K Livingston

EDU 615

Motivation to Learn Paper

Educators have long been fascinated with how and why students are motivated. Cognitive psychologists have offered many motivational theories within the auspices of cognitive study; among these theories are the Expectancy X Value Theory, Goal Orientation Theory, Attribution Theory, Self-determination Theory, and Social Cognitive Theory. Examples of the functions of all five of these theories can be witnessed in classrooms daily. The Expectancy X Value Theory asserts that student motivation is contingent on the value said student places on his/her ability to meet a goal and be successful. This theory is deeply rooted in the value of student self-efficacy; the student has to have a belief in his ability to succeed. There are four components to this theory. One component of this theory is intrinsic value, or the value a student places on the interest and enjoyment a particular task offers. A second component is attainment value. Attainment value addresses the affect of a students selfconcept on his/her ability and interest in completing a task successfully. The third component, utility value, concerns the students perception of the usefulness of a given task; in other words, is the task worth the time needed to complete it? The fourth component of Expectancy X Value Theory is cost. Cost addresses the negative conditions of completing a task, and students may weigh the benefits versus the cost of completing a given task within the conditions of this theory. These four components involve the task value. Students who find a positive value to tasks within a certain subject area may consider more in depth study of this subject as they continue in their academic careers. Students who find no positive value in certain subjects may quit while they are ahead and focus on those subjects that they find to have a more positive value. In other words, they steer clear of those subjects that have failed their personal cost benefits analysis. This theory is evident particularly at the secondary education level, when students can make choices of courses to study; for example, high school students may have several math classes

K Livingston

EDU 615

Motivation to Learn Paper

from which to choose. Prior experience in the content area may influence what courses a student selects. Goal Orientation Theory examines the motivation behind student mastery and performance. Students who are mastery-oriented take the time to master the content being taught and recognize the importance of mastery itself. Mastery-oriented students may avoid a task if they do not understand or feel unable to master content. Students who are performance-oriented are more interested in how they compare to peers and how mastery is being judged. Conversely, performance-oriented students may avoid goals if there is a risk of appearing unsuccessful. Thus students who exhibit characteristics of Goal Orientation Theory may be either driven by a motivation to master content, a more personal approach, or they may be more concerned with the social aspects of performance; they may shy away or avoid a task that may challenge them and foster feelings of inadequacy in those judging their performance and their peers. For example, when given a choice of activities to complete at the end of a unit, students may lean towards an activity that provides comfort as well as achievement, such as a brochure as opposed to a skit performed in front of the class. Attribution Theory examines how one explains an occurrence. This theory asserts that humans have an intrinsic need to find out why?. We will consider why an event occurred, and consider our feelings about an event. Then we will determine our motivation to engage in a similar event in the future based on the feelings evoked by the recent circumstance. This theory describes three dimensions that an individual considers in any given experience: stability, or the perception of the likelihood of an event or situation occurring in a constant manner in the future; locus, where an event is considered to be caused internally or externally, and where the control of an event occurs; and control, where an individual examines whether or not his own behavior

K Livingston

EDU 615

Motivation to Learn Paper

has an influence or control on the reoccurrence of an event or situation. This theory perhaps most intensively examines the concept of academic motivation, as a student will spend a great deal of time addressing the outcome of a behavior in order to determine if he has any control over the outcome. For example, when a student fails an assignment, he will consider the reasons (why) he may have failed; did he study or not? The student can then address the dimensions of stability, locus and control in determining what can be changed to elicit better results next time. The Self-Determination Theory has a strong cognitive psychology foundation. Abraham Maslow identified a hierarchy of needs that examines self-concept and comfort. This theory identifies the three basic human needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. SelfDetermination addresses the concept that individuals will engage in activities that help them meet these needs. An individual will be motivated to master a task based on the impact of this performance on the three needs stated above. All three of these characteristics address the various needs Maslow assigned in his hierarchy; repeated success of a student academically can elevate said student to the highest level of Maslows hierarchy, self-actualization. At this level, an individual recognizes his potential, and can use this recognition to foster intrinsic motivation for continued success. The Social Cognitive Theory follows very closely the work of Albert Bandura, who developed a reciprocal triad of concepts that lend themselves to one another and influence an individuals development of self-efficacy, his belief that he had the ability to perform and complete a task. Bandura described his triad as being an interaction of an individuals personal attributes, environmental characteristics, and behaviors. This theory also asserts that an individual may try a new behavior that he sees being performed by another. A student that

K Livingston

EDU 615

Motivation to Learn Paper

observes another student being recognized for an appropriate behavior or successful completion of a task may attempt to replicate that behavior towards his own success. Motivation is a concept of all five of these theories. Individuals are motivated by a number of factors. Whats in it for me? seems to be the underlying question in all motivational theories. These five theories address the concept of self; self-esteem, self-concept, selfefficacy, self-determination. Motivation is a self-actualized concept that is present in all individuals; however, it is not exposed and maintained the same way for everyone. Each student has the ability to be motivated, or to motivate him/herself. An effective teacher works to create and maintain an environment that provides the safety and security needed to allow students to develop intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. These are the traits students need to inspire themselves to personal success and achievement.

K Livingston

EDU 615 References

Motivation to Learn Paper

Anderman, R. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2009). Classroom motivation. (1 ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/conation/maslow.html

K Livingston August 30, 20-Dear Parents,

EDU 615

Motivation to Learn Paper

Welcome to sixth grade! I look forward to a wonderful year of teaching your students, and I appreciate the privilege of teaching them about ancient civilizations this year. My goal is to provide your children with a safe and secure classroom environment that will facilitate personal academic success for all students through a rigorous study of the development of the cultures of the world over time. I have had the opportunity to explore the cognitive theories of motivation, and wanted to take a moment to address some of what I have learned with you as we work together towards your childs personal academic success. I have found is that motivation is individual. What works for one student as motivation may or may not work for another. I feel that students in sixth grade readily exhibit characteristics that are blended from the three following theories: Goal Orientation, Expectancy X Value, and Attribution. Students at this age want some degree of autonomy and choice, but still require a great deal of guidance in making personal choices. Some want loud and boisterous recognition, others quiet words of encouragement and praise. This individuality of motivation drives my lesson planning to allow students opportunities to challenge themselves and try activities that are outside of their comfort zone. Some students who demonstrate aspects of the Goal Orientation school of thought will exhibit strong personal mastery goals. They focus on mastering a skill so they may be proficient at the time of performance demonstration. Other students of this age may be concerned with how their performance in completing a goal is viewed, both by adults and peers. They may be more concerned with the social aspects of performance; they may shy away or avoid a task that may challenge them and foster feelings of inadequacy in those judging their performance and their peers. For these reasons, I will offer multiple assignments during the year that will build each students feeling of self-efficacy, or perception of each individuals ability to complete a task. Students that demonstrate characteristics of the Expectancy X Value Theory want to know whats in this for me? and motivate themselves accordingly. These students have determined what the benefit of this goal is and complete it according to its worth or avoid it if the cost is too dear. These are the students that ask the purpose of an activity or topic of discussion. It is my job to make sure each lesson is personally beneficial to each student, that they see the benefit of a task or activity as being greater than its cost. Finally, students that exhibit the characteristics of the Attribution Theory are those who ask why?. They want to know why an event had a given outcome and if the outcome would be different if other factors could influence it. In terms of our content this year, the Attribution Theory students will readily consider the questions we face about why things in history happened

K Livingston

EDU 615

Motivation to Learn Paper

as they did. They will also be the ones who analyze how their behaviors impact an event and what is within their power to allow something to happen again or keep it from occurring. Key to the success of all students is motivation. While I offer some extrinsically motivating rewards, such as homework passes and extra recess, my focus is on creating a safe, nurturing environment that encourages risk-taking and personal experience with actions and the consequences of these actions. I will support your student and offer words of praise, encouragement, and explanation as needed as each child works towards their personal academic success. My roles are to guide, correct and celebrate as your student progresses through the sixth grade. I recognize that motivation and learning are personalized, and I will work diligently to nurture your student as they learn and grow. It is going to be a great year!

Sincerely, Kara Livingston