 19??+ into a Enion of $ocialist $o2iet Re"u.lics *E$$R+# The num.er of these re"u.lics has chan%ed
%reatly, risin% from four in 19?J and ele2en in the 19>CI19J@ "eriod to fifteen in the 19C@=s# -f these, the lar%est and most im"ortant
!as the Russian $o2iet Federal $ocialist Re"u.lic *R$F$R+, !hich co2ered a.out threeIBuarters of the area of the !hole Enion !ith
a.out fi2eIei%hths of the total "o"ulation# The constitution of this R$F$R, dra!n u" in 191, .ecame the "attern for the %o2ernmental
systems in other re"u.lics as they !ere created and Moined !ith the R$F$R to form the E$$R# In this or%anization local so2iets, in
cities and 2illa%es, or%anized on an occu"ational .asis, elected re"resentati2es to district, county, re%ional, and "ro2incial con%resses
of so2iets# As !e shall see in a moment, these numerous le2els of indirect re"resentation ser2ed to !ea0en any "o"ular influence at the
to" and to allo! the 2arious lin0s in the chain to he controlled .y the Communist "olitical "arty# The city so2iets and the "ro2incial
con%resses of so2iets sent re"resentati2es to an All Russian Con%ress of $o2iets !hich "ossessed, in theory, full constitutional "o!ers#
$ince this Con%ress of $o2iets, !ith one thousand mem.ers, met no more than once a year, it dele%ated its authority to an AllIRussian
Central :)ecuti2e Committee of three hundred mem.ers# This :)ecuti2e Committee, meetin% only three times a year, entrusted dayI
today administration to a Council of 7eo"le=s Commissars, or Ca.inet, of se2enteen "ersons# 4hen the Enion of $ocialist $o2iet
Re"u.lics !as formed in 19?> .y addin% other re"u.lics to the R$F$R, the ne! re"u.lics o.tained a some!hat similar constitutional
or%anization, and a similar system !as created for the !hole Enion# The latter "ossessed a Enion Con%ress of $o2iets, lar%e and
un!ieldy, meetin% infreBuently, and chosen .y the city and "ro2incial so2iets# This Enion Con%ress elected an eBually un!ieldy AllI
Enion Central :)ecuti2e Committee consistin% of t!o cham.ers# -ne of these cham.ers, the Council of the Enion, re"resented
"o"ulation, the other cham.er, the Council of Nationalities, re"resented the constituent re"u.lics and autonomous re%ions of the $o2iet
Enion# The Council of 7eo"leFs Commissars of the R$F$R !as transformed, !ith sli%ht chan%es, into a Enion Council of Commissars
for the !hole Enion# This ministry had commissars for fi2e fields *forei%n affairs, defense, forei%n trade, communications, and "osts
and tele%ra"hs+ from !hich the constituent re"u.lics !ere e)cluded, as !ell as numerous commissars for acti2ities !hich !ere shared
!ith the re"u.lics# This system had certain nota.le characteristics# There !as no se"aration of "o!ers, so that the 2arious or%ans of
%o2ernment could en%a%e in le%islati2e, e)ecuti2e, administrati2e, and, if necessary, Mudicial acti2ities# $econd, there !as no
constitution or constitutional la! in the sense of a .ody of rules a.o2e or outside the %o2ernment, since constitutional la!s !ere made
.y the same "rocess and had the same !ei%ht as other la!s# Third, there !ere no %uaranteed ri%hts or li.erties of indi2iduals, since the
acce"ted theory !as that ri%hts and o.li%ations arise from and in the state rather than outside or se"arate from the state# <ast, there
!ere no democratic or "arliamentary elements .ecause of the mono"oly of "olitical "o!er .y the Communist 7arty# The Communist
7arty !as or%anized in a system similar to and "arallel to the state, e)ce"t that it included only a small "ortion of the "o"ulation# At the
.ottom, in e2ery sho" or nei%h.orhood, !ere unions of "arty mem.ers called Dcells#G A.o2e these, risin% le2el on le2el, !ere hi%her
or%anizations consistin%, on each le2el, of a "arty con%ress and an e)ecuti2e committee chosen .y the con%ress of the same le2el#
These !ere found in districts, in counties, in "ro2inces, in re%ions, and in the constituent re"u.lics# At the to" !as the Central 7arty
Con%ress and the Central :)ecuti2e Committee chosen .y it#G H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# >9I>91
D$talin=s 2ictory o2er Trots0y and his "ersonal inclination for terroristic methods of %o2ernment led to decisions !hich mar0ed the end
of these cycles of "easant discontent# The decision to .uild $ocialism in a sin%le country made it necessary, it !as felt, to em"hasize
the "redominance of hea2y industry in order to o.tain, as Buic0ly as "ossi.le, the .asis for the manufacture of armaments *chiefly iron,
steel, coal, and electrical "o!er "roMects+# $uch "roMects reBuired %reat masses of la.or to .e concentrated to%ether and fed# 1oth the
la.or and the food !ould ha2e to .e dra!n from the "easantry, .ut the em"hasis on hea2y industrial "roduction rather than on li%ht
industry meant that there !ould .e fe! consumers= %oods to %i2e to the "easantry in return for the food ta0en from them# 'oreo2er,
the drain of man"o!er from the "easantry to form ur.an la.or forces !ould mean that those !ho continued to .e "easants must %reatly
im"ro2e their methods of a%ricultural "roduction in order to su""ly, !ith a smaller "ro"ortion of "easants, food for themsel2es, for the
ne! ur.an la.orers, for the %ro!in% "arty .ureaucracy, and for the %ro!in% Red Army !hich !as re%arded as essential to defend
D$ocialism in a sin%le country#G The "ro.lem of o.tainin% increasin% su""lies of food from fe!er "easants !ithout offerin% them
consumersF industrial %oods in e)chan%e could not, accordin% to $talin, .e !or0ed in a "easant re%ime .ased on freedom of commerce,
as under the N:7 of 19?1I19?7, or in one .ased on indi2idual farmers, as in the D4ar CommunismG of 191I19?1, the former of these
reBuired that the "easants .e %i2en %oods in e)chan%e !hile the latter could .e made a failure .y "easant refusals to "roduce more food
than !as reBuired .y their o!n needs# The N:7 could not find a solution to this "ro.lem# In s"ite of the closin% of the scissors in 19?>I
19?7, industrial "rices remained hi%her than farm "rices, "easants !ere reluctant to su""ly food to the cities since they could not %et
the cities= "roducts they !anted in return, and the amount of "easantsF %rain !hich !as sold remained a.out 1> "ercent of the %rain
raised in 19?7 com"ared to ?C "ercent in 191># $uch a system mi%ht "ro2ide a hi%h standard of li2in% for the "easants, .ut it could
ne2er "ro2ide the hi%hly industrialized .asis necessary to su""ort D$ocialism in a sin%le country#G
The ne! direction !hich RussiaFs de2elo"ment too0 after 19?7 and !hich !e call D$talinismG is a conseBuence of numerous factors#
Three of these factors !ere *1+ the .loodthirsty and "aranoiac am.itions of $talin and his associates, *?+ a return of Russia to its older
traditions, .ut on a ne! le2el and a ne! intensity, and *>+ a theory of social, "olitical, and economic de2elo"ments !hich is included
under the "hrase D$ocialism in a sin%le country#G This theory !as em.raced !ith such an insane fanaticism .y the rulers of the ne!
Russia, and "ro2ided such "o!erful moti2ations for $o2iet forei%n and domestic "olitics, that it must .e analyzed at some len%th# The
ri2alry .et!een $talin and Trots0y in the midI19?@=s !as fou%ht !ith slo%ans as !ell as !ith more 2iolent !ea"ons# Trots0y called for
D!orld re2olution,G !hile $talin !anted DCommunism in a sin%le country#G Accordin% to Trots0y, Russia !as economically too !ea0
and too .ac0!ard to .e a.le to esta.lish a Communist system alone# $uch a system, all a%reed, could not e)ist e)ce"t in a fully
industrialized country# Russia, !hich !as so far from .ein% industrialized, could o.tain the necessary ca"ital only .y .orro!in% it
a.road or .y accumulatin% it from its o!n "eo"le#G H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, "# >9JI>9L
DIn an e)tremely difficult situation, <enin had insisted u"on comin% to "o!er# It seems that he should ha2e had a formulated "ro%ram
throu%h !hich the %reat "romise of socialism *or communism+ could .e fulfilled# The old 2e)atious system of ran0s and classes *chin+
had .een a.olished .y the democratic re%ime# The 1olshe2i0s instituted a fe! reforms, such as the ado"tion of the 4estern calendar
and the ei%htIhour day *!hich for many years !as i%nored+, !hose introduction reBuired no re2olution# They a.olished the
institutions throu%h !hich the economy had .een directed, .ut !ere una.le to in2ent .etter instruments# They ad2ocated selfI
determination .ut did not "ermit it# They ado"ted the a%ricultural "ro%ram of the $ocial Re2olutionaries, .ut did not fulfill this
"ro%ram either, yet they destroyed %enuine a%rarian reforms !hich had .een accom"lished .y the tsarist re%ime# Thus, the 1olshe2i0s
cheated .oth the minority nationalities and the "easants, and alienated and destroyed the middle and u""er classes# They claimed to
s"ea0 for the "roletariat .ut .etrayed the !or0ers# The 1olshe2i0s in "o!er !ere not a la.or %o2ernment .ut a %rou" of intellectuals
!ith a slanted education# They claimed they 0ne! ho! to .uild socialism and they "romised the "roletariat .etter treatment# 4hile
they !ere a.le to disru"t the e)istin% system, they did not 0no! ho! to fashion a !or0a.le socialist system# They e2en .etrayed the
soldiers& thou%h they released many from duty, they failed to tell them that this act !as at 5ermany=s .iddin%# They cared nothin%
a.out democratic "eace, .ut soon !ere to esta.lish a ne! army to fi%ht a "rotracted ci2il !ar# They had lied and cheated their !ay to
"o!er# No! that they had seized the %o2ernment, they 0ne! ho! to "reser2e and enlar%e their "o!er .ut "ro2ed una.le to use their
stren%th constructi2ely for their "rofessed "ur"oses# $e2eral socialist "arties and socialists from "ractically all %rou"s !ere !illin% to
"artici"ate in constructi2e !or0# If there had .een a "ositi2e "ro%ram, a .roadly .ased %o2ernment could ha2e commanded the loyalty
of the "eo"le in the true sense of the !ord# In the a.sence of constructi2e ideas, it !ould ha2e .een ad2isa.le to "ermitSin fact,
stimulateSdiscussion on socialist "olicy# 1ut the 1olshe2i0s !ere terrified of free de.ate and a.olished free s"eech !ithout delay#
Nor did the 1olshe2i0s !ish to share their "o!er# They intended to rule .y unrestricted dictatorshi", not in the sense <enin ori%inally
had "romised *i#e#, acti2e "artici"ation .y the masses in "u.lic affairs and total su""ression of .ureaucracy+, .ut in the sense of
unrestricted "o!er e)ercised .y a small minority# The 1olshe2i0s had so little confidence in their o!n a.ility to create that they
"referred fear to mass su""ort# They lac0ed the !isdom and humility to use their undou.ted 2ictory to ma0e "eace !ith their fello!
socialists and thus s"are their country an era of endless an%uish# $ome of the 1olshe2i0s !ith more intelli%ence and inte%rity
reco%nized that this "olicy !ould ha2e catastro"hic results# 1ut this "ro%ram !as <enin=s .rainchild and reflected his "sycholo%y# He
had .ecome the in2iolate and infalli.le ruler# To "ara"hrase $antayana& after he had for%otten his aims, he !as stron%ly moti2ated to
redou.le his efforts#G H "he Sealed "rain .y 'ichael 7earson
DThe 'ar.ur% 7lan, financed .y Andre! Carne%ieFs am"le herita%e, !as "roduced in the early years of the t!entieth century# It
su%%ests "remeditation for this 0ind of su"erficial schizo"hrenia, !hich in fact mas0s an inte%rated "ro%ram of "o!er acBuisition&
Q4hat then if Carne%ie and his unlimited !ealth, the international financiers and the $ocialists could .e or%anized in a mo2ement to
com"el the formation of a lea%ue to enforce "eace#Q The %o2ernments of the !orld, accordin% to the 'ar.ur% 7lan, !ere to .e
socialized !hile the ultimate "o!er !ould remain in the hands of the international financiers Qto control its councils and enforce "eace
Nand soO "ro2ide a s"ecific for all the "olitical ills of man0ind#Q This idea !as 0nit !ith other elements !ith similar o.Mecti2es# <ord
'ilner in :n%land "ro2ides the transatlantic e)am"le of .an0in% interests reco%nizin% the 2irtues and "ossi.ilities of 'ar)ism# 'ilner
!as a .an0er, influential in 1ritish !artime "olicy, and "roI'ar)ist#
1@
In Ne! /or0 the socialist CMC clu. !as founded in 19@># It
counted amon% its mem.ers not only the Communist <incoln $teffens, the socialist 4illiam :n%lish 4allin%, and the Communist
.an0er 'orris HillBuit, .ut also John 6e!ey, James T# $hot!ell, Charles :d!ard Russell, and Rufus 4ee0s *2ice "resident of Ne!
/or0 <ife Insurance Com"any+# The annual meetin% of the :conomic Clu. in the Astor Hotel, Ne! /or0, !itnessed socialist s"ea0ers#
In 19@, !hen A# 1arton He".urn, "resident of Chase National 1an0, !as "resident of the :conomic Clu., the main s"ea0er !as the
aforementioned 'orris HillBuit, !ho Qhad a.undant o""ortunity to "reach socialism to a %atherin% !hich re"resented !ealth and
financial interests#G From these unli0ely seeds %re! the modern internationalist mo2ement, !hich included not only the financiers
Carne%ie, 7aul 4ar.ur%, -tto Aahn, 1ernard 1aruch, and Her.ert Hoo2er, .ut also the Carne%ie Foundation and its "ro%eny
5nternational 9onciliation. The trustees of Carne%ie !ere, as !e ha2e seen, "rominent on the .oard of American International
Cor"oration# In 191@ Carne%ie donated [1@ million to found the Carne%ie :ndo!ment for International 7eace, and amon% those on the
.oard of trustees !ere :lihu Root *Root 'ission to Russia, 1917+, Cle2eland H# 6od%e *a financial .ac0er of 7resident 4ilson+,
5eor%e 4# 7er0ins *'or%an "artner+, 5# J# 1alch *AIC and Amsinc0+, R# F# Herric0 *AIC+, H# 4# 7ritchett *AIC+, and other 4all
$treet luminaries# 4oodro! 4ilson came under the "o!erful influence of S and indeed !as financially inde.ted to S this %rou" of
internationalists# As Jennin%s C# 4ise has !ritten, E3istorians must ne"er forget that 'oo&ro+ 'ilson... ma&e it %ossible for
Leon 5rotsky to enter Russia +ith an #meri4an %ass%ort.F 1ut <eon Trots0y also declared himself an internationalist# 4e ha2e
remar0ed !ith some interest his hi%hIle2el internationalist connections, or at least friends, in Canada# Trots0y then !as not "roI
Russian, or "roIAllied, or "roI5erman, as many ha2e tried to ma0e him out to .e# Trots0y !as for !orld re2olution, for !orld
dictatorshi", he !as, in one !ord, an internationalist# 1olshe2ists and .an0ers ha2e then this si%nificant common %round S
internationalism# Re2olution and international finance are not at all inconsistent if the result of re2olution is to esta.lish more
centralized authority# International finance "refers to deal !ith central %o2ernments# The last thin% the .an0in% community !ants is
laissezIfaire economy and decentralized "o!er .ecause these !ould dis"erse "o!er# This, therefore, is an e)"lanation that fits the
e2idence# This handful of .an0ers and "romoters !as not 1olshe2i0, or Communist, or socialist, or 6emocrat, or e2en American#
A.o2e all else these men !anted mar0ets, "refera.ly ca"ti2e international mar0ets S and a mono"oly of the ca"ti2e !orld mar0et as
the ultimate %oal# They !anted mar0ets that could .e e)"loited mono"olistically !ithout fear of com"etition from Russians, 5ermans,
or anyone else S includin% American .usinessmen outside the charmed circle# This closed %rou" !as a"olitical and amoral# In 1917,
it had a sin%leIminded o.Mecti2e S a ca"ti2e mar0et in Russia, all "resented under, and intellectually "rotected .y, the shelter of a
lea%ue to enforce the "eace#G H #all Street and the Bolshevi) .evolution .y Antony C# $utton, Cha"ter 11
D1u0harin also raised the "ertinent Buestion& !hat sort of $tate !ill emer%e from the 2ictory of socialism3 He ans!ered himself,
rather nai2ely, in the !ords of :n%els, that the $tate !ill sim"ly !ither a!ay# <enin, e2en thou%h at this time he !as una.le
e2en to "ay his hotel .ill, thre! himself into this contro2ersy !ith characteristic 2i%our# He detected in 1u0harin=s attitude a
stron% dose of the anarchism !hich the 'ar)ists had detested in the "o"ulists# $uch a doctrine %a2e him far too little room for
manoeu2re# $o he insisted that after the successful re2olution there !ould .e a lon%, and indefina.le, "eriod in !hich the
'ar)ist "arty !ould ha2e to use the $tate for its o!n "ur"oses# This "eriod is 0no!n as the dictatorshi" of the "roletariat# There
!ould .e no !itherin% a!ay of the $tate until the final o2erthro! of the .our%eoisie# <enin intended to "romote a social
re2olution .ut he did not intend that this should .e frustrated .y the "remature disa""earance of state "o!er# 1y one of the
stran%e contradictions to !hich total !ar %i2es rise, the 1olshe2i0 cause, almost com"letely estran%ed from the :uro"ean
$ocialist mo2ement, found an ally in the 5erman 5eneral $taff# <udendorff, !ho re"resented an ideolo%ical "osition e)actly
contrary to that of <enin, !as ne2ertheless interested in the "ossi.ilities of coIo"eration !ith the 1olshe2i0s# He had one thin%
in common !ith <enin& he !anted to create a condition of chaos in Russia# The 5erman %o2ernment had .een in contact !ith
the 1olshe2i0s since the .e%innin% of the !ar# The a%ents of this stran%e encounter H Hel"hand, Aes0uela and 5anets0y H !ere
stran%ely moti2ated# All had .een mem.ers of 2arious 'ar)ist "arties H Hel"hand, for e)am"le, had .een closely allied to
Trots0y in 19@L H .ut the !ar had ena.led them to "ut their 0no!led%e of the :uro"ean under%round to financial ad2anta%e#
Hel"hand es"ecially made an enormous fortune out of "ro2idin% articles in short su""ly to anyone in any .elli%erent nation !ho
!ould "ay enou%h# These socialist entre"reneurs !ere Buite ca"a.le of Xfi)in%= the trans"ort of a fe! re2olutionaries from
$!itzerland to 7etro%rad# 5anets0y "ro2ided the little "arty !ith a considera.le sum of money as it "assed throu%h $toc0holm#
'uch in0 has .een s"ilt in the attem"t to determine !hether this money came directly from the 5erman %o2ernment or !hether
it !as "art of the "rofit !hich 5anets0y deri2ed from his o!n flourishin% trade in contrace"ti2es# <enin, of course, !as Buite
!illin% to use the loot of the ca"italist !orld *from !hate2er source+ to further his "lans# Those "lans !ere not at all influenced
.y the !ishes of his tem"orary "aymaster# <udendorffFs final decision to launch <enin !as not ta0en until 'arch 1917# The first
Russian re2olution had not done any %ood to the 5erman cause# Russia !as still fi%htin% and indeed mi%ht fi%ht still harder
under the control of a more efficient nationalist %o2ernment# The Enited $tates !as a.out to declare !ar u"on 5ermany#
6es"erate measures !ere reBuired to .rin% the !ar to an end .efore the effecti2e de"loyment of American force in :uro"e# The
decision to use <enin !as far more successful than the 5ermans had ho"ed, so successful in fact that it not only eliminated
Russia from the !ar .ut, in the end, hel"ed to eliminate 4estern :uro"e from the centre of !orld affairs# Ne2er did an heir
arri2e .y more de2ious and croo0ed !ays at the ste"s of the throne#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >@@I>@1
D4hen <enin reached 7etro%rad in A"ril I9I7 the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment had sta.ilised its "osition# Its middleIclass mem.ers
held most of the ministries and mani"ulated the Tsarist .ureaucracy !ithout difficulty, it had .een reco%nised .y the Allies !ith
enthusiasm, and it had created a !or0in% relationshi" !ith the $o2iet# The %ulf .et!een the t!o .odies had .een tem"orarily
.rid%ed, some mem.ers of the $o2iet had consented to ta0e office in the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment# 7ro2isional 5o2ernment and
$o2iet !ere lin0ed .y their common resol2e that the future constitution of Russia could not .e determined !hile the !ar
continucd and !hile the country li2ed in a "o"ular turmoil# 1oth %rou"s !anted to "ost"one the decision a.out the future until
calmer times returned, and .oth %rou"s a%reed that such a decision could only .e reached democratically I that is to say, .y the
2oice of a constituent assem.ly elected .y uni2ersal suffra%e# 1oth %rou"s a%reed to do nothin% decisi2e for the time .ein% H if
the "eo"le !ould let them# 5here +as one issue, ho+e"er, +hi4h 4oul& not be %ost%one&1 the Nuestion of +ar an& %ea4e.
5he Ka&et Foreign 2inister, 2ilyuko", +as &etermine& that the 5sarist +ar aims shoul& be %ursue& by the Pro"isional
Go"ernment. Russia +oul& honour her agreement +ith the #llies not to make a se%arate %ea4e1 she +oul& 4ontinue to
insist u%on the territorial gains %romise& in the se4ret treaties of 191?. $n 2ay he informe& the #llies of his resol"e to
4ontinue the 5sarOs +ar. 5hese "ie+s, as 2ilyuko" kne+, +ere "iolently o%%ose& by the o4ialist maHority in the o"iet.
5hey agree& that the +ar shoul& be 4ontinue& but only until su4h time as all the belligerents 4oul& a44e%t a general
&emo4rati4 %ea4e, a %ea4e +ithout anne*ations, a %ea4e in +hi4h there +oul& be neither "i4tors nor "anNuishe&. This
"olicy !as hardly less unrealistic than that of 'ilyu0o2, .ut it !as at least rather closer to the mood of the masses# The
'ilyu0o2 note .rou%ht the cro!ds out into the streets of 7etro%rad and .lood !as s"ilt for the first time since 'arch# The
7etro%rad %arrison "ro2ed to .e Buite unrelia.le& it !ould not o.ey the orders of the commandin% %eneral, Aornilo2, and !as not
e2en !holly amena.le to the orders of the $o2iet# 1ut the most distur.in% si%n for moderates of all "ersuasions !as the
a""earance in the streets of cro!ds of armed !or0in% men from the tur.ulent 8y.or% district !hose .anners carried the
1olshe2i0 slo%ans demandin% "eace at any "rice# These !or0ers !ere o.2iously un!illin% to acce"t the assurances of the $o2iet
leaders that 'ilyu0o2Fs note had .een amended# The army !as !illin% to hel" the $o2iet to crush 'ilyu0o2Fs Aadet su""orters
.ut !as much less enthusiastic a.out shootin% do!n the 8y.or% !or0ers# The result of the 'ay crisis !as that 'ilyu0o2
resi%ned and that the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment !as reformed u"on the .asis of closer coIo"eration !ith the $o2iet# $i) moderate
$ocialists !ere included in the ne! ca.inet !hich !as no! dominated .y the $ocialist la!yer Aerens0y# The mo2e to!ards
closer union !ith the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment !as fiercely de.ated in the $o2iet# It !as o""osed .y the 1olshe2i0s and .y many
of the leftI!in% 'enshe2i0s too# In fact this decision turned out to .e a fatal one# The result of it !as that the moderate $ocialists
identified themsel2es !ith a %o2ernment !hich !as increasin%ly out of touch !ith the demands of the masses for "eace at any
"rice, for land and for the socialisation of industry# These 'ay days determined that the moderate $ocialists !ould %o o2er to the
antiI"o"ular side of the .arricades, that they !ould .e destroyed to%ether !ith their middleIclass allies# Lenin)s ta4ti4s
imme&iately after his return ha& ensure& that the !olshe"iks +oul& not share the fate of the other o4ialist %arties. 5he
original in4lination of some of his follo+ers to su%%ort the Pro"isional Go"ernment +as ru&ely 4he4ke& by the
&e4laration of Lenin)s %oli4y 4ontaine& in the T#%ril 5heses). 3e &eman&e& an imme&iate en& to the +ar, the elimination
of the %oli4e, the army an& the bureau4ra4y, the 4onfis4ation of %ri"ate %ro%erty in lan&, an& that all state %o+er shoul&
be seiDe& by the o"iet alone. 3e reHe4te& the nee& for a 4onstituent assembly an& 4laime& that the o"iet alrea&y
satisfie& the &emo4rati4 as%irations of the masses. !y a&o%ting this %osition he &enie& his follo+ers the %ossibility of
taking %art in any 4oalition go"ernment, but he &i& ensure that they +oul& i&entify themsel"es +ith the main 4urrents of
%o%ular &is4ontent. 3e relie& u%on his o%%onents to &ig their o+n gra"e, a gra"e +hi4h +oul& 4ontain all the %oliti4al
%arties e*4e%t the !olshe"iks. 3is ta4ti4s +ere to %ro& the Pro"isional Go"ernment into un%o%ular errors an& at the
same time to restrain his o+n follo+ers from %re4i%itate a4tion +hi4h +oul& enable his enemies to &estroy the !olshe"iks
before they +ere rea&y to seiDe %o+er. It !ould .e essentially a !ar of !ords, of slo%ans, of ideas# For this <enin !as
s"lendidly eBui""ed, and the fact that the 1olshe2i0 "arty !as so small !as actually an ad2anta%e to him# Throu%h the
ne!s"a"ers, throu%h the innumera.le "u.lic meetin%s !hich !ere such a nota.le feature of the re2olutionary months, <enin
could hammer home the one essential "oint& that the 1olshe2i0s !ere the friends of the masses and that all other "olitical "arties
!ere their enemies# A lifetime s"ent in creatin% "olitical schism had not .linded <enin to the necessity for mass su""ort, this he
!ould %et .y a2oidin% "olitical alliance#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >@1I>@>
DAerens0y !as not a !ellI0no!n "olitician, his %o2ernment had no "o"ular .ac0in%, his manner !as freBuently .om.astic and
hysterical and in the end he failed i%nominiously# It is therefore easy to condemn him to the ru..ishI.in of history *as Trots0y in
fact did+# Ne2ertheless Aerens0y had an intelli%ent o.Mecti2e and one !hich he mi%ht ha2e attained had the educated and
"ro"ertied classes in Russia .een less di2ided and more accustomed to the e)ercise of "olitical "o!er# Aerens0y aimed to
"reser2e the democratic %ains of the 'arch re2olution from the attac0s of both the left an& the right. 3e re4ognise& that both
the !olshe"iks an& the 5sarists +ere his enemies1 he ho%e& to %lay them off against ea4h other. 3is first mo"e +as to
se4ure a military "i4tory. 5his +oul& hel% to stem the ti&e of anar4hy an& %ut him into to a stronger %osition to %ersua&e
the #llies to a44e%t a negotiate& %ea4e. $n /uly the army on the south(+estern front, +here &is4i%line +as less ero&e&
than else+here, +on a 4on"in4ing battle against the #ustrians. !ut after a fe+ &ays the 1rusilo2 offensi2e ran u" a%ainst
5erman reinforcements, and the a""arent 2ictory turned ra"idly into an o2er!helmin% defeat# The demoralised attac0ers fled
and .ehind them a fresh si%n of anarchy a""eared in the E0raine& a se"aratist %o2ernment in Aie2 demanded national
inde"endence, a demand !hich Aerens0y !as too !ea0 to resist# The failure of the 6rusilo2 offensi2e dee"ened the
re2olutionary mood of the 7etro%rad soldiers and !or0ers# 1oth %rou"s had .een stron%ly influenced .y 1olshe2i0 "ro"a%anda
a%ainst the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment, they !ere una.le to distin%uish .et!een a military offensi2e launched .y a $ocialist
minister and one launched .y the Tsarist %o2ernment# 5he 4ro+&s therefore took u% the !olshe"ik 4ry of O#ll %o+er to the
o"ietsO an& threatene& the 5auri&e Pala4e +here the e*e4uti"e 4ommittee 8kno+n as the B5siK9 of the -ongress of
o"iets hel& its meetings. 5his bo&y, &ominate& by the mo&erate o4ialists, +as unable to 4ontrol the mob. $ts members
+ere sa"e& from %ersonal molestation only by the inter"ention of the !olshe"ik lea&ers. T5ake %o+er, you son of a bit4h,
+hen they gi"e it to you), shoute& one angry +orker to -herno". 1ut the mem.ers of the 8TsiA !ould not, their le%alistic,
!esternised minds could not acce"t the fact that a .ody so loosely or%anised as the $o2iet !as a "ro"er su.stitute for formalised,
.allotI.o) democracy# They continued to thin0 that the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment !ould remain "ro2isional until the Constituent
Assem.ly met# <enin could ha2e seized "o!er in 7etro%rad durin% the July days# 1ut he !as still cautious, he !as not yet sure
that the nation !ould follo! 7etro%rad# He had actually tried to "re2ent his follo!ers from comin% out on the streets .ut the
"o"ular e)"losion had .een too stron% e2en for the 1olshe2i0 leaders# He conseBuently follo!ed the mo. mo2ement until its
2iolence !as s"ent and then "ersuaded the cro!ds to %o home# As soon as the Aronstadt sailors and the 7utilo2 !or0ers had left
the streets, the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment counterIattac0ed# 7n 1A /uly Kerensky announ4e& that Lenin +as a German agent.
There !as still sufficient dormant "atriotism to "ermit him to seize the 1olshe2i0 not rely u"on this institution e2en if they had a
maMority in it# There remained only the "ossi.ility of seizin% "o!er .y force, usin% the $o2iet as a screen .ehind !hich the
1olshe2i0 "arty !ould %ras" real "o!er#"a"er Pravda and to arrest many of the leadin% 1olshe2i0s# <enin himself fled to
Finland# His instinct had .een correct# The social re2olution had not yet %one far enou%h, at least one of the old landmar0s still
remained# Aerens0y did not follo! u" his 2ictory# The 1olshe2i0 or%anisation remained intact and res"onsi2e to the stream of
orders !hich reached it from Finland# The a""arentdefeatofi July %a2e <enin one %reat tactical ad2anta%e# It ena.led him to
"oint out to his follo!ers the re2olutionary shortcomin%s of the $o2iet# >t had .een offered "o!er and it had not dared to %ras" it#
<enin continued to "ay li" ser2ice to the $o2iet, .ut !ithin the "arty he insisted that the 1olshe2i0s could not rely u"on this
institution e2en if they had a maMority in it# There remained only the "ossi.ility of seizin% "o!er .y force, usin% the $o2iet as a
screen .ehind !hich the 1olshe2i0 "arty !ould %ras" real "o!er#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >@7I>@9
DThe a""arent defeat of the 1olshe2i0s encoura%ed the forces of the ri%ht to attem"t a counterIre2olution# Its centre !as the
$ta20a *5#H#(#+ and its leader !as the ne! CommanderIin Chief, Aornilo2# He !as hardly a military conBuerorI no Russian
%eneral !as H .ut he had !on some reno!n in colonial !ars# He reminded the "u.lic of his im"erial successes .y ma0in% use of
a Turcoman .ody%uard !hich he addressed in their o!n lan%ua%e# These "icturesBue sa2a%es sat in the corridor !ith machine
%uns !hile their master !as inter2ie!ed .y the 7rime 'inister# Thus eBui""ed, the old order "re"ared to do .attle !ith the ne!#
The %enerals "lotted to restore disci"line in the army .y the reintroduction of the death "enalty and then to march u"on
7etro%rad and e)tin%uish .oth the 1olshe2i0s and the $o2iet# Aornilo2 asserted that he !ould do these deeds in the name of the
7ro2isional 5o2ernment, .ut it seems li0ely that had he %ot control of 7etro%rad he !ould not ha2e rested until he had .rou%ht
do!n the Aerens0y re%ime# Aerens0y !as "ro.a.ly a!are of Aornilo2Fs ultimate o.Mecti2e# He foolishly assumed that he !ould
.e a.le to use Aornilo2 to crush the 1olshe2i0s and then turn a%ainst him# To stren%then his hand in this dan%erous %ame of
"layin% the e)tremes a%ainst one another, Aerens0y tried to .roaden the democratic a""eal of his %o2ernment# At the end of
Au%ust he summoned the 'osco! Conference, ?J1J nota.ilities from all !al0s of life, chosen not elected# Aerens0y haran%ued
the Conference !ith such emotion and at such len%th that the audience had to a""laud in order to %et him to sto"# The 'osco!
Conference achie2ed nothin% e)ce"t that Aerens0y suddenly realised that rhetoric !ould not sa2e him from Aornilo2 once the
latter had entered 7etro%rad# He suddenly dismissed Aornilo2 from his "ost *9 $e"tem.er+# He need not ha2e .othered#
4hate2er he did or failed to do !as irrele2ant to the crisis# As Aornilo2=s troo"s a""roached 7etro%rad their disci"line !as
undermined and they melted a!ay# They !ere hel"less e2en a%ainst the rail!aymen !ho s!itched their trains into sidin%s and
.ranch lines# The 1olshe2i0Icontrolled !or0ers, threatened .y the ri%htI!in% cou", "oured into the streets to defend neither
Aerens0y nor the $o2iet .ut the re2olution# 1ut this mass u"sur%e !as not needed, Aornilo2=s troo"s ne2er e2en reached the
ca"ital# The 7ro2isional 5o2ernment had .een sa2ed .y its enemies# 5he +eakness of the Kerensky regime ha& been ma&e
4lear to all. 5he generalsO attem%te& 4ou% benefite& the !olshe"iks. 5hey ha& &efen&e& Petrogra& against the 4ounter(
re"olution1 Kerensky +as sus%e4te& of ha"ing su%%orte& Kornilo"1 the Pro"isional Go"ernment +as fatally
4om%romise&. $ts %oli4y of 4ontinuing the +ar +as alrea&y un%o%ular1 its 4laim to be a+aiting the &e4ision of a
-onstituent #ssembly +as thought to be merely a &e"i4e to gain time for a right(+ing rea4tion. #ll its su%%orters
suffere& from the &e4line of its authority. 5he mo&erate o4ialist maHority in the o"iet +as blame& for %ermitting the
Pro"isional Go"ernment to 4ontinue in e*isten4e. inister inter%retations +ere %ut u%on the o"iet refusal to seiDe %o+er
in /uly. $n e%tember it seeme& that the re"olution +as in &anger an& that its only true frien& +as the !olshe"ik %arty.
5he lo4al o"iets in Petrogra& an& 2os4o+ imme&iately refle4te& the s+ing in the moo& of the masses. 6uring
e%tember the 2enshe"iks an& the .R.s +ere &ominate& for the first time by !olshe"ik maHorities. #nar4hy s%rea&
ra%i&ly in the army an& in the "illages. 5he mi&&le groun& +hi4h the Pro"isional Go"ernment ha& trie& to hol& sin4e
2ar4h +as 4rumbling a+ay. $t be4ame 4learer that the future lay +ith either the e*treme left or the e*treme right. 5his
+as the moment for +hi4h Lenin ha& +aite&, the moment for +hi4h his %arty ha& been 4reate&. 1ut it needed all his %ifts
to "ersuade the 1olshe2i0 Central Committee to follo! him# He could only ma0e fleetin% 2isits to 7etro%rad, eBui""ed !ith a
2ariety of not 2ery effecti2e dis%uises# Kino2ie2 and Aamene2 directed an im"assioned de.ate a%ainst him# They ar%ued that to
"ro2o0e a re2olution !as suicidal, the "arty merely had to !ait for "o!er to .e handed to it .y a democratic maMority# $uch a
maMority mi%ht .e found in the second AllIRussia Con%ress of $o2iets, due to meet in 7etro%rad on 7 No2em.er, it mi%ht .e
found in the Constituent Assem.ly, for !hich elections !ere due at the end of No2em.er# In s"ite of .ein% so close to <enin for
so lon%, Aamene2 and Kino2ie2 failed com"letely to understand his mind# 3e &i& not +ant to re4ei"e %o+er from a
&emo4rati4 maHority. 5he maHority +oul& then be4ome his master. 5his the 3istori4al 6iale4ti4 +oul& not %ermit.
3istory &i& not a4t through maHorities but through 4lasses. 5he !olshe"ik %arty +as not the ser"ant of ele4tors but the
instrument of the 4lass 4onfli4t. $t s%oke for the O%roletariatO P a mysti4al entity rather similar to the General 'ill. #t this
su%reme moment, Lenin a4te& Nuite 4onsistently +ith the i&eas +hi4h he ha& &e"elo%e& sin4e the beginning of the
4entury# 4ithout those ideas it is dou.tful !hether he !ould ha2e "ressed for insurrection at this time# The final decision to
launch the re2olution !as ta0en on ?> -cto.er# The Central Committee 2oted 11&? in fa2our# 7arty disci"line !as such that the
minority also "re"ared to ta0e u" "osition on the .arricades# :2en no! the date for the risin% !as not fi)ed# <enin !anted to
"roceed immediately .ut Trots0y "ersuaded him to !ait until the e2e of the meetin% of the AllIRussia Con%ress of $o2iets#
Trots0y ar%ued that it !ould .e .ad tactics !ere the 1olshe2i0s to sta%e a re2olution in their o!n name# The !a2erers in the
7etro%rad %arrison !ould .e %athered in if it !ere sho!n that the 1olshe2i0s !ere actin% in the name of the $o2iet, that they
!ere "rotectin% it from a counterre2olutionary .lo!# 4ith considera.le s0ill Trots0y achie2ed Must this# The 1olshe2i0s in the
7etro%rad $o2iet s"read rumours that Aerens0y !as a.out to shift the %arrison to the Ri%a front# This !ould ena.le him to fill
the ca"ital !ith antiI$o2iet troo"s# In a "anic, the 7etro%rad $o2iet authorised the creation of a military re2olutionary committee
to or%anise its o!n defence# It !as dominated .y Trots0y !ho, in the name of the committee, not of the 1olshe2i0 "arty, armed
the relia.le !or0in% men# 'ean!hile Aerens0y did nothin%# He 0ne! that the insurrection !as a.out to ta0e "lace, he loo0ed
for!ard to crushin% it and the 1olshe2i0 "arty !ith it# Trots0y made his dis"ositions for 7 No2em.er so s0ilfully that there !as
little .loodshed# The ni%ht life of the city !as hardly interru"ted# 1y da!n all the 0ey "oints, !ith the e)ce"tion of the 4inter
7alace, had .een ca"tured# Kerensky fle& 8in a 4ar flying the #meri4an flag9 to seek out some loyal troo%s. The 4inter
7alace !as defended for a fe! hours .y a .attalion of !omen and a fe! officer cadets# Confused fi%htin% !ent on alon% the
enormous corridors# $ome!here the ministers of the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment !ere still conferrin%# The 1olshe2i0 %rou"s
searched e2ery!here .ut could not find the ca.inet room# At len%th they !ere led there .y a di%nified flun0ey !ith "o!dered
hair# The ministers !ere not 0illed& they !ere escorted across the Ne2a to!ards the 7eter and 7aul fortress# -n the .rid%e
"risoners and escort ali0e had to lie do!n .ehind the "ara"et !hile some o2erenthusiastic re2olutionaries loosed off a fe!
2olleys at them# No.ody !as hurt# The 7etro%rad %arrison remained neutral on 7 No2em.er, it !as still inacti2e a fe! days later
!hen Aerens0y returned !ith some loyal troo"s and !as dri2en off .y the 1olshe2i0 !or0in% men# 5he &iarist ukhano"
re4kone& that at this moment ?>> goo& troo%s 4oul& ha"e +i%e& out the !olshe"iks. 1y No2em.er the Con%ress of
$o2iets had .een .rou%ht to heel# A.out half its mem.ers !ere 1olshe2i0s# 'ost of the other half *'enshe2i0s and Ri%ht $#R#s+
!al0ed out in "rotest a%ainst the 1olshe2i0 cou"# They thus consi%ned themsel2es to the dust.in of history# The remainder
!armly a""ro2ed of !hat the "arty had done# They elected a Council of 7eo"le=s Commissars !hich !as dominated .y the
1olshe2i0 Central Committee# E" to the last the 1olshe2i0s maintained the fiction that they had made the re2olution to sa2e the
$o2iet# In fact, they had shac0led it to the "arty# The fiction that the $o2iet .ecame the ne! %o2ernin% "o!er has .een
maintained e2er since 7 No2em.er 1917# -utside 7etro%rad the 1olshe2i0s !ere successful in most of the lar%e cities *includin%
'osco!+# They had, ho!e2er, created a situation in !hich ci2il !ar !as ine2ita.le# The $ta20a at 'o%ile2 ser2ed as an antiI
1olshe2i0 rallyin% "oint for a fe! !ee0s, .ut soon all the %enerals fled south to the Cossac0 country around Rosto2IonI6on, and
:nsi%n Arilen0o, the ne! 1olshe2i0 CommanderIinIChief, seized the $ta20a !ith a trainload of re2olutionary sailors# At this
"oint <enin had little faith in the a.ility of armed men to chan%e e2ents# No sooner had this hunted intellectual clim.ed u"on the
throne of the Tsars than he started to address not Russia alone .ut the !hole of :uro"e# He in2ited the !or0in% men, currently
0illin% each other in northIeast France, to o2erthro! their %o2ernments and to follo! the Russian e)am"le# 1oth <enin and
Trots0y thou%ht that the 7etro%rad re2olution could only .e sa2ed if the re2olution !as successful in 4estern :uro"e# They
!ere as !ron% a.out that as they !ere ri%ht a.out the "ossi.ility of re2olution in 7etro%rad#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >@9I>1?
DThe achie2ement of "o!er did not lead to any slac0enin% in the 1olshe2i0sF re2olutionary momentum# -n the contrary, durin%
the ne)t three years the "arty deli.erately intensified the class hatreds !hich had hel"ed to .rin% them to "o!er# They intended
to rule !ithout allies, domestic or forei%n# Those !ho !anted a moderate democratic re2olution and those !ho !ere o""osed to
any re2olution at all had to .e eliminated# The anarchical tendencies of 1917 had to .e intensified and at the same time the
foundations of a ne! disci"line had to .e created# The 1olshe2i0s "ro2ed at first to .e much more successful in their destructi2e
efforts# 4ith the aid of their enemies they destroyed the entire or%anisation of ci2ilised life in Russia# 1y 19?1 the !a2e of
destruction had %one too far for e2en the 1olshe2i0s# For a time <enin had to allo! society to reco2er slo!ly throu%h the
"rimiti2e incenti2e of "easant %reed# The most "ressin% need at the end of 1917 !as for a "eace !ith 5ermany# <enin had
"romised it# He realised that the 7ro2isional 5o2ernment had .een fatally !ea0ened .y its refusal to ado"t a clear "eace "olicy#
At first all the 1olshe2i0 leaders !ere certain that such a "eace need not cost defeated Russia too much# They considered that the
Russian "eace effort !ould s"ar0 off re2olutions in all the .elli%erent nations# They did not .elie2e that the common soldiers
!ould endure another !inter in the trenches, another summer offensi2e, !hen they %ot to 0no! that the 1olshe2i0s !ere
offerin% a uni2ersal and immediate "eace# The mutinies in the French army and the 5erman fleet !ere understood in 7etro%rad
to .e the "relude to a %eneral .rea0do!n of military disci"line# Time !as needed for these manifestations to ta0e effect, and it
!as time that the Russian "eace dele%ation at 1restI<ito2s0 sou%ht to %ain# For three months Trots0y *the Commissar for
Forei%n Affairs+ and his collea%ues held off the 5erman army !ith !ords alone# The tactics of 1restI<ito2s0 !ere .rilliantly
e)ecuted .ut the strate%y !as faulty# The e)"ected :uro"ean re2olution did not occur# Althou%h 5ermanyFs military "osition
a""eared to .e im"re%na.le at 1restI<ito2s0 H her army could ad2ance at any moment u"on .oth 7etro%rad and 'osco!
throu%h the em"ty Russian lines H her ne%otiatin% "osition !as less stron%# The 5erman troo"s on the eastern front !ere needed
in the !est at once for the <aiserschlacht or 0noc0Iout .lo! !hich, in <udendorff=s 2ie!, !as to defeat France and 1ritain
.efore the arri2al of the American army in :uro"e# The 5erman Hi%h Command therefore did not !ant to dri2e the 1olshe2i0s
into a des"erate !ar !hich !ould certainly tie do!n lar%e num.ers of 5erman troo"s# $econdly, <udendorff considered that it
!as a.solutely essential to %et the !hole of the E0raine under 5erman control so that its economic resources could .e used to
counter.alance the effects of the 1ritish .loc0ade# He !as after a fran0ly anne)ationist "eace !hich !ould ena.le the Reich to
ta" the riches of central and eastern :uro"e# 1ut his "lans I stri0in%ly similar to those of Hitler in 19J1 I !ere o""osed .y
Auhlmann, the re"resentati2e of the 5erman ci2ilian %o2ernment# Auhlmann realized that the si%nin% of such a "eace as
<udendorff en2isa%ed !ould "ut 5ermany into a 2ery !ea0 "osition if .y any chance the <aiserschlacht failed, a contin%ency
!hich <udendorff refused to consider# In that case, Auhlmann ar%ued, the Allies !ould .e entitled to im"ose u"on 5ermany Must
such a "eace as <udendorff intended to im"ose u"on Russia# He conseBuently !anted to restrict the 5erman anne)ations to
those "arts of the Russian :m"ire already occu"ied .y the 5erman army, and to clothe these anne)ations in a decent %ar. of
democratic choice# For much of January and Fe.ruary 191 Trots0y e)"loited the rift in the 5erman ran0s# He "ro2ed to .e the
eBual of the 5erman career di"lomats in e2ery t!ist of the %ame, althou%h he !as em.arrassed .y the "resence in the Russian
dele%ation of a "easant *included for "ro"a%anda reasons+ !hose "rimiti2e ta.le manners and freBuent into)ication deli%hted the
5erman staff officers# Trots0y challen%ed Auhlmann to sho! that the F"le.iscitesF held in the 5ermanIoccu"ied territories !ere
%enuine e)"ressions of the "o"ular !ill *they !ere not+, and Auhlmann demanded to 0no! !hy the 5erman %o2ernment should
not ne%otiate directly !ith the inde"endent %o2ernment of the E0raine seein% that the 1olshe2i0s had constantly demanded the
ri%ht of national selfIdetermination# Trots0y !as a.le to counter this mo2e .y "roducin% another E0rainian dele%ation !hich
claimed to re"resent a 1olshe2i0 %o2ernment# The ins"ired Buarrels of the t!o E0rainian dele%ations held u" the ne%otiations
for se2eral days# 'ean!hile in 7etro%rad the !estern horizon !as an)iously scanned for the comin% of the re2olution# The
Central Committee of the "arty di2ided into three %rou"s a.out the correct "olicy to follo!# <enin ar%ued that it !as "ointless
and dan%erous to "rolon% the ne%otiations, for the re2olution !as not imminent# F5ermany is only "re%nant !ith re2olutionF, he
said, Fthe second month must not .e mista0en for the ninth# 1ut here in Russia !e ha2e a healthy, lusty child# 4e may 0ill it if
!e start a !ar#F 1u0harin !as for startin% the !ar a%ain, and Trots0y ad2ocated an alto%ether no2el a""roach summarized in the
slo%an, XNeither 7eace nor 4ar=# The "arty at len%th committed itself to Trots0yFs "olicy, on 1@ Fe.ruary he astonished the
5erman dele%ation .y declarin% that althou%h Russia refused to acce"t the "eace terms she ne2ertheless "ronounced that she !as
at "eace !ith 5ermany# 1ut the %am.le failed# After initial confusion and fury, <udendorff ordered the 5erman army to
ad2ance# There !as nothin% to sto" its march throu%h :stonia to!ards 7etro%rad# <enin had .een "ro2ed ri%ht# He .rushed
aside the rene!ed demands for a "atriotic !ar and si%ned the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0 on > 'arch# It !as a hea2y "rice# Russia
lost >J "er cent of her "o"ulation, LJ "er cent of her industrial "lant and 9 "er cent of her mines# The surrender of 5ermany to
the 4estern Allies a fe! months later ena.led Russia to re"ossess the E0raine, .ut not until the end of the $econd 4orld 4ar
did she re%ain control of 7oland, <ithuania, :stonia, <at2ia and Finland# It is li0ely that the loss of these nonIRussian
.orderlands sim"lified the tas0 of the 1olshe2i0s# 1ut it !as difficult to e)"lain this in 191# <enin had to marshal all his
resources to %et the treaty ratified .y the $o2iet# It "ro2ided another reason for hatin% a re%ime !hich had already %i2en many
causes for hatred#G H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >1>I>1C
DTH: :$TA1<I$H':NT -F TH: 6ICTAT-R$HI7 -F TH: 7R-<:TARIAT& The 1olshe2i0 control of the ne! re%ime !as
mas0ed .y the retention of the $o2iet structure# The Con%ress of $o2iets elected an e)ecuti2e committee !hich in turn chose the
Council of 7eo"leFs Commissars# 1oth the elected .odies !ere dominated .y the 1olshe2i0s !hose Central Committee !as the
real source of "o!er# 1ut the "retence of democracy !as ela.orately "reser2ed and all the "artyFs decisions !ere "resented to the
!orld as those of the democratic $o2iet# There the other leftI!in% "arties continued to find re"resentation until the middle of
191, in the Council of Commissars only a fe! leftI!in% $#R#s !ere %i2en minor offices and e2en these !ithdre! in "rotest
a%ainst the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0# Any other "ossi.le centre of authority !as deli.erately destroyed .y the "arty# The most
dan%erous !as the Constituent Assem.ly !hich !as already .ein% elected !hen the re2olution occurred# The 1olshe2i0s held
only ?L "er cent of the seats in this, the only fully democratic assem.ly in the history of Russia# <enin allo!ed it to meet
*January 191+ .ut ar%ued that since it !as hostile to the $o2iet re%ime it could not really re"resent the !ishes of the masses# He
contem"tuously condemned it to the lim.o of F.our%eois democracyF H that is, a democracy !hich !as mani"ulated .y the
middle classes# Its lac0 of "o"ular su""ort can .e estimated from the ease !ith !hich the 1olshe2i0s %ot rid of it# There !as
only one session, durin% !hich the dele%ates *mostly $#R#s+ could scarcely ma0e themsel2es heard a.o2e the u"roar of the
armed <ettish %uards# At L a#m# a sailor named Kheleznya0o2 as0ed the dele%ates to dis"erse Fsince the %uard is tiredF# The li%hts
!ere then e)tin%uished and the dele%ates e)"elled in s"ite of the fact that they had armed themsel2es !ith candles and
sand!iches# The elimination of the Constituent Assem.ly cleared the %round for a constitution more to the taste of the
1olshe2i0 "arty# 7rotracted and .itter de.ates on constitutional forms too0 "lace in a draftin% commission !hich sat durin% the
first se2en months of 191# Its "ro"osals !ere ratified .y the Con%ress of $o2iets in July# 4hile the draftin% commission
deli.erated, the re2olution intensified# The Allies landed troo"s all round the "eri"hery of the former Russian :m"ire# The $#R#s
2irtually declared !ar on the 1olshe2i0s# In s"ite of these distractions, $talin and his collea%ues did their !or0 !ell# $u.seBuent
constitutional chan%es ha2e not %reatly altered the !or0 done at the crisis of the re2olution# The 191 constitution created the
R#$#F#$#R# *Russian $ocialist Federal $o2iet Re"u.lic+# $u"reme "o!er !as 2ested in the AllIRussia Con%ress of $o2iets# Its
e)ecuti2e committee *8TsiA+, com"osed of a.out ?@@ "ersons, could e)ercise all the le%islati2e "o!ers of the Con%ress !hen the
latter !as not in session# The 8TsiA in turn a""ointed the Council of 7eo"leFs Commissars *$o2nar0om+# This last .ody, !hich
a""ro)imated rou%hly to a 4estern ca.inet, !as also em"o!ered to issue decrees, orders and la!s# No attem"t !as made to
secure the se"aration of "o!ers, !hich !as in fact s"ecifically reMected as a .our%eois theory# The mem.ers of the Con%ress
!ere elected .y the city and rural $o2iets# In the cities, there !as one de"uty to ?L,@@@ 2oters& in rural areas, one de"uty to
1?L,@@@ inha.itants# This %a2e the cities an unfair !ei%htin% in the Con%ress, a fact !hich !as freely admitted .y the authors of
the constitution# Althou%h the !ordF federalF a""ears in its name, the R#$#F#$#R# !as not federal in the 4estern sense of the
!ord# The 1olshe2i0s !ere em.arrassed .y their 1917 slo%an& FAll "o!er to the $o2ietsF# 'any of their su""orters .elie2ed that
they meant !hat they said and that they !ere %oin% to create a semianarchist constitution in !hich so2erei%n "o!ers !ere %oin%
to .e e)ercised .y the local $o2iets# The "arty could not afford to refuse outri%ht the demands !hich it had encoura%ed, hence
the %reat in%enuity la2ished u"on the 191 constitution# <ocal $o2iets !ere %i2en .oth electoral and e)ecuti2e functions# They
!ere the "rimary democratic cell, they !ere also the instruments throu%h !hich the central %o2ernment ruled the "ro2inces#
<enin ho"ed that they !ould ta0e the "lace of the Tsarist .ureaucracy, that their re2olutionary ardour !ould com"ensate for
their lac0 of administrati2e e)"erience# In this, he !as sadly disa""ointed# The local $o2iets !ere trusted little more than the
Tsars had trusted the zemstvos. Their "o!er to ta) !as limited to local needs, and e2en this limited ri%ht !as su.Mect to central
su"er2ision# The slo%an FAll "o!er to the $o2ietsF !as inter"reted as& F$ome local "o!er to the $o2ietsF# There !as no "ro2ision
for national autonomy on a federal .asis, it !as assumed that !hen the nonIRussian "eri"hery of the Tsarist em"ire !as
reco2ered from those "o!ers !hich had occu"ied it in 191, it !ould .e united !ith the R#$#F#$#R# on the footin% of eBual
national re"u.lics# 7erha"s other such re"u.lics mi%ht .e formed in 4estern :uro"e after the re2olution# The R#$#F#$#R# !as
seen .y its 1olshe2i0 creators as a merely tem"orary house for the re2olution to inha.it# $ome 1olshe2i0s and most $#R#s had
su""osed that the re2olution !ould .e immediately follo!ed .y the disa""earance of the $tate# <enin had %i2en this "oint
careful consideration in his State and .evolution. His 2ie! !as that the $tate must sur2i2e the re2olution for lon% enou%h to
eliminate the ine2ita.le counter re2olution# -f that there !ere many si%ns in 191# <enin admitted that !hile the $tate continued
to e)ist it !ould ha2e a class form, this !as the Xdictatorshi" of the "roletariat=, a tem"orary condition !hich !ould last only
lon% enou%h to destroy the remainin% .astions of feudal and .our%eois class society# Accordin% to <enin the Fdictatorshi" of the
"roletariatF !ould occu"y a uniBue "osition in the unfoldin% historical dialectic# $ince the "roletariat !as the maMority, little force
!ould .e needed for the assertion of its !ill# Its enemies !ould ra"idly crum.le and its tas0 !ould soon .e done# In the 2ie! of
the "arty theorists the Xdictatorshi" of the "roletariat= !as .ased u"on the $o2iet structure# The facts, of course, !ere Buite
different# $uch Fdictatorshi"F as e)isted in Russia !as .ased u"on the "arty, and the "arty in turn relied u"on its inner cadre#
<enin reco%nised no contradiction .et!een the fiction of $o2iet "o!er and the reality of innerI"arty direction# <i0e all 'ar)ists
he !as firmly committed to RousseauFs conce"t of the 5eneral 4ill& that is, the .elief that a sin%le indi2idual may 0no! .etter
than the masses !hat is .est for them and !hat is most closely attuned to the mo2ement of the historical dialectic# In the 'ar)ist
mind the !ord F"roletariatF came to ha2e a.struse meta"hysical o2ertones# To the eye of commonsense a "roletarian is a "erson
e)"loited in the ca"italist economic "rocess# 4e see him .randishin% a s"anner and cursin% the ca"italist# 1ut to <enin and the
'ar)ist Ftheolo%iansF the "roletariat !as an idea to .e "ut into "ractice e2en a%ainst the e)"ressed !ish of "ersons !ho mi%ht
reasona.ly .e named "roletarians# A dictatorshi"s did emer%e in Russia in 191 .ut it !as not the Fdictatorshi" of the "roletariatF#
It !as, on the contrary, the dictatorshi" of a tiny %rou" of idealists !hose ner2e !as stiffened .y their con2iction that they 0ne!
the rules of the %ame and that these rules Mustified the use of force and fraud# 6urin% the first fe! !ee0s of "o!er the
1olshe2i0s continued to catch the !ind of "o"ular a""ro2al# A stream of decrees realised the !ishes of the maMority# A decree on
land *!hich told the "easants to hel" themsel2es+, on "eace, on !or0ersF control of industry, on the nationalisation of .an0in%,
on the re"udiation of all state de.ts .oth internal and e)ternal, on the a.olition of "ri2ate o!nershi" of lar%e houses, on the
standardisation of all salaries and li2in% conditions, on the reform of the calendar, on the modernisation of the al"ha.et, on the
se"aration of Church from $tate and of schools from the Church, on the a.olition of the old le%al system and its re"lacement .y
"o"ularly elected re2olutionary tri.unals I these all seemed to "romise a ne! hea2en on earth, a hea2en !hich could .e %ained
.y the destruction of the hated F.our%eoisF# :2en the creation of a secret "olice *6ecem.er 191+, 0no!n first as the Che0a, !as
in2ested !ith "o"ular a""eal# Its .oss, 6zerzhins0y, announced& FThe Commission a""eals to all !or0ers, soldiers and "easants
to come to its aid in the stru%%le !ith enemies of the Re2olution# $end all ne!s and facts ### to the Commission#F Here !as an
o"en in2itation to ta0e re2en%e for all the insults, real and su""osed, suffered at the hands of the F.our%eoisF# 1ut the deli%hts of
licensed class !arfare could not conceal the fact that the No2em.er re2olution had not ena.led anyone to eat any .etter or to
0ee" !armer# The increasin%ly se2ere food shorta%es of I9I could .e met only .y e)tendin% the ran%e of class !arfare# The to!n
!or0er had to .e turned a%ainst the "easant as !ell as the .our%eois# There !as some %rain in the countryside .ut there !as no
means of ma0in% the "easant "art !ith it# The currency !as ho"elessly inflated and .esides, there !as nothin% to .uy !ith it#
The "easant ate more and turned his sur"lus into 2od0a# The only solution !as to force the "easant to %i2e u" his %rain at the
"oint of the rifle, to turn the "oorer "easant a%ainst the richer, to terrorise the countryside throu%h the Che0a# 6urin% the summer
months the cam"ai%n a%ainst the "easants reached the "ro"ortion of a ci2il !ar, a !ar "ro2o0ed .y the ne! re%ime, a !ar !hich
to the "easants seemed 2ery similar to the "uniti2e raids carried out .y Tsarist troo"s# The discontent of the "easants !as
communicated to some sections of the industrial !or0ers# In June 191 there !as the threat of a %eneral stri0e on the rail!ays,
and in se2eral industrial to!ns there !ere "itched .attles .et!een the Che0a and the !or0ers# These difficulties naturally
encoura%ed the other leftI!in% "arties !hich .y the middle of 191 !ere not only e)cluded from the %o2ernment .ut !ere also
.ein% hounded .y the Che0a# The crisis came in July# The left $#R#s assassinated the 5erman am.assador, 'ir.ach, !hom they
re%arded as a sym.ol of the hated Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0# They intended his murder to .e the si%nal for a resum"tion of the !ar
a%ainst 5ermany# 1ut the Che0a !as too much for the rather amateurish terrorism of the $#R#s, and most of the leaders !ere
rounded u"# -ne !oman terrorist, ho!e2er, Fanya Aa"lan, sur2i2ed until the end of Au%ust !hen she fired three shots at <enin,
t!o of !hich struc0 him# This !as the si%nal for an out.rea0 of mass terrorism .y the Che0a# All the nonI1olshe2i0 %rou"s and
"arties could no! .e accused of hostility to the re2olution# All could .e accused of .ein% the instruments of the forei%n "o!ers
!hich .y no! !ere .e%innin% to inter2ene in Russia# The 1olshe2i0s had concluded a !ar a%ainst 5ermany in order to fi%ht one
a%ainst the rest of the !orld# It is difficult to estimate the num.er of 2ictims claimed .y the Che0a durin% the terror of I9I# The
former Tsar and his family !ere amon% those first eliminated# 'ore than L@@ Xcounterre2olutionariesF !ere shot in 7etro%rad
alone# In some "ro2incial to!ns "itched .attles !ent on for se2eral days .et!een the Che0a and the local inha.itants# The terror
!as s"ecifically directed a%ainst the X.our%eoisie= H a useful !ord !hich could .e used to include anyone !ho !as not a
su""orter of the "arty# The Aadets had already .een outla!ed# The 'enshe2i0s and the $#R#s !ere not yet treated in the same
!ay# As the terror slac0ened off to!ards the end of 191, these leftI!in% %rou"s !ere once a%ain allo!ed re"resentation in the
$o2iets# They !ere allo!ed to "u.lish ne!s"a"ers and they enMoyed considera.le influence amon% the "easants and the trade
unions# The Che0a .ullied .ut it did not shoot the 'enshe2i0 and $#R# leaders, !ho !hile the ci2il !ar continued !ere Must as
ea%er as the 1olshe2i0s to "re2ent the re2olution from .ein% crushed# 1ut in s"ite of this uneasy toleration, they !ere not
allo!ed a share in "olitical "o!er# In effect, the R#$#F#$#R# !as a sin%leI"arty state from 191 on!ards# To this achie2ement
6zerzhins0y and the Che0a had contri.uted lar%ely# The num.er of "eo"le !ho entered the Che0a "rison in <u.yan0a $Buare,
'osco!, may not ha2e .een 2ery lar%e# 1ut the Che0a !as ruthless, thorou%h and determined# FIt is time, .efore it is too late, to
carry out the most "itiless strictly or%anised mass terror, not in !ords .ut in deeds# 1rin%in% death to thousands of idle !hite
hands ### !e sa2e millions of !or0ers, !e sa2e the socialist re2olution=#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >1CI>?1
DTH: CI8I< 4AR, 191I?1& The attitude of RussiaFs former allies to!ards the 1olshe2i0 re%ime !as a mi)ture of fear,
indi%nation and ho"eful selfIinterest# In the months immediately after the end of the !ar, it !as !idely .elie2ed in the 4est that
there !as a chance that the 1olshe2i0 slo%ans !ould inflame the masses of .attleI!eary soldiers and im"o2erished !or0ers#
Inter2ention in Russia conseBuently offered a minimum "ros"ect of 0ee"in% the 1olshe2i0s so .usy that they !ould .e una.le to
hel" the disaffected 4estern masses# The 4estern statesmen assem.led at 8ersailles did not intend to "ermit the Treaty of
1restI<ito2s0 to .e re2ersed H e2en thou%h it had .een im"osed u"on a former ally .y the "o!er !hich had Must .een defeated#
They !ere alarmed .y the fact that the $o2iet %o2ernment had denounced the "eace as soon as the 5ermans !ere defeated in
No2em.er 191, !ith considera.le ease *at first+ the Red Army then reconBuered the 1altic $tates, 7oland and the E0raine#
This annoyed some of the 8ersailles statesmen *li0e 7resident 4ilson+ !hose main o.Mect !as to redra! the ma" of :uro"e on
the .asis of national selfIdetermination, and fri%htened others *li0e Clemenceau+ !hose "lans for the future of :uro"e !ere
.ased u"on the idea of a "o!erful 7oland and a !ea0 Russia# The French, an)ious for a 7oland !hich !ould .e stron% enou%h
to .e a real threat to 5ermany, en2isa%ed a return to the ei%hteenthIcentury frontiers, a 7oland !hich included the E0raine#
$nter"ention in Russia +oul& for4e the !olshe"iks to a44e%t the !rest(Lito"sk terms, +oul& e*4lu&e Russia from <uro%e,
+oul& enable Fran4e to &ominate it on4e more. The 1ritish !ere more interested in the future of Asiatic Russia# Inter2ention
mi%ht hasten the .rea0Iu" of Russia, out of this 1ritain mi%ht %ain security for India .y settin% u" a "u""et re%ime in Central
Asia, she mi%ht e2en %ain control of the Caucasian oil# Ja"an !anted eastern $i.eria u" to <a0e 1ai0al# The Romanians !anted
to 0ee" 1essara.ia# The Russian cor"se seemed lar%e enou%h to "ro2ide all the 2ultures !ith a meal# 1ehind the noises of
ideolo%ical outra%e made .y all the 5reat 7o!ers lur0ed their e)"ectation of national %ain# 1ut the amount of effort, military
and economic, !hich the 5reat 7o!ers !ere !illin% to "ut into inter2ention !as limited# The soldiers had no !ish to %o on
fi%htin%# :2en !orse, there !as the dan%er that Allied troo"s in Russia !ould fall 2ictim to communist "ro"a%anda# The French
army sent to -dessa in 1919 had to .e hastily !ithdra!n .ecause it sho!ed a distur.in% tendency to shoot its officers# :2en the
1ritish troo"s at Archan%el sho!ed somethin% less than enthusiasm for their tas0# 1ritain had no !ish to hel" the French to
create a %reat 7oland, France !as not at all interested in hel"in% 1ritain to create a .uffer state in Central Asia, and America !as
2ery hostile to the Ja"anese am.itions in $i.eria# The ro..ers could not a%ree to hel" each other# No dou.t some of these
difficulties could ha2e .een sorted out if any of the antiI1olshe2i0 4hite %rou"s had inflicted a com"lete defeat u"on the Reds#
1oth the "rinci"al 4hite leaders, Aolcha0 and 6eni0in, !ere stron%ly nationalist# If either had entered 'osco! *!hich .ecame
the ca"ital of the R#$#F#$#R# in 191+ he !ould ha2e demanded a restoration of Russia=s "reI!ar frontiers, "erha"s e2en that the
Allies should honour the !artime treaties# 5he allie& lea&ers gra&ually realise& that a 'hite "i4tory might 4reate e"en more
%roblems than it sol"e&. 5hey +ere +illing to sen& enough hel% to enable the 'hites to 4arry on a 4i"il +ar +hi4h
re&u4e& Russia to anar4hy an& im%oten4e. 5hey +ere not +illing to sen& enough to ensure that the 'hites +on. The
main o.Mects of inter2ention !ere, ho!e2er, %ained# 1olshe2ism did not "ermanently infect either :uro"e or Asia, and Russia
!as so much !ea0ened that she !as una.le to effect a maMor re2ision of the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0# The allied "olicy *of !hich
Churchill !as a "rinci"al ad2ocate+ achie2ed a cynicism !orthy of <enin himself# The first ho"e of the 4hites !as Admiral
Aolcha0# He had .een an Arctic e)"lorer, a Buite distin%uished na2al commander, and he !as 0no!n to .e a coura%eous and
honest man# These Bualities %ained him the !holeIhearted su""ort of the 1ritish !ho encoura%ed him to seize "o!er .y force at
-ms0 *No2em.er 191+# His first enemies on this occasion !ere not the 1olshe2i0s .ut a local $i.erian %o2ernment dominated
.y the $#R#s# Their "olicy !as for the reconstitution of the Constituent Assem.ly# This coup d6etat .y Aolcha0 illustrates an
im"ortant theme of the ci2il !ar& the fact that the moderate $ocialist "arties !ere e2ery!here sBueezed out .y the e)tremists#
No!here could the adherents of li.eral democracy collect a fi%htin% force# 5he 4i"il +ar +oul& en& +ith a &i4tator from
either the left or the right. Kol4hak)s go"ernment +as not base& u%on the 4onsent of the strongest fighting for4e in
iberia P the -De4h army. 5hese fine troo%s ha& been on their +ay to the Pa4ifi4 +hen the re"olution ba& broken out.
6uring the summer of 191A they ha& turne& ba4k an& ha& nearly 4a%ture& 2os4o+. 1ut no! that the !ar a%ainst 5ermany
!as o2er they only !anted to return to their ne! nation# They disa""ro2ed of Aolcha0Fs dictatorshi" .ut too0 no action a%ainst
him# They merely !aited alon% the $i.erian rail!ay until it !as "ossi.le to continue their east!ard Mourney# 'ean!hile
Aolcha0 "ushed !est!ard !ith his army of Cossac0s and Tsarist officers# He ad2anced ra"idly o2er the Erals and early in ()()
he threatened the middle 8ol%a# He "ro"osed to unite his army !ith the 1ritish force in Archan%el# The north!ard thrust offered
him the ho"e of su""ly, .ut he !ould "ro.a.ly ha2e done .etter to concentrate u"on Moinin% 6eni0in=s southern army# His
ad2ance !as chec0ed "artly .y the stiffenin% resistance of the Red Army .ut chiefly .y a "easant re2olt alon% his lines of
communication# Aolcha0Fs land "olicy !as disli0ed .y the "oorer "easants, es"ecially the recent immi%rants into $i.eria# 1ehind
him !as the shado! of the landlord and the factory o!ner# The mass re2olt a%ainst him !as s"ontaneous only a fe! of the
"easant .ands !ere under 1olshe2i0 leadershi"# Aolcha0Fs retreat turned into a rout# The $i.erian to!ns turned a%ainst him,
re2olted .y the .ar.aric .eha2iour of the 4hite troo"s and .y the ruthless 4hite terror# Aolcha0 !as e2entually cau%ht and shot
.y the Reds at Ir0uts0 in Fe.ruary 19?@# $i.eria remained 2ery distur.ed# The "easant .ands continued to roam the tai%a, little
more contented !ith their ne! masters than they had .een !ith their old# The $i.erian rail!ay !as cho0ed !ith a.andoned
trains filled !ith the cor"ses of those !ho had died of coldF or ty"hus# 1ut the 1olshe2i0s held the to!ns, and the uni2ersal
anarchy ensured that it !ould .e im"ossi.le for the Ja"anese H !ho still remained in control to the east of <a0e 1ai0al H to use
$i.eria as a .ase a%ainst :uro"ean Russia# The only or%anisation !hich could sur2i2e in $i.eria !as that of the 1olshe2i0 "arty#
It !as unluc0y for the 4hites that their southern front, under 6eni0in, made no decisi2e mo2e a%ainst the Reds until Aolcha0
had .een defeated# 6eni0in !as a %eneral of "easant ori%ins, a rare "roduct of Tsarist Russia# He had, ho!e2er, no intention of
restorin% the Romano2s, unli0e many of his officers# 7olitically he too0 no clear stand# It !as not e2en certain !hether he !ould,
in the case of 2ictory, summon a constituent assem.ly# :2en had he !anted to, it is dou.tful !hether his officers !ould ha2e
"ermitted it# His only slo%an !as& XRussia shall .e %reat, united, undi2ided=# This nationalist "ro%ramme !as unli0ely to .e
"o"ular !ith the Caucasian "eo"les, the E0rainians, e2en !ith the Cossac0s# It could certainly not command the assent of the
li.eral and educated classes# 1ut althou%h 6eni0in !as not "olitically resourceful, his strate%ic "osition !as much stron%er than
that of Aolcha0# In 191 he had %ained control of much of the Caucasus# 4ith his .ac0 to the 1lac0 $ea he could .e easily
su""lied .y the Allies# His Cossac0 troo"s, from the 6on and the Au.an, !ere near at hand and !ere for the most "art
fanatically o""osed to the 1olshe2i0 re%ime# They !ere small farmers !ith horses and cattle, !ho had much more to lose than
their chains .y the a.olition of "ri2ate "ro"erty in land# Just to the north lay the industrial re%ion of the eastern E0raine# Its
ca"ture and retention mi%ht "ersuade a !eary 1olshe2i0 %o2ernment to ma0e "eace, "erha"s @n the .asis of the inde"endence of
south Russia# 6eni0in=s early 2ictories confirmed the o"timism of his follo!ers# In June ()() he ca"tured Ahar0o2 and Tsaritsyn,
in July he ad2anced on 'osco!, in Au%ust he ca"tured Aie2 and in -cto.er reached -rel# -nly Tula stood .et!een him and the
1olshe2i0 ca"ital# In the same month the 4hite 5eneral /udenich, o"eratin% !ith 1ritish su""ort from :stonia, reached the
su.ur.s of 7etro%rad# 1ut 6eni0inFs offensi2e colla"sed as ra"idly as that of Aolcha0 and for the same reasons# There !as
com"lete confusion in the rear, encoura%ed .y the Reds .ut chiefly the result of "easant anarchy# The E0raine !as e2en more
tur.ulent than $i.eria# 4ith .e!ilderin% ra"idity it had .een occu"ied .y 5ermans, a national %o2ernment, the Reds, and the
4hites# The "easant .ands turned a%ainst the to!ns and a%ainst e2erythin% !hich su%%ested to!n influence# The Je!s !ere a
fa2ourite tar%et .ecause they !ere cons"icuous and .ecause they !ere ur.an# 7o%roms occurred on a lar%e scale# $ome of the
"easant leaders, li0e the anarchist 'a0hno, !ere really s0illful# 6urin% the autumn of 1919 'a0hno=s .and of a.out J@,@@@
men de2astated 6eni0in=s communications and threatened to ca"ture his headBuarters at Ta%anro%# 'a0hno e2entually esca"ed
from .oth the 4hites and the Reds and too0 refu%e in Romania# He had "ermitted no "o%roms and im"osed a truly anarchist
nonI%o2ernment u"on the areas under his control# 6eni0in had nothin% to o""ose to the s"irit of anarchy !hich con2ulsed his
rear# 1ritish su""lies remained unused at the 1lac0 $ea "orts# The 4hite administration !as 2ery corru"t, Must as the 4hite
officers !ere notorious H e2en in this a%e of 2iolence H for their drun0en .rutality# A 1ritish Mournalist indi%nantly o.ser2ed
!hat !as ha""enin% to his %o2ernment=s money& FIn 1919 !e !ent 6eni0in 1L@@ com"lete nurses= costume outfits# I did not ###
e2er see a nurse in a 1ritish uniform, .ut I ha2e seen %irls, !ho !ere em"hatically not nurses, !al0in% the streets of
No2orossiys0 !earin% 1ritish hos"ital s0irts and stoc0in%s#F Harried .y the Red Army, !ea0ened .y corru"tion, "aralysed .y
%uerrilla ra2a%es alon% the lines of communication, a.andoned .y the allied %o2ernments, 6eni0in fell .ac0 on the 1lac0 $ea
"orts# 4ith the remnants of his force, he !as e2acuated .y the Royal Na2y# For a fe! months in 19?@ 4ran%el *!ith French aid+
enMoyed some success in the Crimea and the southern E0raine# 1ut at len%th he too had to .e rescued from $e2asto"ol# 1ritish
troo"s !ere e2acuated from 'urmans0 and Archan%el in 1919# 1ut the end of the ci2il !ar did not .rin% immediate "eace# $n
1919, the "i4torious #llies ha& 4reate& a ne+ Polan&. Russia ha& not been re%resente& at the %ea4e 4onferen4e1 in&ee&,
&uring its sessions the 'estern #llies ha& been a4ti"ely fighting against the !olshe"ik go"ernment. # ha%%y result of the
absen4e of Russia +as that the 'estern statesmen at the Bersailles %ea4e 4onferen4e +ere able to gi"e the ne+ Polan&
"ery generous eastern frontiers. Fran4e, in %arti4ular, +as an*ious that the ne+ Polan& shoul& be as %o+erful as
%ossible. The re2olution and the ci2il !ar had de"ri2ed the French of their eastern ally# 4ho !ould sa2e 7aris the ne)t time the
5ermans in2aded France3 5he Russian go"ernment naturally &islike& a %ea4e treaty +hi4h ga"e a+ay 5sarist territory
an& at +hi4h they ha& not been re%resente&. 1ut 7ilsuds0i *dictator of the ne! 7olish $tate+ !as not satisfied e2en !ith the
%enerous terms %i2en him# He determined to ta0e ad2anta%e of RussiaFs !ea0ness# He !aited until the Reds and the 4hites had
e)hausted one another& althou%h socially conser2ati2e *e2en reactionary+ himself, he had no desire to sec a nationalist 4hite
%eneral li0e 6eni0in in "o!er in 'osco!# 7ilsuds0i had the most %randiose "lans# He !as not content !ith merely restorin% his
unfortunate nation to the 177? frontiers H a "lan !hich !ould ha2e .een acce"ta.le to most of his country men# He !anted a
restoration of the 7olish medie2al 0in%dom !hich stretched from the 1altic to the 1lac0 $ea# 4ith this o.Mecti2e, he attac0ed the
R#$#F#$#R# in I9?@# At first his 7olish colonels carried all .efore them# 1ut the e)hausted heroes of the Red Army ra"idly
reco2ered, and .y July I9?@ the astonished colonels had .een chased .ac0 to 4arsa! .y the ra%%ed 2eterans of Tu0hache2s0y
and 1udenny# No! it !as the turn of the 1olshe2i0s to reMoice# They foresa! a 7olish re2olution, they e)"ected 7oland to set
5ermany ali%ht# 1ut if the Red Army could defeat the 7olish colonels, it could not %et "ast the !or0in% men of 4arsa! !ho had
no intention of .ein% li.erated .y the Russian "roletariat# They thre! .ac0 the Red Army *Au%ust 19?@+ and once a%ain the
7oles ad2anced into the R#$#F#$#R# 1y this time .oth sides had had enou%h of these .e!ilderin% re2erses of fortune# 1y the
Treaty of Ri%a *19?1+ they came to an a%reement !hich lasted until 19>9# 7oland %ot considera.ly less than the Allies had %i2en
her in 1919# Russia had to acce"t the inde"endence of Finland and the 1altic $tates, !hich "ractically e)cluded her from the
1altic# In this area she lost nearly all the territory !hich had ena.led her to dominate central :uro"e durin% the nineteenth
century# 1ut she had re%ained the E0raine !hich the 5ermans had ta0en at 1restI<ito2s0# For the time .ein% she had ceased to
.e a :uro"ean 5reat 7o!er, .ut she retained enou%h territory to ena.le her to .ecome a !orld "o!er#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >?1I>?7
DTH: $-8I:T 5-8:RN':NT 6ERIN5 TH: CI8I< 4AR& $n s%ite of the +eaknesses an& &i"isions among the 'hites
an& their allies, the sur"i"al of the o"iet regime &uring the 4i"il +ar +as little short of mira4ulous. #t times, 2os4o+
4ontrolle& less territory than ha& 4onstitute& me&ie"al 2us4o"y. 4ithin this area the har2est of 19?@ !as only a.out threeI
fifths of that of 191C# Industrial "roduction fell still more ra"idly# 1y 19?@ it !as 1> "er cent of the 191> fi%ure# In minin% and
in hea2y industry the "icture !as still .lea0er# 7i%Iiron "roduction !as > "er cent of 191>, rail!ay locomoti2es !ere not .ein%
made at all and it !as im"ossi.le e2en to re"air the e)istin% ones# The cities !ere .ein% de"o"ulated# The rich fled a.road *a.out
t!o million emi%rated durin% these years+, millions more !ent into the country in order to find minimum Buantities of food and
fuel# The "o"ulation of 'osco! and 7etro%rad !as hal2ed# 5he regime ha& 4ertain a&"antages. $t 4ontrolle& the interior
lines of 4ommuni4ation1 troo%s 4oul& be rushe& from one threatene& %oint to another +ith a minimum of &elay. $t
4ontrolle& Hust enough. in&ustrial 4a%a4ity to %ro"i&e the Re& #rmy +ith the %rimiti"e +ea%ons reNuire& in the 4i"il +ar1
its hol& u%on the in&ustrial regions of 4entral an& northern Russia assure& a su%%ly of rifles an& ma4hine guns. 5he
Petrogra& engineering +orks e"en su%%lie& a fe+ tanks +hen !ritish ma4hines em%loye& by the 'hites 4ause& a %ani4 in
the front line. 5his +as a +ar of ra%i& mo"ement o"er long &istan4es. 5he horse 4ame into its o+n again after its
tem%orary e4li%se &uring the First 'orl& 'ar. 5he Re&s em%loye& many former 5sarist offi4ers +hose loyalty +as
un4ertain. u4h as it +as, it +as se4ure& either by hol&ing their families as hostages or by %la4ing a %oliti4ally reliable
4ommissar at their elbo+s. !ut at 4riti4al times the big &e4isions +ere taken by the %arty. 5rotsky +as al+ays the man on
the s%ot. 3is armoure& train mo"e& from 4risis to 4risis. $n a&&ition to the ruthless, "oluble, imaginati"e, tireless an&
in"in4ible -ommissar, the famous train also 4arrie& %rinting %resses 8so that the -ommissarOs +inge& +or&s 4oul&
ins%ire the +eary heroes of the Re& #rmy91 ma4hine guns to %rote4t him from the ubiNuitous 'hite 4a"alry1 an& a
motor 4ar so that he 4oul& "isit an& re"i"e &istant units. 4hen 7etro%rad !as a.out to fall to /udenich, and e2en the city
.oss Kino2ie2 des"aired of holdin% the cradle of the re2olution, Trots0y restored morale .y summary e)ecution of the local
defence committee. !ut fe+ %arty members ha& to be shot. :ach one 0ne! that instant death a!aited him if he fell into the
hands of the 4hites, each one 0ne! that he !ould enMoy considera.le "o!er in the e2ent of a 1olshe2i0 2ictory# 1olshe2i0
control o2er the rear areas !as im"erfect .ut more efficient than that of their o""onents# <ac0 of such control !as fatal to the
4hites# 5he !olshe"ik system of T'ar -ommunism) 8191A(;19 +as base& u%on nationalisation an& stri4t labour 4ontrol.
5he system +as the %ro&u4t in %art of i&eology, in %art of the &es%erate +ar situation. $t +as tem%ting to 4all
T4ommunist) a so4iety in +hi4h all +ere eNual be4ause all ha& nothing. $t +as tem%ting to s%eak of 4ommunism +hen in
fa4t the main &e"elo%ment +as the gro+th of state %o+er. 5his +as the main feature of 'ar -ommunism. As society
crum.led a!ay, the "o!er of the $o2iet $tate increased o2er !hat little remained# The syndicalist or anarchical tendencies of
1917 !ere tamed althou%h not finally eliminated# All industries H e2en the numerous tiny "easant crafts H !ere nationalised#
Factory mana%ement !as achie2ed at first .y the direct "artici"ation of the !or0ers# 4hen this "ro2ed inefficient, sin%leI
mana%er o"eration !as restored# -ften the mana%er !as a X.our%eois=# His "o!ers !ere resented .y the !or0ers .ut they !ere
as necessary to industry as !ere those of the Tsarist officers to the Red Army# Industry !as controlled from the centre .y
8esen0ha *$u"reme Council of National :conomy+# 8esen0ha had .een at first intended to direct the national economy
accordin% to a "lan# 1ut it ne2er %ot control either of finance or la.our and confined itself to ensurin% that such "roduction as
there !as aided the Red Army# 8ery ra"id inflation made the currency 2alueless# 1y 19?@ 1>,@@@ $o2iet rou.les re"resented the
2alue of one rou.le in 191># 4or0ers !ere "aid in food and fuel, sometimes they recei2ed a "art of the "roduct of their factory
!hich they could then .arter for the necessities of life# XCommunist= instincts !ere satisfied .y a %o2ernment decision to sa2e
itself the trou.le of collectin% !orthless rou.les .y char%in% nothin% for the use of "u.lic utilities# Trans"ort, housin%, food, fuel,
!ere %i2en !ithout "ayment to those !ho held la.our cards# The !hole distri.uti2e "rocess fell under the control of
Nar0om"rod *7eo"leFs Commissariat of $u""ly+# 7roducers and consumers !ere or%anised into coIo"erati2es# This at least
hel"ed to ensure that e2ery.ody !as eBually .adly off, the sense of social Mustice !as some consolation for hun%er and cold#
Foo& +as stri4tly ratione& a44or&ing to four gra&es. Possession of a labour 4ar& entitle& its o+ner to a foo& ration. $t +as
&iffi4ult for a ObourgeoisO to get a 4ar& at all, an& star"ation +as the fate of those +ho hel& the 4ar& of the lo+est gra&e or
+ho +ere not gi"en any 4ar&. Cnem%loye& +orkers +ere sent out in grain(reNuisitioning %arties +hi4h s4oure& the
4ountrysi&e, terrorise& the %easants an& generally manage& to bring ba4k enough foo& to maintain the ration. There !as
a lar%e and flourishin% .lac0 mar0et in the cities# The "arty reluctantly "ermitted it to e)ist as a safety 2al2e# There the middle
classes e)chan%ed their domestic treasures for some %rain or a load of !ood# 5he "isible %o"erty an& misery of the former
ruling 4lass stimulate& hatre& an& 4ontem%t. 5o %re"ent the formation of any 4entres of &is4ontent, large numbers of
%eo%le +ere arbitrarily mo"e& from %la4e to %la4e. #t least fi"e million +ere 4ons4ri%te& into the Re& #rmy although it
+as un4ommon for more than 1>>,>>> men to be engage& e"en at the most 4riti4al fronts. Cnem%loye& +orkers an&
members of the mi&&le 4lass +ere 4alle& u% for for4e& labour. <"en +hen the fighting sto%%e& in 19;> the armies an& the
labour gangs +ere ke%t at +ork ( on the rail+ays, 4utting +oo& in the forests, %utting the mines into %ro&u4tion. $n
e4onomi4 terms 'ar -ommunism +as "ery ineffi4ient: %ro&u4tion an& %ro&u4ti"ity fell 4atastro%hi4ally. !ut it a4hie"e&
its main obHe4t. $t ke%t %eo%le on the mo"e, it %ro&u4e& Hust enough foo& to maintain those grou%s +ho +ere most hostile
to the 'hites, an& it enable& the tate to e*%an& into e"ery 4orner of Russian life. $t +as not unlike the system +hi4h ha&
enable& !ritain an& Germany to sustain a long +ar. 'ar -ommunism reNuire& the su%%ort of an enormous
bureau4ra4y. 'any of the Tsarist .ureaucrats had fled or had .een 0illed# Their "laces !ere filled .y a recruitment from the
ran0s of the semiIliterate !ith little e)"erience of administration# Ty"ists !ho could not ty"e, secretaries una.le to read,
e)ecuti2es !ith no education, huddled into freezin% offices to "ro2ide each other !ith "ieces of "a"er# :2en "a"er !as in short
su""ly# <enin !as sometimes una.le to %et any in0 for his restless and commandin% fountainI"en# The ne! .ureaucracy !as as
inefficient as the nationalised economic structure !hich it alle%edly controlled# 1ut the numerous "osts "ro2ided a taste of "o!er
for those !ho had ne2er had it& they !ere %i2en a ration card and they felt that the re2olution had really done somethin% for
them# The "orter !ho .ecame a house mana%er, the sho"0ee"er !ho controlled ration cards, .ecame unconscious allies of the
re%ime# Their administrati2e inefficiency !as of little im"ortance since there !as hardly anythin% to administer# 7u.lic order
!as com"arati2ely !ell maintained .ehind the 1olshe2i0 lines# 5he 4ity streets +ere sometimes ren&ere& unsafe by
4riminals in sear4h of foo& or ration 4ar&s. Lenin himself +as on4e 4a%ture& by su4h a ban& in the suburbs of 2os4o+.
3e +as for4e& at %istol %oint to han& o"er his o"er4oat1 he ha& no money in his %o4ket. 1ut the lo! rations, the fear that
any further dislocation mi%ht lead to com"lete star2ation, the 2i%ilance of the Che0a, and the 0no!led%e that thin%s !ere e2en
!orse .ehind the 4hite lines, rendered the masses docile# In the country the "easants .itterly resented the %rain reBuisitions#
<ar%e mutinous .ands roamed the forests .ut they !ere ne2er so formida.le in Red territory as they !ere to the 4hites# This
!as in "art the result of the "olicy of %eneral mo.ilisation !hich remo2ed the "easant from his home 2illa%e, in "art the fact that
the a%ricultural areas of central Russia !ere those in !hich there !as the %reatest o2ercro!din% and conseBuently the .itterest
hatred .y the "oor of the rich "easant# The 1olshe2i0 reBuisitionin% of %rain !as a little less hateful than the 4hite threat to
restore the landlord#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >?7I>>1
D5he most signifi4ant &e"elo%ment of the 4i"il +ar years +as that of the !olshe"ik %arty itself. Lenin ha& organise& the
%arty to seiDe %o+er by re"olutionary means1 no+ it +as 4alle& u%on to go"ern a &isintegrating so4iety &uring a %erio& of
intense 4risis. $n some +ays this long 4risis suite& the !olshe"iks. $t &issol"e& all the other grou%s an& institutions an&
left the %arty +ithout a ri"al. <"en though the %arty +as +eak &uring these years it +as al+ays a little stronger than
anything else. $t ha& a "irtual mono%oly of %oliti4al %o+er. 1ehind the ela.orate facade of the $o2iet system, the R#$#F#$#R#
had .ecome a sin%leI"arty state, the first of the t!entieth century# This fact !as the most im"ortant result of the re2olution, the
dee"est .reach !ith the Tsarist "ast# It !as a "olitical inno2ation !hich !as to .e imitated .y many other nations, .ut none
carried it throu%h so consistently as Russia# It is dou.tful !hether <enin and his com"anions realised the si%nificance of !hat
they !ere doin%# They had carried throu%h a re2olution in the name of the "roletariat, ins"ired .y a faith in the 'ar)ist
inter"retation of ho! History !or0s# In se2eral !ays they had strained the 'ar)ist ideolo%y to fit their o!n !ishes and
im"ulses# 5he result of all this +as not at all as 2ar* ha& %re&i4te&. 5he tate &i& not +ither a+ay1 it be4ame far
stronger in its ne+, single(%arty form. 5he re"olution 4reate& a ne+ Le"iathan, a ne+ ty%e of %oliti4al stru4ture. !y a
strange t+ist of fate, the re"olution re"eale& the ans+er to Russian ba4k+ar&ness, that %roblem +hi4h ha& o44u%ie& the
5sars sin4e the -rimean 'ar. 5he single(%arty tate %ro"e& in the en& to be 4a%able of for4ing Russia through the hoo%
of in&ustrialiDation an& of making her the eNual of the strongest nations of the 'est. 5he Russian re"olution +as
su%%ose& by its authors to en& the reign of nationalism as a &ominant i&eal. -lass 4onfli4ts +ere hel& to be more
im%ortant than national &ifferen4es. !ut the main result of the re"olution +as to enable Russia to be4ome one of the most
%o+erful nations in the +orl&. From the re"olution, ba4k+ar& Russia got a mo&ern %oliti4al system. 5he 4i"il +ar
hastene& &e"elo%ments +hi4h +oul& %robably ha"e o44urre& any+ay. 5he %arty of re"olutionaries be4ame a mass
go"erning %arty. It had to ado"t institutional forms to ena.le it to carry out its ne! functions# 7arty num.ers %re! ra"idly# In
January 191, it had 11L,@@@ mem.ers, in January 1919, ?L1,@@@, in January 19?@, J>1,@@@, in January 19?1, L7C,@@@# Num.ers
multi"lied fi2e times in three years in s"ite of some fairly se2ere "ur%es# The moral Buality of the ne! recruits !as no dou.t
Buite hi%h, it needed coura%e to Moin the "arty durin% these years# 1ut the le2el of intelli%ence and com"etence san0 dramatically#
'ost of the ne! recruits !ere "easants and !or0ers !ith a 2ery lo! educational standard# Their enthusiasm and selfIsacrifice
made them e)cellent instruments .ut they lac0ed the ca"acity for leadershi"# The result !as ine2ita.le, it has .een a %eneral
feature of all mass "arties in the t!entieth century# A di2ision emer%ed inside the "arty .et!een the innerI"arty elite and the
ran0 and file# The forms of democracy !ere maintained# In theory, the leadershi" !as still elected .y the Central Committee,
!hich in turn !as elected .y the "arty con%ress# 1ut in fact "o!er flo!ed do!n from the to", the "arty .ecame the instrument of
its leaders# Just as the $o2iet system !as a mas0 for the "o!er of the "arty, so the "arty itself mas0ed the real "o!er of the
innerI"arty elite# $i%nificant ste"s to!ards an innerI"arty elite !ere ta0en at the "arty con%ress of 1919, held durin% the crisis of
the ci2il !ar# $uch "arty or%anisation as there had .een !as .ro0en .y the sudden death of $2erdlo2# This old mem.er of the
under%round had carried the details in his head# He 0ne! all the local secretaries "ersonally and arran%ed the details .y !ord of
mouth# To "ro2ide a more "ermanent structure, the Central Committee of 1919 created three ne! "arty or%ans# A 7olit.uro of
fi2e mem.ers !as to decide on ur%ent matters !hich the full Central Committee !as too un!ieldy to co"e !ith# 1y creatin% the
7olit.uro, the Central Committee ensured e)ecuti2e efficiency .ut it rele%ated itself to a secondary "lace in the "olitical
structure# An or%anisational .ureau *-r%.uro+ and a $ecretariat !ere to !or0 in harness to "ro2ide !hat had .een "re2iously
su""lied .y $2erdlo2=s memory# They re2ie!ed "arty mem.ershi", or%anised "ur%es, 0e"t in touch !ith the local secretaries,
mo2ed 0ey men to im"ortant "osts# None of the im"ortant leaders too0 much interest in these or%anisational details# <enin,
Trots0y, Aamene2, Kino2ie2, !ere too .usy fi%htin% !ars, .uildin% a ne! $tate and ne%otiatin% !ith forei%n "o!ers to .other
a.out "arty or%anisation# The Mo. needed an old 1olshe2i0, an under%round man li0e $2erdlo2# $talin fitted this descri"tion# He
had no e)"erience of the !orld outside Russia .ut he did 0no! the "arty intimately# In 1919 he !as a""ointed to the -r%.uro
and from this o.scure corner of the "arty .ureaucracy he .uilt u" a mono"oly of "o!er# The "arty dro2e the nation and the elite
dro2e the "arty# This inner se%ment, "erha"s L@,@@@ stron%, consisted chiefly of or%anisation men, administrators, apparatchi)s.
The "rocess of centralisation !as .y no means com"lete .y the end of the ci2il !ar# The need for it !as .itterly resented .y a
lar%e section of the "arty# 1ut the "ath to!ards the domination of the "arty .y the or%anisational a""aratus had .een sho!n#
$talin, Kino2ie2 and Aamene2 ra"idly acclimatised themsel2es to the "rofound chan%es introduced .y the 1919 Con%ress, .ut
Trots0y, .usy !innin% the ci2il !ar, had little use for or%anisation# He "referred disci"line and industrial "lannin%, fiery !ords
and stri0in% deeds, to the "atient collection of dossiers, the careful com"ilation of a card inde), the Buiet mani"ulation and
countin% of heads# From his armoured train it seemed im"ossi.le that Russia should .e ruled from .ehind a des0# /et this !as
Must ho! <enin did it durin% the ci2il !ar# He ne2er 2isited a front, he rarely addressed lar%e "u.lic %atherin%s durin% the crisis
of the !ar# Instead *li0e $talin in the $econd 4orld 4ar+ he remained in his sim"ly furnished Aremlin study readin%, annotatin%
and tele"honin%# He !as a s"lendid committee chairman# He reduced the time a2aila.le for each s"ea0er to t!o or three minutes,
he !as humorous, shre!d, firm, usually ri%ht, and nearly al!ays %ot his !ay !ithout causin% rancour# He ne2er allo!ed any cult
of "ersonality to %ro! u", the only "icture !hich he allo!ed !as that of 'ar)# He read e2erythin%, remem.ered e2erythin% and
e2en found time to !rite se2eral lon% "am"hlets on matters of theory# His "rinci"al collea%ues in the 7olit.uro !ere Trots0y,
$talin, Kino2ie2 and Aamene2# He allo!ed none of them to Buarrel dee"ly !ith him or !ith each other# 7o!er seemed to ha2e
made him less inclined to see0 schism, it seemed to ha2e released in him a %eniality !hich !as nota.ly a.sent in the "reI!ar
years# He tal0ed at len%th !ith 2isitors# They ran%ed from distin%uished forei%n intellectuals li0e1ertrand Russell to the hodo)s
or "easants !ho continued the tradition of Tsarist times and !andered throu%h Russia to lay their %rie2ances at the feet of the
su"reme ruler# The flo!erin% of <eninFs "ersonality, the fact that he !as an administrator of %enius, !as an im"ortant factor in
the 2ictory of the Reds# 4hile the ci2il !ar lasted it !as com"arati2ely easy to maintain "arty disci"line .ut the release from
immediate dan%er .rou%ht formida.le "ro.lems# The "arty ran0 and file !as .itterly o""osed to its e)clusion from "olitical
"o!er# $ince the dissidents could not ma0e their !ill effecti2e throu%h any other "olitical "arty, they had to can2ass their
o"inions throu%h the mechanism of the "arty in "o!er# This raised an acute difficulty# In a democratic society, a "olitical "arty is
a "ressure %rou" !hose function is to ca"ture "u.lic o"inion and .y this means to %et into "o!er, .ut in Russia the "arty !as
much more than a "ressure %rou"& it !as the nucleus of the state a""aratus# ConseBuently, "u.lic disa%reements !ithin the "arty
shoo0 the authority of the %o2ernment to its foundations# $uch "u.lic disa%reements occurred in 19?@I1, the most dan%erous of
them .ac0ed .y the one or%anisation !hich the "arty had not yet mana%ed to .rin% to heelI the trade unions# The union
mo2ement had tre.led in mem.ershi" since 1917, .y 19?@ there !ere nearly nine million mem.ers# The coo"eration of the
unions !as essential for the maintenance of 4ar Communism# The unions !ere close to the !or0in% men and the 'enshe2i0s
!ere still "o!erful in them# It !as conseBuently dan%erous for the "arty leadershi" !hen some of the leadin% "arty unionists
.e%an to re"resent the interests of the unions to the "arty rather than im"osin% the !ill of the "arty u"on the unions# $uch !as
the case !ith the F!or0ersF o""ositionF, the most formida.le "arty fraction since the re2olution# It canalised the feelin%s of the
FoutsF a%ainst the FinsF# It demanded trade union control of industry, it "rotested a%ainst the e)cessi2e "o!er of intellectuals in the
"arty, it alle%ed *Buite ri%htly+ that "arty "osts !ere no lon%er .ein% filled .y democratic election# Its an%ry denunciations filled
the "ress durin% the !inter of 19?@I1# Trots0y made matters !orse .y Moinin% in the "u.lic contro2ersy !ith his usual %usto,
e)"ressin% 2ie!s !hich !ere not acce"ted .y <enin and the other mem.ers of the 7olit.uro# Trots0y !anted the 2irtual
elimination of the unions# He !anted la.our to .e under the direct control of the $tate, or%anised in military fashion li0e his o!n
Red Army# In fact his soldiers !ere already en%a%ed u"on la.our tas0s# Trots0y !anted a total economic "lan into !hich la.our
!ould .e slotted in the most efficient !ay# He contem"tuously dismissed the 2a%ue syndicalism of the F!or0ersF o""ositionF&
sin%leIman mana%ement !ould .e essential to efficient "roduction# These "u.lic contro2ersies alarmed <enin and the 7olit.uro#
They came at a time of acute economic crisis !hen it seemed that %rain deli2eries to the to!ns mi%ht cease alto%ether# If the
"easant !ent his o!n !ay I as he threatened to do H then all innerI"arty contro2ersy .ecame meanin%less# The 1olshe2i0 "arty
!as essentially ur.an& !ithout ur.an life it could not sur2i2e# The "easants must .e soothed, the to!n !or0ers must he allo!ed
to ha2e their unions, "arty unity must .e restored# The time for Trots0yFs dri2in% re2olutionary ardour !as o2er#
:2erythin% *e)ce"t the "arty+ must .e sacrificed to ensure "rimiti2e social reconstruction# This could only .e achie2ed .y the
"artial restoration of ca"italism# $uch !as the tactical decision ta0en .y <enin in 19?1# :2en he could not esca"e the fact that
Russia !as still a "easant nation& e2en in the sin%leI"arty $tate the "easantFs desire for a free mar0et in %rain !as su"reme#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >>1I>>L
DThe nation !hich emer%ed from the ci2il !ar !as the shado! of a shado!# 5reat tracts of land and 2alua.le means of
"roduction had .een lost at the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0# 4hat remained !as run do!n .eyond ho"e of ra"id reco2ery# The .are
statistics tell "art of the truth& .y the end of the ci2il !ar Russia=s national income !as only oneIthird of !hat it had .een in
191>, industry !as "roducin% only oneIfifth of !hat !as .ein% "roduced .efore the !ar, the coal mines only oneItenth and the
iron foundries oneIfortieth# The rail!ays had come to a standstill# The mechanism of e)chan%e .et!een to!n and country had
ceased to function# 5he urban %o%ulations, ne"er a signifi4ant %ro%ortion of the +hole, ha& shrunk still further as
famishe& +orkers fle& to the 4ountrysi&e in or&er to %ro4ure the bare ne4essities of life. 5he brea& ration +as nominally
t+o oun4es %er &ay but e"en this +as sometimes not a"ailable. # froDen %otato +as a treasure& fin&. !roken furniture
+as the 4hief means of +ar&ing off the im%erious frosts of a Russian +inter. Further an& %erha%s e"en final e4onomi4
&isasters +ere threatene&. Lo4usts an& san& bliDDar&s in the Bolga region threatene& to &estroy e"en the tough basi4
%easant mo&e of life, sha%e& o"er many 4enturies to en&ure any number of &isasters. !y the en& of 19;1, thirty(si*
million %easants +ere star"ing an& the go"ernment ha& to summon the hel% of foreign relief agen4ies. 6uring these
terrible months, 4annibalism +as freNuently re%orte&. 4hat remained of Russia !as more com"letely de2astated than any
other "art of :uro"e in the t!entieth century# :2en 5ermany in 19JL ra" idly enMoyed the attentions of those !hose interest it
!as s"eedily to restore to health !hat they had Must destroyed# Russia had no such luc0# After the failure of inter2ention, the
5reat 7o!ers i%nored the "li%ht of a nation !hich had recently .een of their num.er .ut !as no! reduced to chaos#
1et!een 1917 and 19?1 the Communist "arty had directed a re2olution in the name of the "roletariat# It "roclaimed a
Xdictatorshi" of the "roletariat= as an inter2enin% sta%e .et!een the "roletarian re2olution and the final !itherin% a!ay of the
$tate# This "ause in the march of the dialectic !as made necessary .y the incom"lete nature of the 1917 re2olution# :)ternal
enemies, the "o!erful ca"italist nations, remained to .e su.dued .y the e)tension of the re2olution, and !ithin Russia "o!erful
remnants of the old .our%eois social order still remained una.sor.ed in the "roletarian state# ConseBuently, the "roletariat must
e)ercise state "o!er until such time as !orld re2olution had remo2ed the e)ternal dan%er, and internal e2olution had miti%ated
the ri%ours of class conflict# Russia remained in 19?1 a class society .ut a dialectically odd thin% had ha""ened# The e)"loited
class H the "roletariat H had no! .ecome the e)"loitin% class, char%ed !ith the tas0 of e)"loitin% the former .our%eois and
feudal classes out of e)istence# The "roletariat, of course, !as .y <eninist inter"retation that class of !hich the Communist "arty
!as the mystical re"resentati2e# There !as no need for any 2ul%ar .our%eois 2otin%# The "arty !as "laced .y history in a
re"resentati2e "osition# 4hat it did ine2ita.ly re"resented the !ill of the "roletariat, e2en thou%h a maMority of actual fleshIandI
.lood "roletarians sho!ed e2ery si%n of !ishin% not to follo! its lead# <enin and his friends had to Mustify themsel2es .efore the
court of the F!orld historical s"iritF, an entity !hich they in fact !orshi""ed# Their minds !ere trained .y t!o decades of
meta"hysical s"eculation# 5hey ha& no &iffi4ulty in e*%laining to themsel"es the theoreti4al Hustifi4ation for any a4tion that
they might ha"e to take. $n 19;1 they Hu&ge& that the %reser"ation of the %arty +as the essential obHe4ti"e e"en if this
meant, as in fa4t it &i&, aban&oning the 4ause of the %roletarians. In the midst of the surroundin% chaos the "arty alone stood
firm# The disinte%ration of Russian society !as not alto%ether to its disad2anta%e# The disa""earance or demotion of the old
%o2ernin% classes, the reduction of all men to a common le2el of misery, the destruction of the other "ossi.le contenders for
su"reme "o!er *the other leftI!in% "arties+ H all these thin%s hel"ed to em"hasise, if only .y contrast, the dominatin% "osition of
the "arty# :2en had <enin not .een "re"ared .y lon% con2iction and stru%%le for the idea of sin%leI"arty rule, the circumstances
of 19?1 !ould ha2e forced such a choice u"on him# The moment !as decisi2e# It !as the moment at !hich the "arty could ha2e
allo!ed "urely national interests to "redominate& it could ha2e called a "olitical truce and sou%ht alliance !ith the other leftI
!in% "arties# This !ould ha2e meant concessions in a democratic direction# The alternati2e !as to retain the "olitical mono"oly
of the "arty .ut to ma0e economic concessions to the stron%est class in the Russian $tate H that is, the "easantry# This !as an
admission a.out the e2ents of 1917I?1 !hich no 'ar)ist cared to admit# That is, it had .ecome clear that the essential result of
these years had .een a successful "easant re2olution# The re2en%e for centuries of serfdom had .een ta0en& a re2olution from
.elo! had .een effected, the "easant mass had .ecome for the first time a force to .e rec0oned !ith# This !as a stran%e and
contradictory result for a soIcalled "roletarian re2olution# It had .een in fact a "easant re2olution, controlled *inasmuch as
anythin% so elemental could .e controlled+ .y a tiny %rou" of .our%eois intelli%entsia# <enin !isely reMected the role of Ain%
Canute& he let the !a2es of "easant re2olution .rea0 as they !ould and then "roudly "roclaimed that he had al!ays intended that
the "easants should do !hat he had no "o!er to sto" them from doin%# $n 19;1 Lenin, his %arty an& the %easants starte& to
rule the inheritan4e left them by the 5sar, his bureau4rats an& his lan&o+ners. 5he &e4ision to 4on4iliate the %easantry,
kno+n as the 0e+ <4onomi4 Poli4y 80.<.P.9, +as ma&e %ubli4 at the 1>th Party -ongress 82ar4h 19;19. Just .efore the
con%ress met, e2ents had occurred !hich, to the nonI'ar)ist o.ser2er, mi%ht !ea0en the "arty=s claim to re"resent the !ill of
the "roletariat# At the military and na2al .ase of Aronstadt the cre! of the .attleshi" Petropavlovs) touched off a mutiny !hich
!as ra"idly or%anized .y a na2al cler0 called 7etrichen0o# The mutineers !ere su""orted .y some of the 7etro%rad !or0ers !ho
!ere in the midst of a !a2e of stri0es on their o!n account# The demands of the mutineers !ere fundamentally antiICommunist#
They !anted freedom of s"eech and of the "ress for all leftI!in% "arties, the a.olition of the s"ecially "ri2ile%ed "osition of the
Communists, full ri%hts for the "easants to do !hat they li0ed !ith land *"ro2ided no hired la.our !as used+, and the reIelection
of the $o2iets .y free and secret .allot# <enin, al!ays the realist, commented& XThey do not !ant the 4hite 5uard and they do
not !ant our "o!er either=# 'ore cunnin% or "erha"s more des"erate than the Tsars, he did not content himself !ith re"ression
alone# True, Trots0y and Tu0hache2s0y enhanced their re"utations for ra"id action .y .rutally massacrin% the Aronstadt
mutineers, .ut !hile they !ere doin% so <enin !as ma0in% concessions !hich met at least a "art of the Aronstadt demands# He
!ould concede neither democracy nor "olitical coIo"eration .ut he !ould allo! the "easants to do as they li0ed !ith the land#
The essence of N #:#7# !as the a.andonment of the system of %rain reBuisitionin% !idely "ractised durin% the ci2il !ar# :2en in
those areas not struc0 do!n .y .li%ht and famine, this system had had disastrous results# The "easants either hid their %rain, or
they resorted to force to defend it, or they "roduced only enou%h for their o!n needs# In any e2ent, the to!ns !ere not fed# No!
a %raduated ta), "aya.le in 0ind, !as to .e su.stituted# A free mar0et in %rain !as to .e restored H a ca"italist de2ice to
encoura%e the "easants to mar0et as much food as they could %ro!# 7erha"s %rain e)"orts could .e rene!ed and used to "ro2ide
the forei%n currency so des"erately reBuired# The "roducts of "easant industry could also .e .rou%ht to the free mar0et# As such
concessions !ould o.2iously %i2e the "easantry a ne! "urchasin% "o!er they must ha2e somethin% to .uy, so li%ht or consumer
industries !ould ha2e to .e encoura%ed# N#:#7# %a2e cautious "ermission to ca"italist entre"reneurs, .oth Russian and forei%n,
to set u" industries !hose "roducts !ould satisfy "easant demand# The $tate retained full control o2er hea2y industry, trans"ort,
forei%n trade and .an0in%# Ca"italism had .een restored to lar%e se%ments of Russian economic life# It !as ho"ed that its "rofits
could .e e2entually di2erted to!ards the ad2ance to socialism, an ad2ance !hich could come a.out only throu%h the
de2elo"ment of hea2y industry# In the meantime, the socialist futme must .e sacrificed in order to conciliate the "easantry# The
results of this decision !ere "rofound and farIreachin%# The ado"tion of N#:#7# meant 2ery much more than its strictly
economic form# It "ro2ided a .reathin% s"ace H .ut a .reathin% s"ace for !hat3 In .rief, a "ause durin% !hich the re2olution
could .e attuned to the traditional facts of Russian life# -rder, sta.ility, !or0Idisci"line, a sense of continuity, a constitutional
and le%al frame!or0, all the institutions of ci2ilised life had to .e restored# Naturally in this 2ast tas0 of reconstruction the
conser2ati2e memories of the "eo"le "layed a %reat "art# <enin had al!ays "roclaimed the need to ada"t the teachin%s of 'ar)
to Russian conditions# The 1olshe2i0s had al!ays .een more Xsla2o"hil= than the 'enshe2i0s# To some e)tent this tendency had
.een arrested .y the 4estern e)ile of the 1olshe2i0 leaders, .ut after 19?1 the s"ecifically Russian nature of the "arty .ecame
more "ronounced# The final 2ictory of the Fsla2o"hilF 1olshe2i0s !as "roclaimed .y the emer%ence of $talin as the leader of the
"arty# His ri2al, Trots0y, !as fatally handica""ed .y his re"utation as a F!esterniserF, a man !ho could not .e trusted to maintain
the .alance .et!een the Russian "ast and the re2olutionary "resent# 4hen $talin too0 the ne)t ste" for!ard .y industrializin%
Russia under the slo%an F$ocialism in -ne CountryF, he !as actin% in a !ay !hich !ould ha2e .een intelli%i.le to any of the
Tsars& that is, inau%uratin% a re2olution from a.o2e !ith the "ur"ose of enhancin% state "o!er# This hel"s to e)"lain !hat the
N#:#7# .reathin% s"ace !as for& it !as to ena.le the "arty to reco2er the traditional "o!ers of the 2i%orous autocrats, to remould
them in the "attern of t!entiethIcentury totalitarianism and to return to the Russian tradition H !hich had .een defied in the
"eriod 1917I?1 H of re2olution from a.o2e#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >>CI>J@
Dtalin)s %o+er +as foun&e& in the mi&&le an& lo+er ranks of the inner(%arty hierar4hy, among the OoutsO +ho +ere on
the e&ge of be4oming Tins). talin e*%e4te& his 4lientele to rig the ele4tions to the -entral -ommittee: in return they 4oul&
e*%e4t %romotion. In order to increase the "atrona%e at his dis"osal, $talin encoura%ed an increase in the size of the Central
Committee& the more "laces to fill, the more "o!er he could e)ercise# <ssentially, talinism +as a %oliti4al system, "ery
similar to su4h systems in all mass %arties. $t +as the %ro&u4t of ambition, i&eology an& organisation. $t +as not, in its
origins, the %ro&u4t of terror. The secret or "olitical "olice *!hich chan%ed its name from Che0a to 57E durin% the t!enties+
!as freely used .y the "arty a%ainst its e)ternal enemies in the nation, .ut it !as not used a%ainst "arty mem.ers until $talin had
achie2ed .ureaucratic centralisation# As the mani"ulator of "olitical "atrona%e he could, of course, !ield Xterror= of a sort .y the
threat to !ithhold "atrona%e# The threat of "ur%e, the fear of %ettin% a Mo. on the "eri"hery rather than in the centre of "o!er,
!ere im"ortant instruments of disci"line H .ut they !ere no different from the "o!ers em"loyed .y the chief of any lar%e
or%anisation in the ca"italist !orld# The %ro!th of the $talinist machine tended to stren%then one of the ori%inal in%redients of
<eninist "arty doctrine# Lenin ha& al+ays em%hasise& the O"oluntaryO or &ynami4 as%e4t of 2ar*ism. 3e ha& traine& a
%arty to seiDe %o+er, not to +ait until 3istory ha& %erforme& its %ro%hesie& anti4s. His ri2als inclined to the .elief that it
!as the duty of the 'ar)ist to !ait until History had com"leted its economic e2olution# In I917 "olitical "o!er had .een seized
.ut the socialist or%anisation of economic life !as slo! to follo!# 0.<.P. seeme& to many to be a &e4laration by Lenin that
the la+s of e4onomi4 &e"elo%ment must be gi"en time to 4at4h u% +ith the %oliti4al re"olution. o4ialism 4oul& be
attaine& only in 4on&itions of %lenty, an& no mere seiDure of %oliti4al %o+er 4oul& ensure +ealth. 1ut the $talinist
reor%anisation of the "arty ena.led the dynamic <eninist line to .e reo"ened# $ocialism *of a sort+ need not .e a!aited& it could
.e %ras"ed, created, dri2en for!ards, .y the ado"tion of economic "lannin% directed .y the o.edient "arty#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >LJ
D1efore the on!ard mo2ement could .e ta0en u" a%ain, $talin had to ensure that his command o2er the middle and lo!er
reaches of the "arty %a2e him com"lete control at the to" as !ell# He !as .y no means the Fcro!n "rinceF to <enin# Trots0y,
Kino2ie2 and Aamene2 all had more "o!erful claims to the Xthrone=# $talin !as re%arded as a dour, dull and industrious
.ureaucrat# $uch claims as he had !ere !ea0ened .y the rumours that <enin had, durin% his last days, directed some scathin%
criticisms at $talin# !ut talin)s trum% 4ar& +as 5rotsky himself. 5his man stoo& hea& an& shoul&ers abo"e his ri"als in
e"ery res%e4t. 3e +as the most brilliant theoreti4ian1 he +as a &emagogue of great %o+er1 a +riter +ho 4oul& illuminate
e"ery subHe4t from history to literary theory1 he kne+ the e*ternal +orl&1 he +as kno+n by foreigners1 he ha& 4reate&
the Re& #rmy1 he ha& le& the 19>? re"olution1 he ha& negotiate& at !rest(Lito"sk1 he +as LeninOs 4losest %oliti4al frien&.
$t seeme& ine"itable that he shoul& as4en& the throne. !ut in an age in +hi4h re"olutionary ar&our +as gi"ing +ay to
organisation, 5rotskyOs gifts an& the su%eriority +hi4h they ga"e him o"er 4ommon mortals +ere a %ositi"e &isa&"antage.
3e +as uni"ersally feare& in the %arty as the 4oming T!ona%arte), the man +ho +oul& use his s%e4ial %osition in the
army to seiDe %o+er o"er the %arty. 5his fear +as absur&. 5rotsky ha& no su4h %lans an& military %o+er +as far &istant
from his essentially 4i"ilian min&. !ut he +as a /e+1 he ha& not Hoine& the !olshe"ik %arty until 19171 he +as brilliant1
he +as Tnot Nuite like us). As the "arty filled u" !ith "eo"le !ho li0e $talin had ne2er .een a.road, !ere not intellectuals, had
not actually !itnessed Trots0y in action in 1917, it .ecame easier for $talin to "oint him out as the enemy of "arty unity, the
comin% dictator a%ainst !hom all %ood "arty mem.ers must close ran0s under the leadershi" of the safe, middleIofItheIroad
leader, $talin# These tactics are reminiscent of those .y !hich the 1ritish 7rime 'inister, 1ald!in, .rou%ht do!n <loyd 5eor%e
in 19??# 4hile <enin li2ed Trots0y continued to enMoy his "rotection, .ut he did little to "re"are himself for the comin%
stru%%le# 7erha"s he !as too confident, "erha"s he !ould not stoo" to a stru%%le for "o!er, "erha"s he misMud%ed the
im"lications of the chan%e from re2olution to or%anisation# The 2ery clarity !ith !hich he e)"ressed his 2ie!s *althou%h these
!ere not nota.ly different from <eninFs+ made him sin%ular# :2ery stand !hich he made seemed to fri%hten or annoy the "arty
ran0 and file# He !as an outs"o0en critic of the trade union %rou" in the "arty *0no!n as the F4or0ersF -""ositionF+# He called
for the a.olition or at least the emasculation of the unions# <enin achie2ed the same result more tactfully .y ensurin% that union
leadershi" remained in the hands of "arty mem.ers and that these mem.ers "ut their loyalty to the "arty .efore their loyalty to
the unions# Trots0y loyally acce"ted .oth N#:#7# and the ordinance of 19?1 !hich for.ade formed o""osition %rou"s !ithin the
"arty# 1ut he !as soon alle%ed to .e an enemy of N#:#7# He s"o0e and !rote enthusiastically in fa2our of "lannin% and
industrialization at a moment !hen the "arty !as tryin% to conciliate the "easantry# XThere may .e moments !hen the
%o2ernment "ays you no !a%es###and !hen you, the !or0ers, ha2e to lend to the $tate#= He !as accused of .ein% the enemy of
the !or0ers and "easants and of see0in% to .uild u" for himself a ne! centre of "o!er as the .oss of industrial "lannin%# His
ima%ination !as cau%ht .y the "ossi.ilities of industrialisation in a .ac0!ard country# He !rote *!ith fatal .rilliance+& F'osco!
is the ca"ital of the Communist International# /ou tra2el a fe! scores of 0ilometres and H there is !ilderness, sno! and fir and
frozen mud and !ild .easts # # #4here $hatura N"o!erO station stands, el0s roamed a fe! years a%o# No! metal "ylons of
e)Buisite construction run the !hole !ay do!n from 'osco!#F He enthused also a.out the "roMected "o!er station on the
6nie"er ra"ids H a !or0 !hich !as shortly to .ecome the sho!"iece of $o2iet Russia# $talin dourly commented that the "o!er
station X!ould .e of no more use to Russia than a %ramo"hone !as to a "easant !ho did not "ossess e2en a co!=# In the field of
forei%n "olicy Trots0y .ecame associated !ith rash and dan%erous attem"ts to "ro2o0e re2olution in forei%n countries# It is
hardly sur"risin%, then, that <eninFs illness and death "ro2o0ed a com.ination a%ainst this a""arently rash, am.itious, unrelia.le
and dan%erous man# Kino2ie2 *<enin%rad "arty .oss+, Aamene2 *'osco! "arty .oss+ and $talin *the Munior "artner+ formed an
antiITrots0y trium2irate# $talin let his "artners do all the !or0 !hile he stood .ac0 and , in "u.lic, "layed the "art of an honest
.ro0er, attem"tin% to moderate the e)cessi2e antiITrots0y hatred of his t!o "artners# 4hen Trots0y attem"ted to unite all the
"arty dissidents a%ainst the trium2irate *7latform of the FortyIsi), 19?>+, the $talinistIdominated Con%ress merely accused him
of .rea0in% the 19?1 rulin% a.out fractionalism# The more he com"lained a.out the lac0 of innerI"arty democracy and the
"o!er of the "arty .ureaucracy, the more it seemed that he !as not a %ood Communist, that his petit %ourgeois 'enshe2i0 "ast
still ruled his mind# The death of <enin *January 19?J+ stren%thened $talinFs hand# He ostentatiously a""eared at the funeral# He
ostentatiously associated himself !ith the "u.lic "reser2ation of <eninFs mummified .ody# He !as the %uardian of the sacred
remains, it !as an easy transition to the .elief that he !as also the anointed heir# This !as a .rilliant stro0e and one !hich !ould
not ha2e occurred to the rationalist intellectual, Trots0y# The rumours of <eninFs deathI.ed dou.ts !ere effecti2ely scotched#
The trium2irate "ressed on ra"idly to disarm Trots0y# The 19?J and 19?L Con%resses !ere "ac0ed a%ainst him so that he could
hardly %et a hearin%# He !as reduced to "u.lishin% accounts of the 1917 re2olution hi%hly unflatterin% to Aamene2 and
Kino2ie2# These t!o called for his e)"ulsion from the "arty .ut $talin, !ith crafty moderation, declared himself content !ith
mere e)"ulsion from the commandin% "osition in the 4ar Commissariat *I 9? L +# This effecti2ely disarmed Trots0y and left
$talin free to turn suddenly u"on his former allies# As the leaders of the .i% city "arties, Aamene2 and Kino2ie2 !ere under
much "ressure to ease the condition of ur.an !or0ers# Enem"loyment !as !ides"read, the "easant "ros"ered !hile the !or0er
star2ed# The cities !anted a chan%e in the N#:#7# "ro%ramme# They !anted more in2estment in industry# $talin too0 the
o""ortunity offered .y this "ro%ramme no! ad2ocated .y his allies# He accused them of .ein% Trots0yites at heart, of .ein% the
enemies of the "easant, of N#:#7#, of <eninFs memory# He turned for su""ort to the ri%ht !in% of the "arty, 1u0harin, Ry0o2 and
Toms0y# The o.edient machine duly thre! u" a maMority# Aamene2 and Kino2ie2 fou%ht hard .ut a%ainst them could .e used
e)actly the same !ea"on !hich had .een used a%ainst Trots0y H fractionalism# FThe defeat of Kino2ie2 at the Con%ress !as
follo!ed .y a thorou%h "ur%e of the <enin%rad a""aratus .y 'oloto2# Then the faithful $talinist, Airo2, !as "laced on
Kino2ie2Fs minor .ut "o!erful throne# -nly mo""in%Iu" o"erations !ere no! reBuired# Trots0y "ro2ided the initiati2e !hich
allo!ed $talin to "ut the finishin% touches to his tactical master"iece# No! the reason for allo!in% Trots0y to remain in
circulation a""eared# In des"eration, Trots0y, Kino2ie2 and Aamene2 united forces a%ainst $talin# This !as enou%h to discredit
all three# 'ith 4onsi&erable but futile ingenuity 5rotsky sket4he& out a %rogramme the "ery e*isten4e of +hi4h +as a
4on&emnation. 3e argue& that the re"olution ha& su44umbe& to a petit bourgeois rea4tion. 3e atta4ke& !ukharin 8no+
talinOs ally9 for being the frien& of the kulak 3a& not !ukharin en4ourage& the ri4h %easants to enri4h themsel"es still
further? 5his +as to 4arry 0.<.P. far beyon& +hat ha& originally been inten&e& by Lenin. Lenin ha& en"isage& a
tem%orary retreat, not a 4om%lete rout. !ut the time +as long %ast for ingenious arguments. 5he &elegates to the 1?th
-onferen4e 819;:9 ne"er e"en listene&. 5hey shoute& &o+n the o%%osition s%eakers. talin, %laying to his right(+ing
au&ien4e, a44use& 5rotsky of +ishing to &e4lare +ar on the %easantry, of stirring u% trouble at home an& abroa&. 3e +on
an o"er+helming "i4tory. 5rotsky +as e*%elle& from the Politburo an& from the -entral -ommittee 819;79. 5hen, in
utter &es%air, he 4ommitte& the unforgi"able sin. 3e O%ro"e&O that all the 4harges against him +ere true. !y means of
street meetings an& 4lan&estine %ro%agan&a he trie& to arouse %arty an& %o%ular feeling against the lea&ershi%. 7n the
tenth anni"ersary of the re"olution 80o"ember 19;79, the 4hief ar4hite4t of !olshe"ik su44ess in 1917 attem%te& to
o"erthro+ the ne+ master of Russia. 5here +as no res%onse. 5he %arty +as horrifie&: the 4ity 4ro+&s merely ga%e& at
the former %o%ular hero. 'ith great foresight talin refraine& from the %ermanent elimination of 5rotsky, +ho +as first
e*ile& to the -hinese frontier an& then 819;99 &e%orte&. 5rotsky abroa& +as still to &o talin great ser"i4e. The other
o""ositionists !ere recei2ed .ac0 into fa2our# As re"entants they could still .e "ressed into ser2ice a%ainst 1u0harin and the
ri%ht# For, of course, $talin had merely used 1u0harin as a tem"orary ally# Hardly had Trots0y ta0en u" residence at AlmaIAta
than $talin .e%an to "ut into effect the economic "olicy !hich Trots0y had ad2ocated for fi2e years# 1ut there !as an im"ortant
difference .et!een $talinFs e)ecution of industrialisation and Trots0yFs ad2ocacy of it# talin)s %oli4y of Tso4ialism in one
4ountry) ha& as its sole obHe4ti"e the strengthening of the Russian tate. 5he i&eal of so4ialism +as to be subor&inate& to
the gro+th of state %o+er. Trots0y, on the other hand, had ad2ocated industrialisation as a necessary ste" for!ard to socialism#
4ithout the increase of !ealth !hich industrialisation !ould .rin% he considered that it !ould .e im"ossi.le to mo2e for!ard
from the N#:#7# era into the socialist society !hich the 1917 re2olution made "ossi.le# His main o.Mecti2e !as not the %ro!th of
state "o!er .ut the de2elo"ment of a ne! order of economic and social relationshi"s# In his 2ie! the creation of a !ealthy, Must
and modern socialist order in Russia !as the .est !ay of ensurin% that the re2olution !ould e)tend into :uro"e and Asia# It !as
difficult for him to infect his contem"oraries !ith his "o!erful yet ne.ulous 2ision# $talinFs line !as safer, it !as more in tune
!ith Russian national traditions, it offered a clearer tas0 for the "arty .ureaucracy# 4ith the elimination of Trots0y it !as
sim"le to neutralise the "rotests of the ri%htI!in% leaders# Their defence of the "easantry !as de"icted as a continuation of the
"o"ulist mood of the "re2ious century# They seemed to stand in the !ay of $talinFs .old "lan to ma0e Russia stron%# 1u0harin,
Ry0o2 and Toms0y !ere allo!ed to recant .ut they !ere e)"elled from the 7olit.uro and thereafter had little influence# This left
the $talinist centre in "o!er# The a%e of innerI"arty "olitics !as o2er#G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# >LLI>L9
DIn the end, $talin im"osed his !ill u"on 7oland# Russian national aims !ere achie2ed !ithout su.Mectin% the 7olish Buestion to
a "eace conference# A CommunistIdominated %o2ernment !as set u" in 4arsa!# 'ore im"ortant, the !estern frontier chan%es
made the ne! 7oland !holly reliant u"on the $o2iet Enion# 'illions of 5ermans had to .e e)"elled from their homes in the
-derINeisse territory# This ensured that 7oland !ould .e "ermanently faced .y the 5erman demand for re2en%e and only the
$o2iet Enion could defend her a%ainst the 5erman threat# 1et!een the !ars 7oland !as su""osed to defend :uro"e a%ainst
Russia& after 19JL 7oland .ecame RussiaFs .ul!ar0 a%ainst :uro"e# The 7olish model !as follo!ed in the Russian dealin%s
!ith the conBuered 1al0an countries# As the Red Army o2erran these areas *19JJIL+ only the fiction of Allied control !as
retained# In fact, the $o2iet %o2ernment alone im"osed armistice terms, set u" friendly "ro2isional %o2ernments and made
"olitical arran%ements of a "ermanent nature# In Romania, for e)am"le, the $o2iet Enion !ithout consultin% its allies o2erthre!
one "ro2isional %o2ernment in order to install another more o.edient to its !ill# To An%loI$a)on o.Mections $talin al!ays
offered t!o e)cuses# First, that the An%loI$a)ons had done the same in Italy, and secondly that it !as essential to ensure safe
lines of communication !hile the !ar continued a%ainst the 5ermans# 1ut there !as another side to $talinFs Fs"heres of influenceF
"olicy# He reco%nized the "oint at !hich he had to sto"# Churchill disco2ered this !hen he !ent to 'osco! in -cto.er 19JJ#
4ith dramatic ease he made a 2er.al a%reement !ith $talin to the effect that Russia !ould not %i2e aid to the 5ree0
communists# The latter !ere causin% %ra2e concern to the 1ritish %o2ernment# 1ritish troo"s !ere already in action a%ainst them
and the commitment seemed intolera.le !hile the fi%htin% a%ainst 5ermany continued# $talin had no "lans for a Russian
in2asion of 5reece# His "olitical aims stretched no further than the Red Army could march# In France, too, he !as !illin% to
acce"t a "olitical settlement hi%hly disad2anta%eous to the "o!erful French Communist "arty# He reco%nised the ri%ht of de
5aulle to head the French "ro2isional %o2ernment and he .ac0ed de 5aulle=s demands for an eBual 2oice in the alliance# He
could not ha2e more clearly demonstrated the main im"ulse .ehind his forei%n "olicy# 0one kne+ better than talin that the
aftermath of +ar is re"olution. !ut he sho+e& that he &i& not inten& to take a&"antage of the re"olutionary situation in
<uro%e as a re"olutionary lea&er. 3e meant only to buil& an em%ire out of the 4onNuests of the Re& #rmy. Althou%h the
de2elo"ment of $talinFs "olicy caused much an)iety amon% his allies H an an)iety most acutely felt .y Churchill H the second
meetin% of the 1i% Three at /alta *Fe.ruary 19JL+ "assed off 2ery cordially# Roose2elt !as determined to "re2ent the 7olish
"ro.lem from "oisonin% relations# He !as deli%hted to find that $talin seemed much more enthusiastic a.out the future role of
the Enited Nations# He !as relie2ed to %et from $talin a firm underta0in% to enter the !ar a%ainst Ja"an three months after the
surrender of 5ermany# 1oth he and Churchill !ere "leased .y the recent e2idence of $o2iet military coIo"eration# 4hen the
!estern front had .een tem"orarily endan%ered .y the 5erman Ardennes offensi2e $talin had !illin%ly altered the timeta.le of
$o2iet offensi2es in order to ta0e the !ei%ht off his allies# Roose2elt has .een accused of e)cessi2e %enerosity to!ards $talin at
/alta# It is true that some American officials, li0e Aennan, had already "ercei2ed the menace of Russian am.itions# 1ut
Roose2elt !as con2inced that any "ostI!ar settlement must rely u"on %ood!ill .et!een the $o2iet Enion and the Enited $tates#
He thou%ht that it !ould .e im"ossi.le for his %o2ernment to 0ee" troo"s in :uro"e after the end of the !ar# -nly .y %ood
relations could Russia .e 0e"t from dominatin% the !hole continent# $ince none of the %o2ernments had any fi)ed "olicy a.out a
"ermanent 5erman settlement they merely a%reed on "ro2isional arran%ements to follo! the 5erman surrender# 'ilitary zones
!ere allocated and an interIallied control council created for the settlement of Buestions !hich concerned the !hole of 5ermany#
The "ros"ect of these tem"orary arran%ements .ecomin% "ermanent !as raised .y the $o2iet insistence u"on enormous
re"arations# In fact as the Russian armies ad2anced the $o2iet Enion hel"ed itself to the economic resources of the areas under
its control# In the lon% run this !as .ound to lead to the creation of an economic structure in eastern 5ermany Buite different
from that of the 4est# 1ut at /alta it seemed only common Mustice that Russia, !hich had suffered so terri.ly from the 5erman
in2asion should recou" some of her losses# The one thin% !hich mi%ht ha2e "re2ented $talin from doin% this H a firm "romise of
American "ostI!ar economic aid H e2en Roose2elt !as una.le to %i2e# After /alta relations .et!een the Allies deteriorated
ra"idly# Roose2elt=s successor, Truman, did not share his "redecessor=s sense of common "artnershi" in a %reat cause# He !as
more influenced .y the %ro!in% o"inion amon% his officials that Russia !as actually a menace to American security# American
military o"inion !as less certain of the necessity of Russian aid a%ainst Ja"an# Re"orts indicated the re2olutionary nature of the
atomic .om. !hich had recently .een successfully e)"loded for the first time# At the 7otsdam conference *July 19JL+ Truman
too0 a harsher line than his "redecessor# He sho!ed $talin that Russia could not e)"ect an American loan, he told $talin a.out
the .om., and he said that Russia could not e)"ect to ta0e "art in the "ostI!ar occu"ation of Ja"an# At /alta $talin had %ained
an e)tra2a%ant "rice for $o2iet entry into the !ar a%ainst Ja"an# From Ja"an he !as to %et the Auriles and southern $a0halin#
From China he !as to %et control o2er the 'anchurian rail!ays and s"ecial ri%hts o2er 7ort Arthur and 6airen# In fact, Russia
!as to .e restored to the "osition !hich she had occu"ied .efore 19@L# In order to %ain these national territorial o.Mecti2es $talin
a.andoned the Chinese Communist "arty# He acce"ted Chian% AaiIshe0 as the ri%htful ruler of China H althou%h it should .e
o.ser2ed that he !ea0ened and humiliated the Nationalist %o2ernment of China .y ma0in% these territorial demands# The $o2iet
acce"tance of the Chinese Nationalists !as a %reat relief to Roose2elt# Chian% had not had a successful !ar# In s"ite of massi2e
American aid he had .een consistently defeated .y the Ja"anese# :2en in 2ictory his %o2ernment !ould .e !ea0# If the $o2iet
Enion had chosen to .ac0 the Chinese Communists the !hole .asis of American "olicy in the 7acific !ould ha2e .een
undermined# In s"ite of Truman=s coolness, $talin hurried to %ain the Far :astern territories "romised at /alta# -n C Au%ust the
first .om. !as dro""ed on Hiroshima# -n Au%ust Russia declared !ar a%ainst Ja"an# $o2iet forces in 'anchuria indirectly,
and "erha"s un!ittin%ly, hel"ed the Chinese Communists to %et the lion=s share of surrendered Ja"anese !ar material# This
hel"ed them to seize "o!er four years later H an e2ent almost as un!elcome to $talin as to the American %o2ernment# Russia %ot
!hat she had .een "romised at /alta .ut nothin% more# From 'osco!=s 2ie!"oint it could .e ar%ued that Ja"an !as the
American s"here of influence Must as the 1al0ans !ere the Russian# 'any ha2e !ondered !hether the destruction of the
!artime alliance could ha2e .een "re2ented .y any one "erson or .y any sin%le act of "olicy# The !orld %ained so much from
the stran%e alliance and has lost so much .y its dissolution into the Cold 4ar# An a""roach to the "ro.lem is offered .y an
analysis of the "ossi.ilities o"en to $talin at the end of the !ar# As has .een seen, he ado"ted a "olicy of national e)"ansion#
T!o other courses !ere "ossi.le# First, he could ha2e e)"loited the re2olutionary "otential of international communism# It is
unli0ely that this course !ould ha2e caused less tension .et!een Russia and her allies# $econdly, he could ha2e fallen in !ith
Roose2elt=s "lan for an international settlement .ased u"on the continuation of the !artime alliance# 1ut as a 'ar)ist $talin
could ha2e felt no confidence in the continuation of an alliance .et!een a socialist and ca"italist "o!ers# The Enited $tates and
her allies !ould dominate the Enited Nations, they !ould insist u"on "eace terms !hich !ould deny Russia such security as her
"osition in 19JL allo!ed her to ta0e# American !ealth and the American .om. endan%ered Russian interests in the lon% run Must
as much as 5ermany and Ja"an had threatened her "re2iously# $talin thou%ht in terms of ine2ita.le conflict# The elimination of
old enmities merely made room for ne! ones and a di2ided 5ermany sym.olised the ne! order# Could $talin "ossi.ly ha2e
ho"ed for such an ad2anta%eous settlement from any "eace conference3 The An%loI$a)ons !ere .ound to !ant to restore
5erman "ros"erity and economic unity in the end# -nly .y "uttin% an iron curtain round his conBuests could $talin ensure that
5ermany !ould .e too !ea0 to re"eat for a third time the eastern conBuests !hich had t!ice in his o!n lifetime de2astated
Russia# Althou%h the decisi2e factors had chan%ed enormously since the time !hen he too0 o2er the conduct of forei%n "olicy,
$talinFs style remained constant until his death in 19L># F$ocialism in one countryF had meant a cautious, defensi2e "olicy in
!hich $o2iet interests had .een "laced a lon% !ay ahead of re2olutionary ideals# /et these ideals ha2e ne2er .een o"enly
re"udiated and the historical analysis u"on !hich they are .ased remains the dri2in% force of the rulin% class of the $o2iet
Enion# In the "arty 2ie!, there remains an irreconcila.le conflict .et!een ca"italism and communism and, ho!e2er lon% it may
.e necessary to !ait, History is on the communist side# In the short 2ie! $talin may .e the man !ho .etrayed the re2olution, .ut
in a lon%er "ers"ecti2e he may .e seen as the man !ho "reser2ed it durin% the days of its !ea0ness# 5he %osition of the o"iet
Cnion in 19@? is 4om%arable +ith that of the Russian <m%ire in 1A1?. # terrible &efeat ha& in both 4ases been turne&
into a s+ift an& o"er+helming "i4tory. $n both 4ases, sus%i4ious allies resente& the e*tent of Russian %o+er. 5hese
sus%i4ions +ere imme&iately transforme& into a Nuarrel about the %oliti4al frontiers of 4entral <uro%e. 1ut here the
similarities end# In 11L, Ale)ander I had secured the consent of conser2ati2e :uro"e for the "eace settlement !hich he hel"ed
to create# The rulers of 7russia and Austria, sometimes the rulers of France, !ere the natural allies of the Russian Tsar a%ainst
any attem"t to o2erthro! the 11L settlement# $talin !as far more "o!erful than Ale)ander I# -nly the Enited $tates !as in the
same class of military and economic "o!er# 1ut the ruler of Communist Russia could not ho"e to secure consent for a :uro"ean
"eace treaty as Ale)ander had done# For 'etternich, Ale)ander had .een the .ul!ar0 of a conser2ati2e social system# For
Truman and 6ulles, $talin re"resented a threat su.2ersi2e to their ideolo%y# If Russia in 19JL had merely .een another 5reat
7o!er, no dou.t some accommodation !ith the Enited $tates could ha2e .een reached# 1ut Russia !as much more than a ri2al
for !orld "o!er# Her social system !as an affront to American ideolo%ists, Must as that of Tsarist Russia had .een to 1ritish
Russo"ho.es in the nineteenth century# Russia had no ri%ht to flaunt such a different !ay of life# The fact that $o2iet
Communism !as also Buite successful made it all the more dan%erous# 4hen reli%ious enthusiasm has !aned, "olitical systems
.ecome all the more im"ortant# Human nature !as not so di2erse as to admit the simultaneous e)istence of "olitical systems so
different as Fthe American !ay of lifeF and $o2iet Communism# -ne must .e ri%ht and the other !ron%# This !as the .asis of the
cold !ar# It !as intensified .y military and strate%ic factors .ut it !as at .ottom an ideolo%ical conflict# It has .een asserted that
midIt!entiethIcentury technolo%ical de2elo"ments !ill ma0e .oth the ca"italist and the communist systems identical# This
seems dou.tful in the li%ht of "ast Russian history# Tsarist and $talinist Russia follo!ed the 4est throu%h the Industrial
Re2olution .ut Russia still remained distinct from the 4est# It !ill .e difficult *e2en if it !ere desira.le+ to eradicate the effects
of centuries of autocracy# Russia has continued to mo2e alon% her o!n "ath of de2elo"ment# It has .een a "ath !hich has led her
to emulate many of the achie2ements of the 4est, to try to .ecome more "o!erful than the 4est, to .eat the 4est at its o!n
%ame, .ut fe! Russians ha2e e2er thou%ht it desira.le to co"y the social and economic forms of 4estern :uro"e and the Enited
$tates# Ale)ander IIFs attem"t to %raft 4estern li.eralism !as a total failure# 5he Russian "ie+s about the nature of man, the
tate an& %oliti4al %o+er ha"e been an& remain &ifferent from those of the 'est.G
H .ussia from 1@1E to 12?A/ , -istory .y 5raham $te"henson, "# JJCIJL1
$olo"omor. 8oscow Show =rials. an" the 4reat P&rge
E0rainian "easants i%nore cor"ses of star2ed "easants on a street in Ahar0i2, $o2iet E0raine in 19>> durin% the 5reat Famine of 19>?I
19>>, also 0no!n as DHolodomorG# 'illions of E0rainians li2in% in $o2iet Enion died of star2ation due to Josef $talin=s "olicy of
collecti2ization of $o2iet a%riculture#
A scene from a 'osco! 7ur%e Trial in the 19>@s# Josef $talin ordered ri2al Communist 7arty mem.ers !ho !ere loyal to <eon
Trots0y or !ho !ere "ercei2ed as a threat to Josef $talin "ersonally to .e tried in court, !here sus"ects !ere forced to confess to their
DcrimesG# 'ost Communist Dsus"ectsG !ere e)ecuted u"on con2iction#
A Communist "arty official instructs "easants on collecti2ization *Ro%er 8iollet;5amma <iaison+
Russian farmers de"osit %rain in a Russian church in 7etro2s0y in 19>@# The church !as .ein% used as a %ranary#
*E7I;Cor.isI1ettmann+
5he 7rtho&o* -hur4h in o"iet Russia
1y 7aul 1# Anderson
January 19C1 Issue of Forei%n Affairs
Christianity entered Russia from 1yzantium# In the year 9, 7rince 8ladimir !as .a"tized in the Ri2er 6nie"er, !ith all the
inha.itants of Aie2, and the "a%an statues !ere destroyed# Thus !as .orn the Russian -rthodo) Church, and thus 1yzantine
theolo%y, litur%ical forms and churchIstate relationshi"s !ere esta.lished as .asic characteristics of "o"ular reli%ion in Russia#
$ince this missionary enter"rise too0 "lace at the hei%ht of the Buarrel .et!een the 7atriarch of the :ast and the 7o"e of the
4est, the Russian Church and "eo"le inherited the :astern ChurchFs anta%onism to Rome and the 4est and shared its isolation
from the Renaissance, the Reformation and the rise of modern conce"ts of social Christianity# Instead, the Russian -rthodo)
Church entered the t!entieth century !ith the reli%ious outloo0 de2elo"ed no later than the $e2enth :cumenical Council, held in
77# The Russians claim !ith "ride that the -rthodo) Church is the true Church of the A"ostles, the $cri"ture, the creeds and the
canons acce"ted in the first se2en Councils, and they loo0 %in%erly at all other churches, !hich, they say, se"arated from it at the
time of the 5reat $chism#
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#forei%naffairs#com;articles;71C11;"aulI.Ianderson;theIorthodo)IchurchIinIso2ietIrussia
7hoto of the destruction of the ori%inal Church of Christ the $a2iour in 'osco!, $o2iet Russia in 19>1#
Trial of the T!entyI-ne *'arch 19>+& 'osco! $ho! Trial *Aan%aroo Court+ :)traordinaire
-ikolay Grestinsky
So#iet m!assa"or to
4ermany (()0(A()1D)E
PeopleIs Commissar for
Finance of the /&ssian
SFS/ (()(2A()00)E
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
%arch 1@, 1985
4enrikh 4rigorye#ich
'ago"a
PeopleIs Commissar for
>nternal ffairs (-G5F)
(()1*A()13)
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
%arch 1@, 1985
le<ei /yko#
Chairman of the Co&ncil
of PeopleIs Commissars
of the So#iet Union (()0*A
()1D)E <&ec/ted in
%oscow on %arch 1@,
1985
-ikolai B&kharin
Chairman of the
Comm&nist >nternational
(Comintern. ()03A()0))E
J"itorAinAChief of Pravda
(()(2A()0))E
<&ec/ted in %oscow on
%arch 1@, 1985
Christian /ako#sky
So#iet m!assa"or to
France (()0+A()06)E
Chairman of the Co&ncil
of PeopleIs Commissars
of the Ukrainian SS/
(()()A()01)E <&ec/ted
on Se9te)3er 11, 1961
%osef Stalin , ?Comra"es@ participate at the f&neral of Feli< F;er;hinsky. fo&n"er of the Cheka. in 8oscow in %&ly ()03. From
left to right: leksei /yko#. 4enrikh 'ago"a (in cap). 8. >. Galinin. Leon =rotsky. Le# B. Gamene#. %osef Stalin. G. 4. /ako#sky
(o!sc&re" !y StalinNs sho&l"er). an" -ikolai B&kharin. /yko#. 'ago"a. an" B&kharin were all e<ec&te" (shot) after the 8oscow
=rials on 8arch (+. ()12. Gamene# was e<ec&te" in ()13E =rotsky was assassinate" in 8e<ico in ()*D. /ako#sky was
imprisone" an" e<ile" !y Stalin "&ring the p&rges.
%osef Stalin. -ikolai 'e;ho# (-G5F chief). an" 5yachesla# 8oloto# (later Foreign 8inister) walk along the shore of the 8oskwaA
WolgaAChannel in the late ()1Ds. Ye7ho was tort/red and e&ec/ted in %oscow on -e3r/ar+ 6, 196?.
=he first fi#e 8arshals of the So#iet Union in -o#em!er. ()1+. Left to right: 8ikhail =&khache#sky. Semyon B&"yonny. Gliment
5oroshilo#. 5asily Bly&kher. leksan"r 'egoro#. Hnly B&"yonny an" 5oroshilo# s&r#i#e" the 4reat P&rge 8arshal 5asily
Bly&kher was a So#iet military a"#iser in China from ()0* to ()06. assisting 4eneralissimo Chiang GaiAshek an" the Chinese
-ationalists.
A son emer%es from the shado!s& $er%o 1eria comes out of J1 years of anonymity and
tells Andre! Hi%%ins in Aie2 a.out his father, $talinFs dreaded henchman
1y AN6R:4 HI55IN$
4ednesday @C July 199J
FRO 23 $une ./14 5 the da- 6ikita Khrush(hev drove his father from the Kremlin at gun7oint 5 until toda-8 3 $ul- .//9 5 the
date his :lue servi(e 7ass7ort issued :- the Soviet Union e!7ires 5 the son of one the (entur-;s great villains has lived as someone
else<
For the 7ast four de(ades8 he %ent :- the name Sergei 'lekseevi(h )ege(hkori8 a fake identit- (rafted :- the se(ret 7oli(emen his
father on(e (ommanded< ;The- said * needed a ne% name to 7rote(t me from the rage of the 7eo7le8; he re(alls< ;- friends8
though8 all (all me Sergo<;
'nd this is the name that links this =oll-8 rol-57ol-8 3/5-ear5old %ith the most (hilling figure of Soviet histor-<
+e %as named Sergo at :irth in the )eorgian (a7ital of T:ilisi in honour of Sergo Ordzhonokidze8 a Bolshevik %ho (on>uered the
Cau(asus for Communism :ut %hose :rutalit- sho(ked even ?enin into denoun(ing him as a thug<
But it is Sergo;s full name 5 the one he ho7es to get 7ut in a ne% 7ass7ort issued :- the ne% inde7endent state of Ukraine 5 that
re(alls the :loodiest e7isodes of all: Sergo ?avrentievi(h Beria<
+is father %as ?avrenti Beria8 head of the 6K@& from ./4A until ./93 and overall (hief of 7erha7s the most ruthless se(urit-
a77aratus ever assem:led until Stalin;s and then his o%n death in ./14< 'fter he died8 o%ners of the )reat Soviet Bn(-(lo7aedia
%ere invited to 7aste over a glo%ing entr- on Beria %ith a su:stitute te!t on the Bering Sea<
;* am not tr-ing to reha:ilitate m- father< 6o one in that regime (an :e reha:ilitated :ut things should :e kno%n8; sa-s Sergo8
%ho has =ust 7u:lished his memoirs in Russian: - Father: ?avrenti Beria<
+e des(ri:es life at home %ith a man usuall- remem:ered as a 7rolifi( murderer and insatia:le %omaniser: ;+e liked histor- and
loved :ooks< +e had a ver- good li:rar-< 'll of us %ere edu(ated 7eo7le<; ' ro(ket s(ientist :- training8 Sergo remem:ers the
famil- mansion on @s7oln- ?ane8 %here the- lived after moving from T:ilisi to os(o% in ./4A8 as a san(tuar- of (ivilised
(onversation< @istors8 he said8 in(luded the Cam:ridge s7-8 Kim #hil:-8 the 'meri(an nu(lear s(ientist8 Ro:ert O77enheimer8
and )olda eir8 *srael;s am:assador to os(o%< ' fre>uent (aller %as Stalin;s daugher8 Svetlana8 %hom he remem:ers fondl- as
a lost little girl :ut %hom he also (riti(ises for turning against her father8 %hom Sergo never refers to as Stalin :ut al%a-s :- the
more (osil- res7e(tful $osef @issarionovi(h<
+e sa-s his father al%a-s sle7t at home and re=e(ts tales of e7i( le(her-8 although he does (on(ede at least one (hild from an illi(it
liaison< ;?ots of old maids no% (laim the- %ere his mistress< * kno% onl- one thing< *n the earl- ./10s father told me: ?ife is ver-
strangeC -ou have a little sister<;
The )reat Terror did sometimes im7inge: ;*t %as ver- un7leasant to kno% the- are listening %hen -ou are alone %ith -our %ife< *
asked m- father to do something< +e said: ;Dou are a s(ientist8 %h- don;t -ou make something so the- (annot hear %hat -ou do in
-our :edroom?; ;
Sometimes8 though8 Sergo did the eavesdro77ing< +e sa-s he %as flo%n to Tehran at the end of ./94 to hel7 translate ta7e5
re(ordings of :ugged (onversations :et%een Roosevelt and Chur(hill at the first 'llied meeting to %hi(h Stalin had :een invited<
;* am fed u7 of reading ru::ish a:out m- father8; he sa-s< ;+e %as not a monster< +e %as smart< +e %as soft<;
One thing he %ants 7ut straight is ho% his father died< The offi(ial version is that he %as e!e(uted on 29 &e(em:er ./14 for
treason8 (ounter5revolutionar- (ons7ira(- and other (rimes< The (ase %as heard in (amera :- a kangaroo (ourt< S(holars are still
m-stified a:out %hat reall- ha77ened<
Sergo insists his father died si! months earlier8 on the da- Khrush(hev moved to fill a 7o%er va(uum left :- Stalin;s death in
ar(h< ;The outer %all %here m- father had his stud- and :edroom had :ig holes from :ullets< There had o:viousl- :een
shooting< The %indo% %as :roken and so %as the door< ,e %ere standing outside for a:out 20 minutes %hen some 7eo7le (ame
out %ith a stret(her (overed :- a tar7aulin< The- 7ut it in an armoured (ar< Then one of our :od-guards shouted: ;Sergo8 that is
-our father;<;
'rrested that night along %ith his mother8 6ino8 he %as held first at a da(ha outside os(o% and then at ?efortovo #rison< Freed
a -ear later8 the- moved to Sverdlovsk8 a (it- %here a -oung :uilding foreman (alled Boris Deltsin %as :eginning his (lim: of the
Communist #art- hierar(h-< Sergo resumed %ork on missile s-stems and later moved to Kiev<
?avrenti Beria;s %ido% died t%o -ears ago< Sergo %ent :a(k to )eorgia %ith his o%n son8 also a s(ientist8 to :ur- her< The- had a
talk %ith Bduard Shevardnadze a:out designing an anti5air(raft s-stem<
Sergo then travelled alone to his father;s :irth7la(e in erkheuli8 a village in the %ar5ravaged region of ':hazia on the Bla(k Sea<
Four de(ades after Beria;s death8 though8 the %herea:outs of his grave is still se(ret< 'long %ith Stalin8 another )eorgian :ut one
:uried in Red S>uare8 ?avrenti Beria is Russia;s nightmare< 'lso its e!(use< ;Right u7 to )or:a(hev the- all ke7t sa-ing the same
thing: ever-thing %as %ell %ith the #art- until those t%o )eorgians made us all so unha77-<;
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#inde"endent#co#u0;ne!s;!orld;aIsonIemer%esIfromItheIshado!sIser%oI.eriaIcomesIoutIofIJ1IyearsIofI
anonymityIandItellsIandre!Ihi%%insIinI0ie2Ia.outIhisIfatherIstalinsIdreadedIhenchmanI1J119C7#html
DI did not !rite this .oo0 in order to reha.ilitate the memory of my father H or, at least, that !as not my "rime "ur"ose# I am
"erfectly !ell a!are no! that it !as not "ossi.le to .e one of the leaders of the E$$R !ithout soilin% oneFs hands# There !as
al!ays a choice to .e made# 'y father !as a mem.er of the 7olit.uro and of the %o2ernment# He !as res"onsi.le, li0e the rest,
for all the acts of that %o2ernment, e2en if he disa%reed !ith some of them# 1ut a certain Russian intelli%entsia, !hich I shall call
chau2inist, "resents the $talin "eriod in a !ay that I !ant to challen%e# If !e are to .elie2e the re"resentati2es of this tendency,
the unfortunate Russian "eo"le fell 2ictim to nonIRussians !ho had seized "o!er and .e%un to e)"loit the Russians#
Communism and <eninism !ould ha2e .orne a human face had they not .een deformed .y t!o uncouth Asiatics from the
Caucasus and, a.o2e all, .y the monster 1eria# 4ell, I maintain that, !hate2er they may say, the Russians .ear some
res"onsi.ility for !hat ha""ened# They !elcomed !ith enthusiasm the "lunderin% and e)"ro"riation "reached .y the
1olshe2i0s# They acce"ted the slau%hterin% of officers and "riests# A handful of 1olshe2i0s !ould ne2er ha2e mana%ed to
im"ose this monstrous "olicy from 1917 on!ards had they not enMoyed the acti2e su""ort of the Russian "eo"le# True, nonI
Russians !ere numerous amon% the first 1olshe2i0 leaders# 1ut !ithout the .ac0in% of the Russian masses, these leaders !ould
ne2er ha2e im"lemented any of their "ro%rammes# 1esides, the influence of indi2iduals on the 1olshe2i0 system !as al!ays
limited# The "ersonality of one leader or another mi%ht em"hasise certain features .ut could not modify the foundations of the
re%ime# 'y father !as accused of res"onsi.ility for e2erythin% that !ent !ron% so as to e)cul"ate the 1olshe2i0 system and the
7arty# $ince he had "ut the 7arty in Meo"ardy it !as necessary to conceal at all costs the fact that he had .een a "olitical
ad2ersary# The sim"lest thin% to do !as to sho! him to the masses as a .andit at all le2els I traitor, s"y, ra"ist, i%noramus and
oaf into the .ar%ain# /et it is enou%h to ta0e co%nisance of the minutes of the July 19L> 7lenum to see that the char%es .rou%ht
a%ainst him !ere essentially "olitical in nature# He !as accused of ha2in% !anted to reunify 5ermany .y a.andonin% the
construction of $ocialism in the 56R, of ha2in% sa.ota%ed the collecti2eIfarm system, of ha2in% sou%ht to emanci"ate the
re"u.lics and to reduce the role of the 7arty I in short, of not .ein% a Communist# Today, the 7arty and 1olshe2ism ha2e
2anished from the scene, .ut !here my father is concerned the same line is follo!ed, this time o!in% to the incura.le
chau2inism !ith !hich the Russian elites are infected# The notes and re"orts that my father addressed to the 7residium, !ith his
"ro"osals for reforms, ha2e still not .een "u.lished# I a!ait !ith im"atience the o"enin% of the archi2es, as this !ill ma0e it
"ossi.le to determine the actual de%ree of his %uilt# He has .een de"icted as a careerist !ithout any con2iction# I consider that if
he had !anted to ta0e "o!er, he could ha2e done that in $talinFs lifetime as !ell as after his death# I !ant to sho! that, from the
start, my father had a "olicy# $ometimes he !as a.le to "ut it into effect, at other times this !as not "ossi.le# This "olicy !as
"ursued throu%h o""osition, sometimes mas0ed, at other times o"en, to the leaders of the 7arty# He !as certainly no humanist
!ho dreamt of the "eo"leFs !ellI.ein%# He !as a "ra%matic statesman !ho !anted to %et results# He !as a%ainst the re"ression
not out of humanity .ut .ecause he considered men !ere not to .e !on o2er .y fear# This concern for effecti2eness dictated his
"olicy in e2ery s"here& in a%riculture, industry, forei%n "olicy, national "olicy, !hich !ere all interlin0ed# The conflict
crystallised around forei%n "olicy# 'y father did not !ant the $o2iet Enion to dominate the !orld I a useless and stu"id "roMect,
in his 2ie!# He !as .eaten, and "aid !ith his life# His mista0e !as "erha"s to ha2e %one .eyond the frame!or0 of 5eor%ia# He
!anted to rescue Russia from the 1olshe2i0 noose that !as stran%lin% her# He o2erestimated the common sense of those around
him and underestimated their "erfidy# In this account I ha2e .ased myself on !hat I !as myself !itness to# I ha2e also
mentioned fairly freBuently thin%s told me .y my mother and others# I do not al!ays remem.er the e)act !ords of my
informants, .ut I ha2e tried to reconstitute the correct meanin% of statements that ha2e stayed in my memory#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?97I?9 *Author=s :"ilo%ue+
DThe story told .y the son of the man !hom "eo"le called $talin=s .utcher ta0es us, o2er many years, ri%ht inside the narro!
circle !ithin !hich e2erythin% in the E$$R and a lar%e "art of the !orld !as decided# #s talin)s right(han& man for a long
time, R0KB6 4hief La"rentiS !eria hol&s the keys to many se4rets of the Politburo. Like <i4hmann an& 2engele for the
0aDis, he symbolises the +orst of the -ommunist e*4esses +ithin his o+n 4ountry an& beyon&. 3is name still e"okes a
"itrioli4 hatre& in the hearts of many in the 'est an& in <astern <uro%e, an& his %o%ular image is that of a sinister,
sa&isti4 s%ymaster +ith +hi%s in his offi4e an& the habit of &ri"ing &o+n the +in&s+e%t a"enues of 2os4o+ on the %ro+l
for +omen. $t is this 4ombination of an insatiable libi&o mat4he& by ruthless ambition, uns%eakable 4ruelty an& an
e*%losi"e tem%er that set !eria truly a%art from other Politburo. Ha2in% H some say H "oisoned $talin !hen he .ecame
infirm on L 'arch 19L>, 1eria com.ined the internal and e)ternal security ser2ices under his command the ne)t day, in a mo2e
that made him seem destined to ta0e $talinFs chair# Had his collea%ues not struc0 him do!n a hundred days later .y arrestin%,
tryin% and e)ecutin% him on char%es of .ein% amon% other thin%s a 1ritish s"y, it !ould ha2e a""eared at the time that the man
considered $talinFs e2il %enius !as !ell on his !ay to re"lacin% his former master and sur"assin% him in cruelty# To .e sure,
$talin had had no need of insti%ation from 1eria in order to launch collecti2isation, de"ort the 0ula0s *"easants+, star2e the
E0rainians to death, set u" the trials and or%anise the F%reat terrorF of 19>7# 1ut 1eria !as no mean hel"er in im"lementin% those
horrors at a local le2el !hen he !as still a 7arty chief in 5eor%ia# He had or%anised and directed the terror in his o!n fiefdom,
!here the "eriod 19>7I19> has left a fri%htful memory# 5orture +as %ra4tise& on a large s4ale an& there are se"eral
testimonies to torture sessions %resi&e& o"er by !eria in %erson in 5bilisi an&, later, in 2os4o+. 'hen !eria re%la4e& the
Russian YeDho" at the hea& of the 0KB6 at the en& of 19=A, he %ut an en& to the Ogreat terrorO 8e"i&ently at talinOs
behest9 an& release& a large number of %risoners, but +ithout 4easing to %ra4tise re%ression an& torture. 3e organise&
the massa4re of the Polish offi4ers at Katyn in the s%ring of 19@>, the assassination of 5rotsky, the &e%ortation of the
%eo%les an& the re%ressi"e measures taken &uring the +ar. He remained at the head of the NA86 until January 19JC, !hen
"erha"s e2en $talin had started to fear the man he had created and ordered him to de2ote himself to .uildin% the atomic .om.
and administerin% some 2ital sectors of the $o2iet economy# The testimonies also confirm the 0idna""in% of !omen and !hat
"eo"le in T.ilisi called 1eria=s X$ultanFs ha.its=#G
H Francoise Thorn, from Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 2iiI2iii *:ditorFs 7reface+
DN<a2rentiO 1eria is today "ercei2ed in accordance !ith history as !ritten .y Ahrushche2# It !as Ahrushche2 !ho, for o.2ious
reasons, first styled the chief of $talinFs "olice a coldI.looded monster, a "rimiti2e .rute, a sadistic torturer, a dia.olical
intri%uer, a se) maniac crouched on the loo0out in his .lac0 limousine as he dro2e a.out 'osco!, %ra..in% !omen off the
streets# To the end of his life Ahrushche2 remained 2ery "roud of ha2in% liBuidated 1eria# After all, it !as than0s to the cou"
dFetat that he or%anised a%ainst 1eria that Ahrushche2 too0 "o!er and mana%ed to esta.lish, to some de%ree, the le%itimacy of
his "osition !ithin the 7artyFs rulin% elite# In order that his e)"loit mi%ht .e "ro"erly a""reciated, 1eriaFs ima%e had to .e "ainted
as .lac0 as "ossi.le# This !as one of the reasons for the trial of 1eria and his accom"lices .ein% held in camera in 19L>, endin%
in their death sentences in 6ecem.er of that year# Another reason for that trial !as ac0no!led%ed later .y Ahrushche2I it !as a
first attem"t at ta0in% account of $talinFs crimes !ithout accusin% $talin himself, "uttin% res"onsi.ility for them on to Fthe 1eria
%an%F and "resentin% 1eria as F$talinFs e2il %eniusF# This 2ersion !as ta0en u" .y $2etlana Allilue2a, for understanda.le reasons#
$he had already .een encoura%ed to ta0e this line .y $talin himself# In its most .rilliant "assa%es this .oo0 sho!s that $talin
0ne! the art of ma0in% out his !ic0ed actions to .e initiati2es forced on him .y those around him, and he lo2ed ma0in% 1eria
"lay the role of Fthe .ad manF *for e)am"le, !hen he "resented him to Roose2elt as Four HimmlerF, a Mo0e !hich %reatly
em.arrassed the American "resident+# At $talinFs court Ahrushche2 sur2i2ed .y "layin% the .uffoon, 1eria .y "layin% the
e)ecutioner# :ach had the ri%ht "hysiBue for the Mo.# It is on the mentality of the $o2iet leaders that this .oo0 offers the most
interestin% re2elations# The dee"Iseated hatred of Russia and the farIreachin% im"ortance of nationality in the "o!er .alance
comes as a sur"riseUNTOhey are all a!are that they are %arti4i%ating in a 4riminal regime an& 4ommitting infamous &ee&s.
$ome of them, at least, 0no! that they !ill ha2e accounts to render to "osterity# :2ery a""aratchi0 of a certain ran0 .e%ins to
com"ile dossiers that com"romise his ri2als and "otential o""onents# These dossiers concern crimes committed .y order of
hi%her authority# Like a 2afia Tgo&father), talin takes 4are to 4om%romise his 4onfe&erates in systemati4 fashion, an&
any attem%t to get out of this &uty to mur&er, 4olle4ti"ely or in&i"i&ually, brings &o+n his sus%i4ion an& his "engean4e.
5he o"iet regime emerges as a regime of bla4kmailers, a su%remely hy%o4riti4al regime in +hi4h "i4e ne"er sto%s %aying
homage to "irtue an& in +hi4h baseness &isguises itself as &uty, 4o+ar&i4e as altruism, treason as 4harity, sa&ism as
effi4ien4y, stu%i&ity as %atriotism#G
H Francoise Thorn, from Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# i)I) *:ditorFs 7reface+
%osef Stalin: CommissarAinAChief
British Prime 8inister Winston Ch&rchill. So#iet /&ssiaNs Commissar %osef Stalin. an" Brown Brothers $arriman , Co. partner
#erell $arriman prepare for a meeting in &g&st ()*0.
Dtalinism is the most 4on4entrate& an& 4onsistent manifestation of the te4hno4rati4 attitu&e to+ar& humanity. $t is a
negation of free&om of 4hoi4e an& the intelle4tual autonomy of the in&i"i&ual. Probably fe+ other %erio&s in the history
of humankin& hel& the in&i"i&ual in su4h lo+ esteem, treate& the in&i"i&ual)s sufferings +ith su4h in&ifferen4e, an& so
o%enly floute& the fun&amental intelle4tual "alues of human life. 5he fear an& hatre& generate& by talinism not only
ma&e humans 4allous in s%irit an& blunte& the moral sense but also resulte& in 4ru&e so4ial thinking. #bsolute %o+er
o"er %eo%le, their li"es an& +ork, gi"es little in4enti"e to &is4o"er +hat those %eo%le are an& +hat they think or feel, to
4om%rehen& the eternal an& fun&amental %roblems of humanity)s e*isten4e. A "erson !hose destiny is fully in your hands,
!ho is o.li%ed to o.ey !ithout Buestion your e2ery order is, in fact, no lon%er a human .ein% .ut a thin%, an o.Mect for the
e)ercise of the !ill of an omni"otent ruler# Is it any !onder then that "eo"le de2oted to $talin today still come do!n !ith
indi%nation on all those !ho cham"ion the ri%ht to intellectual autonomy of the "ersonality and !ho dare s"ea0 a.out moral
sense and the freedom of moral choice, of the ri%ht to an inde"endent Mud%ment or o"inion3 A !ron%ed soul re2olts not a%ainst
its o""ressor .ut a%ainst the one !ho reminds it of its defect# It does not !ant the truth, !hich it is una.le to em.race once
a%ain, it has %ro!n lazy and does not !ant to shoulder the res"onsi.ility of an inde"endent choice or free Mud%ment# 5he most
terrible lega4y left by talinism is har&ene& souls.G
H 5s Stalinism .eally DeadF .y Ale)ander $# Tsi"0o *199@+, Cha"ter , "# ??1
DThe real e)"losion came at a secret allIni%ht session on Fe.ruary ?JI?L N19LCO from !hich all forei%n dele%ates !ere e)cluded,
those !ho listened !ere !arned to ta0e no notes or records# In a s"eech of >@,@@@ !ords Ahrushche2 made a horrifyin% attac0
on $talin as a .loodthirsty and demented tyrant !ho had destroyed tens of thousands of loyal "arty mem.ers on falsified
e2idence, or no e2idence at all, merely to satisfy his o!n insatia.le thirst for "o!er# All the char%es !hich had .een made .y
antiICommunists and antiI$talinists in the 19>@Fs !ere re"eated and dri2en home !ith s"ecific details, dates, and names# The full
ni%htmare of the $o2iet system !as re2ealed, not as an attri.ute of the system *!hich it !as+, .ut as a "ersonal idiosyncrasy of
$talin himself, not as the chief feature of Communism from 1917 *!hich it !as+, .ut only as its chief feature since 19>J, and
nothin% !as said of the full colla.oration in the "rocess of terror "ro2ided to $talin .y the sur2i2in% mem.ers of the 7olit.uro
led .y Ahrushche2 himself# 1ut all the rest, !hich the fello! tra2elers throu%hout the !orld had .een denyin% for a %eneration,
"oured out& the enormous sla2eIla.or cam"s, the murder of innocent "ersons .y tens of thousands, the !holesale 2iolation of
la!, the use of fiendishly "lanned torture to e)act confessions for acts ne2er done or to in2ol2e "ersons !ho !ere com"letely
innocent, the ruthless elimination of !hole classes and of !hole nations *such as the army officers, the 0ula0s, and the Aalmuc0,
Chechen, In%ush, and 1al0ar minority %rou"s+# The ser2ility of !riters, artists, and e2eryone else, includin% all "arty mem.ers,
to the tyrant !as re2ealed, alon% !ith the total failure of his a%ricultural schemes, his co!ardice and incom"etence in the !ar,
his insi%nificance in the early history of the "arty, and his constant re!ritin% of history to conceal these thin%s# A fe! "assa%es
from this s"eech !ill indicate its tone&
D$talin=s ne%ati2e characteristics, !hich in <eninFs time, !ere only .e%innin%, chan%ed in his last years in a %ra2e a.use
of "o!er !hich caused untold harm to the 7arty#### $talin acted not throu%h "ersuasion, e)"lanation, and "atient
coo"eration !ith "eo"le, .ut .y im"osin% his ideas and .y demandin% com"lete su.mission to his o"inion# 4hoe2er
o""osed this or tried to ar%ue his o!n "oint of 2ie! !as doomed to .e "ur%ed and to su.seBuent moral and "hysical
annihilation#### $talin ori%inated the conce"t Fenemy of the "eo"le,F a term !hich made it unnecessary to "ro2e the
ideolo%ical errors of the 2ictim, it made it "ossi.le to use the cruelest re"ression and utmost ille%ality a%ainst anyone
!ho disa%reed in any !ay !ith $talin, a%ainst those !ho !ere only sus"ected or had .een su.Mects of rumors# This
conce"t Fenemy of the "eo"leF eliminated any "ossi.ility of ideolo%ical fi%ht or of re.uttal# Esually the only e2idence
used, a%ainst all the rules of modern le%al science, !as the confession of the accused, and, as su.seBuent in2esti%ation
sho!ed, such FconfessionsF !ere o.tained .y "hysical "ressure on the accused#### The formula Fenemy of the "eo"leF !as
s"ecifically introduced for the "ur"ose of "hysically annihilatin% these "ersons#### He a.andoned the method of
ideolo%ical stru%%le for administrati2e 2iolence, mass re"ressions, and terror#### <enin used such methods only a%ainst
actual class enemies and not a%ainst those !ho .lunder or err and !hom it is "ossi.le to lead throu%h theory and e2en
retain as leaders#### $talin so ele2ated himself a.o2e the "arty and a.o2e the state that he ceased to consider either the
Central Committee or the "arty#### The num.er of arrests .ased on char%es of counterre2olutionary crimes increased
tenfold from 19>C to 19>7#### 4hen the cases of some of these soIcalled Fs"iesF and Fsa.oteursF !ere e)amined, it !as
found that all their cases !ere fa.ricated# Confessions of %uilt of many !ere %ained .y cruel and inhuman tortures####
Comrade Rudzuta0, candidate mem.er of the 7olit.uro, "arty mem.er from 19@L, !ho s"ent ten years in a czarist hardI
la.or cam", com"letely retracted in court the confession !hich had .een forced from him#### This retraction !as i%nored,
in s"ite of the fact that Rudzuta0 had .een chief of the "arty Central Control Commission esta.lished .y <enin to ensure
"arty unity#### He !as not e2en called .efore the Central CommitteeFs 7olit.uro .ecause $talin refused to tal0 to him#
$entence !as "ronounced in a trial of t!enty minutes, and he !as shot# After careful ree)amination of the case in 19LL,
it !as esta.lished that the accusation a%ainst Rudzuta0 !as false and .ased on falsified e2idence#### The !ay in !hich
the NA86 manufactured fictitious FantiI$o2iet centers and .locsF can .e seen in the case of Comrade Rozen.lum, "arty
mem.er from 19@C, !ho !as arrested in 19>7 .y the <enin%rad NA86#### He !as su.Mected to terri.le torture durin%
!hich he !as ordered to confess false information a.out himself and other "ersons# He !as then .rou%ht to the office of
Ka0o2s0y, !ho offered him freedom on condition that he ma0e .efore the court a false confession fa.ricated in 19>7 .y
the NA86 concernin% Fsa.ota%e, es"iona%e, and su.2ersion in a terroristic center in <enin%rad#F 4ith un.elie2a.le
cynicism, Ka0o2s0y told a.out the method for the creation of fa.ricated, FantiI$o2iet "lots#F # # # F/ou yourself,F said
Ka0o2s0y, F!ill not need to in2ent anythin%# The NA86 !ill "re"are for you an outline for e2ery .ranch of the center,
you !ill ha2e to study it carefully and to remem.er !ell all Buestions and ans!ers !hich the court may as0# # # # /our
future !ill de"end on ho! the trial %oes and on its results# If you mana%e to endure it, you !ill sa2e your head, and !e
!ill feed and clothe you at the %o2ernmentFs e)"ense until your death#F # # # The NA86 "re"ared lists of "ersons !hose
cases !ere .efore the 'ilitary Tri.unal and !hose sentences !ere "re"ared in ad2ance# /ezho2 !ould send these lists
to $talin "ersonally for his a""ro2al of the "unishments# In 19>7I19> such lists of many thousands of "arty,
%o2ernment, Communist /outh, army, and economic !or0ers !ere sent to $talin# He a""ro2ed those lists#### talin +as
a "ery &istrustful man, morbi&ly sus%i4ious1 +e kne+ this from our +ork +ith him. 3e +oul& look at a man an&
say, O'hy are your eyes so shifty to&ay?O or, O'hy are you turning so mu4h to&ay an& +hy &o you a"oi& looking
at me &ire4tly?O 5his si4kly sus%i4ion 4reate& in him &istrust of eminent %arty +orkers he ha& kno+n for years.
<"ery+here an& in e"erything he sa+ Oenemies,O Ot+o(fa4ers,O an& Os%ies.O # # # 3o+ is it %ossible that a %erson
4onfesses to 4rimes +hi4h he has not 4ommitte&? 7nly in one +ayJby a%%li4ation of %hysi4al %ressure, tortures,
bringing him to a state of un4ons4iousness, &e%ri"ation of his Hu&gment, taking a+ay of his human &ignity. $n this
+ay +ere O4onfessionsO obtaine&#### -nly a fe! days .efore the "resent con%ress !e called to the Central Committee
7residium and interro%ated the in2esti%ati2e Mud%e Rodos, !ho in his time in2esti%ated and interro%ated Aossior,
Chu.ar, and Aosarye2# 3e is a "ile %erson, +ith the brain of a bir&, an& morally 4om%letely &egenerate. And it !as
this man !ho !as decidin% the fate of "rominent "arty !or0ers#### He told us, XI !as told that Aossior and Chu.ar !ere
"eo"leFs enemies and for that reason, I, as in2esti%ati2e Mud%e, had to ma0e them confess that they are enemies#### I
thou%ht that I !as e)ecutin% the orders of the "arty#G
The Dsecret s"eechG also destroyed $talinFs re"utation as a military %enius&
Q6urin% the !ar and after!ard, $talin said that the tra%edy e)"erienced .y the nation in the early days of the !ar
resulted from the une)"ected attac0 .y the 5ermans# 1ut, Comrades, this is com"letely untrue#### 1y A"ril >, 19J1,
Churchill throu%h his am.assador to the E$$R, Cri""s, "ersonally !arned $talin that the 5ermans !ere re%rou"in% their
armed units to attac0 the $o2iet Enion#### Churchill stressed this re"eatedly in his dis"atches of A"ril 1 and in the
follo!in% days# $talin too0 no heed of these !arnin%s# 'oreo2er, he !arned that no credence he %i2en to information of
this sort in order not to "ro2o0e the .e%innin% of military o"erations# Information of this 0ind on 5erman in2asion of
$o2iet territory !as comin% in from our o!n military and di"lomatic sources#### 6es"ite these "articularly %ra2e
!arnin%s, the necessary ste"s !ere not ta0en to "re"are the country "ro"erly for defense and to "re2ent it from .ein%
cau%ht una!ares# 6id !e ha2e time and resources for such "re"aration3 /es, !e did# -ur industry !as fully ca"a.le of
su""lyin% e2erythin% the $o2iet Army needed#### Had our industry .een mo.ilized "ro"erly and in time to su""ly the
Army, our !artime losses !ould ha2e .een decidedly smaller#### -n the e2e of the in2asion, a 5erman citizen crossed
our .order and stated that the 5erman armies had orders to start their offensi2e on the ni%ht of June ?? at >&@@ A#'#
$talin !as informed of this immediately, .ut e2en this !as i%nored# As you see, e2erythin% !as i%nored#### The result
!as that in the first hours and days the enemy destroyed in our .order re%ions a lar%e "art of our air force, artillery, and
other eBui"ment, he annihilated lar%e num.ers of our soldiers and disor%anized our military leadershi", conseBuently !e
could not "re2ent the enemy from marchin% dee" into the country# 8ery %rie2ous conseBuences, es"ecially at the
.e%innin% of the !ar, follo!ed $talinFs destruction of many military commanders and "olitical !or0ers durin% 19>7I
19J1, .ecause of his sus"iciousness and false accusations#### 6urin% that time the leaders !ho had %ained military
e)"erience in $"ain and in the Far :ast !ere almost com"letely liBuidated#### After the first se2ere disaster and defeats at
the front, $talin thou%ht that this !as the end# He said, FAll that !hich <enin created !e ha2e lost fore2er#F After this,
$talin for a lon% time actually did not direct the military o"erations and ceased to do anythin% !hate2er#### Therefore, the
dan%er !hich hun% o2er our Fatherland in the first "eriod of the !ar !as lar%ely due to the faulty methods of directin%
the nation and the "arty .y $talin himself# <ater the ner2ousness and hysteria !hich $talin sho!ed, interferin% !ith
actual military o"erations, caused our army serious dama%e# He !as 2ery far from any understandin% of the real
situation !hich !as de2elo"in% on the front# This !as natural, for, in the !hole !ar, he ne2er 2isited any section of the
front or any li.erated city#### 4hen a 2ery serious situation de2elo"ed for our army in the Ahar0o2 re%ion in 19J?, !e
decided to %i2e u" an o"eration see0in% to encircle Ahar0o2 to a2oid fatal conseBuences if the o"eration continued####
Contrary to sense, $talin reMected our su%%estion and issued orders to continue the o"eration#### I tele"honed to $talin at
his 2illa, .ut he refused to ans!er the "hone, and 'alen0o2 !as on the recei2er#### I stated for a second time that I
!anted to s"ea0 to $talin "ersonally a.out the %ra2e situation at the front# 1ut $talin did not consider it con2enient to
raise the "hone and insisted that I must s"ea0 to him throu%h 'alen0o2, althou%h he !as only a fe! ste"s a!ay# After
listenin% in this fashion to our "lea, $talin said, F<et e2erythin% remain as it isPF 4hat !as the result of this3 The !orst
that !e had e)"ected# The 5ermans surrounded our army concentrations and !e lost hundreds of thousands of our
soldiers# This is $talinFs military %enius and !hat it cost us#### After this "arty con%ress !e shall ha2e to ree2aluate our
military o"erations and "resent them in their true li%ht####After our %reat 2ictory !hich cost us so much, $talin .e%an to
.elittle many of the commanders !ho contri.uted to the 2ictory, .ecause $talin e)cluded e2ery "ossi.ility that 2ictories
at the front should .e credited to anyone .ut himself#### He .e%an to tell all 0inds of nonsense a.out Khu0o2#### He
"o"ularized himself as a %reat leader and tried to inculcate in the "eo"le the idea that all 2ictories !on in the !ar !ere
due to the coura%e, darin%, and %enius of $talin and no one else#### <et us ta0e, for instance, our historical and military
films and some !ritten !or0s, they ma0e us feel sic0# Their real "ur"ose is the "ro"a%ation of the theme of $talin as a
military %enius# Remem.er the film The Fall of 1erlin# Here only $talin acts, he issues orders in a hall in !hich there are
many em"ty chairs, and only one man a""roaches him and re"orts to himSthat is 7os0re.yshe2, ills loyal shieldI.earer#
4here is the military command3 4here is the 7olit.uro3 4here is the %o2ernment3 4hat are they doin%3 There is
nothin% a.out them in the film# $talin acts for e2ery.ody, he "ays no attention to them, he as0s no one for ad2ice# 4here
are the military !ho .ear the .urden of the !ar3 They are not in the film, !ith $talin in, there is no room for them####
/ou see to !hat $talinFs delusions of %randeur led# He had com"letely lost consciousness of reality#### -ne characteristic
e)am"le of $talinFs self%lorification and of his lac0 of elementary modesty !as his $hort 1io%ra"hy "u.lished in 19J#
It is an e)"ression of most dissolute flattery, ma0in% a man into a %od, transformin% him into an infalli.le sa%e, Fthe
%reatest leader and most su.lime strate%ist of all times and nations#F No other !ords could .e found to raise $talin to the
hea2ens# 4e need not %i2e e)am"les of the loathsome adulation fillin% this .oo0# They !ere all a""ro2ed and edited .y
$talin "ersonally, and some of them !ere added in his o!n hand!ritin% to the draft of the .oo0#### He added, FAlthou%h
he "erformed his tas0 of leader of the "arty and the "eo"le !ith consummate s0ill and enMoyed the unreser2ed su""ort of
the !hole $o2iet "eo"le, $talin ne2er allo!ed his !or0 to .e marred .y the sli%htest hint of 2anity, conceit, or selfI
adulation#F # # # IFll cite one more insertion made .y $talin& FThe ad2anced $o2iet science of !ar recei2ed further
de2elo"ment at Comrade $talinFs hands# He ela.orated the theory of the "ermanently o"eratin% factors that decided the
issue of !ars#### Comrade $talinFs %enius ena.led him to di2ine the enemyFs "lans and defeat them# The .attles in !hich
Comrade $talin directed the $o2iet armies are .rilliant e)am"les of o"erational military s0ill#F QAll those !ho interested
themsel2es e2en a little in the national situation sa! the difficult situation in a%riculture, .ut $talin ne2er e2en noticed it#
6id !e tell $talin a.out this3 /es, !e told him, .ut he did not su""ort us# 4hy3 1ecause $talin ne2er tra2eled
any!here, did not meet city or farm !or0ers, he did not 0no! the actual situation in the "ro2inces# He 0ne! the country
and a%riculture only from films# And these films had dressed u" and .eautified the e)istin% situation in a%riculture# They
so "ictured collecti2e farm life that the ta.les !ere .endin% from the !ei%ht of tur0eys and %eese# $talin thou%ht it !as
actually so#### $talin "ro"osed that the ta)es "aid .y the collecti2e farms and .y their !or0ers should .e raised .y Jo
.illion ru.les, accordin% to him the "easants are !ell off, and the collecti2e farm !or0er !ould need sell only one more
chic0en to "ay his ta) in full# Ima%ine !hat this meant# Certainly, J@ .illion ru.les is a sum %reater than e2erythin% the
collecti2e farmers o.tained for all the "roducts they sold to the state# In 19L?, for instance, the collecti2e farms and their
!or0ers recei2ed ?C,?@ million ru.les for all their "roducts sold to the %o2ernment#### The "ro"osal !as not .ased on an
actual assessment of the situation .ut on the fantastic ideas of a "erson di2orced from reality#Q
It !as inconcei2a.le that this e)traordinary s"eech could .e 0e"t a secret, in s"ite of all the !arnin%s at its deli2ery that it must
.e# 8ersions of it, some of them softened, !ere sent out .y the Aremlin to forei%n "arty leaders# -ne of these found its !ay to
the Enited $tates %o2ernment and !as "u.lished on June ?, 19LC# There is not the sli%htest dou.t that the s"eech is authentic and
that almost e2erythin% it says is true#G
H "ragedy and -ope .y Carroll (ui%ley, Cha"ter C9 *The Rise of Ahrushche2, 19L>I19L+, "# 1@1CI1@??
=he Jighth Bolshe#ik Party Congress in ()(). Stalin appears with Lenin an" his fellow Commissars. 8. >. Galinin is on LeninNs left.

Left photo: So#iet /&ssian "espots Leon =rotsky an" 5la"imir Lenin appear with /&ssian chil"ren.
/ight photo: 5la"imir Lenin (left) an" %osef Stalin smile for the camera.
D$talin !as indeed the continuator of <enin# It !as said that the elections at our last con%resses !ere fiddled# 4ell, said my
father, all the 1olshe2i0 7arty=s con%resses, from the start, !ere mani"ulated# The only difference !as that, in the .e%innin%,
"eo"le had the ri%ht to hold forth a .it more freely, .ut the resolutions !ere ado"ted in ad2ance# 2oreo"er, it +as before they
4ame to %o+er that the !olshe"iks +orke& out their strategy for internal struggle. 5he te4hniNue of stealing their
o%%onents) %rogramme +as %ra4tise& before the re"olution. 'e o+e to Lenin the first ste%s in 4onstru4ting the barra4ks(
o4ialism that +as !olshe"ism. #n& &emo4rati4 4entralism? # %ure im%osture. 'y father e2en "ut it to me one day !hen I
mentioned the assassination of Trots0y that, if he had succeeded <enin, thin%s !ould ha2e .een still !orse# $t +as he R5rotskyS
an& Lenin +ho ha& 4reate& the 4on4entration 4am%s an& the system of %oliti4al 4ommissars in the Re& #rmy. 5hey ha&
begun the shooting of hostages. #n& 5rotsky thought that the re"olution shoul& not be 4onfine& to Russia but shoul& be
s%rea& all o"er the +orl&.G H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?7
.
"rown "rothers $arri)an B Co. 9artner Aerell $arri)an sits !etween British Prime 8inister Winston Ch&rchill an" So#iet
/&ssiaNs Commissar %osef Stalin in &g&st ()*0. 4eorge W. B&shNs gran"father Prescott B&sh an" #erellNs !rother /olan"
$arriman finance" the -a;is !efore an" "&ring Worl" War >>. #erell $arriman was a mem!er of Sk&ll , Bones an" the Co&ncil
on Foreign /elations. So#iet /&ssian Foreign 8inister 5yachesla# 8oloto# is seate" on the far right.
(Photo: Li!rary of Congress)
So#iet Commissar %osef Stalin (left) appears with U.S. m!assa"or to So#iet Union W. #erell $arriman atop LeninNs =om!
"&ring a So#iet military para"e hel" in 8oscow on &g&st (0. ()*+.
8arshal le<an"er 5asile#sky. 8arshal 4rigori :h&kho#. %osef Stalin. Gliment 5oroshilo#. an" -. . B&lganin appear together.
%osip Bro; =ito (right) stan"s ne<t to So#iet "ictator %osef Stalin. =ito claime" that '&gosla#ia was ?in"epen"ent@ an" that
'&gosla#ia "i" not a"here to the So#iet party line.
Hfficials of the So#iet Union an" the Comm&nist Party re#iew a military para"e "&ring 8ay Fay Para"e in 8oscow. So#iet Union on 8ay (.
()16. Hn top. from left. are Stalin. Gagano#ich. k&lo#. n"reye#. Fimitro#. 'e;ho#. 8ikoyan. 8oloto#. Ch&!ar. an" Galinin. t !ottom are the
marshals. =&khache#sky. Belo#. 5oroshilo#. 'egoro#. an" B&"yonny. Jle#en "ays later =&khache#sky wo&l" !e arreste" an" e#ent&ally shotE
in less than two years. Belo#. 'egoro#. an" Ch&!ar. wo&l" !e "ea". (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
Prominent So#iet Commissars. incl&"ing %osef Stalin (left). 5yachesla# 8oloto# (*th left). an" La#renti Beria (right) stan" atop the Lenin
8a&sole&m in 8oscow. So#iet Union on -o#em!er 6. ()12.
Clement ttlee an" $arry =r&man appear with %osef Stalin at the Pots"am Conference in ()*+.
Hriginal caption: QConference of the Big =hree at 'alta makes final plans for the "efeat of 4ermany. =he QBig =hreeQ sit on the patio together
"&ring the 'alta conference in Fe!r&ary ()*+. Left to right: British Prime 8inister Winston S. Ch&rchill. U.S. Presi"ent Franklin F. /oose#elt.
an" So#iet Premier %osef Stalin. (U.S. rmy photo)

5yachesla# 8oloto# (left). -ikita Ghr&shche#. an" %osef Stalin wa#e to the crow" "&ring a 8ay Fay para"e.
Presi"ent Franklin F. /oose#elt talks to %osef Stalin "&ring Worl" War >>.
$o2iet Commissar Josef $talin *left+ sha0es hands !ith Nazi 5erman Forei%n 'inister Joachim 2on Ri..entro" in 'osco!,
$o2iet Russia on Au%ust ?>, 19>9# *7hoto& 5erman Federal Archi2es+
Secretary of Commerce $arry $opkins (left) poses with So#iet "ictator %osef Stalin "&ring his #isit to /&ssia in &g&st ()*(.
(Photo: 8argaret Bo&rkeAWhiteB=ime Life)
4endell 4ill0ie *?nd ri%ht+, a former "residential candidate of the Re"u.lican 7arty, Jose"h 1arnes *?
nd
left+, an em"loyee at the
E#$# -ffice of 4ar Information, and American "olitician, and American Mournalist 5ardner Co!les Jr# *ri%ht+ meet !ith $o2iet
Commissar Josef $talin *center+ and $o2iet Forei%n 'inister 8yachesla2 'oloto2 in 'osco!, $o2iet Russia in $e"tem.er 19J?#
/ose%h !arnes an& Gar&ner -o+les /r. +ere members of the -oun4il on Foreign Relations, a %ri"ate organiDation in
0e+ York -ity. *A7 4ire"hoto+
The leadin% mem.ers of the 7olit.uro *from left to ri%ht+& 'i0oyan, Ni0ita Ahrushche2, Josef $talin, 5eor%y 'alen0o2
*7remier of the $o2iet Enion *19L>I19LL++, NA86 chief <a2renti 1eria, and $o2iet Forei%n 'inister 8yachesla2 'oloto2#
7reeminent $o2iet commissars a""ear in front of the deceased Josef $talin in 'arch 19L># From left to ri%ht& 8yachesla2
'oloto2, 8oroshilo2, <a2renti 1eria, 5eor%y 'alen0o2, Anastas 'i0oyan, <azar Aa%ano2ich, Ni0ita Ahrushche2, and Ni0olai
1ul%anin#
DThere !as a time !hen I thou%ht $talin !as .etter than <enin and different from the !ay I see him today# It has ta0en me years
to understand that he could ha2e chan%ed many thin%s if he had !anted to, instead of a%%ra2atin% the defects of <eninism# He
could ha2e "reser2ed that centralised system .ut !ithout the fanatical zeal to destroy the human "ersonality# He could ha2e
e)iled his o""onents instead of sendin% them to rot in the cam"s# Actually, human life meant nothin% to him, and he lac0ed
<eninFs e)cuse of mental disorders# 4hile he !as ali2e I ne2er immersed myself in his !ritin%s# Today I ha2e his com"lete
!or0s and ha2e read them three times# $talin succeeded in formulatin% any idea sim"ly and clearly& .ut it is that 2ery
schematism of his that fri%htens# He .elie2ed in 'ar)ism !ith a fanaticism that !as BuasiIIslamic# He had transformed the idea
of the encirclement of the E$$R .y the ca"italist countries into an instrument of stru%%le a%ainst his o!n "eo"le# For a lon% time
I !ondered !hether his .eha2iour !as determined .y features of his character or !hether the system itself forced him to .e li0e
that# 'y im"ression is that the t!o factors com.ined# 4ithout that "ersonality of his $talin !ould ne2er ha2e !on out !ithin the
system# Trots0y, the archre2olutionary, failed not for ideolo%ical reasons .ut .ecause he lac0ed the art of intri%ue, and thou%ht
himself a.o2e that sort of thin%# <enin, ho!e2er, had that art, and "erha"s to a %reater de%ree than $talin# talin +as atan
in4arnate. 3e &i& not Hust 4ommit 4rimes in or&er to a4hie"e his aims. 3e took a +i4ke& %leasure in striking blo+s, in
tram%ling on %eo%le, in &estroying +hate"er resiste& him. $t ga"e him a sort of in+ar& Hoy. $ belie"e that he +as %erfe4tly
a+are of his +i4ke&ness P other+ise he +oul& not ha"e ma&e an art of &issimulation an& +oul& not ha"e stri"en
systemati4ally to a%%ear &ifferent from +hat he +as. 7nly a "illain 4ons4ious of his "illainy 4an %reten& +ith su4h skill.
#n& talin +as a born a4tor. It cannot .e said, either, that throu%h lac0 of intelli%ence he failed to understand the
conseBuences of his actions# I met him se2eral times to!ards the end of his life, and I !as a.le to o.ser2e the facility !ith !hich
he !ent strai%ht to !hat !as essential, e2en in technolo%ical s"heres he 0ne! nothin% a.out# He had the %ift of "uttin% his fin%er
on the !ea0 "oints# An or%aniser of %enius, he !as a.le to create a ser2ice in a fe! minutes, %i2e it a mission to "erform, and
o.tain the result he !anted !ithin the deadline fi)ed .y him# In that he !as .etter e2en than my father# ItFs astonishin%, .ut I am
una.le to %i2e a "hysical descri"tion of $talin, althou%h I sa! him oftenP <i0e many Caucasians he had a !ay of mo2in% !ith
su""leness and %race# He ste""ed li%htly# His face !as e)"ressi2e and mo.ile# He al!ays loc0ed himself in !hen he sle"t, .ut it
!ould .e !ron% to "ut that do!n to co!ardice# 'y father said that $talin did not fear death# He sim"ly did not !ant anyone to
see him aslee" and defenceless# 4hen he !as ill he concealed his !ea0ness#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 1>>I1>J
Note& $er%o 1eria is the son of <a2renti 1eria, head of the NA86 *$o2iet secret "olice+ durin% 4orld 4ar II

DFHe !ill .e e2en more "itiless to!ards the 5eor%ians than to!ards other "eo"les, .ecause he is furious that his o!n "eo"le
should o""ose his "olicy# Resistance !ould irritate him less !hen it came from Russians#F 'y father shared this 2ie!# He too
had .elie2ed that $talin !as attached to his homeland .ecause he had o""osed <enin !hen the latter !anted to offer 5eor%ia to
Aemal Atatur0# 1ut the e2idence !as clear# $talin had ceased to lo2e his little homeland, he had %ro!n too .i% for it# His heart
!as %i2en to Im"erial Russia# He insistently stressed the continuity .et!een the Russian state and the $o2iet Enion, %oin% so far
as to "resent the latter as the heir of Tsarist Russia# He sa! himself in the linea%e of I2an the Terri.le and 7eter the 5reat# -ne
e2enin%, at a dinner !here there !as "lenty to drin0, he allo!ed the actors !ho !ere "resent to sin% in his honour the old Tsarist
anthem# 4ith his usual irony my father said that it !ould, ne2ertheless, .e hard for $talin to com"ete !ith the %reat Catherine II#
F$he had herself scre!ed .y Russian muzhi)s$ !hereas $talin has scre!ed all Russia#F 6es"ite my de2otion to and .oundless
admiration for my father, I ha2e to say that I did not %reatly enMoy that sort of Mo0e# Actually, $talin lo2ed no.ody# For $talin the
Russian "eo"le !ere merely a tool that ena.led him to achie2e his aims# It !as .y desi%n and not throu%h lac0 of intelli%ence or
mere thou%htlessness that he reduced the "easantry to serfdom and de"ri2ed e2ery $o2iet citizen of all ri%hts# 1ut he did
ostentatiously em"hasise the "riority of Russia and his re2erence for Russian history# He chose traditional Russian names for his
children# I remem.er a si%nificant anecdote# Ale)ei Tolstoy, !hen !or0in% on his .oo0 a.out 7eter the 5reat, e)"lained to
$talin that he had found in the archi2es some documents !hich su%%ested that 7eterFs father !as a 5eor%ian 0in%# $talinFs
reaction !as immediate# He re"lied that one could not ima%ine a !orse ser2ice rendered to him than this alle%ation, and he
for.ade the !riter to tal0 a.out it, e2en in "ri2ate con2ersation# He later ordered my father to %et hold of these archi2es and "ut
them in a safe "lace, Fso that .ootlic0ers li0e Tolstoy donFt %et the idea of usin% them#F $talin follo!ed attenti2ely !hat !as
!ritten a.out him, !ithout, ho!e2er, tryin% to hint to the !riters !hat they should say# He !as content to ta0e note of their silly
mista0es# In one of his .oo0s Tolstoy had descri.ed the arri2al of $talin at Tsaritsyn durin% the ci2il !ar# $talin in2ited him,
alon% !ith others, and said !ith an air of not alludin% to him& FThere are %ood descri"tions and there are others !hich ma0e the
hero loo0 li0e an im.ecile# IFll sho! you an e)am"le#F He !ent to his li.rary, too0 TolstoyFs .oo0 and .e%an to read a "assa%e
aloud# TolstoyFs "ortrait !as so idyllic that it sounded artificial and $talin commented that it !ould .e .etter to !rite nothin%
than resort to such crude flattery# F$talin achie2ed t!o aims,F said my father, lau%hin%# FFirst, he sho!ed, in "u.lic, that he
reMected flattery# $econd, he demonstrated that he could read aloud 2ery !ell# And, as a .onus, he made Tolstoy lose his
a""etite#FG H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 1>7
DFor talin, his Hu&gement of men ha& %riority o"er e"ery other 4onsi&eration. 19J9 !as the year of the %reat turn# $talin
multi"lied his .lo!s a%ainst the old %uard, dismissin% 'i0oyan, !ho !as 'inister of Trade and remo2in% 'oloto2 from
Forei%n Affairs# The "ur%es carried out in the "eo"lesF democracies struc0 at "eo"le lin0ed !ith my father# Anna 7au0er and
$lans0y .elon%ed to the Je!ish %rou"# 8anni0o2, too, !as !orried, fearin% that the !a2e of accusations mi%ht reach him a%ain#
As a Je! and a "rote%e of 1eriaFs he had e2erythin% to fear# 'y father e)"lained to me the "ur%es in the Army, the <enin%rad
affair and the antiI$emitic cam"ai%ns as .ein% $talinFs desire to liBuidate all "otential o""osition, .y %ettin% rid of elites and
intellectuals !ho mi%ht ta0e the lead in such an o""osition# Relations .et!een my father and $talin no! !orsened "ermanently#
For my father, antiI$emitism o"ened the !ay for Russian chau2inism and national socialism# 1efore the !ar there !as no antiI
$emitism in the $o2iet Enion# It !as created .y the countryFs rulers shortly after the 2ictory, the authorities feelin% sure that it
!ould immediately meet !ith the a""ro2al of the masses# As I ha2e said, my father did not .elie2e that $talin !as antiI$emitic,
e2en after his stru%%le a%ainst Trots0yism# He had many Je!ish friends and mistresses# In 19J7 he sent Aa%ano2ich to the
E0raine .ecause of the 2irulent antiI$emitism !hich had de2elo"ed there and !hich ris0ed discreditin% the E$$R, !hereas
Ahrushche2 encoura%ed these antiI$emitic tendencies in the 7arty in the E0raine# Calculation %o2erned all of $talinFs actions#
He realised that the Je!s !ere needed in that "eriod# 'e0hlis !as for a lon% time his "ersonal secretary, and .ecame editor of
Pravda .efore .ein% %i2en char%e of "ro"a%anda in the Army and, finally, char%e of $tate Control# $talin 0e"t him close to
himself and retained his ser2ices for years# $talin could, .y nature, ha2e .een a 5eor%ian nationalist, .ut he chose
internationalism# If he had .een Russian he !ould ne2er ha2e "ermitted antiI$emitism, !hich !as one of the concessions he
made to Russian nationalism#G H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?11
D'y father said that an attenti2e readin% of <eninFs F7olitical TestamentF sho!s that he sa! no.ody .ut $talin as fit to succeed
him# $talin descri.ed in my "resence, the last months of <eninFs life# He suffered a %reat deal and often as0ed $talin for "oison#
X4hen I sa! him in that state I couldnFt slee" at ni%ht,F $talin said, and I thin0 he !as sincere# The 7olit.uro decided that
e2erythin% must .e done to "rolon% his e)istence, e2en thou%h it !as clear to e2eryone that his condition !ould not im"ro2e#
Rumour had it that <enin had fallen ill as the result of the dissolute life he had led durin% his studies in 7eters.ur%# He had
recei2ed treatment .ut had ne2er mana%ed to reco2er com"letely# He had retained an e)treme irrita.ility !hich he tried to
o2ercome .y means of "hysical e)ercises# Ha2in% said that, it may .e that he !as .y nature, and not throu%h illness, someone
!hose ner2es !ere al!ays on ed%e# From talin $ also learnt that Lenin hate& the -hur4h "irulently. $talin !as sur"rised at
this& F'i0oyan and I !ondered !hat the reason for this could .e# In our case such a feelin% !ould ha2e .een com"rehensi.le H
!e !ere former seminarists# 1ut, unli0e !ith <enin, our hostility to reli%ion has nothin% "ersonal a.out it# $omethin% must ha2e
ha""ened in his life to ma0e him so hostile to the -rthodo)#FG
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 1>C
D'y father mi%ht ha2e .een dismissed in the s"rin% of 19J@ and thou%h in the months that follo!ed the dan%er retreated, he
0ne! that his state of %race !as "ro2isional# He had understood that $talin ne2er for%ot anythin% and that, one day, he !ould
demand a rec0onin% for that affair# For the moment $talin had other thin%s on his mind# He !as not sure that the %reat
discontent caused amon% the "eo"le .y the !a2e of re"ression had "assed a!ay# He 0ne! that if he "ut Khdano2 or 'alen0o2 at
the head of the NA86 a ne! era of terror !ould .e%in# 'y father !as, therefore, "articularly useful to him# The second reason
!hy my father !as s"ared, and this is not to his honour, !as the t!elfth attem"t on Trots0yFs life# This attem"t !as .ein%
"re"ared and $talin a!aited the results# He !as Buite determined to %et Trots0y out of the !ay, .ein% con2inced that he
Meo"ardised the forei%n "olicy of the E$$R# 'y father tried to "ersuade him that Trots0y in e)ile "resented no dan%er and !as
nothin% .ut a F"olitical cor"seF H not that he felt any sym"athy !ith the man, !hom he considered an e)tremist# I heard him
e)"lain to my mother that there !as no such thin% as Trots0yism& there !as no difference .et!een Trots0yist "ro"a%anda and
ours, a"art from the matter of F.uildin% $ocialism in one country ta0en se"arately#= 1ut $talin !ould hear nothin% of this#
FRemem.er $"ain# There !e !ere not dealin% !ith a Q"olitical cor"seQ,F he retorted# FIn $"ain it !as the Anarchists, not the
Trots0yists, !ho created our "rinci"al "ro.lem,F my father o.Mected, addin%& F4e o.ser2e e2ery mo2e Trots0y ma0es and ha2e
him under com"lete sur2eillance#F NA86 had indeed "enetrated the entire Trots0yist mo2ement !ith its a%ents# As my father
sa! it, eliminatin% Trots0y !ould nullify his efforts# He thou%ht that it !ould .e a .etter idea to underta0e Trots0yFs su""ort
instead of lettin% him de"end financially on the 1ritish, the 5ermans and the Americans# 1ut $talin "ersisted& F/ou
underestimate the "otential nuisance of Trots0yism#F :2entually he summoned $udo"lato2 and the other officers entrusted !ith
the o"eration and himself su"er2ised the "re"arations# He had not for%otten the o.Mections raised .y my father and "referred, in
any case, to su"er2ise "ersonally anythin% that !as es"ecially im"ortant to him# At the time my father did not a""reciate that
$talin had a "ersonal %rie2ance a%ainst Trots0y, and the moti2e for his fury !as in no !ay "olitical# <ater, my father concluded
that rancour !as indeed the decisi2e factor in his determination to ha2e Trots0y 0illed# I a%ree# talin +as 4a%able of
sa4rifi4ing a %oliti4al interest for the mere %leasure of gratifying his thirst for "engean4e. 3e ne"er forgot %eo%le +ho ha&
stoo& in his +ay.G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# LC
D$talin intended to "ro2ide "rotection for the maMor centres of arms "roduction H Chelya.ins0, Ahar0o2, <enin%rad and $2erdlo2s0# 'osco!
!as, in any case, considered to .e safe from a nuclear stri0e. $n 19?; the +hole 4ountry +as on a +ar footing. 5he obHe4ti"es of the
-entral -ommittee +ere Nuite 4lear: +e +ere %re%aring for the thir& +orl& +ar an& it +oul& be a nu4lear +ar. All the countryFs
resources !ere mo.ilised# 4e already had se2eral sBuadrons of TuI1C .om.ers# 'yasishche2 !as !or0in% on an ultraIra"id .om.er !hich
could reach America and !as .etter than the 1IL?# Ho!e2er, it had not yet .een tested# At the end of 19L?, Aorole2 !as decorated for ha2in%
created missiles !ith a ran%e e)ceedin% 1,@@@ 0ilometres# -ne has to remem.er that our forces !ere in 5ermany, so that all :uro"e !as
!ithin our reach# Factories !ere %ettin% ready to massI"roduce intercontinental missiles that did not yet e)ist# As a %eneral rule !e .e%an to
massI"roduce !ea"ons .efore !e had tested them# $talin too0 this ris0 in order to %ain time# $u.seBuently, Ahrushche2 needed only to
utilise the .ases created .y $talin in order to launch his Fstrate%ic re2olution,F !hich consisted of a.andonin% traditional !ea"ons and stuffin%
the !hole !orld !ith missiles# -ur su"eriority in :uro"e !as crushin%# 4e could destroy all the American airfields in :uro"e and ma0e
nuclear stri0es on any :uro"ean country# 1ritain included# 4e "ossessed the "rimary elements of !ea"ons ca"a.le of inflictin% re"risals on
the E$A# The 4estFs antiIaircraft defences consisted only of %uns, radar and fi%hter "lanes, !hereas at least C@@ "roMectiles had to .e fired in
order to .rin% do!n a TuI1C# And our .om.ers fle! at such a hei%ht that it !as hard to interce"t them# -ur o.Mecti2e !as to destroy
communications .et!een the Enited $tates and :uro"e# 4e could easily ta0e command of the 'editerranean and, throu%h our missile
launchin% ram"s in 1ul%aria, ensure our control of the $traits# As !e could no lon%er count on Tito !e "ro2ided for s"ecial units to seize
Trieste# And !e must occu"y $"ain and Italy so as to "re2ent an American landin%# In :ast 7russia and the 56R, !here a2iation fuel !as
already stoc0"iled, the su"eriority of our con2entional !ea"onry !as .eyond dou.t# 'hat, for talin, +as essential +as to take Germany,
the only 4ountry in <uro%e he thought of as formi&able. <lse+here he &i& not e*%e4t mu4h resistan4e from 0#57. Thou%h still
disarmed, 5ermany had an economic "otential so dan%erous that he "referred to destroy it# He summoned me on se2eral occasions around
'ay 19L? to as0 if our missiles !ould .e a.le to demolish the .rid%es o2er the Rhine or !i"e off the ma" this or that industrial centre in
5ermany# 4e had noseIcones !ith infrared si%hts that !ere "erfectly !ell ada"ted to that tas0# He !anted also to 0no! if !e could destroy
the dy0es of the ri2er Ruhr# The 1ritish had thou%ht of doin% that durin% the $econd 4orld 4ar, .ut had not attem"ted it# At this time our
armament industries !ere !or0in% as in !artime# -ur "re"arations clearly sho!ed that !hat !e had in mind !as an offensi2e !ar#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?>1I?>?
D:2erythin% !as ready# $talin !as on the "oint of "layin% the final chords of his sym"hony# The "ros"ect of !ar did not ma0e him recoil# As
he sa! it, .est %et on !ith it at once and ha2e it o2er !ith# 7erha"s he sensed that he had not much lon%er to li2e# Also, he thou%ht that time
!as !or0in% in the 4estFs fa2our, that the relation of forces !as at this moment as fa2oura.le to the E$$R as it could .e# $o he set himself to
"re"are, not "u.lic o"inion .ut those close to him, .y re"eatin% to them that !ar !as ine2ita.le, and that the Americans !ould start it# He
claimed to ha2e documents that "ro2ed his assertions# There !ere indeed American "lans for a "re2enti2e !ar# 4e used our 0no!led%e of
them to Mustify a "re2enti2e stri0e .y oursel2es# 'y father tried in 2ain to "ro2e to $talin that the Americans !ere not at all ready to %o to
!ar, e2en thou%h !e had mo.ilised them throu%h the Aorean 4ar# 4hen he !as as0ed, one day, !hy he made so much of the "erfidy of the
5ermans in 2iolatin% the "act of Au%ust 19>9, $talin ans!ered& FIt !as im"ortant to me to em"hasise that !e !ere not the attac0ers#F He had
not s"ared his efforts in that direction, for at that time the relation of stren%th !as not in his fa2our# For the Third 4orld 4ar, li0e!ise, "u.lic
o"inion had to .e made to s!in% our !ay# He therefore decided to "ut e2eryone on the !ron% scent .y means of a series of initiati2es# He !as
a.le to %ull friends and enemies in the same !ay, seein% in this a manoeu2re and not "erfidy# He "ro"osed to or%anise elections in 5ermany
and to resume international trade# He e2en authorised a conference on that theme, held in A"ril 19L?#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?>>
D6urin% a meetin%, $talin declared that he alone "ossessed the means to ensure that the $o2iet Enion !on the !ar# 4hen he !as %one,
2ictory !ould .e inconcei2a.le# -nce !e had the HI.om. the E$A !ould thin0 t!ice .efore "ro2o0in% us# In the e2ent of their ris0in% it, !e
!ould re"ly !ith de2astatin% stri0es# ConBuest of :uro"e !ould ena.le us to sol2e our economic "ro.lems !ithout affectin% the foundations
of our system# $talin e2en cited the "recedent of Nazi 5ermany, !hich had considera.ly increased its economic "otential .y seizin%
Czechoslo2a0ia and France# He had already thou%ht out "recise "lans for e)"loitin% the conBuered countries# 'y father o.Mected that, for this
idea to !or0 out, it !ould .e as !ell for the countries concerned not to ha2e suffered too much, for communications to ha2e sur2i2ed, and so
on# He also sou%ht to sho! that, e2en %i2en military success, thin%s !ould not necessarily turn out as foreseen, Buotin% the e)am"le of China,
!hich "ossessed hu%e resources .ut !ould need many years of assistance from a.road m order to .uild an economy# $talin "lanned to use
:uro"e as a hosta%e, assumin% that the Americans !ould not dare to dro" atom .om.s on the :uro"ean continent# 'y father did not share
that o"inion# I !as not "resent at these discussions .ut I heard echoes of them from 8anni0o2 and $htemen0o# The latter told me that our
in2asion "lans included $"ain and Italy# They calculated ho! lon% it !ould ta0e for our troo"s to reach these countries, allo!in% for the
nuclear stri0es forecast# The military "otential of our allies in Central :uro"e !ould ha2e to .e utilised in the o"eration, and summit meetin%s
!ere held at !hich the finishin% touches !ere "ut to these "lans# $htemen0o !as deli%hted !ith the "ros"ect of !ar, seein% himself already
!ith a 'arshalFs .aton# 4hen my father learnt that he had tal0ed to me a.out all that, he %a2e $htemen0o a shar" re"rimand# Furthermore he
for.ade him to tell $talin that !e !ere militarily ready# FAnd yet IF2eF already sent him re"orts to that effect,F the %eneral said to me, 2ery
!orried# I realised that this !as a contro2ersy that had .een %oin% on for some time# Not lon% after, my father had to send $htemen0o a!ay in
order to shelter him from $talinFs an%er# A num.er of military men and 7arty leaders declared that !e could !in the !ar, "ro2ided that !e %ot
in a "re2enti2e stri0e and enMoyed the ad2anta%e of sur"rise# This theory !as still in force under Ahrushche2 and 1rezhne2# The commanders
of the land army !ere es"ecially .ellicose# The na2al officers !ere much more reasona.le# They realised that our na2y amounted to little
com"ared !ith the American na2y# They 0ne! that they could not destroy NAT-Fs communications other!ise than .y landin% o"erations
and that they !ere not in a "osition to do much a%ainst the communications .et!een :uro"e and the Enited $tates#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?>J
DR#"erellS 3arriman ha& kno+n my %arents in Georgia in the t+enties. #t that time he o+ne& a 4on4ession for mining
manganese at -hiaturi. He told me ho! he had met my mother# He !as accosted one day in a .an0 .y a charmin% youn%
!oman !ho as0ed him to ma0e a contri.ution to an or%anization !hich loo0ed after or"hans# He res"onded %enerously, not out
of charity .ut .ecause the youn% !oman "leased him# -ne of his friends !ho !as "resent !arned him& F6onFt loo0 at her too
closely, sheFs the !ife of a Che0ist#F $ome time later he !as sent for .y my father to discuss the concession# 'y father reminded
him to o.ser2e Fthe "ro%ressi2e la!sF introduced .y the $o2iet 5o2ernment and Harriman recalled my fatherFs ironical
e)"ression as he uttered those !ords# FI loo0ed at him and !ondered ho! this "uny fello! could .e the hus.and of that .eauty,F
he told me# 'y father sa! Harriman a%ain !hen he came to ne%otiate the release of an American !oman !ho had .een cau%ht
redIhanded at s"yin%# This release !as to .e effected .y an e)chan%e for $o2iet a%ents arrested in the E$A# 'oloto2, $talin and
others had loaded him !ith %ifts H o.Mects stuffed !ith micro"hones !hich !ere cle2erly concealed .y the la.oratories of the
NA86# Accordin% to my father, !ho ridiculed Fthis amateur !ho "rides himself on 0no!in% a.out intelli%ence !or0,F
3arriman 4on4erne& himself +ith foreign %oli4y solely be4ause his 4ommer4ial interests +ere at stake# This acti2e and
enter"risin% as"ect of the man "leased my father# Harriman !anted to !in the $o2ietsF fa2our so as to do .usiness !ith the
E$$R after the !ar# A%ain accordin% to my father, the en2oy of the 1ritish, <ord 1ea2er.roo0, sho!ed himself much readier
than this American to res"ond to $o2iet reBuests# Roose2eltFs ad2iser NHarryO Ho"0ins !as "roI$o2iet !ell .efore he met $talin
and so it canFt .e claimed that he succum.ed to $talinFs charm# 'y father considered that he !as a "erfectly honest man .ut that
he understood a.solutely nothin% a.out the $o2iet Enion and cherished illusions on the su.Mect# FItFs astonishin%,F he said to me,
FThis man is not an intellectual, and he canFt see thin%s as they are#F 4e 0ne! that Ho"0ins had 2ery %reat influence on
Roose2elt, !ho "aid more attention to his ad2isers than Churchill did to his, so that it !as easier to influence the 7resident
throu%h the men around him# 'any of the disa%reements .et!een Roose2elt and Churchill !ere due to Ho"0insF influence on
the American 7resident and to his "roI$o2ietism# 8ice 7resident NHenry C#O 4allace !as not a $o2iet a%ent, either, .ut Buite
sim"ly an im.ecile# 4e succeeded in thro!in% dust in his eyes .y "resentin% him !ith a s"ectacle of o"ulence durin% his stay in
the E$$R in 'ayIJune 19JJ# 'y father a""ointed Amaia0 Ao.ulo2 to accom"any him, calculatin% that they !ould %et on !ell
to%ether# He !as not mista0en# 4allace li0ed !ine and !omen, "assions that !ere shared .y Ao.ulo2, !ho .ecame 4allaceFs
.est friend# ArmIinIarm, they made a 2ery a%reea.le tri" to Central Asia# 1ut none of us e)"ected that such a cretin could
.ecome 7resident of the Enited $tates H it !as already sur"risin% that he !as 8ice 7resident#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 1@@I1@1
Note& $er%o 1eria is the son of <a2renti 1eria, head of the NA86 *$o2iet secret "olice+ durin% 4orld 4ar II
DRoose2elt said that the American "eo"le !ould not let him 0ee" his forces in :uro"e much lon%er# In the "resence of my father,
!ho re"orted it to me, $talin remar0ed that the !ea0ness of the democracies lay in the fact that the "eo"le did not dele%ate
"ermanent ri%hts such as the $o2iet %o2ernment "ossessed# He too0 account of !hat Roose2elt had said in all his su.seBuent
"lans# The American "resident !as 2ery "leased to hear $talin descri.e to him he "lan for his o"erations in the !ar !ith Ja"an#
He assured Roose2elt that Chinese territory !ould .e li.erated .y the $o2iet army and that the Americans had nothin% to !orry
a.out on that score# Roose2elt told Churchill that $talin had also "re"ared Moint "artici"ation in a landin% "lanned in the north of
Ja"an, in Ho00aido if my memory is correct# $talin declared his readiness to e)tend na2al o"erations if circumstances !ere
fa2oura.le and the Enited $tates thou%ht it necessary# All this had .een discussed !ith Churchill a.sent# Roose2elt %a2e
Churchill a detailed account of the !ay $talin had d!elt on the fact that he !ould .e o.li%ed, not !ithout reticence, to 2iolate
the $o2ietIJa"anese 7act of A"ril 19J1, !hereas Ja"an had scru"ulously res"ected it# Roose2elt had e2en felt com"elled to calm
$talinFs scru"les .y recallin% the treacherous attac0 on 7earl Har.our# $talin, ho!e2er, o.ser2ed that that attac0 had not .een so
une)"ected as had .een made out, and Roose2elt did not "ursue the matter# Roose2elt also e)"lained that he had .een o.li%ed to
%i2e in to $talin on a num.er of "oints .ecause he had sho!n himself so accommodatin% in matters concernin% Ja"an#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 1@L
D4hen, in January 19J>, Roose2elt decided to demand 5ermanyFs unconditional surrender, my father thou%ht that this !as a
hu%e .lunder, as the 5ermansF resistance !ould .e %al2anised .y it# He thou%ht, too, that the 'or%enthau "lan for the FdeI
industrialisationF of 5ermany !as an unreasona.le act of 2en%eance .y the Je!s a%ainst the 5erman "eo"le# He considered it to
.e all the more harmful .ecause, at this time, he !as countin% on the 5erman economy to ser2e as the en%ine for our o!n
short!inded economy# Nor did $talin a""ro2e this "lan# He did not !ant the 5erman state destroyed, as he counted on settin% it
a%ainst the other ca"italist states# $imilarly, my father thou%ht the idea of dismem.erin% 5ermany !as a.solutely idiotic# A
fra%mented 5ermany !ould ha2e .ut one idea I to .e reunified# And that reunification !ould lead to another !ar# 4e must
a2oid inflictin% national humiliation on the 5ermans# It !as a mista0e to ha2e anne)ed :ast 7russia !hen it !ould ha2e .een
enou%h to esta.lish a military .ase there# The "o"ulation transfers !ould .e a source of future conflict# Ho!e2er, on the Buestion
of frontiers, the 7arty and the military !ere united# -nly Admiral Auznetso2 shared my fatherFs 2ie!s# 5enerally s"ea0in%, my
father !ould ha2e "referred to %o .ac0 to the frontiers of 19>7, thou%h he 0e"t that o"inion to himself# He ho"ed, it seems to me,
that the arran%ements made in 19JL !ould only .e "ro2isional#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 1@CI1@7
D'y father had !or0ed !ith Je!ish intellectuals !hen he !as a Che0ist in 1a0u# I ha2e already told ho!, in order to finance his
ser2ice and the $o2iet administration, he had sold t!o consi%nments of oil !ith the hel" of a youn% Je! !ho recei2ed, in return,
a "ercenta%e of the %ains and the ri%ht to emi%rate to the Enited $tates# -ne of my fatherFs close colla.orators, the future 8iceI
'inister of Forei%n Affairs in the E0raine, 'ilshtein, !as a Je! !hom he had 0no!n in 5eor%ia# His .rother li2ed in the E$A
.ut often came ille%ally to the $o2iet Enion# o my father ha& not nee&e& +ar an& fas4ism in or&er to learn ho+ to make
use of /e+s. #s he sa+ it, the 4ountry nee&e& them. 3o+e"er, he &i& not en4ourage them to go into %oliti4s an& o44u%y
lea&ing %ositions, lest this foster anti(emitism. 3e ha& no sym%athy for Lino"ie", Kamene", 5rotsky an& the rest. 3e
blame& them for their uns4ru%ulous ambition, their %ushiness an& their ten&en4y to Hu&ge %eo%le by their ra4e rather
than their ability. $n %oliti4s he foun& the /e+s to be o%%ortunisti4 an& he ha& no ho%e of o%enly seeking su%%ort among
them. 3e &i& not blame the /e+s for this, ho+e"er, an& e*%laine& their attitu&e by the 4enturies of %erse4ution they ha&
suffere&. Pro"oke& beyon& en&uran4e by 5sarist %oli4y, the /e+ish intelligentsia ha& fa"oure& re"olution an& o4ialism.
/e+s ha& forme& the most aggressi"e +ing of !olshe"ism. For la4k of a state of their o+n they +ante& to establish
!olshe"ism all o"er the +orl&. 5hey ha& begun to 4hange their attitu&e only after 5rotsky ha& been si&eline&. #44or&ing
to my father, talin +as totally in&ifferent to in&i"i&ualsO nationalities, as he Hu&ge& men in relation to the usefulness or
the &anger they 4oul& 4onstitute. $n his eyes a /e+ish re"olutionary +as 4loser to 5rotsky than to him, an& this +as +hat
ha& ma&e him so hostile to the /e+s. 'y father considered that the stru%%le a%ainst Trots0yism !as utterly harmful# 8ery
early he !as a""ealin% to the American Je!s !ho had roots in the E$$R# He !anted to use the Je!ish lo..y to incite the E$A
to enter the !ar, .ecause only the influence of that lo..y could shift America out of its isolationism# Its !ei%ht ena.led
Roose2elt to %et round the neutrality la!s# The 1ritish, !ho had reasoned in the same !ay, acted similarly# They had e2en .e%un
.efore !e did# 6urin% the !ar my father cherished the ho"e that the entire Je!ish community throu%hout the !orld, !ith its
scientists and its .an0ers, !ould !or0 for the $o2iet Enion# He !anted not merely to o.tain financial and military aid from the
Enited $tates .ut also to create a net!or0 of Xa%ents of influence= and e2en of ordinary a%ents# # great number of /e+ish
emigres +orke& for the CR out of anti(fas4ism. talin authorise& this %oli4y. 6uring the +ar my father initiate& the
4reation of anti(fas4ist 4ommittees, in4lu&ing the /e+ish #nti(Fas4ist -ommittee, +hi4h 4ame into being in #%ril(2ay
19@;. 5he /e+ish intelle4tual elite hel%e& him to organise this 4ommittee, +hi4h +as inten&e& to form a %ermanent lobby
that +oul& mobilise /e+ish 4a%ital, finan4ial an& %oliti4al, throughout the +orl& an& influen4e #meri4an %oli4y. 5he
substantial sums that the o"iet Cnion re4ei"e& &uring the 4ourse of the +ar 4ame to us thanks to the /e+ish finan4ial
grou% that su%%orte& Roose"elt. R3enryS 2orgenthau R/r.S an& R6a"i&S Lilienthal are the t+o names that $ remember
from this grou%. Len&(Lease an& the %ro"ision of +arshi%s almost free of 4harge +ere benefits resulting from this lobby.
5hese /e+ish finan4iers +ere not ne4essarily %ro(-ommunist, though there +ere o4ialist(in4line& elements among
them: they sim%ly +ante& to see Germany &estroye&. 'y father and the $o2iet %o2ernment of the time !ere a.le to e)"loit
that feelin% thorou%hly#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# 1@I1@9
D'y father and $talin thou%ht that .y hel"in% the state of Israel to come into .ein% they !ould ensure the su""ort of
international finance for the $o2iet Enion# They sa! in this state a .ase from !hich to influence the !orld of Je!ry, !ith all its
financial resources, in the interest of the E$$R# It mattered little to my father that the ne! stateFs leaders !ere not Communists,
"ro2ided that they !ere useful to us# 4e should "ut our money on Israel and not on the Ara. countries as !e had resources
enou%h# He tried to hel" the Je!s to create their state, in the first instance !ith $talinFs a""ro2al# He succeeded in %i2in% military
aid to Israel# $talin did not 0no! e2erythin% and did not necessarily a""ro2e of e2erythin% that my father did in this connection,
in a s"here !here he could act discreetly and !ithout as0in% for "ermission, .y usin% his "ersonal net!or0 of a%ents# In return
the Je!s %a2e him information a.out the Ara. !orld# I ha2e met Israelis !ho recei2ed military trainin% in the $o2iet Enion,
certainly !ith $talinFs a""ro2al# 1ut $talin later a.andoned the Je!ish "olicy ad2ocated .y my father, !hich he had su""orted at
the outset# 'y father !anted to continue !ith it, .elie2in% that it mi%ht "ro2e fruitful in the less immediate future#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?@
D$talin had .orne a %rud%e a%ainst Tito since the !ar# He did not for%i2e him for his lin0s !ith the 1ritish, es"ecially .ecause they
e2aded $talinFs control# He constantly "estered my father on the su.Mect& FTell me, !hat=s ChurchillFs son doin% at TitoFs side3 4hy are
the 1ritish hel"in% him so much3F 'y father tried to ma0e him understand that Tito !as forced to a""eal to the 1ritish since !e !ere
so un!illin% to hel"# FAnd you claim that he is one of us3F demanded $talin# -ne day !hen $talin re"eated for the hundredth time that
Tito !as a 1ritish s"y, my father could not hold .ac0 any lon%er and .urst out& F/ouFre surely not %oin% to say that you .elie2e that
storyPF 4hen $talin o"enly as0ed Tito a.out his relations !ith the 1ritish, the /u%osla2 leader re"lied shar"ly, defendin% his "osition#
I as0ed my father a.out these connections# FThe 1ritish !ant to ha2e him on their side,F he e)"lained# FNothin% sur"risin% a.out that#
Tito is a Communist, .ut he !ants his country to remain inde"endent# He "ractices a .alancin% "olicy, and he is ri%ht to do so# As for
$talin, he !ould a%ree !ith 1ritish aid for Tito, "ro2ided that e2erythin% !ent throu%h 'osco!#F $talin !as 2ery much a%ainst my
father !hen he ad2ocated a Moint 7olishI/u%osla2 o"eration in the direction of Austria# $talin e2en "ro"osed to Tito that he 0ee" the
Ain% of /u%osla2ia# F4ith all your ca"rices, IFm .e%innin% to !onder if that !ouldnFt .e .etter for the $o2iet Enion ### /ou !ould .e
7rime 'inister for life#F To the mem.ers of the 7olit.uro he said, Mo0in%ly& X4ith the Ain%, life !ould .e easier for me#= Tito .ecame
an%ry and re"lied that the /u%osla2s had not fou%ht in order to %o .ac0 to the monarchy# 4hereu"on $talin treated the su.Mect as a
Mo0e#G H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?@I?@9
D1efore the !ar my father !as 2ery interested in the Auomintan%, !hich tried to com.ine ca"italism !ith elements of $ocialism# The
"rinci"les of its "easant "olicy seemed %ood to him, thou%h their a""lication left somethin% to .e desired .ecause of a corru"t
.ureaucracy# The "easants su""orted this "arty and if the E$$R had not hel"ed the Communists the Auomintan% !ould ha2e held on
to "o!er# That !ould ha2e .een .etter for China e2en thou%h, in my fatherFs 2ie!, Chian% AaiIshe0 !as infinitely more dan%erous to
the $o2iet Enion than 'ao !as, not for "olitical reasons .ut on account of his "ersonality# $ome men close to my father "erished
throu%h their colla.oration !ith the Auomintan%# I am thin0in% of the 5eor%ian <orninadze, !ho did much to hel" the Chinese
nationalists# He !as recalled to the E$$R and $talin .lamed him for our failure in China# 'y father tried to defend him, recallin% that
Chian% AaiIshe0 had studied in the E$$R# >t !as enou%h, indeed, to remem.er the "recedent set .y the 5eor%ians !ho, in Tsarist
times, had li2ed in 'osco! and returned home 2iolently antiIRussian, to understand that our disa""ointments in China should not .e
im"uted to <ominadze alone# Throu%h his a%ents my father 0ne! a lot a.out the Chinese leader and his family# 4e %a2e u" our
attem"t to reach an understandin% !ith Chian% !hen !e realised the e)tent to !hich he !as controlled .y the Americans, es"ecially
throu%h his !ife# In :uro"e one could lea2e the .our%eois %o2ernments in "lace# In Asia, American influence !as so stron% that if
Chian% AaiIshe0 !on in China, the E$$R !ould ha2e no means of "enetratin% the re%ion, since the Auomintan% ruled
mono"olistically# After the !ar my father and 'alen0o2, considerin% that China !as a "otential ally of su.stantial !ei%ht a%ainst
America, had concluded that !e should cast aside the Auomintan%# Instead, !e should %i2e farIreachin% aid to the Chinese
Communists, satisfy all their demands, stren%then ChinaFs economy and use China a%ainst the Enited $tates and Ja"an# 'y father once
said to me that if China and Ja"an came to%ether, Ja"anese technolo%y and or%anisation com.ined !ith the %i%antic human "otential
re"resented .y China could constitute an irresisti.le "o!er# 'y father !anted the closest "ossi.le economic and "olitical .onds !ith
China to .e restored# I found it hard to understand !hy the Americans a.andoned Chian% AaiIshe0 and allo!ed 'ao to ta0e "o!er#
The 1ritish !ould ne2er ha2e allo!ed such a thin% to ha""en, I thou%ht# I as0ed my father to e)"lain# FThe Americans thin0 li0e
merchants,F he said# FThey .elie2ed that 'ao !as no !orse for them than Chian% AaiIshe0# As for 'ao, he is an o""ortunist !ho has
sided !ith the $o2iet Enion .ecause he needs our hel"# 1ut as soon as he has o.tained !hat he !ants he !ill turn his .ac0 on us and
%o o2er to the 4estern side#F I !as scandalised# 'ao enMoyed immense "resti%e amon% the $o2iet "eo"le# He had .ehind him a
country !ith a .illion inha.itantsPG
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?19I??@
D4hen, in 19J9, !e acBuired the .om., this !as far from calmin% $talin# -n the contrary, it con2inced him that e2erythin% !as
henceforth "ermitted to him and !e !ould soon to .e a.le to %o o2er to the attac0# Realisin% that our totalitarian system had the
ad2anta%e o2er the democracies in that it could Buic0ly concentrate the ma)imum of resources in a chosen sector, he !anted to use this
"ro2isional su"eriority to achie2e a definiti2e success, on not only the :uro"ean .ut the !orld scale# The o"eration to reunify Aorea,
!hich !as launched in June 19L@, had .een "lanned !ith the North Aoreans and the Chinese# It is claimed no!adays that the initiati2e
for it came from Aim IlIsun%, .ut this is Buite mista0en# The North Aoreans !ere so !ea0 economically and so "oor, their only
am.ition !as to 0ee" !hat they had# Aim !as a ci"her that !e used# He "ut into effect the "olicy decided .y $talin, !ho sent for him
and indicated !hat his duty !as# As e2er, $talin did not do this directly& he ne2er acted F.arefaced#F After AimFs 2isit to 'osco! in the
s"rin% of 19L@ I remem.er hearin% my father say ironically& FAll that !e needed !as a .i% !ar in the Far :ast#F He did not .elie2e that
this conflict !ould stay localised# He did not !ant this !ar H not for humanitarian reasons, of course, .ut .ecause he feared that it
!ould unite the 4est# In 19J9 the E$$R and China had trained a lar%e num.er of North Aorean officers, and not Must senior ran0s#
8asile2s0y told me that he himself dre! u" the "lan for a%%ression a%ainst $outh Aorea# After the initial successes, the 5eneral $taff
and our intelli%ence ser2ices !arned $talin that conBuest of all Aorea should .e a2oided, as other!ise a 4estern counterIattac0 !ould
not .e lon% in comin%# 1ut $talin did not !ant to listen, so that he !as o.li%ed to call on 'ao to come to the rescue of the North
Aoreans# He did not yet feel ready for a !orld !ar and !anted to %ain time for "uttin% the final touches to his "re"arations# Therefore
it seemed to him "refera.le to ma0e use of the Chinese#G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ??>
DAhrushche2 Buic0ly made some of my fatherFs ideas his o!n, only a fe! months after denouncin% them as "roofs of treason#
He .ecame reconciled !ith /u%osla2ia in 19LL, and had the chee0 to attri.ute the .rea0 to my fatherP Tito tic0ed him off, sayin%
that Ahrushche2 must not ta0e him for a fool# The /u%osla2s 0ne! Buite !ell !ho had attac0ed them, and it !asn=t 1eria# In
Fe.ruary 19LC, at the ?@th 7arty Con%ress, Ahrushche2 denounced $talin=s crimes, .ut did this selecti2ely, so as to stren%then
his "osition .y e)cul"atin% the 1olshe2i0 7arty and <enin, thou%h the .lemishes of 1olshe2ism had .een a""arent e2en .efore
the -cto.er Re2olution# Khrush4he" +as really a talinist through an& through P it is enough to look at his agri4ultural
%oli4y to realise that. 3e also %ursue& a %oli4y of &etente +ith the 'est, but, again, +as 4ontent +ith half measures.
5hough 4onfrontation &iminishe& in his reign, he &i& not hesitate to %ro"oke gra"e 4rises, as in !erlin in 19?9 an& in
-uba in 19:;. #n& letOs not forget the !erlin 'all, built un&er Khrush4he" in 19:1.G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?7C
D#mong talinOs su44essors the only one +ho +as not an i&iot +as RYuriS #n&ro%o" but he +as 4ruel. Like talin he
+rote "erses, an&, like talin, he +as +i4ke&. At the time of the Hun%arian re.ellion in 19LC he !as $o2iet am.assador in
1uda"est# 'oloto2 had recommended him for this "ost, .ein% con2inced that any 7arty functionary made a %ood di"lomat# He
too0 an acti2e "art in the re"ression# At $2erdlo2s0 I met military men !ho had "artici"ated in the crushin% of the re.ellion# -ne
of them told me that Andro"o2 had %i2en the order for the tan0s to char%e the cro!d# $ome tan0 cre!s refused to o.ey this order
and !ere shot on the s"ot# Recalcitrant officers of hi%her ran0 !ere shot in the em.assy courtyard, in Andro"o2Fs "resence# The
officer !ho told me esca"ed the same fate .ecause he had a ner2ous .rea0do!n and !as declared to .e not res"onsi.le for his
actions#G H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?77
DT5here are t+o &ominant for4es in man: lo"e an& national feeling,) he RLa"renti !eriaS sai& to me. #ny attem%t to
era&i4ate them +oul& be a gra"e mistake. 7ne shoul&, on the 4ontrary, base oneself on them. TPeo%le fought in the +ar
not for i&eas but be4ause their 4ountry an& their nearest an& &earest +ere threatene&.) 1ritain de2oted centuries to
su.duin% Ireland, and Russia did the same !ith Caucasia, e2en if 1olshe2ism effecti2ely destroyed the national element# *'y
father N<a2renti 1eriaO could not foresee that the Caucasian "eo"les !ere %oin% to .e ra2a%ed .y dru%s#+ 5he so4ial or&er is
foun&e& on the family. $f the family is in a ba& +ay, the state +ill feel the 4onseNuen4es. 5ra&itions an& "irtues are
transmitte& by the family1 the s4hool %asses on kno+le&ge only. X4e should imitate the :n%lish educational system# They
don=t fill a child=s head !ith concrete items of 0no!led%e .efore the a%e of ten or t!el2e# They try to de2elo" first his ca"acity
for com"rehension and his "hysical and moral "o!ers# -nly after that do they inculcate learnin%#=G
H Beria$ *y 0ather/ 5nside StalinKs <remlin .y $er%o 1eria, "# ?9J
Josef $talin=s dacha *summer house+ in $ochi, Russia
Josef $talin=s dacha *summer house+ in $ochi, Russia
Josef $talin=s dacha *summer house+ in $ochi, Russia
*7hoto& htt"&;;homes#yahoo#com;.lo%s;s"aces;anIunsettlin%ItourIofIstalinIsIsochiIdachaIIhisIfa2oriteIretreatI@J>L?JJ>1#html+
Josef $talin=s dacha *summer house+ in $ochi, Russia
1917& /ear of the $na0e
Bolshevik Revolution8 Balfour &e(laration8 & ,orld ,ar *
7hoto%ra"h of a Federal Reser2e 1oard meetin% in circa 1917# Cloc0!ise, .e%innin% from left& 4illiam 5# 'cAdoo *$ecretary of the
Treasury+, John $0elton 4illiams *Com"troller of the Currency+, Adol"h C# 'iller, Frederic A# 6elano, un0no!n, 4#7#5# Hardin%
*5o2ernor of the Federal Reser2e+, 7aul 4ar.ur% *8ice 5o2ernor of the Federal Reser2e+, and Charles $# Hamlin# Frederic A#
6elano=s ne"he! Fran0lin 6elano Roose2elt !as the Assistant $ecretary of the Na2y from 191> to 19?@, Frederic A# 6elano=s father
*and Fran0lin 6elano Roose2elt=s %randfather+ 4arren 6elano Jr# !as a "artner of Russell 9 Com"any o"ium syndicate and a !ealthy
dru% dealer# *7hoto& Harris 9 :!in% Collection;<i.rary of Con%ress+
/&ssian sol"iers "emonstrate in the streets of Petrogra". /&ssia in Fe!r&ary ()(6. C;ar -icholas >> of /&ssia a!"icate" his
throne on 8arch (+. ()(6. C;ar -icholas >> an" his family were assassinate" !y the Bolshe#iks 7Comm&nists9 in /&ssia on %&ly
(6. ()(2.
British troops enter Bagh"a". the capital of presentA"ay >raM (formerly Ba!ylon). on 8arch ((. ()(6.
British Fiel" 8arshal J"m&n" llen!y enters %er&salem on Fecem!er ((. ()(6. after capt&ring the city from the Httoman =&rks.
=he Httoman Jmpire a"ministere" %er&salem from (+(6 to ()(6.
T#:# <a!rence *front ro!, third from ri%ht+, 7rince Feisal *front ro!, third from left+, and others "ose after ca"turin% ABa.a in
July 1917# 7rince Feisal ser2ed as the Ain% of IraB from Au%ust ?>, 19?1 until his death on $e"tem.er , 19>>#
*7hoto& htt"&;;!!!#mi)edmartialarts#com;mma#cfm3%oWforum#"osts9forumW?9threadW?@L1@?C9"a%eWJ+

=he rchitects of 8o"ern >srael. left to right: Lionel Walter /othschil". rth&r Balfo&r. Chaim Wei;mann. an" J"mon" "e /othschil"
Lor" rth&r Balfo&r was the Foreign Secretary of the Unite" Ging"om of 4reat Britain from ()(3 to ()()E Balfo&r was the Prime 8inister of
4reat Britain from ()D0 to ()D+. Lor" Walter /othschil" was a s&pporter of a %ewish homelan" in the $oly Lan". rth&r Balfo&r. Lor" lfre"
8ilner. %an Christian Sm&ts. Philip Gerr. Leo mery. an" William 4.. Hrms!yA4ore were mem!ers of the 8ilner 4ro&p (also known as the
/o&n" =a!le 4ro&p).
=$J BLFHU/ FJCL/=>H- (Balfo&rNs Letter to Lor" /othschil")
Foreign +ffice
(ovem#er ,nd- ./.0
Dear 1ord "othschild-
2 have much pleasure in conveying to you- on #ehalf of $is Ma3esty4s 5overnment- the follo'ing declaration of
sympathy 'ith 6e'ish 7ionist aspirations 'hich has #een su#mitted to- and approved #y- the Ca#inet.
@$is Ma3esty4s 5overnment vie' 'ith favour the esta#lishment in Palestine of a national home for the 6e'ish people-
and 'ill use their #est endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this o#3ect- it #eing clearly understood that nothing
shall #e done 'hich may pre3udice the civil and religious rights of e8isting non&6e'ish communities in Palestine- or
the rights and political status en3oyed #y 6e's in any other country.9
2 should #e grateful if you 'ould #ring this declaration to the !no'ledge of the 7ionist Federation.
)ours sincerely-
Arthur 6ames :alfour
Fear 8r. Balfo&r
=here was one point > forgot to mention on Fri"ay an" > think yo& might "raw the Prime 8inisterNs attention to thisE "&ring the last
few weeks the official an" semiAofficial 4erman newspapers ha#e !een making many statements. all to the effect that in the
Peace -egotiations the Central Powers m&st make a con"ition for Palestine to !e a %ewish settlement &n"er 4erman protection.
> therefore think it important that the British "eclaration sho&l" forestall any s&ch mo#e. >f yo&. as yo& promise". can arrange the
inter#iew > s&ggeste" please let Fr. Wei;mann know as > am going away for a few "ays on some special !&siness an" Fr.
Wei;mann can get at me M&icker than if the message is sent to me "irect as there will !e no responsi!le person at =ring as my
mother is away also.
'o&rs sincerely.
/H=$SC$>LF
So&rce: "othschild The ;ealth and Po'er of a Dynasty !y Ferek Wilson. p. 1*(
'r# 1alfour=s letter to <ord Rothschild on No2em.er ?, 1917, informally 0no!n as D1alfour 6eclarationG
Australian infantrymen !ear %as mas0s at /"res, 1el%ium durin% the Third 1attle of /"res in $e"tem.er 1917#
Ro.ert $cott <o2ett *left+, a railroad .aron for the Enion 7acific Railroad Co#, !al0s !ith 6aniel 4illard *ri%ht+, 7resident of
1altimore 9 -hio Railroad Co#, in 1917# Ro.ert $cott <o2ett !as the Chairman of the .oard of Enion 7acific Railroad Com"any
from 19?@ until his death in 19>?, Ro.ert $cott <o2ett !as the father of former $ecretary of 6efense Ro.ert A.ercrom.ie <o2ett#
6aniel 4illard !as a mem.er of the Council on Forei%n Relations# *7hoto& Harris 9 :!in% Collection;<i.rary of Con%ress+
8em!ers of the merican /e" Cross Jmergency Financial Committee meet together in ()(6. From left to right: Frank B. $ayne. $enry P.
Fa#ison (Chairman). Corneli&s -. Bliss. %r.. /ichar" F. 4rant. Jliot Wa"sworth. an" Charles F. -orton. Jliot Wa"sworth an" Charles F.
-orton were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. $enry P. Fa#ison was a partner of %.P. 8organ , Co. Charles F. -orton was the
5ice Presi"ent of First -ational Bank of -ew 'ork from ()(( to ()(2. (Photo: $arris , Jwing CollectionBLi!rary of Congress)
'ro)inent A)erican !i9lo)ats and %ilitar+ Cfficers A99ointed in 1917

Left to right: /olan" S. 8orris. $enry P. Fletcher. %ohn W. 4arrett. 4en. =asker Bliss. an" 8aL. 4en. %ames 4. $ar!or".
ll fi#e men were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations "&ring the ()0Ds an" ()1Ds.
/olan" S. 8orris S U.S. m!assa"or to %apan (Hcto!er 1D. ()(6A8ay (+. ()0D)
$enry P. Fletcher S U.S. m!assa"or to 8e<ico (8arch 1. ()(6A%an&ary 0+. ()())
%ohn W. 4arrett S U.S. 8inister to the -etherlan"s (Hcto!er ((. ()(6A%&ne (2. ()())
4en. =asker $. Bliss S Chief of Staff of the U.S. rmy (Septem!er 00. ()(6A8ay (2. ()(2)
8aL. 4en. %ames 4. $ar!or" S Chief of Staff of merican J<pe"itionary Force in France (8ay (+. ()(6A8ay 3. ()(2. 8ay ()()A%&ne ()0()
Chinese /ep&!lican sol"iers !esiege the gates of the For!i""en City in Peking. China in %&ly ()(6 "&ring the faile" reco#ery of the 8anch&
"ynasty.
J&ropean sol"iers appear in Peking in %&ly ()(6 "&ring a faile" attempt to restore the 8anch& "ynasty.
/o!ert Lansing (left). the U.S. Secretary of State. chats with %ohn W. Fa#is (right). Solicitor 4eneral of the Unite" States. in ()(6.
(Photo: Li!rary of Congress)
%apanese special en#oy 5isco&nt Gik&LirT >shii (left). appears with U.S. Secretary of State /o!ert Lansing in Washington. F.C. on -o#em!er 0.
()(6 for the signing of the LansingA>shii greement. (Photo: Li!rary of Congress)

<eft& The Kimmermann Tele%ram as it !as sent from 4ashin%ton, 6#C# to 'e)ico in 1917#
Ri%ht& The Kimmermann Tele%ram, com"letely decry"ted and translated# The messa%e came as a coded tele%ram dis"atched .y
the 5erman Forei%n $ecretary Arthur Kimmermann on January 1C, 1917, to the 5erman Am.assador to America Johann 2on
1ernstorff# 7resident 4oodro! 4ilson recei2ed a co"y of the Kimmermann Tele%ram in Fe.ruary 1917# 'e)ico=s 7resident
8enustiano Carranza declined the 5erman di"lomatic offer descri.ed in the Kimmermann Tele%ram on A"ril 1J, 1917#

<eft "hoto& Arthur Kimmermann *-cto.er L, 1CJIJune C, 19J@+ !as $tate $ecretary for Forei%n Affairs of the 5erman :m"ire
from No2em.er ??, 191C until his resi%nation on Au%ust C, 1917# Kimmermann a""ro2ed of Russian Communist terrorist
8ladimir <enin=s secret train ride from $!itzerland to Russia 2ia 5ermany *includin% 1erlin+#
Ri%ht "hoto& Theo.ald 2on 1ethmann Holl!e% *No2em.er ?9, 1LCIJanuary 1, 19?1+ !as a 5erman "olitician and statesman
!ho ser2ed as Chancellor of the 5erman :m"ire from July 1J, 19@9 to July 1>, 1917#
Co)rade Lenin isits Stockhol), Sweden in 1917. /&ssian Comm&nist terrorist 5la"imir Lenin (right. hol"ing an &m!rella) takes a stroll in
the streets of Stockholm. Swe"en on pril (1. ()(6 78arch 1(. ()(6 /&ssian 7%&lian9 calen"ar9. Lenin an" his comra"es "eparte" :&rich.
Swit;erlan" a!oar" a train on pril 3. ()(6. =he >mperial 4erman go#ernment escorte" Lenin his comra"es a!oar" a ?seale"@ train from the
SwissA4erman !or"er to Berlin an" later from Berlin to the Baltic Sea. Lenin met with his 4erman ?sponsors@ (4erman intelligent agents) in
Berlin an" apparently recei#e" money !efore ret&rning to Petrogra" to esta!lish a Comm&nist regime in /&ssia.
(Photo: http:BBwww.c""c.#t.e"&Bmar<istsBarchi#eBleninBme"iaBimageB()(6.htm)
'em.ers of 7resident 4oodro! 4ilson=s $"ecial 6i"lomatic 'ission to Russia in 1917 "ose for a %rou" "ortrait# 'em.ers of
the 'ission standin% amon% those in the front ro! are, from left to ri%ht& Charles :d!ard Russell, E#$# Army 5eneral Hu%h
<eno) $cott, 6a2id Ro!land Francis, and :lihu Root, to the ri%ht of Root is <eon Trots0y, and standin% .ehind Root, a little to
the ri%ht, at the front of the cro!ded room, is 8ladimir <enin# *7hoto& <i.rary of Con%ress+
Jlih& /oot was the Presi"ent of Carnegie Jn"owment for >nternational Peace from ()(D to ()0+. Sam&el /. Bertron (S,B
(22+) 7somewhere in the rear of the photo9 was a mem!er of the Special Fiplomatic 8ission to /&ssia 7also known as the /oot
8ission9 in ()(6.

Left photo: Leon =rotsky (real name Le# Fa#i"o#ich Bronstein) arri#es in Petrogra" 7St. Peters!&rg9. /&ssia on 8ay *. ()(6.
/ight photo: =he -ational City Bank !ranch at Petrogra". /&ssia in ()(6.
Female /&ssian te<tile workers call for !rea" "&ring an >nternational WorkersI Fay march in Petrogra". /&ssia (presentA"ay St.
Peters!&rg) in 8arch ()(6.
/&ssian sol"iers ri"e thro&gh the streets of Petrogra". /&ssia on 8arch ((A(0. ()(6. "ays !efore C;ar -icholas >> of /&ssia
a!"icates an" lea#es the city.
/&ssian go#ernment troops fire &pon "emonstrators at the corner of -e#sky Prospect an" Sa"oya#a Street in St. Peters!&rg.
/&ssia on %&ly *. ()(6. (4elatin Sil#er Print)
C;ar -icholas >> of /&ssia poses for a photograph while in "etention after his a!"ication on 8arch (+. ()(6.
>mperial 4erman rmy 4en. Pa&l #on $in"en!&rg (center) appears with 4eneral Jrich L&"en"orff (right) in ()(6.
(Photo: 4erman Fe"eral rchi#es)
Left to right: 4eneral Pa&l #on $in"en!&rg. Gaiser Wilhelm >> of 4ermany. an" 4eneral Jrich L&"en"orff re#iew !attle plans at
the 4erman 4eneral $ea"M&arters in ()(6. (Photo: Wikipe"ia)
4erman officers escort /&ssian %ewish Comm&nist terrorist Leon =rotsky (center) at a train station in BrestALit#osk on Fecem!er 06. ()(6 as
Leon =rotsky an" his /&ssian "elegates prepare to atten" the BrestALito#sk Peace Conference. (Photo: CH/B>S)
The $i%nin% of Russian 4ar <oan in 1917# $ho!n& Constantine -nou, Russian :m.assy, Fran0 <# 7ol0, $er%e E%het, Russian
:m.assy, $ecretary of the Treasury 4illiam 5# 'cAdoo *seated, second from left+, and Ender $ecretary of $tate Fran0 <# 7ol0
*seated, second from ri%ht+# Fran0 <# 7ol0 %raduated from /ale Eni2ersity, Fran0 <# 7ol0 !as a mem.er of the Council on
Forei%n Relations# *7hoto& National 7hoto Com"any Collection;<i.rary of Con%ress 7rints and 7hoto%ra"hs 6i2ision+
htt"&;;!!!#loc#%o2;"ictures;item;n"c?@@@11JC7;3sidW17edd1d..1dad@9f9J>aCc>9Jdc.1

Prominent merican go#ernment officials in the Woo"row Wilson "ministration in ()(6. left to right: %ohn W. Fa#is. Solicitor 4eneral of the
U.S. (()(1A()(2)E Frank L. Polk. Co&nselor of the State Fepartment (()(+A()())E /&ssell C. Leffingwell. ssistant Secretary of the =reas&ry
(()(6A()0D)E -ewton F. Baker. Secretary of War (()(3A()0()E Fa#i" F. $o&ston. Secretary of gric&lt&re (()(1A()0D)E an" Franklin Felano
/oose#elt. ssistant Secretary of the -a#y (()(1A()0D). ll men e<cept for /oose#elt were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.
1ritish Forei%n $ecretary <ord Arthur 1alfour *left+ a""ears !ith E#$# $ecretary of $tate Ro.ert <ansin% *ri%ht+ in 1917#
*7hoto& Harris 9 :!in% Collection;<i.rary of Con%ress+
American $tate 6e"artment officials a!ait the arri2al of 1ritish Forei%n $ecretary <ord Arthur James 1alfour *Head of the
1ritish Commission to the Enited $tates+ at a train station in 4ashin%ton, 6#C# in 1917# 1ritish Am.assador to America $ir
Cecil Arthur $"rin%IRice, E#$# $ecretary of $tate Ro.ert <ansin% *?
nd
left+, Fran0 <# 7ol0 *?nd ri%ht, %esturin% !ith left fin%er+,
and 4illiam 7hilli"s *ri%ht+ are dressed in standard di"lomatic attire, includin% the .lac0 to" hat# $ir Cecil Arthur $"rin%IRice
ser2ed as 1ritish Am.assador to the Enited $tates from 191? to 191, $"rin%IRice died in -tta!a, Canada on Fe.ruary 1J,
191# *7hoto& <i.rary of Con%ress+
1ritish Forei%n $ecretary <ord Arthur 1alfour *left, holdin% his hat+ a""ears !ith American en2oy Hu%h 5i.son *ri%ht, smilin%+
in Ne! /or0 in 1917# *7hoto& 5eor%e 5rantham 1ain Collection;<i.rary of Con%ress+
The House 'ission %rou" "ortrait& DColonelG :d!ard 'andell House *front ro!, center, !earin% a di"lomatic to" hat+ and his
entoura%e "ose for a %rou" "ortrait in <ondon in No2em.erI6ecem.er 1917# :d!ard 'andell House met and dined !ith
1ritish 7rime 'inister 6a2id <loyd 5eor%e, Arthur 1alfour, <ord Alred 'ilner, <ord Ro.ert Cecil, 4illiam 4iseman, Ain%
5eor%e 8 of 5reat 1ritain, <ord 5eor%e Curzon, and 5en# Jan Christian $muts !hile 2isitin% <ondon in 1917#
*7hoto& "he 5ntimate Papers of 9olonel -ouse .y Charles $eymour, 8olume > *Into the 4orld 4ar++
D1alfour in2ited 4eizmann to "artici"ate in the "rocess of draftin% an a""ro"riate document# It !as !hat 4eizmann and $y0es
had sou%ht all alon%# The "rocess of draftin% the a""ro"riate lan%ua%e, and decidin% to !hom it should .e addressed, !ent on
throu%h the summer until $e"tem.er, !hen 'ilner and <eo Amery too0 char%e of it# Almost all the %o2ernmental fi%ures !ho
mattered !ere dis"osed fa2ora.ly to!ard the "ro"osed declaration# $y0es, fortified .y -rms.yI5ore, had con2erted the 4ar
Ca.inet secretariat to Kionism# 1alfour, the Forei%n $ecretary, had lon% sym"athized !ith Kionism and no! .elie2ed that
1ritain should %o on record in its fa2or, and !ithin his o!n de"artment he !as "ushed for!ard in this .y Cecil and 5raham#
$muts !as dee"ly "roIKionist# 'ilner and his set, includin% 7hili" Aerr of the 7rime 'inister=s secretariat, had come to 2ie!
the esta.lishment of a Je!ish 7alestine as a 2ital 1ritish im"erial interest# The 7rime 'inister had al!ays "lanned to carry
throu%h a Kionist "ro%ram, and !hile he did not e)"ress an interest in declarin% 1ritain=s intentions in ad2ance, neither did he
"lace any o.stacle in the !ay of his %o2ernment=s doin% so once his collea%ues thou%ht it useful#G
, Peace to End ,ll Peace$ 9reating the *odern *iddle East$ 121?&12EE .y 6a2id From0in, "# ?9>I?9J
*Note& 6a2id From0in is a mem.er of the Council on Forei%n Relations#+
Arthur J# 1alfour=s <etter to DColonelG :d!ard '# House
From "he 5ntimate Papers of 9olonel -ouse .y Charles $eymour, 8olume > *Into the 4orld 4ar+, "# 19@I19>
'r# A#J# 1alfour to Colonel House
NCa.le%ramO
<-N6-N, -cto.er 11, 1917
I !ould .e %rateful if you !ill allo! me to "ut .efore you the follo!in% facts !ith re%ard to the shi""in% situation, for your 2ery
careful attention&
In the first t!o and a half years of the !ar the total reduction of tonna%e in the !orld due to the enemy=s acti2ities amounted to
a""ro)imately four and a half million tons# $e2en months of ruthless su.marine !arfare increased the a.o2e reduction .y an
additional four and a Buarter million tons#
If to the a2era%e rate of destruction of shi""in% durin% this intensi2e cam"ai%n is added the decrease of tonna%e caused, firstly,
.y the inca"acitation of shi"s !hich are .adly dama%ed !ithout .ein% a total loss, and secondly, .y ordinary misad2entures at
sea, it is "ermissi.le to estimate the total reduction in the tonna%e of the !orld durin% a year as in the nei%h.ourhood of ei%ht
million tonsU
To offset this reduction :n%land, !ho last year reduced shi".uildin% to the "roduction of a.out si) hundred thousand tons in
order to direct her ener%ies into other channels, is no! .endin% e2ery effort to construct t!o and a half million tons ne)t year,
thou%h it is to .e feared that it !ill not .e "ossi.le to fully reach this fi%ure#
If the "resent rate of destruction is maintained 5reat 1ritain=s "roduction of shi""in% added to that of the rest of the !orld
e)ce"tin% America !ill yet lea2e a minimum yearly deficit of fi2e and a half million tons#
The situation is rendered more serious .y the fact, !ell 0no!n to you, that, !ithout ta0in% into o consideration future losses,
a2aila.le tonna%e is far from sufficient to fill the ci2ilian and military needs of the Allies#
Tonna%e conditions !ill .e the decidin% factor in the e)tent of s"rin% o"erations in e2ery theatre of !ar#
:n%land no! considers it im"ortant to clearly state that she sees no "ossi.ility of carryin% on her military and na2al "art in the
!ar, trans"ortin% ci2ilian and military su""lies in 1ritish .ottoms and continuin% to furnish her Allies !ith as many shi"s as in
the "ast#
The "resent %reat need for coal and food in Italy and France !ill .ecome more serious in the s"rin%#
1ritish shi"s !ill also .e lac0in% to furnish the su""lies !hich Russia may !ant durin% the season ne)t year !hen the "ort of
Archan%el is o"en#
At the same time, America !ill .e confronted .y the %reat "ro.lems "resented .y the trans"ortation of her forces and the
su""lies for them#
In 2ie! of all the a.o2e circumstances, I su%%est for your consideration the "ossi.ility of the ado"tion .y the Enited $tates of
"lans for the construction of sufficient tonna%e to offset the loss .y su.marine attac0 at the "resent rate# This !ould mean the
construction of a""ro)imately si) million tons "er annum#
The effort that such a "ro%ramme im"lies is enormous, .ut you !ill recollect that if :n%land is una.le to ado"t such a
"ro%ramme it is .ecause her ener%ies are committed in those other directions into !hich they !ere turned, in common !ith those
of her Allies, in the early days of the !ar under the immediate necessity of "ro2idin% for increasin% armies and na2ies and the
munitions for .oth# <ess effort than that thus e)"ended !ould ha2e sufficed to "roduce more shi"s than su.marines destroy,
e2en !hen most acti2e# It !as not until 191C that the mercantile marine .ecame as im"ortant as armies, na2ies, and munitions#
America, !ith resources of industry and en%ineerin% su"erior to those of any other country, Moined the !ar at this sta%e# The
e)"enditure of stren%th necessary to nullify the loss of shi""in%, thou%h 2ery %reat, is relati2ely less than that made .y the Allies
!ith success to meet other emer%encies# The "ro%ramme outlined a.o2e means the em"loyment of three and a half million tons
of steel, !hich is not e2en ten "er cent of the "roduction of the Enited $tates, and the he !or0 of half a million men, only a
minority of !hom need .e s0illed !or0men#
:2en .efore any shi"s !ere launched, the definite ado"tion and 2i%orous "rosecution of a scheme such as the hone outlined
!ould in all "ro.a.ility affect the enemy=s ho"es and, conseBuently, his "o!ers of endurance in an entirely dis "ro"ortionate
manner# $uch a "ro%ramme !ould, of course, not "ro2ide the reBuisite num.er of .ottoms .y ne)t s"rin%, .ut the 2ery fact that
they !ere under construction !ould "ermit of freer use of those a2aila.le and !ould .e of in2alua.le hel" to tide o2er the
critical time comin% .efore the har2ests of 191#
Althou%h in the last fe! !ee0s the loss of tonna%e has .een %reatly reduced, it is not yet certain that this diminution !ill .e
sustained and it conseBuently !ould .e most im"rudent to ta0e this im"ro2ement into consideration as a factor in calculations
loo0in% to the ado"tion of a "ermanent "olicy# I cannot, therefore, lay too %reat a stress on the %ra2e "ossi.ility that the su"erior
efforts .ein% made .y all the Allies in 2arious other directions may .e set at nau%ht .y inadeBuate "ro2ision for ma0in% %ood the
loss of tonna%e#
It is of "aramount im"ortance that adeBuate arran%ements should .e made for "ro2isionin% and trans"ortin% the "o!erful army
America is "re"arin%, !ithout reducin% the tonna%e no! de2oted to su""lyin% the Allied forces already en%a%ed, lest such
reduction should !ea0en them in the same "ro"ortion that the American army !ill stren%then them#
1A<F-ER
The Im"erial 4ar Ca.inet of 1917 5rou" 7ortrait in <ondon in 1917# Front ro!, left to ri%ht& 'r# Arthur Henderson, <ord 'ilner,
<ord Curzon, 'r# 1onar <a!, 7rime 'inister 6a2id <loyd 5eor%e, $ir Ro.ert 1orden, 'r# 4# F# 'assey, 5en# Jan Christian $muts#
'iddle ro!, left to ri%ht& $ir $#7# $inha, 'aharaMa of 1i0aner, $ir J# 'eston, 'r# Austen Cham.erlain, <ord Ro.ert Cecil, 'r# 4alter
<on%, $ir Jose"h 4ard, $ir 5eor%e 7arley, 'r# Ro.ert Ro%ers, 'r J#6# Hazen# 1ac0 ro!& Ca"t# <#$# Amery, Adm# Jellicoe, <t# Col#
$ir 'aurice Han0ey, 'r# Henry <am.ert, and 'aMor $torr# *Ima%e& _ HultonI6eutsch Collection;C-R1I$+
1ritish $tatesmen durin% 4orld 4ar I

<ord 4alter Rothschild, <ord Arthur J# 1alfour, <ord 5eor%e Nathaniel Curzon, <ord Alred 'ilner, <ord Ro.ert Cecil

6a2id <loyd 5eor%e, 5en# Jan Christian $muts, 4inston Churchill, Rufus Isaacs, $ir 4illiam 4iseman
7rominent 1ritish 6i%nitaries durin% 4orld 4ar I&
Ging 4eorge 5 of 4reat Britain Ging of the Unite" Ging"om of 4reat Britain ()
Lionel Walter /othschil". 0n" Baron
/othschil"
Baron /othschil" 7Peerage of the Unite" Ging"om9 (191LI19>7)
Fa#i" Lloy" 4eorge Prime 8inister of 4reat Britain (Fecem!er 6. ()(3AHcto!er 00. ()00)
Chancellor of the J<cheM&er (pril (0. ()D2A8ay 0+. ()(+)
n"rew Boner Law Chancellor of the J<cheM&er (Fecem!er (D. ()(3A%an&ary (D. ()())
Lor" rth&r %. Balfo&r Foreign Secretary of 4reat Britain (()(3A()())
Lor" 4eorge -athaniel C&r;on. (st
8arM&ess C&r;on of Ge"leston
Lea"er of the $o&se of Lor"s (()(3A()0*)E Foreign Secretary of 4reat Britain (()()A()0*)
Lor" lfre" 8ilner 8inister Witho&t Portfolio (()(3A()(2)E
Secretary of State for War (pril (2. ()(2A%an&ary (D. ()())
Lor" /o!ert Cecil 8inister of Blocka"e (()(3A()(2)E 8em!er of Parliament (()D3A()01)
4en. %an Christian Sm&ts 8inister Witho&t Portfolio (()(6A()())
Winston Ch&rchill 8inister of 8&nitions (%&ly (6. ()(6A%an&ary (D. ()())
8a&rice P.. $ankey Secretary of the Ca!inet (()(3A()12)
Sir $er!ert Sam&el 8em!er of Parliament (()D0A()(2. ()0)A()1+)E
Postmaster 4eneral of the Unite" Ging"om (()(DA()(*. ()(+A()(3)
Wal"orf stor. 0n" 5isco&nt stor 8em!er of Parliament (()(DA()())E 8em!er of the $o&se of Lor"s (()()A()+0)
William 4. . Hrms!yA4ore
(Baron $arlech)
8em!er of Parliament (()(DA()12)
%ohn . Simon (5isco&nt Simon) 8em!er of Parliament (()D3A()(2. ()00A()*D)
Sir rth&r SteelA8aitlan" 8em!er of Parliament (()(DA()1+)
Leopol" mery 8em!er of Parliament (()(DA()**)
$er!ert l!ert La&rens Fisher 8em!er of Parliament (()(3A()03)E Presi"ent of the Boar" of J"&cation (()(3A()00)
/&f&s >saacs. (st 8arM&ess of
/ea"ing
British m!assa"or to the Unite" States (()(2A()())E
Lor" Chief %&stice of Jnglan" (()(1A()0()
Fre"erick =hesiger
(5isco&nt Chelmsfor")
5iceroy of >n"ia (pril *. ()(3April 0. ()0()
J"win Sam&el 8ontag& Secretary of State for >n"ia (%&ly (6. ()(6A8arch (). ()00)
Philip $. Gerr (Lor" Lothian) J"itor of The "ound Ta#le (()(DA()(3)
4eoffrey Fawson J"itor of The Times of Lon"on (()(0A()(). ()00A()*()
Sir %ohn $an!&ryAWilliams Chief of the British 8ilitary 8ission to /&ssia (()(*A()(6)
Sir 4eorge 8ansfiel" SmithAC&mming Chief of the Secret >ntelligence Ser#ice 78>39 (()D)A()01)
Sir William Wiseman. (D
th
Baronet Chief of British >ntelligence Hffice in U.S.. (()(6)E Partner of G&hn. Loe! , Co. (()0)A()30)
:d!ard 6ou%lass 4hite *left+, the Chief Justice of the E#$# $u"reme Court *191@I19?1+, administers the oath of office to E#$#
7resident 4oodro! 4ilson in front of the E#$# Ca"itol in 4ashin%ton, 6#C# on 'onday, 'arch L, 1917#
*7hoto& <i.rary of Con%ress+
=he war message to Congress came on the e#ening of pril 0. ()(6. Presi"ent Woo"row WilsonIs "etermination to preser#e
mericaIs rights to free"om of the seas (concretely. to sell s&pplies to the llies) in the face of "esperate an" r&thless 4erman
s&!marine warfare ha" at last cancele" o&t his "etermination to preser#e mericaIs peace. !ro&ght the nation to the point of war
or s&rren"er. Q4erman s&!marine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankin".Q he crie". Q=he worl" m&st !e ma"e
safe for "emocracy.Q (Photo: http:BBwww.flickr.comBphotosBwwplarchi#esB*100(*++*)B)

=he War!&rg Brothers. from left to right: 8a< War!&rg. Pa&l War!&rg. an" Feli< War!&rg
8a< War!&rg ser#e" as a financial a"#iser to Gaiser Wilhelm >> of 4ermany an" was the hea" of 8.8. War!&rg !anking firm in
$am!&rg. 4ermany "&ring Worl" War >E 8a< War!&rg ser#e" on the !oar" of "irectors of >.4. Far!en chemical cartels "&ring
the late ()0Ds. Pa&l War!&rg was a mem!er of the Boar" of the 4o#ernors of the Fe"eral /eser#e "&ring Worl" War >. Feli<
War!&rg was a partner of G&hn. Loe! , Co. !anking firm in -ew 'ork City "&ring Worl" War >.
'rescott B -riends at Yale1 =he Whiffenpoofs (a 'ale chor&s gro&p) of ()(6 pose for a gro&p portrait. 'rescott Sheldon "/sh (third fro)
right), the "ig %an on Ca)9/s and a )e)3er of Sk/ll B "ones who grad/ated fro) Yale ,niersit+ in 1917, sered in the ,.S.
Ar)+ as a ca9tain of -ield Artiller+ in A)erican DAlliedE <&9editionar+ -orces fro) 1917 to 1919. Prescott Shel"on B&sh was a U.S.
Senator from ()+0 to ()31. the father of former U.S. Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh an" gran"father of former U.S. Presi"ent 4eorge W. B&sh.
Left to /ight: ?Jck@ 8arkle. Hli#er B. C&nningham. Lawrence -ew!ol" 8&rray. ?Woo"y@ War". Genneth HNBrien. Prescott S. B&sh. /ichar"
Bentley. an" St&art $olmes Clement. Hli#er B. C&nningham an" Prescott S. B&sh were mem!ers of Sk&ll , Bones. Lawrence -ew!ol"
8&rray. Genneth HNBrien. /ichar" Bentley. an" St&art $olmes Clement were mem!ers of Scroll , Gey.
(Photo: 'ale Uni#ersity 8an&scripts an" rchi#es)
$econd <i.erty <oan of 1917 "oster
Congress)an Lind3erghFs Articles of *)9each)ent against the -ederal .esere
9ongressional .ecord *E#$# House of Re"resentati2es+, February 1;, 1917, "# >1?CI>1>@
E#$# Con%ressman Charles A# <ind.er%h $r# *1L9I19?J+
'r# <IN61:R5H# 'r# $"ea0er and the House of Re"resentati2es, I, Charles A# <ind.er%h, the undersi%ned, u"on my res"onsi.ility
as a 'em.er of the House of Re"resentati2es, do here.y im"each 4# 7# 5# Hardin%, %o2ernor, 7aul '# 4ar.ur%, 2ice %o2ernor,
Frederic0 A# 6elano, Adol"h C# 'iller, and Charles $# Hamlin, mem.ers, each indi2idually as a mem.er of the Federal Reser2e
1oard, and also all of them collecti2ely as the fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of said .oard, or hi%h crimes and misdemeanors#
I, u"on my res"onsi.ility as a 'em.er of the House of Re"resentati2es, do here.y im"each 4# 7# 5# Hardin%, %o2ernor, 7aul '#
4ar.ur%, 2ice %o2ernor, and Frederic0 A# 6elano, Adol"h C# 'iller, and Charles $# Hamlin, mem.ers, and each of them as mem.ers
of the Federal Reser2e 1oard, and also im"each all of them collecti2ely as the fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e
1oard, of hi%h crimes and misdemeanors in aidin%, a.ettin%, and cons"irin% !ith certain "ersons and firms hereinafter named, and
!ith other "ersons, and firms, 0no!n and un0no!n, in a cons"iracy to 2iolate the Constitution and the la!s of the Enited $tates and
the Must and eBuita.le "olicies of the 5o2ernment, !hich said cons"iracy de2elo"ed and %re! out of and !as consummated from the
follo!in% facts and acts, to !it&
First# -n or a.out the month of July, 19@C, the e)act date .ein% un0no!n to the relater, the late J#7# 'or%an of the firm of J# 7# 'or%an
9 Co#, and the said firm, "ri2ate .an0ers and .ro0ers, !ith their main office in Ne! /or0 City and doin% .usiness all o2er the !orld,
7aul '# 4ar.ur%, of the firm Auhn, <oe. 9 Co#, and the firm of Auhn, <oe. 9 Co, also "ri2ate .an0ers and .ro0ers, doin% .usiness
all o2er the !orld, !ith their main office in Ne! /or0 City, <ee, Hi%%inson, 9 Co#, also "ri2ate .an0ers and .ro0ers, doin% .usiness
all o2er the !orld !ith their main offices in 1oston and Ne! /or0& Aidder, 7ea.ody 9 Co# Also "ri2ate .an0ers and .ro0ers, doin%
.usiness all o2er the !orld, !ith their main offices in 1oston and Ne! /or0, the National City 1an0 of Ne! /or0 !ith its office in the
city of Ne! /or0 and doin% a %eneral .an0in% .usiness domestic and forei%n, the First National 1an0 of Ne! /or0 !ith its office in
Ne! /or0 city doin% a %eneral .an0in% .usiness domestic and forei%n, and 2arious other "ersons and firms, 0no!n un0no!n to the
relator , did cons"ire !ith each other to de2ise a means throu%h social, "olitical, and other !ays of strate%y of and .y %eneral
chicanery, to decei2e the "eo"le of the Enited $tates, the Con%ress, and the 7resident of the Enited $tates for the "ur"ose and !ith the
o.Mect to secure an act of Con%ress "ro2idin% for a ne! monetary and .an0in% system to ha2e in in a "ro2ision for a mana%in% .oard
2ested !ith unusual and e)traordinary "o!ers and to secure the a""ointment u"on the .oard of mana%ement that should .e "ro2ided
for in the act "ersons for mem.ershi" on the .oard !ho !ould .y su.terfu%e mani"ulation, and false administration, so mana%e as to
a2oid the s"irit and the "ur"ose of the "eo"le of the Enited $tates, the Con%ress, and the 7resident aimed at in the "assa%e of an act
and instead of administerin% the act to meet !ith the s"irit and com"ly !ith its terms, to induce and secure such .oard to enter in the
cons"iracy aforesaid, to administer the act for the s"ecial .enefit and ad2anta%e of all of the said cons"irators herein.efore named, and
their associates and contrary to the letter, intent and "ur"ose of the act itself and in contra2ention of the Constitution and la!, that in
order to start the cam"ai%n !ith a "lan !ell matured to succeed in said cons"iracy 7aul '# 4ar.ur%, no! 2ice %o2ernor of the Federal
Reser2e 1oard, .ut then a mem.er of the firm of Auhn, <oe., 9 Co !as a most acti2e "artici"ant in draftin% the main features and
"rinci"les !hich should .e em.odied into !hate2er .ill mi%ht .e "ut throu%h Con%ress, and did also assist in a "lan for a second
cam"ai%n to .e 0e"t from the 0no!led%e of the 7resident !ith the a""ointin% "o!er, and from the $enate, !ith the confirmin% "o!er
in the selection and confirmation of all hi%h Federal a""ointi2e officials in order that a .oard of administration should, !hen the time
came for its selection, .e a""ointed that !ould carry out the desi%ns of the cons"irators aforesaid, that there that !ere many secret
meetin%s held .y the cons"irators for this "ur"ose !hich under the 2ery circumstances !ould .e screened and 0e"t from the "u.lic and
made "ractically im"ossi.le to disco2er, .ut ne2ertheless made certain of the fact .ecause of the acts !hich "oint .ac0 to their
creation, that one of such meetin%s !hich your relator does not underta0e to 2erify the truth of its holdin%, .ut is relia.ly informed that
it !as held H is descri.ed in <eslie=s Illustrated 4ee0ly 'a%azine in the -cto.er 19, 191C, num.er thereof, !hich is here.y referred to
as sho!in% the method most li0ely to ha2e .een follo!ed for "lannin% the then contem"lated act of Con%ress !hich is no! the act
0no!n as the Federal reser2e act#
$econd# That in "ursuance of said cons"iracy to "romote the o.Mect of the cons"irators aforesaid and as "art of that %eneral scheme to
induce Con%ress to le%islate u"on the monetary and .an0in% system as stated herein.efore, said cons"irators caused to .e or%anized
the soIcalled Citizens <ea%ue !ith headBuarters in the city of Chica%o, to act as a mother or%anization and "romoter to induce
or%anization of the se2eral states of au)iliary and affiliated lea%ues, and .y misre"resentation to the "u.lic and to the ori%in of said
mother lea%ue and its "ur"ose to induce citizens !ho should ha2e no 0no!led%e of the said cons"iracy and !ould .e innocent of any
!ron% intention, and !hose moti2es and intent !ould .e to act in the common interests of their country, to Moin in the formation of
au)iliary lea%ue throu%hout the se2eral $tates in order to %i2e the out!ard and surface a""earance of res"ecta.ility and honor, and that
in "ursuance of that "lan the cons"irators succeeded in or%anizin% affiliated lea%ues in JL of the $tates, that !hen or%anized the
cons"irators herein.efore named, themsel2es directed !ho should .e sent to these or%anizations as s"ea0ers and instructors, and also
the 0ind of literature that should .e distri.uted to the mem.ers and to the %eneral "u.lic, the desi%n of !hich !as to ha2e only such
s"ea0ers, instructors, and literature as !ould discredit the then e)istin% .an0in% and currency system and "reMudice the "eo"le in e2ery
!ay "ossi.le a%ainst it, .ut not!ithstandin% the then e)istin% .an0in% and currency system !as .ad and unfitted to the demands of the
Nation and the needs of commerce and trade, and such cam"ai%n !as .y its cons"irators aforesaid directed not to desi%nate to the
"u.lic !hat sort of a .an0in% and currency system !ould .e ado"ted in its stead, .ut the "romoters of the cons"iracy should "retend
that the o.Mect of the cam"ai%n !as to aid in e2ery !ay to create a ne! monetary .an0in% and currency system to ta0e the "lace of the
then e)istin% .ad one, and, as far as it could .e cone, the cons"irators should "re2ent the "eo"le %ettin% to%ether to "re"are a "lan of
their o!n to .e "resented to Con%ress& that the "ur"ose of the cons"irators !as sim"ly to ma0e the "u.lic .elie2e that a ne! .an0in%
and currency system !as a.solutely necessary and at the same time 0ee" the "u.lic from find out !hat !ould .e its form and details,
all this for the reason that the cons"irators aforesaid had their o!n "reconcei2ed "lan "re"ared as a "art of their cons"iracy, !hich they
!ould secretly mana%e in their o!n !ay to ha2e "resented to Con%ress as the "lan in res"onse to all this "u.lic sentiment !hich the
cons"irators themsel2es had in%eniously !or0ed out throu%h the cam"ai%n aforesaid, and !ith the intent that Con%ress and the
7resident !ould le%islate the cons"irators= said "lan into effect, that it !as "art of said "lan to create many offices and "ositions !ith
lucrati2e salaries, !hich offices and "ositions !ould .e eBui2alent to a .id for the am.itious to su""ort it, .ecause these offices and
"ositions !ould .e filled .y the leaders and most acti2e "ersons !ho !ould Moin in the cam"ai%n to "ut the cons"iracy into effect and
influence Con%ress and the 7resident for the "ur"ose of securin% the le%islation#
Third# That in further "ursuance of said cons"iracy and to .e in control of the information and literature that should .e distri.uted
throu%h the Nation, the said cons"irators then ha2in% control of a lar%e num.er of ma%azines, ne!s"a"ers, and "u.lishin% com"anies,
used all of these, and "roceeded to "rocure control of as many more as could .e "urchased or su.sidized to "u.lish articles "re"ared .y
su.sidized !riters !ho !ould criticize the e)istin% .an0in% and currency system so as to create "u.lic sentiment a%ainst, that of the
thousands of country ne!s"a"ers, a maMority of them use XsoIcalled D"atentG articles not edited or e2en "ractically controlled .y the
o!ners of the "a"ers, !hich "atent articles are commonly called D.oilerI"laceG stuff, and no res"onsi.ility as to the influence such
articles ha2e u"on the "u.lic attaches to any.ody, that those !ritin% this D.oilerI"lateG stuff so "u.lished, many of them !ere also
su.sidized and controlled .y the said cons"irators, so that the small ne!s"a"ers !ere "ractically forced to carry on a cam"ai%n a%ainst
the then e)istin% .an0in% and currency system alon% the same lines of the others referred to herein.efore, that readers %enerally do not
ha2e the o""ortunity to distin%uish .et!een D.oilerI"lateG articles and the articles !hich the editors of the smaller "a"ers !rite
themsel2es, that the ne!sIdistri.utin% a%encies throu%h the tele%ra"h and tele"hone !ere then and still are lar%ely controlled .y said
cons"irators, and the o"erators of the ne!s a%encies ha2e .een allo!ed to re"ort only such ne!s relatin% to a ne! .an0in% and
currency system as !ould "romote said cons"iracy, and reBuired to su""ress and e2erythin% in the !ay of information or ne!s that
!ould tend to encoura%e the "eo"le to "re"are for themsel2es a concrete "lan for .an0in% and currency in the interest of all the "eo"le,
that the %eneral "lay of the cons"iracy !as to su""ress e2ery article, statement, and thin% so far as "ossi.le, !hich !ould %i2e any
information as to the e)istence of said cons"iracy all of !hich !as for the "ur"ose of ena.lin% the cons"irators aforesaid to decei2e the
"eo"le as !ell as Con%ress and the 7resident, in order that said cons"irators mi%ht finally consummate their aforesaid cons"iracy#
Fourth# That in conseBuence of the cam"ai%n carried on .y said cons"irators stated and recited in "ara%ra"hs named DFirst,G D$econdG
and DThirdG in these im"eachment articles, and numerous secret, clandestine, and under%round methods em"loyed .y said
cons"irators, the "eo"le of the Enited $tates, the Con%ress, and the 7resident !ere decei2ed, and as the first official act in the
consummation of the o.Mects sou%ht .y said cons"irators Con%ress did le%islate and "ass and act of Con%ress !hich !as si%ned .y the
7resident, and is 0no!n as the Federal reser2e act, !hich act is su.stantially the "lan "re"ared .y said cons"irators as aforesaid#
Fifth# That immediately u"on the "assa%e of the Federal reser2e act the said cons"irators disor%anized the soIcalled DCitizens= <ea%ueG
and all the affiliated lea%ues in the JL $tates referred to in the "ara%ra"h named G$econdG herein, that "rior to such disor%anization the
said cons"irators had .y secret and under%round methods, and for the "ur"ose of usin% the same in com"letin% and "er"etuatin% their
cons"iracy, or%anized another D association D and called it the DEnited $tates Cham.er of Commerce,G %i2in% it that name in order to
decei2e the "u.lic .y ma0in% it a""ear that is a de"artment of the 5o2ernment, !hich or%anization is administered !ith more intricate
machinery for mana%ement the soIcalled DCitizens= <ea%ueG !as, and !ith a "ur"ose of ta0in% u" the !or0 of coordinatin% e2erythin%
social, "olitical, .usiness and other to !or0 for the .enefit of the said cons"irators in carryin% out their "lan to force the masses of
man0ind into a.solute and a.Mect industrial sla2ery, that the methods and the desi%n of the DEnited $tates Cham.er of CommerceG are
set forth to remar0s !hich your relator "laced in the C-N5R:$$I-NA< R:C-R6 'arch 1@, 191C, and are here.y referred to for
more s"ecific detail, that the influence of the DEnited $tates Cham.er of CommerceG is one of the a%encies .ein% used as an aid to
further consummate the cons"iracy char%ed in these articles of im"eachment#
$i)th# That the said Federal reser2e act is so framed that it has the "ossi.ility and contains the "ro2isions !hich, under "ro"er and
im"artial administration, !ould furnish a remedy to some of the faults that e)isted in the .an0in% and currency system !hich it
su"erseded, .ut also contains "ro2isions !hich, under a .ad and im"ro"er administration, ma0es it more dan%erous to the "u.lic
!elfare than e2er the old .an0in% and currency system !as, that the main feature of the said Federal reser2e act in %i2in% effect to it is
the authority 2ested in the Federal Reser2e 1oard and the discretion entrusted to the mem.ers thereof in its DadministrationG, that the
DadministrationG of said Federal reser2e act is 2ested in the Federal Reser2e 1oard, ad2ised .y the Federal reser2e ad2isory council
made u" of 1? "ersons, 1 selected .y each of the 1? Federal reser2e .an0s, that the L acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e
1oard are the said 4#7#5# Hardin%, %o2ernor, 7aul '# 4ar.ur%, 2ice %o2ernor, and Frederic0 A# 6elano, Adol"h C# 'iller, and
Charles $# Hamlin, mem.ers, and that the Federal reser2e ad2isory council is formed .y the follo!in% "ersons to !it& 6aniel 5# 4in%
of 1oston, J# 7# 'or%an, or Ne! /or0, <e2i <# Rue, of 7hiladel"hia, 4#$# Rose, of Cle2eland, J# N# Nor!ich of Richmond, Charles A#
<yerly, of Atlanta, J#1# For%an# of Chica%o, Fran0 -# 4atts, of $t <ouis, J#R# 'itchell, of 'innea"olis, :#F# $!inney, of Aansas City,
T# J# Record, of 6allas, and Her.ert Fleish.ac0er, of $an Francisco, that the said Federal Reser2e 1oard and the said Federal reser2e
ad2isory council held many meetin%s and are no! and ha2e .een e2er since the Federal reser2e act !as "assed, fully ad2ised as to
financial and .usiness conditions, domestic and forei%n, that the mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard and the mem.ers of the
Federal reser2e ad2isory council are men !ith enormous .usiness interests, and each of them ha2e .een for more than 1L years last
"ast, and are no! e)cessi2e o"erators and s"eculators for indi2idual "rofit and %ain in the mar0ets, and control se2eral of the lar%est
.an0s in the country, that J#7# 'or%an Jr# is the lendin% mem.er of the firm of J#7# 'or%an 9 Co#, one of the firm herein.efore
char%ed !ith .ein% a "arty to the cons"iracy aforesaid, that se2eral of the mem.ers of the Federal reser2e ad2isory council o!n stoc0
in the National City 1an0 of Ne! /or0 and the First National 1an0 of Ne! /or0, they .ein% the t!o .an0s char%ed herein.efore !ith
.ein% "arties to the said cons"iracy, and said mem.ers also o!n stoc0 and are interested in .usiness and mana%ed and controlled .y
the "arties s"ecifically named as the cons"irators in the "ara%ra"h herein.efore desi%nated as DFirstG, that 7aul '# 4ar.ur%, a mem.er
and 2ice %o2ernor of the Federal Reser2e 1oard, !as at the time of the ori%inal formation of the cons"iracy aforesaid a "arty to the
said cons"iracy, and a "artner and mem.er of the firm of Auhn, <oe. 9 Co#, one of the cons"irators, that each of the mem.ers of the
Federal Reser2e 1oard and of the Federal reser2e ad2isory council are associated !ith and form a "art of a %rou" of "romoters and
s"eculators, the indi2idual mem.ers of !hich reside in 2arious "arts of the Enited $tates, "rinci"ally in the lar%e cities, and a fe! of
them li2e in :uro"e, !hich said %rou" indi2idually and collecti2ely deal in credits, stoc0s, .onds, securities and 2arious "romotin%
enter"rises from !hich they ha2e made .illions of dollars in "rofits, and still o"erate and "ro"ose to continue their o"erations for the
"ur"ose of ma0in% still %reater "rofits u"on their future dealin%s, that in further "ursuance of their said "ur"ose, they Moined in the
ori%inal cons"iracy aforesaid and it !as "lanned as a "art of the said ori%inal cons"iracy to create se2eral %reat .usiness and financial
centers in different "arts of the Enited $tates in order to facilitate !ith celerity a coordination of all .i% .usiness and all financial
control, for the .enefit of the said cons"irators in carryin% out their "lan of "ersonal %ain in contra2ention to the "u.lic !elfare, that
said %rou" insti%ated the cam"ai%n !hich finally resulted in the "assa%e of the Federal reser2e act, that in the administration of said act
.y the said fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard, and throu%h the influence e)ercised o2er them .y the mem.ers
of the Federal reser2e ad2isory council, and collecti2ely all of the mem.ers and mem.ershi" of .oth the Federal Reser2e 1oard and of
the Federal reser2e ad2isory council, a "art of and influenced .y said lar%er D%rou"G in this "ara%ra"h desi%nated as ha2in% Moined in
the cons"iracy aforesaid, the said fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard, each indi2idually and all collecti2ely, at
all times since they .ecame mem.ers of the said Federal Reser2e 1oard, 0no!in%ly and intentionally ha2e .een im"ro"erly influenced
.y the said D%rou",G and .ecause of such influence ha2e failed to administer the Federal reser2e act in accordance !ith the s"irit, letter,
and intent of Con%ress and the 7resident !hen the act !as "assed, .ut, on the contrary, the said fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the
Federal Reser2e 1oard herein.efore s"ecifically named as such, !ith intent to e2ade and set aside .y DadministrationG all the "ur"oses
of Con%ress and of the 7resident in the "assa%e and a""ro2al of the act, and of the act itself, ha2e administered, and are no!
administerin%, the Federal reser2e act !ith the intent to coordinate D.i% .usinessG and Ds"eculationG for the .enefit of the said D%rou"G
of o"erators and s"eculators herein.efore desi%nated as ha2in% ta0en "art in the ori%inal cons"iracy, that said National City 1an0
herein.efore named, in !hich many of the other cons"irators o!n stoc0, acts as the Dofficial mouth"ieceG for them all, to %i2e
technical information to ena.le them all to act in concert, that to facilitate its distri.ution said .an0 issues a monthly .ulletin, that in its
Fe.ruary, 1917, .ulletin, in an article dealin% !ith the "resent "lethora of money and credit a2aila.le, amon% other Dti"sG intended for
the cons"irators to act u"on, is the follo!in% H and I !ould li0e the House to hear it H this is !hat is contained the .ulletin !hich the
National City 1an0 issued&
Cn&er the 4ir4umstan4es money %romises to be in abun&ant su%%ly, but if bankers ha"e a %ro%er regar& for their
res%onsibilities it +ill not be 4orres%on&ingly 4hea%. -om%ensatory rates for money an& am%le reser"es shoul& be 4onsistently
maintaine&.
That said .ulletin !as sent to the Federal Reser2e 1oard, to all the Federal reser2e .an0s, to all the lar%er National and $tate .an0s and
trust com"anies, in order to Dti"G off to the cons"irators and those actin% in concert to ti%hten the rates of interest, that such Dti"sG are a
common "ractice and do "re2ent the reduction of interest rates to .orro!ers for le%itimate .usiness, contrary to the intent and "ur"ose
of Con%ress and the 7resident and in contra2ention of the act itself and to the enormous loss of the "eo"le and inMury to the %eneral
!elfare#
$e2enth# That there are a""ro)imately ?@,@@@ $tate .an0s and trust com"anies in the Enited $tates, incor"orated and or%anized under
the $tate la!s of the res"ecti2e $tates in !hich their offices and "laces of .usiness are located, and doin% a %eneral .an0in% .usiness,
$tate and interstate, many of !hich are eli%i.le to .ecome mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e $ystem, and many not 0no! eli%i.le could
.ecome so !ithout an increase of their ca"italization, that of those no! eli%i.le and that could Bualify for mem.ershi" in the Federal
Reser2e $ystem !ithout an increase of their ca"ital, they ha2e more than half of the ca"italization of all the .an0s not no! included in
the Federal Reser2e $ystem, that the ca"italization of $tate .an0s and trust com"anies, !hich are not mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e
$ystem e)ceeds the ca"ital of the .an0s !hich are mem.ers of the Federal $ystem, that the %o2ernors and other hi%h and
administrati2e officials of the 1? Federal reser2e .an0s, throu%h their influence !ith mem.er .an0s, !ittin%ly or un!ittin%ly, .ut most
of them !ittin%ly, .ecame accessories to the said cons"iracy of the said "ersons and "arties named in these articles of im"eachment in
the "ara%ra"h herein desi%nated as DFirstG and ha2e caused a .oycott of all .an0s not mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e $ystem .y
influencin% the mem.er .an0s to ham"er, incon2enience, and annoy the "atrons of the nonmem.er .an0s .y discrimination a%ainst
them in the clearin% of chec0s dra!n u"on them and other!ise, that they threaten and see0 to caMole the nonmem.er .an0s in an
attem"t to force them to .ecome mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e $ystem, that the said fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal
Reser2e 1oard are co%nizant of the same, that the intent, "ur"ose, and aim of each and all of the said cons"irators aforesaid is to
com"el the $tate .an0s to Moin the Federal Reser2e $ystem for the "ur"ose of .rin%in% the said .an0s under the Murisdiction of the
Federal Reser2e 1oard in order that all of the .an0s, National and $tate, may .ecome one %i%antic com.ination !ith an a.solute and
com"lete mono"oly and ha2e the "o!er of e)"loitin% the "eo"le for the .enefit of the cons"irators aforesaid#
:i%hth# That Con%ress in creatin% the Federal Reser2e 1oard had in mind, and it is the s"irit of the Federal reser2e act, that the said
.oard should 0ee" a %uardian !atch o2er the o"erations of the .an0in% and currency system and re"ort to Con%ress and the country,
from time to time such facts and occurrences relatin% to .an0in% and currency as affect the .usiness of the "eo"le in trade and
commerce e)chan%es, domestic and forei%n, so that Con%ress should recei2e information that !ould %i2e to Con%ress the facts u"on
!hich to .ase any necessary amendments to the act in order to ma0e it res"onsi2e to the %eneral !elfare, that contrary to the s"irit of
the Federal Reser2e act, the aforesaid fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard ha2e !illfully failed to 0ee" the
"u.lic and Con%ress informed of the inflation of .an0 credits and the effect of it that has ta0en "lace under the DadministrationG of the
said act, and in 2iolation of the s"irit thereof said mem.ers ha2e cons"ired !ith the mem.ers of the Federal reser2e ad2isory council
and their .usiness associates herein.efore named and ha2e aided and a.etted in a cons"iracy to a systematic inflation of .an0 credits
for the .enefit of the said cons"irators and a%ainst the "u.lic !elfare, that in conseBuence of said unla!ful acts and misfeasance in
office of the said mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard the .an0 ha2e, for "ri2ate %ain, increased the .an0 credits of the country since
the "assa%e of said act a""ro)imately se2en thousand millions of dollars and !ithout effectin% a corres"ondin% reduction in the interest
rate, thus increasin% the a%%re%ate amount of interest "aid .y the "eo"le to the said .an0s eBual to that char%ed u"on said sum, that the
effect of the inflation of .an0 credits has .een and is to also increase s"eculati2e credits enormously more than eBual to the inflation of
.an0 credits, and that such increase since the Federal reser2e act too0 effect has .een .illions of dollars that the increase in the
a%%re%ate sum of interest "aid to the .an0s u"on the said inflated .an0 credits and the increase caused .y the said inflation in the
s"eculati2e 2alues u"on commodities reBuired to su""ly the necessities of life for the "eo"le has .een many .illions of dollars, !hich
ha2e .een added to the cost of li2in% for the "eo"le to "ay, that said increase in the cost of li2in% is mainly the "rofits that the
cons"irators ha2e added to their indi2idual fortunes to the eBui2alent loss of the "eo"le %enerally and to the 5o2ernment as !ell#
Ninth# That as "art of the said cons"iracy and in furtherance of the same the said aforesaid cons"irators, in 2iolation of the Nation=s
heretofore esta.lished economic "olicy of conser2ation of material and natural resources, cons"ired :uro"ean s"eculators to dra!
u"on the material resources of this Nation for e)"ort !ith no correlation .et!een 2alue of the materials e)"orted and the 2alue of the
materials im"orted, that in conseBuence of the cons"iracy to affect said e)"ort of material resources .elon%in% to this Nation and to the
"eo"le of it a""ro)imately ei%ht thousand millions of dollars in 2alue of the material resources ha2e .een e)"orted since the !ar in
:uro"e .e%an, that as a result thereof the said cons"irators acted !ith the said fi2e mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard in
mani"ulatin% .an0 credits, and throu%h credits the mar0ets increased the cost to American consumers in the same "eriod
a""ro)imately si)teen thousand millions of dollars in e)cess of the real 2alues, !hich e)tra cost has mainly .een the "rofits that ha2e
.een added to the fortunes of the aforesaid cons"irators, that as an additional and future loss to the "eo"le of this Nation in
conseBuence of the facts aforesaid, the natural material resources of the Nation are fore2er less, and the costs made fore2er hi%her than
they !ould .e if trade and commerce !ere not mani"ulated throu%h a false administration of finances#
Tenth# That to further carry out the said cons"iracy the aforesaid cons"irators ha2e, e2er since the Federal reser2e act too0 effect,
sou%ht to influence, and in fact ha2e influenced, said fi2e mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard in an attem"t to further decei2e
Con%ress to secure le%islation %rantin% to the said .oard enlar%ed "o!ers of DadministrationG, that in the $i)tyIthird Con%ress the said
.oard, concealin% the real "ur"ose to aid said cons"irators, decei2ed the $enate 1an0in% and Currency Committee to %et it to re"ort for
"assa%e the then $enate .ill CL@L and it "assed the $enate and su.seBuently came .efore the House 1an0in% and Currency Committee
and !as fa2ora.ly re"orted, your relator, ho!e2er, filin% a minority re"ort in o""osition# <ater, on the floor of the House, the chairman
of the 1an0in% and Currency Committee !ithdre! action on the .ill, that the aim of said .ill !as to %i2e the Federal Reser2e 1oard
%reater Dadministrati2eG "o!er o2er the %old su""ly, so that it could, !hene2er the cons"irators aforesaid !ished it, inflate still further
the .an0in% credit .y an issue of the FederalIreser2e notes for the .enefit of said cons"irators, that a%ain in this $i)tyIfourth Con%ress
said acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard alle%ed, re"eatedly sou%ht the House 1an0in% and Currency Committee to
re"ort a .ill %i2in% %reater Dadministrati2eG "o!ers to said .oard than is authorized .y the ori%inal act, in fact, to %i2e said .oard
"o!er to force from .an0s all o2er the country the %old in their 2aults and into the 1? Federal reser2e .an0s, there to form a .asis u"on
!hich to issue still more FederalIreser2e notes and further inflate credit !ithout causin% a reduction of interests that in the a%%re%ate
!ould eBual the char%e made on the inflated currency, .ut ser2in% mainly as a %uaranty to reinforce the cons"irators herein.efore
named in e)"loitin% of the "eo"le for "ri2ate %ain#
:le2enth# That the Federal reser2e act o.li%ates the Enited $tates to redeem in %old at the Enited $tates Treasury all Federal reser2e
notes, and as a "art of the said cons"iracy and in furtherance of the same, and to e)tend the s"eculation of the o"erators and
"er"etrators of the said cons"iracy to include :uro"e and other forei%n territory, they, most of them .ein% international as !ell as
domestic .an0ers, see0 to dominate the relations of the Enited $tates !ith forei%n countries and to selfishly influence the same .y
means of the control of finances, and in furtherance of said .ranch of their s"eculations ha2e cons"ired !ith the said fi2e acti2e
!or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard to secure aid from the Federal Reser2e $ystem for said selfish "ur"oses and not in the
interest of the "u.lic, the cons"irators in conni2ance !ith the said fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard had the
said .oard select and a""oint, throu%h the Federal reser2e .an0 of Ne! /or0, the soIcalled 1an0 of :n%land as its a%ent, thus "uttin%
the credit of the 5o2ernment of the Enited $tates .ac0 of this forei%n cor"oration, or%anized for "ri2ate %ain, !hich is no lon%er a.le
to ma0e "ayments in %old and fails to %i2e a statement of its true conditions, that said Federal Reser2e 1oard is threatenin% to "ermit
and also to render aid to the international .an0ers in America !ho dominate the .an0in% system, to enter into further entan%lin%
alliances !ith .an0ru"t countries of :uro"e at the 2ery time this 5o2ernment contem"lates issuin% hundreds of millions of dollars of
interestI.earin% .onds u"on the credit of the "eo"le of the Nation to meet the 5o2ernment e)"enses#
T!elfth# That durin% the Ci2il 4ar the 5o2ernment of the Enited $tates issued money commonly called D%reen.ac0sG , the same
.ein% issued u"on the credit of the "eo"le of the Nation, that of said D%reen.ac0sG so issued there ha2e .een e2er since their issue and
no! are outstandin% and in %eneral circulation .ased u"on the credit of the "eo"le of the Enited $tates [>JC,C1,@1C, for !hich a
reser2e of [1L@,@@@,@@@ in %old is held .y the 5o2ernment to %uarantee their redem"tion if demanded, that said circulatin%
D%reen.ac0sG ha2e already sa2ed the 5o2ernment from "ayin% a""ro)imately [1,@@@,@@@,@@@ interest durin% the time they ha2e .een
in circulation and are no! sa2in% the 5o2ernment a""ro)imately [C,@@@,@@@ annually, that in furtherance of said cons"iracy in these
articles of im"eachment alle%ed and as "art thereof, the cons"irators ha2e sou%ht and .y secret conni2ance ne! see0 to ha2e the said
D%reen.ac0sG retired and the [1L@,@@@,@@@ of %old %uarantee "laced in the Federal reser2e .an0s on !hich to .ase the loanin% of
D.an0 creditsG as a su.stitute for the money o!ned .y the "eo"le, that if the Federal reser2e .an0s are allo!ed to secure "ossession of
said %old, !hen the time comes that the cons"irators aforesaid shall .e a.le to use additional .an0 credits to their ad2anta%es in
e)"loitin% the "eo"le, the same !ould .ecome the .asis for additional .an0 inflation, directly and indirectly, to the e)tent of o2er a
.illion dollars u"on !hich the .an0s !ould collect a %reat sum of interest, and the s"eculators !ould scal" e2en %reater "rofits from
additional mani"ulation of the mar0ets, all of !hich !ould .e added to the cost of li2in% for the "eo"le to "ay#
Thirteenth# That in furtherance of the said aforesaid cons"iracy and as a "art of the same the said fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the
Federal Reser2e 1oard, in their ca"acity as mem.ers, ha2e ar.itrarily at all times and !ith intent to "re2ent the le%itimate .usiness
interests of the country securin% the ad2anta%es that Con%ress sou%ht to %i2e .y the "assa%e of the Federal reser2e act, and in
conni2ance !ith the .i% reser2e and central reser2e .an0s controlled .y the cons"irators aforesaid, esta.lished rediscount rates for
mem.er .an0s desirin% to .orro! from Federal reser2e .an0s a.o2e the rates char%ed .y the reser2e and central reser2e .an0s, !hich
creates an e)cuse for the mem.er .an0s in the country to char%e hi%her rates of interest to le%itimate .orro!ers than they other!ise
!ould, that the interest rates char%ed .y the reser2e and central reser2e .an0s, on the one hand, and the hi%her rates char%ed .y the
Federal reser2e .an0s on the other hand, is maintained at certain times !hen the cons"irators aforesaid desire to dra! the reser2es of
the country .an0s to the reser2e and central reser2e cities for the interest that these reser2e .an0s "ay on de"osit .alances and in
antici"ation of times !hen the country .an0s may !ish to rediscount "a"er !ith said .an0s, that .y follo!in% the ar.itrary "ractice of
rediscounts aforesaid the said cons"irators are ena.led to and do %o on !ith their s"eculations, mani"ulate the mar0ets, and e)"loit the
"eo"le, and !hene2er they find themsel2es in financial stress they can raise the rates of interest in the reser2e and central reser2e
.an0s, !hich they control, a.o2e the Federal reser2e .an0 discount rates, thus forcin% the country .an0s, !hich may ha2e rediscounted
!ith reser2e .an0s in order to %i2e accommodations to their .orro!ers, to rediscount !ith the Federal reser2e .an0s to ena.le them to
re"ay the reser2e and central reser2e .an0s, in order to create free money and credit for said cons"irators to carry on their s"eculations,
that the Federal reser2e act contains se2eral "ro2isions !hich !hen a""lied under the Dadministrati2eG "o!er of the Federal Reser2e
1oard ser2e as a means of ta0in% or im"osin% a toll in the nature of discriminatory interest rates in order to force a shift of money and
credits from one section of the country to another, or out of the country and to forei%n countries, that this discriminatory "o!er 2ested
in the Federal Reser2e 1oard is !illfully a.used .y the said fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the said .oard for the .enefit and in the
interest of the said aforesaid cons"irators, that the "eo"le of the Enited $tates ha2e .een inMured to the e)tent of se2eral .illions of
dollars .y reason thereof#
Fourteenth# That in furtherance of said aforesaid cons"iracy and to %i2e the said aforesaid cons"irators com"lete "ractical "o!er to
carry out and "ut into effect their "ur"ose of ma0in% the masses of man0ind a.solutely de"endent u"on D.i% .usiness,G and in order to
create industrial sla2es of the masses the said aforesaid cons"irators did cons"ire and no! cons"ire to ha2e the Federal reser2e act
DadministeredG so as to ena.le the cons"irators to coordinate all 0inds of D.i% .usiness= and to 0ee" themsel2es in control of D.i%
.usiness,G in order to amal%amate all of the DtrustsG into one %reat trust in restraint and control of trade and commerce, and thus .e
a.le to e)"loit the masses and ta0e from them their earnin%s, e)ce"t !hat they !ould reBuire for .are su.sistence, that to that end and
to %i2e them "o!er to accom"lish the same said cons"irators ha2e marshaled all of the different 0inds of D.i% .usinessG and induced
those in control to use their means and !hate2er 0ind of "atrona%e and fa2ors they ha2e to %i2e in such !ay as to "romote the o.Mects
and "ur"oses of said cons"irators and to ensla2e the masses of humanity, that at the same time that the said cons"irators marshal their
o!n D.i% .usinessG su""orters .y a coordination of all their interests they ha2e use e2ery tric0 and su.terfu%e "ossi.le to create
friction amon% the masses and di2ide them into hostile contendin% factions, thus 0ee"in% the masses from coordinatin% their affairs to
"romote the %eneral !elfare that the said aforesaid fi2e acti2e !or0in% mem.ers of the Federal Reser2e 1oard ha2e all the time, .y a
!illful and !ron%ful DadministrationG of the Federal reser2e act, aided and a.etted the said aforesaid cons"irators in "romotin% and
carryin% out the o.Mects of their said cons"iracy and ha2e refused and failed to so administer the Federal reser2e act as to ha2e the
same "romote and o"erate in fa2or of the %eneral !elfare#
Fifteenth# That the Federal reser2e act is 2oid and unconstitutional, .ut that not!ithstandin%, the cons"irators aforesaid ha2e so
mani"ulated thin%s as to "re2ent the Buestion of constitutionality of the act from .ein% .rou%ht .efore the courts#
CHAR<:$ A# <IN61:R5H
'r# $H:R4--6# 'r# $"ea0er, I !ould li0e to as0 the %entleman a Buestion#
'r# <IN61:R5H# I su""ose my "ri2ile%e sto"s no!, does it3
The $7:AA:R# It does#
'r# <IN61:R5H# I as0 for fi2e minutes in !hich to ans!er the Buestion of the %entleman#
The $7:AA:R# The %entleman as0s fi2e minutes# Is there o.Mection3 There !as no o.Mection#
'r# $H:R4--6# In case the $enate should sit as an im"eachment court, you ha2e e2idence to esta.lish that char%e3
'r# <IN61:R5H# I !ant to say this& I ha2e s"ent enou%h time and made enou%h in2esti%ation of this case to 0no! that I can
demonstrate H accurately, I may say, .ut to a mathematical certainty H that the char%es in this im"eachment are su.stantially true# I
may not .e a.le to esta.lish .y direct "roof that that some of these meetin%s to !hich the im"eachment refers !ere held, .ut that the
char%es are su.stantially true, I !ill certainly sho!#
'r# $H:R4--6# That is, .y su.stantial e2idence3
'r# <IN61:R5H# 1y su.stantial e2idence, and .y effects !hich the .usiness of this country demonstrates .eyond Buestion# No!,
'r# $"ea0er, I as0 lea2e to insert, follo!in% the readin% of these articles, my remar0s u"on them and the Buestions that are incidentally
in2ol2ed in the im"eachment articles#
The $7:AA:R# The %entleman from 'innesota as0s unanimous consent to e)tend his remar0s in the R:C-R6# Is there o.Mection3
'r# $I:5:<# I o.Mect#
The $7:AA:R# The %entleman from Ne! /or0 o.Mects#
'r# AITCHIN# 'r# Chairman, I mo2e that the im"eachment articles .e referred to the Committee on the Judiciary, and on that I
demand the "re2ious Buestion#
The $7:AA:R# The %entleman from North Carolina mo2es that the im"eachment articles .e referred to the Committee on the
Judiciary, and on that he demands the "re2ious Buestion# The "re2ious Buestion !as ordered#
The $7:AA:R# The Buestion is on a%reein% to the motion to refer# The Buestion !as ta0en, and the motion !as a%reed to#
Note& Charles A# <ind.er%h $r# *Re"u.lican 7artyI'innesota+ !as a 'em.er of the E#$# House of Re"resentati2es from 'arch
J, 19@7 to 'arch >, 1917#
E#$# Con%ressman F# -scar Calla!ay *6emocratic 7artyITe)as+
DIn 'arch, 191L, the J#7# 'or%an interests, the steel, shi".uildin%, and "o!der interests, and their su.sidiary or%anizations, %ot
to%ether 1? men hi%h u" in the ne!s"a"er !orld, and em"loyed them to select the most influential ne!s"a"ers in the Enited
$tates, and the sufficient num.er of them to control %enerally the "olicy of the daily "ress of the Enited $tates# These 1? men
!or0ed the "ro.lem out .y selectin% 179 ne!s"a"ers, and then .e%an, .y an elimination "rocess, to retain only those necessary
for the "ur"ose of controllin% the %eneral "olicy of the daily "ress throu%hout the country# They found it !as only necessary to
"urchase the control of ?L of the %reatest "a"ers# The ?L "a"ers !ere a%reed u"on, emissaries !ere sent to "urchase the "olicy,
national and international, of these "a"ers, an a%reement !as reached, the "olicy of the "a"ers !as .ou%ht, to .e "aid for .y the
month, an editor !as furnished for each "a"er to "ro"erly su"er2ise and edit information re%ardin% the Buestions of
"re"aredness, militarism, financial "olicies, and other thin%s of national and international nature considered 2ital to the interests
of the "urchasersUThis "olicy also included the su""ression of e2erythin% in o""osition to the !ishes of the interests ser2ed#G
H E#$# Con%ressman F# -scar Calla!ay *6emocratic 7artyITe)as, 'arch J, 1911I'arch >, 1917+, in The Con%ressional Record
for Fe.ruary 9, 1917, 8olume LJ, "# ?9J7I?9J
$ource& "he (azi -ydra in ,merica/ Suppressed -istory of a 9entury .y 5len /eadon and John Ha!0ins, "# 99
The full ca"tion for this item is as follo!s& <ar%est 'urder Trial in the History of the Enited $tates# $cene durin% Court 'artial of CJ
mem.ers of the ?Jth Infantry Enited $tates of America on trial for mutiny and murder of 17 "eo"le at Houston, Te)as on Au%ust ?>,
1917# Trial held in 5ift Cha"el at Fort $am Houston# Trial started No2em.er 1, 1917, 1ri%adier 5eneral 5eor%e A# Hunter "residin%#
Colonel J#A# Hull, Jud%e Ad2ocate, Council for 6efense, 'aMor Har2y $# 5rier# 'aMor 6#8# $ut"hin, Assistant Ad2ocate# 7risoners
%uarded .y 19th Infantry Com"any C, Ca"tain Carl J# Adler# *A total of 19 soldiers !ould .e e)ecuted, and J1 soldiers !ere %i2en life
sentences#+ *7hoto& National Archi2es+
The 3ouston Riot of 1917, or -am% Logan Riot, !as a mutiny .y 1LC African American soldiers of the Third 1attalion of the allI
.lac0 T!entyIfourth Enited $tates Infantry# In the s"rin% of 1917, shortly after the Enited $tates declared !ar on Im"erial 5ermany,
the 4ar 6e"artment, ta0in% ad2anta%e of the tem"erate climate and ne!ly o"ened Houston $hi" Channel, ordered t!o military
installations .uilt in Harris County, Te)as S Cam" <o%an and :llin%ton Field# To %uard the Cam" <o%an construction site, the Army
on July ?7, 1917, ordered the Third 1attalion of the T!entyIfourth Enited $tates Infantry Re%iment to tra2el to Houston .y train from
their cam" at Colum.us, Ne! 'e)ico, accom"anied .y se2en !hite commissioned officers# Around noon Au%ust ?>, 1917, t!o
Houston "olice officers stormed into the home of an AfricanIAmerican !oman, alle%edly loo0in% for someone in the nei%h.orhood,
after firin% a !arnin% shot outside# They "hysically assaulted her, then dra%%ed her "artially clad NclothedO into the street, all in 2ie!
of her fi2e small children# The !oman .e%an screamin%, demandin% to 0no! !hy she !as .ein% arrested, and a cro!d .e%an to %ather#
A soldier from the ?Jth Infantry ste""ed for!ard to as0 !hat !as %oin% on# The "olice officers "rom"tly .eat him to the %round and
arrested him as !ell# Their official re"orts and later ne!s re"orts stated the soldier !as char%ed !ith interferin% !ith the arrest of a
"u.licly drun0 female# <ater that afternoon, Cor"oral Charles 1altimore !ent to the Houston "olice station to in2esti%ate the arrest, as
!ell as .eatin% of another .lac0 soldier, and also to attem"t to %ain the release of the soldier# An ar%ument .e%an !hich led to
2iolence, and Cor"oral 1altimore !as .eaten, shot at, and himself arrested .y the "olice# 5he -am% Logan riot began the e"ening of
#ugust ;=, +hen 1?: angry sol&iers ignore& their offi4ersO or&ers, stole +ea%ons from the 4am% &e%ot an& mar4he& on the 4ity
of 3ouston. 5hey +ere met outsi&e the 4ity by the %oli4e an& a mob of arme& 4itiDens, frightene& by the re%orts of a mutiny. #
"irtual ra4e riot began, +hi4h left ;> %eo%le &ea& ( four sol&iers, four %oli4emen, an& 1; 4i"ilians. -rder !as restored the ne)t
day, and the 4ar 6e"artment disarmed the soldiers# The Third 1attalion !as sent .y rail .ac0 to Ne! 'e)ico# 'artial la! !as
declared in Houston, and the Third 1attalion !as not only returned to Colum.us, Ne! 'e)ico, .ut the entire re%iment !as later
transferred to the 7hili""ines# $e2en of its soldiers a%reed to testify in e)chan%e for clemency#
$ource& htt"&;;en#!i0i"edia#or%;!i0i;HoustonRRiotR*1917+
Woo"row Wilson a""resses Congress in ()(6. Woo"row WilsonNs campaign slogan "&ring the ()(3 presi"ential election was
$e ke9t /s o/t of the war.
%aGor <ents in 1917, the Year of the Snake1
%an&aryA8arch ()(6 S /&ssian comm&nist Leon =rotsky li#es in -ew 'ork City
Fe!r&ary 1. ()(6 S Unite" States of merica (Wilson a"ministration) se#ers "iplomatic ties with 4ermany
Fe!r&ary +. ()(6 S 8e<ico a"opts a new Constit&tion
Fe!r&ary (0. ()(6 S U.S. Congressman Charles Lin"!ergh Sr. iss&es articles of impeachment against Fe"eral /eser#e
8arch +. ()(6 (8on"ay) S U.S. Presi"ent Woo"row Wilson is ina&g&rate" in front of the U.S. Capitol for a secon" term
8arch ((. ()(6 S British army capt&res Bagh"a" (>raM) from the Httoman Jmpire
8arch (+. ()(6 S C;ar -icholas >> of /&ssia a!"icates his throne
pril 3. ()(6 S Unite" States of merica "eclares war on 4ermany
pril (3. ()(6 S /&ssian comm&nist 5la"imir Lenin "eparts from Swit;erlan" an" tra#els to /&ssia #ia 4ermany !y train
8ay ()(6 S Former U.S. Secretary of State Jlih& /oot an" other mem!ers of the /oot 8ission meet with Lenin an" =rotsky in /&ssia
8ay (2. ()(6 S Selecti#e Ser#ice ct is passe" !y the U.S. Congress
%&ne (0. ()(6 S Ging Constantine > of 4reece a!"icates his throne
%&ne (+. ()(6 S Jspionage ct is passe" !y the U.S. Congress
%&ne (+. ()(6 S /&ssianA!orn %ewish anarchist Jmma 4ol"man is arreste" in -ew 'ork City for #iolating the Jspionage ct
%&ly (. ()(6 S la!or "isp&te an" an ens&ing race riot in Jast St. Lo&is. >llinois lea#es 0+D people "ea"
%&ly 0(. ()(6 S le<an"er Fyo"oro#ich Gerensky is appointe" Prime 8inister of /&ssia
&g&st (*. ()(6 S /ep&!lic of China "eclares war against 4ermany an" &striaA$&ngary.
-o#em!er 0. ()(6 S British Foreign Secretary rth&r %. Balfo&r anno&nces PBalfo&r FeclarationN concerning %ewish Pnational homeN
-o#em!er 6. ()(6 S Bolshe#ik /e#ol&tion !egins in Petrogra" 7St. Peters!&rg9. /&ssiaE Gerensky a!"icates as Prime 8inister
Fecem!er 6. ()(6 S Unite" States of merica "eclares war on &striaA$&ngary
Fecem!er ). ()(6 S British army capt&res %er&salem from the Httoman Jmpire
Fecem!er ((. ()(6 S British Fiel" 8arshal J"m&n" llen!y enters %er&salem
Fecem!er 00. ()(6 S /&ssia opens separate peace negotiations with 4ermany at BrestALito#sk
()(6 S merican Ci#il Li!erties Union (originally fo&n"e" as -ational Ci#il Li!erties B&rea&) is esta!lishe"
From (PostAStalin) /&ssia With Lo#e:
Ghr&shche#. Bre;hne#. n"ropo#. , 4or!ache#
So#iet /&ssian Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# an" his interpreter n"rei 5a#ilo# o!ser#e $ollywoo" actress %ill St. %ohn while
#isiting Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on at a pool party hel" at /ichar" -i<onNs home in San Clemente. California on %&ne 0+. ()61. %ill
St. %ohn coAstarre" with Sean Connery in the %ames Bon" mo#ie Diamonds Are Forever. (Wally 8c-ameeBCH/B>S)

Left photo: Leoni" Bre;hne# watches So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# (left) make a phone call in ()31.
/ight photo: natoly Fo!rynin greets former Presi"ent $arry =r&man.
Frank Sinatra (far right) prepares to shake han"s with So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# "&ring Ghr&shche#Ns to&r of $ollywoo".
=he woman stan"ing ne<t to -ikita Ghr&shche# is Shirley 8acLaine. =he man stan"ing ne<t to -ikita Ghr&shche# is Lo&is
%o&r"an. =he yo&ng man wearing glasses is -ikita Ghr&shche#Ns son Sergei Ghr&shche#.
Jleanor /oose#elt. the U.S. "elegate to the Unite" -ations. chats with 5yachesla# 8. 8oloto#. So#iet Foreign 8inister an" chief "elegate
!efore the opening of the Unite" -ations 4eneral ssem!ly. at the -ew 'ork City Worl"Is Fair !&il"ing in -ew 'ork City on Hcto!er 01. ()*3.
=he man stan"ing in the mi""le is n"rei . 4romyko. So#iet "elegate to the U.-. Sec&rity Co&ncil. (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
So#iet en#oy n"rei 5ishinsky (left). So#iet Foreign 8inister 5yachesla# 8oloto# (center). an" So#iet en#oy n"rei 4romyko atten" a meeting
at the Unite" -ations in -ew 'ork City in Hcto!er ()*3. (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
Jleanor /oose#elt shakes han"s with So#iet /&ssian "iplomat n"rei 4romyko at the Unite" -ations in -ew 'ork City on
Hcto!er (*. ()+0. Jleanor /oose#elt was not a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
Jleanor /oose#elt. an merican representati#e to the Unite" -ations. greets So#iet "elegate n"rei 4romyko. the So#iet /&ssian
m!assa"or to 4reat Britain. as they meet at the opening of the se#enth ann&al Unite" -ations 4eneral ssem!ly. hel" in the new m&ltiA
million "ollar permanent U- $ea"M&arters. in -ew 'ork City on Hcto!er (*. ()+0. (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
Jleanor /oose#elt appears with So#iet "espot -ikita Ghr&shche# at the Unite" -ations hea"M&arters in -ew 'ork City in ()+).
$enry Ca!ot Lo"ge %r.. the U.S. /epresentati#e to the Unite" -ations. is seen stan"ing ne<t to Ghr&shche# on the far right.
'&gosla#iaNs Comm&nist Presi"ent %osip Bro< =ito shakes han"s with So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# at Unite" -ations 4eneral ssem!ly
in -ew 'ork City on Septem!er 03. ()3D. (Photo: W BettmannBCH/B>S)
BritainIs Prime 8inister $arol" 8ac8illan talks with So#iet Premier -ikita Gr&shche# at the Unite" -ations in -ew 'ork City on Septem!er 0).
()3D. (Photo: W BettmannBCH/B>S)
$o2iet 7remier Ni0ita Ahrushche2 *left+ a""ears !ith :ast 5erman Commissar 4alter El.richt at the 4ernerI$eelen.inderI
Halle in :ast 1erlin, :ast 5ermany on January 1C, 19C> *6eutsches 1undesarchi2 N5erman Federal Archi2eO+
%ohn F. Genne"y meets with So#iet commissars natoly Fo!rynin an" n"rei 4romyko.

Left photo: Presi"ent %ohn F. Genne"y greets So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# in 5ienna in %&ne ()3(.
(Photo: -ational rchi#es)
/ight photo: Jrnesto ?Che@ 4&e#ara (left). the hea" of C&!aIs Jconomic 8ission. #isits So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# in
8oscow on Fecem!er 0*. ()3(. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
E#$# 7resident John F# Aennedy *?
nd
left+ sha0es hands !ith $o2iet 7remier Ni0ita Ahrushche2 at the 8ienna $ummit in 8ienna,
Austria on June J, 19C1# E#$# $ecretary of $tate 6ean Rus0 is seen standin% on the far ri%ht#
*7hoto .y 7ictorial 7arade;Archi2e 7hotos;5etty Ima%es+
Presi"ent %ohn F. Genne"y meets with So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rie 4romyko an" natoly Fo!rynin at the White $o&se "&ring
8issile Crisis on Hcto!er (2. ()30. (White $o&se photo !y !!ie /owe)
So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin (right) meets with Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on at the H#al Hffice in Washington.
F.C. on Fecem!er 03. ()61. (ssociate" Press photo)
$ource& (i)ita <hrushchev and the 9reation of a Superpower .y $er%ei N# Ahrushche2
$ource& (i)ita <hrushchev and the 9reation of a Superpower .y $er%ei N# Ahrushche2
'&ri n"ropo# was the Chairman of the G4BE Pham 5an Fong was one of the negotiators for -orth 5ietnam at the Paris peace
conference "&ring the 5ietnam War. (UP> Photo)
(So&rce: )uri Andropov A %ecret Passage into the Kremlin !y 5la"imir Solo#yo# an" Jlena Glepiko#a)
-ikita Ghr&shche# cele!rates with his >n"onesian comra"e S&karno.
-ikita Ghr&shche# an" S&karno light their cigarettes at a party.
*$ource& "he 9risis 'ears/ <ennedy and <hrushchev$ 123I&123N .y 'ichael R# 1eschloss+
Fignitaries enLoy champagne toast after signing of n&clear test !an agreement !y the U.S.. 4reat Britain. an" the So#iet Union in the GremlinIs
St. CatherineIs $all in 8oscow on &g&st +. ()31. Left to right are Sen. William F&l!right (FArkansas). Sen. 4eorge iken (/A5ermont). Sen.
Le#erett Saltonstall (/A8assach&setts). Sen. $&!ert $&mphrey (FA8innesota). "lai J. Ste#enson. U.S. /epresentati#e to the Unite" -ations.
U- Secretary 4eneral U =hant. an" So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche#. $&mphrey an" Ste#enson were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign
/elations. F&l!right was a /ho"es Scholar. (Photo: W BettmannBCH/B>S)
=his /&ssian n&clear power plant is sit&ate" near Smolensk city. >ts power generation potential is 1 8egawatt an" it was constr&cte" in 2
years. from ()20 to ())D. =he plant was "esigne" for fo&r n&clear reactors. !&t !eca&se of the panic after the Cherno!yl acci"ent. the fo&rth
!lock has not !een complete". (So&rce: http:BBenglishr&ssia.comBCpU033D)
Leoni" Bre;hne#. '&ri n"ropo#. an" n"rei 4romyko (foregro&n". wearing glasses)
(Copyright ()20 Sipa Press from Black Star)
(So&rce: )uri Andropov A %ecret Passage into the Kremlin !y 5la"imir Solo#yo# an" Jlena Glepiko#a)
Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on plays arm wrestling with So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne#.
Shah 8ohamma" /e;a Pahla#i of >ran (center) an" his wife Farah Pahla#i (right) greet So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# in
8oscow. So#iet Union in ()6D. (Photo: http:BBen.wikipe"ia.orgBwikiBFile:Fpmoscow()3).Lpg)
So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko (center left). So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# (center). an" . So#iet !&rea&crat nastas 8ikoyan
(center right) make a Loint appearance at the Lenin 8a&sole&m in 8oscow in 8ay ()6+.
(W Fmitri BaltermantsB=he Fmitri Baltermants CollectionBCor!is)
$o2iet Commissar 'i0hail 5or.ache2 meets !ith :rich Honec0er, :ast 5ermany on A"ril ?1, 19C#
*5erman Federal Archi2es+
(So&rce: )uri Andropov A %ecret Passage into the Kremlin !y 5la"imir Solo#yo# an" Jlena Glepiko#a)
(So&rce: )uri Andropov A %ecret Passage into the Kremlin !y 5la"imir Solo#yo# an" Jlena Glepiko#a)
Fi"el Castro (left) recei#es some a"#ice from WoLciech %ar&;elski (right) in Polan" in 8ay ()60.
leksei Gosygin. Leoni" Bre;hne#. an" -ikolai Po"gorny in the front. >n the !ack. 8inister of Fefense Fmitri Ustino# an" G4B Chairman '&ri
n"ropo# (smiling). =his photo was taken in ()63 at the 5n&ko#o irport in 8oscow. (UP> Photo)
(So&rce: )uri Andropov A %ecret Passage into the Kremlin !y 5la"imir Solo#yo# an" Jlena Glepiko#a)
So#iet /&ssiaNs Premier -ikita S. Ghr&shche# (left) an" So#iet en#oy -ikolai B&lganin (right) meet with '&gosla#iaNs Commissar %osip Bro;
=ito in Belgra"e. '&gosla#ia in %&ne ()++. (/alph CraneB=ime Life)
J<ha&ste" Leoni" Bre;hne# gets escorte" !y Jrich $onecker (glasses. left) an" a comm&nist ai"e after making a speech in
Jast Berlin in Hcto!er ()6). (UP> Photo)
(So&rce: )uri Andropov A %ecret Passage into the Kremlin !y 5la"imir Solo#yo# an" Jlena Glepiko#a)
So#iet 8arshal G&liko#. Polish "ictator WoLciech %ar&;elski (s&nglasses). an" Jast 4erman 8inister of Fefense 4en. $offman "isc&ss their
#iews on the Col" War "&ring military e<ercises of the Warsaw Pact forces in ()2(. (Copyright ()2( Sipa Press from Black Star)
(So&rce: )uri Andropov A %ecret Passage into the Kremlin !y 5la"imir Solo#yo# an" Jlena Glepiko#a)
Warsaw Pact "elegates stan" together at the %an&ary ()21 s&mmit meetings in Prag&e. So#iet "ictator '&ri n"ropo# is stan"ing thir" from
left. /omaniaNs "ictator -icolae Cea&sesc& an" Polish "ictator WoLciech %ar&;elski are stan"ing on the far right. (Wi"e Worl" Photo)
Comm&nist hea"s of state stan" together for a portrait in 8arch ()26. Left to right: 4&sta# $&sak (C;echoslo#akia). =o"or :hi#ko# (B&lgaria).
Jrich $onecker (Jast 4ermany). 8ikhail 4or!ache# (So#iet /&ssia). -icolae Cea&sesc& (/omania). WoLciech %ar&;elski (Polan"). an" %anos
Ga"ar ($&ngary). (Photo: 4erman Fe"eral rchi#es)
C&!aNs "espot Fi"el Castro sociali;es with -ikita Ghr&shche#. Leoni" Bre;hne#. an" So#iet am!assa"or to C&!a lekseye# (wearing
glasses). 7-ote: ""itional pict&res of Fi"el Castro can !e fo&n" in the section ?Fi"el Castro , =he C&!an /e#ol&tion@.9
'&gosla#iaNs "espot %osip Bro; =ito walks with So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche#.
'asser rafat meets So#iet "ictator Leoni" Bre;hne#.
%osip Bro; =ito appla&"s with So#iet "ictator Leoni" Bre;hne#.
So#iet /&ssiaNs Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# (front. secon" from left) an" Jast 4ermanyNs Commissar Jrich $onecker (front. right) atten" a
ceremony marking the 1Dth anni#ersary of the esta!lishment of Jast 4ermany in Jast Berlin on Hcto!er 6. ()6).
(W /Xgis Boss&BSygmaBCor!is)
C&!aNs Comm&nist chief Fi"el Castro (wearing s&nglasses an" !ear"). So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko (center. gray cap). an" So#iet
Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache# (stan"ing ne<t to 4romyko) stan" together "&ring the 6Dth anni#ersary of the /&ssian /e#ol&tion in 8oscow in
()26. (W Peter =&rnleyBCH/B>S)
Presi"ent /onal" /eagan "eli#ers a speech in front of a !&st of So#iet 4o"father 5la"imir Lenin at the 8oscow State Uni#ersity
in the So#iet Union on 8ay 1(. ()22.
C16*D2A(3. Presi"ent /eagan an" So#iet 4eneral Secretary 4or!ache# meet at $of"i $o&se "&ring the /eykLa#ik S&mmit.
>celan". (DB((B23. (/onal" /eagan Li!rary) http:BBwww.reagan.&te<as.e"&Barchi#esBphotographsBlargeBc16*D2A(3a.Lpg
Presi"ent /onal" /eagan an" So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin enLoy a !ar!ec&e "inner in %&ly ()2*. =his
photo appears in natoly Fo!ryninNs !ook 2n Confidence Mosco'<s Am#assador to America<s %i8 Cold ;ar Presidents.
U.S. Presi"ent /onal" /eagan an" U.S. Secretary of State 4eorge P. Sh&lt; (sitting on /eaganNs right) meet with natoly
Fo!rynin at the White $o&se in ()23. =his photo appears in natoly Fo!ryninNs !ook 2n Confidence Mosco'<s Am#assador to
America<s %i8 Cold ;ar Presidents.
Pa&l -it;e greets U.S. Presi"ent /onal" /eagan !efore meeting with So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache#.
Presi"ent /onal" /eagan shakes han"s with So#iet 4eneral Secretary 8ikhail 4or!ache# at a plenary meeting at the So#iet
8ission "&ring the 4ene#a S&mmit in 4ene#a. Swit;erlan" on -o#em!er 0D. ()2+. (Photo: /onal" /eagan Presi"ential Li!rary)
4or!ache# taking the oath of office as the first presi"ent of the So#iet Union on 8arch (+. ())D (=SS)
$o2iet leader 'i0hail 5or.ache2 stands in front of the 1randen.ur% 5ate in :ast 1erlin on A"ril 1C, 19C#
*7hoto& 5erman Federal Archi2es+
DFurther %lo.al "ro%ress is no! "ossi.le only throu%h a Buest for uni2ersal consensus in the
mo2ement to!ards a ne+ +orl& or&er#G
H 'i0hail 5or.ache2, in a s"eech deli2ered at the Enited Nations in 6ecem.er 19
#ugust -ou% an& Fall of the o"iet Cnion 819919
7resident of the R$F$R 1oris /eltsin s"ea0s to the cro!d ato" a tan0 near the .uildin% of the Council of 'inisters of the
R$F$R *Russian $ocialist Federated $o2iet Re"u.lic+ in 'osco! on Au%ust 19, 1991 durin% the Au%ust Cou"#
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
Russian citizens "rotest in the streets of 'osco! durin% the failed Au%ust Cou" in Au%ust 1991# A $o2iet Red Army 1TRI7@
"ersonnel carrier is surrounded .y the demonstrators# The failed Communist u"risin% lasted from 19H?1 Au%ust 1991#
5he #ugust -ou% Plotters: 2embers of the tate -ommittee on the tate of <mergen4y 8E5he Gang of <ightF9
5ennady /anaye2 *19>7I?@1@+
8ice 7resident of the $o2iet
Enion *199@I1991+
8alentin 7a2lo2 *19>7I?@@>+
7remier of the $o2iet Enion
*1J January 1991 H ?? Au%ust
1991+,
Finance 'inister of the $o2iet
Enion *17 July 199 H ?C
6ecem.er 199@+
8ladimir Aryuch0o2
*19?JI?@@7+
Chairman of the A51
*19I1991+
6mitry /azo2
*.# 19?>+
6efense 'inister of the $o2iet
Enion *>@ 'ay 197 H ??
Au%ust 1991+, 'arshal of the
$o2iet Enion
1oris 7u%o *19>7I1991+
Interior 'inister of the $o2iet
Enion *1 6ecem.er 199@ H ??
Au%ust 1991+
-le% 1a0lano2
*.# 19>?+
First 6e"uty Chairman of the
6efense Council of the E$$R
8asily $tarodu.tse2
*19>1I?@11+
Chairman of the 7easantsF
Enion of the E$$R
Ale)ander Tizya0o2
*.# 19?C+
7resident of the Association of
$tate :nter"rises
Note& 1oris 7u%o committed DsuicideG on Au%ust ??, 1991 to a2oid arrest !hile the other se2en mem.ers !ere arrested#
-n Au%ust 19, 1991, the 5ACh7, an emer%ency committee of hardIline communists, attem"ted a cou" d=^tat to o2erthro!
$o2iet 7resident 'i0hail 5or.ache2 and halt his reform "lans# *7hoto& htt"&;;en#ria#ru;"hotolents;?@11@19;1CL9?JCC1#html+
A %rou" of Russian "rotesters stand on the .arricades in front of the 4hite House in 'osco! on Au%ust ?1, 1991
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
A "rotester attac0 a $o2iet soldier near the 4hite House in 'osco! on Au%ust 19, 1991
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
$o2iet tan0s near $t# 1asil=s Cathedral and the $"ass0aya To!er, Au%ust 19, 1991
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
A soldier !a2in% a fla% and sittin% on a tan0, !hile the rest of the military eBui"ment !as ta0en a!ay from the streets after the
su""ression of the cou", Au%ust ?1, 1991# The leaders of the cou" left the ca"ital or committed suicide#
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
The demolition of the monument to Feli) 6zerzhins0y on <u.yan0a $Buare in 'osco!, Au%ust ??, 1991
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
A youn% <ithuanian %irl sittin% on a statue of 8ladimir <enin in 8ilnius, <ithuania on $e"tem.er 1, 1991
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
7resident 5eor%e H#4# 1ush and 'i0hail 5or.ache2 si%n the $TART Treaty in 'osco!, $o2iet Russia on /uly =1, 1991 as
E#$# $ecretary of $tate James A# 1a0er III *left+ and a $o2iet official loo0 on#
*7hoto& 5eor%e 1ush 7residential <i.rary+
American 7resident 5eor%e H#4# 1ush *left+ and $o2iet 7resident 'i0hail 5or.ache2 sha0e hands durin% a summit held .efore
the start of the 1991 'adrid 7eace Conference in 'adrid, $"ain on 74tober ;9, 1991# The t!o leaders s"onsored the 1991
conference for the 'iddle :ast, !hich !as the first time Israel, $yria, <e.anon, Jordan, and the 7alestinians all came to%ether
for ne%otiations# *7hoto& 7ascal <e $e%retain;$y%ma;Cor.is+
The demonstration a%ainst the %o2ernment, !hen L@@,@@@ "eo"le %athered on 'ane%e $Buare in 'osco! on 'arch 1@, 1991#
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
'i0hail 5or.ache2 standin% !ith his Dcollea%uesG at the ceremonial li%htin% of the fire at the Tom. of the En0no!n $oldier
near the Aremlin, 'ay, 1991# $o2iet 'inister of 6efense 'arshal 6mitry /azo2 is seen standin% on the far left#
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
'i0hail 5or.ache2 announces his resi%nation as 7resident of the $o2iet Enion on Christmas 6ay, 6ecem.er ?L, 1991#
*ITARITA$$+
Russian troo"s surround the .urnedIout Russian 7arliament .uildin% in 'osco! in -cto.er 199># *A..as I 'a%num 7hotos+
Russians cele.rate in honor of the failure of the Au%ust Cou" and in memory of the Russians !ho !ere 0illed in the Au%ust
Cou"# *7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
The $o2iet Red Fla% is dis"layed ato" the Aremlin and Red $Buare on $aturday e2enin%, 6ecem.er ?1, 1991# A ne! Russian
Fla% !as raised ato" the Aremlin and Red $Buare on Ne! /ear=s :2e#
*7hoto& htt"&;;om911#com;lifeIinItheIussrI!hatI!asIitIli0e#html+
Russia: Gorbachev Reflects On The Legacy Of The Coup
P"A5=*- August .>- ,??@ ("F*A"1B &&Fifteen years after the failed coup that triggered the collapse of the
%oviet =nion and transformed his o'n life- former %oviet President Mi!hail 5or#achev tal!s to "F*A"14s (orth
Caucasus %ervice a#out the events of August .//. and their legacy.
.-<H.L1 >n his ann&al a""ress to the Fe"eral ssem!ly in 0DD+. /&ssian Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin calle" the collapse of the
So#iet Union Qthe greatest geopolitical catastrophe of the 0Dth cent&ry.Q Fo yo& agree with s&ch an interpretation of o&r recent
historyC
%ikhail ;or3ache1 > ha#e sai" this on many occasions. an" > will say it again: > agree. When. "&ring a perio" of wi"esprea"
reform. glasnost came along an" lit &p the "arker corners of the sit&ation in o&r co&ntry. it seeme" as tho&gh all of society
starte" mo#ing an" talking. >t t&rne" o&t that the people ha" something to say an" that they ha" someone to speak to. t this
time > ha" alrea"y !een saying that the way of "emocracy. glasnost. an" economic reform was the way to go.
'et > also warne" against the "estr&cti#e nat&re of what was happening. =hings certainly nee"e" to change. !&t we "i" not nee"
to "estroy that which ha" !een !&ilt !y pre#io&s generations. We ha" to "epri#e o&rsel#es of some things. yes. !&t this was the
&nfort&nate cost. fter the p&tsch. when the real "anger of the co&ntry coming apart arose. > contin&e" to speak o&t in the same
#ein. > emphasi;e" that the "issol&tion of a co&ntry that was not only powerf&l. !&t that. "&ring perestroika. "emonstrate" that it
was peacef&l an" that it accepte" the !asic principles of "emocracy. wo&l" !e a trage"y. =he en" of the Col" War presente" &s
with an &nprece"ente" opport&nity to p&rs&e a new. peacef&l policy.
.-<H.L1 Some o!ser#ers think that the State Committee for the Jmergency Sit&ation (4GChP) was the nat&ral res&lt of e#ents
then going on in the co&ntry. an effort to restrain the "estr&cti#e processes that ha" arisen as a res&lt of a systemic crisis of
state management that. in t&rn. was create" !y illAconsi"ere" an" spora"ic reforms. 8any of the participants of the soAcalle"
4GChP insist that this was the case. >n yo& opinion. how fair is this point of #iewC
;or3ache1 >t is nonsense. =he nat&ral res&lt of e#ents was the wellAt&ne" process that was alrea"y &n"er way in the spring of
())(. =here was alrea"y the crisis that arose when people ha" to wait in long lines to p&rchase !asic e#ery"ay goo"s. B&t in the
!ig pict&re. after a long perio" of "eli!eration an" "e!ate. the antiAcrisis program ha" finally starte" to materiali;e. >nterestingly. it
starte" o&t as a program initiate" !y the ca!inet ministers. !&t then it was Loine" !y all the rep&!lics an" e#en the Baltic states.
with their own special #iews on certain M&estions. =he Baltic states "i"nIt act&ally sign the "oc&ment. !&t they "eci"e" to
implement it anyway. By this time. we ha" fo&n" new sol&tions an" ways of "ealing with the sit&ation. an" we were rea"y to
mo#e forwar".
=his was nat&ral for the "emocrati;ation of the So#iet Union. an" it was also nat&ral for correcting the mistakes we ha" ma"e
earlier. partic&larly o&r "elay in reforming the Comm&nist Party an" the fe"erate" &nion. =he goal of the p&tsch was to interr&pt
this process. =he p&tschists were at the top of the reactionary nomenklat&ra AA remem!er. many in the nomenklat&ra went ahea"
an" worke" with &s. str&ggle" with &s. So this is my response to the common cliche that yo& were referring to. =hese people
were &na!le to p&!licly o#erthrow the go#ernment. so they took a clan"estine ro&te. which they faile" in. !eca&se "iffic&lt as the
times were. no!o"y wante" to ret&rn to Stalinism.
.-<H.L1 ccor"ing to many p&!lic opinion polls. perestroika remains more pop&lar a!roa" AA partic&larly in J&rope an" the
Unite" States AA than in the o#erwhelming maLority of co&ntries of the former So#iet Union. $ow wo&l" yo&. as the a&thor of that
initiati#e. e<plain s&ch a "ifference in its rep&tationC
;or3ache1 =he "ifference !etween the rep&tation perestroika has in /&ssia an" a!roa" is e<plaina!le. Central an" Jastern
J&rope gaine" in"epen"ence. ll of J&rope got ri" of the nightmare of potential confrontation AA moreo#er. a confrontation that
co&l" ha#e "e#elope" into n&clear war in which J&rope wo&l" s&ffer the most "amage.
'o&r M&estion mentione" the C>S co&ntries. Witho&t going into "etail. > can tell yo& that neither the maLority of their people nor
their political elite "esire a ret&rn to the way things were. or ha#e any regrets a!o&t e<iting the &nion. /ecent polls ha#e shown
that the percentage of the pop&lation in these co&ntries in fa#or of a ret&rn to the So#iet Union is only a!o&t +A6 percent.
/&ssia is a special case. =he reason > say this is !eca&se /&ssia lost the most as a res&lt of the !reakA&p. in terms of
geopolitical stat&re. in terms of historical merit. in terms of political power it ha" !y #irt&e of controlling other rep&!lics. an" finally
in terms of economic strength. ha#ing cease" to !e the center of a maLor economic comple< with a pop&lation of nearly a
M&arterA!illion people. 7Former /&ssian Presi"ent Boris9 'eltsin an" 7former acting /&ssian Prime 8inister 'egor9 4ai"arIs
reforms "estroye" the in"&strial potential of the co&ntry an" re"&ce" millions of people to po#erty. Pri#ati;ation was carrie" o&t
in s&ch a way that instea" of contri!&ting to a growing pri#ate sector. it only res&lte" in corr&ption an" mass theft. =he co&ntry
was in shock. so people nat&rally looke" !ack to the So#iet Union an" the social g&arantees that it offere". =he g&arantees were
mo"est. !&t at least they were g&arantees. -ow. e#en tho&gh things are impro#ing &n"er P&tin. > wo&l" still estimate that a!o&t
+D percent of o&r people li#e in po#erty.Q
.-<H.L1 >n /&ssia. it is pop&lar to arg&e AA an" yo& hear this at the highest political le#els AA that the en" of the Col" War
"esta!ili;e" the mo"ern worl" or"erE the soli" !ipolar international system was replace" !y an &nsta!le monopolar "omination.
Fo yo& agree with this #iewC
;or3ache1 >I#e hear" this #iew !efore AA that the Col" War s&ppose"ly offere" a le#el of sta!ility. >Im not s&re where this #iew
comes from AA whether it is part of someoneIs agen"a or simply roote" in ignorance of the sit&ation that "e#elope" in the mi"A
()2Ds. > was to&ring the co&ntry at the time an" from all si"es > hear" the same M&estion: QWill there !e warC Please. "o
anything yo& can to not let it happen. Fo anything. weIll li#e thro&gh whate#er it takes. !&t L&st "onIt let it happen.Q Hf co&rse.
many people forgot a!o&t this when the fear of war s&!si"e".
=he sta!ility of the Col" War was a false one. >t was tricky an" "angero&s. We in the /&ssian an" U.S. go#ernments knew !etter
than any!o"y what the tr&e sit&ation was an" what it co&l" "e#elop into. !eca&se we knew what point we were at in the arms
race. We knew that the kin" of technology that we were operating was powerf&l eno&gh to p&t the fate of ci#ili;ation in M&estion
sho&l" there !e some sort of slipA&p. We also knew that the arms race was lea"ing to an &nprece"ente" "epletion of national
reso&rces.
.-<H.L1 $ow "o yo& assess the state of "emocracy an" free"om of speech in /&ssia to"ayC
;or3ache1 =here are freM&ent acc&sations that "emocracy is !eing s&ppresse" an" that free"om of press is !eing stifle". =he
tr&th is. most /&ssians "isagree with this #iewpoint. We fin" o&rsel#es at a "iffic&lt historical L&nct&re. H&r transition to
"emocracy has not !een a smooth one. an" we m&st assess o&r s&ccesses an" fail&res not in the conte<t of some i"eal. !&t in
the conte<t of o&r history. When P&tin first came to power. > think his first priority was keeping the co&ntry from falling apart. an"
this reM&ire" certain meas&res that wo&l"nIt e<actly !e referre" to as te<t!ook "emocracy.
'es. there are certain worrying ten"encies. We still ha#e certain stip&lations an" restrictions that cannot !e e<plaine" !y real
"angers. or !y the realities of life in /&ssia. $owe#er. > wo&l" not "ramati;e the sit&ation. >n the past 0D years. /&ssia has
change" to s&ch an e<tent that going !ack is now impossi!le.
.-<H.L1 LetIs t&rn the clock !ack (+ years. 'o& s&ffere" a horri!le !etrayal on the part of the people yo& consi"ere" yo&r
comra"esAinAarms. as well as. perhaps. yo&r personal frien"s. -ot many people ha#e e<perience" this. What personal lessons
ha#e yo& learne"C
;or3ache1 We nee" to follow the path of "emocracy. We nee" to respect the people. an" not t&rn them !ack into the her" that
was !&llie" for "eca"es an" cent&ries in o&r co&ntry. We cannot resol#e pro!lems thro&gh co&ps. We nee" the people to
participate in the changes that are !eing enacte" in the co&ntry. Femocracy nee"s to !e effecti#e. =he law nee"s to !e efficient.
=hie#es an" corr&pt officials sho&l" not feel safe. We nee" to follow the path of "emocracy towar" a free. open. an" prospero&s
co&ntry.
So&rce: http:BBwww.rferl.orgBcontentBarticleB(D6D336.html
Co&ncil on Foreign /elations , So#iet /&ssia
#erell $arriman (center) an" his wife Pamela $arriman greet So#iet Commissar '&ri n"ropro# (far right) in 8oscow in %&ne
()21. n"ropo# was the former Chief of the G4B an" former hea" of the So#iet Union. #erell $arriman was a mem!er of the
Co&ncil on Foreign /elations an" a mem!er of Sk&ll , Bones. a secret society at 'ale Uni#ersity. (=SS Photo)
(So&rce: %panning The Century The 1ife of ;. Averell $arriman- .>/.&./>@ !y /&"y !ramson)
4eorge $.W. B&sh (left). the 5ice Presi"ent of the Unite" States. meets So#iet Commissar '&ri n"ropo# in -o#em!er ()20.
B&sh was a former C> Firector. an" n"ropo# was the former Chief of the G4B. 4eorge $.W. B&sh is a mem!er of Sk&ll ,
Bones an" a former mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (Photo: UP>BBettman)
(So&rce: For the President<s *yes +nly %ecret 2ntelligence and the American Presidency from ;ashington to :ush !y
Christopher n"rew)
/ichar" -i<on greets So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache# in ()23. natoly Fo!rynin (wearing glasses) is smiling.
5ice Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on toasts So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# at a party in 8oscow in %&ly ()+).
.CCS<(<L> A:! >.,%A: A!%*:*S>.A>*C:S
U.S. Secretary of State J"war" Stettini&s (left). acting Unite" -ations SecretaryA4eneral lger $iss (center). an" n"rei 4romyko (right). then
the So#iet m!assa"or to the Unite" States. stan" together at the Unite" -ations in San Francisco in ()*+. Stettini&s an" $iss were
mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. $iss was con#icte" of perL&ry in %an&ary ()+D after Whittaker Cham!ers acc&se" lger $iss of
!eing a Comm&nist agent an" a So#iet colla!orator.
4eneral Fwight Jisenhower. So#iet tyrant %osef Stalin. an" m!assa"or #erell $arriman recei#e a ?heroNs welcome@ in 8oscow as they
re#iew a So#iet para"e from a platform on top of LeninNs tom! on &g&st (0. ()*+. Both Jisenhower an" $arriman were mem!ers of the
Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.
Charles J. Bohlen an" former Secretary of State J"war" /. Stettini&s %r. were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.
(So&rce: ;itness to $istory ./,/&./@/ !y Charles J. Bohlen)
merican an" So#iet "iplomats meet in %an&ary ()*+. Secon" from left is 5ishinsky. fo&rth from left is U.S. m!assa"or to So#iet Union
#erell $arriman. fifth from left is So#iet Foreign 8inister 5yachesla# 8oloto#. si<th from left is British Foreign 8inister nthony J"en. se#enth
from left is U.S. Secretary of State J"war" /. Stettini&s %r.. eighth from left is Ca"ogan. an" on right (wearing a !ow tie) is Alger $iss.
$arriman. Stettini&s. an" $iss were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (Photo: Franklin F. /oose#elt Li!rary)

Left: Fean cheson meets with a So#iet Comman"ant in Berlin (Photo: Dean Acheson The %tate Department )ears !y Fa#i" S. 8cLellan.
/ight: Fean cheson talks to n"rei 4romyko at a conference setting &p the Unite" -ations /elief an" /eha!ilitation gency on -o#em!er
((. ()*1.
So#iet Premier %osef Stalin an" Presi"ent $arry S. =r&man smile "&ring the Pots"am Conference in ()*+. Presi"ential a"#isor Charles J.
Bohlen is seen whispering into StalinNs ear. (CH/B>S)
Charles J. Bohlen is seen stan"ing !ehin" %osef Stalin an" Presi"ent $arry =r&man at the Pots"am Conference in ()*+.
Left to right: merican en#oy Charles Bohlen. Secretary of State J"war" Stettini&s %r.. /&ssian m!assa"or n"rei 4romyko. an" /&ssian
Foreign 8inister 5yachesla# 8oloto# greet one another in pril ()*+. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
cting U.S. Secretary of State %oseph Crew. right. calls at the So#iet Jm!assy in Washington. F.C. to pay his respects to n"rei . 4romyko.
/&ssian m!assa"or to the Unite" States. on the 06th anni#ersary of the /e" rmy on Fe!r&ary 01. ()*+. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
,.S. A)3assadors to Soiet ,nion who were )e)3ers of the Co/ncil on -oreign .elations
William C. B&llitt
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()11A()13)
La&rence . Steinhar"t
U.S. m!assa"or to
So#iet Union (()1)A()*()
"m. William $. Stan"ley
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()*0A
()*1)E
Chief of -a#al Hperations
(()11A()16)
W. #erell $arriman
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()*1A()*3)
U.S. Secretary of
Commerce (()*3A()*2)
4en. Walter Be"ell Smith
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()*3A()*2)E
Firector of Central
>ntelligence gency
(()+DA()+1)
"m. lan 4. Girk
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()*)A()+()
4eorge F. Gennan
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union
(8ay (*. ()+0A
Septem!er (). ()+0)
Charles J. Bohlen
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()+1A()+6)
Llewellyn J. =hompson
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union
(()+6A()30. ()36A()3))
Foy F. Gohler
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()30A()33)
%aco! F. Beam
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()3)A()61)
Walter %. Stoessel %r.
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()6*A()63)
=homas %. Watson %r.
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()6)A
()2()E
Chairman of >nternational
B&siness 8achines Corp.
(()3(A()6()
rth&r . $artman
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()2(A()26)
%ack F. 8atlock %r.
U.S. m!assa"or to the
So#iet Union (()26A())()
/o!ert S. Stra&ss
U.S. m!assa"or to
So#iet Union (&g&st 0*.
())(AFecem!er 03.
())() an" /&ssia (())0)
<*S<:$C0<. A!%*:*S>.A>*C:
Presi"ent Fwight Jisenhower stan"s ne<t to So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# at Camp Fa#i".
So#iet Commissar -ikita S. Ghr&shche# (center) appears with "lai J. Ste#enson %r. (left). U.S. /epresentati#e to the Unite"
-ations $enry Ca!ot Lo"ge %r. (center left). an" /oswell 4arst (right) in >owa "&ring his to&r of merica in Septem!er ()+).
(Photo: Carl 8y"ansB=ime Life)
U. S. Secretary of State %ohn Foster F&lles. Left. is welcome" !y -ikita Ghr&shche#. So#iet Comm&nist party !oss. right. an" So#iet Premier
-ikolai B&lganin. center. as the Secretary arri#e" for a l&ncheon party gi#en !y the /&ssians in 4ene#a. Swit;erlan" on %&ly 00. ()++.
(BettmannBCH/B>S)
Seate". from left to right: U.S. m!assa"or to So#iet Union Llewellyn J. =hompson. %r.. U.S. Presi"ent Fwight F. Jisenhower.
So#iet Fiplomat 8ikhail . 8enshiko#. So#iet =ra"e 8inister nastas >. 8ikoyan. an" U.S. Secretary of State %ohn Foster F&lles
meet in Washington. F.C. in ()+). (Photo: J" ClarkB=ime Life)
So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# (lower right) watches U.S. Presi"ent Fwight Jisenhower "eli#er a speech at n"rews ir
Force Base. 8arylan". U.S.. in Septem!er ()+). Behin" Jisenhower are from left to right: Foreign 8inister of So#iet Union
n"rei 4romyko. U.S. /epresentati#e to the Unite" -ations $enry Ca!ot Lo"ge %r.. 8ikhail 8enshiko#. an" U.S. Secretary of
State Christian $erter.
U.S. Secretary of State Christian $erter greets So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche#.
Presi"ent Fwight Jisenhower an" So#iet minister -ikolai B&lganin smile for the cameras at a 4ene#a Conference in %&ly ()++.
So#iet Commissar -ikita S. Ghr&shche# (center) shakes han"s with Un"er Secretary of State C. Fo&glas Fillon in Washington. F.C. in
Septem!er ()+). C. Fo&glas Fillon was a former Chairman an" CJH of Fillon. /ea" , Co. !anking firm in -ew 'ork City an" a mem!er of
the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (Photo: J" ClarkB=ime Life)
$enry Ca!ot Lo"ge %r. walks with So#iet Commissar -ikita Ghr&shche#.
Llewellyn =hompson (center) appears with So#iet Preimer -ikita Ghr&shche# (left) on a So#iet farm.
"lai J. Ste#enson (left) an" So#iet Commissar -ikita Ghr&shche# are seen la&ghing together at a party.
Charles J. Bohlen (right). the U.S. m!assa"or to the So#iet Union. appears with So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# (left) an"
-ikolai B&lganin at a party at the merican Jm!assy in 8oscow. So#iet Union on %&ly *. ()+3.
(So&rce: (i!ita Khrushchev and the Creation of a %uperpo'er !y Sergei -. Ghr&shche#)
Presi"ent of the Unite" States Fwight Jisenhower (left) an" his wife First La"y 8amie Jisenhower (0
n"
left) appear alongsi"e
So#iet Commissar -ikita Ghr&shche# (0
n"
right) an" his wife 8rs. Ghr&shche# at a party.
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Unite" States Presi"ent Lyn"on B. %ohnson watches m!assa"orAatALarge #erell $arriman. a former partner of Brown
Brothers $arriman , Co. !anking firm in -ew 'ork City. shake han"s with So#iet Premier leksei Gosygin at the 4lass!oro
Conference on %&ne 0+. ()36. (Photo: Frank WolfeBLyn"on B. %ohnson Presi"ential Li!rary)
#erell $arriman listens to So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# an" So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko (far right) at the
Gremlin in 8oscow. So#iet Union in %&ly ()31. (Photo: Stan WaymanB=ime Life)
Secretary of State Fean /&sk plays a game of !a"minton tennis with So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# at -ikita Ghr&shche#Ns
ho&se in the So#iet Union. =his photo was p&!lishe" in Fean /&skNs a&to!iography As 2 %a' 2t. (UP>BBettmann)
Secretary of State Fean /&sk is seen ha#ing "inner with So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko. =his photo was p&!lishe" in
Fean /&skNs a&to!iography As 2 %a' 2t.
4lass!oro Conference in %&ne ()36. Left to right: n"rei 4romyko. natoly Fo!rynin. Secretary of Fefense /o!ert 8c-amara. Fean /&sk.
&ni"entifie". an" -ational Sec&rity "#isor Walt /ostow. (LB% Li!rary)
http:BBphotola!.l!Lli!.&te<as.e"&BimagesBmi"resBDBDDBDDDBDDD*B**).Lpg
4lass!oro Conference in %&ne ()36. U.S. Secretary of Fefense /o!ert 8c-amara chats with So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko. So#iet
m!assa"or to merica natoly Fo!rynin. an" Secretary of State Fean /&sk in the !ackgro&n". -ational Sec&rity "#isor Walt /ostow is
seate" in the foregro&n" on the right. (Photo: LB% Li!rary) http:BBphotola!.l!Lli!.&te<as.e"&BimagesBmi"resBDBDDBDDDBDDD*B*+).Lpg
U.S. Secretary of State Fean /&sk talks to So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko (left) at the 4lass!oro S&mmit Conference
on %&ly 0+. ()36. (Photo: 'oichi /. Hkamoto. LB% Li!rary)
Presi"ent Lyn"on B. %ohnson watches -ational Sec&rity "#isor Walt /ostow shake han"s with So#iet Premier leksei Gosygin
at the 4lass!oro S&mmit Conference in -ew %ersey on %&ne 0+. ()36. (Photo: Frank Wolfe. LB% Li!rary)
U.S. m!assa"or to the So#iet Union Llewellyn J. =hompson (left) talks to So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko on %&ne 0+.
()36. (Photo: 'oichi /. Hkamoto. LB% Li!rary)
Presi"ent of For" Fo&n"ation 8c4eorge B&n"y (left) listens to So#iet Commissar 5orontso# "&ring "inner at the 4lass!oro
S&mmit in 4lass!oro. -ew %ersey on %&ne 01. ()36. (Photo: 'oichi /. Hkamoto. LB% Li!rary)
-ational Sec&rity "#isor Walt /ostow (left) watches For" Fo&n"ation Presi"ent 8c4eorge B&n"y (right) talk to So#iet m!assa"or to the
U.S. natoly Fo!rynin "&ring the 4lass!oro S&mmit in %&ne ()36. Both B&n"y an" /ostow were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign
/elationsE !oth B&n"y an" /ostow ser#e" as -ational Sec&rity "#isor &n"er LB%. Fo!rynin was a U- Un"erASecretary for Sec&rity an"
Political ffairs from ()+2 to ()+) an" an am!assa"or to the U.S. from ()30 to ()23. (Photo: 'oichi /. Hkamoto. LB% Li!rary)
U.S. m!assa"or to the So#iet Union Llewellyn =hompson (right) listens as U.S. Secretary of State Fean /&sk (front of pink
c&rtain) talks to So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin (far left) an" So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko at the
4lass!oro S&mmit in 4lass!oro. -ew %ersey on %&ne 0+. ()36. (Photo: 'oichi /. Hkamoto. LB% Li!rary)
(So&rce: 2n "etrospect The Tragedy and 1essons of Cietnam !y /o!ert S. 8c-amara)
Presi"ent Lyn"on B. %ohnson an" his Ca!inet secretaries are seen ha#ing a "inner with the So#iet /&ssians at the 4lass!oro S&mmit in
4lass!oro. -ew %ersey in %&ne ()36. Secretary of Fefense /o!ert 8c-amara is seate" secon" from left. U.S. Secretary of State Fean
/&sk is seate" fifth from right. For" Fo&n"ation Presi"ent 8c4eorge B&n"y is seate" in the rear secon" from right. Presi"ent %ohnson is
seate" !etween So#iet Premier le<sei Gosygin an" So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin. (Photo: Lyn"on B. %ohnson Li!rary)
Presi"ent Lyn"on B. %ohnson (right). So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin (left). an" U.S. m!assa"or to the Unite"
-ations rth&r %. 4ol"!erg (center. sitting) watch Secretary of State Fean /&sk sign a treaty on %an&ary 06. ()36.
Secretary of State Fean /&sk (left) shakes han"s with So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# prior to signing of n&clear testA!an
treaty in 8oscow. So#iet /&ssia in &g&st ()31. (Photo: Stan WaymanB=ime Life)
Secretary of State Fean /&sk (right) shakes han"s with So#iet !&rea&crat nastas >. 8ikoyan at a reception in Washington. F.C. in -o#em!er
()31 hel" after Presi"ent %ohn F. Genne"yNs f&neral as Presi"ent Lyn"on B. %ohnson (rear /) greets other "ignitary.
(Photo: rt /icker!yB=ime Life)
Presi"ent Lyn"on B. %ohnson (foregro&n" right) an" his a"#isors meets with So#iet /&ssian officials in Washington. F.C. in
()33. Front row. left to right: U.S. Secretary of State Fean /&sk. So#iet /&ssian Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko. an"
Presi"ent Lyn"on B. %ohnson. Back row. left to right: -ational Sec&rity "#isor Walt /ostow. So#iet /&ssian m!assa"or to
merica natoly Fo!rynin. an" merican m!assa"or to So#iet /&ssia Llewellyn J. =hompson %r. /&sk. /ostow. an"
=hompson were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (Photo: Francis 8illerB=ime Life)
4lass!oro Conference in %&ne ()36. Left to right: Llewellyn J. =hompson (U.S. m!assa"or to So#iet Union). n"rei 4romyko (Foreign
8inister of So#iet Union). an" Secretary of State Fean /&sk. (Photo: Lyn"on B. %ohnson Presi"ential Li!rary)
U.S. Secretary of State Fean /&sk (center) calls on So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko (right) in a co&rtesy call prece"ing the signing of
the first JastAWest agreement on the control of n&clear weapons since the start of the Col" War on &g&st +. ()31. lso present are "lai
Ste#enson (left). U.S. m!assa"or to the U.-.. Senator Le#erett Saltonstall (0n" left). an" natoly Fo!rynin (0n" right). So#iet m!assa"or to
the U.S. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko. U.S. Secretary of State Fean /&sk. So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche#. an" So#iet
m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin stan" together "&ring the signing of the -&clear =est Ban =reaty in the So#iet Union
in ()31. ($&ltonAFe&tsch CollectionBCH/B>S)
U.S. Secretary of State Fean /&sk an" So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko smile for the camera in -ew 'ork City in ()3(
"&ring the time of the "eath of Unite" -ations Secretary 4eneral Fag $ammarskLol". (Photo: lfre" Jisenstae"tB=ime Life)
:*IC: A!%*:*S>.A>*C:
So#iet "ictator Leoni" Bre;hne# (left) whispers into the ears of U.S. Presi"ent /ichar" 8. -i<on.
(Photo: http:BBwww.militaryphotos.netBfor&msBshowthrea".phpCtU(1)*D1)
merican Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on (left) shakes han"s with So#iet r&ler Leoni" Bre;hne# after the signing of the SL= > =reaty in
8oscow on 8ay 03. ()60. mong those in the a&"ience. in the front row !etween -i<on an" Bre;hne#. are Po"gorny. Gosygin.
an" n"rei 4romyko. (Wally 8c-ameeBCH/B>S)
-ational Sec&rity "#isor $enry Gissinger takes notes as So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko talks to U.S. Presi"ent
/ichar" -i<on. U.S. Secretary of State William P. /ogers. an" So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin (left) at the
White $o&se on Hcto!er 0+. ()6D.
-ational Sec&rity "#isor $enry Gissinger (foregro&n"). U.S. Secretary of Commerce Peter 4. Peterson (right of Gissinger). Peter Flanigan (far
left). an" Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on meet with So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin an" So#iet =ra"e 8inister -ikolai Patoliche# on
8ay ((. ()60.
-ational Sec&rity "#isor $enry Gissinger an" Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on go for a walk at the Gremlin.
Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on reaches to clink his glass with that of Fr. $enry Gissinger. Presi"ential "#isor. in 8oscow on 8ay 03. ()60 after
signing of a Strategic rms Limitation =alks (SL= >) =reaty with So#iet lea"ers. %&st !ehin" the glasses are US State Secretary William
/ogers (center) an" So#iet /&ssian commissar Leoni" Bre;hne#. Comm&nist Party 4eneral Secretary. Gissinger was responsi!le for many of
the reparations an" "etails of the s&mmit conference. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
n"rei 4romyko. natoly Fo!rynin. Leoni" Bre;hne#. 5iktor S&kho"re#. an" $enry Gissinger prepare for a meeting insi"e the
Gremlin in Septem!er ()60.
U.S. Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on meets with n"rei 4romyko (left). Foreign 8inister of the So#iet Union. in the H#al Hffice in Washington. F.C..
U.S.. on -o#em!er 03. ()61. (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
With Presi"ent -i<on watching o#er his sho&l"er. U. S. Secretary of State $enry Gissinger p&ts his signat&re to one of two secret "oc&ments
at signing ceremonies in the Gremlin in 8oscow on %&ly 1. ()6*. =he agreements were worke" o&t "&ring -i<onIs se#enA"ay s&mmit
conference with USS/ Comm&nist Party 4eneral Secretary Leoni" Bre;hne# in 8oscow an" 'alta So#iet Foreign 8inister 4rmyko. Photo
shows Gissinger an" 4rmyko shaking han"s with onlookers appla&"ing. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
With Presi"ent -i<on watching o#er his sho&l"er. U. S. Secretary of State $enry Gissinger p&ts his signat&re to one of two secret "oc&ments
at signing ceremonies in the Gremlin in 8oscow on %&ly 1. ()6*. =he agreements were worke" o&t "&ring -i<onIs se#enA"ay s&mmit
conference with USS/ Comm&nist Party 4eneral Secretary Leoni" Bre;hne# in 8oscow an" 'alta So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko.
Photo shows Gissinger an" 4romyko shaking han"s with onlookers appla&"ing. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on toasts with So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# an" Secretary of State $enry Gissinger at the Gremlin
in 8oscow on 2/l+ 8, 1976 "&ring the se#enA"ay s&mmit conference with the So#iet Comm&nist Party. .ichard :i&on
resigned fro) office as 'resident of the ,nited States on A/g/st 9, 1976. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
A2erell Harriman *left+ meets !ith $o2iet Communist <eader <eonid 1rezhne2 in 'osco!, $o2iet Enion on June J, 197J#
*A7 4ire"hoto+
So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin an" Senator $&!ert $. $&mphrey ri"e on a snowmo!ile in Washington F.C.
(with no snow) in ()6(. $&!ert $. $&mphrey was a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. merican military ser#icemen
were "ying in So&th 5ietnam at the han"s of the 5iet Congs an" -orth 5ietnamese as this photo was taken. =his photo appears
in natoly Fo!ryninNs !ook 2n Confidence Mosco'<s Am#assador to America<s %i8 Cold ;ar Presidents.
Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on. So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin. an" -ational Sec&rity "#isor $enry Gissinger rela< at -i<onNs
ho&se in San Clemente. California in %&ly ()60. merican military ser#icemen were "ying in So&th 5ietnam at the han"s of the 5iet Congs
an" -orth 5ietnamese as this photo was taken. =his photo appears in natoly Fo!ryninNs !ook 2n Confidence Mosco'<s Am#assador to
America<s %i8 Cold ;ar Presidents.
=he ?me@ in the caption is natoly Fo!rynin. =his photo appears in natoly Fo!ryninNs !ook 2n Confidence Mosco'<s Am#assador to
America<s %i8 Cold ;ar Presidents.
$enry Gissinger an" So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# go for a walk in the woo"s. So#iet officer carries a rifle with a scope
on it.
$enry Gissinger an" natoly Fo!rynin eat "inner together at the 8ap /oom of the White $o&se on 8arch (6. ()60.
-ational Sec&rity "#isor $enry Gissinger an" So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin ri"e together in a So#iet !oat in
&g&st ()60. merican military ser#icemen were "ying in So&th 5ietnam at the han"s of the 5iet Congs an" -orth 5ietnamese
as this photo was taken. =his photo was p&!lishe" in $enry GissingerNs !ook ;hite $ouse )ears.
So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# "ri#es a golf cart while Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on ri"es in the front an" Secretary of State
$enry Gissinger ri"es in the !ack (sitting !ehin" Bre;hne#) at San Clemente in %&ne ()61.
So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# an" U.S. Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on atten" a party at the White $o&se in ()61.
Leoni" Bre;hne# smiles for the camera as Presi"ent /ichar" -i<on smiles in the !ackgro&n".
-C.! A!%*:*S>.A>*C:
Secretary of State $enry Gissinger. So#iet "ictator Leoni" Bre;hne#. Presi"ent 4eral" For". an" So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei
4romyko stan" together o&tsi"e the merican em!assy in $elsinki. Finlan" on %&ly 1D. ()6+. (Photo: 4eral" /. For" Li!rary)

Left photo: Secretary of State $enry Gissinger smiles as Presi"ent 4eral" For" shakes han"s with So#iet "espot Leoni"
Bre;hne#. (Photo: http:BBwww.militaryphotos.netBfor&msBshowthrea".phpCtU(1)*D1)
/ight photo: From left to right: n"rei 4romyko. Winston Lor". 5iktor S&kho"re#. Leoni" Bre;hne#. (&nknown). $enry Gissinger.
an" -SC staffer William $ylan" prepare for talks at the Gremlin in 8oscow. So#iet Union on %an&ary 0(. ()63.
Unite" States Presi"ent 4eral" For" meets with So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# in $elsinki. Finlan" on %&ly 1D. ()6+.
Commissar Gorniyenko. n"rei 4romyko. Leoni" Bre;hne#. 5iktor S&kho"re#. leksan"ro#. 5a#ilo#. Peter W. /o"man. $elm&t
Sonnenfel"t. U.S. Secretary of State $enry Gissinger (hi""en !ehin" For"). Presi"ent 4eral" For". Walter %. Stoessel. Brent
Scowcroft. an" William 4. $ylan" (at win"ow). (Photo: 4eral" /. For" Li!rary)
Presi"ent 4eral" For" signs an &neM&al treaty with So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne#. (Photo: 4eral" /. For" Li!rary)
Unite" States Secretary of State $enry Gissinger (left) an" U.S. Presi"ent 4eral" For" (0
n"
left) engage in a frien"ly con#ersation
with So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne#. Bre;hne# is seen flashing a gang gest&re.

Unite" States Presi"ent 4eral" For" (left). U.S. Secretary of State $enry Gissinger (center). an" So#iet Commissar Leoni"
Bre;hne# pose for a gro&p portrait.
CA.><. A!%*:*S>.A>*C:
Presi"ent %immy Carter signs an &neM&al treaty with So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# on %&ne (2. ()6) in 5ienna.
Chairman of the %oint Chiefs of Staff 4en. Fa#i" %ones (wearing his &niform). -ational Sec&rity "#isor :!igniew Br;e;inski.
Fefense Secretary $arol" Brown. State Fepartment assistant Les 4el! (stan"ing !ehin" $arol" Brown). Secretary of State
Cyr&s 5ance. So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko. an" So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin are stan"ing in the
!ackgro&n". Carter. %ones. Br;e;inski. Brown. an" 4el! are mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elationsE 5ance was a
mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.

Presi"ent %immy Carter shakes han"s with So#iet Commissar Leoni" Bre;hne# after signing an &neM&al treaty. Secretary of
State Cyr&s 5ance is seen appla&"ing. So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko is stan"ing in the rear on the far right.
Secretary of State Cyr&s 5ance (left) chats with So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko (center) in Septem!er ()66.
(Wally 8c-ameeBCH/B>S)
Presi"ent %immy Carter an" So#iet Presi"ent Leoni" Bre;hne# shake han"s ami"st appla&se in the 5ienna >mperial $of!&rg Palace after
signing the SL= >> treaty on %&ne 2. ()6). Les 4el! is on the far left appla&"ing. So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko is clapping while
So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin (secon" from right) is smiling in the !ackgro&n". Secretary of State Cyr&s 5ance is stan"ing
!ehin" Carter.
Presi"ent %immy Carter an" his wife /osalyn Carter meet with So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin at the White
$o&se in %an&ary ()66. /osalyn Carter is not a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. =his photo appears in natoly
Fo!ryninNs !ook 2n Confidence Mosco'<s Am#assador to America<s %i8 Cold ;ar Presidents.
Secretary of State Cyr&s 5ance (left) talks to So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko in 4ene#a. Swit;erlan" for the Salt >>
"isc&ssions on Fecem!er 02. ()62. (Photo !y GeystoneB4etty >mages)
Caption: ?=o =oly S for !etter or for worse. this is the way to negotiate S :!ig. %&ly. N66.@ =his photo appears in natoly
Fo!ryninNs !ook 2n Confidence Mosco'<s Am#assador to America<s %i8 Cold ;ar Presidents.
6emocratic 7arty "residential candidate 4alter 'ondale *ri%ht+, former E#$# $enator and former 8ice 7resident, meets !ith $o2iet
Forei%n 'inister Andrei 5romy0o at the $o2iet 'ission in Ne! /or0 City on $e"tem.er ?7, 19J# *A7 7hoto;<ana Harris+
=his photo appears in :!igniew Br;e;inskiNs !ook Po'er and Principle.
.<A;A: A!%*:*S>.A>*C:
Unite" States Presi"ent /onal" /eagan (L) an" U.S. /epresentati#e to the Unite" -ations %eane Girkpatrick (C) meet So#iet Foreign 8inister
n"rei 4romyko (/) on e#e of the 1)th session of the Unite" -ations 4eneral ssem!ly in -ew 'ork City on Septem!er 01. ()2*. %eane
Girkpatrick was a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
Fep&ty Secretary of State %ohn C. Whitehea" (left) appears with So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin in Fe!r&ary
()23. %ohn C. Whitehea" is a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations an" a former Partner of 4ol"man. Sachs , Co.
(Photo !y Garl Sch&macherB=ime , Life Pict&resB4etty >mages)
So#iet Foreign 8inister n"rei 4romyko (left) meets at the U.S. 8ission to the Unite" -ations with U.S. Secretary of State 4eorge Sh&lt; on
Septem!er 03. ()2*. (W BettmannBCH/B>S)
=he ?>@ in the caption is Secretary of State 4eorge P. Sh&lt;. =his photo appears in 4eorge P. Sh&lt;Ns !ook Turmoil and
Triumph My )ears As %ecretary of %tate.
So#iet Foreign 8inister J"&ar" She#ar"na";e meets 4eorge Sh&lt; an" /onal" /eagan at the White $o&se on Septem!er 06. ()2+. =he
man with the mo&stache is a So#iet translator. She#ar"na";e wo&l" !ecome the Presi"ent of 4eorgia in ())0. =his photo appears in 4eorge
P. Sh&lt;Ns !ook Turmoil and Triumph My )ears As %ecretary of %tate. (Photo: /onal" /eagan Li!rary)
Pa&l -it;e shakes han" with So#iet negotiator an" commissar '&li G#itsinsky at an >-F s&mmit in 4ene#a. Swit;erlan" on
Fecem!er (. ()2(.
Pa&l -it;e shakes han"s with So#iet Commissar '&li G#itsinskiy at the !eginning of >-F negotiations in 4ene#a. Swit;erlan" in -o#em!er
()2(. Pa&l -it;e was a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (Photo: From $iroshima to 5lasnost !y Pa&l $. -it;e)
Genneth "elman. %ack F. 8atlock %r.. /o;anne /i"gway. 4eorge P. Sh&lt; are mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.
4eorge $.W. B&sh is a former mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.
Pa&l -it;e appears with U.S. Secretary of State 4eorge P. Sh&lt; (left) an" So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache# (secon" from right) in
8oscow in Hcto!er ()26. (Photo: From $iroshima to 5lasnost !y Pa&l $. -it;e)
Secretary of State 4eorge Sh&lt; (/) shakes han"s with So#iet Foreign 8inister J"&ar" She#ar"na";e (left) after they signe" an agreement to
limit the chances for acci"ental n&clear war in a /ose 4ar"en ceremony at the White $o&se on Septem!er (+. ()26. Between them is Sen.
%ohn Warner. /A5a. Behin" Sen. Sh&lt; is Sen. Sam -&nn. FA4a.. an" Secretary of Fefense Caspar Wein!erger. Sh&lt;. Warner. an"
Wein!erger are (or were) mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (=im ClaryBBettmannBCH/B>S)
;<C.;< $.0. ",S$ A!%*:*S>.A>*C:
Secretary of State %ames . Baker >>> smiles as he meets with So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache# for the first time on 8ay ((.
()2). =his photo appears in %ames . Baker >>>Ns !ook The Politics of Diplomacy. (PBWi"e Worl")
Secretary of State %ames . Baker >>> a""resses the S&preme So#iet on Fe!r&ary (D. ())D. Baker was the first foreigner e#er to
"o so. =his photo appears in %ames . Baker >>>Ns !ook The Politics of Diplomacy.
(So&rce: Autopsy on an *mpire The American Am#assador<s Account of the Collapse of the %oviet =nion !y %ack F. 8atlock. %r.)
So#iet /&ssian opposition lea"er Boris 'eltsin is greete" !y Secretary of State %ames . Baker >>> at the U.S. State Fepartment in Washington.
F.C. on Septem!er (0. ()2). (BettmannBCH/B>S)
(So&rce: Autopsy on an *mpire The American Am#assador<s Account of the Collapse of the %oviet =nion !y %ack F. 8atlock. %r.)
(So&rce: Autopsy on an *mpire The American Am#assador<s Account of the Collapse of the %oviet =nion !y %ack F. 8atlock.
%r.)
"miral William %. Crowe %r. was the Chairman of the %oint Chiefs of Staff an" a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations at
the time this photo was taken.
So#iet 8arshal Sergei F. khromeye#. Chief of the So#iet 4eneral Staff an" First Fep&ty 8inister of Fefense walks with "miral
William %. Crowe on %&ly ((. ()22 in -ew 'ork City. (Photo: CF/ nn&al /eport)
So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache#. Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh. an" Fep&ty -ational Sec&rity "#isor /o!ert 8. 4ates appear at a party
at the White $o&se in 8ay ())(. (White $o&se photo) (So&rce: From the %hado's The =ltimate 2nsider<s %tory of Five Presidents and $o'
They ;on the Cold ;ar !y /o!ert 8. 4ates)
C> Firector /o!ert 4ates talks to 'e#giniy Primako#. hea" of the /&ssian Foreign >ntelligence Ser#ice. in 8oscow in Hcto!er ())0.
(/&ssian 4o#ernment Photo) (So&rce: From the %hado's The =ltimate 2nsider<s %tory of Five Presidents and $o' They ;on the Cold ;ar
!y /o!ert 8. 4ates)
Secretary of State %ames . Baker >>> em!races J"&ar" She#ar"na";e. Presi"ent of 4eorgia an" former Foreign 8inister of the
So#iet Union. on 8ay 03. ())0. =his photo appears in %ames . Baker >>>Ns !ook The Politics of Diplomacy. (/e&tersBBettmann)
Secretary of State %ames . Baker >>> (L) meets with So#iet Foreign 8inister J"&ar" She#ar"na";e at the State Fepartment in Washington.
F.C. on pril *. ())D. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
$enry Gissinger talks to So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache# while Presi"ent 4eorge B&sh can !e seen in the !ackgro&n"
(right). =his photo appears in Kissinger A :iography !y Walter >saacson. (Photo: =he White $o&se)
So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache#. Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh. an" Fe"eral /eser#e Chairman lan 4reenspan appear in
a recei#ing line at a state "inner in Washington. F.C. on 8ay 1(. ())D. =his photo appears in the !ook The Age of Tur#ulence
Adventures in a (e' ;orld !y lan 4reenspan. (Photo: 4eorge B&sh Presi"ential Li!rary)
merican Commissar 4eorge B&sh. So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache#. Secretary of State %ames . Baker >>>. an" So#iet
Foreign 8inister J"&ar" She#ar"na";e in the Jast /oom of the White $o&se after signing a treaty on %&ne (. ())D. =his photo
appears in %ames . Baker >>>Ns !ook The Politics of Diplomacy. (White $o&seBB&sh Li!rary)
$A.CL! '.A>> $C,S< A:! %*SC<LLA:<C,S '$C>CS
Co&ncil on Foreign /elatons (CF/) mem!ers meet with So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache#. mong the CF/ "elegates
incl&"e Peter 4. Peterson. Cyr&s 5ance. $enry Gissinger. $arol" Brown. %eane %. Girkpatrick. Charles 8cC. 8athias. 4en.
Fa#i" C. %ones. Peter =arnoff. %ohn =emple Swing. William 4. $ylan". an" 8ichael J. 8an"el!a&m. natoly Fo!rynin is seen
sitting to 4or!ache#Ns left. (Photo: Co&ncil on Foreign /elations nn&al /eport)
=o!y =rister 4ati (center) watches William 4. $ylan" (left) talk to 5la"imir Petro#sky. the So#iet 8inister of Foreign ffairs. at the
$arol" Pratt $o&se. (Photo: CF/ nn&al /eport)
%&"ith Gipper an" Genneth L. "elman (right) in#ite So#iet commissar le<ei r!ato# to the $arol" Pratt $o&se on %&ne 0(.
())(. r!ato# was the hea" of "epartment of "isarmament an" sec&rities st&"ies at the >nstit&te of Worl" Jconomy an"
>nternational /elations in the So#iet Union. (Photo: CF/ nn&al /eport)
=om Brokaw. Peter =arnoff. an" 4enna"i 4erasimo# appear together at the $arol" Pratt $o&se on pril ((. ()26. 4erasimo#
was the Chief of the >nformation Boar" of the So#iet 8inistry of Foreign ffairs. (Photo: CF/ nn&al /eport)
So#iet Commissar Hleg =. Bogomolo#. "irector of the >nstit&te of Jconomics of the Worl" Socialist System of the ca"emy of
Science in the So#iet Union. is seen with rnol" L. $orelick at a meeting in Los ngeles on pril (1. ()2).
(Photo: Co&ncil on Foreign /elations nn&al /eport)
Feli< 4. /ohatyn listens to -ikolai Shislin (left). a"#iser to the Central Committee of the So#iet Comm&nist Party. at the $arol"
Pratt $o&se on pril 1D. ())D. (Photo: Co&ncil on Foreign /elations nn&al /eport)
4lenn =. Sea!org (stan"ing !ehin" Fean /&skNs left sho&l"er) watches Secretary of State Fean /&sk (lower left) sign a "isarmament treaty as
Senator $&!ert $. $&mphrey (hea" t&rne" to the left) is seen looking at "lai J. Ste#enson an" So#iet "ictator -ikita Ghr&shche#. So#iet
m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin is seen stan"ing in the rear. fo&rth from right. U- SecretaryA4eneral UA=hant is seen stan"ing
!etween Ste#enson an" Ghr&shche#. Sea!org. /&sk. $&mphrey. an" Ste#enson were mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.
Secretary of State 4eorge Sh&lt; appears at a press conference in Fecem!er ()22. with two So#iet flags hanging in the
!ackgro&n". (Photo !y Fiana WalkerB=ime Life Pict&resB4etty >mages)
=his photograph was p&!lishe" in the ())( Co&ncil on Foreign /elations nn&al /eport.
Co&ncil on Foreign /elations , 8o"ern /&ssia
$enry Gissinger greets /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin at the -o#oAHgaryo#o resi"ence o&tsi"e 8oscow on %&ly (1. 0DD6.
(Sergei Chiriko#BFPB4etty >mages)

Stanley Fischer greets /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin. Stanley Fischer is c&rrently the 4o#ernor of the Bank of >srael.
Worl" Bank Presi"ent %ames Wolfensohn (left) shakes han"s with /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin "&ring their meeting at the
-o#oAHgare#o resi"ence o&tsi"e 8oscow on %an&ary 0D. 0DD*. P&tin awar"e" Wolfensohn with the /&ssian Hr"er of
Frien"ship. (le<ey Pano#B>=/A=SSBFPB4etty >mages)
5la"imir P&tin meets with Co&ncil on Foreign /elations mem!ers %ames . Baker >>> an" my 8yers %affe at a conference.
Worl" Bank Presi"ent /o!ert :oellick shakes han"s with /&ssiaIs Prime 8inister 5la"imir P&tin (left) in 8oscow on %&ne (3.
0DD2. (Photo: =he Worl" Bank)
Worl" Bank Presi"ent Pa&l Wolfowit; (left) shakes han"s with /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin in 8oscow on Hcto!er 0D.
0DD+. (Photo: W Co&rtesy of le<ey G#aso#B=he Worl" Bank)
U.S. =reas&ry Secretary $enry Pa&lson (left) meets with /&ssiaNs Prime 8inister 5la"imir P&tin "&ring his #isit to 8oscow on
%&ne 1D. 0DD2. (FPB4etty >mages)

Secretary of State 8a"eleine l!right (left) an" Secretary of State Colin Powell (right) greet /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin.
Secretary of State Con"olee;;a /ice talks to 5la"imir P&tin in /&ssia on pril 0D. 0DD+. (PBWi"e Worl" Photo)
nne /. L&;atto talks to natoly Ch&!ais. former Finance 8inister of /&ssia. at the $arol" Pratt $o&se on 8ay 0(. ())). =his
photo was p&!lishe" in the ())D e"ition of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations nn&al /eport.
Secretary of State Con"olee;;a /ice watches Secretary of Fefense Secretary /o!ert 8. 4ates (left) greet /&ssiaNs Presi"ent
5la"imir P&tin in 8oscow on Hcto!er (0. 0DD6. /o!ert 8. 4ates was the Firector of Central >ntelligence gency from ())( to
())1 &n"er 4eorge $.W. B&shE P&tin was a G4B agent. (Photo: U.S. Fepartment of Fefense)

/&ssian Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin (left) talks to Un"er Secretary of Fefense for Policy Walter B. Slocom!e (center) an" Presi"ent
Bill Clinton in CatherineIs $all in the Gremlin. Both Slocom!e an" Clinton are /ho"es Scholars an" mem!ers of the Co&ncil on
Foreign /elations.
/&ssiaNs Presi"ent Fmitry 8e"#e"e# shakes han"s with former Secretary of State 8a"eleine l!right !efore his speech at the Washington
Cl&! in Washington. F.C. on Sat&r"ay. -o#em!er (+. 0DD2. 8e"#e"e# #isite" Washington to atten" the S&mmit on Financial 8arkets an" the
Worl" Jconomy on Sat&r"ay. (/e&ters) http:BBwww."aylife.comBphotoBD+V1G(*g!JsBma"eleineKal!right
/&ssian Presi"ent Fmitry 8e"#e"e# (L) shakes han"s with former Secretary of State $enry Gissinger (/) on %&ne (6. 0DD2.
(FPB4etty >mages) http:BBwww."aylife.comBphotoBD15:"'81ky)FM
Boris 'eltsin (left). f&t&re Presi"ent of /&ssia an" mem!er of the So#iet Congress of PeopleNs Fep&ties. listens as Fa#i"
/ockefeller "eli#ers a speech at a Co&ncil on Foreign /elations meeting on Septem!er ((. ()2). =his photo was p&!lishe" in
the ())D e"ition of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations nn&al /eport.
Left to right: Former /&ssian Premier 'e#geny Primako#. former U.S. Secretary of State $enry Gissinger. an" former U.S.
Senator an" -&clear =hreat >nitiati#e (-=>) CoAChairman Sam -&nn pose for a photo after a press conference in 8oscow on
8arch 0D. 0DD). Gissinger an" -&nn are mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (4etty >mages)
*$ource& Soros/ "he !ife and "imes of a *essianic Billionaire .y 'ichael T# Aaufman+

Left photo: Left to right: Uni"entifie". %ames Wolfensohn. former Secretary of State $enry Gissinger. Fo< -ews !aron /&pert
8&r"och. Secretary of State 8a"eleine G. l!right. former So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache#. former $o&se Speaker -ewt
4ingrich. %eanACla&"e =richet. an" retire" U.S. rmy 4eneral Colin Powell appear at the 4lo!al For&m 0DDD Conference hel" at
the Worl" =ra"e Center in -ew 'ork City on pril 0*. 0DDD.
/ight photo: Con"olee;;a /ice #isits /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin.
Left to right: $enry Gissinger. /&pert 8&r"och. Secretary of State 8a"eleine l!right. 8ikhail 4or!ache#. an" former $o&se Speaker -ewt
4ingrich appear at the 4lo!al For&m 0DDD Conference hel" at the Worl" =ra"e Center in -ew 'ork City on pril 0*. 0DDD. J#eryone e<cept
for 8ikhail 4or!ache# is a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (=imothy Fa"ekBSygmaBCor!is)
Secretary of State Con"olee;;a /ice an" /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin sit on a co&ch in 8oscow. /&ssia on Hcto!er 0(.
0DD3. (8elissa $. /&ssell. State Fepartment)
8ikhail 4or!ache# (L). former Presi"ent of the So#iet Union. talks with 4eorge =enet. former Firector of the Central >ntelligence gency. at the
-ew 'ork $ilton $otel in -ew 'ork City on Hcto!er 00. 0DD+ prior to recei#ing the thenagoras $&manitarian war". =he war" was
presente" at the ann&al !anM&et of the Hr"er of St. n"rew. an organi;ation of "isting&ishe" laymen of the 4reek Hrtho"o< Ch&rch who ha#e
!een grante" the title of rchon !y the Jc&menical Patriarchate of Constantinople. (W %&stin LaneBJPBCor!is)
Former So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache# (left) speaks with former Secretary of Fefense Frank Carl&cci (right) thro&gh a translator (center)
"&ring a symposi&m to cele!rate the 0Dth anni#ersary of QPerestroikaQ at the U.S. Cham!er of Commerce in Washington. F.C. on Hcto!er 0(.
0DD+. (Photo !y Bren"an SmialowskiB4etty >mages)
Fefense Secretary William S. Cohen recei#es a gift from /&ssiaNs Presi"ent Boris 'eltsin.
C> Firector /o!ert 4ates (left) #isits /&ssiaNs Presi"ent Boris 'eltsin at the Gremlin in ())0. 4ates was the first C> Firector to
?officially@ #isit 8oscow. lso shown are 5ictor Baranniko#. right. former 8inister of Sec&rity. an" '#geny Primako#. secon"
from right. former hea" of the /&ssian Foreign >ntelligence Ser#ice. the s&ccessor to the G4B. (PBWi"e Worl" Photos)
Presi"ent Bill Clinton plays the sa<ophone presente" to him !y /&ssian Presi"ent Boris 'eltsin at a pri#ate "inner hoste" !y
'eltsin at -o#oya Hgaro#a Facha. /&ssia on %an&ary (1. ())*.
Un"er Secretary of Fefense for Policy Pa&l Wolfowit; talks to Boris 'eltsin on %&ne 0D. ())( at the Pentagon. >. Lewis ?Scooter@
Li!!y is seen stan"ing !etween Wolfowit; an" 'eltsin.
(So&rce: "ise of the Culcans The $istory of :ush<s ;ar Ca#inet !y %ames 8ann)
4eorge Soros meets with Boris 'eltsin in 8oscow.
(So&rce: %oros The 1ife and Times of a Messianic :illionaire !y 8ichael =. Ga&fman)
Former U.S. Secretaries of State $enry Gissinger. left. an" 4eorge Sh&lt;. right. an" /&ssian Foreign 8inister Sergey La#ro#.
center. stan" together "&ring their meeting in 8oscow. /&ssia on Hcto!er (0. 0DD+. 7PBWi"e Worl" Photo9
(So&rce: http:BBwww.state.go#BrBpaBeiBpi<B!Be&rB6)D23.htm)

Left photo: -ew Jnglan" Patriots owner /o!ert Graft (left) an" Fo< -ews !aron /&pert 8&r"och watch /&ssiaNs Presi"ent
5la"imir P&tin try on the -ew Jnglan" Patriots S&per Bowl ring !efore P&tin pockete" it. /o!ert Graft an" /&pert 8&r"och are
mem!ers of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations.
/ight photo: /&ssian Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin hol"s the "iamon"Aencr&ste" 0DD+ S&per Bowl ring as /o!ert Graft (left). -ews
Corp. Chairman /&pert 8&r"och (secon" left). an" Citigro&p Chairman Sanfor" Weill (right) look on. (P Photo)
http:BBwww.c!snews.comBstoriesB0DD+BD3B0)Bworl"Bmain6D+(0D.shtml
6ou%las Feith *left+, the Ender $ecretary of 6efense for 7olicy, %reets Russia=s 7resident 8ladimir 7utin *ri%ht+ in No2em.er
?@@1 as $ecretary of 6efense 6onald Rumsfeld is seen tal0in% to 7utin# *7hoto& E#$# 6e"artment of 6efense+
*$ource& #ar and Decision/ 5nside the Pentagon at the Dawn of the #ar on "errorism .y 6ou%las J# Feith+
Presi"ent 4eorge W. B&sh (far left) an" Fep&ty -ational Sec&rity "#isor Stephen $a"ley (far right) watch Secretary of State
Colin Powell em!races /&ssian Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin "&ring a meeting in Santiago. Chile on -o#em!er 0D. 0DD*.
(White $o&se photo !y Jric Fraper)
Russian 7resident 6mitry 'ed2ede2 *>rd <+ s"ea0s !ith E#$# $ecretary of 6efense Ro.ert 5ates *>rd R+ durin% their meetin% at
the "residential residence at 5or0i, Russia, a city located outside of 'osco!, on 'arch ??, ?@11# E#$# 7resident 1arac0 -.ama
ordered American military o"erations in <i.ya in an attem"t to end a "olitical u"risin% and ci2il !ar in <i.ya# *Reuters+
E#$# $ecretary of 6efense Ro.ert 5ates and 6efense 'inister of Russia Anatoly $erdyu0o2 *left+ sha0e hands after holdin% a
"ress conference in $t# 7eters.ur%, Russia on 'arch ??, ?@11# *5etty Ima%es+
Prime 8inister of /&ssia 5la"imir P&tin recei#es =homas J. Fonilon (left). -ational Sec&rity "#isor to the Presi"ent of the Unite" States. in
8oscow. /&ssia on 8ay *. 0D(0.
Secretary of Fefense Fonal" /&msfel" (left) inspects the /&ssian army at 5ictory Park "&ring an arme" forces honors ceremony welcoming
him to 8oscow. /&ssia on &g&st ((. 0DD(. /&msfel" is escorte" !y 8ilitary Comman"ant of 8oscow 4eneralA8aLor leksan"r -. Feniso#
(right. sal&ting). /&msfel" was in /&ssia to meet with /&ssian "efense lea"ers an" "isc&ss the ntiABallistic 8issile =reaty. Fonal" /&msfel"
is a former mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations. (Photo !y $elene C. Stikkel. U.S. Fepartment of Fefense)
4eorge $.W. B&sh , /&ssia
5eor%e H#4# 1ush, the 8ice 7resident of the Enited $tates, meets !ith $o2iet Commissar 'i0hail 5or.ache2 *center+ and
$o2iet Forei%n 'inister Andrei 5romy0o *left+ on 'arch J, 19L# *6a2e 8aldez;4hite House "hoto+

/ight photo: Former U.S. Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh em!races former So#iet lea"er 8ikhail 4or!ache# (left) !efore the presentation of the
Li!erty 8e"al at the -ational Constit&tion Center in Phila"elphia on Septem!er (2. 0DD2. 4or!ache# is the 0DD2 recipient of the awar" that
recogni;es in"i#i"&als an" organi;ations that ha#e "emonstrate" lea"ership an" #ision in the p&rs&it of li!erty of conscience or free"om from
oppression. ignorance. or "epri#ation. (/e&ters)
U.S. 5ice Presi"ent 4eorge B&sh (left) meets with So#iet "ictator '&ri n"ropo# in -o#em!er ()20. '&ri n"ropo# was a former Chairman of
the G4B. 4eorge B&sh was a former Firector of the Central >ntelligence gency. (UP>BBettman)
(So&rce: For the President<s *yes +nly %ecret 2ntelligence and the American Presidency from ;ashington to :ush !y Christopher n"rew)
4eorge $.W. B&sh (left) an" %ames . Baker >>> (right) #isits /&ssiaNs Presi"ent an" former G4B agent 5la"imir P&tin.
Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh shakes han"s with So#iet Premier 8ikhail 4or!ache# at 8alta on Fecem!er 0. ()2).
=his photo appears in 4eorge $.W. B&shNs own !ook All The :est My 1ife in 1etters and +ther ;ritings. (B&sh Li!rary photo)
DThis is an historic moment# 4e ha2e in this "ast year made %reat "ro%ress in endin% the lon% era of conflict and cold !ar# 4e
ha2e .efore us the o""ortunity to for%e for oursel2es and for future %enerations a ne+ +orl& or&er H a !orld !here the rule of
la!, not the la! of the Mun%le, %o2erns the conduct of nations# 4hen !e are successful II and !e !ill .e H !e ha2e a real chance
at this ne+ +orl& or&er, an order in !hich a credi.le Enited Nations can use its "eace0ee"in% role to fulfill the "romise and
2ision of the E#N#=s founders#G
H 7resident 5eor%e H#4# 1ush, in a s"eech deli2ered in the -2al -ffice on January 1C, 1991
7resident 5eor%e H#4# 1ush meets !ith $o2iet Commissar 'i0hail 5or.ache2 in 'alta in 199#
/&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin (left) meets with 4eorge $.W. B&sh (center) an" %ames . Baker >>> at /ice Uni#ersity in $o&ston. =e<as on
-o#em!er(*. 0DD(. (Presi"ential Press an" >nformation HfficeBGremlin rchi#es) http:BBarchi#e.kremlin.r&Be#entsBphotosB0DD(B((B1))6*.shtml
5ice Presi"ent 4eorge B&sh. Presi"ent /onal" /eagan. an" So#iet Commissar 8ikhail 4or!ache# stan" together on
4o#ernorNs >slan" in -ew 'ork City on Fecem!er 6. ()22. (Photo: /onal" /eagan Li!rary)
Presi"ent 4eorge B&sh shakes han"s with Boris 'eltsin on %an&ary 1. ())1. (Photo: 4eorge $.W. B&sh Presi"ential Li!rary)
Former U.S. Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh (left) talks to former Fictator of the So#iet Union 8ikhail 4or!ache# (right) !efore the presentation of
the Li!erty 8e"al at the -ational Constit&tion Center in Phila"elphia. Pennsyl#ania on Septem!er (2. 0DD2. (/e&ters)
merican Presi"ent 4eorge W. B&sh (right). the son of former Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh. an" /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir
P&tin smile for the camera at the 42 S&mmit in St. Peters!&rg. /&ssia in %&ly 0DD3. (P Photo)
/&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin. a former G4B agent. is flanke" !y former Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh (left) an" Presi"ent
4eorge W. B&sh (right) at WalkerIs Point in Genne!&nkport. 8aine on S&n"ay. %&ly (. 0DD6.
(White $o&se photo !y Jric Fraper)
Former Presi"ent 4eorge $.W. B&sh (left) an" Presi"ent 4eorge W. B&sh (right) watches /&ssiaNs Presi"ent 5la"imir P&tin hol"
&p his catch with the help of fishing g&i"e Billy B&sh "&ring a morning o&ting at WalkerIs Point in Genne!&nkport. 8aine on
8on"ay. %&ly 0. 0DD6. (White $o&se photo !y Jric Fraper)
From Russia ,ith ?ove?
Corporate Amerika in oviet Russia
6a2id Roc0efeller, the founder of the Trilateral Commission, and other mem.ers of the Trilateral Commission 2isit $o2iet Commissar
'i0hail 5or.ache2 in 'osco!, $o2iet Enion on /anuary 1A, 19A9#
*$ource& htt"&;;!!!#trilateral#or%;do!nload;doc;Commemoratin%R199#"df+
DFurther %lo.al "ro%ress is no! "ossi.le only throu%h a Buest for uni2ersal consensus in the
mo2ement to!ards a ne+ +orl& or&er#G
H 'i0hail 5or.ache2, in a s"eech deli2ered at the Enited Nations in 6ecem.er 19
Fa#i" /ockefeller (left). Presi"ent of Chase 8anhattan Bank. an" his "a&ghter -e#a /ockefeller (secon" from left) greet So#iet
Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# (right) at the Gremlin in 8oscow. So#iet Union on %&ly 0). ()3*. !aid .ockefeller attended the
%arch 19A6 "ilder3erg %eetings held in 0illia)s3/rg, (irginia, ,.S.A.
(Photo: Memoirs !y Fa#i" /ockefellerBWi"e Worl" Photos)
merican capitalist Fa#i" /ockefeller (left). the Presi"ent of Chase 8anhattan Bank !anking firm in -ew 'ork City. #isits So#iet
Comm&nist !&rea&crat leksei Gosygin in 8oscow. So#iet Union. Fa#i" /ockefeller is a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign
/elations. a pri#ate organi;ation in -ew 'ork City.
=homas %. Watson %r. (left). 'resident of *nternational "/siness %achines (*"%). entertains -ikita Ghr&shche# while to&ring
>B8Ns man&fact&ring plant in San %ose. California in ()+). $is father =homas %. Watson Sr. #isite" "olf $itler !efore Worl"
War >>. =homas %. Watson %r. was a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elationsE =homas %. Watson %r. was the U.S.
m!assa"or to the So#iet Union from ()6) to ()2(.
=homas %. Watson %r. (left). the Presi"ent of >B8. an" So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# (center) la&gh together as they stan" hol"ing trays in
line with others at >B8 plantIs company cafeteria in San %ose. California on Septem!er 00. ()+). (Photo: Carl 8y"ansB=ime Life)

Left photo: -elson /ockefeller (left) greets So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# at the Wal"orfAstoria $otel in -ew 'ork City.
/ight photo: So#iet Premier -ikita Ghr&shche# (left) an" former Chairman of Chase 8anhattan Bank %ohn 8cCloy smile for the
camera while rela<ing in a swimming pool together at -ikita Ghr&shche#Ns ho&se in the So#iet Union. =his photograph was
p&!lishe" in Walter >saacson an" J#an =homasN !ook The ;ise Men %i8 Friends and The ;orld They Made.
/&ssianA!orn merican capitalist rman" $ammer (left). Chair)an of Cccidental 'etrole/). greets So#iet Premier -ikita
Ghr&shche# in 8oscow in ()3(. =his photo was p&!lishe" in rman" $ammerNs a&to!iography $ammer.
rman" $ammer (left). the Chairman of Hcci"ental Petrole&m. #isits So#iet m!assa"or to the U.S. natoly Fo!rynin on
Septem!er 00. ()20. =his photo was p&!lishe" in rman" $ammerNs a&to!iography $ammer.
rman" $ammer. the Chairman of Hcci"ental Petrole&m. greets So#iet Commissar leksei Gosygin (left) an" So#iet Foreign
8inister n"rei 4romyko (center). =his photo was p&!lishe" in rman" $ammerNs a&to!iography $ammer.
rman" $ammer. the Chairman of Hcci"ental Petrole&m. talks to Leoni" Bre;hne# in his office in 8oscow in ()61. rman"
$ammer was a So#iet colla!oratorE $ammer was a close frien" of So#iet 4o"father 5la"imir Lenin "&ring the early ()0Ds. =his
photo was p&!lishe" in rman" $ammerNs a&to!iography $ammer.
rman" $ammer (center). Chairman of the Hcci"ental Petrole&m Company. confers with So#iet lea"er 8ikhail 4or!ache# in Washington. F.C.
on Fecem!er ). ()26 as they atten" a l&ncheon at the State Fepartment. Secretary of State 4eorge Sh&lt; is seen stan"ing to the right of
rman" $ammer. (BettmannBCH/B>S)
So#iet /&ssian prison g&ar" escorts a gro&p of prisoners in a So#iet /&ssian prison camp. (Photo: -ational 4eographic)
Charles Bohlen (left) watches U.S. m!assa"or to So#iet Union #erell $arriman (center) shake han"s with So#iet Commissar
%osef Stalin "&ring a meeting at 'alta Conference in Fe!r&ary ()*+. #erell $arriman was an international !anker (partner of
Brown Brothers $arriman , Co. in -ew 'ork City). a mem!er of the Co&ncil on Foreign /elations from ()01 to ()23. an" a
mem!er of Sk&ll , Bones at 'ale Uni#ersity.
DIn this irre%ular fashion the $o2iet Enion "ushed her "o!er further !est and south in :uro"e than the Russian :m"ire had e2er
reached# The territorial %ains of the $o2iet Enion itself !ere relati2ely modest# In addition to the territorial acBuisitions she had
made !hile still DneutralG in 19>9IJ@ at the e)"ense of 7oland, Rumania, Finland, and the 1altic states, the E#$#$#R# acBuired
the Car"athoIE0raine, !hich had formerly .een "art of Czechoslo2a0ia, "art of :ast 7russia, and additional territory from
Finland, the most si%nificant "art of !hich, the 7etsamo nic0elIminin% area, made the $o2iet .oundary coincide !ith that of
Nor!ay# In addition she had acBuired a fiftyIyear lease on the 7or00ala "eninsula, ideally situated for a na2al .ase in the 5ulf of
Finland# In the Far :ast, .esides a lease on 7ort Arthur, in the /ello! $ea, she had reco2ered southern $a0halin and acBuired the
Aurile Islands# Her %reatest territorial %ains, ho!e2er, !ere .eyond her technical .orders# A"art from her occu"ation zones in
5ermany and Austria, her troo"s held and her "u""ets ruled a 7oland !ith its center of %ra2ity shifted !est!ard, as !ell as
Hun%ary, Rumania, and 1ul%aria# /u%osla2ia, thou%h $o2iet troo"s had .een !ithdra!n, seemed secure on the .asis of close
relations !ith Tito, a similar situation e)isted in Al.ania# $o2iet troo"s recei2ed the Ja"anese surrender in 'anchuria, they soon
!ithdre!, .ut in such fashion as to allo! that territory to .e ta0en o2er .y the Chinese Communists rather than .y the
Nationalist forces of Chian% AaiIshe0, nor did the $o2iet %o2ernment ne%lect, durin% its .rief occu"ation of 'anchuria, to
remo2e to Russia as much as "ossi.le of the "hysical eBui"ment of Ja"aneseIo!ned "lants in that area, as !ell as to send the
Ja"anese soldiers into $o2iet la.or cam"s# $n 0orth Korea, o44u%ie& by o"iet for4es %en&ing establishment of a
%ro"isional go"ernment for the +hole of Korea, a %u%%et -ommunist go"ernment +as %rom%tly set u%. o"iet troo%s
remaine& also in the north+estern 4orner of $ran, +here they ha& been guar&ing the #meri4an su%%ly line. In addition,
the Communists su""orted stron% Dunder%roundG mo2ements, sometimes in control of e)tensi2e territory, in areas !here
$talin #had conceded to Churchill a "re"onderant influence for 1ritain# -utstandin% !as the case of 5reece, !here the D:A'G
and its fi%htin% or%anization, D:<A$,G offered stron% resistance to 1ritish "ost!ar occu"ation and "ro2o0ed a ci2il !ar# :2en in
France and Italy, numerically stron% Communist "arties seemed a threat to the sta.ility of these Dli.eratedG countries# The
Communists made no attem"t to incor"orate the hu%e area of :astern :uro"e into the $o2iet Enion or e2en immediately to
introduce the characteristic features of $o2iet economy# :2en today, !hat are commonly called the Dsatellite statesG are not rated
as Dsocialist re"u.licsG .ut only as D"eo"le=s democracies#G This !as not at all the result of "romises made, either at /alta or
else!here, nor !as it an indication that the Communists had a.andoned their dream of !orld re2olution# Rather, it !as one more
"roof of !hat !as already "atent enou%h, namely, that they !ere "rinci"ally %uided .y concern for the interests of the state they
ruled as the heirs of the Russian :m"erors# 7olitically they e)ercised com"lete control throu%h the handful of adherents *on the
style of 5ermany=s (uislin%s+ they attracted in each of the ne! su.Mect nationalities, .ac0ed .y their o!n tested machinery of
secret "olice and ar.itrary "unishments# In each case they !or0ed throu%h a Dfront,G in !hich the Communists too0 0ey
"ositions in control of the "olice and the army# 4ith !hate2er mis%i2in%s, leaders of the se2eral national mo2ements a%reed to
coo"erate !ith their Communist ministerial collea%ues, themsel2es %enerally .elie2ers in %enuine democracy, they could not
fairly .e e)"ected to .e more omniscient than the chairman and chief s"o0esman of the D1i% ThreeG had .een# The "o"ulations
of the se2eral countries, e)hausted .y their horrifyin% e)"eriences under Nazi rule and !ith no "ossi.ility of findin% aid from the
democratic 4est, had no choice .ut to su.mit to the ne! form of o""ression, hatin% the Russians, .ut hatin% also the 5ermans,
and !ith no lo2e for the other nei%h.or nations in the same "osition as themsel2es, they could only .ide their time and ho"e for a
chan%e in the international situation# There !as no "ossi.ility that such sullenly hostile "eo"les could .e ta0en into the structure
of the $o2iet Enion itself# 5he %eo%le +hose in&e%en&ent s%irit seeme& most to be feare& +ere the Poles1 but a Polan&
almost half of +hose territories ha& been for4ibly taken from Germany ha& to &e%en& on Russian su%%ort to maintain
her national e*isten4e, su4h as it +as. 5he Esatellite states,F ho+e"er, ser"e& %ur%oses useful to the o"iet Cnion. For one
thing, they 4onstitute& a broa& belt(a ne+ form of cordon sanitaire +hi4h hel%e& to isolate Russia from the E4a%italistF
'est1 so long as they 4oul& be %re"ente& from establishing in&e%en&ent relations +ith the 'est, they 4onstitute& a
"aluable gla4is %rote4ting the Russian Eso4ialistF fortress. :conomically, too, they !ere a %reat ad2anta%e to the $o2iet
Enion# The 2ery fact that no attem"t !as currently .ein% made to e)tend to them the antici"ated .lessin%s of the communism
to!ard !hich the $o2iet Enion !as stri2in% made it Buite unnecessary to "romote their ra"id economic de2elo"ment# Instead,
they could .e and !ere initially used as a sort of colonial em"ire, the resources of !hich, in mercantilist s"irit, !ere at the free
dis"osal of their D"rotector,G to aid in the restoration of its o!n de2astated economy#G
H , -istory of .ussia .y Jesse 6# Clar0son, "# C1IC>
2aHor <"ents in -Darist Russia an& the o"iet Cnion
'arch 1>I1L, 19& First 7arty Con%ress is held
July >@IAu%ust ?>, 19@>& $econd 7arty Con%ress is held
Fe.ruary , 19@J& 1e%innin% of RussoIJa"anese 4ar, Ja"an attac0s the Russian fleet at 7ort Arthur *China+
January ??, 19@L& D1loody $undayG 7rotest, "olice 0ill more than 1@@ demonstrators in $t# 7eters.ur%
'ay ?7I?, 19@L& Im"erial Ja"anese Na2y defeats the Russian Na2y at the 1attle of Tsushima
$e"tem.er L, 19@L& $i%nin% of the Treaty of 7ortsmouth *"eace treaty endin% RussoIJa"anese 4ar+ .y Ja"an and Russia
June ?C, 19@7& 1an0 Ro..ery in T.ilisi, 5eor%ia
$e"tem.er 1J, 1911& Assassination of Russian 7rime 'inister 7ytro $toly"in at the Aie2 -"era House
6ecem.er >@, 191C& Assassination of Russian mon0 5ri%ori Ras"utin
'arch 1L, 1917& A.dication of Czar Nicholas II of Russia
A"ril 1917& Russian Communist re2olutionaries 8ladimir <enin and <eon Trots0y return to Russia
No2em.er 7, 1917& 1e%innin% of the -cto.er Re2olution, <enin=s 1olshe2i0s seize "o!er in 7etro%rad
'arch >, 191& Russia si%ns the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0 !ith 5ermany
July 17, 191& Czar Nicholas II of Russia and his family *includin% his children+ are e)ecuted
Au%ust 191 H July 19?@& $i.erian Inter2ention& Allied militaries inter2ene in Russia and occu"y 8ladi2osto0
'arch ?, 1919& The Communist International *Comintern+ is founded
July , 19?@& Enited $tates of America im"oses a trade em.ar%o on the $o2iet Enion
'arch 1, 19?1& Russia si%ns the Treaty of Ri%a !ith 7oland
A"ril >, 19??& Josef $talin .ecomes the 5eneral $ecretary of the Communist 7arty
6ecem.er >@, 19??& The Enion of $o2iet $ocialist Re"u.lics is esta.lished
January ?1, 19?J& 6eath of 8ladimir <enin
-cto.er 1, 19?& Josef $talin introduces the first Fi2eI/ear 7lan
January 19?9& <eon Trots0y is e)iled from the $o2iet Enion
No2em.er 1C, 19>>& Enited $tates of America esta.lishes di"lomatic relations !ith the $o2iet Enion
$e"tem.er 1, 19>J& $o2iet Enion Moins the <ea%ue of Nations
'arch 19>& Third Dsho! trialG in 'osco! is held
Au%ust ?>, 19>9& 5ermanyI$o2iet Enion NonIA%%ression Treaty *'oloto2IRi..entro" 7act+ is si%ned in 'osco!
No2em.er >@, 19>9& $o2iet Enion in2ades Finland durin% the $o2ietIFinnish 4ar
6ecem.er 1J, 19>9& <ea%ue of Nations e)"els the $o2iet Enion
Au%ust >IC, 19J@& $o2iet Enion anne)es <ithuania, <at2ia, and :stonia
Au%ust ?1, 19J@& <eon Trots0y is assassinated in 'e)ico
A"ril 1>, 19J1& $o2ietIJa"anese Neutrality Treaty is si%ned .y 5erman and Ja"anese en2oys
June ??, 19J1& Nazi 5erman in2asion of $o2iet Enion *-"eration 1ar.arossa+
Au%ust ?L, 19J1 H $e"tem.er 17, 19J1& An%loI$o2iet In2asion of Iran
Fe.ruary JI11, 19JL& /alta Conference is held in the Crimea N$o2iet E0raineO
'ay , 19JL& 8I: 6ay, $o2iet Red Army "resides o2er surrender of Nazi 5erman military in 1erlin
June ?J, 19J H 'ay 1?, 19J9& 1erlin 1loc0ade im"osed .y $o2iet authorities in :ast 5ermany
Fe.ruary 1J, 19L@& $inoI$o2iet Treaty of Friendshi", Alliance and 'utual Assistance is si%ned in 'osco!
'arch L, 19L>& 6eath of Josef $talin
'ay 1J, 19LL& 4arsa! 7act *4arsa! Treaty -r%anization of Friendshi", Coo"eration, and 'utual Assistance+ is esta.lished
No2em.er J, 19LC& $o2iet Red Army crushes the Hun%arian Re2olution in Hun%ary
-cto.er J, 19L7& $o2iet s"ace satellite $"utni0 is launched
'ay 1, 19C@& The EI? $"y 7lane Incident *$o2iets shoot do!n an American s"y "lane flyin% o2er $o2iet Enion+
Au%ust 1>, 19C1& 1erlin 4all is constructed in :ast 1erlin
-cto.er ??INo2em.er ?, 19C?& Cu.an 'issile Crisis
Au%ust ?1, 19C& $o2iet Red Army crushes 7ra%ue $"rin% in Czechoslo2a0ia
'ay ?C, 197?& $trate%ic Arms <imitation Tal0s *$A<T I+ Treaty and AntiI1allistic 'issile Treaty *A1' Treaty+ are si%ned in
'osco! .et!een American and $o2iet Russia
June 1, 1979& $trate%ic Arms <imitation Tal0s *$A<T II+ Treaty is si%ned in 8ienna, Austria .y American and $o2iet leaders
6ecem.er ?J, 1979 H Fe.ruary 1L, 199& $o2iet 4ar in Af%hanistan
July >1, 1991& $TART Treaty *disarmament treaty+ is si%ned in 'osco! .y America and $o2iet Russia
Au%ust 19I?1, 1991& Au%ust Cou" *attem"ted o2erthro! of $o2iet leader 'i0hail 5or.ache2+
6ecem.er ?C, 1991& The Enion of $o2iet $ocialist Re"u.lics is dissol2ed
Lenin in Luri4h: # 2emoir
1y 8aleriu 'arcu
A"ril 19J> Issue of 0oreign ,ffairs
RE$$IA, the Russian Re2olution, $i.eria, the 7eter and 7aul Fortress, !ere ma%ic !ords to us youn% re2olutionists in Kurich in
191?# 4e sa! the Russian e)iles !ho came to that city in the li%ht of Russian literature# The fact that this most recent %eneration
of refu%ees from the Tsar !as com"letely different from the heroes of the famous no2els did not affect us# 4hat reality can .e
stron%er than a "reconcei2ed ideal3
-ur Russians !ere a.solutely unsentimental# They used sentiment no! and then, as "oliticians often do# All of them had fli%ht,
de"ortation and a court trial .ehind them# 1ut it ne2er occurred to them to s"ea0 a.out their "ast# They !ould ha2e re%arded
such tal0 as childish or as an offense a%ainst %ood taste# They !ere attracti2e not only .ecause of their readiness to discuss
e2erythin%, their !illin%ness to teach !ithout "edantry or didacticism, .ut, a.o2e all, .ecause of their ardent interest in e2ery
"ro.lem# They !ere all eternal II and eternally youn% II students !hose thirst for 0no!led%e !ould ne2er .e Buenched# In
contrast, a French or 5erman $ocialist lost his curiosity a.out man0ind as soon as his "rudent leaders "resented him !ith a Mo.
in the "olitical or administrati2e machine, or sent him to 7arliament#
The Russians !e 0ne! in Kurich also dis"layed the dross in human nature, and sometimes it !as as a""arent to the .eholder as
the stains on their clothes# The ener%y they !asted intri%uin% a%ainst each other !ould ha2e sufficed to rule a %i%antic em"ire#
/et this must .e %ranted& they !ere not selfIsatisfied# :2ery one of them !as in a state of "ermanent re2olution a%ainst himself,
a%ainst his closest "arty comrades, and a%ainst 5od# These e)iles felt the !ar and the "ost!ar "ro.lems directly, concretely, in
their o!n flesh# 7olitics ne2er left them for a moment# It !as li0e a chronic illness# They dreamed of it, and if they tal0ed in their
slee", surely it !as only of thin%s "olitical# Their ho"e !as to trac0 do!n the %erms of !ar# They !or0ed li0e .acteriolo%ists to
disclose its essential causes# These they ho"ed to find in .oo0s a.out the recent "ast#
I clearly recall Aarl Rade0 standin% in the middle of his room in front of a hill of .oo0s# Ra&ek +as the man +ho, a44or&ing to
all the res%e4table 4itiDens of <uro%e, +as 4ommissione& by 2os4o+ an& the 5hir& $nternational to organiDe the %ost+ar
putsches in Germany, #ustria, 3ungary, %ain an& Lithuania. For rela)ation Rade0 read detecti2e stories .efore %oin% to
.ed, he once told me that he had to esca"e the "ressure of "olitics for at least one hour in e2ery t!entyIfour# The day after each
im"ortant e2ent of the !ar he had a "am"hlet ready, .ut only rarely did it find a "u.lisher# 'arto2, the .est stylist amon% the
Russian e)iles, nic0named him Q7am"hleto2ich#Q 5he Russians, an& %arti4ularly Ra&ek, like& to be %ublishe& in German.
/ust as 3ebre+ is a sa4re& language to the /e+s be4ause the Lor& of -reation s%oke it, so German +as sa4re& to the
Russians be4ause it +as the language of Karl 2ar*.
'arto2 for years had .een at the o""osite re2olutionary "ole from <enin# $ince the first year of the t!entieth century he had
.een the leadin% "olemicist of the $ocialist tendency called 'enshe2ism# This !as rooted in the 5erman and French traditions
more than in the Russian# He fou%ht the other $ocialist faction, the 1olshe2i0s, .ecause he felt that they and their leader <enin
har.ored dictatorial am.itions#
6elicate in .uild, sic0ly, some!hat stoo"in%, !ith a "ale face "artly co2ered .y a dishe2elled .eard, !ith hollo! chee0s and
0indly, shinin% eyes, 'arto2 used to sit surrounded .y friends in the Caf^ $t# Annahof# :2ery t!o or three hours he chan%ed
ta.les# At inter2als, he !ould retire to !rite, returnin% later to read an e)traordinary essay in 5erman, French, Russian or
:n%lish, accordin% to his audience# $ometimes he 2anished for days# 4orried ne!comers to his circle !ho as0ed !here he had
%one !ould .e told that he had .uried himself in some li.rary to study the latest ha""enin%s in France, 5ermany or Russia#
<enin said of him& Q'arto2 studies himself into error#Q
<enin had no difficulty in defeatin% an ad2ersary !ho refused to understand the necessity of unrestrained 2iolence# <ess than
t!o years after <eninFs accession to "o!er, 'arto2 !as com"elled to lea2e 'osco!, to emi%rate once more# A fe! days .efore
that cruel end, durin% !hich his ner2es died one .y one in a lon% a%ony, <enin, scarcely a.le to s"ea0, murmured to his !ife II
they !ere "erha"s his last !ords II QI hear that 'arto2, too, is dyin%3Q 'arto2 had died of tu.erculosis a fe! months .efore#
In Kurich, durin% the first months of !ar, <enin and 'arto2 had come close to each other, and .oth !ere ha""y a.out it# 1ut
their accord !as shortIli2ed and they soon .e%an a furious .attle of in0 a%ainst each other# 'arto2 told me that, in the last
analysis, <enin !as only the .ri%and chief of a "arty that had no real e)istence# These harsh !ords of course only increased my
desire to see <enin# I met him in a restaurant !hich ser2ed homeIcoo0ed meals, run .y a Frau 7rello% on the second floor of a
dila"idated, !eatherI.eaten house in a narro! little street near the <immat (uai# The restaurant !as in reality a dimly lit
corridor, lon% and narro!, !ith .are !alls and a lon%, un"ainted !ooden ta.le that too0 u" most of the s"ace# The "lace smelled
more li0e a moldy cellar than a restaurant# -ne door ser2ed as the entrance, another, al!ays o"en, led to the 0itchen# Around the
ta.le sat si) to ei%ht %uests on !ooden chairs, an eBual num.er of chairs !ere usually em"ty# Frau 7rello% !as e)tremely .usy,
as she .oth coo0ed the meals and ser2ed her customers# $he had li2ed in 8ienna for a lon% time and s"o0e a "eculiar $!issI
Austrian dialect# $he !as a "lum" .londe in her early forties, far more a""etizin% than her thin sou"s, driedIout roasts and chea"
desserts#
4hen I reached the restaurant <enin had not yet arri2ed, and I sat do!n !ith Aharitono2, a friend !ho had underta0en to
introduce me to him# The com"any fascinated me# The men !ere all youn%, .oldIloo0in%, eni%matic fi%ures# The only lady at the
ta.le !as not eni%matic at all# $he !as called Red 'aria, not .ecause of her "olitical o"inions, .ut .ecause of her redI.lond hair#
'aria had a re%ular, o2al face li0e a 'adonna, .i% .lue eyes, lon% eyelashes and a .ass 2oice !hich contrasted stran%ely !ith
her delicate a""earance# $he immediately as0ed us, in a 2oice !hich dro!ned out all the men, !ho !e !ere, !hat !e !anted,
!ho had %i2en us Frau 7rello%Fs address and !hether !e intended to .ecome re%ular customers# 4e could see that the !hole
%rou" !ere rather sus"icious of us# I e)"lained that I !anted to s"ea0 !ith 'r# Elyano2 II <enin !as 0no!n here .y his true
name# At that 'aria .ecame 2olu.le# $he said, amon% other thin%s, that the Elyano2s !ere e)cellent "eo"le#
4hen <enin arri2ed !ith his !ife, Nadezhda Aonstantino2na Aru"s0aya, he too0 a seat near Red 'aria# $he found in him a
!illin% listener, indeed he listened to her so attenti2ely that it did not occur to me to interru"t# 'oreo2er, her tale of !oe
interested me# Her trou.les !ere of a !orldly, material 0ind# $he said that she had had t!o lo2ers, no! one !as a soldier in
Italy, the other in 5ermany# This !ar, she continued, !as nothin% .ut a ro..ery of men, a dirty tric0 in2ented .y the rich# Then
she !ent on to tell the fa2orite story of ladies of her 0ind& that she had to su""ort her old mother and youn%er sisters and
.rothers# Nadezhda Aonstantino2na, too, listened !ith interest#
5radually, the other %uests left the restaurant# -nly <enin, his !ife, Aharitono2, 'aria, Frau 7rello% and I remained at the lon%
ta.le# $hortly .efore our arri2al Frau 7rello% had Buarreled !ith 'aria# <enin tried to effect a reconciliation .et!een them, and
succeeded# Frau 7rello% !as not too stu..orn, li0e 'aria, she lo2ed any o""ortunity of tellin% her trou.les# $he com"lained that
some of her %uests had failed to "ay their .ills, that meat !as e)"ensi2e, that soon it !ould .e rationed# This, she said, !as a
measure directed only a%ainst the "oor# 4ealthy "eo"le, of course, !ould al!ays mana%e to %et their stea0s# -h, this accursed
!arP $he could not understand !hy the soldiers did not shoot their officers and return home !ithout further ado# <eninFs face
shone !ith "leasure at these !ords# He loo0ed at us !ith a satisfied air#
4hen !e left the restaurant it !as late in the afternoon# I !al0ed home !ith <enin#
Q/ou see,Q he said, Q!hy I ta0e my meals here# /ou %et to 0no! !hat "eo"le are really thin0in% a.out# Nadezhda
Aonstantino2na is sure that only the Kurich under!orld freBuents this "lace, .ut I thin0 she is mista0en# To .e sure, 'aria is a
"rostitute# 1ut she does not li0e her trade# $he has a lar%e family to su""ort II and that is no easy matter# As to Frau 7rello%, she
is "erfectly ri%ht# 6id you hear !hat she said3 $hoot the officersP A ma%nificent !oman# $uch o"inions are 2ery im"ortant#Q
In front of their house in the $"ie%el%asse I too0 lea2e of <enin and his !ife#
QI should li0e to tal0 !ith you a.out thin%s in %reater detail,Q I said# Q4e canFt do it at Frau 7rello%Fs#Q
Q/es, !ith "leasure,Q he said# QI read an article you !rote a.out disarmament# That reminds me& Rade0 told me you !ere
friendly !ith 'arto2# 6o you sym"athize !ith the 'enshe2i0s3Q
QI am neither 'enshe2i0 nor 1olshe2i0,Q I re"lied# Q4e in the 4erdstrasse are the most radical %rou" of all and !e ha2e our
o!n theory#Q
QI see, I see,Q <enin nodded# QThat is 2ery interestin%#Q Then, after a short silence& QCome to see me tomorro! at J oFcloc0, IFll
0ee" that time o"en for you#Q
'y friend Aharitono2 had not !al0ed to the $"ie%el%asse !ith us# The ne)t day !hen I !ent to see <enin there, I as0ed him to
%o !ith me# As soon as !e entered the room, I .e%an to s"ea0# After a.out half an hour I noticed somethin% li0e an e)"ression
of .oredom on <eninFs face and sto""ed#
Q4hat you ha2e Must said,Q he declared, Qis false, com"letely, utterly false# 4e cannot .e a%ainst e2ery !ar# 4e must instead
learn to distin%uish the character of each "articular !ar# 4e admire, for instance, the French re2olutionary !ars a%ainst old
:uro"e, !e admire Crom!ellFs cam"ai%ns, !e admire 4ashin%tonFs !ar a%ainst <ondon#
Q4e are a%ainst this "articular !ar, !hich .e%an in Au%ust 191J, .ecause its aim is the further ensla2ement of the fi2e
continents, the "romotion of the e)"ort of ca"ital# This !ar is the continuation of the "olicies "ursued .et!een 19 and 191J#
:2ery !ar is an instrument of "olitics# This !ar is an instrument in the hands of the Russian Tsar, the 5erman Aaiser, the 1erlin,
7aris and <ondon .an0ers# I am a%ainst these "eo"le, and for that reason I ho"e that my country suffers a cruel and crushin%
defeat# It is my duty to ho"e so# 6o you 0no! the real meanin% of this !ar3Q
Q4hat is it3Q I as0ed#
QIt is o.2ious,Q he re"lied# Q-ne sla2eholder, 5ermany, !ho o!ns one hundred sla2es, is fi%htin% another sla2eholder, :n%land,
!ho o!ns t!o hundred sla2es, for a FfairerF distri.ution of the sla2es#Q
QHo! can you e)"ect to foster hatred of this !ar,Q I as0ed at this "oint,Q if you are not, in "rinci"le, a%ainst all !ars3 I thou%ht
that as a 1olshe2i0 you !ere really a radical thin0er and refused to ma0e any com"romise !ith the idea of !ar# 1ut .y
reco%nizin% the 2alidity of some !ars, you o"en the doors for e2ery o""ortunity# :2ery %rou" can find some Mustification for the
"articular !ar of !hich it a""ro2es# I see that !e youn% "eo"le can count only on oursel2es# 4e refuse to acce"t a ne!
Mustification of !ar e2en in the name of science#Q
<enin listened attenti2ely, his head .ent to!ard me# He mo2ed his chair closer to mine, !hile Aru"s0aya, !ho until this moment
had .een sittin% on her .ed li0e an im"assi2e %host, .ro0e into a .road smile# $he seemed suddenly interested and "leased# This
irritated me, .ecause I too0 it as a si%n that she !as a%ainst me# There !as a short silence in the room# <enin must ha2e
!ondered !hether he should continue to tal0 !ith this .oy or not# I, some!hat a!0!ardly, remained silent#
Q/our determination to rely u"on yoursel2es,Q <enin finally re"lied, Qis 2ery im"ortant# :2ery man must rely on himself# /et he
should also listen to !hat informed "eo"le ha2e to say# I donFt 0no! ho! radical you are or ho! radical I am# I am certainly not
radical enou%h# -ne can ne2er .e radical enou%h, that is, one must al!ays try to .e as radical as reality itself, and then let the
de2il and the fools !orry a.out !hether one is radical enou%h# 4ar, ho!e2er, does not as0 me, nor the other 1olshe2i0s, nor
you, !hether !e acce"t it#Q
He loo0ed at me intently, as thou%h tryin% to read my thou%hts, and then !ent on in a hard 2oice& QAt any rate, one thin% is
astonishin% to me& you and your friends !ant to transform this entire !orld !hich ree0s from e2ery "ore !ith .aseness, sla2ery
and !ar, and yet you renounce the use of 2iolence in ad2ance#Q
QNot at all,Q I e)"lained, dee"ly offended# Q4e do not renounce 2iolence, .ecause that !ould mean that !e renounce the
re2olution#Q
Q4ell, !ell,Q said <enin, Q!hat then is !ar3 4hat is it .ut a form of 2iolence3 The t!entieth century and modern im"erialism
ha2e mo.ilized the masses# :2ery re.ellion, e2ery re2olution is only a form of !ar# /ou canFt se"arate !ar from re2olution or
re2olution from !ar# The line of demarcation .et!een them is indefinite and shiftin%# /ou cannot say !here !ar ends and
re2olution .e%ins# Those !ho e)"ect the re2olution to %ro! out of a "eaceful situation, from soIcalled orderly conditions, do not
desire it at all# Re2olutions arise in the most com"licated situations, most often they result from soIcalled transitional situations,
!hich contain the shar"est contradictions# I too0 "art in one re2olution in Russia, in 19@L# It consisted of a num.er of stru%%les
in !hich all the discontented classes, %rou"s and elements of the "o"ulation too0 "art# Amon% them !ere lar%e %rou"s !ho
har.ored the !ildest "reMudices and "ursued the 2a%uest and most fantastic aims# There !ere little %rou"s in the "ay of Ja"an#
There !ere "rofiteers and ad2enturers#Q
I listened !ith %ro!in% curiosity and interest# An hour, "erha"s t!o, !ent .y# Calmly .ut "ersistently he tried to con2ince me#
No! and then he raised his fin%er and "ointed at me# He s"o0e slo!ly and searchin%ly, in 5erman !ith a Russian accent#
$ometimes he could not find the !ord he !anted, and I !ould su%%est one to him# He !ould nod his head almost im"erce"ti.ly
and than0 me# I .ecame so interested in his ideas that I !anted to as0 him not to sto"# And my mistrust 2anished# This man, !ho
s"o0e so seriously a.out the re2olution, I thou%ht, !as certainly no counterIre2olutionary# I felt ready to reconcile myself !ith
him# From an innate inclination to friendshi", and also from my fear of .ein% seduced .y ar%uments that I !as una.le to ans!er
at that moment, I said suddenly, !ithout a""arent reason& QComrade <enin, !ill you %i2e me your !ord of honor ne2er to .etray
the re2olution, li0e the other leaders of $ocialism !ho are "roI!ar3Q
He had to collect himself .efore he could understand my Buestion# Aharitono2, !ho until no! had not said a !ord, .urst out
lau%hin%, and so did Aru"s0aya# Their lau%hter seemed to me an e)"ression of .ad taste, and on the "art of Aharitono2 a direct
.etrayal, the .e%innin% of an enmity# <enin did not lau%h# 'y Buestion sur"rised .ut did not seem to dis"lease him#
Q6istrust,Q he said, Qis a %ood Buality in a re2olutionary# I shall al!ays try to do my .est# 1ut you must "romise me to do the
same#Q
Q4hat must I do3Q I as0ed ea%erly#
Q<earn,Q said he# Q$to" tal0in% so !ildly and 2a%uely# I say that not only to you .ut to your friends# /ou al!ays tal0 of
re2olution in %eneral# This is Must as false as to tal0 a.out !ar in %eneral# Nothin% can .e more dan%erous for youn% "eo"le than
to 0no! the names of thin%s, .ut not their real meanin%# -nly a traitor or a stu"id "erson can s"ea0 today of re2olution !ithout
!ar, or of total disarmament#Q
Q4e shall correct our thesis on disarmament,Q I said, Buite sha0en#
QThere !onFt .e much left of it once it is corrected,Q he said, Qor else our con2ersation has .een in 2ain#Q
He rumma%ed in a dra!er for a "iece of "a"er and said& QIn my article for your ma%azine I !rote& FAn o""ressed class !hich
does not stri2e to learn the use of !ea"ons, to "ractice the use of !ea"ons, to o!n !ea"ons, deser2es only to .e mistreated# If
the !ar today creates only fear in the "etty .our%eoisie, only reluctance to ma0e use of !ea"ons, only terror .efore .lood and
death, !e on the contrary say in ans!er to this feelin%& ca"italist society has al!ays .een terror !ithout end# If an end .y terror
is not .ein% "re"ared for this society, !e ha2e no reason to des"air# The demand for disarmament in the "resentIday !orld is
nothin% .ut an e)"ression of des"air#FQ
He !as silent for a !hile and then concluded, !ith emotion& Q$tudy and reIstudy !ar and re2olution# 5reat thin%s are %oin% to
ha""en soon, they are .ound to ha""en# /es, e2erythin% may .e chan%ed from to" to .ottom, o2erni%ht#Q
To .e treated as an eBual, des"ite all the shar" criticism, !as a ne! e)"erience for me# The other Russians, !ith all their "atience
and friendliness, had al!ays .een distant# They contented themsel2es !ith e)"oundin% their o!n ideas# They ne2er said& %o
home, o"en your mind, try to understand thin%s for yourself, learn# 4ith <enin I had the im"ression that I !as an im"ortant ally,
and that I had to study hard to "ass the real test of re2olution# I did not 0no! then that <enin s"o0e seriously to e2eryone !ho
!as interested in serious Buestions#
Q6o you thin0,Q I as0ed him e)citedly, dro""in% my theoretical "reoccu"ations, Qthat the re2olution !ill .rea0 soon3Q
Q7erha"s in t!o, "erha"s in fi2e, at the latest in ten years#Q
<eninFs "lan !as un"aralleled in com"rehensi2eness and .oldness, co2erin% all the continents and seas and containin% all the
elements of the future QtotalQ strate%y# He set himself u" in o""osition to all the !arrin% "o!ers as the re"resentati2e of another
"o!er, and declared relentless !ar of annihilation a%ainst them# He did this not a.stractly, not in "rinci"le only# He had a
definite, concrete strate%ic scheme accordin% to !hich he or%anized the stru%%le a%ainst the !arma0ers in 1erlin, 7aris, <ondon
and $t# 7eters.ur%#
He started from the "remise that e2ery !ar does a!ay !ith the out!orn con2entions, shatters the "rotecti2e shell of a %i2en
society, s!ee"s a!ay e2erythin% that has outli2ed its 2alue, and .rin%s into "lay the "rofound dri2es and forces of that society#
He re%arded it as his chief tas0 to %et into contact !ith these emer%in% dri2es and forces, to or%anize them in the ser2ice of his
mo2ement and to direct his action accordin% to their de2elo"ment#
The official strate%ists of the !arrin% "o!ers used a strate%y that may .e called horizontal, <enin had his o!n Q2erticalQ
strate%y# Horizontal strate%y is in %eneral .ased on thin%s as they e)ist, on 0no!n facts# A %i2en num.er of re%iments, .ri%ades
or di2isions mo2e on such and such roads, in such and such directions# They fi%ht such and such en%a%ements, all inte%rated and
directed .y the %eneral staff so as to accom"lish the .road "ur"ose of the !ar# <eninFs 2ertical strate%y !as .ased on the
"o!erful forces latent in man# At first these are "otential forces, they .ecome actual only as the result of a lon% "olitical "rocess#
-nce de2elo"ed, these forces must .e directed .y the en%ineers of re2olution, .y a small, lucid re2olutionary minority# 8ertical
strate%y must cautiously mo.ilize these chan%in%, still indeterminate, still indefina.le forces, and concentrate them for the
achie2ement of its "olitical "ur"oses#
In !artime, "olitical o""osition is concei2a.le only in connection !ith re2olutionary acti2ities# <enin did not "lan in2asions
from the outside, .ut from the inside# :2ery re2olutionist must !or0 for the defeat of his o!n country# To .rin% a.out this
defeat, the discontented classes in each country must seize the .arrac0s, %o2ernment offices and other centers of the .elli%erent
im"erialists# The main factor !as the 2iolence, the force of the attac0# The chief tas0 of 2ertical strate%y !as to co`rdinate all the
moral, "hysical, %eo%ra"hical and tactical elements of the uni2ersal insurrection, to Moin to%ether all the hatreds aroused .y
im"erialism on the fi2e continents#
<enin noted these "otential elements of stru%%le !ith "ainsta0in% e)actitude# :2ery day he commented at len%th on those little
ne!s items "u.lished from time to time in o.scure sheets, !hich, to his mind, indicated latent "o"ular unrest# :2ery day he
!rote articles !hich formed a sort of "olitical diary# He !rote as thou%h thousands a!aited his comment, as thou%h a ty"esetter
!ere standin% outside the door# In reality there !as only a leaden, echoless silence#
<enin !as al!ays a.sor.ed in the ma" of the !orld# He had an e)traordinary feelin% for the com"osition of social .odies, for
their "olitical s"ecific %ra2ity, so to s"ea0# To him, the little states !ere an im"ortant element in the antiIim"erialist
fermentation, a means to .e utilized in the total strate%y# QThe little nations,Q he !rote, Qthou%h "o!erless as inde"endent factors
in the stru%%le a%ainst im"erialism, can "lay an im"ortant "art in it#Q For that reason, accordin% to the e2erIchan%in%
reBuirements of an allIcom"rehensi2e strate%y, he !as for the ri%ht of nations to selfIdetermination# Thou%h an internationalist
to the marro! of his .ones, he could .e nationalistic as a means to the end# He !as not only for Irish eBuality in a common
"arliament !ith the :n%lish, for Czech and E0rainian re"resentation in the Austrian and Russian "arliaments, .ut for the ri%ht of
com"lete se"aration#
He ad2ocated colonial u"risin%s as a re2olutionary instrument and a strate%ic reBuirement, in order to set in motion
simultaneously all the antiIim"erialist forces# QIn the colonies and semiIcolonies there li2e nearly a .illion "ersons, more than
half of the "o"ulation of the "lanet# 'o2ements of national li.eration in these countries are either 2ery stron% already, or are
continuin% to %ro! and mature#Q To co`rdinate all these elements and lin0 them u" !ith the re2olutionary u"sur%es in the cities
!as for him the "rereBuisite of the re2olution# The u"risin% of the industrial !or0ers, the "easants and the lo!er middle class
must .e mer%ed !ith the as"irations of the o""ressed nations and colonies# $ooner or later, he thou%ht, an international alliance
.et!een the o""ressed nations and the re2olutionary "roletariat !ould ta0e "lace#
$ooner or later3 /es, for should <enin not trium"h durin% this !ar, should his Third Front, !hich !as Must comin% into .ein%,
not .e 2ictorious, then one of the t!o !arrin% coalitions !ould !in the !ar II 5ermanyFs or :n%landFs# An im"erialist "eace of
"lunder !ould .e concluded, and t!enty years later, he !rote on -cto.er 1, 191C, a !ar !ould .rea0 out .et!een Ja"an and the
Enited $tates# That !ar Q!ill mean for :uro"e a retro%ression for se2eral decades# History often ma0es %i%antic lea"s
.ac0!ard#Q
<enin did not communicate to me his %randiose, com"le) and manyIsided conce"tion of !ar in one short con2ersation# I 2isited
him freBuently under "rete)t of as0in% his ad2ice on lesser matters, .ut really to create o""ortunities for dra!in% him into
con2ersation# I often !ent !ith him to meetin%s of $!iss !or0ers !hich he sat throu%h silently, listenin% !ith interest#
He !as com"letely a.sor.ed in the !ar# He tried to sho! its economic necessities, its internal la!s, in his .oo0 QIm"erialism,
the Final $ta%e of Ca"italism#Q :2ery day he !ent to the li.rary and .rou%ht home statistics and re"orts of the international
cartels# He often s"o0e of his .oo0# He !orried a.out ha2in% to com"ress a %i%antic mass of material into 1?@ "a%es# *Accordin%
to his contract !ith the "u.lishers his .oo0 could not e)ceed that len%th#+ He !as a stran%e sort of scholar, as ner2ous as a youn%
student .efore an e)amination# He also suffered from not .ein% allo!ed to use stron% lan%ua%e in his .oo0, for his "u.lisher !as
a neutral, and the contract for.ade "ersonal attac0s on the Qo""ortunists,Q as <enin called them# -ne day I as0ed him !hy he
!or0ed so hastily and ner2ously and s"ent so much time in the li.rary# He re"lied& QA !or0 that is not com"letely chec0ed to the
last !ord, cannot .e re%arded as e2en .e%un#Q
4hen <enin discussed "olitics, one had the feelin% that he s"o0e not as an indi2idual, .ut as the leader of a %reat un0no!n
"o!er, !hose 2ery s"irit !as as stron% as territories, armies and .ureaucracies# This feelin% !as correct, he !as the un0no!n
Caesar of all the tendencies at !or0 a%ainst the !orld of that time# He !as the .rain of the inner chan%es in the social .ody, the
forces and elements set free .y the !ar, the "rocess of remoldin% and recastin% the "olitical structure of the !orld# In him these
unconscious chan%es found their conscious e)"ression# D-nly from the chan%es that ta0e "lace in the soil of the s"irit,G says
He%el, Dcan the ne! arise#G
These reflections on <enin are not retros"ecti2e# They !ere not .rou%ht forth .y the fact that he finally succeeded in .ecomin%
the head of a 5reat 7o!er, and that his Russian 2enture, for .etter or !orse, !ill challen%e the !orld for centuries to come# The
thin% that sur"rised us least a.out <enin !as that he achie2ed "o!er# The ten to t!el2e "eo"le !ho sa! him re%ularly se2eral
times a !ee0 !ere con2inced of his destiny, firmly con2inced that, should there .e a re2olution in Russia, he !ould .ecome the
successor of the Tsars#
He himself suffered from de"ression and felt fettered, all he had !as the "ros"ect of !ider horizons# $ometimes, "articularly in
the last months of his e)ile, it seemed to him that his circle !as %ro!in% smaller and smaller, the life around him less and less
intense# $o many tested friends of his youth, so many old comrades deserted him# The !hole 1olshe2i0 7arty at that time
consisted of a fe! friends !ho corres"onded !ith him from $toc0holm, <ondon, Ne! /or0 and 7aris# In addition, he had
financial !orries and !as o2er!or0ed# In 191J, his !ife had inherited ?,@@@ ru.les# They li2ed on this sum for t!o years# <enin
made efforts to o.tain !or0 on an encyclo"aedia that !as .ein% "u.lished in Russia# He finally o.tained it to!ard the end of his
e)ile, .ut his fee !as insi%nificant# He !as at the end of his resources#
1ut for all his trou.les, he roared li0e a !ounded lion !hen the TsarFs emissaries in $!itzerland tried to do !hat he himself !as
to do at 1restI<ito2s0 t!o years later& ne%otiate a se"arate "eace# QRussia,Q he !rote, Qintends, !ith the hel" of Ja"an and that
2ery same 5ermany !ith !hich she is no! at !ar, to defeat :n%land in Asia, so that she may anne) all of 7ersia, com"lete the
"artition of China and so forth# # # # In 19@JI19@L Ja"an, !ith the hel" of the 1ritish, defeated Russia, no! she is cautiously
"re"arin% to defeat :n%land !ith the hel" of the Russians# # # # There is a 5ermano"hile "arty in Russian %o2ernment circles,
amon% Tsar NicholasF courtiers, amon% the no.ility and the army#Q
Lenin kne+ that if the Russian &i%lomats su44ee&e& in %ulling their +oun&e& an& blee&ing 4ountry out of the +ar his
4han4es +oul& "anish for many years. He no! directed all his fury a%ainst the $ocialists of the different countries# :2ery
$ocialist !ho s"o0e of "eace !as a traitor, a scoundrel, a charlatan# Just as they had u" until no! handled all the !ar .usiness of
their rulers, he said, so they !ould ta0e care of their "eace .usiness also and sa2e them from .loody catastro"he# DIn .rief,G he
told me one day, Dthe rales are .rilliantly distri.uted# The %o2ernment and the military cliBue !a%e !ar# The li.erals tal0 a.out
freedom and democracy# The $ocialists tal0 a.out "eace#G
<enin=s hidden, yet e2erI%ro!in% im"atience durin% this "eriod found an outlet in his "ersistent and stimulatin% e)"lanations to
us# Aru"s0aya in her memoirs com"lains of her hus.and=s de"ression in those tryin% days and says& D/oun% "eo"le from
5ermany, Italy and other countries !ere then in Kurich and Ilich !anted to share his re2olutionary e)"erience !ith them as
much as "ossi.le#G
It is often said that the "ast is distorted in our minds and turned into a "aradise, that e2erythin% in it is seen in a softer li%ht# 1ut
those im"ressions of our encounters !ith "eo"le and e2ents !hich remain ali2e, !hich are in "rofound harmony !ith our o!n
innate natures and !hich sha"e our "erce"tions and intellects, are not more and not less an idealization of reality than is our
a""reciation of our daily .read# At a later "eriod, <eninism, raised to the ran0 of a state reli%ion, thorou%hly dis%usted and
horrified me# The re2olution !orn as a lac0ey=s li2ery !ith <enin=s "icture on the .uttons seemed to me an a.solute ne%ation of
life itself# 1ut I ha2e ne2er for%otten <eninFs a""roach to thin%s and his manner of seein% them, althou%h he later turned his face
in a direction com"letely different from mine#
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#forei%naffairs#com;articles;7@?C?;2aleriuImarcu;leninIinIzurich
5he 2eaning of !rest(Lito"sk 5o&ay
1y John 4# 4heelerI1ennett
From the -cto.er 19> Issue of Forei%n Affairs
T4:NT/ years a%o II on 'arch >, 191 II the first treaty of "eace .et!een .elli%erent "arties in the 4orld 4ar !as si%ned .y
the Central 7o!ers and Russia at 1restI<ito2s0# Fe! then a""reciated the full si%nificance of the e2ent# At the moment it
a""eared to mar0 the com"lete 2ictory of 5erman arms in the :ast, and, for Russia, the %reatest humiliation in her di"lomatic
and military history# 1ut thou%h these results !ere of %ra2e im"ortance in themsel2es, the more farIreachin% effects of the treaty
could not .e %uessed at# In retros"ect, ho!e2er, it is "ossi.le to say that, !ith the e)ce"tion of the Treaty of 8ersailles, the 7eace
Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0 had conseBuences and results more im"ortant than any other "eace settlement since the Con%ress of
8ienna#
The lon% e)"ected Re2olution had .ro0en out in Russia !ith the slo%an of Q7eace, 1read and <and,Q and the 5erman Hi%h
Command had added its contri.ution to chaos .y allo!in% <enin and his follo!ers to return from $!itzerland to 7etro%rad in the
famous Qsealed train#Q As a result, the "olitical com"le)ion of the Re2olution chan%ed ra"idly from Q"arlor "in0Q to scarlet, the
<i.eral %o2ernment of 7rince <2o2 %a2e "lace to the $ocialist r^%ime of Ale)ander Aerens0y, and he in turn !as ousted .y the
1olshe2i0s at the $econd Re2olution of No2em.er 1917#
Ca"italizin% the dee"Ifelt lon%in% of the Russian masses for "eace, <enin at once declared a cessation of hostilities, and thus it
came a.out that, after some 2icissitudes and the murder of the Russian Chief of the 5eneral $taff, there sat do!n on 6ecem.er
?@ at the 1restI<ito2s0 headBuarters of 7rince <eo"old of 1a2aria one of the stran%est %atherin%s in the history of modern
di"lomacy# Fate had decreed that the re"resentati2es of the most re2olutionary r^%ime e2er 0no!n should sit at the same ta.le
!ith the re"resentati2es of the most reactionary military caste amon% the then rulin% classes, that a 1a2arian no.leman, a Ani%ht
of the 5olden Fleece, and a 7russian maMorI%eneral should ne%otiate on eBual terms !ith a %rou" of 1olshe2i0 leaders .ut lately
returned from e)ile, and from !hose clothes the ree0 of dun%eons had .arely .een .anished#
The t!o %rou"s !ere as !idely se"arated in ideolo%y as in social standin%# The re"resentati2es of the Central 7o!ers s"o0e the
ancient lan%ua%e of di"lomacy# They thou%ht in terms of strate%ic lines, of "ro2inces ceded, of economic ad2anta%es to .e
%ained# Not so the 1olshe2i0s# Their "arlance !as not one of frontiers and concessions, they !ere not concerned !ith
%eo%ra"hical e)"ressions# They aimed .y "ro"a%anda u"on !arI!eary :uro"ean $ocialism to achie2e !hat they 0ne! could not
.e achie2ed .y arms, namely the 4orld Re2olution and the re"lacement of military im"erialism .y the dictatorshi" of the
"roletariat# They !ere "re"ared to a.andon !hole "ro2inces to the 2ictors if .y so doin% they could arouse the !or0in% classes
of the Central 7o!ers to a realization of the e2ils of military dictatorshi"# He is no $ocialist, !rote <enin in his o"en letter to the
American !or0in%men in 191, !ho !ill not sacrifice his fatherland for the trium"h of the social re2olution#
$o fundamental a difference in a""roach necessarily resulted in eBually different techniBues in ne%otiation# For .oth "arties the
time factor !as 2ital# For 5ermany it !as essential to concentrate all a2aila.le troo"s on the 4estern Front as soon as "ossi.le in
order to ensure the success of the s"rin% offensi2e a%ainst the Allies on !hich the Hi%h Command had sta0ed their all#
Hinden.ur% and <udendorff therefore demanded a s"eedy conclusion of the ne%otiations# Russia !as at the mercy of 5ermany,
they ur%ed, no further resistance !as "ossi.le, and a 2ictorFs "eace should cro!n a 2ictorFs !ar# Here at last !as a chance to
e)tend the frontiers of 5ermany to include the Russian "ro2inces of Courland, <i2onia and :stonia, !here .oth the aristocracy
of the 1altic 1arons and the middle class !ere lar%ely of 5erman ori%in, and also <ithuania# There o"ened .efore their eyes, too,
the o""ortunity to e)"loit the rich .lac0 soil of the E0raine, !hence %rain could .e e)"orted to feed the army and "o"ulation of
5ermany, .rou%ht near star2ation .y the Allied .loc0ade# A dream of reducin% the former Russian :m"ire to a series of
"artitioned states, each de"endent u"on 5ermany as economic and "olitical "rotectorates, .e%an to ta0e hold u"on the
ima%ination of the 5eneral $taff# 1ut in any case s"eed !as the essence of the contract# If the 1olshe2i0s !ould not immediately
acce"t the terms offered .y the Central 7o!ers, then the offensi2e must .e resumed and "eace dictated at 7etro%rad instead of
1restI<ito2s0#
The Im"erial 5erman 5o2ernment, and in "articular the Forei%n $ecretary, 1aron Richard 2on A]hlmann, o""osed this "olicy
.ecause of its crudeness and .ecause, !ith %reater "olitical sa%acity, they did not share the illusions of the 5eneral $taff# :2en at
that date A]hlmann dou.ted the "ossi.ility of a com"lete 2ictory in the field for 5erman arms# A ne%otiated "eace !as the .est
that could .e ho"ed# <i0e the %enerals, he !as an)ious to o.tain as %reat territorial %ains as "ossi.le in the :ast, .ut only in order
to hold them as .ar%ainin% factors !hen ne%otiations for a %eneral "eace finally .ecame a "ossi.ility# He ho"ed to a2oid ma0in%
territorial sacrifices in the 4est .y dis"layin% a readiness to surrender conBuered territory in the :ast# 'oreo2er, he !as an)ious
to arri2e at a settlement !ith the Russians "eacefully in order to facilitate the course of future ne%otiations !ith the other Allied
and Associated 7o!ers#
4hile the 5erman %enerals demanded a s"eedy sho!Ido!n, the 1olshe2i0s desired e)actly the o""osite# The lon%er the
ne%otiations !ere dra!n out the %reater the o""ortunity for "ro"a%anda# If the !or0ers and "easants in the countries .oth of the
:ntente and the Central 7o!ers !ere to realize fully !hat had ha""ened in Russia and !ere to concei2e a desire for emulation, a
certain inter2al !as necessary durin% !hich the intentions and "olicy of the ne! $o2iet state mi%ht .ecome 0no!n# To the 2ast
annoyance of the 5erman 5eneral $taff, the 1olshe2i0s !ere successful in im"osin% their "olicy of "rocrastination on the "eace
discussions# First Joffe and later Trots0y carried out delayin% tactics !ith masterly s0ill, and for si) !ee0s the conference !as
little more than a de.atin% society# Trots0y disco2ered in A]hlmann an ad2ersary !ho !as his eBual in dialectics, and the t!o
indul%ed in !hat the irate Czernin later descri.ed as Qs"iritual !restlin% matches#Q The 5erman $ecretary of $tate !as tryin% to
"ersuade his o""onent to acce"t the fate of the occu"ied 1altic 7ro2inces as already settled# Trots0y maintained !ith a !ealth of
2er.ia%e that their soIcalled QselfIe)"ressed desireQ for union !ith 5ermany !as nothin% .ut a 2eiled militarist anne)ation# As
neither !ould a.andon his 2ie!"oint a com"lete deadloc0 ensued, and remained un.ro0en des"ite the "rotests of the
re"resentati2e of the $u"reme Command, 5eneral Hoffmann, and the "leadin%s of the Austrian Forei%n 'inister, Count
Czernin, !ho !as a!are that the sands of life for the 6ual 'onarchy !ere runnin% out# The $u"reme Command !anted troo"s
and AustriaIHun%ary needed .read& as lon% as A]hlmann and Trots0y remained loc0ed in rhetorical com.at, neither !as
forthcomin%#
February 1>, 191A, sa+ the en&. 7n the %re"ious &ay the -entral Po+ers ha& signe& a se%arate treaty of %ea4e +ith the
Ckraine, +hi4h ha& %ro4laime& its in&e%en&en4e from Russia un&er a form of so4ial &emo4rati4 go"ernment. 5he
agreement %ro"i&e& for the e*%ortation to Germany an& #ustria(3ungary of a million tons of foo&stuffs.
-utflan0ed from the south, and disa""ointed that the toilin% masses in :uro"e had failed to res"ond to the %lo!in% "ros"ect of a
"roletarian "aradise "ortrayed for them in an endless flood of "ro"a%andist !ordI"ictures, the Russians !ere forced to a.andon
their "olicy of delay# The January stri0es in 5ermany and Austria had momentarily encoura%ed 1olshe2i0 ho"es, .ut they had
"ro2ed a false da!n# The 1olshe2i0s needed to .e a.le to concentrate their full ener%ies at home to consolidate the Re2olution
and to defend it a%ainst the counterIre2olutionary forces of the Ri%ht and Center, no! or%anizin% in the north, south and east#
Ne! tactics !ere necessary# -n Fe.ruary 1@, then, Trots0y made his historic %esture of QNo 4ar II No 7eace#Q He refused to
acce"t the 5erman terms .ut declared the state of !ar at an end, and retired to 7etro%rad in the .elief that the Central 7o!ers
!ere so an)ious for "eace that they !ould acce"t the "osition des"ite its anomalies#
This %esture, dramatic and ori%inal thou%h it !as, had merely the effect of handin% the %ame to the $u"reme Command# A%ainst
the 2ehement "rotests of A]hlmann and Czernin and the !ea0er o""osition of Chancellor 2on Hertlin%, 3in&enburg an&
Lu&en&orff for4e& the Kaiser to agree to a resum%tion of hostilities. # ra%i& a&"an4e 4on&u4te& by 3offmann brought
the German troo%s to +ithin rai&ing &istan4e of Petrogra&. 5he remnant of the Russian army, alrea&y un&ermine& in
&is4i%line an& morale by sub"ersi"e %ro%agan&a, broke Klike thin 4lou&s before a !is4ay gale.K 5here +as "irtually no
resistan4e. $f the Re"olution +as to be sa"e&, a Kbreathing s%a4eK +as essential. #fter a bitter internal struggle the
!olshe"iks sue& for %ea4e. 5he German re%ly +as an ultimatum setting forth 4on&itions, for the &is4ussion of +hi4h
three &ays +ere allo+e&, +hile the treaty on4e signe& must be ratifie& +ithin t+o +eeks.
'ith no other 4ourse o%en to them, the !olshe"iks a44e%te& the ine"itable an& on 2ar4h =, 191A, the Pea4e of !rest(
Lito"sk +as signe&. 5his treaty, together +ith the su%%lementary agreements of the follo+ing #ugust, reNuire& Russia to
renoun4e so"ereignty in fa"or of Germany an& #ustria(3ungary o"er Russian Polan&, Lithuania, -ourlan&, Li"onia,
<stonia an& the $slan&s of the 2oon oun&. 5o 5urkey she ha& to 4e&e #r&ahan, Kars an& !atum. $n a&&ition she +as
for4e& to re4ogniDe the in&e%en&en4e of Finlan&, the Ckraine an& Georgia, an& to agree to re%aration %ayments to the
amount of :,>>>,>>>,>>> marks in goo&s, bon&s an& gol&, on +hi4h she a4tually %ai& instalments totalling 1;>,>>>,>>>
gol& rubles. Russia lost =@ %er4ent of her %o%ulation, =; %er4ent of her agri4ultural lan&, A? %er4ent of her beet sugar
lan&, ?@ %er4ent of her in&ustrial un&ertakings an& A9 %er4ent of her 4oal mines. <uro%ean Russia +as &ismembere&1
she +as 4ut off from the !la4k ea an& "ery nearly from the !alti4 also.
$uch !as the result of ne%otiations ori%inally underta0en on the .asis of Qno anne)ations, no indemnities, and the "rinci"le of
selfIdetermination#Q
II
The 7eace of 1restI<ito2s0 !as a milestone in modern history# For Russia and for 5ermany it o.2iously had results of
incalcula.le im"ortance, .ut for the Allied and Associated 7o!ers its si%nificance also !as 2ery %reat# The course of !orld
history !as chan%ed on 'arch >, 191#
For the 1olshe2i0s, "eace on the :astern front, e2en such a "eace as that e)acted .y 5ermany, s"elled sal2ation# 1y a %i%antic
sacrifice <enin had "urchased a Q.reathin% s"ellQ durin% !hich he mi%ht disci"line his o!n follo!ers, eliminate the remainder of
the re2olutionaryI.our%eois "arties, and or%anize the defense of the $o2iet 7o!er a%ainst the attac0 of the 4hites# 4ith the
shatterin% of their early ho"es of a !ides"read re2olt .y the :uro"ean "roletariat, the 1olshe2i0s .e%an concentratin% their
ener%ies on the consolidation of the re2olution in Russia# They could do this effecti2ely only after hostilities had ceased to
en%a%e their attention# <eninFs stern adherence to the "olicy of national immolation caused !ide dissent amon% his follo!ers, .ut
it %ained that modicum of time necessary for the or%anization of the Red Army on the ruins of the Tsarist military machine# At
the time his sacrifices to some a""eared Bui)otic and unduly "usillanimous, .ut their !isdom !as dis"layed !hen the 2ictory of
Aazan o2er the counterIre2olutionaries .ore !itness to the %ro!th of the ne! $o2iet military formations# 4ithout the Q.reathin%
s"ellQ the 1olshe2i0s mi%ht II "ro.a.ly !ould II ha2e "erished at the hands of the ad2ancin% 5ermans, or of the 4hite counterI
re2olutionary forces or .y the intri%ues of the Cadets and the $ocialIRe2olutionaries of the Ri%ht and the <eft# The !orld mi%ht
then ha2e ne2er !itnessed the 2ast e)"erimentation of the 2ictorious $o2iet 7o!er nor endured the attentions of the Third
International# The "otential QifsQ of the Buestion do not cease there, they e)tend in an unendin% and roseate 2ista into lim.o, for
if there had .een no Comintern, !ould not Fascism and NationalI$ocialism ha2e .een de"ri2ed of their "rimary raison d6OtreF
And, thou%h the "articular .rand of e)treme dis%runtled nationalism !hich they re"resent mi%ht !ell ha2e found some other
outlet, it "ro.a.ly !ould not ha2e manifested itself in the form of totalitarianism#
Thus <udendorff !as the in2oluntary sa2ior of 1olshe2ism for :uro"e# 1y the same reasonin% he !as the %odfather of that
National $ocialist mo2ement !hich later he es"oused, for if Adolf Hitler is the "utati2e child of the Treaty of 8ersailles, he also
is the offs"rin% of the 7eace of 1restI<ito2s0#
For 5ermany .oth the issues and the results !ere more com"licated than for Russia# /et, in the case of 5ermany, the im"ortance
of 1restI<ito2s0 !as 2ery %reat# At the outset it a""eared as if the $u"reme Command !as on the e2e of the realization of its
!ildest dreams# The "sycholo%ical effect on the Maded ci2ilian "o"ulation close to star2ation !as to refresh its !ar enthusiasm
and to re0indle the Siegeswille *!ill to 2ictory+ !hich had .urned lo! in the dar0 days of 1917# And indeed the material
achie2ements of the $u"reme Command !ere 2ery allurin%# 4ithin their %ras" !ere the occu"ied "ro2inces of the 1altic, ready
to .e erected into semiIinde"endent states su.Mect to 5erman domination# 1efore them stretched the fertile lands of the E0raine,
!hence %rain and meat !ould .e forthcomin% for hun%ry "o"ulations and horses for hardI"ressed armies# The "u""et
%o2ernment of the .ada !as com"letely de"endent u"on 5erman .ayonets for its e)istence and could .e II and ultimately !as II
o2erthro!n .y the "ressin% of a .utton to ma0e !ay for an e2en more su.ser2ient successor# In addition, the treaties made .y the
Central 7o!ers at 1restI<ito2s0 and 1ucharest %a2e them access to the oil !ells of Azer.aiMan and Rumania#
The .ul0 of the fi%htin% ha2in% .een done .y 5ermany, the lionFs share of the s"oils fell to her# Already she !as the dominant
"arty in the (uadru"le Alliance, no! her "osition !as 2astly stren%thened, for she held nominal s!ay o2er the E0raine and
Rumania, !hile her influence e)tended throu%h the TransICaucasus and to the further .oundaries of the 6on 1asin# The !ay lay
o"en for an intensification of the antiI1ritish acti2ities then .ein% carried on in 7ersia and Af%hanistan and for the institution of
su.2ersi2e "ro"a%anda in 1ritish India# 1ut the am.itions of the $u"reme Command 2aulted still hi%her# They em.raced not
only a strin% of satellite states alon% the Russian .order, .ut a Russia surrounded .y 5erman de"endencies and !hich in time
!ould itself .ecome, for all "ractical "ur"oses, a 5erman colony#
1ut neither the "ossi.le nor the im"ossi.le ideas of the $u"reme Command !ere destined to .e fulfilled# The deli2eries of food
and %rain from the E0raine fell far short of the "romised million tons, and of these the %reater "art !ent to AustriaIHun%ary# The
same !as true of the e)"ected oil and %rain to .e "rocured from Rumania# Attem"ts to o.tain foodstuffs .y force and a%ainst the
!ill of the "o"ulation failed utterly# 1restI<ito2s0 "ro2ed a !illIoFItheI!is", lurin% the $u"reme Command e2er further and
further in "ursuit# And the $u"reme Command !as an allItooI!illin% follo!er# The "aranoia of <udendorff had no! .ecome
Na"oleonic# The First (uartermasterI5eneral sa! himself, .athed in the sunli%ht of 2ictory, creatin% and distri.utin% 0in%doms
as had the :m"eror of the French after the 7eace of Tilsit# He 0e"t a %arrison in the 1altic $tates, !here %randIducal
%o2ernments !ere in "rocess of creation, an army of occu"ation !as maintained in Rumania, an e)"editionary force !as
dis"atched to Finland to crush a 1olshe2i0 risin%, another e)"edition "enetrated to 1a0u, a third occu"ied the Crimean "orts,
and the 5erman colonies in the Crimea !ere ur%ed to a""eal to the Aaiser for anne)ation# <udendorffFs conce"tion of
Deutschtum had .ecome allIem.racin%# Q5erman "resti%e demands that !e should hold a stron% "rotecti2e hand, not only o2er
5erman citizens, .ut o2er all 5ermans,Q he !as !ritin% at the moment#
NiO
In addition, the "ro.lems of the 7olish Re%ency
demanded constant care and su"er2ision, and in the E0raine the maintenance of a succession of un"o"ular r^%imes "ro2ed more
of a lia.ility than an asset#
A 2ictorFs "eace must .e enforced, and in enforcin% the terms of 1restI<ito2s0 the $u"reme Command lost si%ht of the "rimary
o.Mect !ith !hich it had .e%un the ne%otiations# It had sou%ht to free its hands in the :ast in order to concentrate its reser2es of
man "o!er in the 4est# /et a million men immo.ilized in the :ast !as the "rice of 5erman a%%randizement, and half that
num.er mi%ht !ell ha2e turned the scale in the early sta%es of the 5erman offensi2e in France# Accordin% to .oth French and
1ritish military authorities, only a fe! ca2alry di2isions !ere necessary in 'arch and A"ril 191 to !iden the %a" in the Allied
line so that a %eneral retreat !ould ha2e .een ine2ita.le# These !ere not a2aila.le to the $u"reme Command on the 4estern
Front, .ut at the moment three 5erman ca2alry di2isions !ere held 2irtually idle in the E0raine# -nly in the late summer of
191, !hen the 5erman losses had attained fantastic fi%ures, !ere troo"s transferred from the :ast# 1ut they came a fe! at a
time and too late# <udendorff the 7olitician had defeated <udendorff the 5eneral#
Nor !as this all# The seed so!n at 1restI<ito2s0 .rou%ht forth not only 6ead $ea A""les .ut also "oisoned fruits# Too late !ere
the 5ermans to realize that they themsel2es !ere not immune to the 2irus !hich they had inMected into the .ody "olitic of
Russia# Throu%h different channels the "oison of 1olshe2i0 "ro"a%anda flo!ed .ac0 into 5ermany# 4hen <enin had .een sent
across :uro"e in a Qsealed coach,Q it had not .een foreseen that a year later a $o2iet Am.assador !ith full di"lomatic "ri2ile%es
and immunities !ould .e resident in 1erlin, "ro2idin% a rallyin%I"oint and source of monetary su""ort for the re2olutionary
elements of e)treme 5erman $ocialism#
NiiO
Thou%h it is 2ery %reatly to .e dou.ted that <enin recei2ed any financial assistance
from the 5erman 5o2ernment or $u"reme Command on his return to Russia, it is an esta.lished fact that mem.ers of the
Sparta)us%und and the Inde"endent $ocialist 7arty !ere "ro2ided !ith money from Joffe for re2olutionary "ur"oses, and !hen
in -cto.er Joffe !as finally e)"elled for his acti2ities, it !as too late#
A"art from this official contact of the $o2iet 5o2ernment !ith the re2olutionary elements in 1erlin, there !ere thousands of
unofficial emissaries !ho .rou%ht !ith them the seed of su.2ersi2e "ro"a%anda# 5erman "risoners of !ar had .een su.Mected to
the full force of 1olshe2i0 !iles# They had seen the Russian army crum.le a!ay under its influence, and on their return to
5ermany they .rou%ht the ne! "olitical "la%ue# Added to these !ere the troo"s on the :astern front themsel2es, !ho, .y the
Armistice A%reement of 1restI<ito2s0, had .een "ermitted to fraternize !ith the Russians in NoI'anFsI<and and had recei2ed
from them co"ies of the 0ac)el and other re2olutionary material s"ecially "re"ared for 5erman consum"tion# Thus each di2ision
transferred from :ast to 4est .rou%ht infection !ith it# Q4e reached the "oint,Q admitted Hoffmann, Q!here !e did not dare to
transfer certain of our :astern di2isions to the 4est#Q
Not only did the 7eace of 1restI<ito2s0 sa2e the Re2olution in Russia, it also materially contri.uted to the out.rea0 of the
Re2olution in 5ermany, and such Qsta..in%IinItheI.ac0Q as !as done is attri.uta.le to the $u"reme Command itself for they had
su""lied the ori%inal da%%ers#
III
To the Allied and Associated 7o!ers the 7eace of 1restI<ito2s0 !as of almost as %reat si%nificance as to the t!o contractin%
"arties# The disclosure of the na0ed and .rutal "olicy of anne)ation as "ractised .y a 2ictorious militarism "ro2ed a salutary
deterrent to the acti2ities of !ellImeanin% .ut mis%uided "acifists in the countries of the :ntente# These, discoura%ed .y the dar0
days of 1917, had .een "reachin% a Q"eace of understandin%#Q The conduct of the 5erman $u"reme Command at 1restI<ito2s0
sho!ed clearly !hat mi%ht .e e)"ected in the !ay of Qunderstandin%Q from the adherents of the *achtpoliti), and the effect on
the "eo"les of 5reat 1ritain, France, Italy and their smaller allies, !as a stiffenin% of the ran0s, a loc0in% of shields, a
determination to fi%ht on to the end and to destroy the militarist "o!er in 5ermany# It !as this rene!ed s"irit of resistance !hich
ena.led the ci2ilian "o"ulation to remain calm in the face of the early disasters !hich follo!ed the launchin% of the %reat
5erman offensi2e on 'arch ?1, 191, and to retain their confidence throu%hout that fearful s"rin% and early summer until the
counterIoffensi2e on July 1 !rested the initiati2e from the 5erman armies for the last time#
In addition to this "sycholo%ical effect, the 7eace of 1restI<ito2s0 had other unforeseen re"ercussions in the Allied cam"# It !as
res"onsi.le for the arri2al of Ja"anese troo"s for the third time in history u"on the mainland of Asia# Terrified .y the "ros"ect of
5erman "enetration into Asiatic Russia, the 1ritish and French 5o2ernments, in direct o""osition to the 2ie!s of their ad2isers
in 'osco! and des"ite 2ery %reat reluctance on the "art of the Enited $tates, countenanced the dis"atch to $i.eria of an interI
Allied e)"editionary force in !hich the Ja"anese contin%ent !as much the lar%est numerically# Thou%h the Allied and American
troo"s !ere !ithdra!n soon after the conclusion of "eace !ith 5ermany, the Ja"anese di2isions !ere not e2acuated until after
the 4ashin%ton Conference of 19??, and this "eriod of occu"ation undou.tedly !hetted the a""etite of Ni""on for further
territorial acBuisition in Asia#
In the Enited $tates the effect of the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0 !as e2en more a""arent# 6urin% the first year of American
"artici"ation in the !ar there had seemed to the Allies a certain lu0e!armness in 7resident 4ilsonFs "ursuit of his "olicies# Q4ar
u"on 5erman im"erialism, "eace !ith 5erman li.eralismQ II that had .een the essence of his s"eeches since A"ril 1917# The
em"hasis had .een laid on the "rofit !hich the li.eral elements in 5ermany could acBuire .y di2orcin% themsel2es from the
domination of the $u"reme Command and acce"tin% the terms !hich the 7resident !ould "ersuade the Allies to offer# It !as
lar%ely in this s"irit that 'r# 4ilson had enunciated his Fourteen 7oints# In formulatin% that "ro%ram he had ho"ed on the one
hand to encoura%e the Russians to refrain from ma0in% a se"arate "eace, and, on the other, to di2ide the 5erman "eo"le from
their rulers#
The unsatisfactory re"ly of the 5erman 5o2ernment to the Fourteen 7oints, follo!ed .y the .arefaced .rutality of the 1restI
<ito2s0 terms and their ratification .y the Reichsta% almost !ithout "rotest, con2inced the 7resident that there !as .ut one
5ermany to .e conBuered, the 5ermany of the $u"reme Command, and that the soundest "olitical strate%y !as to reiterate a%ain
and a%ain the im"ossi.ility of "eace !ith the 0ind of %o2ernment that had im"osed the Treaty of 1restI<ito2s0#
This chan%e in "olicy, a chan%e so 2ital that to it may .e attri.uted in lar%e measure the final and s"eedy 2ictory of the Allied
cause, !as made "u.lic in 7resident 4ilsonFs s"eech at 1altimore on A"ril 1C, 191, in !hich he fran0ly admitted his recent
chan%e of heart and ne! resoluteness of "ur"ose& Q# # # I am ready # # # ,Q he declared, Qto discuss a fair and Must and honest "eace
at any time that it is sincerely "ur"osed II a "eace in !hich the stron% and the !ea0 shall fare ali0e# 1ut the ans!er, !hen I
"ro"osed such a "eace, came from the 5erman commanders in Russia, and I cannot mista0e the meanin% of the ans!er# I acce"t
the challen%e# # # # 5ermany has once more said that force, and force alone, shall decide !hether Justice and 7eace shall rei%n in
the affairs of men# # # # There is, therefore, .ut one res"onse "ossi.le from us& Force, Force to the utmost, Force !ithout stint or
limit, the ri%hteous and trium"hant Force !hich shall ma0e Ri%ht the la! of the !orld, and cast e2ery selfish dominion do!n in
the dust#Q
NiiiO
This amounted to no less than a "led%e of the last man and %un and dollar in America to the Allied cause# Enanimity .et!een
the Enited $tates and the nations of the :ntente had at last .een achie2ed and 2ictory !as assured, for once the American
man"o!er !as made a2aila.le, there could .e no dou.t of the outcome# The artificer of this com"act !as <udendorff and the
.ac0%round of its for%in% !as 1restI<ito2s0# The 5erman $u"reme Command .y its "olicy of a%%randizement had contri.uted
to the Allied cause that final and essential de%ree of co`"eration and oneness of "ur"ose necessary for 2ictory#
Indeed they did more, for they had fore2er de"ri2ed themsel2es of the a.ility to use the Fourteen 7oints as a .asis of ne%otiation#
4hen the idea !as su%%ested .y 5ermany in the first Armistice Note of -cto.er J, it !as met !ith a .lan0 refusal on the "art of
the Allies# Q# # # the "ronouncements of 7resident 4ilson !ere a statement of attitude made .efore the 1restI<ito2s0 Treaty,Q ran
an official 1ritish memorandum of that time# Q# # # They cannot, therefore, .e understood as a full recitation of the conditions of
"eace#Q
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In the inter"retation of the Fourteen 7oints !hich occurred durin% the "reIArmistice ne%otiations, it !as made clear
that no 2esti%e of 5ermanyFs conBuests in the :ast could .e retained .y her# QIn any case the treaties of 1restI<ito2s0 and
1ucharest must .e cancelled as "al"a.ly fraudulent,Q stated the official commentary "re"ared .y Colonel HouseFs commission#
Q7ro2ision must .e made for the !ithdra!al of all 5erman troo"s in Russia#Q
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And it !as in accordance !ith this 2ie! that the
treaties !ere a.ro%ated in the Armistice A%reement of No2em.er 11, and formally annulled .y the Treaty of 8ersailles#
N2iO
I8
$uch !ere the more immediate results of 1restI<ito2s0 and such !as its tremendously im"ortant influence on contem"orary
e2ents# 1ut its "olitical im"lications are e2en more si%nificant today, for they ha2e a "rominent "lace in the "resent ideolo%ical
trends .oth in Russia and in 5ermany#
Thou%h it is almost im"ossi.le to e)tract any clear and undis"uted facts from the mystery !hich surrounds the 'osco! treason
trials of 19>C and 19>7, it does seem "ossi.le to detect in the minds and acti2ities of the accused, "articularly in the cases of
Rade0, $o0olni0o2 and 7iata0o2, a tendency to return to the tactics of !hat may .e called Q"rimiti2e <eninismQ and to the
"sycholo%y of the 1restI<ito2s0 "eriod# The -ld 1olshe2i0s, .elie2in% that the "rinci"les of <enin and the ideals of the
No2em.er Re2olution had .een .etrayed .y $talin, and con2inced that the E#$#$#R# could not !ithstand an attac0 .y .oth
5ermany and Ja"an, a""ear to ha2e re2erted to the "reIre2olutionary strate%y of sa.ota%e and su.2ersion in order to o2erthro!
the $talinist r^%ime and to the <eninist "olicy of defeatism and national immolation in order to "lacate for the moment the
a%%ressi2e "olicies of the t!o im"erialist and Fascist 7o!ers# The crimes of !hich they !ere accused, and to !hich they "leaded
%uilty, !ere none other than those 2ery "rinci"les of destruction and disinte%ration on !hich <enin .ased his fi%ht a%ainst the
<i.eral 5o2ernment of 7rince <2o2 and the $ocialist r^%ime of Aerens0y, !hile the "olicy of defeatism !as e)actly that
follo!ed .y him in re%ard to 1restI<ito2s0#
This latter doctrine had .een esta.lished .y <enin a%ain and a%ain# QIt is im"ossi.le to attain this end Nthe re2olutionO !ithout
!ishin% for the defeat of oneFs o!n 5o2ernment and !ithout !or0in% for such a defeat,Q he !rote in QA%ainst the Current#Q Nor
!as he content merely to "reach the doctrine !ithout "ractice# A%ainst the .itter o""osition of the <eft Communists, "articularly
1u0harin and Rade0 !ithin his o!n 7arty, he "ursued this same "olicy in re%ard to 1restI<ito2s0#
4hat, then, !ould .e more natural than for the -ld 1olshe2i0s to fall .ac0 on these ori%inal "rinci"les3 1oth Rade0 and
1u0harin had "u.licly declared that in follo!in% the doctrine of defeatism <enin had .een ri%ht and they !ron%# Is it not
"ossi.le that the "sycholo%y of 1restI<ito2s0 reasserted itself and that in ne%otiatin% !ith 5ermany and Ja"an for the cession of
the E0raine and the 'aritime 7ro2ince they !ere re2ertin% to the "rinci"le of the Q.reathin% s"ellQ in order to safe%uard
themsel2es from e)ternal a%%ression !hile settin% a.out the destruction of the $talin r^%ime !hich they re%arded as ha2in%
.etrayed the Re2olution3 7resuma.ly it !as ho"ed to re%ain all territory lost at some later date, either .y the e)tension of the
!orld re2olution or .y some re2olutionary !ar# The !isdom of such a course is, of course, clearly Buestiona.le, .ut that it !as
contem"lated a""ears to .e the only reasona.le clue to the solution of the 'osco! mystery#
This consideration, ho!e2er, is of only academic interest com"ared !ith the 2ery "ractical a""lication of the "rinci"les of 1restI
<ito2s0 o.tainin% in 5ermany since the ad2ent to "o!er of the National $ocialist r^%ime# The 4eimar Re"u.lic, su""orted .y
the maMority o"inion on the 5erman 5eneral $taff re"resented .y 5eneral 2on $eec0t, sou%ht to reach a rapprochement !ith the
$o2iet Enion, and lar%ely succeeded in doin% so .y the Treaty of Ra"allo, the 5ermanIRussian NonIA%%ression Treaty, and the
'ilitary A%reement of A"ril >, 19??# There remained, ho!e2er, a minority school of thou%ht !hich follo!ed in the Hoffmann
tradition, re%ardin% 1olshe2ism as the root of all e2il and dreamin% of the ultimate realization of those farIreachin% "lans for
5erman e)"ansion in :astern :uro"e !hich so sadly eluded them after 1restI<ito2s0#
Added to this are the 2ery definite 2ie!s !hich Adolf Hitler himself holds re%ardin% the Treaty and the le%end a.out it !hich
the National $ocialist 7arty has sedulously fostered, "ointin% the !ay to !hat is descri.ed as an attaina.le ideal# For the
ideolo%y !hich actuated the dictation of the treaty has not .een re"laced .y any other set of ideas and is no! acce"ted .y a lar%e
"art of the 5erman "eo"le# The "resent 5erman %eneration, the %eneration of Nazi 5ermany, re%ards the "rinci"les of 1restI
<ito2s0 and the moti2es lyin% .ehind it as an actual "olitical "ro%ram#
N2iiO
None has .een more eloBuent in this 2ie! than the
0Phrer himself, in his com"arison of the Treaty !ith the 7eace of 8ersailles# QI "laced the t!o Treaties side .y side, com"ared
them "oint .y "oint, sho!ed the "ositi2ely .oundless humanity of the one in contrast to the inhuman cruelty of the other,Q he
!rote in Q'ein Aam"f#Q QIn those days I s"o0e on this su.Mect .efore audiences of ?,@@@ at !hich I !as often e)"osed to the
%aze of >,C@@ hostile eyes# And three hours later I had .efore me a sur%in% mass filled !ith ri%hteous indi%nation and .oundless
!rath#Q
N2iiiO
4ith this as a "ointer it is not sur"risin% to find Hitler statin% some!hat later in his !or0& Q4e Nthe National
$ocialistsO sto" the "er"etual 5erman mi%ration to!ards the $outh and 4est of :uro"e and fi) our %aze on the land in the :ast# #
# # 4hen !e tal0 of ne! lands in :uro"e, !e are .ound to thin0 first of Russia and her .order states#Q
Ni)O
And a%ain, Q4e must not
for%et that the international Je!, !ho continues to dominate o2er Russia, does not re%ard 5ermany as an ally, .ut as a state
destined to under%o a similar fate# The menace !hich Russia suffered under is one !hich "er"etually han%s o2er 5ermany,
5ermany is the ne)t %reat o.Mecti2e of 1olshe2ism#Q
N)O
Here, then, is com.ined in one "olitical "hiloso"hy the doctrines of "re!ar 7anI5ermanism, allI"er2adin% hatred of the Je! and
the ideolo%ical o""osition to 1olshe2ism, and the only means .y !hich this "hiloso"hy may .e %i2en "ractical a""lication is
throu%h a re2ersion to the 5erman "sycholo%y of 1restI<ito2s0# It is not unim"ortant that "olitical !riters of 1917 tal0ed as
freely of 5erman eBuality *Gleich%erechtigung+ as do the Nazi "undits today, .ut they !ere e2en more fran0 in their
inter"retation of it# QThe issue .et!een us and :n%land constitutes not so much isolated "ro.lems, as the conflict .et!een
:n%landFs !orld domination hitherto and our endea2or to o.tain Gleich%erechtigung in the !orld# That is !hy the !ar is .ein%
!a%ed#Q $o !rote 7rofessor Hettner in his .oo0, Q6er deutsche Friede und die deutsche Ku0unft,Q and years later Hitler
e"itomized this statement in a sin%le sentence& Q5ermany !ill .e a 4orld 7o!er or nothin% at all#Q He admits that :n%land !ill
not tolerate 5ermany as a 4orld 7o!er, .ut says that this is not for the moment an ur%ent Buestion, for 5ermany is first
concerned !ith unitin% the 5erman race and fi%htin% for territory in :uro"e#
N)iO
Re2ertin% to the <udendorff thesis that Q5erman "resti%e demands that !e should hold a stron% "rotectin% hand, not only o2er
5erman citizens, .ut o2er all 5ermans,Q Hitler aims first at the realization of a Deutschtum stretchin% from Jutland to the
1renner and from $trass.ur% to Ri%a, and later at securin% for 5ermany enou%h territory to accommodate ?@@,@@@,@@@ 5ermans#
This e)"ansion, accordin% to the 2ie!s e)"ressed in Q'ein Aam"f,Q undis"uted 1i.le of the Third Reich, is to ta0e "lace in the
:ast and $outheast of :uro"e, in those territories to !hich 5erman colonization durin% the 'iddle A%es !as directed II Q4e
.e%in a%ain !here !e left off si) centuries a%o#Q
Considered in this li%ht, the ste"s ta0en .y Nazi 5ermany in Austria and its attitude to!ard Czechoslo2a0ia, the 1altic $tates,
7oland, Hun%ary and Rumania assume a ne! si%nificance# The e)"ansion of 5ermany concei2ed today in these terms "arallels
the "olitical system !hich the 7anI5ermans and the $u"reme Command "lanned durin% the 4orld 4ar& that is to say, 5erman
"olitical he%emony o2er all remotely 5ermanic states and a meditated acBuisition of Russian territory# The s0eleton structure of
that system !as set u" under the Treaties of 1restI<ito2s0 and 1ucharest# The methods differ in each case# First Austria is
a.sor.ed into the Reich, and !ith it the control of the 6anu.e "asses to 5ermany# Then Czechoslo2a0ia is su.Mected to threats,
terrorism and "ro"a%anda calculated to stimulate Qs"ontaneousQ internal re2olt !hich may lead to the li.eration of the $udeten
5ermans# 7oland and the 1altic $tates, as in the days of 1restI<ito2s0, are offered com"romises and the e)"ectation of security
II thou%h it may .e recalled that in Q'ein Aam"fQ the 7oles are not only dismissed as Qinferior,Q .ut 7olish children are classed
on the same lo! le2el as Je!s, Ne%roes and Asiatics# To!ards Hun%ary, Ju%osla2ia and Rumania a "olicy of .landishment and
flattery is ado"ted in the ho"e of !innin% a!ay the first from Italian and the t!o latter from French influence#
$o the Drang nach SPd&:sten is !ell under !ay a%ain#
N)iiO
$imultaneously the first ste"s are .ein% ta0en to direct 5erman
"olitical thou%ht to!ards the ad2anta%es of e)"ansion into Russia# 5erman QcolonizationQ in Russia had .een "ro"osed .y 6r#
$chacht at a conference in Rome in No2em.er 19>?, e2en .efore the ad2ent of Hitler to "o!er# The su.Mect !as re2i2ed in Herr
Hu%en.er%Fs famous memorandum to the 4orld :conomic Conference in June 19>># The 0Phrer himself made "lain reference
to it durin% his s"eeches a%ainst Communism at the N]rn.er% Parteifest of 19>C& QIf the Erals !ith their incalcula.le !ealth of
ra! materials, the rich forests of $i.eria, and the unendin% cornfields of the E0raine lay !ithin 5ermany, under National
$ocialist leadershi" the country !ould s!im in "lenty#Q
N)iiiO
Q4e !ould "roduce, and e2ery sin%le 5erman !ould ha2e enou%h to
li2e on,Q he told re"resentati2es of the ,r%eitsfront on $e"tem.er 1?# No "urer e)am"le of 1restI<ito2s0 "sycholo%y could .e
reBuired than this incitement to "lunder# The s"eech mi%ht as !ell ha2e .een ins"ired .y the 7ress 6e"artment of the 5reat
5eneral $taff in the early !ee0s of 191#
The nearin% of the com"letion of 5erman rearmament .rin%s to a close the first sta%e of the Nazi de2elo"ment to!ards
Gleich%erechtigung. The second, !hich o2erla"s the first, has already .e%un, and 5ermany is !ell on the !ay to the
esta.lishment of her desired he%emony# 4ith each ste" for!ard the .urden of the "sycholo%y of 1restI<ito2s0 !ei%hs hea2ier
u"on the 5erman mentality and ma0es more ine2ita.le the ultimate effort to fulfil her destiny# :uro"e has .een treated to one
dis"lay of the effects of this "sychosis, and should 5ermany succeed in re\sta.lishin% the situation !hich e)isted for a .rief
moment after 1restI<ito2s0, the results !ould .e e2en more threatenin% than they !ere then# For an industrialized Russia
e)"loited .y the or%anizin% %enius of 5ermany conMures u" a 2ision !hich no 4estern :uro"ean can contem"late !ith
eBuanimity# 1ut in 191 the !illIoFItheI!is" of am.ition lured 5ermany into a slou%h of dilemmas from !hich she could not
e)tricate herself# The rest of :uro"e remem.ers !hat Herr Hitler may ha2e for%otten, that disaster follo!ed in the train of %lory#
NiO
:rich <udendorff, QThe 5eneral $taff and Its 7ro.lems#Q Ne! /or0& 6utton, 19?@, 2# ?, "# LC?#
NiiO
Ender Article ? of the Treaty the 1olshe2i0s had underta0en to refrain from "ro"a%anda and su.2ersi2e acti2ities in the
countries of the Central 7o!ers and in the occu"ied territories# Joffe, ho!e2er, made a "u.lic declaration to the effect that QThe
$o2iet 5o2ernment as a .ody, and its accredited re"resentati2es in 1erlin, ha2e ne2er concealed the fact that they are not %oin%
to o.ser2e this a%reement and ha2e no intention of so doin% in the future#Q
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QIntimate 7a"ers of Colonel House#Q 1oston& Hou%hton, 19?, 2# >, "# J?7#
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Q4ar 'emoirs of 6a2id <loyd 5eor%e#Q 1oston& <ittle, 1ro!n, 19>7, 2# C, "# ?LC#
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House 7a"ers# 2# J, "# 19C#
N2iO
It !as this attitude of the Allied and Associated 7o!ers to!ards the dictated 7eace of 1restI<ito2s0 !hich stron%ly influenced
the 5erman $ocial 6emocrats in finally acce"tin% the dictated 7eace of 8ersailles# They !ere "ersuaded that reaction a%ainst the
harshness of the "eace terms !ould ine2ita.ly occur in the Allied countries and that this !ould result in a re2ision of the Treaty#
N2iiO
QThe <essons of 1restI<ito2s0,Q .y Q7ra%maticus#Q Slavonic and East European .eview, January 19>7, "# >?I>J>#
N2iiiO
Adolf Hitler& Q'ein Aam"f,Q 2# 1, "# L?>IL?L#
Ni)O
5%id., 2# ?, "# 7J?#
N)O
5%id., 2# ?, "# 7L@I7L1#
N)iO
5%id., 2# ?, "# C99#
N)iiO
For %ood accounts of this mo2ement see QHitlerFs 6ri2e to the :ast,Q .y F# :l!yn Jones# Ne! /or0& 6utton, 19>7, and
QHitler 7ushes $outhIeast,Q .y 6r# 5erhard $chacher# 19>7#
N)iiiO
As re"orted in the 1ritish "ress of $e"tem.er 1JI1L, this sentence !as 2ariously translated, as follo!s& QIf he could
commandQ *"he "imes+, QIf !e had at our dis"osalQ *Daily "elegraph+, QIf !e hadQ **anchester Guardian+# In the official te)t
of the s"eech, "u.lished in the 5erman "ress on $e"tem.er 1J, it !as noted that the sentence had .een modified and issued in
the form "rinted a.o2e#
$ource& htt"&;;!!!#forei%naffairs#com;articles;C9L7;MohnI!I!heelerI.ennett;theImeanin%IofI.restIlito2s0Itoday