Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES The researchers topic tackles about the Amicable Pair. In this chapter, you will see some of the related literature and studies about the topic.

Related Literatures:

AMICABLE NUMBERS

Two numbers are said to be amicable (i.e., friendly) if each one of them is equal to the sum of the proper divisors of the others (i.e., whole numbers less than the given numbers that divide the given number with no remainder). For example, 220 have proper divisors 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55, and 110. The sum of these divisors is 284. The proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142. Their sum is 220; so 220 and 284 are amicable. This is the smallest pair of amicable numbers.

HISTORY OF AMICABLE PAIR

The discovery of amicable numbers is attributed to the neo-Pythagorean Greek philosopher Iamblichus of Chalcis (c. AD 250330), who credited Pythagoras (582500 BC) with the original knowledge of their nature. The Pythagoreans believed that amicable numbers, like all special numbers, had a profound cosmic significance. A biblical reference (a gift of 220 goats from Jacob to Esau, Genesis 23: 14) is thought by some to indicate an earlier knowledge of amicable numbers.

No pairs of amicable numbers other than 220 and 284 were discovered by European mathematicians until 1636, when French mathematician Pierre de Fermat (16011665) found the pair 18, 496 and 17, 296. A century later, Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (17071783) made an extensive search and found about 60 additional pairs. Surprisingly, however, he overlooked the smallest pair after 220 and 284, which is 1184 and 1210. It was subsequently discovered in 1866 by a 16-year-old boy, Nicolo Paganini.

During the medieval period, Arabian mathematicians preserved and developed the mathematical knowledge of the ancient Greeks. For example, the polymath Thabit ibn Qurra (836901) formulated an ingenious rule for generating amicable number pairs: Let a = 3(2n) 1, b = 3(2n-1) 1, and c = 9(22n-1) 1; then, if a, b, and c are primes, 2nab and 2nc are amicable. This rule produces 220 and 284 when n is 2. When n is 3, c is not a prime, and the resulting numbers are not amicable. For n = 4, it produces Fermats pair, 17, 296 and 18, 416, skipping over Paganinis pair and others.

Other scientists who have studied amicable numbers throughout history are Spanish mathematician Al Madshritti (died 1007), Islamic mathematician Abu Mansur Tahir al-Baghdadi (9801037), French mathematician and philosopher Ren Descartes (15961650), and Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (17071783).

Professionals and amateurs alike have for centuries enjoyed seeking them (Amicable Pairs) and exploring their properties.

AMICABLE PAIR

An amicable pair is a pair of positive integers (m, n), where

, such that

(m)=

(n)=m+n,

(.) denotes the sum of divisors function. These number pairs have a long and interesting

history. Euler was the first who systematically studied amicable pairs, and a great part of the known pairs were found with his methods and the use of electronic computers.

PROPER DIVISORS

A positive proper divisor is a positive divisor of a number , excluding

itself. For

example, 1, 2, and 3 are positive proper divisors of 6, but 6 itself is not. The number of proper divisors of is therefore given by

(n)

(n)-1

where

(n) is the divisor function. For n=1, 2, ...,

is therefore given by 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 3,

2, 3, .... The largest proper divisors of n=2, 3, ... are 1, 1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 3, 5, 1, ....

The term "proper divisor" is sometimes used to include negative integer divisors of a number n (excluding -n ). Using this definition, -3 , -2, -1, , 1, 2, and 3 are the proper divisors of 6, while -6 and 6 are the improper divisors.

To make matters even more confusing, the proper divisor is often defined so that -1 and 1 are also excluded. Using this alternative definition, the proper divisors of 6 would then be -3, -2, 2, and 3, and the improper divisors would be -6, -1, 1, and 6.

DIVISOR FUNCTION

A divisor function is an arithmetic function related to the divisors of an integer. When referred to as the divisor function, it counts the number of divisors of an integer. The sum of positive divisors function x(n), for a real or complex number x, is defined as the sum of the xth powers of the positive divisors of n, or

( )

The notations d(n), (n) and (n) (for the German Teiler = divisors) are also used to denote 0(n), or the number-of-divisors function. When x is 1, the function is called the sigma function or sum-of-divisors function, and the subscript is often omitted, so (n) is equivalent to 1(n)

The aliquot sum s(n) of n is the sum of the proper divisors (that is, the divisors excluding n itself, and equals 1(n) n; the aliquot sequence of n is formed by repeatedly applying the aliquot sum function.

PAIR SUM

Given an amicable pair (m,n), the quantity (m) = (n) =s (m) + s (n) = m +n

is called the pair sum, where

is the divisor function and

is the restricted divisor function.

BREEDER ) such that the equations ( )= ) (x + 1)

A pair of positive integers (

x=

have a positive integer solution x , where (n) is the divisor function. If x is prime, then ( ) is an amicable pair (te Riele 1986). ( ) is a n special n breeder if

where a and u are relatively prime, ( a, u ) = 1 . If regular amicable pairs of type ( i,1 ) with i 2 are of the form ( au, ap ) with prime, then( au , a ) are special breeders (te Riele 1986). WIETHAUSS RULE Let a, S N with S squarefree, gcd(a, S) = 1, and

( )

( ) ( )

Write (S)(S+ (S) 1) =; with , N. If p := + S + (S) and q := + (S) - 1 are distinct prime numbers with

gcd(p, aS) = gcd(q, a) = 1, then the following Thabit-rule holds:

if for some k 2 N the two numbers := (p + q) - 1 and := (p - S) , aq -1 ) is an amicable pair.

are prime with gcd( ,aS) = gcd( ; aq) = 1, then (aS BORHOS RULE, SPECIAL CASE

Let (au,as) be an amicable pair with gcd(a,us) = 1 and s a prime, and let p = u + s + 1 be a prime not dividing a. If for some k N both not dividing a, then (au ;a = (u + 1) - 1 and = (u + 1)(s + 1) - 1 are primes

) is an amicable pair.

BORHOS RULE WITH BREEDERS Let (au, a) be a breeder, with integer solution x. If a pair of distinct prime numbers r, s exists, with gcd(a, rs) = 1, satisfying the bilinear equation (r - x)(s - x) = (x + 1)(x + u) and if a third prime q exists, with gcd(au, q) = 1, such that q = r + s + u, then (auq, ars) is an amicable pair. Thbit ibn Kurrah Rule

Thbit ibn Kurrah's rule is a beautiful result of Thbit ibn Kurrah dating back to the tenth century (Woepcke 1852; Escott 1946; Dickson 2005, pp. 5 and 39; Borho 1972). Take n 2 and suppose that

h = 3

-1

t= 3

-1

s= 9

-1

are all prime. Then (

)is an amicable pair, where h is sometimes called a Thbit ibn

Kurrah number. This form was rediscovered by Fermat in 1636 and Descartes in 1638 and generalized by Euler to Euler's rule (Borho 1972).

In order for such numbers to exist, there must be prime 3

-1 for two consecutive n, leaving

only the possibilities 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, 7. Of these, is prime for n = 2, 4, and 7, giving the amicable pairs (220, 284), (17296, 18416), and (9363584, 9437056).

In fact, various rules can be found that are analogous to Thbit ibn Kurrah's. Denote a "Thbit rule" by T ( ) ( ) ) for given natural numbers ( ) and , a prime p not dividing ,

, and polynomials pairs (

)

[X] . Then a necessary condition for the set of amicable ( ) with , prime and n a natural number to

of the form

be infinite is that

( )

( ) ( ) form an

where

is the divisor function (Borho 1972). As a result,

amicable pair, if for some n 1 , both ( )( ( ) )

For i=1, 2 are prime integers not dividing

p (Borho 1972).

The following table summarizes some of the known Thbit ibn Kurrah rules

T (au, p, (u +1)X,(u + a)X,(u + a) (u) X-1 ) (Borho 1972, te Riele 1974). EULERS RULE

The numbers ( (

pq and

are an amicable pair if the three integers ) )

p q r

are all prime numbers for some positive integer m satisfying 1 m n - 1 (Dickson 2005, p. 42). However, there are many amicable pairs which do not satisfy Euler's rule, so it is a sufficient but not necessary condition for amicability. Euler's rule is a generalization of Thbit ibn Kurrah rule.

The first few (m, n) for which Euler's rule is satisfied are (m, n) = (1, 2), (3, 4), (6, 7), (1, 8), (29, 40), ... (Sloane's A094445 and A094446), with no others for n < 2500 , corresponding to the triples (p, q, r) = (5, 11, 71) , (23, 47, 1151), (191, 383, 73727), ..., giving the amicable pairs (220, 284), (17296, 18416), (9363584, 9437056), ....

AMICABLE TRIPLE

Dickson (1913, 2005) defined an amicable triple to be a triple of three numbers (l ,m, n) such that

s (l) = m + n s (m) = l+ n

s (n)= l + m,

where s(n) is the restricted divisor function (Madachy 1979). Dickson (1913, 2005) found eight sets of amicable triples with two equal numbers, and two sets with distinct numbers. The latter are (123228768, 103340640, 124015008), for which

s(123 228 768) = 103 340 640 + 124 015 008 = 227 335 648 s( 103 340 640) = 123 228 768 + 124 015 008 = 247 243 776 s( 124 015 008) = 123 228 768 + 103 340 640= 226 569 408,

and (1945330728960, 2324196638720, 2615631953920), for which

s( 1 945 330 728 960) = 2 324 196 638 720 + 2 615 631 953 920 = 4 939 828 592 640 s(2 324 196 638 720) = 1 945 330 728 960 + 2 615 631 953 920 = 4 560 962 682 880 s( 2 615 631 953 920) = 1 945 330 728 960 + 2 324 196 638 720 = 4 269 527 367 680.

AMICABLE QUADRUPLE

An amicable quadruple as a quadruple (a, b, c, d) such that

(a) = (b) = (c) = (d) = a+ b + c +d,

where (n) is the divisor function.

If (a, b) and (x, y) are amicable pairs and

GCD (a, x) = GCD (a, y) = GCD (b, x) = GCD (b, y) =1,

Then (a x, a y, b x, b y) is an amicable quadruple. This follows from the identity ( a, x) = (a) (x) = (a, b) (x + y) = a x + a y + b + x + b y.

The smallest known amicable quadruple is (842448600, 936343800, 999426600, 1110817800).

Large amicable quadruples can be generated using the formula = ,

where

and

is a Mersenne prime with n a prime >3 (Y. Kohmoto; Guy 1994, p. 59).

MULTIAMICABLE NUMBER Two integers n and m< n are (,) -multiamicable if (m)-m= n

and (n)-n= m, where (n)is the divisor function and pair. are positive integers. If = = 1, (m,n) is an amicable

m cannot have just one distinct prime factor, and if it has precisely two distinct prime factors, then = 1and m is even. Small multiamicable numbers for small , are given by Cohen et al. (1995). Several of these numbers are reproduced in the table below.

16 17 17 17 17 17

m 76455288 52920 16225560 90863136 16225560 70821324288

n 183102192 152280 40580280 227249568 40580280 177124806144

1 7 199615613902848 499240550375424

QUASIAMICABLE PAIR

Let

(m) be the divisor function of m. Then two numbers m and n are a quasiamicable pair if (m) = (n) = m + n +1.

The first few are (48, 75), (140, 195), (1050, 1925), (1575, 1648), ... (Sloane's A005276). Quasiamicable numbers are sometimes called betrothed numbers or reduced amicable pairs.

SUPER UNITARY AMICABLE PAIR

Two integers (m, n) form a super unitary amicable pair if ( ( )) ( ( ))

where

( ) is the unitary divisor function. The first few pairs are (105, 155), (110, 142),

(2145, 3055), (47802, 65278), (125460, 164492),

UNITARY AMICABLE PAIR

A pair of numbers m and n such that ( ) ( )

where

( ) is the unitary divisor function. Hagis (1971) and Garca (1987) give 82 such pairs.

The first few are (114, 126), (1140, 1260), (18018, 22302), (32130, 40446), ...

On Jan. 30, 2004, Y. Kohmoto discovered the largest known unitary amicable pair, where each member has 317 digits. Kohmoto calls a unitary amicable pair whose members are squareful a proper unitary amicable pair.

RATIONAL AMICABLE PAIR

A rational amicable pair consists of two integers and for which the divisor functions are equal and are of the form

 (a) = (b) =

( (

) )

R (a,b),

where

) and

)are bivariate polynomials, and for which the following properties

hold (Y. Kohmoto):

1. All the degrees of terms of the numerator of the right fraction are the same.

2. All the degrees of terms of the denominator of the right fraction are the same.

3. The degree of P is one greater than the degree of . ( ) is of the form m

If

and

, then it reduces to the special case

( a) =
m

a,

so if

/n is an integer, then a is a multiperfect number.

Consider polynomials of the form

( )

(a, b) =

For n=1, it reduces to

(a) = (b) = (a + b)

of which no examples are known. For n =2, it reduces to

( )

(a) = (b) =

(a + b) ,

so ( a, b) form an amicable pair. For n = 3, it becomes

( )

(a) = (b) =

AUGMENTED AMICABLE PAIR

A pair of numbers m and n such that

(m)= (n) =m + n -1,

where (m)is the divisor function. Beck and Najar (1977) found 11 augmented amicable pairs.

AMICABLE PAIRS FOR ELLIPTIC CURVES

An Amicable Pair for the elliptic curve E is a pair of distinct good reduction primes (p, q) satisfying # ( ) = q and # ( ) = p:, Example. The smallest amicable pair on the elliptic curve =

is (1622311; 1622471) and there are no other amicable pairs smaller than

(853, 883); (77761, 77999) ,, (94248260597, 94248586591).

HARSHAD AMICABLE PAIRS

Harshad (or Niven ) numbers are those numbers which are divisible by their sum of the digits. For example 1729 ( 19*91) is divisible by 1+7+2+9 =19, so 1729 is a Harshad number.

We define Harshad Amicable Pair as an Amicable Pair (m, n), such that both m and n are Harshad numbers. For example, consider amicable pair (2620, 2924), where 2620 is divisible by 2+6+2+0 = 10 (i.e. 2620/10 = 262) and 2924 is divisible by 2+9+2+4 = 17 (i.e. 2924/17 = 172). So both 2620 and 2924 are Harshad numbers and hence the Amicable Pair (2620, 2924) is Harshad Amicable Pair. Other examples are (10634085,14084763), (23389695, 25132545), (34256222, 35997346) etc. The search for such amicable pairs can be a good past time. There are 192 Harshad Amicable Pairs in first 5000 Amicable Pairs. HAPPY AMICABLE PAIRS

If you iterate the process of summing the squares of the decimal digits of a number and if the process terminates in 1, then the original number is called a happy number.

For example 7 -> 49 -> 97 -> 130 -> 10 -> 1.

We define Happy Amicable Pair as an Amicable Pair (m, n), such that both m and n are Happy numbers. For example, consider amicable pair (10572550, 10854650), where 10572550 > 129 -> 86 -> 100 -> 1 and 10854650 -> 167 -> 86 -> 100 -> 1. So both 10572550 and 10854650 are Happy numbers and hence the amicable pair (10572550, 10854650) is Happy Amicable Pair. Other examples are (32685250, 34538270), (35361326, 40117714), (35390008,

39259592) etc. The search for such amicable pairs can be a good past time. There are 111 Happy Amicable Pairs in first 5000 Amicable Pairs. GENERATORS AND UNITARY AMICABLE PAIRS There are at least three methods of producing generators. McClung found sixteen in a limited computer search. Briefly, he characterized generators with (f ) = 2 and (k ) = 1 and searched for generators of the forms (2 p, ),( p, ), and (3 p, ).

He found five, eight, and three, respectively. By the nature of the characterization, all are primitive. The characterization of other generator forms remains a fertile area of endeavor. It appears, for example, that in the case (f ) = (k ) = 2 is not an integer.

REDUCED AND AUGMENTED AMICABLE PAIRS A reduced amicable pair is a pair of natural numbers, m and n, such that m= (n)-n-1; n{m) -m-1,

where d is the sum of divisors function. Jerrard and Temperley studied numbers k satisfying k = a(k)-kl which they named almost perfect numbers. Lai and Forbes first studied reduced amicable pairs and discovered nine pairs with smaller number < 105. (They coined the name "reduced amicable pair.") In an earlier paper, we extended the search to pairs with smaller number < 106, finding six new pairs. Hagis and Lord extended the list to 107, discovering thirty one new pairs, including two missed in. The present paper extends the listing to 108. The paper included a study of pairs m and n satisfying m= (n) - n +1; n (m) -m + 1,

called augmented amicable pairs and listed all pairs with smaller number less than 106. There

were nine plus two other pairs both of whose elements exceeded one million. These arose from iterating the function s+(n) = o(n)-n + l on integers less than one million.

AMICABLE PAIRS AND COMPLEX MULTIPLICATION There are only a handful of CM curves defined over Q and having E( ) = 0. They do

indeed have a large number of amicable pairs. Further experiments revealed the step in our heuristic argument that is flawed for CM curves. Recall:

Prob(

=p|q=

is prime)

because p q and Nq lies in an interval of length , so the chance of Nq hitting any particular value is about . This appears to be true for non-CM curves, but for CM curves (other than the Ek curves) we found that

Prob(Nq = p | q = Np is prime)

FRIENDLY PAIR

Define ( )

( )

where

( )is the divisor function. Then a pair of distinct numbers ( k , m) is a friendly pair (and

k is said to be a friend of m) if ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

For example, (4320, 4680) is a friendly pair, since

, and

( (

) )

= =

Another example is (24, 91 963 648), which has index 5/2. The first few friendly pairs, ordered by smallest maximum element are (6, 28), (30, 140), (80, 200), (40, 224), (12, 234), (84, 270), (66, 308), ...

Friendly triples and higher-order tuples are also possible. Friendly triples include (2160, 5400, 13104), (9360, 21600, 23400), and (4320, 4680, 26208), friendly quadruples include (6, 28, 496, 8128), (3612, 11610, 63984, 70434), (3948, 12690, 69936, 76986), and friendly quintuples include (84, 270, 1488, 1638, 24384), (30, 140, 2480, 6200, 40640), (420, 7440, 8190, 18600, 121920).

Numbers that have friends are called friendly numbers, and numbers that do not have friends are called solitary numbers. A sufficient (but not necessary) condition for n to be a solitary number is that ( (n), n) =1, where (a, b) is the greatest common divisor of a and b. There are some numbers that can easily be proved to be solitary, but the status of numbers 10, 14, 15, 20, and many others remains unknown (Hickerson 2002).

Hoffman (1998, p. 45) uses the term "friendly numbers" to describe amicable pairs.

REGULAR PAIRS Let (m, n) be a pair of amicable numbers with m < n , and write m=gM and n=gN where g is the greatest common divisor of m and n. If M and N are both coprime to g and square free then the pair (m, n) is said to be regular, otherwise it is called irregular or exotic. If (m, n) is regular and M and N have i and j prime factors respectively, then (m, n) is said to be of type (i, j). For example, with (m, n) = (220, 284), the greatest common divisor is 4 and so M = 55 and N = 71. Therefore (220, 284) is regular of type (2, 1).

How do we know whether a whole number is divisible or not?

We say that number b can be divided by number a when a number q exists, such that We can then say that b is a factor of a and that a is a multiple of b. To find particular divisors, we need only know certain criteria for divisibility: A number is divisible by 2 if its last digit is 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8; A number is divisible by 3 if the sum of its digits is a multiple of 3; A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by taking its last two digits is divisible by four; A number is divisible by 5 if its last digit is either 0 or 5; A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is a multiple of 9; A number is divisible by 10 if its last digit is 0.

A prime number is a whole number with only two distinct factors: 1 and itself. It is important to know the smallest prime numbers. These numbers are: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101, ... To find out if a number is a prime number: First check that the divisibility criteria do not apply; Then divide the number by the prime numbers 7, 11, 13, 17,... Each time, check that the remainder from the division is not zero (the result of the division is not exact). When the quotient becomes less than the divisor, there is no need to continue. larger than the number itself. Thus, 9, with proper divisors 1, 3, is deficient; 12, with proper divisors 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, is abundant. Related Studies:

Title: Amicable Pairs, a Survey Author: Mariano Garcia, Jan Munch Pederson and Herman te Riele Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problems: 1. Are there an infinite number of amicable pairs? 2. Is there an amicable pair whose members have opposite parity? 3. Is there an amicable pair whose members are relatively prime? 4. Is there an amicable pair with pair sum equal to 1 mod 3? 5. For any given prime p, is there an amicable pair whose members have no prime factors < p? 6. Are there any amicable pairs whose members have different smallest prime factors? 7. Are there amicable pairs for all possible types?

Procedure: In 1750, Euler published an extensive paper on amicable pairs, by which he added fiffty-nine new amicable pairs to the three amicable pairs known thus far. In 1972, Lee and Madachy published a historical survey of amicable pairs, with a list of the 1108 amicable pairs then known. In 1995, Pedersen started to create and maintain an Internet site with lists of all the known amicable pairs. The current (February 2003) number of amicable pairs in these lists exceeds four million. This may stimulate research in the direction of finding proof that the number of amicable is infinite. Conclusion: The researchers trust that this paper has convinced the reader that the answer to Q1 is yes. The researchers also believe that the answer to Q5 is yes. The researchers do not have an opinion on the other questions. One of the referees has pointed out that the question about the infinity of the number of amicable pairs may be compared with the same question for Carmichael numbers, which has been answered affirmatively in 1994, when Alford constructed of them at once. There are

rules" for constructing Carmichael numbers which are quite similar to the rules given here for amicable numbers. For example, (6k+1)(12k+1)(18k+1) is a Carmichael number provided all three factors are primes. The reader might study to discover possible approaches to proving that there are infinitely many amicable pairs. Title: ON AMICABLE NUMBERS AND THEIR GENERALIZATIONS Author: THOMAS E. MASON Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 28, No. 5 (May, 1921) Problem: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: The researcher used the method of finding amicable number

Conclusion: The methods of finding amicable number sets are very largely those of trial. Experience in working with such numbers will suggest the likely numbers to try, but there is no sure guide yet known. The number of cases that need to be tried out becomes very large for some of the larger numbers that the researcher might choose for form , ,, , , ..., in seeking k-tuples of the

For example, the number 1108800 is the sum of the divisors of at least

twenty different sets of prime factors no one of which is less than 19. If the researcher is using the method suggested by Dickson and are seeking amicable sextuples the researcher shall have as many possibilities as there are combinations of twenty, six at a time. The same set offers 20 possibilities for amicable pairs, 20 for triples, etc. Any systematic search for amicable

numbers among the large numbers will furnish a vast amount of work. Title: On Generating New Amicable Pairs from Given Amicable Pairs Author: Herman J. J. te Riele Source: Mathematics of Computation. Vol. 42, No. 165 (January, 1984) Problem: The researcher aimed on generating new amicable pairs from Given Amicable pairs. Procedure: Methods are given for constructing new amicable pairs from given amicable pairs. By applying these methods to 1575 mother pairs known t the author, 1782 amicable pairs were generated, so that the offspring of these mother pairs is greater than 1. Conclusion: The average daughter pair considered was much larger in size than the average mother pair considered, which led to much larger values of C. Nevertheless, the researchers found 88 new granddaughter pairs from the smallest 400 daughter pairs. Title: ORTHOMODULARITY AND THE DIRECT SUM OF DIVISION SUBRINGS OF THE QUATERNIONS Author: RONALD P. MORASH

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Let D be any division subring of the real quaternions H. Let D denote the linear space of all finitely nonzero sequences from D and let L denote the lattice of all " | -closed" subspaces of D, where " _" denotes the orthogonality relation derived from the H-valued form (a, b)= ( *:i=1,2,) where a, b D, a = ( , ,.., ,0,0..) and b( , ,.. ,0,0),and

is the quaternionic conjugate of b. Then, the lattice L is complete and orthocomplemented, but is not orthomodular.

Conclusion: The researchers conclude by posing a question, whose affirmative answer would imply our main result and give more information about the class of lattices the researchers are studying. The question is suggested by a definition due to D. E. Catlin .An atomic, orthocomplemented lattice L is said to have the -hyperoctant property if, for every countable orthogonal family of atoms { { i=1,2} in L, there exists an atom a L such that a\/ . Certainly, the lattices arising from the

i=1,2}, but a fails to commute with any of the

direct sums, discussed above, do not have this property. The researchers ask whether an infinitedimensional Hilbert lattice necessarily has the -hyperoctant property. Title: PAIRS OF MONOTONE OPERATORS Author: S. SIMONS Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to prove show some pairs of montone operators. Procedure: This note is an addendum to Sum theorems for monotone opera- tors and convex functions.

Conclusion: In it, the researchers prove some new results on convex functions and monotone operators, and use them to show that several of the constraint qualifications considered in the preceding paper are, in fact, equivalent. Title: ON THE REPRESENTATIONS OF AN INTEGER AS THE SUM OF PRODUCTS OF INTEGERS Author: S. M. JOHNSON Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Finding the number of representations of an integer N as a sum of products of pairs of positive integers. Procedure: By elementary methods Ingham found an asymptotic formula for the number R(N) of representations of N as a sum of two products of pairs. His result was R(N) = (l/2(2)) (N) N + O((N) log N) where (N) is the sum of the divisors of N. Conclusion: His conclusion was that the conjecture is false in the case of heuristic result did not agree with the result given by elementary methods. (n). The

Title: Generating Pseudo-Random Numbers by Shuffling a Fibonacci Sequence Author: Friedrich Gebhardt Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: To proposed to mix two pseudo-random number generators. Procedure: The researchers have proposed to mix two pseudo-random number generators in the following way: The first generator is used at the beginning to fill an array with pseudo-random numbers; whenever a random number is needed; the second generator determines which element of the array is to be used and replaced by a new number from the first generator.

Conclusion: In this study, only one generator is utilized for both purposes; moreover, the generator chosen (a Fibonacci sequence) is by itself a rather poor one. Nevertheless, the final sequence of pseudo-random numbers passed all statistical tests applied to it, including -

tests of the maximum and minimum of two to ten succeeding numbers and tests applied to sequences immediately following a small number or two almost equal ones. Title: RANDOM FIBONACCI SEQUENCES AND THE NUMBER 1.13198824 Author: DIVAKAR VISWANATH Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Is there a short analytic description of f? Procedure: For the familiar Fibonacci sequence (defined by for n > 2), = = 1, and = -1 + -2

increases exponentially with n at a rate given by the golden ratio (1

+ )/2=1.61803398 . But for a simple modification with both additions and subtractions - the random Fibonacci sequences defined by = = 1, and for n > 2, = -1 -2, where

each sign is independent and either + or - with probability 1/2- it is not even obvious if |tn| should increase with n. Our main result is that

1.13198824 as n

with probability 1. Finding the number 1.13198824 involves the theory of random matrix products, Stern-Brocot division of the real line, a fractal measure, a computer calculation, and a rounding error analysis to validate the computer calculation

Conclusion: To conclude, the researchers ask: Is there a short analytic description of f? The fractal quality of f suggests no. But let f (p) be the Lyapunov exponent of the obvious generalization = = 1, and for n 2, = with each sign independent and

either + with probability p or - with probability 1-p. Unfortunately, the techniques described in this paper for f (1/2) do not seem to generalize easily to f (p), 0 < p < 1.

Title: APPROXIMATION OF REAL NUMBERS WITH RATIONAL NUMBER SEQUENCES Author: RISTO KORHONEN Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Let R, and let C > max {1, }. It is shown that if {pn/qn} is a sequence formed out of all rational numbers p/q such that

where p Z and q N are relatively prime numbers, then either {pn/qn} has finitely many elements or

where the points {qn }n N are ordered by increasing modulus.

Conclusion: This implies that the sequence of denominators {qn}nN grows exponentially as a function of n, and so the density of rational numbers which approximate well in the above sense is relatively low. Title: PRIMITIVE DIVISORS OF LUCAS AND LEHMER SEQUENCES Author: PAUL M. VOUTIER Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Reduced the problem of determining all Lucas and Lehmer sequences whose nth element does not have a primitive divisor to solving certain . Procedure: The researcher reduced the problem of determining all Lucas and Lehmer sequences whose nth element does not have a primitive divisor to solving certain. Conclusion: The equations, the researchers determine such sequences for n < 30. Further computations lead us to conjecture that, for n > 30 , the nth element of such sequences always has a primitive divisor.

Title: SPORADIC AND IRRELEVANT PRIME DIVISORS Author: STEPHEN MCADAM AND L. J. RATLIFF, JR. Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Let I represent a regular ideal in a Noetherian ring R. If W is a finite set of prime ideals in R, some conditions on W are given assuring that an I can be found such that W is exactly the set of primes which are in Ass R/ I but not in Ass R/ for all large n.

Conclusion: As a conclusion, if I is fixed, and if P is a prime ideal containing /, some conditions are given assuring that in the Rees ring R = R[u, It], (u, P, / It)R is a prime divisor of uR.

Title: ON THE NUMBER OF ISOGENY CLASSES OF PAIRING-FRIENDLY ELLIPTIC CURVES AND STATISTICS OF MNT CURVES Author: JORGE JIMENEZ URROZ, FLORIAN LUCA, AND IGOR E. SHPARLINSKI Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Let m be a fixed odd integer. Since the equation fixes the congruence class of n modulo in at most
( )

ways as m , the researchers expect the main contribution to

E(z) to come from systems of parameters where m .

with a small error term depending on

Conclusion: The researchers give an upper bound on the number of finite fields over which elliptic curves of cryptographic interest with a given embedding degree and small complex multiplication discriminant may exist, and present some heuristic arguments which indicate that this bound is tight. The researchers also refine some heuristic arguments on the total number of so-called MNT curves with prime cardinalities which have been recently presented by various authors. Title: THE UNITARY AMICABLE PAIRS TO Author: RUDOLPH M. NAJAR Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Showing unitary amicable numbers below .

Procedure: The researchers shall say that a pair of positive integers m and n is unitary amicable numbers by using the method of finding unitary amicable numbers Conclusion: The researchers present an exhaustive list of the 185 unitary amicable pairs whose smaller number is less than 108 and a new unitary sociable set of four numbers.

Title: ON AN INTEGER'S INFINITARY DIVISORS Author: GRAEME L. COHEN Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: The notions of unitary divisor and biunitary divisor are extended in a natural fashion to give k-ary divisors, for any natural number k . The researchers show that the researchers may sensibly allow k to increase indefinitely, and this leads to infinitary divisors. Conclusion: The infinitary divisors of an integer are described in full, and applications to the obvious analogues of the classical perfect and amicable numbers and aliquot sequences are given. Title: Lower Bounds for Relatively Prime Amicable Numbers of Opposite Parity Author: Peter Hagis, Jr. Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Whether or not a pair of relatively prime amicable numbers exists is an open question. Procedure: In this paper p and q will always represent primes while jth odd prime. Thus, = 3 and = 257. If | mn but will be used to denote the

, mn the researchers shall write a

= EXP (p). m and n will be understood to be a pair of relatively prime amicable numbers of opposite parity so that M + n= (m) = (n), ; where (k) represents the sum of the positive divisors of k. Conclusion: In this paper it is proved that if m and n are a pair of relatively prime amicable numbers of opposite parity then mn is greater than Title: Primes of the Form Author: M. Lai +1 and m and n are each greater than .

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: In this note the researchers report 172 new primes of the form such primes for 1 n 4004. Procedure: The researcher used a method based on the four solutions of the congruence equation + 1 0 ( mod p) For all primes of the form 8k + 1. With primes less than 4 been completely factorized. Conclusion: The researcher has made a conjecture regarding the number of primes Q(N) of the form + 1 for 1 n N and has given the following expression: Q(N) ~.66974 ,numbers + 1 for 2000 have + 1and tabulate all

Title: A SEARCH FOR ALIQUOT CYCLES BELOW Author: DAVID MOEWS AND PAUL C. MOEWS Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Searching for Aliqout Cycles Below Procedure: For all natural numbers n , define o(n) to be the sum of the divisors of n , and define s(n) to be the sum of the divisors of n exclusive of n , that is, s(n) = a(n) - n . An aliquot cycle of length k is a finite sequence of distinct natural numbers ( each i = 1, ... , k - 1, , ... , ) such that = s( ), and for

= s( ). Aliquot cycles of length 1 correspond to perfect numbers, and

cycles of length 2 are commonly referred to as amicable pairs. Several thousand amicable pairs have been discovered; te Riele has conducted an exhaustive computer search which found 1427 amicable pairs with smaller member less than .

Cycles with length exceeding 2 have been called sociable numbers; only a few are known. Poulet discovered two such cycles in 1918, one of length 5 and one of length 28. Borho derived forms which could be used to construct aliquot cycles with lengths exceeding 2. He was able to use one of these forms to construct a 4-cycle. Twenty-one more 4-cycles, two 8-cycles, and a 9-cycle were later found by computer searches. Little is known about sociable numbers. It has been conjectured that for all k, infinitely many cycles of length k exist. Erds has proved that for each k > 2, the density of the members of aliquot cycles of length k is 0. Findings : A search for aliquot fc-cyclesb elow 101 with k > 3 is described. Two new 4-cycles are exhibited. Six new 4-cycles not below 10 are also exhibited. Conclusion: It has been conjectured from numerical evidence that there exists a constant > 0 such that is asymptotically log j, where b. is the smaller member of the amicable pair

with the jth smallest smaller member. In fact it appears that = 2. Figure 1 is intended to provide evidence for or against a similar conjecture for 4-cycles. It shows logo, plotted against log j, where is the jth smallest largest member of an aliquot 4-cycle, and j ranges from 1 to 24. The

least squares best-fit line for this data is also shown. It has slope 3.23 and y-intercept 11.9.

Title: NEW SOCIABLE NUMBERS Author: ACHIM FLAMMENKAM Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Finding new sociable numbers. Procedure: For each natural number n, the researchers write s(n) = (n) - n for the number of its divisors excluding itself. If this function is iterated by aliquot sequence of n: (n), (n), (n) = s( (n)), it defines the so-called

(n), ... , starting with s(n) = n . If the sequence for a

given n is bounded, either it ends at 0 (since s(0) is undefined), or it becomes periodic. If it is constant, it has reached a perfect number. If it is alternating, it represents a pair of amicable numbers, or in general produces after k iterations a cycle length t, which forms a sociable group of order t. (n), (n),..., (n) of minimal

Conclusion: An exhaustive search has yielded new sociable groups; one of order 9, two of order 8, and the others of order 4.

Title: MULTIAMICABLE NUMBERS Author: GRAEME L. COHEN, STEPHEN F. GRETTON, AND PETER HAGIS, JR. Source: www.ams.org/ Problem: the researcher aimed to investigate about multiamicable numbers. Procedure: Multiamicable numbers are a natural generalization of amicable numbers: two numbers form a multiamicable pair if the sum of the proper divisors of each is a multiple of the other. Conclusion: Many other generalizations have been considered in the past. This paper reviews those earlier generalizations and gives examples and properties of multiamicable pairs. It includes a proof that the set of all multiamicable numbers has density 0.

Title: NEW AMICABLE FOUR-CYCLES Author: KARSTEN BLANKENAGEL, WALTER BORHO, AND AXEL VOM STEIN Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Finding New Amicable Four-Cycles.

Procedure: Let (n) denote the sum of proper divisors of a natural number n, and let (n) = n + (n). The researchers consider when the sequence n, (n), ( ) (n) := ( (n)), . . . becomes periodic. If n = (
)

(n) with k minimal, then

= n,

= (n),

= (

(n), . . . , nk = (

n)

is called an amicable k-cycle. The study of amicable 1-cycles (perfect numbers) and of amicable 2-cycles (amicable pairs) has a thousand year- old history. Here the researchers study amicable four-cycles. Conclusion : Fifty new amicable four-cycles are discovered by the constructive method invented in 1969 by the second author.

Title: On Amicable and Sociable Numbers Author: Henri Cohen Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Search for Amicable Pairs and Social Numbers Procedure: Let n 7 2 be an integer, and (n) = , s(n) = (n) n = ,.

the researchers wish to study the behavior of the sequence: (n) = n (n) = s( {n))

which will be called the aliquot series of n. It is clear that if this sequence is bounded as k it is periodic, since (n) can take only a finite number of values.

Findings: An exhaustive search has yielded 236 amicable pairs of which the lesser number is smaller than , 57 pairs being new. It has also yielded 9 new sociable groups of order 10 or ; the 9 sociable groups are all of order 4.

less, of which the lesser number is smaller than 6.

The sequence of iterates of the function s(n) = a(n) - n starting with 276 has also been extended to 119 terms. Conclusion: From these results a number of conjectures can be made. Let A{x) be the number of amicable pairs of which the smaller number is less than x; then empirically one can conjecture: Conjecture 1. There exists > 0 such that Log A(x) ~ . Log(.x). This conjecture of course implies the as yet unknown fact that there exists an infinity of amicable pairs. Conjecture 2. There exists an infinity of sociable groups of order 4. This is a particular case of a general conjecture of Erds . Furthermore in the same paper Erds states that the density of sociable groups of any order is 0. Combining this with Catalan's conjecture as revised by Dickson one obtains: Conjecture 3. For almost all n (i.e. with density 1 ) the associated sequence converges.

Title: On Divisibility By Nine of the Sums of Even Amicable Pairs Author: Elvin Lee Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: The sums of all even amicable pairs M, N are divisible by nine with the exception of the following three forms :

(a) M =

II B II C , N =

II B' II C ,

M + N 2 mod 3 ,

(b) M =

II B II C, N =

D II B' II C', M + N 0mod3,

(c) M = 2 II B II C, N =

DI I B' II C", M + N 0 mod3 ,

where A, B, C, D are factor types defined in Table I, o and e refer to odd and even respectively, II denotes the product of an unspecified number of terms of the type indicated unless subscripted o when it refers to an odd number and the primes distinguish exponents and factors in N which are not necessarily all distinct from, corresponding quantities in M.

Findings: Most known even amicable pairs have sums divisible by nine .The general form of the exceptions to the rule of divisibility by nine (Gardner's rule) is deduced and the results expressed in the form of a theorem. A computer search based on a corollary to the theorem is described and six new exceptions to Gardner's rule are found.

Title: BREEDING AMICABLE NUMBERS IN ABUNDANCE Author: STEFAN BATTIATO AND WALTER BORHO Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: To compute many amicable numbers by breeding" them in several generations. Procedure: An extensive computer search was later performed (in 1988), and demonstrated the remarkable effectiveness of this breeding method: the number of known amicable pairs was easily quadrupled by this search. As we learnt recently (1999) from the internet, Pederson and te Riele have again multiplied that number roughly by ten. While they give no information on their method of search, the researchers publish here our method and summarize the computations.

Conclusion: The results provide some modest evidence for the following conjecture. Conjecture 1. For some start-values a the number of breeders resp. amicable pairs produced by our algorithm in generation n increases at least exponentially with n. This is a very specific version of saying: Conjecture 2. The number of amicable pairs is infinite.

Title: A Note on Chowla's Function Author: M. Lai and A. Forbes Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Professor Chowla defined a number-theoretic function, L(n), for n > 1. L(n) = (n) - (1 + n) where (n) = and unity. For n prime, L(ri) = 0. The rth iterate of L(n) is denoted by (n) = L( (n)); (n)= L(n). , it was found that there are only 9 reduced amicable pairs. These pairs .That is, L(n) denotes the sum of the divisors of n except n

Conclusion: For n

are given in Table 1.** If A(n) is the number of reduced amicable pairs of which the smaller number is less than n, then the distribution of A(n) is as follows: A(n) = 1 for n for n , A(n) = 8 for n and A(n) = 9 for n , A (n) = 2

. It is of interest to note that the number

of amicable pairs for n pairs.

is 13, which is comparable to that found for the reduced amicable

Iterates of a number-theoretic function, defined by L(n) = (n) (1 + n), are investigated empirically, for n . This search has yielded 9 reduced amicable pairs.

Title: Some Large Primes and Amicable Numbers Author: W. Borho Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Finding new large amicable numbers. Procedure: The researchers found, however, two new large amicable number pairs by means of "Thabit rules" of the following different type: If for some n > 1 the two numbers 1, and amicable. = (p u)(u + 1) 1 are simultaneously prime, then au = (u + 1) and a are

Findings: Some new large primes of the form 3 2" - 1 and 9 2" 1, related to amicable numbers, are given. Two new large amicable number pairs are found by the method of so-called "Thabit rules". Conclusion: The researchers generated 37 new such rules by the procedure described in [1, Theorem 4]. The two rules mentioned above actually give amicable numbers, both for n = 2. The numbers have 42 (resp. 43) digits. The researchers also confirmed and extended te Riele's computations, who found three large amicable pairs by means of Thabit rules derived fromknown amicable pairs applying Theorem 3 of [1].

Title: NEW AMICABLE PAIRS OF TYPE (2, 2) AND TYPE (3, 2) Author: PATRICK J. COSTELLO

Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Finding amicable pairs of type (2, 2). Procedure: A UBASIC computer program was developed to implement a method of te Riele for finding amicable pairs of type (2, 2).

Findings: Many previously known pairs of type (2, 2) were produced by the program when small values of e1 and e2 were used. Over 2250 new amicable pairs were discovered with the computer program and more are being discovered weekly. The search for odd amicable pairs yielded a tremendous number of the new amicable pairs. The smallest new pair found is the pair of odd numbers 12735506841255 = 12777310556505 = 5 5 47 263 47 2683 63073, 6203.

Title: Are There Odd Amicable Numbers Not Divisible by Three? Author: S. Battiato and W. Borho Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Find an odd amicable pair with one, but not both numbers divisible by three. Procedure: Step 1. Construction of an appropriate common factor a. Step 2. Successive computation of a few "complementary" prime factors make (a * u,a * v) with u = ..., v , ,.., , , to

... a suitable input for the last step, for instance by

the method of "breeders" or an appropriate modification thereof; Step 3. Computation of the three largest prime factors by the so-called method of Bilinear Diophantine Equations, including the necessary primality tests.

Conclusion: Conjecture of Bratley and McKay, according to which odd amicable numbers should be divisible by three, is disproved by some counterexamples.

Title: Breeding Amicable Numbers in Abundance Author: W. Borho and H. Hoffmann Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to show and list breeding amicable numbers in abundance. Procedure: The researchers give some new methods for the constructive search for amicable number pairs. Conclusion: Our numerical experiments using these methods produced a total of 3501 new amicable pairs of a very special form. They provide some experimental evidence for the infinity of such pairs.

Title: Computation of All the Amicable Pairs Below Author: H. J. J. te Riele Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to compute amicable pairs below Procedure: An efficient exhaustive numerical search method for amicable pairs is described. With the aid of this method all 1427 amicable pairs with smaller member below have been

computed, more than 800 pairs being new. This extends previous exhaustive work below 108 by H. Cohen.

Conclusion: In three appendices (contained in the supplements section of this issue), various statistics are given, including an ordered list of all the gcd's of the 1427 amicable pairs below (which may be useful in further amicable pair research). Suggested by the numerical results, a theorem of Borho and Hoffmann for constructing APs has been extended.

Title: A SEARCH FOR ALIQUOT CYCLES AND AMICABLE PAIRS Author: DAVID MOEWS AND PAUL C. MOEWS Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed for a search for aliquot cycles and amicable pairs. Procedure: A search for aliquot cycles below 3.6 described. Conclusion: Three new cycles of length 4 and one new cycle of length 6 are exhibited. Four triples of amicable pairs with the same pair-sum are also exhibited. and amicable pairs below is

Title: AMICABLE PAIRS OF THE FORM (i, j) Author: PATRICK COSTELLO Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Step 1. Choose a range of s-values. For each s If s is not prime then Calculate (s) If (s) - 1 is prime then

Save s and (s + (s) - l)/(s) in a list Step 2. Choose a range of e-values. For each e Calculate (e)/e Search the list created in Step 1 for a match If a(e)/e = (s + a(s) - l)/a(s) then If (e and s are relatively prime) and (e and a(s) - 1 are relatively prime) then Print that es, e((s) - 1) is an amicable pair.

Conclusion: The nice thing about this approach to discovering new amicable pairs is that new pairs can be discovered with single-precision arithmetic on 32-bit computers. This approach, when restricted to e- and s-values less than , requires no multiple-precision software and

can produce new amicable pairs up to about 18 digits long. This approach also lends itself quite readily to parallel processing. If one makes the Step 1 data file available to several processors (or machines), one can have each processor (or machine) work on a different range of e-values.

Title: On perfect, amicable, and sociable chains Author: Jean-Luc Marichal Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012)

Problem: Give an exhaustive list of all the perfect, amicable, and sociable chains.

Procedure: Let x = (

,...,

) be an n-chain, i.e., an n-tuple of non-negative integers < n. ,..., ), where x j represents the number of js

Consider the operator s : x x = (

appearing among the components of x. An n-chain x is said to be perfect if s(x) = x.

Conclusion: Analogously to the theory of perfect, amicable, and sociable numbers, one can define from the operator s the concepts of amicable pair and sociable group of chains.

Title: ON -AMICABLE PAIRS Author: GRAEME L. COHEN AND HERMAN J. J. TE RIELE Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Let (n) denote Euler's totient function, i.e., the number of positive integers < n and prime to n. The researchers study pairs of positive integers ( =( )=( , ) with such that ( )

+ )/k for some integer k 1. The researchers call these numbers {amicable

pairs with multiplier k, analogously to Carmichael's multiply amicable pairs for the -function (which sums all the divisors of n). Findings: The researchers have computed all the -amicable pairs with larger member and

found 812 pairs for which the greatest common divisor is squarefree. With any such pair infinitely many other -amicable pairs can be associated. Among these 812 pairs there are 499 so-called primitive -amicable pairs. The researchers present a table of the 58 primitive amicable pairs for which the larger member does not exceed 106. Next, -amicable pairs with a given prime structure are studied. It is proved that a relatively prime -amicable pair has at least

twelve distinct prime factors and that, with the exception of the pair (4, 6), if one member of a amicable pair has two distinct prime factors, then the other has at least four distinct prime factors. Finally, analogies with construction methods for the classical amicable numbers are shown; application of these methods yields another 79 primitive -amicable pairs with larger member > , the largest pair consisting of two 46-digit numbers.

Title: On Amicable Numbers with Different Parity Author: Germano DAbramo Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Provide a straightforward proof that if a pair of amicable numbers with different parity exists (one number odd and the other one even), then the odd amicable number must be a perfect square, while the even amicable number has to be equal to the product of a power of 2 and an odd perfect square. Procedure: Given the general prime factorization N = it is easy to verify that = ( + 1) +

the number n of all the proper divisors of N is obtained iteratively as , for i = 2, 3, 4, ..., n. The researchers remind that =

, as shown in Case 1. Since the

choice of the first prime factors to study in the same order as in Case 1 and Case 2 is free, the researchers are allowed to conclude that only if all the s are even then an even amicable

number can exist associated to the odd number N. As a matter of fact, it is sufficient to have a single prime factor raised to an odd power (for example, ) to apply the arguments showed in

Case 2, namely taking that factor, multiplying it by any other factor (even one raised to an even power), for example and starting the analysis done in Case 2. In this case + 1) + , every results to

be odd and, according to equation n (

will be odd for all the is. As a

trivial consequence, nn will be odd too, implying that the second amicable number M will be odd. Therefore, the only possibility for M to be even is that all the that N must be a perfect square. s have to be even, namely

Conclusion: In the present note the researchers have proved that if a pair of amicable numbers with different parity exists, then the odd number must be a perfect square, while the even number has to be equal to the product of a power of 2 and an odd perfect square. This theorem might be useful in the implementation of an algorithm for numerical search of possible existing pairs of amicable numbers with different parity. Hopefully, it might turn out to be useful also within a future, wider theorem which proves the (none) existence of such pairs.

Title: THE FIRST KNOWN TYPE (7; 1) AMICABLE PAIR Author: MARIANO GARCIA Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Let E and M be two relatively prime natural numbers such that (E) (M) = E (M+ (M)-1). Then E M p q and E [ (M) (p+1) (q+1)-1 ] constitute an

amicable pair, provided p, q and and satisfying the equation

M) (p+1 (q +1)-1 are prime numbers not dividing E or M

(p -M + 1) (q -M + 1) = M (M - 1) + 1: Findings: The author has obtained several amicable pairs generated from the type (7,1) pair. These numbers are of the form (2 19 product of eight primes, 2 19

product of two primes). There are 122444006400 cases to be considered in the generation algorithm, and with the facilities available to us, it would take the author several years to obtain

all the amicable pairs arising in this manner. As an illustration, one of the pairs obtained is the following: M=2 N=2 where 19 19 , , , , , , , and are the same as in our type (7,1) pair, is a prime with ,

102 digits, and

, and

are primes with 125 digits each.

Title: QUASI-AMICABLE NUMBERS ARE RARE Author: PAUL POLLACK Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Problem: Define a quasi-amicable pair as a pair of distinct natural numbers each of which is the sum of the nontrivial divisors of the other. Procedure: The researcher used propositions to prove that quasi-amicable numbers has asymptotic density zero. Findings: The researchers prove that the set of n belonging to a quasi-amicable pair has

asymptotic density zero.

Title: POWERFUL AMICABLE NUMBERS Author: PAUL POLLACK Source: Internet. http://www.ams.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 16, 2012) Procedure: Let l 1. A natural number n is said to be `-full (or `-powerful) if divides n

whenever the prime p divides n. As shown by Erd}os and Szekeres in 1935, the number of l -full n x is asymptotically , as x. Here ` is a positive constant depending on l.

Findings: The researchers show that for each fixed l, the set of amicable l -full numbers has relative density zero within the set of l -full numbers.

Title: RECURRENCES FOR THE SUM OF DIVISORS Author: JOHN A. EWELL Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to present recurrences for the sum of divisors. Procedure: The researcher presents two recursive determinations of the sum of positive divisors of a given positive integer. Each recurrence in then discussed with regard to economy of computation, and in this light is compared with the well-known recurrence of Niven and Zuckerman. Conclusion: The researcher concluded that as far as methods of proof are concerned, everything is accomplished within the algebra of formal power series.

Title: TWO NOTES ON IMBEDDED PRIME DIVISORS Author: L. J. Ratliff, Jr. Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher investigates and shows the two notes on imbedded prime divisors.

Procedure: The first note shows that if R< T are any two Noetherian rings, then there exists a Noetherian ring between R and T which has a maximal ideal N such that grade(N) 1 and N R is a maximal ideal. The second note shows that if R is a Noetherian ring, then there exists a free quadratic integral extension ring B of R such that Spec(B) Spec(R) Conclusion: The researcher concluded that that if I is any regular ideal in R and are

prime ideals in R containing I, then there exists an ideal in B integrally dependent on IB such that the prime ideals corresponding to the are prime divisors of for all n 1.

Title: COUNTING DIVISORS WITH PRESCRIBED SINGULARITIES Author: Israel Vainsencher Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to show the cunting divisors with prescribed singularities. Procedure: Given a family of divisors ( integers ,..., ) in a family of smooth varieties ( ) and a sequence of

the researchers study the scheme parameterizing the points(s, , . . . , ) fold point of.

such that is a (possibly infinitely near)

Conclusion: The researcher obtain a general formula which yields, as special cases, the formula of de Jonquires and other classical results of Enumerative Geometry. The researcher also studies the questions of finiteness and the multiplicities of the solution. Title: WHAT DRIVES AN ALIQUOT SEQUENCES? Author: Richard K. Guy and J. L. Selfridge Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012)

Problem: The researcher aimed to show what drives an aliquot sequences. Procedure: The concept other driver of an aliquot sequence is discussed by the researcher. Conclusion: It is shown that no driver can expected to resist indefinitely. A definition of driver is given which leads to just 5 drives apart from the even perfect number. Title: WEIL AND CARTIER DIVISORS Author: James Hornell Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher showed and investigate how Weil divisors is related to Cartier divisors. Procedure: The researcher used a generalized equivalence relation. A difficulty of the nonreduced case is discussed. Conclusion: Subqoutient of the group of Weil divisors is shown to be isomorphic to the group of Cartier divisors modulo linear equivalence for a reduced subscheme of a projective space over a field. Title: ADVANCES IN ALIQUOT SEQUENCES Author: Manuel Benito and Juan Varona Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to show advances in aliquot numbers. Procedure: In this paper the researcher describe some advances in the knowledge of the behavior of aliquot sequences starting with a number less than 10000.

Conclusion: For some starting values, it is shown for the first time that the sequence terminates. The current record for the maximum of a terminating sequence is located in the one starting at 4170; it converges to 1 after 869 iterations getting a maximum of 84 decimal digits iteration 289. Title: ALL NUMBERS WHOSE POSITIVE DIVISORS HAVE INTEGRAL HARMONIC MEAN UP TO 300 Author: T. Goto and S. Shibata Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to prove that all numbers whose positive divisors have integral harmonic mean up to 300. Procedure: A positive integer n is said to be harmonic when the harmonic mean H(n) of its positive divisors is an integer. Conclusion: The researcher proved that every perfect number is harmonic. No nontrivial odd harmonic numbers are known. In this article, the list of all harmonic numbers n with H(n) 300 is given. In particular, such harmonic numbers are all even except 1. Title: NUMBERS WHOSE POSITIVE DIVISORS HAVE SMALL INTEGRAL HARMONIC MEAN Author: G. L. Cohen Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem:The researcher aimed to list all the harmonic number s less than 2

Procedure: A natural number n is said to be harmonic when the harmonic mean H(n) of its positive diviosrs is an integer. These were first introduced almost fifty years ago. Conclusion: In this paper, all harmonic numbers less than 2 are listed, along with some

other useful tables, and all harmonic numbers n with H(n) 13 are determined. Title: DIVISORS IN RESIDUE CLASSES Author: H. W. Lenstra, Jr. Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to prove a statement about divisors in residue classes. Procedure: : In this paper the following result is proved. Let r, sand n be integers satisfying 0 r < s < n,s > r modulo s. Conclusion The researcher concluded that there exists an efficient algorithm for determining all theory. It is not known whether 11 are best possible, in any case it cannot be replaced by 5. Nor is it known whether similar results are true for significantly smaller values of log s/log n. The algorithm treated in the paper has applications in computational number theory. Title: MULTIARIATE CLUSTER-SUM DISTRIMBUTIONS Author: Gavin G. Gregory Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to investigate about multiariate cluster-sum distributions. ,gcd(r, s) =1. Then there exist most 11 positive divisors of n that are congruent to

Procedure: A family of discrete multivariate Poisson-stopped-sum distributions is studied. Assciations are non-negative and univariate marginal distributions can be any specified collection of univariate Poisson-stopped sum distribution. Conclusion: Theoretical and numerical results are given when marginal distributions are chosen from: negative binomial, the Neyman Type A, the Poly-Aeppli, the Legrangian Poisson, and the Poisson. Title: SUM-FREE SETS OF INTEGERS Author: H. L. Abbott and E. T. Wang Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to obtain some evidence and way to say that an integer is a sumfree. Procedure: A set S of integers is said to be sum-free if a, b S implies a + b S. In this paper, the researchers investigate two new problems on sum-free partition of{1,2,,f(k)} into k sum-free sets, and let h(k) denote the largest positive integer for which there exists a partition {1,2,,h(k)} into k sets which are sum-free mod h(k) + 1. Conclusion: The researchers obtain evidence to support the conjecture that f(k)=h(k) for all k. (2) Let g(n, k) denote the cardinality of largest subset of {1,2,, n} that can be partitioned into k sum-free sets. The researchers obtain upper and lower bounds for g(n, k). The researchers also show that g(n,1)=[(n+1)/2] and indicate how one may show that for all n < 54,g(n,2)=n-[n/5]. Title: Divisibility Discovery: A New Divisibility Rule

Author: Casey L. Fu Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: Is there a general divisibility rule, or pattern, that applies to any number? Hypothesis: The researcher hypothesized that there is a general divisibility rule for any divisor ending in 1, 3, 7, and 9. Procedure: The researcher used 11, 21, 31, and 41 as divisors ending in 1 and chose some of their multiples as dividends. The researcher studied the relationship between the digits of the dividends and divisors and performed different operations on the digits to find the operation that would always produce results that are multiples of the divisors. This operation would be the divisibility rule for divisors ending in 1. I established the rules for divisors ending in 3, 7, and 9 in the same way. Then The researcher used Microsoft Excel to test my rules with greater dividends and divisors. Conclusion: The researchers hypothesis is supported because the results show that there is a general divisibility rule for divisors ending in 1, 3, 7 and 9, and the rule is related to A, a(1), and B. The rules that the researcher established contribute to the number theory and can be applied to prime number testing, which is important in fields such as cryptography.

Title: ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOCIABLE NUMBERS Author: MITSUO KOBAYASHI, PAUL POLLACK, AND CARL POMERANCE Source: Internet. http://www.jstor.org/ (Retrieved Date: August 23, 2012) Problem: The researcher aimed to investigate on the distribution of sociable numbers.

Procedure: For a positive integer n, define s(n) as the sum of the proper divisors of n. If s(n) > 0, define (n) = s(s(n)), and so on for higher iterates. Sociable numbers are those n with n) = n

for some k, the least such k being the order of n. Such numbers have been of interest since antiquity, when order-1 sociables (perfect numbers) and order-2 sociables (amicable numbers) were studied. In this paper the researchers make progress towards the conjecture that the sociable numbers have asymptotic density 0. Conclusion: The researchers show that the number of sociable numbers in [1, x], whose cycle contains at most k numbers greater than x, is o(x) for each fixed k. In particular, the number of sociable numbers whose cycle is contained entirely in [1, x] is o(x), as is the number of sociable numbers in [1, x] with order at most k. The researchers also prove that but for a set of sociable