MB0050 Research Methodology Assignment Set -1

Q 1. How is a research problem formulated? The manager, while managing people, products, events, and environments will invariably face problems, big and small, and will have to seek ways to find long lasting effective solutions. This can be achieved only through knowledge of research even if consultants are engaged to solve problems. The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not to do so. The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge, which takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy): Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems. Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research in progress. Research can also fall into two distinct types : Primary research Primary research (also called field research) involves the collection of data that does not already exist, which is research to collect original data. Primary Research is often undertaken after the researcher has gained some insight into the issue by collecting secondary data. This can be through numerous forms, including questionnaires, direct observation and telephone interviews amongst others. This information may be collected in things like questionnaires and interviews . Secondary research Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments. Secondary research can come from either internal or external sources. The proliferation of web search engines has increased opportunities to conduct secondary research without paying fees to database research providers In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research: Qualitative research

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts.[1] Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed, rather than large samples. Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only propositions (informed assertions). Quantitative methods can be used to seek empirical support for such research hypotheses. Quantitative Research In the social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative research is used widely in social sciences such as psychology, economics, anthropology, and political science. Research in mathematical sciences such as physics is also 'quantitative' by definition, though this use of the term differs in context. In the social sciences, the term relates to empirical methods, originating in both philosophical positivism and the history of statistics, which contrast qualitative research methods. Qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only hypotheses. Quantitative methods can be used to verify, which of such hypotheses are true. A comprehensive analysis of 1274 articles published in the top two American sociology journals between 1935 and 2005 found that roughly two thirds of these articles used quantitative methods. Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of Research. The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers. Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share.

Q 2. What are the characteristics of good research design? Ans. Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about : 1. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis. Hypothesis stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypothesis suggests new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypothesis have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant hypothesis from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in ones area of interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the area in which he is him working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation as such may be looked into by the researcher. 2. Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey, people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. By the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered. Generally, the experience of collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that, at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. This, survey may as well provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research. 3. Analyses of insight-stimulating examples are also a fruitful method for suggesting hypothesis for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instance of the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or

some other approach may be adop0ted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights. Now, what sorts of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut answer of it. Experience indicated that for particular problem certain types of instances are more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of insight-stimulating cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of individuals from different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting this method of hypothesis formulation. Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypothesis, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the researcher. Independent dependent variables : A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called noncontinuous variables. In statistical term, they are also known as discrete variable. For example, age is a continuous variable; where as the number of children is a noncontinuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variable. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, the demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute. Extraneous variable : The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variable. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables.

Q 3. How case study method is useful to Business Research? Ans. The interview process consists of the following stages:

Preparation Introduction Developing rapport Carrying the interview forward Recording the interview Closing the interview 1 Preparation The interviewing requires some preplanning and preparation. The interviewer should keep the copies of interview schedule/guide (as the case may be) ready to use. He should have the list of names and addresses of respondents, he should regroup them into contiguous groups in terms of location in order to save time and cost in traveling. The interviewer should find out the general daily routine of the respondents in order to determine the suitable timings for interview. Above all, he should mentally prepare himself for the interview. He should think about how he should approach a respondent, what mode of introduction he could adopt, what situations he may have to face and how he could deal with them. The interviewer may come across such situations as respondents; avoidance, reluctance, suspicion, diffidence, inadequate responses, distortion, etc. The investigator should plan the strategies for dealing with them. If such preplanning is not done, he will be caught unaware and fail to deal appropriately when he actually faces any such situation. It is possible to plan in advance and keep the plan and mind flexible and expectant of new development. 2 Introduction The investigator is a stranger to the respondents. Therefore, he should be properly introduced to each of the respondents. What is the proper mode of introduction? There is no one appropriate universal mode of introduction. Mode varies according to the type of respondents. When making a study of an organization or institution, the head of the organization should be approached first and his cooperation secured before contacting the sample inmates/employees. When studying a community or a cultural group, it is essential to approach the leader first and to enlist cooperation. For a survey or urban households, the research organizations letter of introduction and the interviewers identity card can be shown. In these days of fear of opening the door for a stranger, residents cooperation can be easily secured, if the interviewer attempts to get him introduced through a person known to them, say a popular person in the area e.g., a social worker. For interviewing rural respondents, the interviewer should never attempt to approach them along with someone from the revenue department, for they would immediately hide themselves, presuming that they are being contacted for collection of land revenue or subscription to some government bond. He should not also approach them through a local political leader, because persons who do not belong to his party

will not cooperate with the interviewer. It is rather desirable to approach the rural respondents through the local teacher or social worker. After getting himself introduced to the respondent in the most appropriate manner, the interviewer can follow a sequence of procedures as under, in order to motivate the respondent to permit the interview: 1. With a smile, greet the respondent in accordance with his cultural pattern. 2. Identify the respondent by name. 3. Describe the method by which the respondent was selected. 4. Mention the name of the organization conducting the research. 5. Assure the anonymity or confidential nature of the interview. 6. Explain their usefulness of the study. 7. Emphasize the value of respondents cooperation, making such statements as You are among the few in a position to supply the information. Your response is invaluable. I have come to learn from your experience and knowledge. 3 Developing Rapport Before starting the research interview, the interviewer should establish a friendly relationship with the respondent. This is described as rapport. It means establishing a relationship of confidence and understanding between the interviewer and the respondent. It is a skill which depends primarily on the interviewers commonsense, experience, sensitivity, and keen observation. Start the conversation with a general topic of interest such as weather, current news, sports event, or the like perceiving the probable of the respondent from his context. Such initial conversation may create a friendly atmosphere and a warm interpersonal relationship and mutual understanding. However, the interviewer should guard against the over rapport as cautioned by Herbert Hyman. Too much identification and too much courtesy result in tailoring replied to the image of a nice interviewer. The interviewer should use his discretion in striking a happy medium. 4 Carrying the Interview Forward After establishing rapport, the technical task of asking questions from the interview schedule starts. This task requires care, self-restraint, alertness and ability to listen with understanding, respect and curiosity. In carrying on this task of gathering information from the respondent by putting questions to him, the following guidelines may be followed: 1. Start the interview. Carry it on in an informal and natural conversational style.

2. Ask all the applicable questions in the same order as they appear on the schedule without any elucidation and change in the wording. Ask all the applicable questions listed in the schedule. Do not take answers for granted. 3. If interview guide is used, the interviewer may tailor his questions to each respondent, covering of course, the areas to be investigated. 4. Know the objectives of each question so as to make sure that the answers adequately satisfy the question objectives. 5. If a question is not understood, repeat it slowly with proper emphasis and appropriate explanation, when necessary. 6. Talk all answers naturally, never showing disapproval or surprise. When the respondent does not meet the interruptions, denial, contradiction and other harassment, he may feel free and may not try to withhold information. He will be motivated to communicate when the atmosphere is permissive and the listeners attitude is non judgmental and is genuinely absorbed in the revelations. 7. Listen quietly with patience and humility. Give not only undivided attention, but also personal warmth. At the same time, be alert and analytic to incomplete, non specific and inconsistent answers, but avoid interrupting the flow of information. If necessary, jot down unobtrusively the points which need elaboration or verification for later and timelier probing. The appropriate technique for this probing is to ask for further clarification in such a polite manner as I am not sure, I understood fully, is this.what you meant? 8. Neither argue nor dispute. 9. Show genuine concern and interest in the ideas expressed by the respondent; at the same time, maintain an impartial and objective attitude. 10. Should not reveal your own opinion or reaction. Even when you are asked of your views, laugh off the request, saying Well, your opinions are more important than mine. 11. At times the interview runs dry and needs re-stimulation. Then use such expressions as Uh-huh or That interesting or I see can you tell me more about that? and the like. 12. When the interviewee fails to supply his reactions to related past experiences, represent the stimulus situation, introducing appropriate questions which will aid in revealing the past. Under what circumstances did such and such a phenomenon occur? or How did you feel about it and the like. 13. At times, the conversation may go off the track. Be alert to discover drifting, steer the conversation back to the track by some such remark as, you know, I was very much interested in what you said a moment ago. Could you tell me more about it? 14. When the conversation turns to some intimate subjects, and particularly when it deals with crises in the life of the individual, emotional blockage may occur. Then drop the subject for the time being and pursue another line of conversation for a while so that a less direct approach to the subject can be made later.

15. When there is a pause in the flow of information, do not hurry the interview. Take it as a matter of course with an interested look or a sympathetic half-smile. If the silence is too prolonged, introduce a stimulus saying You mentioned that What happened then? 5 Additional Sittings In the case of qualitative interviews involving longer duration, one single sitting will not do, as it would cause interview weariness. Hence, it is desirable to have two or more sittings with the consent of the respondent. 6 Recording the Interview It is essential to record responses as they take place. If the note taking is done after the interview, a good deal of relevant information may be lost. Nothing should be made in the schedule under respective question. It should be complete and verbatim. The responses should not be summarized or paraphrased. How can complete recording be made without interrupting the free flow of conversation? Electronic transcription through devices like tape recorder can achieve this. It has obvious advantages over note-taking during the interview. But it also has certain disadvantages. Some respondents may object to or fear going on record. Consequently the risk of lower response rate will rise especially for sensitive topics. If the interviewer knows short-hand, he can use it with advantage. Otherwise, he can write rapidly by abbreviating word and using only key words and the like. However, even the fast writer may fail to record all that is said at conversational speed. At such times, it is useful to interrupt by some such comment as that seems to be a very important point, would you mind repeating it, so that I can get your words exactly. The respondent is usually flattered by this attention and the rapport is not disturbed. The interviewer should also record all his probes and other comments on the schedule, in brackets to set them off from responses. With the pre-coded structured questions, the interviewers task is easy. He has to simply ring the appropriate code or tick the appropriate box, as the case may be. He should not make mistakes by carelessly ringing or ticketing a wrong item. 7 Closing the Interview After the interview is over, take leave off the respondent thanking him with a friendly smile. In the case of a qualitative interview of longer duration, select the occasion for departure more carefully. Assembling the papers for putting them in the folder at the time of asking the final question sets the stage for a final handshake, a thank-you and a good-bye. If the respondent desires to know the result of the survey, note down his name and address so that a summary of the result could be posted to him when ready. 8 Editing At the close of the interview, the interviewer must edit the schedule to check that he has asked all the questions and recorded all the answers and that there is no inconsistency between answers. Abbreviations in recording must be replaced by full words. He must ensure that everything is legible. It is desirable to record a brief sketch of his impressions of the interview and observational notes on the respondents living

environment, his attitude to the survey, difficulties, if any, faced in securing his cooperation and the interviewers assessment of the validity of the respondents answers. Interview Problems: In personal interviewing, the researcher must deal with two major problems, inadequate response, non-response and interviewers bias. 1 Inadequate response Kahn and Cannel distinguish five principal symptoms of inadequate response. They are: partial response, in which the respondent gives a relevant but incomplete answer non-response, when the respondent remains silent or refuses to answer the question irrelevant response, in which the respondents answer is not relevant to the question asked inaccurate response, when the reply is biased or distorted and verbalized response problem, which arises on account of respondents failure to understand a question or lack of information necessary for answering it. 2 Interviewers Bias The interviewer is an important cause of response bias. He may resort to cheating by cooking up data without actually interviewing. The interviewers can influence the responses by inappropriate suggestions, word emphasis, tone of voice and question rephrasing. His own attitudes and expectations about what a particular category of respondents may say or think may bias the data. Another source of response of the interviewers characteristics (education, apparent social status, etc) may also bias his answers. Another source of response bias arises from interviewers perception of the situation, if he regards the assignment as impossible or sees the results of the survey as possible threats to personal interests or beliefs he is likely to introduce bias. As interviewers are human beings, such biasing factors can never be overcome completely, but their effects can be reduced by careful selection and training of interviewers, proper motivation and supervision, standardization or interview procedures (use of standard wording in survey questions, standard instructions on probing procedure and so on) and standardization of interviewer behaviour. There is need for more research on ways to minimize bias in the interview. 3 Non-response Non-response refers to failure to obtain responses from some sample respondents. There are many sources of non-response; non-availability, refusal, incapacity and inaccessibility. 4 Non-availability

Some respondents may not be available at home at the time of call. This depends upon the nature of the respondent and the time of calls. For example, employed persons may not be available during working hours. Farmers may not be available at home during cultivation season. Selection of appropriate timing for calls could solve this problem. Evenings and weekends may be favourable interviewing hours for such respondents. If someone is available, then, line respondents hours of availability can be ascertained and the next visit can be planned accordingly. 5 Refusal Some persons may refuse to furnish information because they are ill-disposed, or approached at the wrong hour and so on. Although, a hardcore of refusals remains, another try or perhaps another approach may find some of them cooperative. Incapacity or inability may refer to illness which prevents a response during the entire survey period. This may also arise on account of language barrier. 6 Inaccessibility Some respondents may be inaccessible. Some may not be found due to migration and other reasons. Non-responses reduce the effective sample size and its representativeness. 7 Methods and Aims of control of non-response Kish suggests the following methods to reduce either the percentage of non-response or its effects: 1. Improved procedures for collecting data are the most obvious remedy for nonresponse. Improvements advocated are (a) guarantees of anonymity, (b) motivation of the respondent to co-operate (c) arousing the respondents interest with clever opening remarks and questions, (d) advance notice to the respondents. 2. Call-backs are most effective way of reducing not-at-homes in personal interviews, as are repeated mailings to no-returns in mail surveys. 3. Substitution for the non-response is often suggested as a remedy. Usually this is a mistake because the substitutes resemble the responses rather than the nonresponses. Nevertheless, beneficial substitution methods can sometimes be designed with reference to important characteristics of the population. For example, in a farm management study, the farm size is an important variable and if the sampling is based on farm size, substitution for a respondent with a particular size holding by another with the holding of the same size is possible. Attempts to reduce the percentage or effects on non-responses aim at reducing the bias caused by differences on non-respondents from respondents. The non-response bias should not be confused with the reduction of sampled size due to non-response. The latter effect can be easily overcome, either by anticipating the size of non-response in designing the sample size or by compensating for it with a supplement. These adjustments increase the size of the response and the sampling precision, but they do not reduce the non-response percentage or bias.

Q 4. Distinguish between Schedules and questionnaires. Ans. In presenting the data of Distinguish between Schedules and questionnaires, it is often desirable to use appropriate forms of graphic presentations. In additions to tabular forms, graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices such as diagrams. These forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly understood at the glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the mind to grasp or retain. Properly constructed graphs and charts relieve the mind of burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply. They, by emphasizing new and significant relationship, are also useful in discovering new facts and in developing hypothesis. The device of graphic presentation is particularly useful when the prospective readers are non-technical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for dramatizing certain points about data; for important points can be more effectively captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutes for tables, but are additional tools for the researcher to emphasize the research findings. Graphic presentation must be planned with utmost care and diligence. Graphic forms used should be simple, clear and accurate and also be appropriate to the data. Roles of Graphs Graph is a diagram, as a curve, broken line, or series of bars, representing various kinds of quantitative information and relationships, such as the successive changes in a variable quantity or quantities. The graphs which are most commonly used in visual aids are Bar graphs, Pie Charts, Line graphs and Scatter diagrams. Graphs play a very important role during presentations because they make the data easier to understand and interpretations and comparisons can be made quickly. They are useful in presentations also because they can summarize large amounts of data and can convey the basic idea of the research. Graphs really help the audience in absorbing the data as they are simple to interpret and are appealing. By using graphs, variations and trends in data can be showed clearly and they show how the values of particular variables change over time. Graphs also help in determining the relationship between variables. A graph is an abstract data structure that is meant to implement the graph and hypergraph concepts from mathematics. A graph data structure consists of a finite (and possibly mutable) set of ordered pairs, called edges or arcs, of certain entities called nodes or vertices. As in mathematics, an edge (x,y) is said to point or go from x to y. The nodes may be part of the graph structure, or may be external entities represented by integer indices or references. A graph data structure may also associate to each edge some edge value, such as a symbolic label or a numeric attribute (cost, capacity, length, etc.).

Roles of Diagrams Diagram is a graphic representation of an algebraic or geometric relationship. Role Activity Diagrams (RADs) are a useful way of describing processes. They are valuable in documenting processes as they are now, and as they might be in the future. The main part of the SPRINT BPR Methodology describes the ways in which Role Activity Diagrams can be used within a broader change project. This guide tells you how to draw Role Activity Diagrams. The guide will show you that Role Activity Diagrams are a reasonably simple diagramming technique. It is not difficult to learn how to draw them and it is not difficult for most people to interpret them. The guide progresses by introducing each of the main constructs of the Role Activity Diagram. It describes these in turn, giving advice about the drawing conventions. This is syntactic guidance. In addition to these syntactic skills, the creation of Role Activity Diagrams relies upon an ability to scope a study, to decide on the level of interest and to determine the boundaries of each role in a diagram. This is where the real skill of using Role Activity Diagrams comes in but such issues are addressed only partially in this report. In reality the reader will rely upon experience gained through using Role Activity Diagrams in projects. This experience will teach how Role Activity Diagrams can best be used, and what they are most useful for. REPRESENTATION OF DATA Besides the tabular form, the data may also be presented in some graphic or diagrammatic form. The transformation of data through visual methods like graphs, diagrams, maps and charts is called representation of data. The need of representing data graphically: Graphics, such as maps, graphs and diagrams, are used to represent large volume of data. They are necessary: If the information is presented in tabular form or in a descriptive record, it becomes difficult to draw results. Graphical form makes it possible to easily draw visual impressions of data. The graphic method of the representation of data enhances our understanding. It makes the comparisons easy.

Besides, such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer time. It is a time consuming task to draw inferences about whatever is being presented in nongraphical form. It presents characteristics in a simplified way. These makes it easy to understand the patterns of population growth, distribution and the density, sex ratio, agesex composition, occupational structure, etc.

The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories : Line Graphs or Charts Bar Charts Segmental presentations Scatter plots Bubble charts Stock plots Pictographs Chesnokov Faces

The general rules to be followed in graphic representations are : 1. The chart should have a title placed directly above the chart. 2. The title should be clear, concise and simple and should describe the nature of the data presented. 3. Numerical data upon which the chart is based should be presented in an accompanying table. 4. The horizontal line measures time or independent variable and the vertical line the measured variable. 5. Measurements proceed from left to right on the horizontal line and from bottom to top on the vertical. 6. Each curve or bar on the chart should be labeled. 7. If there are more than one curves or bar, they should be clearly differentiated from one another by distinct patterns or colours. 8. The zero point should always be represented and the scale intervals should be equal. 9. Graphic forms should be used sparingly. Too many forms detract rather than illuminating the presentation. 10. Graphic forms should follow and not precede the related textual discussion.

Q.5. What are the contents of research reports? Primary Sources of Data Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that has not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, and brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behavior, from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data is first hand information collected through various methods such as surveys, experiments and observation, for the purposes of the project immediately at hand. The advantages of primary data are It is unique to a particular research study It is recent information, unlike published information that is already available The disadvantages are It is expensive to collect, compared to gathering information from available sources Data collection is a time consuming process It requires trained interviewers and investigators Secondary Sources of Data These are sources containing data, which has been collected and compiled for another purpose. Secondary sources may be internal sources, such as annual reports, financial statements, sales reports, inventory records, minutes of meetings and other information that is available within the firm, in the form of a marketing information system. They may also be external sources, such as government agencies (e.g. census reports, reports of government departments), published sources (annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, publications of international organizations such as the UN, World Bank and International Monetary Fund, trade and financial journals, etc.), trade associations (e.g. Chambers of Commerce) and commercial services (outside suppliers of information). Methods of Data Collection: The researcher directly collects primary data from its original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs and he can collect them when he wants and in the form that he needs it. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research, required data is not available from secondary sources and it has to be directly gathered from the primary sources. Primary data has to be gathered in cases where the available data is inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete. It includes: socio economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management studies etc.

There are various methods of primary data collection, including surveys, audits and panels, observation and experiments. 1 Survey Research A survey is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from a population or a sample at a particular time. A survey has certain characteristics: It is always conducted in a natural setting. It is a field study. It seeks responses directly from the respondents. It can cover a very large population. It may include an extensive study or an intensive study It covers a definite geographical area.

A survey involves the following steps Selection of a problem and its formulation Preparation of the research design Operation concepts and construction of measuring indexes and scales Sampling Construction of tools for data collection Field work and collection of data Processing of data and tabulation Analysis of data Reporting

There are four basic survey methods, which include: 1. Personal interview 2. Telephone interview 3. Mail survey and 4. Fax survey Personal Interview Personal interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may be defined as a two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondents gestures, facial expressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data, from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a persons opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, experiences and future intentions. Interviewing is appropriate when qualitative information is required, or probing is necessary to draw out the respondent fully. Where the area covered for the survey is compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible.

Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions. Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp the behavioral context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator to seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, which for some reason or the other the respondents do not want to answer. Interviewing as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. They are: The participants the interviewer and the respondent are strangers; hence, the investigator has to get himself/herself introduced to the respondent in an appropriate manner. The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. It has a fixed beginning and termination points. The interview proper is a fleeting, momentary experience for them. The interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a conversation with a specific purpose, viz., obtaining information relevant to a study. The interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally. The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be on a face-to-face basis, because the interview can also be conducted over the telephone. Although the interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it need not be limited to a single respondent. It can also be conducted with a group of persons, such as family members, or a group of children, or a group of customers, depending on the requirements of the study. The interview is an interactive process. The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent depends upon how they perceive each other. The respondent reacts to the interviewers appearance, behavior, gestures, facial expression and intonation, his perception of the thrust of the questions and his own personal needs. As far as possible, the interviewer should try to be closer to the social-economic level of the respondents. The investigator records information furnished by the respondent in the interview. This poses a problem of seeing that recording does not interfere with the tempo of conversation. Interviewing is not a standardized process like that of a chemical technician; it is rather a flexible, psychological process.

Telephone Interviewing Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection. It may be used as a major method or as a supplementary method. It will be useful in the following situations:

When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are listed in telephone directories, e.g. business houses, business executives, doctors and other professionals. When the study requires responses to five or six simple questions, e.g. a radio or television program survey. When the survey must be conducted in a very short period of time, provided the units of study are listed in the telephone directory. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g. a survey relating to trade conducted by a trade association or a chamber of commerce, a survey relating to a profession conducted by the concerned professional association. When the respondents are widely scattered and when there are many call backs to make.

Group Interviews A group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is multi dimensional. The group may consist of about six to eight individuals with a common interest. The interviewer acts as the discussion leader. Free discussion is encouraged on some aspect of the subject under study. The discussion leader stimulates the group members to interact with each other. The desired information may be obtained through self-administered questionnaire or interview, with the discussion serving as a guide to ensure consideration of the areas of concern. In particular, the interviewers look for evidence of common elements of attitudes, beliefs, intentions and opinions among individuals in the group. At the same time, he must be aware that a single comment by a member can provide important insight. Samples for group interviews can be obtained through schools, clubs and other organized groups. Mail Survey The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return them by post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only. The mail questionnaires should be simple so that the respondents can easily understand the questions and answer them. It should preferably contain mostly closed-ended and multiple choice questions, so that it could be completed within a few minutes. The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered by the respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them and not by the investigator, as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-toface conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is carried out only in writing and this requires more cooperation from the respondents than verbal communication. The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected

respondents, by collecting the addresses from the telephone directory of the association or organization to which they belong. The following procedures should be followed a covering letter should accompany a copy of the questionnaire. It must explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and the importance of his cooperation to the success of the project. Anonymity must be assured. The sponsors identity may be revealed. However, when such information may bias the result, it is not desirable to reveal it. In this case, a disguised organization name may be used. After a few days from the date of mailing the questionnaires to the respondents, the researcher can expect the return of completed ones from them. The progress in return may be watched and at the appropriate stage, follow-up efforts can be made.

The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low in developing countries like India. Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They are: 11. Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed on quality light colored paper, so as to attract the attention of the respondent. 2 32. Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style, so as to attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate objections and answer them briefly. It is desirable to address the respondent by name. 4 53. Advance information: Advance information can be provided to potential respondents by a telephone call, or advance notice in the newsletter of the concerned organization, or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with potential respondents is more successful than follow-up efforts. 6 74. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used to induce respondents to complete and return the mail questionnaire. 8 95. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an organization, they may be approached through someone in that organization known as the researcher. 10 116. Larger sample size: A larger sample may be drawn than the estimated sample size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may be drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective sample size closer to the required size.

Q 6. Write short notes on the following: a. Median b. Standard Deviation

Ans. The two most common measures of central tendency are the median and the mean, which can be illustrated with an example. Suppose we draw a sample of five women and measure their weights. They weigh 100 pounds, 100 pounds, 130 pounds, 140 pounds, and 150 pounds.

To find the median, we arrange the observations in order from smallest to largest value. If there is an odd number of observations, the median is the middle value. If there is an even number of observations, the median is the average of the two middle values. Thus, in the sample of five women, the median value would be 130 pounds; since 130 pounds is the middle weight.

The mean of a sample or a population is computed by adding all of the observations and dividing by the number of observations. Returning to the example of the five women, the mean weight would equal (100 + 100 + 130 + 140 + 150)/5 = 620/5 = 124 pounds. In the general case, the mean can be calculated, using one of the following equations: Population mean = = X / N OR Sample mean = x = x / n

where X is the sum of all the population observations, N is the number of population observations, x is the sum of all the sample observations, and n is the number of sample observations. When statisticians talk about the mean of a population, they use the Greek letter to refer to the mean score. When they talk about the mean of a sample, statisticians use the symbol x to refer to the mean score. The Mean vs. the Median As measures of central tendency, the mean and the median each have advantages and disadvantages. Some pros and cons of each measure are summarized below.

The median may be a better indicator of the most typical value if a set of scores has an outlier. An outlier is an extreme value that differs greatly from other values.

However, when the sample size is large and does not include outliers, the mean score usually provides a better measure of central tendency.

To illustrate these points, consider the following example. Suppose we examine a sample of 10 households to estimate the typical family income. Nine of the households have incomes between $20,000 and $100,000; but the tenth household has an annual income of $1,000,000,000. That tenth household is an outlier. If we choose a measure to estimate the income of a typical household, the mean will greatly over-estimate the income of a typical family (because of the outlier); while the median will not. Effect of Changing Units Sometimes, researchers change units (minutes to hours, feet to meters, etc.). Here is how measures of central tendency are affected when we change units.

If you add a constant to every value, the mean and median increase by the same constant. For example, suppose you have a set of scores with a mean equal to 5 and a median equal to 6. If you add 10 to every score, the new mean will be 5 + 10 = 15; and the new median will be 6 + 10 = 16. Suppose you multiply every value by a constant. Then, the mean and the median will also be multiplied by that constant. For example, assume that a set of scores has a mean of 5 and a median of 6. If you multiply each of these scores by 10, the new mean will be 5 * 10 = 50; and the new median will be 6 * 10 = 60.