Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Bone, the material that makes vertebrates distinct from other animals, has evolved over several hundred million years to become a remarkable tissue. Bone is a material that has the same strength as cast iron, but achieves this while remaining as light as wood.

INTRODUCTION A. DEFINITIOS: Anatomy Anatomy is a branch of biological science, which deals with the study of forms and structures of the organisms. Branches of anatomy: i. Gross anatomy: It is the branch of anatomy, which deals with the study of forms and structures of the organisms with naked eyes. ii. Histology: It is the branch of anatomy, which deals with the study of forms and structures of the organisms with the help of microscope, and hence, it is also called as microscopic anatomy. The study of cell and its structure is called as Cytology. iii. Developmental Anatomy or Embryology: It is the branch of anatomy, which deals with the study of successive changes, which occur during development from the time of fertilization (zygote-formation) to the fully developed young one. Ontogeny is related with the development of an individual species while Phylogeny concerns the development of an entire phylum. iv. Radiological anatomy: It is the branch of anatomy, which deals with the study of forms and structures of the organisms with the help irridations like Xrays, Ultrasound etc. B. Types of Anatomy 1. Special Anatomy: It is one of the types of anatomy, which deals with the study of forms and structures of a particular species of animal. For examples, bovine anatomy (anatomy of ox and buffalo), equine anatomy (anatomy of horses), canine anatomy (anatomy of carnivores dog, cat), ovine anatomy (anatomy of sheep), caprine anatomy (anatomy of goat), avian anatomy (anatomy of birds)and medical anatomy (anatomy of human beings) etc. 2. Comparative Anatomy: It is one of the types of anatomy, which deals with the description and comparison of forms and structures of different species of animals and forms a basis for their classification. Veterinary anatomy: It is one of the types of anatomy, which deals with the description and comparison of forms and structures of principal domestic animals. The principal domestic animals are ox, buffalo, horse, dog and cat, sheep and goat, pig, poultry etc.

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy C. Methods of Study Gross Anatomy 1. Systematic Anatomy: The systematic anatomy deals with the study of various systems of the animal body one after another. 2. Regional Anatomy: The regional anatomy deals with the study of various regions of an animal body (e.g. neck region; includes study of muscles, bones, organs, blood vessels and nerves of this region) and 3. Applied Anatomy: The applied anatomy deals with the use of knowledge of anatomy in practical subjects namely surgery, medicine and gynaecology and obstetrics (clinical subjects); diagnostic technique, pathology, livestock production and management, physiology, etc The animal body is composed of cells. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life (organisms). An assembly of cells forms tissues; the assembly of tissues forms organs, the assembly of organs forms systems and the assembly of systems form the animal body. The study of organs and / or systems forms various subjects of knowledge. Osteology : Study of bones. Myology : Study of muscles. Arthrology : Study of joints. Splanchnology : Study of organs/viscera of tubular systems which communicate with the exterior through their one or both the ends. Angiology : Study of cardio-vascular and lymphatic systems. Neurology: Study of nervous system. Aesthesiology: Study of sense organs. Biomechanics: It is a branch of mechanobiology that deals with the application of laws of mechanics to the biological systems. D. Topographic terms Those terms which are used to describe various organs or parts of body with respect to their location, directions, relations etc. It is assumed that the animal is in ordinary standing position. I. Planes of body 1. Median plane: It is the pane of the body, which passes through the midlongitudinal axis of the body and divides the body into equal parts. It is also called as mid-sagittal plane. 2. Sagittal plane: The plane of the body that is parallel to the median plane is known as sagittal plane. It is also called as paramedian plane. 3. Transverse plane: The plane of the body that is perpendicular to the median plane is known as transverse plane. 4. Frontal plane: The plane of the body that is perpendicular to both the median and transverse planes is known as transverse plane.

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy II. Surfaces a. With respect to median plane: 1. Medial surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is nearer to the median plane, is called as medial surface. 2. Lateral surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is farther away from the median plane, is called as lateral surface. b. With respect to head / tail: 1. Cranial surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is nearer to the head of the animal than any surfaces, is called as cranial surface. 2. Caudal surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is farther away from the head of the animal than any surfaces, is called as caudal surface. c. With respect to sky / ground: 1. Dorsal surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is nearer to the sky (or farther away from the ground) than any surfaces, is called as dorsal surface. 2. Ventral surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is farther away from the sky (or nearer to the ground) than any surfaces, is called as ventral surface. Modification of cranial/caudal surface w.r.t. limbs: 1. Dorsal surface: The cranial surface of a bone or an organ in manus (from carpal joint in forelimb to the toe) and pes (from tarsal joint in hind limbs to the toe) regions is called as dorsal surface. 2. Palmer surface: The cranial surface of a bone or an organ in manus region (from carpal joint in forelimb to the toe), is called as dorsal surface. 3. Planter surface: The caudal surface of a bone or an organ in manus (from carpal joint in forelimb to the toe) and pes (from tarsal joint in hind limbs to the toe) regions is called as planter surface. d. With respect to long axis of the body: 1. Axial surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is nearer to the long axis of the body, bone or organ, is called as cranial surface. 2. Abaxial surface: The surface of a bone or an organ, which is farther away from the long axis of the body, bone or organ, is called as abaxial surface. III. Extremities a. With respect to head / tail: 1. Cranial extremity: The end of a bone or an organ, which is nearer to the head of the animal, is called as cranial extremity. 2. Caudal surface: The end of a bone or an organ, which is farther away from the head of the animal, is called as caudal extremity. Modification of cranial extremity w.r.t. head: 1. Rostral extremity: The cranial end of a bone or an organ in the head is called as rostral extremity.

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy c. With respect to sky / ground: 1. Dorsal extremity: The end of a bone or an organ, which is nearer to the sky or farther away from the ground, is called as dorsal extremity. 2. Ventral extremity: The end of a bone or an organ, which is farther away from the sky, is called as ventral extremity. d. With respect to long axis of the body: 1. Proximal extremity: The end of a bone or an organ, which is nearer to the long axis of the body, is called as proximal extremity. 2. Distal extremity: The end of a bone or an organ, which is farther away from the long axis of the body, is called as distal extremity. E. Modifications of bone surface Since the bone acts as lever for locomotion, it provides attachments to the muscles and ligaments of the joint(s). To achieve these functions, the surface of the bone has some projections and depressions. They are of two types: articular and non-articula. 1. Articular projections; i. Head: A spherical articular projection is known as head. ii. Condyle: A cylindrical articular projection is known as condyle. iii. Trochlea: A pulley-like articular projection is known as trochlea. iv. Facet: A flat articular surface (projection) is known as facet. 2. Articular depressions: i. Glenoid cavity: A shallow articular concavity is known as glenoid cavity. ii. Cotyloid cavity: A deep articular concavity is known as cotyloid cavity iii. Acetabulum: The largest articular concavity is known as acetabulum. 3. Non-articular projections: i. Line: A non-articular linear ridge is called as line. ii. Crest: A non-articular sharp ridge is called as crest. iii. Spine: A non-articular pointed projection is called as spine. iv. Epicondyle: A non-articular eminence attached on either side of the condyle is called epicondyle. v. Tubercle: A non-articular small projection is called as tubercle. vi. Tuberosity: A non-articular large projection is called as tuberosity. vii. Trachanter: The largest non-articular projection is called as trochanter. viii. Process: Any non-articular projection is called as process. ix. Notch: A non-articular indentation at the brim of a concavity is called as notch. It may be articular or non-articular. x. Cornua: A non-articular horn-like projection is called as cornua. xi. Hamulus: A non-articular hook-like projection is called as hamulus

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy 4. Non-articular depressions: i. Sulcu: A non-articular shallow groove is called as sulcus. ii. Fissure: A non-articular deep groove is called as fissure. iii. Fossa: A non-articular shallow depression is called as fissure. iv.Fovea: A non-articular deep and narrow depression is called as fissure. v. Foramen: A hole in the bone or an organ is called as foramen. vi. Hiatus: A non-articular shallow depression having more than one foramina is called as hiatus. vii. Canal: A tunnel in the bone or organ is called as canal. viii. Sinus: An air space inside a bone lined by mucous membrane and having communication with the exterior is called as sinus.

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy OSTEOLOGY

Osteology: It is the study of bones. The bone is the second hardest substance after the enamel of the tooth in the animal body. Bone is a hard, but brittle, tissue and is relatively light per unit volume. Bone is a dynamic tissue, which throughout life bone tissue is continually being formed and resorbed. This remodeling and reorganization of bone tissue is the result of many factors including: 1. Mechanical stimuli 2. Metabolic causes (lack of dietary calcium, illness, aging) 3. Endocrine changes 4. Effects of drugs. Functions of bone: 1. It forms the framework of the body. 2. It protects the vital organs like brain, spinal cord, heart etc. 3. It provides support and attachment to the muscles. 4. It acts as a lever for locomotion. 5. It is one of the important organs of haemopoiesis (blood forming). 6. It is one or the important organs of mineral homeostasis (reserve of calcium, phosphate, and other ions). 7. It acts as an organ of poisonous heavy metal deposition. 8. Defense against acidosis. Skeleton: It is the framework of animal body formed by hard tissues (substances). The hard substances are enamel, bones, chitin, hard skin derivatives, calcaneous shell etc. Classification of Skeleton: The skeleton is classified on the basis of location of the substances. I. Exo-skeleton: The subdivision of the skeleton, which is located out-side (external to) the animal body ( e.g., shield of the turtle, scales of fishes, chitinous covering of the cockroach, horns, hooves, nails, claws, dewclaws etc., in mammals. II. Endo-skeleton: The subdivision of the skeleton, which is located in-side (internal to) the animal body. Subdivisions of endo-skeleton: 1. Visceral skeleton: The subdivision of the endo-skeleton that is embedded into the organs. It is generally not the part of the function skeleton of the animal body. Examples: a. Os Os-cordis The bone in the heart of cattle and buffalo. b. Os-phrenic: the bone in the diaphragm of camel c. Os-rostrum: The bone in the snout (nose) of pigs d. Os-penis: The bone in the penis of dogs, bear, rodents, bats and some primates.

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy 2. Axial Skeleton: The subdivision of the endo-skeleton that is located at the median plane of the body. The sub divisions of the axial skeleton are: i. Skull (skeleton of head) ii. Vertebral column iii. Sternum and iv. Ribs 3. Appendicular skeleton: The subdivision of the endo-skeleton that is located away from the long axis of the body. The subdivisions of appendicular skeleton are: i. ii. Forelimbs (Pectoral limbs): It is the subdivision of the appendicular skeleton, which is located nearer to the head. Hind limbs (Pelvic limbs): It is the subdivision of the appendicular skeleton that is located nearer to the tail.
Table 1: Regions, Joints and Bones of the Forelimbs Name of region Shoulder (Pectoral or shoulder gordle) Arm (brachium) Forearm(anebrachium) Bone(s) Scapula ( all species) Coracoid (fowl, man) Clavicle (fowl,man) Humerus Radius Ulna Name of Joints Synsarcosis Bones 1. scapula 2. Thorax 1.Scapula 2. Humerus 1. Humerus 2. Radius 3. Ulna 1.Radius 2. Ulna 3. Carpals 4. Metacarpals

Shoulder (scapulohumeral joint) Elbow

Manus 1. Carpal (knee) 2. Cannon 3. Digits

Carpal Carpal bones Metacarpal bones 1. Phalanges (Ist, IInd and IIIrd) 2. Sesamoids (proximal and distal) Fetlock

1.Metacarpals 2. First phalanx 3. Proxinal sesamoids 1. First phalanx 2. Second phalanx 1. Second phalanx 2. Third phalanx 3. Distal sesamoids

Pastern

Coffin

The distal sesamoid bone in horse is known as navicular bone

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Table 2a: Regions, Joints and Bones of the Hind limbs

Name of region Hip (Pelvic gidle) Thigh Leg Pes 1. Tarsal (Hock) 2. Shank 3.Digits

Bone(s) Os coxae (ilium, ischium and pubis) 1. Femur 2. Fabella (dog) 1. Patella, 2. Tibia and 3. fibula 1. Tarsal bones 2. Metatarsal bones 3. Phalanges (Ist, IInd and IIIrd) 4. Sesamoids (proximal and distal)

Name of Joints Sacro-iliac Symphysis pelvis Hip Stifle

Bones 1. Sacrum 2. Ilium 1.Between two pubis and ischium 1. Os coxae 2. Femur 1.Femur 2. Patella 3. Tibia

Tarsal (Hock)

Fetlock

1. Tibia 2. fibula 3. Tarsals 4. Metatarsals 1.Metataraals 2. First phalanx 3. Proxinal sesamoids 1. First phalanx 2. Second phalanx 1. Second phalanx 2. Third phalanx 3. Distal sesamoids

Pastern

Coffin

Table 2b: Comparison of Pectoral and Pelvic bones Pectoral limb Pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) Scapula Clavicle Coracoid Humerus-arm Radius- forearm Ulna- forearm CarpusMetacarpus- cannon Phalanges- digits Pelvic limb Pelvic girdle (os coxae)-pelvis Ilium Ishium Pubis Femur- thigh Patella Tibia- leg Fibula- leg Tarsus- hock (shank) Metatarsus- cannon Phalanges- digits

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Regions of Axial skeleton 1. Skull: It is the skeleton of head. The subdivisions are: i. Cranium and ii. Face. The cranium is the subdivision of skull, which lodges the brain and its associated structures. The remaining region is known as face. Table 3: The bones of cranium Unpaired bones 1. Ethmoid 2. Occipital 3. Sphenoid Paired bones 1. Frontal 2. Interparietal 3. Parietal 4. Temporal Table 4: The bones of face. Unpaired bones 1. Hoid 2. Mandible 3. Vomer Paired bones 1. Lacrimal 2. Maxilla 3. Nasal 4. Palatine 5. Premaxilla 6. Turbinates (Conchae) 7. zygomatic (Malar)

2. Vertebral column: The subdivision of axial skeleton, which lodges the spinal cord and its associated structures. The bones of vertebral column are called as vertebrae. Table 5: Regions and Bones of the vertebral column. Region Bones (with abbreviation) 1. Neck Cervical vertebrae (C) 2. Back Thoracic vertebrae (Th) 3. Loin Lumbar vertebrae (L) 4. Rump (croup) Sacral vertebrae (S) 5. Tail Coccygeal vertebrae (Cy) The number of bones is constant in a particular region of an animal. The expression of the number of vertebrae in different regions, in a compact form, is known as vertebral formula. Table 6: The vertebral formula in different animals Species (animal) Ox Horse Sheep Dog Fowl Rabbit Pig Human being Vertebral formula C7 Th13 L5 S6 Cy18-20 C7 Th18 L5 S6 Cy15-21 C7 Th13-14 L6-7 S4 Cy16-18 C7 Th13 L7 S3 Cy20-23 C14 Th7 (L + S)14 Cy6 C7 Th12 L7 S4 Cy16 C7 Th14-15 L6-7 S4 Cy20-23 C7 Th12 L5 S5 Cy4

3. Ribs (Costae): They are the bones of lateral wall of thorax. The number of ribs (in pairs) is always equal to the number of thoracic vertebrae. 4. Sternum: It forms the floor of the thorax. The bones of sternum are called as sternebrae. The number of sternebrae varies with species as follows: Ox = 7; Horse = 8; Sheep = 6; Goat = 7 and Pig = 6.

Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Number of bones present in different skeletons:
Animal Skull Vertebral column Ox 32 51 Horse Dog Pig Rabbit Fowl 32 32 30 34 40 51 51 52 46 41 Ribs & sternum 26+1+0 36+1+0 26+1+2 28-30+1+0 24-26+1+0 14+1+1+2 Fore limb 24X2 20X2 44X2 40X2 31X2(excl. sesamoids) 13X2 (coracoid) Hind limb 24X2 20X2 45X2 40X2 29X2 21X2 Visceral Total bone (approx.) 2 208 (os cordis) 200 1 291 (os penis) 1 274 (os rostri) 229 2 (os sclerae) 169

Figure 1: Skeleton of ox (above) and horse (below)

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Exercise 1: Write the name of bones (region) and joints in the above figure.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Exercise 2: Write the name of bones (region) and joints in the above figure.

Types of Bone Tissue Bone cells are called osteocytes, and the matrix of the bone is made of calcium salts and collagen. The calcium salts give bones the strength for its supportive and protective functions. The function of osteocytes is to regulate the amount of calcium that is deposited in or removed from the bone matrix. Bone is an organ; it has its own blood supply and is made up of two types of tissue: compact and spongy bone. The names imply that the two types of differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts reabsorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells. An equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue. Structure of Bone A. Gross (Macroscopic) Structure of Long bone: The arrangement of compact and spongy tissue in long bone accounts for its strength. Long bones contain sites of growth and reshaping and structures associated with joints. The bone is relatively (almost) cylindrical in shape. The parts of a long bone include the following (Fig 2and 3):

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy 1. Diaphysis: The middle part of the bone is known as diaphysis (dia = through and physis = growth) or shaft. Internally it is hollow and the hollow part is called as medullary cavity. The diaphysis is mainly formed by the hard bone known as cortical bone (compact bone) and spongy bones. 2. Medullary cavity: The medullary cavity is filled with marrow (bone marrow which synthesizes blood and blood cells). The bone marrow is red in young animals and becomes yellow in adult animals and white in old animals due to deposition of fat. 3. Periosteum: The cortical bone is covered by a fibrous membrane called as periosteum, which is responsible for the lateral growth (increase in diameter). The periosteum is absent at the articular surface of the bone. The periosteum consists of an inner osteogenic (bone forming) layer (cambium), which provides appositional growth before maturity, and an outer fibrous layer, which is purely supportive. The presence of the active cambium, with longitudinal arterioles, makes the periosteum thick. However, for the mature long-bone the cambium is atrophic (thin and tenuous). The periosteum protects the bone, serves as a point of attachment for muscle, and contains blood vessels that nourish the underlying bone. Because the periosteum carries the blood supply to the underlying bone, any injury to this structure has serious consequences to the health of the bone. Like any other organ the loss of blood supply can cause its death. The inner surface of the cortical bone is lined by a fibrous membrane called as endosteum. 4. Epiphysis: The enlarged ends of the long bone are the epiphyses. The epiphyses of a bone articulate, or meet, with a second bone at a joint. Each epiphysis consists of spongy (trabecular) bones and a thin layer of compact bone overlying the spongy bones. The spongy bones enclose small cavities called as marrow spaces, which are filled with bone marrow. The epiphyses are covered by cartilage. 5. Metaphysis: It is present between the diaphysis and epiphysis and has a hayline cartilage known as epiphyseal cartilage. The epiphyseal cartilage is responsible for the longitudinal growth of the bone.
External mechanical forces importantly determine the shape of the epiphysis during development, and drive bone morphology to a physiological geometry. These external forces may arise from muscle contractions as well as from tensile forces which develop during growth due to stretching of tendons, ligaments, periosteum and perichondrium. 6. Articular cartilage- The articular cartilage is found on the outer surface of the epiphysis. It forms a smooth, shiny surface that decreases friction within a joint. Because a joint is also called an articulation, this cartilage is called articular cartilage.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Figure 2: Spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bones at the extremity of the long bone. Figure 1: Epiphysis showing spongy (trabecular) bones

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Figure 3: Long bone showing diaphysis with medullary cavity, metaphyses and epiphyses.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone: Mature compact bone is composed of three lamellar (layer) arrangements (Figure 3 and 4): I. Osteons (Haversian Systems) or osteonal bones II. Circumferential Systems III. Interstitial Systems The last two lamellar systems form the periosteonal (periosteal) bones. Osteons (Haversian Systems) The osteonal bone consists of osteons made up of thin (26 m) lamellar sheets (haversian lamellae 2 4 in number) oriented in a concentric cylindrical structure around a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal (Fig.3 and 4). These osteons are 150 250 m in diameter and align parallel along the long axis of bone. Between the rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone, are known as Volkmanns canals. Volkmann's canals can be identified as they do not have concentric lamella surrounding them. Circumferential Systems Immediately below the periosteum, at the periphery of compact bone of the diaphysis, the lamellae surround the bone in a continuous manner and are parallel to the bone surface. These are known as the outer circumferential lamellae. A similar system of continuous lamellae adjacent to the endosteum is also found and is known as the inner circumferential lamellae. They are made up of fibrolamellar bone. Bundles of collagen fibers, known as Sharpeys fibers or perforating fibers, anchor the periosteum to the outer circumferential lamellae, especially in sites of tendon insertions. Interstitial Systems Remodeling of bone is a continuous process involving resorption of osteons and the rebuilding of new osteons. Interstitial systems of compact bone represent the remnants of osteons after remodeling. They are present between regular osteons and can be identified as irregular lamellar structures that lack a central Haversian canal. The periosteal bone is stronger and more highly anisotropic than osteonal bone.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Figure 4: Compact bone showing osteon in different views. Right figure shows T.S. of compact bone.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Figure 4: Compact bone showing osteon in T.S. view

Figure 5: Compact bone showing osteon in different views.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Spongy (cancellous or trabecular (L. trabs- beam) bone: Spongy bone is lighter and less dense than compact. Spongy bone consists of plates (trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow (Figure 1). The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear that the trabeculae are arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow the lines of stress and can realign if the direction of stress changes. Properties of Bones I. Cortical bone: 1. Physical properties: It is a white or yellowish white hard structure. The biomechanical properties are given in Table-3. The bones are strongest under compressive stress and the weakest under shear stress. The Youngs modulus of osteon lamellar bone is about 22 GPa. Completely demineralized bone has mechanical properties similar to the cranial cruciate ligament of stifle joint and, therefore, has increased likelihood for success in the cranial cruciate ligament reconstruction surgery. Table 7: Hydrated density, Youngs modulus, compressive strength and compressive strength. Weibull modulus (m) for untreated, deproteinized and demineralized bovine cortical bone in the three anatomical directions. Sample Orientation Density (g /cm 3) Youngs modulus (GPa) Average compressive strength (MPa) 120 142 112 Weibull moduli (m)

UNTREATED Longitudinal Radial Transverse DEPROTEINIZED Longitudinal Radial Transverse DEMINERALIZED Longitudinal Radial Ttransverse

2.06 2.03 2.04

22.6 12.4 16.2 9.2 2.6 2.2

3.32 4.22 5.68

2.00 1.94 1.96

24 18 11

2.04 2.32 2.95

1.17 1.17 1.18

0.232 0.060 0.132

14 6 11

N/A N/A N/A

The elastic modulus E = 6.95 1.49 Where = apparent density (g / cm3)

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy II. Mechanical properties of spongy bone: Average shear strengths in the range of 5-7 Mpa. Ave. shear modulus = 58-89 MPa Compression modulus = 158-378 MPa Shear strength is proportional to apparent density to the exponent 1.65. The mean shear strength is 6.60 1.66 MPa. Bone marrow dose not have any effect on trabecular bone shear modulus and strength. The shear strength is directly proportional to the apparent density raised to the 1.02 power and to the strain rate raised to the 0.13 power. The shear modulus is directly proportional to the apparent density raised to the 1.08 power and to the strain rate raised to the 0.07 power. Elastic modulus E = 3790 - 0:06 3 app where is the strain rate, and app is the apparent density. The average ultimate strength in tension is 7.6 2.2 MPa and in compression is 12.4 3.2 MPa. Chemical properties: The bone matrix (ground substance) has two main components: 1. Organic matrix 2. Inorganic salts. The ratio between organic and inorganic matrix is about 1:2. Organic matrix The organic matrix is composed of type I collagen fibers (about 95%) embedded in an amorphous ground substance consisting of: i. Sulfated glycosaminoglycans (chondroitin-4-sulfate, chondroitin-6-sulfate, keratan sulfate) ii. Various bone proteins (bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin). The non-cellular organic matrix is known as osteoid. The osteoid makes up 1/3 of the matrix. Collagen is a fibrous protein which provides the bone with tensile strength and flexibility. The boiling of bone yields gelatin solution Inorganic salts The inorganic components make up 2/3 of the bone matrix. The main calcium deposits in the bone matrix are in the form of crystals of hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6.(OH)2 with impurities like calcium and magnesium carbonates, calcium fluoride, calcium hydroxide and citrate. Water comprises approximately 25% of adult bone mass. Table 8: Chemical composition of dry cortical bone. Chemical composition Percentage in dry cortical bone Organic matrix 33 Inorganic matrix 67 Calcium phosphate 57 Calcium carbonate 4 Magnesium phosphate 2. Magnesium carbonate 1 Sodium carbonate and chloride 3

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Classification of Bones: I. On the basis of compactness: 1. Cortical bones (Compact bones) and 2. Spongy bones (cancellous or trabecular bones) II. On the basis of development (ossification processes): 1. Intramembranous bone: The bones are formed by the process of intramembranous ossification. Examples are most of the bones of skull (except mandible, basi-sphenoid and occipital condyles). 2. Intracartilagenous bone (Endo-chondral bones): The bones are formed by the process of intracartilageous ossification. Examples are bones of limbs, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, mandible, basi-sphenoid and occipital condyles. III. On the basis of physical characters like presence of medullary cavity, shape and size and location: 1. Long bones: These bones have a cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) and two expanded extremities (epiphysis). The shaft has a medullary cavity inside. Examples are humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpal bones, metatarsal bones and phalanges Functions: Mainly support the body weight and act as lever for locomotion. 2. Short bones: They are cuboidal (suffix oid means similar to) in shape. They are mainly composed of the spongy bone, which is covered by a thin layer of compact bone. The medullary cavity is absent. They are generally located at the composite joints. Examples are carpal and tarsal bones. Functions: They act as shock absorber to dissipate concussion during locomotion. 3. Flat bones: They are plate like and are more expanded in two dimensions (height or thickness is very less). They are mainly composed of the spongy bone, which is covered by a thick layer of compact bone. The medullary cavity is absent. The spongy substance of flat bones of skull is called as diploe and the layers of compact bones are called as lamina externa and lamina interna. Examples are scapula, os coxae, and intramembranous bones of skull. Functions: Protection of vital organs and provide attachment to muscles and tendons and ligaments of the joints. 4. Irregular bones: They are unpaired, irregular in shape and are located at the median plane of the body. Examples: Vertebrae and Sternum. Functions: Same as those of flat bones. 5. Pneumatic bones: Those bones, which have an air-cavity (sinus) inside the compact bones instead of spongy bone and marrow. For this they are directly or indirectly connected with the air sacs of the respiratory system.. The pneumatic bones are generally present in birds. Examples are bones of forelimbs of fowl (scapula, clavicle, , coracoids, humerus radius, ulna, carpal and metacarpal bones and sternum. Functions: They reduce the body weight and help in flight. 6. Elongated bones: They are elongated in one dimension and do not contain medullary cavity. Examples are ribs.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Functions: Same as those of flat bones 7. Aborted long bones: They are reduced developed bones with a small medullary cavity. Examples are ulna of horse, small metacarpus and small metatarsus. Functions: Same as those of long bones. 8. Sesamoid bones: The bones, which are developed along the course of the tendon of a muscle to change the angle of pull of the muscle are known as sesamoid bones as their shape is sesame-seed like. Examples are patella (the largest sesamoid bone), fabella, Proximal and distal sesamoid bones of digits. Functions: To change the angle of pull of the muscle.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Development (ossification) of Bones The process of bone formation is known as Ossification. There are two types of ossifications: 1. Intracartilagenous (endochondral) ossification and 2. Intramembranous ossification 1. Intracartilagenous (endochondral) ossification: The process of bone formation, which takes place in the cartilage, is called as Intracartilagenous ossification A. Formation of hyaline cartilage

Chondroblasts form a hyaline cartilage model of the future bone Once surrounded by cartilage matrix they change into chondrocytes Perichondrium is formed over the bone except where it will articulate Perichondrium is continuous with the joint capsule

B. Calcification of the cartilage

Blood vessels supply the perichondrium Osteoprogenitor cells from the perichondrium change to osteoblasts Osteoblasts produce a woven bone collar surrounded by periosteum Interstitial and appositional cartilage growth causes the cartilage model to lengthen and broaden Chondrocytes start to hypertrophy in the diaphysis

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy The matrix between them is mineralized with calcium carbonate forming calcified cartilage Chondrocytes trapped in their calcified tombs die leaving lacunae with thin calcified matrix walls C. Primary ossification center forms

Blood vessels invade lacunae in the calcified cartilage Osteoclasts and osteoblasts travel into the calcified cartilage via the connective tissue of blood vessels Osteoblasts then produce bone trabeculae in diaphysis forming cancellous bone This part of the future bone is called the primary ossification center D. Medullary cavity develops

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy More growth of the cartilage model Bone collar thickens and lengthens Mature bone is produced from woven bone by remodeling Medullary cavity forms when osteoclasts remove bone from the diaphysis Bone marrow is produced in the newly formed medullary cavity

E. Secondary ossification centre is established

Secondary ossification centres are established in the epiphysis of long bones. These appear late in fetal development and a baby is considered to be full term if a secondary ossification center has appeared at either the head of femur, head of tibia, of head of humerus. The last to appear is the medial epiphysis of the clavical which does not develop until 18 or 20 years No Medullary cavity occurs in a secondary ossification center F. Formation of compact bone

Cartilage is increasingly replaced by bone leaving only the epiphyseal growth plate which remains until the bone growth is complete.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy Articular cartilage remains throughout development and in adulthood on all articular surfaces G. The mature bone

Compact bone and cancellous bone are completely developed and the epiphyseal growth plate has fused at completion of the bone growth, leaving just the epiphyseal line The only cartilage remaining is on the articular surfaces All of the perichondrium is now periosteum 2. Intramembranous ossification The process of bone formation, which takes place in the fibrous membrane, is called as Intramembranous ossification. This process of bone formation is responsible for the development of flat bones, especially those found in the skull. Unlike endochondral ossification, cartilage is not involved or present in this process. The processes involved are: 1. Formation of bone spicules, 2. Formation of bone trabeculae, 3. Formation of woven bone and 4. Formation of lamellar bone The first step in the process is the formation of bone spicules which eventually fuse with each other and become trabeculae. The periosteum is formed and bone growth continues at the surface of trabeculae. Much like spicules, the increasing growth of

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy trabeculae result in interconnection and this network is called woven bone. Eventually, woven bone is replaced by lamellar bone. A. Formation of bone spicules and trabecular bones: Embryologic mesenchymal cells (MSC) condense into layers of vascularized primitive connective tissue. Certain mesenchymal cells group together, usually near or around blood vessels, and differentiate into osteogenic cells which deposit bone matrix constitutively. These aggregates of bony matrix are called bone spicules. Separate mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts, which line up along the surface of the spicule and secrete more osteoid, which increases the size of the spicule. B. Formation of woven and lamellar bones: As the spicules continue to grow, they fuse with adjacent spicules and this results in the formation of trabeculae. When osteoblasts become trapped in the matrix they secrete, they differentiate into osteocytes. Osteoblasts continue to line up on the surface which increases the size. As growth continues, trabeculae become interconnected and woven bone is formed. The term primary spongiosa is also used to refer to the initial trabecular network. C. Primary centre of ossification The periosteum is formed around the trabeculae by differentiating mesenchymal cells. The primary centre of ossification is the area where bone growth occurs between the periosteum and the bone. Osteogenic cells that originate from the periosteum increase appositional growth and a bone collar is formed. The bone collar is eventually mineralized and lamellar bone is formed. The lamellar bones replace the woven bones.

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

SYLLABUS

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Lecture-wise Course Distribution of Anatomy-I (VAN - 111) (Osteology, Arthrology and Biomechanics) (Bones and Joints of Forelimbs and Hind limbs) THEORY Course Teacher: Dr. Subhash C. Dubal Total Hours: 5 + 2+ 3 = 10

Lecture Topics No. 1 Osteology: Introduction and Topographic Terms 2 Skeleton, Physical and Chemical Properties of Bones, Structure of Bones and Classification of Bones 3 Bones of Forelimbs 4 Bones of Hind limbs 5 Arthrology: Introduction, Classification of Joints, Structure of Synovial Joints and Joints of Forelimbs 6 Joints of Hind limbs 7 Biomechanics: Introduction and Biomechanics of Locomotion 8 Biomechanics of Deformation

Hours 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1

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Lecture notes of VAN-111 prepared by Dr Subhash C Dubal, Professor of Anatomy

Lecture-wise Course Distribution of Anatomy-I (VAN - 111) (Osteology, Arthrology and Biomechanics) (Bones and Joints of Forelimbs and Hind limbs) PRACTICALS Course Teacher: Dr. Subhash C. Dubal Total Hours: 10 + 4 + 6 = 20

Practical No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Practicals Osteology: Introduction and Topographic Terms Skeleton: Division of Skeleton and Bones, Regions and Joints of Forelimbs Bones, Regions and Joints of Hind limbs and Gross and Microscopic Structure of Bone Classification of Bones and Study of Scapula Study of Humerus Study of Radius and Ulna Study of Pelvic Bone Study of Femur Study of Tibia, Fibula and Patella Study of Carpals and Tarsals Study of Metacarpals amd Metatarsals Study of Bones of Digits Arthrology: Joints of Forelimbs Joints of Hind limbs Biomechanics: Introduction and Biomechanics of Locomotion Biomechanics of Deformation

Hours 2 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 3 3 4 2

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