Fig.2.

1 Schematic of orthogonal cutting operation

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

Mechanism of chip formation
The metal that is cut away from the blank by the cutting tool is called the chip. The cutting process (or chip formation) is one of the complex physical processes, involving both elastic and plastic deformation. The action of the cutting tool subjects the layer of metal being cut to compression. As with tension, the compression process is accompanied by elastic and plastic deformation. The uncut layer ahead of the cutting tool tip is compressed and deforms into a chip after it goes through a severe plastic deformation (Fig.2.1). The deformed material flows up the tool face, which is known as Rake face. The zone in which deformation takes place (a narrow zone) is called the Shear zone, which can be considered as a plane. The deformation is by shear as the deformed layer moves on the adjacent layer only by shear and moves up the tool face. The complete machining process is composed for four elements: 1. Workpiece besides, it also includes prime-mover and workholding devices, 2. Tool it also includes tool holding devices, 3. Chip and 4. Cutting fluid.

Fig.2.2 Piispanens idealized model of cutting process

The associated fields of interest related with the above four factors are described hereunder: (a) Workpiece: its shape and size for continuous and intermittent cutting, the chemical composition, mechanical properties, and metallurgical properties. (b) Tool: Material and geometry.

(c)
(d)

Chip: Types of chips and their geometry. Cutting fluid: Its chemical composition, rate of flow, and the mode of application.

Card Model
The so-called card model of the cutting process (Fig.2.2) given by Piispanen (1937) is very useful to understand cutting process. This model depicts the material cut as a deck of cards inclined to the free surface at an angle corresponding to the shear angle ( ). As the tool moves relative to the work, it engages one card at a time and causes it to slide over its neighbor. While this model; 1. exaggerates the inhomogeneity of strain, 2. depicts tool face friction as elastic rather than plastic, 3. assumes shear to occur on a perfectly plane surface, 4. ignores any BUE that may be present,

5. involves an arbitrarily assumed shear angle ( ),

6. does not explain chip curl or predict chip-tool contact length. It does contain the main concept in the chip-forming process (concentrated simple shear) and is easy to understand.

Classical Machining Processes

All metal cutting operations can be likened to the process shown in Fig.2.3, where the tool is wedge shaped, has a straight cutting edge, and is constrained to move relative to the workpiece in such a way that a layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip. Fig.2.3.b depicts the general case of cutting known as oblique cutting. A special case of cutting, where the cutting edge of the tool is arranged to be perpendicular to the direction of relative work-tool motion (Fig.2.3.a), is known as orthogonal cutting. Since orthogonal cutting represents a two-dimensional rather than a three-dimensional problem, it lends itself to research investigations where it is desirable to eliminate as many of the independent variables as possible. The relatively simple arrangement of orthogonal cutting is therefore widely used in theoretical and experimental work.

Fig.2.3 (a) Orthogonal Cutting, (b) Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal cutting system Fig.2.3 a is a related model of the ideal cutting process that completely suppresses the concept of inhomogeneous strain by assuming the material to behave a completely homogeneous fashion. We can obtain orthogonal cutting by turning a thin walled tube, and setting the lath bit cutting edge perpendicular to the tube axis. The assumptions on which this two dimensional model is based include: 1. The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance face. 2. The shear surface is a plane extending upward from the cutting edge. 3. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it. 4. The chip does not flow to either side (plane strain). 5. The depth of cut is constant. 6. The width of the tool is greater than that of the workpiece. 7. The work moves relative to the tool with uniform velocity. 8. A continuous chip is produced with no built-up edge. 9. The shear and normal stresses along shear plane and tool are uniform. Such an ideal two-dimensional cutting operation is referred to as orthogonal cutting. Oblique cutting system The oblique cutting system differs from the orthogonal cutting system in so many ways. Its salient features are:

1. The cutting edge is inclined at an angle i with the normal to the cutting velocity vector. The angle
i is known as inclination angle. This angle is measured in the plane of new work surface. 2. The cutting edge may or may not clear the width of the workpiece. 3. The chip flows on the tool face making an angle with the normal on the cutting edge. The angle is measured in the plane of the tool face. 4. Three components of cutting forces are acting at the cutting edge. The components are mutually perpendicular. 5. The tool may or may not generate a surface parallel to the workface. 6. Frequently, more than one cutting edge is in action.

Types of Chips:
All machining processes involve formation of chips by deforming the work material on the surface of the job with the help of a cutting tool. Therefore, the extent of deformation that the material suffers not only

determines the type of the chip but also determines the quality of the machined surface (e.g. its roughness, microstructure and residual stresses), cutting force, temperatures developed and dimensional accuracy of the job. The type of chip formed is an indication of the deformation and surface quality produced during cutting. If the chip is thicker, it indicates that more energy was spent in the operation and vice-versa. Various types of chips may be obtained in metal cutting, depending upon the machining conditions and the material being cut. Three principal types of chips Continuous chips without built-up edge, Continuous chips with built-up edge, Discontinuous/Segmental chips, and Inhomogeneous chips. The extent of primary zone of deformation depends on 1. Rake angle of the tool 2. Cutting speed 3. Work material characteristics 4. Friction on rake face With large rake angle tools, the transition of work material into chip is gradual and the material suffers less overall deformation. Cutting forces are also low with large rake angle tools. With higher cutting speeds, the thickness of the primary zone of deformation shrinks, i.e. it becomes narrower. The material characteristics, which influence the size of primary zone, are: (i) strength; (ii) strain; (iii) strain rate and (iv) heat conductivity. Increase in friction on the rake face would tend to increase the size of both the primary and the secondary zones of deformation. The higher the cutting speed, the smaller the cutting angle, the harder the material being machined, the thicker the layer of metal being cut and the better the oiliness of the cutting fluid, the greater the angle of shear will be.

The Built-up Edge (BUE) in Metal Cutting

The temperature is high at the interface between the chip and the tool during cutting. Also, the work material slides under heavy pressure on the rake face before being transformed into a free chip. Therefore, in these conditions, some portion of the chip sticks to the rake face of the tool, which is defined as the builtup edge (BUE). Because of such a close contact, it discharges its heat to the tool and thus becomes stronger than the rest of material flowing over it. Naturally, it attracts more of deforming work material and thus the size of the BUE goes on increasing. When it reaches a certain critical size, it no longer remains stable and portions of it disintegrate (break-up) and either get embedded in the machined surface or get attached to the underside of the flowing chip. The BUE is neither stable nor uniform in size along the cutting edge even under conditions especially favorable to its formation.

Fig.2.4 Built-up edge on a single point tool: (a) stable BUE; (b) break-down of the BUE

The hardness of the BUE may be two or three times that of the metal being machined so that it can cut a layer of metal on the work. Since it is a sort of extension of the tool, the BUE changes the tool geometry as shown in Fig.2.4 (with a built-up edge the cutting angle 1 is less than the cutting angle obtained in sharpening the tool). Consequently, as it travels together with the tool (in relation to the work) the BUE affects the deformation of the layer being cut, tool wear, forces acting on the tool and the surface finish produced. Since the BUE reduces the cutting angle of the tool (leading to easier chip removal), protects the cutting edge against the abrasive action of the flowing chip and the machined surface, shifts the center of pressure of the chip to a point some distance behind the cutting edge and protects the cutting edge to some extent against the action of heat evolved in cutting, it is not to be considered especially harmful in roughing operations. In finish machining, however, when a high class of surface finish is required, a built-up edge is undesirable. If there were no built-up edge on the tool shown in Fig.2.4, a comparatively smooth surface I would be obtained (dash line corresponding to a depth of cut t1). A rougher surface would be obtained if the BUE were absolutely stable (surface II, corresponding to a depth of cut t2). But since the built-up edge is periodically broken off and then restored, the actual thickness of the uncut chip and the depth of cut continuously vary (t2 > t1). This results in a considerably greater actual height of irregularities on the machined surface than the roughness of surface I or II. Moreover, periodic variations in the thickness of the uncut chip and in the depth of cut may cause vibration, which also impairs the quality of surface finish. Along with the poorer surface finish produced; the variation in the size of the built-up edge also leads to variation in the diameter of the work. Investigations show that at low cutting speeds (2 to 5 m per min) there is no built-up edge (Fig.2.5) because a discontinuous chip is produced and the cutting temperature is low. As the cutting speed is increased, the chip changes from the discontinuous type to the inhomogeneous and continuous types, flow of the plastically deformed layers is observed an the cutting temperature is such that the formed stagnant zone is not only hardened and arrested on the tool face but is welded onto it. The cutting speed corresponding to the maximum height of built-up edge ranges from 10 to 20 m per min. At a further increase in the cutting speed the temperature rises and the stagnant zone, being softened, is reduced in extent. This zone is transformed into a thin arrested, but not welded-on, layer.

Fig.2.4 Built-up edge on a single point tool: (a) stable BUE; (b) break-down of the BUE

The value of the cutting speed at which the built-up edge will be of maximum height and the speed beginning with which there will be no BUE depend upon the machining conditions. The higher the hardness of the steel being machined, the larger the cutting angle of the tool and the thicker the uncut chip (i.e. the higher the cutting temperature at the same cutting speed), the lower the cutting speed at which the built-up chip disappears. Continuous chips without BUE During the cutting of ductile materials like low carbon steel, copper, brass, and aluminium alloys etc. a continuous chip is formed. Such a chip flows off the tool face in the form of a ribbon without the notches typical of inhomogeneous chips. A continuous chip looks like a long ribbon with a smooth shining surface. This chip type may indicate, 1. ductile work materials 2. large rake angles 3. fine feeds and high speeds 4. use of coolant and good chip flow The higher the cutting speed and the toughness of the metal being machined (more ductile materials), the smaller the cutting angle (large rake angle), the smaller the thickness of the layer being cut, and the higher the quality of the cutting fluid, and use of cutting fluid, the nearer the chip will approach the continuous type without BUE. Many years ago, Thime observed that the layer of metal being cut exerts a variable force on the tool. Such a variation in the cutting force leads to non-uniform loading of the tool, work and all parts of the machine tool, and if these parts are not sufficiently rigid, vibration may appear and the quality of the machined surface may be impaired. The range of cutting force variation is less for a continuous chip. Along with more uniform load on the machine-fixture-tool-workpiece complex with a continuous chip, a smoother machined surface will be produced. Thus, the type of chip obtained throws much light on the nature and quality of the cutting process. The formation of a continuous chip, instead of the discontinuous or inhomogeneous variety, confirms, in many cases, that the geometric elements of the tool point and the machining variables have been correctly assigned. Continuous chips and subsequently continuous cutting action is generally desired. Continuous chips with BUE BUE forms with highly ductile materials being machined at low speed (high friction), low feed and low depth of cut. By increasing the speed, the interface temperature can be increased which softens the

BUE. As a result, the critical size of the BUE starts reducing. At sufficiently high speeds, the BUE completely disappears. Continuous chips with a built up edge still look like a long ribbon, but the surface is no longer smooth and shining. This type of chip tends to indicate,

1. High friction between work and tool causes high temperatures that will occasionally weld the chip to
the tool. This will break free, but the effect is a rough cutting action. A little bit of phosphorous or sulphorous material is added to the base metal (low carbon steel) of screws of small size, which have to be machined at low cutting speeds. The added material will act as a solid lubricant to prevent the friction. Discontinuous chips This type of chip is produced in machining hard and brittle materials like cast iron and brass containing higher percentages of zinc, etc. A discontinuous chip comes off as small chunks or particles. When we get this chip it may indicate, 1. brittle work material 2. small rake angles 3. coarse feeds and low speeds Discontinuous chip formation differs from continuous chip formation in that the contact of work material over the tool rake face is over a shorter length and hence for a shorter duration. Most of the heat produced in the chip is carried by the chip itself. As a consequence, the tool is heated to a lower temperature and hence has a longer life. In materials which are less brittle (i.e. which can suffer some plastic deformation), both continuous and discontinuous chips may be formed under appropriate conditions of rake angle and cutting speed. Large depth of cut, low speed, high feed and less rake angle are used for forming discontinuous chips in the case of moderate ductile materials (which in case with most of the work materials like steel, etc.) The force required is less while machining materials which form discontinuous chips because of the less friction in the secondary deformation zone. Inhomogeneous chips These chips are obtained while machining materials like Titanium whose thermal conductivity is low. The side of the chip adjoining the tool face is smooth while the opposite side has notches showing the orientation of the separate tightly bonded segments.