National Aerospace University

named after N.Ye. Zhukovsky

Kharkiv Aviation Institute
STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF HIGHLY-ASPECT
RATIO WING
Guide for course project
Kharkiv, 2011
2
Manual is dedicated to highly-aspect ratio wing strength analysis. It consists of the following
sections: wing geometric parameters and weight data estimation; loads calculation and
diagrams plotting of shear forces, bending and reduced moments on wing span; wings cross
section design calculation; checking calculation of this cross section.
Thin-walled bar analytical model for wing is reduced, calculations are performed on the
ultimate loads, and design cross section is arranged far from the attaching point of the wing.
Checking calculation is performed on computer.
3
INTRODUCTION
The given project is continuation of your home task on department "Designing of planes
and helicopters ". In this task you have defined take-off mass of the plane, its cruiser speed,
mass of a wing, mass of fuel, mass of a power-plant, mass of the landing gear, mass of useful
loading. From this task you have all geometrical sizes of the plane: the wing area, wing span,
swept-back wing, chords of a wing, position of engines, the landing gear, etc. For this plane
you have calculated design envelope modes of flight and have defined limit load factors in
the home task on discipline "Strength of planes and helicopters ". The data from these tasks
are the initial data for the given project. The home task from the previous semester
Calculation of design envelope modes of flight is included into the given project
"Strength analysis of plane wing". You should choose the heaviest critical loading condition
from this task with the biggest load factor and the biggest speed for carrying out of designing
calculation. If the maneuverable load factor is more than load factor from gust you should
take a critical loading condition "D". If the load from gust is more than maneuverable load
factor you should take a critical loading condition "B". The teacher should authorize the
chosen critical loading condition. The given project is included into your baccalaureate
project together with the home task "Calculation of design envelope modes of flight".
Students are obliged to follow these requirements:
1. All diagrams at the figures should contain starting and ending values of the illustrated
variable (not literal expression of the variable).
2. All diagrams should be built to some scale (the scale should be the same for all
diagrams illustrated at one figure). The shape of the curves should correspond to the
functions.
3. All calculations should be made with high accuracy.
4. Title page is executed according to Appendix#4.
1. WINGS GENERAL DATA
The airplane category (transport, normal, acrobatic, etc.), take-off mass
t
, maximal
limit load factor n
y
and design critical load condition (B or D for the wing) are given to the
final developments assignment.
From previous course project on discipline Airframe the following data is made out:
1) Wing geometrical data;
2) Masses of wing-accommodated units (masses of engines, landing gears, external and
internal fuel tanks, etc.), and each of themes centers of gravity;
3) Additional data: engine type, thrust of engine, maximal flight speed, landing speed,
cruise speed and the flight range. These data may be necessary in future;
4) Airfoils average relative thickness and number.
If the geometrical sizes not specified in exposition (lengths of root and tip chords,
centers of gravity aggregates for units etc.) are possible to remove directly from the drawing.
It is impossible to select a delta-wing airplane as in the given manual the design
procedure of a highly-aspect wing is explained as the prototype.
4
1.1 WINGS GEOMETRICAL DATA
Geometrical data of a wing make out from exposition of the airplane. Under these data
it is necessary to execute figure of a half-wing in two projections.
If a plane has swept-back wing and a sweep angle on a leading edge are more than 15
it is necessary to enter an equivalent straight wing and all further calculations to carry out for
this equivalent wing. A straight wing enter by turn of a swept-back half-wing so that the line
of the rigidity centers of cross sections of a straight wing was perpendicular to axes of a
fuselage, thus the root b
r
and tip b
t
chords sizes decrease, and the size L
w
/2 of a semi span is
increased. The sizes L
w
/2, b
r
and b
t
, are required for the further calculations and they are
taken directly from the figure. At turn of a swept-back wing it is possible to mean, that the
rigidity centers line of wing's cross sections is located on distance 0,4 b from the leading
edge where b is the wing chord.
At calculation of L
w
/2 semi span size the plane's design is taken into account: a low-
wing, a mid-wing or a high-wing monoplane. In these designs carrying ability of the fuselage
part of wing owing to influence of interference is various. For a low-wing monoplane it is
recommended do not take into account bearing ability of an fuselage part of wing and to
accept value equal to distance from the tip of a half-wing (straightened in case of a swept-
back wing) up to an onboard rib as L
w
/2 parameter. For a mid-wing monoplane and a high-
wing monoplane in quality semi span we receive the distance from the tip of a wing up to an
axis of the plane as L
w
/2. The wing area S
w
is determined under the formula:
S
w
= 0.5 (b
r
+ b
t
) L
w
. (1.1.1)
The received value of the area must coincide with the area of the airplane with swept-
back wing for mid-wing and high-wing airplanes. For convenience of realization of the
further calculations figures of a wing (see fig. 1a and 1b) should contain a maximum quantity
of the information. So, on a top view of a half-wing following characteristic lines are put by
dotted, a stroke dotted or by light lines: a center-of-pressure line, a center of gravity (c.g.)
line of cross sections of a wing and lines of spars.
The locations of aggregates' centers of gravity (landing gears, engines, fuel tanks etc.)
are indicated by the sign, and value and direction of the appropriate mass concentrated
forces - by vectors. The areas are occupied by fuel tanks, on both projections are shaded.
Centers of tanks weight are also indicated by the sign. In figures the geometrical sizes and
numerical values of the concentrated forces are put down.
A figure of a contour of wing's cross section - an aerofoil section on which put a
position of spars is executed on a separate sheet. Figure is executed in a scale, as the
geometrical sizes of cross section will be removed from it. The airfoil's tail part (behind a
rear spar) in figure can be not shown.
The explanatory book should contain geometrical and aerodynamic characteristics of the
chosen airfoil. In the final development it is supposed, that all wing cross sections have the
same aerofoil section.
The relative coordinate of a center-of-pressure line can be found under the scheme: the
given design limit load condition - lift coefficient (for a cases B, C and D it is calculated)
5
- the appropriate angle of attack o (see ap. 1) - relative coordinate of center-of-pressure line

cp
.
The wing's gravity center cross section is usually located on a distance of 40 - 45 % of a
chord from the leading edge. By this value are set, considering power (or weakness) the high-
lift devices of the airplane - prototype located in a tail part of a wing.
At spars position selection in the cross section it is necessary to aspire, that the wing
weight should be minimal, i.e. it is desirable to dispose the spars in places with the big
structure depth of the cross section. In the final development it is recommended to design a
wing of the two-spar scheme. Such wing is easier for students to perform the strength
analysis. At the two-spar scheme usage a front spar is placed usually on the distance of
15 - 25 % of a chord from the leading edge of a wing and the rear one - on 60 - 75 %.
Fig.1.1.1. Diagrams of distributed loads and shear forces
front
spar
leading
edge
center of gravity
fuel
tank
engin
e
rear
spar
q
q
t
q
a
q
f Z
Q
Q
t
Q
d
Q
c
0
L
w
/
2
0
rear
spar
b
r
b
t
reduced
axis
6
Fig.1.1.2. Diagrams of bending moment and reduced moment
M, kNm
M
tot
M
d
M
c
Z
m
z
, kN
Z
M
r
, kNm
Z
M
r,tot
M
r, d
M
r, c
7
Fig. 1.1.3. Plotting of equivalent straight wing.
equivalent straight wing
swept wing
axis of
stiffness
reduced axis
center of
pressure
center of
wing gravity
axis of stiffness
Z
center of fuel
gravity
e
Z
d
h
X
r
k
k
c
k
center of gravity
for k-th aggregate
8
Under set spars position, it is necessary to show them in figure of cross section by
vertical lines. In a two-spar wing the airfoil's maximum structure depth is not used for
rational distribution of structure material. Smaller weight always has the monospar wing in
which the spar is usually located in a place of an airfoil's maximum structure depth (at low-
speed airplanes on 30 - 40 % of a chord, at high-speed - on 45 - 60 % of a chord). For
obtaining the contour, capable to perceive torsion, and also bases for ailerons fastening and
means of mechanization in a monospar wing on 65 - 70 % of its chord from the leading edge
the longitudinal wall is placed.
If in interspar part of a wing it is required to arrange the big volume of fuel or the big
overall dimensions unit (a landing gear etc.) for this purpose it is necessary to increase its
width that usually results in a spars' building altitude reduction. To not increase a wing
weight excessively in a considered case, i.e. at essential spars structural depth reduction, at a
primary structure designing the monoblock wing force scheme (see designing calculation) is
settled. Then the main share of loading passes on the high-power stringers set in places with
the big structural depth.
Gravity centers coordinates of aggregates are made out from the description of the
airplane - prototype or chosen independently, being guided by the knowledge acquired in
another subject matters of aggregates' design features. For example, the center of gravity for
a turbojet is placed in area of the turbine compressor, but not in area of a jet nozzle.
At gravity center positions estimation of landing gear primary struts if the ones are
located in a wing, it is possible to use the following statistical data:
l
l
= (0,2 0,25)L
w
, b
l
= 0,3 b, where the L
w
is a wing span, the b is a wing chord; the l
l
- is
the landing gear base, the b
l
- is a distance from the leading edge wing to gravity center of the
primary strut in a retracted position.
1.2 WINGS WEIGHT DATA
Units' weights (if these data are absent in the description of the prototype) are set with
the help of statistical data for the transport airplanes adduced in tab. 1.2.1. Thus the weight of
one of primary struts makes usually 45 % from weight of the whole landing gear.
From home task on department "Designing of planes and helicopters" you have total
fuel weight in wing. The half-wings each have three fuel tanks from safety conditions as
minimal. In this project you can suppose that fuel load is concentrated for simplicity. From
statistic we know that in the first tank is placed 45% from total fuel weight in half-wing, in
the second tank 35%, in the third tank 20% (see fig. 1.2.1). Approximately under axes X
relative coordinates of centers of gravity for tanks are equal f x =0.4=40% from leading edge.
Approximately under axes Z relative coordinates of centers of gravity for the first tanks is
equal z =0.2, for the second tank - z =0.5, for the third tank - z =0.8.
9
Table 1.2.1
Assemblages and payloads relative mass in the percent share from transport airplane take-off
mass
Take-off mass, tons

t
10 50 100 150 200
Assemblages relative mass %

w
The wing
12.2 10.2 9.5 9.1 8.8

l
The landing gear
4.5 4.0 3.8 3.7 3.6
The power plant

pp
Jet planes
12.3 11.0 10.5 10.2 10.0

pp
Turboprops planes
16.4 15.6 15.3 15.1 15.0
Total load

tl
43.3 45.8 53.7 61.4 67.6
Note: the total load M
tl
is equal to the sum of the fuel and the payload.
From the point of view of strength fuel is expedient to place in a wing. Therefore in
the final development it is necessary to place the greatest possible fuel content in a wing and
the rest of fuel to place in a fuselage.
If in a wing there are freights dropped in flight (external fuel tanks) or fuel from wing
fuel tanks is consumed non-uniformly in this case strength of the given cross section of a
wing is calculated from the loadings appropriate not to take-off weight G
t
, but to the flight
G
fl
one.
Let in a wing there is a freight dropped in flight in weight of G*
(the tank - section containing fuel by weight of G*), which gravity centre is located in the
- cross section with coordinate z (fig. 1.2.2). Bending moment in the designing cross
section 1-1 depends from a relative - section's positioning and force coordinate which
is the resultant of an air loading, operating on a segment covered with S
cut
area, located on
the right of the 1-1 cross section. Considering approximately, that air loading is constant on
all wing area, we can write down:
cut
y t
w
S
P G
S
= (1.2.1)
10
Fig. 1.2.1. Disposition of fuel tanks.
Fig. 1.2.2. Disposition of dropping cargo G*and force P
y
relatively designing cross section I-
I.
If the G* load is present, the
0
bending moment in the 1-1 cross section is defined
under the formula:

0
=
* cut
t 0 1
w
S
G z G ( z z )
S
. (1.2.2)
At the G* loads dropping the

force is decreased by the value

1-st fuel
tank
2-nd fuel
tank
3-rd fuel
tank
c.g.
c.g.
c.g.
x
f
Front
spar
X
Z
Rear spar
11
* cut
y t
w
S
P ( G 2G )
S
= . (1.2.3)
Thats why the
*
loads post dropping bending moment in 1-1 section is equal to
*
=
* cut cut
t 0 0
w w
S 2S
G z G z
S S
.
The
0
and
*
, moments are equal to each other if the given identity is right
*
1 0 cut w
z z z z ( 2S / S ) = = + .
If the load has the z z >
*
coordinate, than at its dropping
*
>
0
, therefore, the
bending moment is increased in the 1-1 section.
Thus, to the 1-1 designing cross section a case when freights dropped in flight are not
taken into account, and fuel from tanks sections is consumed which gravity centers
coordinates exceed the z* is more dangerous. At this stage the calculations are necessary to
perform for the G
fl
flight weight which can be received, subtracting from the G
t
take-off
weight the dropped freights and burnt out fuel. Weight of the dropped freights and burnt out
fuel in the further calculations is not taken into account.
The z
0
parameter is defined from the geometrical construction (fig.1.2.3) or under the
formula
z
l b a
b a
0
0
3
2
=
+
+
.
Fig. 1f. The scheme of calculation for coordinate z
0.
For all student designing cross section is assigned under z =0.2. In this case designing
flight weight is equal:
fl t f
G G 0.2G = , (1.2.4)
where G
f
is total fuel weight.
2. WINGS LOADS CALCULATION
The wing is influenced by the air forces allocated on a surface and mass forces caused
by a wing structure and by the wing - arranged fuel, the concentrated forces from the wing -
arranged units' weights. Mass forces are parallel to air forces, but are directed to the opposite
12
side. The fuel tank is expedient to divide on tank - sections and weight of everyone tank-
section to concentrate in its gravity center. Then the fuel-distributed load is possible to
replace by a set from the concentrated forces.
In speed coordinate system the air loading resultant
a
has two components: the Y - lift
directed perpendicularly to vector of flight speed, and the X - drag force directed on flight
(fig. 3).
Fig. 2.1. Distribution of the load on axes.
The components are bounded with the
a
load by the reliance:
u cos =
Pa
Y ;
u sin
P
X
a
= ; (2.1)
C
C
y
x
arctg = u ,
where the Cx and Cy are the drag and the lift wings coefficients that are estimated on the
wings data from table for angle of attack, corresponding the given design critical loading
condition. Analogically mass forces are divided.
The lift coefficient is calculated from equation of equilibrium:
2
l 0
t y w
V
n G C S
2

= .
From this formula we have in the technical system:
l l
t t
y 2 2
0 w w
2n G 16n G
C
V S V S
= = ,
where
0
= 0.125=1/8 [kg*c
2
/m] is air density in technical system, V design
equivalent airspeed in m/s, G
t
take-off weight of plane in kgf.
V

P
a
Y
X
Q
n
Q
t
M
t
M
n
13
In the SI we have:
l l
t t
y 2 2
0 w 0 w
2n G 2n M g
C
V S V S
= =

,
where
0
is air density in SI, V design equivalent airspeed in m/s, G
t
take-off
weight of plane in N, M
t
take-off mass of plane in kg mass.
Under value of C
y
you can estimate the angle of attack accurate within 1
o
, drag
coefficient C
x
and the relative coordinate of pressure center C
cp.
On the basis of stated it is enough to plot diagrams of the shear force and bending
moment on a wing from effect of the efforts parallel plane YOZ in speed coordinate system.
The shear force and bending moment in the given cross section from the loads parallel to a
plane XOZ, we receive by multiplication of force and the moment, taken in this section from
available diagrams, on value tg u.
The wing strength is determined in ultimate, instead of a limit loading condition. Then
also diagrams of shear forces and bending moments it is convenient to plot from ultimate,
instead from limit loadings. At calculation of ultimate loads in the beginning we find the
ultimate load factor under the formula:
f
n n
u
= , (2.2)
where the n is the limit load factor for the given design critical load condition; the f - is
the safety factor.
According to AR-25, FAR-25, JAR-25 unless otherwise specified, a factor of safety of
f=1.5 must be applied to the prescribed limit load are considered external load on the
structure.
Under value
n
u
it is possible to find the ultimate loads. So, lift and a component along
an axis Y from resultant mass load of a wing structure are found under formulas:
G n
t
u
Y = [N];
G n P
w
u
yw
=
[N], (2.3)
and loading components acting along the Y axis from effect of a concentrated mass of
the aggregate - under the formula:
G n P
g
u
ag y
=
.
[N], (2.4)
where the G
g
- is the units weight [N].
2.1. AIR LOADS ALLOCATION ON THE WING SPAN.
The Y air load is allocated according to the relative circulation low, i.e.

y
n f g M
fl
L
w
q ( z )
( z )

= [N/m] ,
w
L 5 , 0
z
z = , (2.1.1)
where ) z ( - is relative circulation, M
fl
- is the designing flight mass of the plane, n, f
limit load factor and factor of safety, L
w
wingspan.
The function ) z ( depends from many factors, from which in the given work we take
into account only the dependence from wing taper and sweepback.
14
Wing taper is designated through q and is equal to:
t
b b /
0
= q .
The ) z ( = ) z (
f
function values for plane straight trapezoidal center-section-less wing
are reduced in table # 2.
Table # 2.1.1
Relative circulation on wingspan straight trapezoidal center-section-less flat wing

f
(5 s s 10)
z =2z/l
q= 1 q= 2 q= 3 q= 4 q= 5
0.0 1,1225 1,2721 1,3435 1,3859 1,4157
0.1 1,1261 1,2624 1,3298 1,3701 1,3987
0,2 1,1196 1,2363 1,2908 1,3245 1,3490
0.3 1,1096 1,1890 1,2228 1,2524 1,2711
0.4 1,0961 1,1299 1,1484 1,1601 1,1703
0.5 1,0765 1,0590 1,0570 1,0543 1,0561
0.6 1,0457 0,9814 0.9571 0,9419 0,9343
0.7 0,9954 0,8988 0,8538 0,8271 0,8098
0.8 0,9138 0,8032 0,7430 0,7051 0,6784
0.9 0,7597 0,6513 0,6090 0,5434 0,5115
0,95 0.6599 0,5151 0.4593 0,4092 0,3798
1 0 0 0 0 0
Comment.
1. Wing has not center-section (2 l
c
= 0).
2. Wing is flat.
3. Wing aspect ratio is equal to
w
S
w
L
2
= .
4. Wing taper is equal to
t
b / b
0
= q .
5. For low-wing monoplane
f
is given from board rib, for mid-wing and high-wing
p
is
given from axial rib.
6. If wing taper q differentiates from table data, valises
f
are calculated by linear
interpolation.
15
Table # 2.1.2
The A
_
(45) corrections allocation for the wing with the following parameters = 5,
q = 2, _ = 45.
2z/l A
s
(45) 2z/l A
s
(45)
0 -0.235 0.6 0.073
0.1 -0.175 0.7 0.111
0.2 -0.123 0.8 0.135
0.3 -0.072 0.9 0.140
0.4 -0.025 0.95 0.125
0.5 0.025 1.00 0
Essential influence on distribution of air loading renders a wing sweep. Relative
circulation in this case is determined under the formula:
) z ( = ) z (
f
+ ) z (
_
AI , (2.1.2)
where ) z (
s
AI is amendment on the wing sweep.
This amendment is calculated upon formulas:

) ( ) (
45
45
_
AI _ AI
_
= , (2.1.3)
where the _ is the designing wing sweep on the chords fourth, angle in degree.
Table # 2.1.3
The , , q q
w
a
y
q
f
and q distributed loads calculations scheme
i
Z

b( z )

f
A
_

m
kN
,
q
a
y m
kN
,
q
w
y
m
kN
q ,
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0
1 0.1
2 0.2
3 0.3
4 0.4
5 0.5
6 0.6
7 0.7
8 0.8
9 0.9
10 0.95
11 1.0
The ) z (
_
AI (45) wing sweep correction value (having the following parameters:
16
extension = 5; wing taper q = 2; sweep angle on the chords fourth _ = 45) is reduced in
table 2.1.2. It is possible to use the A
_
allocation (see tab.2.1.2) with another and q
parameter values.
2.2. THE WING STRUCTURE MASS LOAD ALLOCATION.
In approximate calculations it is possible to consider, that load per unit of wing span
mass forces is proportional to chords. Then the next formula is used:
) z ( b
S
f
) z ( q
w
w w
y
G n

= , (2.2.1)
where the b(z) is the wing chord.
The length of wing chord (see column #3 in table 2.1.3) is computed by formulas:
r r t
b( z ) b ( b b )z = , (2.2.2)
where b
r
is root chord of wing, b
t
tip chord, z - relative coordinate of cross section
(column #2).
After the component calculations it is possible to compute the total distributed wing
load, acting in the direction of the axis Y in the speed coordinate system. Calculations are put
into the tab.# 4. At this action the coordinates origin is put into the wing root and cross
sections are enumerated from the wing root in the wing tip direction, beginning from the
i = 0. The letter Z

accentuates relative coordinate

w
L / z 2 Z =

. Since on the Z

= 1 0.95
cross sections the q diagram are moved away from a straight line, it is necessary to introduce
the cross section with the Z

= 0.95 coordinate (see tab. # #21.1, 2.1.3).

2.3. CALCULATION OF THE TOTAL DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON A PLANE WING
The total distributed wing load is calculated under the formula:
a w
y y
q q q = , (2.3.1)
It is also necessary to plot the
a w
y y
,
q q
and q functions in the same coordinate
system and in the same scale (see fig. 1.1.1).
The concentrated mass forces from aggregates also put on figure of a wing (see fig.
1.1.1). Thus it is convenient to show forces by vectors and to put down a value of these
forces. Instead of ultimate mass force's value to indicate value of aggregate weights it is not
recommended, as it is an additional source of errors.
2.4. THE CHEAR FORCES, BENDING AND REDUCED MOMENTS
DIAGRAMS PLOTTING
In the beginning functions shear force ) z ( Q
d
and bending moment ) z ( M
d
from the
distributed load q (z) are found on the wing span. For this purpose integrals are calculated by
a tabulated way with trapezoids and mean-value methods.
17
}
=
z
2
L
w
dz ) z ( q Q ,
}
=
z
2
L
w
dz ) z ( Q M (2.4.1)
You must yourself to determine signs for q, Q, M according to rules of signs from
strength of materials.
The calculation scheme is given in the tab. # 2.4.1, which includes the following values:
, ) 2
1
/ L
Z Z z
w i i i
=
+
A ; Az
11
= 0, (i = 10, 9, ... , 1, 0),
, )
2
1
z
q q Q
i
i i i
A
A + =
+
, AQ
11
= 0, (i = 10, 9, ... , 1, 0)
Q Q Q
i i i 1 +
+ = A , Q
11
= 0; (i = 10, 9, ... , 1, 0)
, )
2
1
z
Q Q
M
i
i i
i
A
A + =
+
, AM
11
=0, (i = 10, 9, ... , 1, 0)
M M M
i i i 1 +
+ =
A
, M
11
= 0; (i = 10, 9, ... , 1) (2.4.2)
The table # 2.4.1 is constructed in the assumption, that integration implements by a
trapezoids method. The origin is placed in the wing root section, sections are numbered from
a root to a wing tip, since i=0.
After filling of tab. # 2.4.1 by the calculated shear forces Q and bending moments M
(on fig.1.1.1 are shown by dashed lines) diagrams are plotted. Diagrams of bending moments
are plotted on tension fibers of wing.
Also it is necessary to result the shear forces and bending moments affected by the
P
agr
y
concentrated mass forces (in the same coordinate systems, that Q and M, and in the
same scale) diagrams. However the sign of these diagrams is opposite to one of diagrams Q
and M. On fig.1.1.1 light lines show these diagrams from concentrated forces (table #2.4.2).
The calculation scheme is given in the tab. # 2.4.2, which includes the following
values: AQ
ic
= P
i agr
from (2.2) where i - is number of cross section in which this unit is
placed; in any cross section AQ
ic
= 0. In table # 2.4.2 for example concentrated force is given
in cross section i= 9.
, ) 2 / L
w
1 i i i
Z Z z
=

A ; Az
0
= 0, (i = 11, 10, 9, ... , 1),
i i i 1
Q Q Q A
+
= + , Q
11
= 0; (i = 10, 9... 1)
, )
2
1
z
Q Q
M
i
i i
i
A
+ = A

, AM
0
=0, (i = 11, 10, 9... 1)
M M M i i i 1 1 + +
+ =
A
, M
11
= 0; (i = 10, 9... 1) (2.4.3)
18
Table # 2.4.1
The Q
d
(z) shear forces and the
d
(z) bending moment are affected by the q(z)
distributed load.
i
i
Z

Zi ,
m
m
kN
, q
i
Q
id
A
,
kN
Q
id
,
kN
M
id
A
,
kNm
M
id
,
kN m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0 0 0
q
0
Q
0
M
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8 ...
9 0.9
9
Z
q
9
Q
9
A Q
9
M
9
A M
9
10 0.95
10
Z
q
10
Q
10
A Q
10
M
10
A M
10
11 1.0 0
q
11
0 0 0 0
Table # 2.4.2
The Q(z) shear forces and the (z) bending moment are affected by the concentrated
load.
i
i
Z

i
Z ,
m
Q
i
A
,
kN
Q
i
,
kN
M
i
A
,
kNm
M
i
,
kN m
1 2 3 5 6 7 8
0 0 0 0 Q
0
0 M
0
1
2
3
4
5
6 ...
7 Q
7
=Q
9
8 ... Q
8
=Q
9
9 0.9 Z
9
Q
9
A Q
9
0 0
10 0.95 Z
10
0 0 0 0
11 1.0 Z
11
0 0 0 0
19
Folding appropriate diagrams algebraically (table # 2.4.3), we plot total diagrams
tot
Q
and
tot
M
(on fig. 1.1.1 are shown by continuous lines). The calculation scheme is given in
the tab. # 2.4.3, which includes the following values:
Q
id
- is shear force from distributed loads from table # 2.4.1;
Q
ic
- is shear force from concentrated loads from table # 2.4.2;
Q
tot
= Q
id
+ Q
ic
with account signs;
M
id
- is bending moment from distributed loads from table # 2.4.1;
M
ic
- is bending moment from concentrated loads from table # 2.4.2;
M
tot
= M
id
+ M
ic
with account signs.
As a wing is calculated on strength in connected coordinate system for design cross
section determination of shear forces and bending moments are carried out in this coordinate
system. In connected coordinate system the t axis is directed on a chord of a wing, an axis n -
is perpendicular to it.
Table # 2.4.3
The total Q
tot
(z) shear forces and the total
tot
(z) bending moment are affected by all
forces.
i Q
id
,
kN
Q
ic
,
kN
Q
itot
,
kN
M
id
,
kN*m
M
ic
,
KN*m
M
itot
,
kNm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
An origin is placed in the gravity centre of cross section. According to fig. 2.1 it is
possible to write down:
u
o u
cos
) cos(
Q Q
tot n

= ,
u
o u
cos
) sin(
tot
Q Q
t

= , (2.4.4)
20
u
o u
cos
) sin(
tot n
M
M

=
,
u
o u
cos
) cos(
tot t
M
M

=
,
where the o is the angle of attack; the Q
tot
and M
tot
are shear force and bending
moment values in the design cross section in speed coordinate system, taken from the
diagrams (fig. 1.1.1) and table # 2.4.3; the Q
n
and Q
t
are shear forces; the M
n
and M
t
are
bending moments vectors in the design cross section in the connected coordinate system. If
u < o, which is usual for the A design critical load condition, than u - o <0 and, hence, the Q
t
and M
n
vectors change their direction to the opposite one.
At plotting of a diagram of the reduced moments in the beginning we set a position of
an axis of reduction (fig. 1). This axis is parallel to an axis Z (strictly speaking, the axis of
reduction should be a parallel axis of stiffness centers of a wing). Further you should plot a
diagram of the distributed reduced moments m
z
affected by the distributed loads
q
a

and
q
w

. For the moment m

z
the formula is received, writing down the moment from the
specified loads concerning an axis of reduction. At calculation m
z
it is necessary to mean, that
the adduced moments are calculated in connected coordinate system. Thus assume, that
frontal components lay in a plane XOZ and, hence, moment about axis of reduction does not
give (fig. 2.4.1). For distributed loads
q
a

and
q
w

(see fig. 2.1) it is possible to record

formulas:
u
o u
cos
) cos(
q q
a
y
a

=
,
u
o u
cos
) cos(
q q
w
y
w

=
, (2.4.5)
Fig.4. Positions of loads in cross section.
q
w
q
a
reduced
axis
e
21
For reduced moments (see fig. 2.4.1) we have these formulas:
z
w a
d q e
q
m

n
= (2.4.6)
where the e, and the d are distances from load points
q
a

and
q
w

to the
reduction axis. Moment is considered like positive if it acts on pitching. The , and d values
are taken from the fig. 1.1.3.
Integrating a diagram m
z
, we receive the reduced moments M
zd
affected by the
distributed loads. The scheme of calculation is shown in tab. 2.4.4 in which designations are
entered:
, / z ) m m ( M
i i , z zi zid
2
1
A A + =
+
0
11 11
= =
, z , z
M M A ;
d , i , r d , i , r d , i , r
M M M A + =
+1
, (i = 10, 9,..., 0)
In a explanatory book it is necessary to plot diagrams m
z
and M
z
(a diagram M
z
is
shown on fig.1.1.2 by a dashed line). In a coordinate system for the moments M
z
also it is
necessary to result a diagram of the reduced moments affected by concentrated masses (on
fig. 1.1.1 it is shown by a light line).
Table 2.4.4
Reduced moments calculation scheme from distributed loads
i
i
Z A ,
m
q
a
i n
,
kN /m
i
e ,
m
q
w
i
,
kN /m
i
d ,
m
f
i , n
q ,
kN /m
h
i
,
m
m
i z
,
kN
zid
M A ,
kN m
M id z
,
kN m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0
q
a
0
0
e
q
w
0
d
0
h
0
m
0 z
M d z 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
10
Z A
q
a
10
e
10
q
w
10
d
10
m
10 z
M d z 10
A M d z 10
11
11
Z A
q
a
11
e
11
q
w
11
d
11
m
11 z
0 0
22
Table # 2.4.5
Calculation scheme of reduced moment from concentrated loads and from all loads.
I P
yag,
kN
r,
m
M
zc,
kN*m
M
zc
,
kN*m
M
zd
,
kN*m
M
ztot
,
kN*m
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Affected by a concentrated mass of the k-th aggregate the component of the moment
ag
k , z
M is found out under the formula:
k yag k
ag
k
ag
k z
r P r fG n M
u
o u
u
o u
cos
) cos(
cos
) cos(
,

=

= , (2.4.7)
where the r
k
is the distance from the k-th concentrated mass gravity center to reduction axis
(it is measured on the drawing), P
yag
is design weight from formula (2.2). The
moment
ag
k , z
M is positive if it acts on pitching. It is also necessary to plot the
tot
z
M total
reduced moment diagram (on fig. 1.1.2 it is shown by the solid line).
For this table we take M
z i d
from table # 2.4.4 and total reduced moment we compute
with account of signs upon formula:
M
z tot
= M
z d
+ M
z c
(2.4.8)
2.5. LOAD CHECKING FOR WING ROOT CROSS SECTION
Shear forces, bending and reduced moments values are checked in the root cross
section under the formulas:
,
l agr
f k
t w
r tot
k
1
n f g G G [kN]
2
Q
G G
E
| |
=
|
\ .

;
23
,
agr
l
f
r tot t w k k
k
1
n f g G C [ kN m]
2
G G G c M
E | |
=
|
\ .

; (2.5.1)
agr
l
z r tot k t w k
k
1 1
n f g e d [kN m]
2 2
G G G M r
E | |
=
|
\ .

.
Here is the distance from root section to the air resultant load point; c
k
- is the
distance from root section to the k-th aggregate's gravity center and fuel tanks; e and d are
distances from an axis of reduction to points of interception of a plane z=c with a center-of-
pressure line and with a c.g. line; r
k
- is the distance from an axis of reduction to the k-th
aggregate centre of gravity and fuel tanks. Value C is found with the help of geometrical
construction or under the formula:
w
L 2

6 1

+
=
+
, (2.5.2)
where the is the wing taper. Values c
k
, and r
k
are taken from fig.1.1.1, and
parameters e and d values from drawing (see fig.1.1.3) in the z = c cross section.
Summation in the right parts of adduced formulas is distributed to all concentrated
masses located in one half-wing. An error of calculation of values
Q

r
,
M

r
and
M

zr
in
relation to the appropriate values taken from tables in root cross section should not exceed
value 1, 5 and 10 % accordingly.
2.6. CALCULATION OF SHEAR FORCES POSITION IN THE DESIGN CROSS
SECTION
Upon valueses of shear force and the reduced moment in design cross section, it
is possible to find out a shear force load point on a chord of a wing of design cross section:
Q
M

z r
x = . (2.6.1)
The x
r
coordinate is count off from the reduction axis. The resultant position is
necessary to be shown by an asterisk on the wings top view (see fig. 1.1.1).
3. DESIGN CALCULATION OF WING CROSS SECTION.
In designing calculation you have to select load-bearing elements of wing cross section
- spars, stringers and a skin. Initial data are the following parameters:
a) external loads in design cross section - bending moment and shear force;
b) a shear force load point;
c) an aerofoil cross section and coordinates of points on a contour of that one;
d) value of a wing chord in design cross section;
e) spars position.
You have to consider as design cross section cross section with relative
coordinate 2 . 0 z = . The wing is supposed to be a two-spar, the wing trailing-edge assembly
does not perceive external loading. During fulfillment of designing calculation you have to
24
choose a material, the geometrical sizes, disposition all elements and quantity of load-bearing
elements.
3.1. GENERAL RELATIONS
The first stage of calculation is a selection of the force scheme of a wing and materials
for cross section elements. The force scheme is chosen depending on takeoff weight, a wing's
top view, a way of filling of an internal volume of a wing and other parameters of a
developed airplane. During this, requirements of optimality on weight, reliability,
manufacturability in manufacturing and operation are taken into account.
From three (
b
, Q and
z
) loads, acting in the cross section of the wing, bending
moment is the main load as the weight of the load-bearing elements perceiving
b
, makes
about 50 % of total wing mass. Depending on what load-bearing elements basically perceive
bending moment, force schemes of wings are divided on spar and monoblock wing.
The force wing scheme refers to a spar wing if spar belts perceive the main part of
bending moment. At the spar scheme the wing has high-power spar belts, rather weak
stringers and the thin skin.
The monoblock wing scheme is a scheme at which bending moment basically is
perceived by a skin and stringers. At the monoblock scheme the wing is characterized by a
high-power stringer set, a thick skin and weak spar belts.
In monoblock wings the material of a skin is used more rationally, that reduces weight
of a wing structure. Advantage of the monoblock scheme grows with increase of weight of
an airplane, an angle of a sweep, aspect ratio of a wing and with decreasing of airfoil's
thickness ratio. Monoblock wings have the big flexural and torsion stiffness. In them failure
of a part of load-bearing elements caused by fatigue failures or damages does not result in
immediate destruction of whole structure. And, on the contrary, in a spar wing failure even
one of spar belt, as a rule, results in fast destruction of whole structure.
Concerning manufacturability spar wings in which the skin and stringers receive small
participation in activity of a wing on a bending are more expedient. Therefore in spar wings
it is possible to make cut-outs (hatches) in a skin for mounting and inspection of the fuel
equipment, wheels well does not reduce considerably bending wing strength. In monoblock
wings cut-outs in a skin necessarily should be closed by heavier force hatch on screws and
the bolts, capable to transmit both shear and axial forces. Besides spar wings are easier than
monoblock ones concerning fastening detachable sections to a wing center section or to a
fuselage.
In the final development application of the computer is provided for fulfillment of
checking calculation. Therefore in designing calculation mechanical characteristics of
materials for longitudinal load-bearing elements should meet to the characteristics
incorporated in a computer memory (tab. 3.1.1). Mechanical characteristics of the materials
used for a skin are given in app. 4.
From design reasons thickness of a skin for transport airplanes less than 1mm is not
used.
Distance between stringers t you should find out from a condition of obtaining of
sinuosity of a wing surface not above certain value. Value t should satisfy to an inequality:
25
, )
3
0
2
y E 32

1
t


> . (3.1.1)
Here P
0
= P
b
and P
0
= P
t
are the pressures in the horizontal flight on the bottom and top wing
surfaces; - is the Poisson's ratio ( = 0.3 for duralumin); E skin coefficient of elasticity.
Approximately P
b
and P
t
values are equal to:
w
t
b
S
G
3
1
P = ,
w
t
t
S
G
3
2
P = . (3.1.2)
Table # 3.1.1
Materials mechanical features
Material o
ut
, MPa E, MPa o
l
, MPa o
y
, MPa o,%
1 Spar belt, steel 30HGSA 1800 2,110
5
1455 1640 0,06
2 Spar belt, steel 30HGSA 1600 2,110
5
1240 1390 0,06
3 Spar belt, duralumin D16 550 0,7210
5
384 410 0,10
4 Stringers, duralumin D16 440 0,7110
5
270 300 0,10
5 Spar belt, alloy V95 617 0,71210
5
320 548 0,10
Comment.
o
ut
- is the failure stress; o
l
- is the stress of proportional limit; o
y
- is the yield point; - is
the coefficient of elasticity; o - is the failure strain.
Parameter y is a relative sinuosity t y y = , where y is a maximum deflection of the
skin considered as a beam - strip, loaded by pressure P
0
and restrained in places of its
fastening to stringers. For high-speed airplanes in horizontal flight with load factor n
y
= 1, i.e.
in a long mode of the flight - cruising flight , recommended value of relative sinuosity for a
surface have to no more y = 0.002.
Accepting in the formula (3.1.1) equal-sign and considering known the thickness of a
skin, it is possible to find out as much as possible permissible distances between stringers: t
t
on top and t
b
on bottom parts of cross section. However the condition (3.1.1) will not be
disturbed, if from design or other reasons the found thickness of a skin to be increased, and
stringer pitch to be reduced. Therefore in selection of final values of parameters t
t
,
t
- (for
top of cross section) and t
b
,
b
(for the bottom part) it is necessary to use the following
recommendations. In real structures the parameter t is located in limits 30 t 15 s s cm.
Usually the stringer pitches on top and on bottom panels is approximately identical. With a
view of decreasing of wing weight and increasing of its torsion stiffness in world aircraft
manufacturing the tendency is observed to increase of skin thickness. So, for heavy airplanes
with the monoblock force scheme thickness of a wing-root section skin reaches values of
15...20 mm.
Industry products the duralumin plates of the following standard thickness (mm):
o = 0.5; 0.6; 0.7; 0.8; 0.9; 1.0; 1.2; 1.5; 1.6; 1.8; 1.9; 2.0; 2.5; ... further add 0.5 ...;
10.0; 10.5. Thats why the o parameter is chosen only from the given sequence.
26
Achieving values of parameters t
t
and t
b
we determine quantity of stringers on top and
on bottom parts of cross section, disposing stringers in regular intervals on a skin. Thus it is
convenient to draw figure of cross section in a scale on which light lines show axes of
stringers.
At selection of longitudinal load-bearing elements in the beginning you should find out
the loads perceived by top and bottom panels of the cross section of a wing. The mean
structural depth of cross section is determined under the formula:
,
H H
2
1
H 2 1 m
+ = , (3.1.3)
where the
1
and
2
are airfoils heights in the places of location of the front and the
rear spars, the - is the factor takes into account that the distance between the spar belts
gravity centers is lesser the theoretical airfoils height in the places of spars installation. The
factor value is equal to 0.9...0.95.
At realization of designing calculation it is enough to take into account only M
t
component of bending moment:
t b
M M = (3.1.4)
Compressed force P
p
in a top wing panel and tension force P
p
in the bottom panel are
determined under the formula:
H M P m b p
= (3.1.5)
Load P
p
, perceived by each half of cross section, is possible to present as the sum of
P
sp
load spar belts, and the P
st+sk
load, which perceived by stringers with joined skin:
sk st sp p
P P P
+
+ = ,
P

P p sk st
=
+
,
P P P sk st p sp +
= (3.1.6)
The entered factor q determines a share from P
p
panel load, which perceived by
stringers with joined skin. You should choose optimal value q for the minimal mass of wing
The approximate expression for calculation the optimal value q is:
t
M
0.05
0.75
100000
s = s , (3.1.7)
where M
t
is take-off mass of plane.
From safety condition maximal value for q is:
max
0.75 = .
3.2. SELECTION OF LONGITUDINAL LOAD-CARRYING SET IN THE TOP
COMPRESSED RIVETED PANEL.
We begin designing from more difficult compressed panel. The load
c
sk st
P
+
in the
compression region is determined under the formula:
c c c
st sk fst st jsk
P n
( F F )
+
= + , (3.2.1)
where n - is the quantity of stringers in the compressed zone, taken into account in
designing calculation;
c
fst
o - is the failing stress of a stringer in the compressed zone;
c
st
F - is
the area of a stringer in the compressed zone; F
jsk
the joined skin working together with
27
stringer stresses. As a first approximation value for failing stress of a stringer
c
ust
it is
possible to count equal to critical stress of stringer.
By selection of a stringer in the compressed zone, as well as in tension one, in the
beginning it is necessary to find the required area of a stringer. Value
c
sk st
P
+
is known and is
determined under the formula (3.1.6).
At selection of value n it is necessary to take into account only the stringers having
approximately identical coordinate Y. The located in the front part and, hence, having small
value of coordinate Y stringers are not taken into account in designing calculation. Otherwise
the cross-section may not sustain the given loading at realization of checking calculation. In a
front part of a wing it is recommended to take into account 1-3 stringers.
At calculation of the required stringer area the area of the joined skin can be taken on
approximate formula i.e. to accept equal:
F
jsk
=
2
t
30 , (3.2.2)
where
t
is skin thickness in top panel.
Concerning parameter
c
ust
let's note the following. The wing is considered as well
designed, if critical stringer stress is close to ultimate tension stress of a material of one.
Assuming, that the stringer will be picked up is successful, we state value
c
ust
equal:
utst
c
ust
9 . 0 = , (3.2.3)

utst
is the ultimate tension stress of the stringer material.
Hence, being set by values of parameters
c
sk st
P
+
, n,
c
ust
and F
jsk
according to adduced
recommendations, from equality (3.2.1) we shall find out the required area of a stringer.
Under the required area of a stringer, from the rolled-products range (gage) we choose
a rolling section with close cross-sectional area. Thus it is necessary to remember, that there
are the rolling section intended specially for a compressed zone. The shape of some from
such rolling section is represented on fig. 3.2.1.
For stringers in the compressed zone relation of width of the stringer flange to its
thickness should have small value so that at compression critical stress of local instability has
great value close to ultimate tension stress. Therefore the sizes on fig. 5 are deliberately
deformed.
Fig. 3.2.1. Recommended stringers for compressed panels.
On fig.3.2.2 the rolling section is shown which are not recommended to use in a
compressed zone (the sizes are deformed deliberately):
28
Fig. 3.2.2. Inadvisable stringers for compressed panels.
Let's note some features in behavior of a skin and stringers during their teamwork at
axial compression. While the skin has not lost stability or was a little deformed after loss of
stability, it supports stringers. At strong wave formation the skin cuts relative weak stringers
by the its waves, it is especial if stringers not pressed, but bent from a sheet material and then
stringers maintain smaller stresses in comparison with a case when they isolated. As the
thicker skin, the more significant this phenomenon is.
To avoid premature destruction of stringers owing to influence of a skin after wave
formation and to use their full lift capability, it is necessary to make rib on the flange of
stringers adjoining to a skin or flanges should have a little bigger thickness, than thickness of
a skin. With this purpose it is recommend next design condition:

f
= (1.21.5)
sk
, (32.4)
where
f
is thickness of stringer flange,
sk
- is thickness of skin. From this condition
you have to select a stringer.
After selection of a stringer it is necessary to update parameters of the formula (3.2.1)
which values were appointed approximately.
Stringer critical stresses are determined under the formula:
2
utst rst
1
1

+ +
+
= , (3.2.5)
where
E
utst

= ;

utst
- is the ultimate tension stress of the stringer material;
o
E
is Eulers critical stress determined under formulas from the structural mechanics
for plates.
The formula (3.2.5) is convenient by that it is applicable at activity of a material both
up to a limit of proportionality, and behind it, and gives satisfactory convergence with
experiment.
At local loss of stability of a stringer flange value of critical stress is equal:
) / b (
2
E

o
o

= (3.2.6)
Here b and o are width and thickness of the stringer flange losing stability as a plate; E - is a
modulus of elasticity of a stringer material; k - is the attaching factor which is taking into
account conditions of fastening of stringer flange. The factor k is determined according to
fig. 3.2.3 where its values are adduced depending on flange arrangement (on fig. 3.2.3 they
are shown by a heavy line), from relation of its width b to width a for the neighboring
flanges, and also depending on a ratio of thickness of adjoining flanges.
29
Fig. 3.2.3. Attaching factor for stringers (k
H
for H- bar, k
C
for channel bar)
Stringers are checked for local stability under the formula (3.2.6) for all flanges of a
stringer, and the least value is chosen as the o
E
. Adduced on fig. 3.2.3 and in the formula
(3.2.6) sizes a and b are necessary to be determined in a median surface of a flanges.
The stringer is also necessary to checking up for the general stability, considering it as
multispan beam, based on ribs. However, if the rib spacing is chosen from a balanced life
condition a stringer at the general and local stability loss than critical stresses of the general
stability of a stringer cannot be found.
As it was indicated earlier, the compressed stringer flange, adjoining to a skin should
have rib or its thickness should surpass thickness of a skin that essentially increases lift
capability of reinforced panels at compression. It concerns not only to riveted or welded
structures, but also to monolithic and formed.
The effective width of the joined skin 2c, working with stresses of a stringer, is
determined under the formula:

st
crsk
t c 2 = , (3.2.7)
where t s t
t
- is a distance between extreme rivet rows of two neighboring stringers;
o
crsk
- is a critical stress of instability for a skin and o
st
- is a stress in a stringer.
Skin critical stress at compression is equal:
2
t
crsk

t
E 6 . 3
|
.
|

\
|

= (3.2.8)
a/b
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.6 0.7
6
4
3
2
1
0
1
a, o
1
b, o
1
k
0.8
k=4
a, o
b, o
b, o a, o
k
H
=1.5k
c
b, o
a, o
b, o
a
30
With addition of (3.2.2) formula (3.2.7) can be presented as follows:
st

E
9 . 1 c 2 = . (3.2.9)
At calculations in ultimate condition, including in designing calculation, value o
st
is
believed to be an equal to failing stress in a stringer at the compression - minimal value of
critical stresses of local instability, i.e. in designing calculation we have:
o
st
= ) min(
i , crst
c
st
= (3.2.10)
At calculation of the F
jsk
joined skin area, attached to a stringer in the compressed
zone, it is matters, by how many riveted joints the skin reverted on to a stringer. So, for the
panel (fig. 3.2.4) the joined skin area is equal:
,
F t jsk
m 2 + = at m < 2c
F t jsk
c 4 = at m > 2c, (3.2.11)
where m is distance between rivet rows in the stringer.
Fig. 3.2.4. The joined skin (effective width).
If the stringer is reverted on by one riveted joint, then we have:
F t jsk
c 2 = (3.2.12)
Having updated value
P
c
sk st +
, it is possible to find load
P
c
sp
, perceived by spar belts in
the compressed zone (see formulas (3.1.6), (3.2.1)). The total area of spar belts in the
compressed zone
F
c
sp
is received from an equation:
F P
c
sp
c
sp
c
sp
= ,
c
sp c
sp c
sp
P
F
o
= (3.2.13)
where

sp
- is a failing stresses in the compressed belt. Concerning value

sp
it is
possible to notice the following. On the one hand, in the compressed spar belt it can be local
loss of stability and critical stress is determined by formulas (3.2.5), (3.2.6). On the other
hand, the failing stress of pure compression for thick-walled rods exceeds ultimate tension
stress o
utsp
for material of a spar. If width b and thickness o of spar belt are connected by
relation |/o < 38, calculated under formulas (3.2.5), (3.2.6) critical stress for such belt is
close to o
utsp
. Therefore usually we state:

sp
= o
utsp
(3.2.14)
The found area
F

sp
is allocated between front and rear spars proportionally to
squares of spar altitudes or their altitudes.
31
3.3. SELECTION OF LONGITUDINAL LOAD-CARRYING SET FOR THE
RIVETED TENSION BOTTOM PANEL
Load
P
t
sk st +
in the tension panel is computed by the equation:
, )
t k F k
n
P
b b
t
3
t
st 2
f
st
t
sk st
+ =
+
o
|
o
, (3.3.1)
where n - is the stringers number in the tension region, which is took into account in the
design calculation;

t
st
- is the stringers failing stress in the tension panel;
F
t
st
cross-
section area of one stringer in the tension panel; o
b
and t
b
are the skin thickness and distance
between stringers in the bottom tension panel; k
2
, k
3
and
t
- are coefficients.
At selection of n parameter value it is necessary to take into account only the stringers
having approximately identical coordinate Y. The stringers located in the front part and,
hence, having small value of coordinate Y, in designing calculation are not taken into
account. Otherwise the cross-section may not sustain the given loading at realization of
checking calculation. In a front part of a wing it is recommended to take into account 1-3
stringers.
Failing stress
t
fst o
is computed under the formula:
t
fst 1 utst k
= (3.3.2)
where
o
utst
- is the ultimate tension stress for stringers material;
k
1
- is the factor which is
taking into account influence of stress concentration in load-bearing elements at presence of
holes, discontinuities of rigidity or welds. At failing stress the value of this factor is expected
to be equal:
1) for steel
k
1
= 0.95;
2) for aluminum alloy type 4045 (D16)
k
1
= 0.8...0.85 (at mixed doubled holes up to 0.75);
3) for high-strength aluminum alloys
k
1
= 0.95...0.99 in big-scale sections up to 0.85...0.9, at
displaced doubled holes up to 0.8);
4) for magnesium alloys
k
1
= 0.8.
For welded connections factor
k
1
depends on quality of welding and it is equal to
k
1
= 0.75...0.8.
At designing transport airplanes in view of required durability as ultimate stresses
directive stresses are used:
dir
t
st
= .
The
k
2
factor which takes into account the stringer cross-sectional loss effected by the
rivet holes and is equal to:
k
2
= 0.9.
The
k
3
factor, which takes into account, the wing skin cross-sectional loss affected by
the rivet holes, differences in elasticity coefficients of plates and profiles due to the
unsatisfactional tension conditions at the riveting, and backlog of stress in skin. This factor
has values:
k
3
= 0.5...0.8.
The lesser values of k
3
are taken for thin skins, the great ones for thick ones.
32
The factor

t
takes into account difference in diagrams (o, c) if materials of stringers and a
skin have different mechanical characteristics, and are determined under the formula:
st
c csk
t
E E
= | ,
where
sk
c
E
,
st
c
E
are the skin and stringer cutting modules. If designing calculation is
executed in the ultimate condition than stresses in a skin and stringers are close to ultimate
tension stress of a material
ut
. Thus, it is possible to use the following formula instead of
one (50):
st
ut
sk
ut
t

= (3.3.3)
If the panel is integral structure it is possible to state:
k
2
=
k
3
=1, 1
t
=
Now we know all the values in the equation (3.3.1) instead of
F
t
st
. Thus, it is possible
to compute required stringer area, which will provide stringers and skin reaction of the
P
t
sk st +
load. Under the required area of a stringer, from gage of rolling section (app. 3) you
must choose a stringer with close cross-section area.
As the area of the chosen stringer may not coincide with the required area it is
necessary to update load
P
t
sk st +
under the formula (3.3.1). Load
t
sp
P , perceived by spar
belts in the tension zone, you should find out under the formula (3.1.6).
The total area of spar belts
t
sp
F in a tension zone you should receive from an equation
2
t
sp
f
sp
t
sp
k F P = ,
where
t
sp
- is the failing stress of tension for spar belt; k
2
- is the factor taking into
account loss of cross section area of a belt by holes under bolts and rivets and having values
k
2
= 0.9.
The failing stress of tension for spar belt is equal:
t
sp
=
sp
ut 1
k , (3.3.4)
where
ut sp
- is the ultimate tension stress for a material of a spar cap; k
1
the factor
which is taking into account influence of stress concentration in a belt, which numerical
value can be chosen according to above mentioned recommendations.
The area
t
sp
F is necessary to allocate between spar belts of front and rear spars. The
areas of spar belts are recommended to allocate proportionally to square of spar altitudes or it
is proportional to their altitudes.
In calculation of a transport airplane stressman take in quality failing stress
t
fsp
o
directive stresses o
dir
for a spar in view of service life.
33
Fig. 3.3.1. Types of monolithic panels.
For transport airplanes in weight more 20 tons frequently monolithic integral panels
are used which adduced on fig. 3.3.1.
3.4 THE SIMPLIFIED TECHNIQUE OF OPTIMUM DESIGNING FOR
MONOLITHIC (INTEGRAL) WING PANELS AT COMPRESSION.
Monolithic panels from a condition of optimality (i.e. they give a prize in weight in
comparison with riveted panels) are applied only at high load intensity N:
st sk
P
N 1500( kN / m )
B
+
= > ,
where
st+sk
- is axial load on the panel without spars only on stringers and skin, B - is
width of the panel.
Such of load intensity are characteristic for planes with take-off mass >20.
Load on the panel
st+sk
can be finding from complete load on whole panel including
spars P
c
:
st sk c
P P q
+
= .
It is necessary to take into account, that the monolithic panels are placed only between
spars and do not come in the nose part of a wing before front spar, that is for the two-spar
wing B - is distance between spars.
The monolithic panels are projected from a condition of optimality, that is the critical
stresses of local loss of stability of the skin o
sk
should be equal to critical stresses of general
loss of stability of fins (flash) together with the skin o
g
and should be equal to critical
stresses of local loss of stability of fins o
f
.
o
sk
~o
g
~o
f
.
1
2
3
34
For maintenance of the weight minimum the level of these critical stresses should be
high enough:
o
sk
~o
g
~o
f
. =o
cr
=(11.2)o
0.2
. (3.4.1)
Fig. 3.4.1. Parameters of cross section for the monolithic panel.
The methods of optimization are described in various sources. They leave for
frameworks of our course. The only received results are given without proofs and in the
simplified statement here. Thus elementary fining is considered (fig. 3.4.1).
Monolithic panels has a technological restriction - thickness of the skin should be not
less 2 mm:
o
sk
>2 mm.
On the basis of the carried out researches the following ratios are received for optimal
monolithic panels:
f
h
0.55
t
~ ,
sk
f
0.445,
o
o
~
ss
f
cr
P
1.095B
o
o
= , (3.4.2)
) (

B
P
. t
cr
cr
ss
2
1
755 0

= ,
where o
cr
- critical stresses of the panel upon (3.4.1), - module of elasticity for a
material of the panel, - Poisson ratio for a material of the panel.
At such geometrical ratio at local loss of stability of the skin the attaching factor is equal
k
o
=6, width of the joined skin (effective width) 2=t, at account of critical stresses of local
loss of stability of a fin the attaching factor is equal k
o
=0.41, for account of general loss of
stability of a fin with the skin the attaching factor is equal =1.5.
It is necessary to note that for monolithic panels the rib pitch is defined from a condition
of a minimum of the wing weight, instead of equality of general and local critical stresses for
stringers as for riveted panels. Such definition of rib pitch leaves for frameworks of our
course and in account it is possible to take a rib pitch from the prototype or upon statistics.
o
sk
o
f
t
h
f
35
After definition of the geometrical sizes of the monolithic panel, as well as for riveted
panel, it is necessary to define the valid critical stresses of local loss of stability for the skin
o
sk
, critical stresses of local loss of stability of fins (flash) o
f
and critical stresses of general
loss of stability of the fin together with the joined skin o
g
. From those critical stresses the
minimal critical stresses is actually realized. For this critical stresses it is necessary to find
width of the joined skin - 2. These data are necessary for realization of checking calculation
on a method of reduced factors. Thus it is necessary to take into account, that the center of
gravity of cross section of the panel lays much below theoretical contour. This panel can be
used for the bottom tension zone, as at negative load factors it works on compression, and the
condition of maintenance of the given sinuosity is provided with the thick skin with a small
step of fins (flash) with the large stock. It is easy to be convinced of it by account of a
sinuosity of the skin. It is possible to optimize the bottom panel on compression at action of
negative load factors.
As follows from the theory of optimization for such panels, the simple fin can be
replaced by complex fins (flash) of smaller height. Thus for maintenance of an optimality
radius of inertia of a complex fin i should be equaled to radius of inertia for a simple fin as a
rectangular. Radius of inertia for a rectangular is equal:
h .
bh
bh
F
I
i 288 0
12
3
= = = ,
where I- the moment of inertia of a rectangular, F- the area of a rectangular.
3.4.1 EXAMPLE OF ACCOUNT FOR THE OPTIMUM MONOLITHIC PANEL ON
COMPRESSION.
The cross section of a wing in a fig. 3.4.1.1 is given. According to constructed diagram
of the bending moments in the given cross section the bending moment works is equal
=2520 kN*m. The rib pitch is equal =0.6m. The material of monolithic panels 16
has the following mechanical characteristics the module of elasticity =71GP, limit of
proportionality o
pr
= 270 MP, conditional yield stress o
y
= o
0.2
= 300 P, ultimate tension
stress o
ut
= 440 P, Poisson ratio =0.3. As designing critical stresses in the first
approximation it is possible to accept

cr
= 1.05
y
=1.05*300=315 P.
1. The mean height of the wing cross section is defined
1 2
m
H H 0.42 0.27
H 0.95 0.328m
2 2

+ +
= = =
2. The load on the panel together with spars is equal:
m
M 2520000
P 7683
H 0.328
= = = kN.
3. According to (3.1.7) the factor is equal:
t
M 65000
0.65
100000 100000
= = = .
4. Load on stringers and skin P
st+sk
under the formula is calculated:
36
st sk

+
= 4993 65 . 0 7683 = = q kN
Fig. 3.4.1.1. The cross section of a wing.
5. Under the formula (3.4.2) the fin thickness is calculated:
st sk
f 6
cr
P 4993000
11.8mm
1.095B 1.23 315 10 1.095
o
o
+
= = =

.
6. The skin thickness agrees (3.4.2) is equal:
mm . . . .
f sk
2 5 8 11 445 0 445 0 = = = .
7. The fins pitch is equal:
mm
) . ( .
.
) (

B
P
. t
cr
cr
128
3 0 1 10 315
10 71
10 315 23 1
4177000
755 0
1
755 0
2 6
9
6
2
=



=
=

=
8. The height of fin is equal:
f
h 0.55t 0.55 128 83 = = = mm.
Further you should carry out definitions of the valid critical stresses for the designed
panel.
9. The critical stresses of local loss of stability for the skin under the Eulers formula are
equal:
MPa
.
.

t
.

sk
E
l
633
2 5
128
10 71 6 9 0 9 0
2
9
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The found critical stresses is more than a limit of proportionality
o
pr
= 270 P, hence, it is necessary to count under the empirical formula.
695 0
633
440
.

E
l
ut
= = =
=1.23m

1
=0.42m

2
=0.27m
37
P
. .
.



ut l
342
695 0 695 0 1
695 0 1
440
1
1
2 2
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
= .
9. The critical stresses of local loss of stability for a fin under the Eulers formula are
equal:
MPa
.
. .

h
.

f
f
E
f
529
8 11
83
10 71 41 0 9 0 9 0
2
9
2
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
The found critical stresses is more than a limit of proportionality
o
pr
= 270 P, hence, it is necessary to count under the empirical formula.
832 0
529
440
.

E
f
ut
= = = ,
P
. .
.



ut f
319
832 0 832 0 1
832 0 1
440
1
1
2 2
=
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
= .
10. Account of critical stresses of general loss of stability of a fin together with the skin.
For this purpose it is necessary to find width of the joined skin (effective width) 2:
9
sk 6
f
71 10
2
1.9 1.9 5.2 147.4mm
319 10
o
o

= = =

.
Fig. 3.4.1.2. The circuit of a fin with the joined skin.
2=128
o
sk
=5.2
c.g. skin
c.g. fin and skin
o
f
=11.8

77.8
83
c.g. fin
24
17.5
38
This settlement width of the joined skin is more than fins pitch 128mm; therefore as
width of the joined skin it is necessary to take a fin pitch.
The total area of cross section of a fin with the joined skin is equal:
2
sk f sk f
F 2c ( h ) 128 5.2 ( 83 5.2 ) 11.8 1583.64mm
E
o o o = + = + = .
Further it is necessary to find coordinate of a centre of gravity for a fin with the joined
skin concerning an initial axis
b
, which taking place through a centre of gravity of skin, (fig.
3.4.1.2):
f sk f f
xb
cg
0.5( h ) h
S 0.5 ( 83 5.2 ) 11.8 83
24mm
F F 1583.64
E E
o o

= = = = .
Further you should calculate a moment of inertia for a fin with the joined skin
concerning an axis

, which taking place through a centre of gravity of this system:

3
3
f sk f
2 2 sk
sk cg f sk f f cg
3 3
2
2 4
( h )
t
I t y ( h ) ( 0.5h y )
12 12
128 5.2 ( 83 5.2 ) 11.8
128 5.2 24
12 12
( 83 5.2 ) 11.8 ( 0.5 83 24 ) 1129098mm
E
o o
o
o o o

= + + + =

= + + +
+ ==
Now it is necessary to define critical stresses of general loss of stability under the
Eulers formula:
2 2 9 12
E
g 2 2 6
I 1.5 3.14 71 10 1129098 10
2080
P
a F 0.6 1583.64 10
E
E
t
o

= = =

,
where a=0.6 m is rib pitch for this wing from statistic.
This found critical stress is more than a limit of proportionality

pr
= 270 P, hence, it is necessary to recount under the empirical formula.
ut
E
g
440
0.212
2080
o
v
o
= = = ,
g ut 2 2
1 1 0.212
440 424
P
1 1 0.212 0.212
v
o o
v v
+ +
= = =
+ + + +
.
From the found critical stresses you must choose minimal stress - that is true meaning
has critical stresses of loss of stability for a fin
f
=319 MPa.
This is maximal failing stress of the panel.
It is necessary to check up a sinuosity of the skin, that it did not exceed .
2
t
3
w
2
3
9
0.67 M g ( 1
)

32 E S y
0.67 6500 9.82 ( 1 0.3 )
128 1.3mm
32 71 10 86.7 0.002
>

=

= =

where m=65000 kg take-off mass of the plane, S=86.7 m
2
- wing area of the plane,
=0.3 - is the Poissons ratio.
39
The minimal necessary thickness of the skin is equal
sk
=1.3 mm and the panel has
thickness of the skin
sk
=5.2 mm, hence, condition the maintenance of the given sinuosity is
supplied.
Length of the top panel on a theoretical contour of a wing is equal approximately:
l 1.06B 1.06 1.23 1304mm = = = . (3.4.1.1)
The quantity of sites between fins n
s
is equal:
s
l 1304
n 10.2
t 128
= = = .
This quantity by definition can be only whole, as well as quantity of fins. It is necessary
to take into account, that spar caps border the panel and are also fins for the panel.
We approximate quantity of sites of the panel up to nearest greater whole:
n
s
=11.
From total of sites 11, two sites on each side panels serve for connection of the panel
with spar caps, and other nine sites in the middle of panel are complete with a designing fin
pitch t=128mm. Length of nine designing sites l
s
is equal:
s
l 9 t 9 128 1152mm = = =
The total length of lateral sites l
tl
is equal:
tl s
l l l 1304 1152 152mm = = =
Accordingly length of one lateral site l
t
is equal:
t tl
l 0.5 l 0.5 152 76mm = = =
The quantity of fins of the monolithic panel n
f
(without the account spar caps) is equal:
f s
n n 1 11 1 10 = = = .
Now it is possible to define the valid bearing capacity of the panel ultimate load on
compression uc:
uc f p f sk f f sk
P F [ l ( h )] o o o o o = = + = 5091.6kN
In the beginning panel load was given =4993N. The error of designing makes:
uc ss
P P 5092 4993
1.9%
P 4993
o

= = =
It is a quite allowable error.
On spar caps load
sp
makes:
sp uc
P P P 7683 5091 2592kN = = =
The panel load is round with safety factor.
At realization checking calculation it is necessary to take into account, that vertical
coordinates of centers of gravity for fins with the joined skin F

=F
fsk
=1583 mm
2
below
theoretical contours on size
t
, which is equal (fig. 3.4.1.2):
t sk cg
y 0.5
y 0.5 5.2 24 26.6mm
= + = + =
Thus, all data are received necessary for checking calculation.
The panel with such fining can be used at tension. In case there will be excess strength,
it is possible to reduce height of a fin in the tension panel.
40
3.4.2 EXAMPLE OF ACCOUNT OF THE TENSION MONOLITHIC PANEL
TAKING INTO ACCOUNT SPECIFIED LIFE
For transport planes the service life is planned at a rate of

f
= 10 000 40 000 flights. On fig. 3.4.2.1 the experimental data are given upon directive
stresses. On these data it is possible approximately to estimate size directive stresses, which
can ensure the specified service life. For example, the plane should have the service life

fh
= 60 000 flight hours. On fig. 3.4.2.1 directive stresses are given as function from
number of flights. Each flight has duration 1.5 hours for this plane. In this case our plane
should have the service life among flights
f
:
fh 4
f
T
60000
T 40000 4 10 f
1.5 1.5
= = = =
From the diagram we have, that for maintenance of the specified life

fh
= 60 000 f.h.,
f
= 4*10
4
f the stresses at action of ultimate loads in the tension panel
should be equal
dir
=
f
= 280 MPa. This stress for the given plane is less than critical stress
for the top compressed panel
cr
=315 MPa. Axial force in tension and compressed panels are
equal on size st+sk = 4993 kN. Hence, the area of cross section of the bottom tension panel
should be more area of cross section of the top compressed panel. From technological
reasons the fin pitch, fin height and fin thickness are left same, as for the top panel -
t = 128 mm, h
f
=83 mm,
f
=11.8 mm.
So the bottom panel has the smaller curvature than the top panel the length of the
bottom panel is approximately equal upon the theoretical contour:
b
l 1.02 B 1.02 1.23 1.255m = = =
The quantity sites between fins n
s
are equal:
b
s
l 1255
n 9.8
t 128
= = =
We approximate this size up to nearest greater whole n
s
=10. In the middle of the panel
eight sites are complete with a design pitch t = 128 mm. Length of these eight design sites l
d
is equal:
d
l 8 128 1024mm = = .
The common length of extreme sites l
t
is equal:
t b d
l l l 1255 1024 231mm = = =
The length of one lateral site l
l
is equal:
l t
l 0.5l 0.5 231 155.5mm = = = .
The quantity of fins on the panel n
f
is equal:
f s
n n 1 10 1 9 = = = .
The ultimate load for tension monolithic panel is equal:
t t t
st sk f dir 2 f 3 sk dir f sk
dir b sk f f f sk
P n ( k F k t ) F
[ l n ( h )].
o | o o
o o o o
+ +
= + = =
= +
(3.4.2.1)
From here it is follows:
41
t
f sk
f f f
dir
sk
b f f
6
P
n h
l n
4993000
9 0.0118 0.083
280 10
7.8mm
1.255 9 0.0118
o
o
o
o
+

= =

= =

You should determine the valid ultimate load on the tension panel:
rf sk dir b sk f f f sk
6
P [ l n ( h )]
280 10 [ 1.255 0.0078 9 0.0118 ( 0.083 0.0078 )]
4997kN
o o o o
+
= + =
= + =
=
o
dir
, MPa
8 9 1*10
4
2*10
4
3*10
4
4*10
N, flights
Fig.3.4.2.1. Directive stresses
Because of rounding of numbers the error of account foots up to:
t t
f sk r f sk
t
f sk
P P
4993 4977
0.3%
4993 P
o
+ +
+

= = =
42
It is a quite allowable error of account.
For checking calculation it is necessary to define the valid areas of fins with the
skin and coordinate of their centers of gravity concerning a theoretical contour. The valid
area of internal fins with the joined skin is equal:
ri sk f sk f
2
f t ( h )
0.128 0.0078 0.0118 ( 0.083 0.0078 ) 0.00188576m
o o o = + =
= + =
The coordinate of a center of gravity for the valid area lies above theoretical contour
and is equal:
f f sk f
cgi
ri
0.5h ( h )
y
f
0.5 0.083 ( 0.083 0.0078 ) 0.0118
19.5mm.
0.00188576
o o
= =

= =
The valid areas of extreme fins are less, as the extreme sites of the skin are less than a
design pitch of fins and are equal:
re sk l sk f sk f
2
f 0.5 t 0.5 l ( h )
0.5 0.128 0.0078 0.5 0.1155 0.0078
( 0.083 0.0078 ) 0.0118 0.00183701m .
o o o o = + + =
= + +
+ =
The coordinate of a center of gravity for the valid area of extreme fins lies above
theoretical contour and is equal:
f f sk f
cge
re
0.5h ( h )
y
f
0.5 0.083 ( 0.083 0.0078 ) 0.0118
20mm.
0.00183701
o o
= =

= =
Now you have all data for checking calculations.
3.5. CROSS SECTIONS ELEMENTS ARRANGEMENT
Results of designing should be presented on the drawing on which construct cross
section of a wing with the stringers put in a scale, spar belts, a skin and spar webs (fig. 3.5.1).
Spars belts have usually rectangular cross section with relations of thickness to the width,
equal to
8
1
4
1
, and also lugs for fastening a skin and spar webs.
The computed total areas of spars Fsp in the tension and compressed panels are
distributed between front and a rear spars usually proportionally to a square of their altitudes
2
2
1
Rsp
Fsp
H
H
F
F

'
'
=
,
here F
Fsp
, F
Rsp
are according to the area cap front and rear spars, H
1
, H
2
- according
to their total altitudes upon the airfoil.
The sum of the areas spar belts is known for us
43
sp Rsp Fsp
F F F = +
Then
2
2
1
sp
Rsp
H
H
1
F
F

'
'
+
= , (74)
Accordingly
Rsp sp Fsp
F F F = . (75)
At designing we can get 6
b
4

s - with the purpose of exception of local loss of

stability of a spar belt.
Fig. 3.5.1. Shape of spar cap.
You must know that monolithic panels are used only for interspar space. For leading
edge are used only riveted panels through great curvature. From statistic you select skin
thickness . For plane with take-off mass 1000kgM
t
5000kg skin thickness is equal
=0.8-1 mm. For plane with take-off mass 5000kgM
t
10000kg skin thickness is equal
=1.2-1.5 mm. For plane with take-off mass 10000kgM
t
20000kg skin thickness is equal
=1.8-2 mm. For plane with take-off mass 20000kgM
t
30000kg skin thickness is equal
=2.2 -2.5mm. For plane with take-off mass 30000kgM
t
skin thickness is equal =2.5 mm.
You should calculate stringer pitch from condition of sinuosity and choose stringers as
for riveted panel.
3.6. ESTIMATION OF SPAR WEBS THICKNESSES
Spar web works on perceptions of shear flow arising under action of shear force and a
torque. An application point of shear force you computed at calculation of loads, a position
of the elastic center on the simplified model. The torque is equal to product of shear force on
distance up to the elastic center. Shear forces are distributed proportionally bending stiffness
of spars. On a diagram of the reduced moments you calculated an application point of shear
forces Xr.
44
Fig. 3.6.1. Positions of shear force and elastic center.
As the areas top and bottom spar belts are not equal, at calculation of the moments of
inertia previously it is necessary to compute coordinate of the center of gravity of a spar and
the moment of inertia to calculate concerning an axes passing through the center of gravity

cg
for each spar
2 1
1 1
cg
f f
H f
y
+
=
, (3.6.1)
here f
1
, f
2
are according to the area top and bottom spar caps, H
1
is height of spar
between centers of gravity of spar caps in this formulas.
The moment of inertia of a spar is equal to:
2
cg 2
2
cg 1 1 1
y f ) y H ( f I + = . (3.6.2)
The distance x
r
you calculated upon (2.6.1) (see fig. 3.6.1)
The shear force is perceived by a front spar is equal, as it was shown earlier
1 1 1
1 n
i i
i
i 1
E I I
Q Q Q
E I
I
=
= =

.
Accordingly in the rear spar shear force is equal
Q
2
= Q - Q
1
.
In spar webs from action of shear forces shear flows are equal:
1
1
1
H
Q
q = ;
2
2
2
H
Q
q = .
45
Fig. 3.6.2. Position of center gravity of spar.
In the first approximation the coordinate of the elastic center X
EC
is equal:
2 2 1 1
2 2
sp EC
I E I E
I E
B X
+
= .
Torque concerning the elastic center is equal (see fig. 3.6.1):
Qd M
torq
= .
Pursuant to the formula of the Bredt a shear flow from torque is equal to:
O
=
torq
torq
M
q ,
or
m sp
torq
torq
H B 2
M
q = ,
where
m
-are a mean altitude of wing section, B
sp
- distance between spars which
taken into account in activity on torsion, O - is double area of contour.
Total shear flow on spar webs is equal to:
torq 1 1
q q q =
E
;
torq 2 2
q q q + =
E
.
In a general view we have:
O
=
E
torq
i
i
i
M
H
Q
q .
Position of shear force and also the direction of a torque depends from critical loading
conditions and angle of attack. Therefore for various critical loading conditions values q can
vary. It is necessary to take into account the heaviest conditions of loading.
H
1
Y
cg
The center of gravity of top spar cap
The center of gravity of spar
cap
The center of gravity of bottom spar cap
46
Fig. 3.6.3. Shear flows in cross section
Under value of shear flows you should calculate thickness of a spar web:
j t
= o
Ei
i
q
.
For maneuverable airplanes in quality j t (working stress) it is received tu. For
transport airplanes [t]~1215 kg/mm
2
= 120-150 MPa.
The sizes of spar belts may appear much less sizes of ordinary stringers or, on the
contrary, too massive, owing to what distance between centers of gravity of spar belts can
lower sufficiently. Can appear, that the altitude of a stringer is excessively great and there is
no place for useful use of a volume of a wing, for example, for arrangement of a fuel tank. In
all considered cases designing calculation is executed anew. Thus it is possible to vary
materials of spar belts and also to change distribution of load
P
p
, calculated under the
formula (33), between spars and stringers with a joined skin i.e. to change value of parameter
q.
If you wish strictly maintain the received distances t
t
and t
b
between centers of
elements at the big width of spar belts the distance between lateral face of spars and the next
stringers may decrease essentially. In this case values t
t
and t
b
reduce so that stringers were
located in regular intervals.
For designing figure of cross section is convenient to draw in scale. Shear force, a load
point of this force (in a scale), a position of a stiffness center, the characteristic geometrical
sizes and coordinate axes are necessary to put on it.
3.7. ESTIMATION OF RIB PITCH
For riveted panels the rib pitch is determined from a balanced life condition at local
instability of a stringer and at the general instability of a stringer with the joined skin (fig.
3.7.1).
Critical stresses of general instability are computed under the Eulers formula:
, ) , )
2
sk st
2
E
crG
l
F F
I E
+

=

t
o
(3.7.1)
Mtorq
47
where is the modulus of elasticity of a stringer; I is the moment of inertia for area,
represented on fig. 3.7.1 concerning an axis passing through the center of gravity of this
cross-section, and a parallel plane of a skin; l - is a rib pitch; - is the attaching factor which
is taking into account base conditions on the ends of a stringer, with length of l. At pinning of
a stringer on ribs we accept = 1, at a binding on the ends we accept = 0.5, at semi-
binding (flanked) supports we accept = 0.7. In practice at calculation of a wing it is
supposed, that stringers have on ribs semi- binding supports, i.e. = 0.7.
Fig.3.7.1. The joined skin for different stringers.
Equating the right part of the formula (3.7.1) to minimal value of Eulers critical stress
of local stability
E
rl
o calculated under the formula (3.2.6) for all flanges of a stringer it is
possible to find a rib pitch l:
E
crl jsk st
) F F (
EI
l
o

t
+
= (3.7.2)
The typical error is admitted at calculation of parameter l next: in equality (3.7.2) the
value that calculated under the formula (32.5), instead of the value, which found under the
formula (3.2.6) is substituted.
4. CHECKING STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF WING
In checking calculation you have to calculate normal and shear stresses in cross
section of a highly-aspect ratio wing, for which mechanical and geometrical parameters are
picked up during designing calculation. Normal stresses are found by an allocation procedure
on the basis of application of the theory of reduction, and shear by cutting modulus method
without separation on bending and torsion. Thus influences of sealing and local disturbing
factors (cut-outs, sharp change of mechanical and geometrical characteristics on length of a
wing, the local loading by the concentrated forces etc.) are not taken into account.
c c
2c
m
2c 2c
48
Checking calculation of a wing is implemented on the computer with the help of the
ready program "Wing".
4.1. SOURCE DATA PREPARATION AND COMPUTER-AIDED CALCULATION
RECOMENDATIONS
1. In designing calculation materials of spars and stringers, and also their mechanical
characteristics are necessary to choose only from tab. 3.1.1.
2. In checking calculation it is recommended to integrate on 2-3 stringers with the
joined skin in longitudinal elements so that the total quantity of elements in cross-section was
in an interval 15s N < 40. In those places where curvature of an airfoil is significant, for
example, in the front part, it is recommended do not integrate stringers in elements or to
integrate in one element no more than two stringers. At a wing leading edge there should be a
stringer, which should have number 1 (fig. 4.1.1). It is not necessary to integrate a spar belt
and adjoining stringers in a unified element. Longitudinal elements are numbered clockwise
from the element #1. Thus to the element made from group of stringers with a joined skin,
one number is given.
Fig. 4.1.1. Designing cross section.
It is necessary to remember, that on fig. 4.1.1 cross section is on mentally cut out a
outer wing and it is necessary to look at this section from sealing (standing a back to a
fuselage, we look at the cut out part).
3. In checking calculation as positive directions of components for a vector of bending
moment
M
'
t
,
M
'
n
and components of a vector for shear force Q
'
t
, Q
'
n
are received others, in
comparison with fig.2.1 directions (see fig. 4.1.2).
Thus relations are fair
M
'
t
=
M
t
,
M
'
n
= -
M
n
, Q
'
t
= Q
t
, Q
'
n
= Q
n
. (4.1.1)
Components
M
t
... Q
n
are calculated in the title 2.3 under the formulas (2.4.4) and
they can be positive and negative depending from the angles and o
4. In checking calculation the connected coordinate system is used (X', Y').
The program of computer-aided calculation is made in the assumption, that horizontal
axis X' coincides with a chord of a wing and is directed on backwards in airflow direction,
axis Y' is perpendicular axes to X' and is directed upwards. At such position of axis X' it is
not required to enter into the computer of data on a position of the chord being a force line
for load Q
'
t
(title 2.3). An origin of coordinates is placed in a point of interception of a chord
with an airfoil in a wing leading edge - point #1 (fig. 4.1.1).
49
Fig. 4.1.2. The positive directions for components of shear force and bending moment.
5. Characteristics of the joint elements you should calculate in the following sequence:
in the beginning areas Fn and coordinates of the centre of gravity
X
'
n
,
Y
'
n
for every n-th
longitudinal element made from group of stringers with a joined skin. The specified
parameters are determined under formulas:
=
j
nj n
F
F
; (4. 1.2)
=
j
nj
'
nj
n
'
n
F
X
F
1
X
; =
j
nj
'
nj
n
'
n
F
Y
F
1
Y
(4.1.3)
where
F
nj
,
X
'
nj
and
Y
'
n
are the areas and coordinates of the gravity centers of
making parts of the joint element. As making parts there may be the stringers, the joined skin
and spar belts, and in margin of safety the skin to spar belts usually does not join, i.e. spar
belts act in calculations as independent elements.
In a tension bottom panel it is necessary to take into account stringers, spar belts and a
skin area loss affected by rivets holes difference in factors of elasticity of skin and profiles
because of imperfection of a tension at riveting (factors k
2
and k
3
, entered in item 3.3), and
also difference in diagrams (o - c) if materials of stringers and a skin have different
mechanical characteristics (factor
t
). During activity of the program the factor
t
does not
change, therefore its value should be found under the formula (3.3.3).
Thus, in a tension bottom panel the area F
n
is possible to calculate for the spar belt or
stringer as the component of integrated element under formulas
F K F
t
n , sp 2 n
= ,
F K F
t
n , st 2 n
= , (4.1.4)
and for joined skin under the formula:
t K F
b b
t
3 n
=
o
| (4.1.5)
In the compressed zone for spar belt, stringers and the joined skin formulas are fair:
F F
c
n , sp n
= ,
F F
c
n , st n
= , (4.1.6)
F F
n , jsk n
= (4.1.7)
'
n
Q
'
n
M
e
'
t
M
'
t
Q
50
The
F
n , jsk
value is achieved under the formulas (3.2.11) or (3.2.12), the 2 parameter
under the formulas (3.2.7) and (3.2.9).
6. When the skin loses stability from shear and works as diagonally tension area its
shear module goes down. But as normal stresses and the air pressure reduce value of critical
stress in a skin from shear and, hence, value of a module of shear is changed on a contour of
cross section of a wing, thus, a shear module becomes variable on a contour. Therefore in
checking calculation on shear stresses we enter an adduced skin which thickness changes on
a contour, and the module of shear has the constant value equal to
10 G
10
0
= Pa. The degree
of reduction of skin thickness is determined by factor of a reduction .
On fig. 4.1.3 values of factor are given for different segments of the contour,
received in the assumption, that a material of a skin and webs of a spar is a D16 duralumin
and on all segments the skin loses stability from shear.
Fig. 4.13. Values of reduction factor in cross section.
If on n-th segment the skin or a web consists of other material the appropriate factor

n
needs to be increased, on the factor equal to relation of modules
G
G
D
n
. If on n-th
segment the skin or a web does not lose stability from shear it is possible to accept
n
= 2,7
if a material of a skin duralumin, or
n
= 2,7
G
G
D
n
for other materials.
Thus, the reduced skin has the same
G
0
shear module and different thickness at all n
segments. The reduced thickness is defined under the formula

o o
n
n rn
= ,
where
o
n
is the skin or spar web thickness;
n
is the shear reduction factor at n-th
segment.
7. Data incoming and out coming from the computer has the following
dimensionalities:
normal stresses and coefficients of elasticity, Pascal;
shear flows, Pascal m;
bending moments, Newtonsm;
shear forces , axis force, Newtons;
points coordinates, skin thickness, l parameter the distance from the forward spar to
resultants load point in the shear section, m;
areas, sq.m.;
moments of inertia, m
4
.
1 . 6
51
8. The program buzzes, if elements areas in the design cross section are inaccurate
and section doesnt resist the given load. In this case the design cross section is needed to be
reinforced and the calculation should be performed again.
4.2. THE "WING-STRENGTH" PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
The program is intended for normal stresses and shear flows definition in cross section
of the two-spar wing considered as a thin-walled rod of a two-closed structure. Normal
stresses are determined by a reduction factors method; shear flow - with "cutting modules"
using. Used language is the FORTRAN - 4. The program is developed in such manner that
process of consecutive approximations comes to an end, if maximum reduction factors of
two next iterations differ from each other less than in 1 %. Limitation on quantity of
iterations is entered: if the number of iterations reaches 30 the account ceases and the
message "a problem buzzes" is displayed.
4.2.1. INPUT OF NUMERICAL DATA
First of all you must create new file for data of your wing. You give name to this file,
which consist from first 3-5 capital letters your surname and number your group.
Numerical data are written in the following sequence. In the beginning figures are
written of parameters array M(8) and characteristics array of design cross section (L).
Parameter L is equal to value L = 4N + 10, where N is a number of longitudinal (joint)
elements in cross section.
Parameters array (8) is consisted from the following integers:
N = (1) is the total number of the longitudinal joint elements in the cross section, and
parameter N must lay within the limits 9 < N s 50.
(2) is number of spar belts. (2) = 4 is in general.
Thus in cell M(3) number of a front spar belt material should be.
M(3)- is number of a spar belt material.
M(4) - is number of a stringers material.
M(5) - is number of the top front spar belt.
(6) - is number of the bottom front spar belt.
(7) - is number of the top rear spar belt.
(8) - is number of the bottom rear spar belt.
The program composed in the supposition that the top and bottom belts of each spar
are made from one material, all stringers also consist from one material. The mechanical
characteristics appropriate to each number of a material are adduced in tab. # 3.1.1.
The array of design cross section characteristics (L) is consisted from following L
numbers:
(1) - is an elasticity modulus of the fictitious physical law. It is recommended to
select the least elasticity modulus from materials used in designing calculation (Pa);
(2) - is the failing stresses of compression (the sign - minus) for spar belts (Pa);
(3) - is the failing stresses of compression (the sign - minus) for stringers with the
joined skin in the compressed zone. It is determined under the formula (3.2.10) (Pa);
52
(4) - is a bending moment
M
'
t
, operating in design cross section which vector is
directed on wing chord-wise . It is positive, if the vector-moment is directed to a tail of an
airplane (see fig. 4.1.2), in particular, in critical load conditions A, B, C, D it is recorded with
plus sign (N*m);
(5) - is a bending moment
M
'
n
in design cross section which vector - moment lays in
a plane of a wing cross section and it is perpendicular to a chord. It is positive, if the vector-
moment is directed upwards (see fig. 4.1.2). Signs of the moments
M
'
t
and
M
'
n
are turned
out automatically from formulas (2.4.4) and (4.1.1) (N*m);
(6) - is an axial load for wing. Compressing load is considered negative, tension one
- positive. For a wing usually the axial load is equal to zero (N);
(7) - is a loadQ
'
n
(N);
(8) - is a load Q
'
t
(N).
For program positive force Q
'
n
is directed upwards, Q
'
t
- to a tail of an airplane (see
fig. 4. 1.2). Signs of the indicated forces are turned out automatically from formulas (2.4.4)
and (4.1.1);
(9) - is a distance e (see fig. 4.1.2) from a front spar web up to a force line Q
'
n
. It is
positively, if Q
'
n
is enclosed in the interspar part, and negatively, if force Q
'
n
is enclosed in
the wing leading edge (N);.
Further data are placed:
N numbers
X
'
n
(n = 1..., N) are horizontal coordinates of center of gravity for the
longitudinal joint units (m);
N numbers
Y
'
n
- (n = 1..., N) are vertical coordinates of center of gravity for the
longitudinal joint units (m);
N numbers
F
n
(n = 1..., N) are areas of the joint units (m
2
);
N+1 numbers
o
rn
(n = 1..., N+1) are reduced skin thicknesses and spar webs. Number
of a skin segment is determined by number of an appropriate interval index point. The
segment located between the 3rd and the 4th points, has number 3, and the front spar web
should have number of N + 1 (m).
Input data
X
'
n
,
Y
'
n
,
F
n
and
o
rn
should place in ascending order of n index which
meets to numbers of longitudinal units or segments of a skin.
At presence of the identical numbers are located in succession in numerical data
groups it is recommended to use the reduced record, for example: 6*2.08E-4.
Commas separate numbers and the reduced records of number groups from each other
or blanks or they start on new line.
The example of data is given below. For program real numbers are written in
normalized view. For example E=72GPa, for program you must write down 7.2E10.
M=
11,4,2,4,3,10,6,7,
P=
7.1E10,-1.6E9,-0.42E9,8.685E6,1.89E6,0.,3.E6,-1.E6,1.,
53
x=
0.,0.295,0.64,0.9875,1.455,2*2.03,1.455,0.9875,
0.64,0.295,
y=
0.,0.0975,0.125,0.13,0.115,0.08,-0.08,-0.115,-0.13,-0.125,
-0.0975,
F=
5.1E-4,10.214E-4,14.113E-4,2*10.214E-4,19.514E-4,14.054E-4,
2*5.6E-4,13.266E-4,5.6E-4,
DLT=
2*2.4E-3,3*3.6E-3,6.E-3,3*5.4E-3,2*3.6E-3,12.E-3,
You should launch program Wing from Total Commander or FAR (MC-DOC).
You should write down name of data file without extension .txt. You should enter
number 2 for calculation normal and shear flows. You should enter your surname and
number of group. You should write down name of output file, which consist from first 3-5
capital letters your surname and number your group and must differ from input file. You
should open output file with help Microsoft Office Publisher and MC-DOC.
4.2.2. OUTPUT DATA
Output data include:
1. The input numerical data, which are printed out for a control of their correctness.
2. Actual normal stresses o
an
(n = 1, 2......, N) are calculated with the help of a reduction
factors method and pointed in center of gravity for the longitudinal joint units.
3. The shear flow q
n
, operational on the n skin segment - (n = 1, 2..., N+1) and are
calculated with usage of "the cutting modulus". The shear flows q
n
are constant on the every
n-th skin segment located between n and n + 1 longitudinal elements. If the design section is
located on mentally discarded wing part (we look at this section from the seal part), q
n
are
calculated on the computer positive if q
n
are directed clockwise, and negative if q
n
-
counterclockwise. Positive q
n+1
, operating on a front spar web, are directed downwards.
4. Reduction coefficients
n
are printed for every n longitudinal unit on the last
iteration.
5. Gravity centers coordinates of longitudinal units are printed in the main central axes,
obtained on the last iteration.
6. Characteristics of cross section and external load are printed relatively to main central
axes.
7. Number of the carried out iterations.
Values of output values
X
n
...,
q
n
are located in ascending order of index n, since an
index n = 1.
54
ABC E4-1 reduced thicknesses
common data M X(I) Y(I) F(I) .0000
.7200E+11 21 .0000 .0000 .1000E-07 .0135
-.1600E+10 4 1.1608 .6346 .8473E-02 .0135
-.3371E+09 2 1.5477 .6725 .2856E-02 .0135
.1669E+08 4 2.1258 .6937 .2856E-02 .0135
-.1310E+07 2 2.7048 .6880 .2856E-02 .0135
.0000E+00 21 3.2838 .6598 .2856E-02 .0135
.1100E+07 11 3.8628 .6104 .2856E-02 .0135
.1220E+06 12 4.4418 .5530 .2856E-02 .0135
.1930E+01 5.0208 .4816 .2856E-02 .0135
5.5033 .3850 .1904E-02 .0081
5.8040 .3686 .3100E-02 .0135
5.8040 -.2026 .2600E-02 .0135
5.5033 -.2269 .2074E-02 .0135
5.0208 -.2616 .3111E-02 .0135
4.4418 -.3021 .3111E-02 .0135
3.8628 -.3439 .3111E-02 .0135
3.2838 -.3721 .3111E-02 .0135
2.7048 -.3875 .3111E-02 .0135
2.1258 -.3870 .3111E-02 .0135
1.5468 -.3629 .3111E-02 .0000
1.1608 -.3308 .7157E-01 .0162
MX=0.16513E+08, MY=-.27539E+07, NZ= .00000E+00, IX= .29317E-01
IY= .55352E+00, FS= .28523E+00, Iterations- 13
shear
Actual main central coordinates reduced flow
stress y factor -.9714E-01
-.1734E+09 -.1750E+01 .3272E+00 .9875 -.5313E+05
-.1294E+10 -.5388E+00 .8586E+00 2.6738 .3452E+04
-.3002E+09 -.1501E+00 .8628E+00 .6126 .5980E+05
-.2992E+09 .4277E+00 .8337E+00 .6288 .1156E+06
-.2969E+09 .1004E+01 .7778E+00 .6640 .1705E+06
-.2934E+09 .1578E+01 .6994E+00 .7236 .2242E+06
-.2874E+09 .2151E+01 .5999E+00 .8180 .2751E+06
-.2742E+09 .2723E+01 .4925E+00 .9345 .3165E+06
-.2226E+09 .3293E+01 .3711E+00 .9875 .3345E+06
-.1481E+09 .3766E+01 .2330E+00 .9875 .4060E+06
-.3661E+09 .4064E+01 .1905E+00 2.8704 .3067E+06
.5546E+09 .4014E+01 -.3785E+00 2.8704 .2794E+06
.1912E+09 .3713E+01 -.3766E+00 .9875 .2390E+06
.1895E+09 .3229E+01 -.3693E+00 .9875 .1994E+06
.1869E+09 .2648E+01 -.3594E+00 .9875 .1604E+06
.1849E+09 .2068E+01 -.3508E+00 .9875 .1235E+06
.1755E+09 .1489E+01 -.3286E+00 .9875 .9027E+05
.1589E+09 .9106E+00 -.2937E+00 .9875 .6249E+05
.1335E+09 .3339E+00 -.2429E+00 .9875 .4289E+05
.9498E+08 -.2409E+00 -.1686E+00 .9875 -.1780E+00
.1756E+09 -.6226E+00 -.1031E+00 2.8704 .7803E+06
Resultant of normal stresses:
MX= .16600E+08 MY=-.27717E+07 NZ=-.10854E+06
55
5. STRENGTH ESTIMATION OF CROSS SECTION
The skin is in the flat stress state. In it the shearing stresses are received on the basis of
calculation on computer under the formula:
o t q = , (5.1)
and normal stresses
o
'
z
, which in the points located near to a stringer are determined from
condition of jointness of deformations for a stringer and a skin.
From Eulers formula the critical shear stress in skin is equal:
,
2
t
sk , cr
E
/ t
kE
= , (5.2)
where attaching factor k is equal:
, )
2
t / l
6 . 3
8 . 4 k + = ,
Where l is rib pitch, t - is stringer pitch.
Eulers formula (5.2) is fear if
E
cr,sk
s
lp
, where
lp
is limit of proportionality for shear
stress. Approximately limit of proportionality for shear stress is equal:

lp
~0.5
lp
,,
where
lp
- is limit of proportionality for normal stress from table # 3.1.1 or app.# 4.
When the critical shear stress
E
cr,sk
>
lp
it is necessary to recalculate on empirical
formula:
2
u sk , cr
1
1

+ +
+
= ,
where is equal:
E
sk , cr
u

= ,
where
u
ultimate failure shear stress is equal approximately:

u
~0.5
ut
Stresses in a skin
o
'
z
are found out under diagrams of deformation of a stringer and a
skin (oc) on a preset value of stress in the joint element (stress o
a
from computer data). In a
tension zone stresses
o
'
z
are positive, in compressed one - are negative. If stringers and skin
are manufactured from same material we have:
o
st
= o
sk
If the skin has lost stability from shear (t > t
cr
) and works as diagonally-tension plate
in it there are the additional tension normal stresses, which determined under formulas
t o
o t
cr
'
x
ctg = ,
t o
o t
cr
' '
z
tg = . (5.3)
Here o - is an angle of inclination of diagonal waves, which value for real designs close to
45 .
56
Thus, in the points of a skin located near to stringers the stress state is determined at t
> t
cr
under formulas:
o t q = ,
t o
t
cr x
= ,
t o o
t
cr
'
z z
+ = (5.4)
and at t < t
cr
under formulas
o t q = ,
0
x
=
o
,
o o
'
z z
= (5.5)
Appropriate to criterion of forming energy the condition of strength looks like:
o
0
s
o
ut
(92)
where
t o o o o o
2
z x
2
z
2
x 0
3 + + = .
It is fair and for spar webs.
Table #5.1.
Strength skin estimation (n=1,... , N+1)
n
o
'
z
,
MPa
t
cr
,
MPa
t ,
MPa
o
x
,
MPa
o
z
,
MPa
o
0
,
MPa
q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1

n
o
'
zn
o
'
1 zn+
,
t
crn
t
n
o
n , x
o
n , z
o
1 n , z +
o
n , 0
,
o
1 n , 0 +
q
n
q
n+1
...
N+1
At joint action of normal and shear stresses the problem of calculation critical stress
o
cr
in a skin is rather difficult. However it is necessary to notice the following. The formula
(3.2.6) is received from condition that the plate has hinged basing on a contour. This formula
gives a reserve of stability. Therefore in our calculation
cr
we can to use formulas (5.2).
Calculations are convenient for presenting as tab. 11 which each line meets to a
segment of a skin or a spar webs in total sites - N+1. In the first column number of a segment
is located. The factor q characterizes excess of strength of a skin and it is determined under
the formula:
57
o o
= q
0 ut
. (5.7)
The explanatory book should contain the conclusion about strength of a skin. Also it is
necessary to compare the t shearing stresses received in tab. 5.1 to values of the failing shear
stresses recommended in section 3 and to make the conclusion about justification of adduced
recommendations.
Similarly you should manufacture an estimation of strength of longitudinal load-
bearing elements of a wing - stringers and spar belts.
The calculation is carried out by a tabulated method in the table # 5.2. The actual
normal stresses o
a,n
we take from results of calculation on a computer - table # 5.1, failing
stresses o
f,n
under the formulas (3.2.10, 3.2.14, 3.3.2, 3.3.4). The factor q excess of strength
is computed under the formula:
n , a
fn

= (5.8)
Table # 5.2.
Estimation of strength of stringers and spar belts (n=1,...,N)
n o
a,
MPa
o
f
,
MPa
q
1 2 3 4
1
...
n
...
N
On values of a factor of strength excess for a skin and longitudinal elements you
should make the conclusion about strength separately for longitudinal elements, separately
for sections of a skin and for all cross section as a whole. For all elements the condition of
strength consists that the factor of strength excess should be equal or more than 1:
q>1.
Thus it is necessary to take into account, that in engineering calculations the error 5 % is
supposed. That is, it is possible to consider, that cross-section is strong at:
q
min
>0.95.
In a case when the strength of whole cross section is evaluated we evaluate at first
strength of longitudinal elements of the cross section. The cross-section is considered strong,
if a minimum value of a factor of excess of strength equally or more than 0.95:
q
min
>0.95.
If the minimum value for factor of strength excess is less 0.95, the cross-section is
considered insufficiently strong and one is necessary to manufacture amplification of cross
section. For this you should magnify the area of cross section of the overloaded element.
With other side the minimum value of strength excess should not exceed 1.15. If
strength excess is more than 1.15, that the construction has superfluous weight and it should
58
be made by easier. With this purpose we should diminish the areas of cross sections of the
least loaded longitudinal elements.
Similarly you should manufacture an estimation of strength for skin. The cross-section
is considered strong, if a minimum value of a factor of strength excess for skin equally or
more than 0.95:
q
min
>0.95.
If the minimal value a factor of strength excess is less 0.95, the skin is considered
insufficiently strong and one is necessary to manufacture amplification of skin thickness. For
this you should magnify the skin thickness of the overloaded segment. With other side the
minimum value of strength excess should not exceed 1.15. If strength excess is more than
1.15, that the construction has superfluous weight and it should be made by easier. With this
purpose we should diminish the skin thickness of the least loaded skin segment.
In explanatory book you have to give strength conclusion upon your cross section. If
cross section is strong it may has superfluous weight. You should recommend what elements
should be reduced in cross-sectional area. If the cross section is not strong, you should
recommend what elements it is necessary to magnify.
On it your operation terminates. In a designer bureau the strength calculations proceed
while the excess of strength will not appear in limits:
0.95 s q s 1.05.
59
APPENDIXIES
60
Appendix #1
Characteristic of airfoil
The airfoil NACA 0009
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy Ccp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0.30 0.014 -
2.5 1.96 -1.96 3.92 -2 -0.16 0.008 -
5 2.67 -2.67 5.34 0 0.00 0.0064 -
7.5 3.15 -3.15 6.30 2 0.16 0.008 0.240
10 3.51 -3.51 7.02 4 0.30 0.014 0.240
15 4.01 -4.01 8.02 6 0.45 0.020 0.240
20 4.30 -4.30 8.60 8 0.60 0.032 0.240
25 4.46 -4.46 8.92 10 0.74 0.042 0.240
30 4.50 -4.50 9.00 12 0.90 0.059 0.240
40 4.35 -4.35 8.70 14 1.05 0.077 0.240
50 3.97 -3.97 7.94 16 1.19 0.098 0.240
60 3.42 -3.42 6.84 18 1.30 0.120 0.24
70 2.75 -2.75 5.50 20 1.17 0.165 0.266
80 1.97 -1.97 3.94 21 1.06 0.280 0.324
90 1.09 -1.09 2.18 22 0.96 0.340 0.362
100 0 0 0 24 0.91 0.392 0.383
61
The airfoil NACA 0012
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy Ccp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0.30 0.015 -
2.5 2.62 -2.62 5.24 -2 -0.15 0.009 -
5 3.56 -3.56 0.00 0 0.00 0.007 -
7.5 4.20 -4.20 8.40 2 0.15 0.009 0.244
10 4.68 -4.68 9.36 4 0.30 0.015 0.244
15 5.34 -5.34 10.68 6 0.445 0.020 0.244
20 5.74 -5.74 11.48 8 0.60 0.033 0.244
25 5.94 -5.94 11.88 10 0.745 0.041 0.244
30 6.00 -6.00 12.00 12 0.90 0.059 0.244
40 5.80 -5.80 11.60 14 1.045 0.075 0.244
50 5.29 -5.29 10.58 16 1.20 0.096 0.244
60 4.56 -4.56 9.12 18 1.32 0.119 0.244
70 3.66 -3.66 7.32 20 1.46 0.142 0.244
80 2.62 -2.62 5.24 21 1.55 0.173 0.244
90 1.45 -1.45 2.90 22 1.20 0.262 0.301
100 0 0 0 24 1.09 0.322 0.335
62
The airfoil NACA 0015
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Ccp
0 0 0 0 0 -4 -0.30 0.014 -
2.5 3.27 -3.27 0 6.54 -2 -0.15 0.009 -
5 4.44 -4.44 0 8.88 0 0.00 0.007 0.238
7.5 5.25 -5.25 0 10.50 2 0.15 0.009 0.238
10 5.85 -5.85 0 11.70 4 0.30 0.014 0.238
15 6.68 -6.68 0 13.36 6 0.45 0.020 0.238
20 7.17 -7.17 0 14.34 8 0.60 0.031 0.238
25 7.43 -7.43 0 14.86 10 0.74 0.042 0.238
30 7.50 -7.50 0 15.00 12 0.89 0.060 0.238
40 7.25 -7.25 0 14.50 14 1.02 0.075 0.233
50 6.62 -6.62 0 13.24 16 1.17 0.095 0.238
60 5.70 -5.70 0 11.40 18 1.30 0.119 0.238
70 4.58 -4.58 0 9.16 20 1.42 0.140 0.238
80 3.28 -3.28 0 6.56 21 1.55 0.178 0.238
90 1.81 -1.81 0 3.62 22 1.29 0.210 0.284
100 0 0 0 0 24 1.21 0.269 0.300
63
The airfoil NACA-21012
Geometric characteristic of
airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Y
t
Y
b

m
h o

C
x
C
m
C
cp
0 0 0 0 0 -4 -0.26 0.014 -0.062
1.25 2.95 -0.90 1.03 3.85 -2 -0.20 0.0095 -0.024 ---
2.5 3.72 -1.45 1.13 5.17 0 0.035 0.0071 0.0072 0.206
5 4.67 -2.44 1.12 8.11 2 0.20 0.011 0.046 0.230
7.5 5.28 -.12 1.08 8.40 4 0.36 0.017 0.0814 0.232
10 5.72 -3.64 1.04 9.36 6 0.50 0.0225 0.1165 0.233
15 6.33 -4.36 0.99 10.69 8 0.65 0.034 0.152 0.234
20 6.67 -4.80 0.94 11.47 10 0.80 0.047 0.187 0.234
25 6.82 -5.07 0.88 11.89 12 0.95 0.065 0.222 0.234
30 6.82 -5.18 0.82 12.00 14 1.09 0.083 0.255 0.233
40 6.52 -5.10 0.71 11.622 16 1.23 0.114 0.288 0.234
50 5.89 -4.71 0.59 10.60 18 1.36 0.128 0.319 0.234
60 5.04 -4.09 0.48 9.13 20.8
8
1.50 0.160 0.352 0.234
70 4.03 -3.30 0.37 7.33 21 1.52 0.182 0.354 0.234
80 2.86 -2.38 0.24 5.24 21 1.20 0.252 0.352 '0.293
90 1.5757 -1.32 0.13 2.89 22 1.12 0.281 0.353 0.315
95 0.87 -0.75 0.06 1.62 24 1.02 0.341 0.360 0.353
100 0 0 0 0 26 0.96 0.392 0.346 0.360
30 0.88 0.464 0.347 0.394
64
The airfoil NACA-22012
Geometrical characteristic
of airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cx Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 0
-4
-0.25 0.0092 -0.054 |
1.25 2.84 -1.10 0.87 3.94 -2 -0.10 0.008 -0.019 ---
2.5 3.76 -1.60 1.08 5.36 0 0.05 0.0073 0.017 0.336
5 4.97 -2.17 1.40 7.14 2 0.20 0.009 0.052 0.260
7.5 5.71 -2.68 1.52 8.39 4 0.37 0.016 0.092 0.249
10 6.22 -3.15 1.54 9.37 6 0.50 0.022 0.123 0.246
15 6.80 . -3.89 1.46 10.69 8 0.66 0.034 0.161 0.244
20 7.11 -4.38 1.37 11.49 10 0.80 0.048 0.195 0.244
25 7.23 -4.66 1.29 11.89 12 0.97 0.063 0.237 0.244
30 7.22 -4.80 1.21 12.02 14 1.10 0.082 0.268 0.244
40 6.85 -4.76 1.05 11.61 16 1.24 0.105 0.300 .244
50 6.17 -4.42 0.88 10.59 18 1.38 0.130 0.337 0.244
60 5.27 -3.85 0.71 9.12 20 1.50 0.156 0.366 0.244
70 4.19 -3.14 0.53 7.33 22 1.60 0.180 0.389 0.245
80 2.99 -2.26 0.37 5.25 22 1.26 0.252 0.368 0.292
90 1.63 -1.26 0.19 2.89 24 1.13 0.320 0.378 0.334
95 0.89 -0.71 0.09 1.60 26 1.04 0.372 0.377 0.363
100 0 0 0 0 30 0.94 0.454 0.372 0.395
65
The airfoil NACA - 2210
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Ccp
0 0 0 0 0 0.120 0.010 0.467
2.5 2.92 -1.52 0.70 4.44 2 0.262 0.013 0.339
5 4.02 -1.96 1.03 5.98 4 0.403 0.020 0.304
7.5 4.83 -2.17 1.33 7.00 6 0.545 0.029 0.291
10 5.51 -2.47 1.59 7.98 8 0.688 0.043 0.279
15 6.40 -2.50 1.96 9.00 10 0.827 0.058 0.273
20 6.78 -2.78 2.00 9.56 12 0.960 0.074 0.267
25 6.94 -2.96 1.99 9.90 14 1.080 0.094 0.264
30 6.97 -3.03 1.97 10.00 16 1.195 0.114 0.260
40 6.75 -2.95 1.90 9.70 18 1.250 0.130 0.257
50 6.16 -2.72 1.72 8.88 20 1.162 0.163 0.283
60 5.34 -2.30 1.52 7.64 21 1.158 0.207 0.299
70 4.29 -1.81 1.24 6.10 22 1.130 0.278 0.317
80 3.19 -1.41 0.89 4.60
90 1.60 -0.74 0.43 2.34
100 0 0 0 0
66
The airfoil NACA -2212
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy C
cp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0,17 0,0110
2.5 3.35 -1.96 5.31 -2 -0.01 0.0088
5 4.62 -2.55 7.17 0 0.13 0.0088 0.476
7.5 5.55 -2.89 8.44 2 0.29 0.0135 0.348
10 6.27 -3.11 9.38 4 0.43 0.0195 0.316
15 7.25 -3.44 10.69 6 0.59 0.028 0.300
20 7.74 -3.74 11.48 8 0.73 0.040 0.289
25 7.93 -3.94 11.87 10 0.88 0.055 0.283
30 7.97 -4.03 12.00 12 1.02 0.072 0.278
40 7.68 -3.92 11.60 14 1.16 0.092 0.275
50 7.02 -3.56 10.58 16 1.30 0.113 0.272
60 6.07 -3.05 9.12 18 1.42 0.139 0.270
70 4.90 -2.43 7.33 20 1.54 0.162 0.269
80 3.52 -1.74 5.26 21 1.60 0.203 0.268
90 1.93 -0.97 2.90 22 1.40 0.240 0.300
100 0 0 0 24 1.31 0.310 0.327
67
The airfoil NACA -2214
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy C
cp
0 0 0 0 -5.12 -0.229 0.0162 0.104
2.5 3.8 -2.41 6.21 -3.27 -0.106 0.0131 -
5 5.21 -3.15 8.36 -1.51 0.017 0.0116 -
7.5 6.23 -3.58 9.81 0.3 0.139 0.0127 0.418
10 7.06 -3.90 10.96 2.14 0.264 0.0165 0.327
15 8.20 -4.28 12.48 4.01 0.396 0.0235 0.299
20 8.69 -4.69 13.38 5.79 0.535 0.0325 0.285
25 8.92 -4.94 13.86 7.65 0.678 0.0446 0.279
30 8.97 -5.03 14.00 9.5 0.825 0.0596 0.275
40 8.68 -4.89 13.57 11.39 0.943 0.0764 0.275
50 7.88 -4.44 12.32 13.15 1.057 0.0923 0.261
60 6.05 -3.71 10.66 14.99 1.154 0.110 0.261
70 5.5 -3.02 8.52 16.94 1.226 0.1302 0.260
80 3.96 -2.18 6.44 18.65 1.257 0.1672 0.263
90 2.07 -1.21 3.28 20.43 1.214 0.2041 0.285
100 0 0 0 22.22 1.190 0.2359 0.302
68
The airfoil NACA-23012
Geometric characteristic of airfoil (in % from
chord)
of
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 0 -4 -0.22 0.013 0.046 -
1.25 2.67 -1.23 0.77 3.90 -2 -0.08 0.00955 -0.011 -
2.5 3.61 -1.71 0.95 5.32 0 0.085 0.0071 0.028 0.330
5 4.91 -2.26 1.33 7.17 2 0.24 0.012 0.065 0.270
7.5 5.80 -2.61 1.60 8.41 4 0.385 0.018 0.099 0.257
10 6.43 -2.92 1.76 9.35 6 0.53 0.025 0.134 0.253
15 7.19 -3.50 1.85 10.69 8 0.68 0.035 0.169 0.248
20 7.50 -3.97 1.77 11.47 10 0.835 0.050 0.206 0.247
25 7.60 -4.28 1.66 11.88 12 0.98 0.067 0.242 0.247
30 7.55 -4.46 1.54 12.01 14 1.12 0.088 0.275 0.245
40 7.14 -4.48 1.33 11.62 16 1.28 0.108 0.313 0.244
50 6.41 -4.17 1.12 10.58 18 1.40 0.130 0.342 0.245
60 5.47 -3.67 0.90 9.14 20 1.53 0.159 0.372 0.243
70 4.36 -3.00 0.68 7.36 22 1.63 0.186 0.396 0.243
80 3.08 -2.16 0.46 5.24 22 1.31 0.255 0.382 0.292
90 1.68 -1.23 0.23 2.71 24 1.19 0.317 0.394 0.331
95 0.92 -0.70 0.11 1.62 26 1.045 0.390 0.375
100 0 0 0 0 30 0.98 0.393 0.400
69
The airfoil NACA - 2309
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Ccp
0 0 0 0 0 -2 0.00 0.009 -
2.5 2.39 -1.58 0.405 3.97 0 0.15 0.008 0.490
5 3.36 -2.01 0.675 5.37 2 0.30 0.012 0.370
7.5 4.09 -2.24 0.925 6.33 4 0.45 0.020 0.331
10 4.67 -2.38 1.145 7.05 6 0.60 0.028 0.310
15 5.54 -2.50 1.52 8.04 8 0.75 0.040 0.299
20 6.08 -2.52 1.78 8.60 10 0.90 0.054 0.290
25 6.37 -2.51 1.93 8.88 12 1.06 0.074 0.285
30 6.50 -2.50 2.00 9.00 14 1.20 0.094 0.282
40 6.32 -2.39 1.965 8.71 16 1.34 0.120 0.279
50 5.82 -2.13 1.845 7.95 18 1.44 0.142 0.278
60 5.07 -1.78 1.645 6.85 20 1.51 0.188 0.277
70 4.11 -1.38 1.365 5.49 21 1.40 0.238 0.307
80 2.96 -0.97 0.995 3.93 22 1.30 0.310 0.342
90 1.64 -0.54 0.55 2.18 24 1.20 0.380 0.375
100 0 0 0 0
70
The airfoil NACA 2312
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Ccp
0 0 0 0 0 -2 0.00 0.003 -
2.5 3.11 -2.16 0.475 5.27 0 0.13 0.011 0.527
5 4.31 -2.85 0.73 7.16 2 0.30 0.014 0.377
7.5 5.18 -3.26 0.96 8.14 4 0.44 0.020 0.338
10 5 -3.52 1.17 9.38 6 0.58 0.028 0.310
15 6.89 -3.82 1.535 10.71 8 0.74 0.040 0.297
20 7.54 -3.94 1.80 11.48 10 0.90 0.056 0.289
25 7.88 -3.99 1.945 11.87 12 1.04 0.064 0.284
30 8.00 -4.10 2.00 12.00 14 1.18 0.090 0.273
40 7.77 -3.84 1.965 11.61 16 1.30 0.114 0.279
50 7.14 -3.45 1.845 10.59 18 1.42 0.140 0.276
60 6.21 -2.92 1.645 9.13 20 1.54 0.164 0.276
70 5.02 -2.31 1.355 7.33 21 1.61 0.200 0.276
80 3.62 -1.63 0.995 5.25 22 1.47 0.247 0.302
90 2.00 -1.91 0.545 2 91 24 1.36 0.300 0.316
100 0 0 0 0 26 1.24 0.360 0.351
71
The airfoil NACA -2315
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy C
cp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0.19 0.013
2.5 3.85 -2.74 6.59 -2 -0.01 0.010
5 5.26 -3.66 8.92 0 0.13 0.011 0.510
7.5 6.28 -4.25 10.74 2 0.30 0.014 0.357
10 7.08 -4.66 11.74 4 0.42 0.020 0.324
15 8.25 -5.13 13.38 6 0.53 0.030 0.302
20 8.97 -5.38 14.35 8 0.72 0.040 0.292
25 9.36 -5.48 14.84 10 0.86 0.054 0.285
30 9.50 -5.50 15.00 12 1.01 0.072 0.279
40 9.22 -5.29 14.51 14 1.10 0.090 0.277
50 8.47 -4.77 13.24 16 1.30 0.110 0.273
60 7.66 -4.06 11.42 18 1.40 0.140 0.274
70 5.95 -3.22 9.17 20 1.53 0.162 0.274
80 4.29 -2.28 6.57 21 1.54 0.172 0.275
90 2.39 -1.26 3.62 22 1.44 0.230 0.297
95 1.30 -0.72 2.02 24 1.40 0.280 0.314
100 0 0 0 26 1.34 0.340 0.324
72
The airfoil NACA-2412
Geometric characteristic of airfoil (in
% from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy C Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 0 -4 -0.18 0.012 0.001 --
1.25 2.15 -1.65 0.25 3.80 -2 0.00 0.0088 0.044 __
2.5 2.99 -2.27 0.36 5.26 0 0.13 0.010 " 0.076 0.588
5 4.13 -3.01 0.56 7.14 2 0.29 0.0128 0.119 0.397
7.5 4.96 -3.46 0.75 8.42 4 0.42 0.020 0.150 0.355
10 5.63 -3.75 0.94 9.38 6 0.58 0.030 0.189 0.326
15 6.61 -4.10 1.255 10.71 8 0.72 0.040 0.224 0.311
20 7.26 -4.23 1.515 11.49 10 0.88 0.052 0.264 0.300
25 7.67 -4.22 1.725 11.89 12 1.00 0.074 0.294 0.294
30 7.88 -4.12 1.88 12.00 14 1.16 0.090 0.334 0.288
40 7.80 -3.80 2.00 11.60 16 1.30 0.112 0.370 0.281
50 7.24 -3.34 1.95 10.58 18 1.40 0.140 0.392 0.281
60 6.36 -2.76 1.80 9.12 20 1.52 0.160 0.424 0.279
70 5.18 -2.14 1.52 7.32 22 1.60 0.192 0.444 0.278
80 3.75 -1.50 1.125 5.25 24 1.34 0.300 0.436 0.325
90 2.08 -0.82 0.63 2.90 26 1.20 0.360 0.428 0.355
95 1.14 -0.48 0.33 1.62 28 1.10 0.414 0.377
100 0 0 0 0
73
The airfoil NACA-2415
Geometric characteristic of
airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cx Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 0 -4 -0,18 0,013 -0,050
1,25 2,71 -2,06 0,33 4,77 -2 -0,02 0,010 0,035
2,5 3,71 -2,86 0,43 6
.
57 0 0,13 0,012 0,0735 0,557
5 5,07 -3,84 0,62 8,91 2 0,28 0,016 0,110 0,392
7,5 6,06 -4,47 0,80 10,53 4 0,42 0,020 0,145 0,345
10 6,83 -4,90 0,87 11,73 6 0,57 0,030 0,182 0,320
15 7,97 -5,42 1.28 13,39 8 0,71 0,042 0,218 0,307
20 8,70 -5,66 1.52 14,36 10 0,86 0,056 0,255 0,297
25 9,17 -5,70 1,74 14,87 12 1,00 0,071 0,288 0,288
30 9,38 -5,62 1.88 15,00 14 1,15 0,090 0,326 0,283
40 9,25 -5,25 2,00 14,50 16 1,28 0,112 0,360 0,281
50 8,57 -4,67 1.95 13,24 18 1,40 0,136 0,390 0,278
60 7,50 -3,90 1.80 11,40 20 1,50 0,160 0,415 0,276
70 6,10 -3,05 1,53 9,15 22 1,54 0,192 0,425 0,276
80 4,41 -2,15 1,13 6,56 24 1,41 0,280 0,441 0,313
90 2,45 -1,17 0,64 3,62 26 1,31 0,332 0,439 0,335
95 1,34 -0,68 0,33 2,02 28 1,20 0,383 0,425 0,354
100 0 0 0 0 30 1,10 0,415 0,378
74
The airfoil NACA-2409
Geometric characteristic of
airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cx Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 0
1,25 1,62 -1,23 0,195 2,85 -4 -0,192 0,012 -0,004
2,5 2,27 -1,66 0,305 3,93 -2 0,00 0,008 0,044
5 3,2 -2,15 0,525 5,35 0 0,13 0,008 0,076 0,588
7,5 3,87 -2,44 0,715 6,31 2 0,29 0,0128 0,118 0,397
10 4,43 -2,60 0,915 7,03 4 0,43 0,020 0,150 0,352
15 5,25 -2,77 1,24 8,02 6 0,58 0,028 0,188 0,326
20 5,81 -2,79 1,51 8,60 8 0,72 0,040 0,224 0,311
25 6,18 -2,74 1,72 8,92 10 0,88 0,054 0,264 0,300
30 6,38 -2,62 1,88 9,00 12 1,02 0,070 0,298 0,293
40 6,35 -2,35 2,00 8,70 14 1,18 0,090 0,336 0,287
50 5,92 -2,02 1,95 7,94 16 1,30 0,112 0,370 0,284
60 5,22 -1,63 1,795 6,85 18 1,43 0,140 0,402 0,281
70 4,27 -1,24 1,515 5,51 20 1,50 0,180 0,416 0,277
80 3,10 -0,85 1,125 3,95 22 1,30 0,270 0,444 0,342
90 1,72 -0,47 0,625 2,19 24 1,16 0,370 0,430 0,371
95 0,94 -0,28 0,33 1,22 26 1,08 0,420 0,389
100 0 0 0 0 28 1,00 0,410 0,410
75
The airfoil NACA-23015
Geometric characteristic of
airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cx Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0,21 0,014 -0,042
1,25 3,34 -1,54 0,90 4,90 -2 -0,06 0,011 -0,006
2,5 4,44 -2,25 1,095 6,69 0 0,09 0,0082 0,029 0,332
5 5,89 -3,04 1,425 8,93 2 0,23 0,014 0,063 0,274
7,5 6,91 -3,61 1,65 10,52 4 0,39 0,018 0,101 0,259
10 7,64 -4,09 1,78 11,73 6 0,53 0,027 0,135 0,255
15 8,52 -4,84 1,84 13,36 8 0,69 0,038 0,173 0,251
20 8,92 -5,41 1,76 14,33 10 0,83 0,051 0,206 0,248
25 9,08 -5,78 1,65 14,86 12 0,98 0,068 0,242 0,247
30 9,05 -5,96 1,55 15,01 14 1,13 0,088 0,278 0,246
40 8,59 -5,92 1,34 14,51 16 1,27 0,108 0,312 0,246
50 7,74 -5,50 1,12 13,24 18 1,40 0,132 0,343 0,245
60 6,61 -4,81 0,90 11,42 20 1,52 0,158 0,372 0,244
70 5,25 -3,91 0,67 9,16 22,2 1,61 0,190 0,393 0,244
80 3,73 -2,83 0,45 6,56 22,2 1,36 0,245 0,375 0,275
90 2,04 -1,59 0,23 3,63 24 1,27 0,288 0,379 0,298
95 1,12 -0,90 0,12 2,02 26 1,18 0,338 0,382 0,324
100 0 0 0 0 30 1,01 0,372 0,368
76
The airfoil NACA-23009
Geometric characteristic of
airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cx Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0,22 0,012 -0,0415
1,25 2,04 -0,91 0,07 2,95 -2 -0,09 0,009 -0,013
2,5 2,83 -1,19 0,82 4,02 0 0,09 0,0066 0,031 0,344
5 3,93 -1,44 1,25 5,37 2 0,225 0,011 0,063 0,280
7,5 4,70 -1,63 1,54 6,33 4 0,39 0,0165 0,103 0,264
10 5,26 -1,79 1,74 7,05 6 0,53 0,023 0,137 0,258
15 5,85 -2,17 1,84 9,02 8 0,69 0,035 0,175 0,254
20 6,06 -2,55 2,26 8,61 10 0,83 0,050 0,209 0,252
25 6,11 -2,80 1,66 8,91 12 0,975 0,066 0,244 0,250
30 6,05 -2,96 1,55 9,01 14 1,12 0,088 0,279 0,249
40 5,69 -3,03 1,33 8,72 16 1,29 0,110 0,320 0,248
50 5,09 -2,86 1,12 7,95 18 1,40 0,133 0,347 0,247
60 4,32 -2,53 0,89 6,85 20,3 1,55 0,170 0,383 0,247
70 3,42 -2,08 0,72 5,50 20,3 1,30 0,232 0,383 0,295
80 2,41 -1,51 0,45 3,92 22 1,25 0,290 0,401 0,320
90 1,31 -0,86 0,23 2,17 24 1,16 0,360 0,420 0,362
95 0,72 -0,50 0,11 1,22 26 1,08 0,410 0,380
100 0 0 0 0 30 0,95 0,389 0,409
77
The airfoil NACA-32012
Geometric characteristic of
airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of
airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cx Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0,20 0,012 -0,043
1,25 3,32 -0,86 1,23 4,18 -2 -0,05 0,0078 -0,007
2,5 4,36 -1,11 1,625 5,47 0 0,10 0,0085 0,030 0,300
5 5,69 -1,50 2,095 7,19 2 0,26 0,0128 0,067 0,257
7,5 6,48 -1,91 2,29 8,39 4 0,40 0,018 0,100 0,250
10 6,99 -2,38 2,31 9,37 6 0,55 0,027 0,137 0,249
15 7,53 -3,18 2,18 10,71 8 0,70 0,038 0,173 0,247
20 7,80 -3,68 2,06 11,48 10 0,85 0,052 0,208 0,245
25 7,87 -4,00 1,94 11,87 12 1,00 0,070 0,249 0,244
30 7,81 -4,20 1,81 12,01 14 1,16 0,090 0,283 0,244
40 7,35 -4,26 1,55 11,61 16 1,30 0,112 0,318 0,244
50 6,59 -4,00 1,30 10,59 18 1,41 0,136 0,346 0,245
60 5,60 -3,51 1,05 9,11 20 1,54 0,161 0,378 0,245
70 4,46 -2,88 0,79 7,34 21,8 1,62 0,185 0,397 0,245
80 3,15 -2,10 0,53 5,25 21,8 1,26 0,266 0,370 0,302
90 1,71 -1,19 0,26 2,90 24 1,11 0,334 0,386 0,348
95 0,93 -0,69 0,12 1,62 28 1,00 0,379 0,379
100 0 0 0 0 30 1,97 0,392 0,404
78
The airfoil NACA-24012
Geometric characteristic of
airfoil (in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb Ym h o Cy Cx Cm Ccp
0 0 0 0 -4 -0,20 0,012 -0,035
1,25 2,58 -1,34 0,62 3,92 -2 -0,04 0,0075 -0,0035
2,5 3,50 -1,85 0,83 5,35 0 0,11 0,008 0,0391 0,356
5 4,80 -2,37 1,22 7,17 2 0,28 0,013 0,079 0,282
7,5 5,74 -2,70 1,52 8,44 4 0,42 0,019 0,125 0,298
10 6,44 -2,95 1,75 9,39 6 0,57 0,027 0,148 0,259
15 7,37 -3,34 2,015 10,71 8 0,71 0,040 0,1815 0,255
20 7,82 -3,66 2,08 11,48 10 0,86 0,054 0,217 0,252
25 7,96 -3,92 2,02 11,88 12 1,01 0,072 0,252 0,250
30 7,89 -4,11 1,89 12,00 14 1,16 0,092 0,287 0,247
40 7,44 -4,17 1,64 11,61 16 1,30 0,113 0,321 0,246
50 6,66 -3,93 1,40 10,59 18 1,43 0,140 0,352 0,247
60 5,67 -3,47 1,10 9,14 20,8 1,59 0,175 0,390 0,245
70 4,48 -2,84 0,82 7,32 21,5 1,60 0,190 0,392 0,245
80 3,18 -2,07 0,56 5,25 21,5 1,38 0,235 0,387 0,280
90 1,73 -1,18 0,28 2,91 24 1,30 0,315 0,388 0,299
95 0,94 -0,67 0,14 1,61 26 1,18 0,368 0,400 0,339
100 0 0 0 0 30 1,00 0,461 0,387 0,387
79
The airfoil CLARK-YH
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy C
cp
0 0 0 0 --16 -0,596 0,203 0.356
2.5 3.10 -2.03 5.13 -12 -0.562 0.095 0.264
5 4.59 -2.54 7.13 -8 -0.388 0.025 0.196
7.5 5.62 -2.81 8.43 -4 -0.130 0.013 -
10 6.42 -3.03 9.45 -2 0.000 0.012 -
15 7.57 -3.24 10.81 0 0.130 0.013 0.493
20 8.33 -3.25 11.58 2 0.266 0.023 0.330
30 8.85 -3.14 11.99 4 0.400 0.072 0.278
40 8.66 -3.00 11.66 8 0.656 0.043 0.308
50 7.91 -2.84 10.75 10 0.792 0.059 0.300
60 6.71 -2.69 9.40 12 0.924 0.077 0.294
70 5.07 -2.43 7.50 16 1.166 0.118 0.286
80 3.39 -1.98 5.37 18 1.258 0.146 0.286
90 1.73 -1.21 2.94 20 1.28 0.180 0.297
95 0.90 -0.69 1.59 22 1.24 0.239 0.316
100 0.08 -0.08 0.16 24 1.148 0.289 0.344
80
The airfoil CAGI 6-8.3%
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy C
cp
0 0 0 0 -2 0,034 0,0110
2.5 1.80 -0.98 2.78 0 0.168 0.012 0.619
5 2.78 -1.23 4.01 2 0.294 0.016 0.470
7.5 3.62 -1.32 4.94 4 0.428 0.022 0.298
10 4.29 -1.34 5.63 6 0.562 0.032 0.359
15 5.26 -1.34 6.60 8 0.684 0.045 0.342
20 6.05 -1.28 7.33 10 0.808 0.061 0.322
30 7.20 -1.09 8.29 12 0.922 0.067 0.303
40 7.04 -0.90 7.94 14 1.004 0.122 0.298
50 6.63 -0.60 7.23 16 1.038 0.168 0.308
60 5.82 -0.35 6.17 18 1.024 0.231 0.346
70 4.52 -0.28 4.80
80 3.04 -0.16 3.20
90 1.51 -0.07 1.58
100 0 0 0
81
The airfoil MUNK- 1
Geometric characteristic of airfoil
(in % from chord)
Aerodynamic characteristic of airfoil
X Yt Yb h o Cy C
cp
0 0 0 0 --3 -0.208 0.009 ----
2.5 1.36 -1.36 2.72 1.5 -0.104 0.008 ---
5 1.8 -1.8 3.6 0 -0.006 0.007 ---
7.5 2.1 -2.1 4.2 1.5 0.120 0.008 0.158
10 2.34 -2.34 4.68 3 0.231 0.011 0.198
15 2.67 -2.67 5.34 4.5 0.341 0.014 0.237
20 2.88 -2.88 5.76 6 0.458 0.020 0.240
30 3.05 -3.05 6.1 9 0.667 0.034 0.264
40 2.85 -2.85 5.7 12 0.782 0.101 0.275
50 2.53 -2.53 5.06 15 0.805 0.196 0.2286
60 2.08 -2.08 4.16 18 0.788 0.257 0.312
70 1.54 -1.54 3.08 21 0.742 0.297 ---
80 0.91 -0.91 1.82
90 0.20 -0.20 0.40
100 0 0 0
82
Appendix # 2
Values of standard atmosphere
Height.
. m
Temperature.
t
H
.
0
C
Pressure.
P
H.
Pa
Density.

.
kg/m
3
Relative
density
A=

/
0
Acoustic
speed
m/s km/h
-1000 21.5 113920 1.347 1.099 344.1 1238
0 15 101325 1.225 1.000 340.2 1225
1000 8.5 89860 1.11 0.907 336.4 1211
2000 2.0 79500 1.006 0.821 332.5 1197
3000 -4.5 70130 0.909 0.742 328.5 1183
4000 -11.0 61595 0.819 0.668 324.5 1168
5000 -17.5 54000 0.736 0.601 320.5 1154
6000 -24.0 47200 0.660 0.539 316.4 1139
7000 -30.5 41060 0.590 0.482 312.2 1124
8000 -37.0 35600 0.526 0.420 308 1109
9000 -43.5 30800 0.467 0.381 303.8 1093
10000 -50.0 26400 0.413 0.337 299.4 1078
11000 -56.5 22665 0.365 0.298 295 1062
12000 -56.5 19385 0.312 0.254 295 1062
13000 -56.5 16570 0.266 0.217 295 1062
14000 -56.5 14160 0.228 0.186 295 1062
16000 -56.5 10280 0.166 0.137 295 1062
18000 -56.5 7560 0.120 0.099 295 1062
20000 -56.5 5520 0.088 0.072 295 1062
83
Appendix # 3
The gage of typical rolling section.
1. Material of rolling section are aluminum allow types 4045. 9095. Density is for
materials =2850kg/m
3
.
2. In table we have next designations:
a) x
0
. y
0
are the coordinates for the center of gravity;
b) F is the area of cross section;
c) I
x
. I
y
is the moment of inertia for cross section relative of main central axis;
d) W
x
. W
y
is the section modulus for cross section relative of main central axis.
84
Angle equal bar 100-N
N
Dimensions and characteristic of cross section
H = B S X
0
= Y
0
F I
X
= I
Y
mm m
2
m
4
24
12
1.6 3.54 0.377 0.047
1
1
3.31 0.234 0.032
2
15
4.06 0.294 0.063
51 1.2 4.11 0.353 0.075
3 1.5 4.23 0.434 0.091
4 2 4.42 0.564 0.114
52 3 4.76 0.820 0.154
27 16 2.4 4.79 0.126 0.162
53 16 1.5 4.98 0.524 0.160
29 18 2.4 5.55 0.861 0.291
30 19 3.2 5.83 1.125 0.351
54
20
1 5.27 0.397 0.922
55 1.2 5.36 0.473 0.182
6 1.5 5.48 0.584 0.222
7 2 5.67 0.764 0.294
8 25 1.5 6.73 0.734 0.444
85
N
Dimensions and characteristic
of cross section
H = B S X
0
= Y
0
F I
X
= I
Y
mm m
2
m
4
9
25
2 6.92 0.964 0.573
19 2.5 7.11 1.189 0.693
34 3.2 7.33 1.509 0.850
35 4 7.6 1.851 1.012
56 5 7.98 2.242 1.503
57
30
1.5 7.90 0.884 0.780
10 2 8.17 1.164 1.011
36 2.5 8.32 1.441 1.224
11 3 8.61 1.720 1.439
58
32
3.5 9.17 2.131 2.008
59 6.5 10.22 3.728 3.234
60
40
2 10.67 1.564 2.462
61 2.5 10.84 1.944 3.017
12 3 11.00 2.320 3.549
42 3.5 11.19 2.694 4.075
13
4
11.34 3.067 4.549
14
45
12.59 3.457 6.592
15 5 12.93 4.277 7.957
62
50
3 15.51 1.920 7.099
16 4 13.84 3.867 9.171
17 5 14.18 4.777 11.101
22 6 14.54 5.655 12.906
63 6.5 14.70 6.110 13.781
18
60
5 16.68 5.771 19.704
23 6 17.05 6.855 23.011
86
Bulb angle bar 102-N
N
Dimensions, mm
H B S S
1
1 13 12
1 1 30 16 15
2
20
13
35
15
1.2 1.2
3
1.5 1.5 31 20
4 23 13 1.2 1.2
5
25
18 1.5 1.5
7 20 2 2
32 25 2.5 2.5
33
29
20 1.5 1.5
18 25 1.6 1.6
8
30 20
1.5 1.5
9 2 2
34 32 25 2.5 2.5
10 35 20 2 2
11 40 25
2.5 2.5
19 48 30 2.5 2.5
20
50
25 3 3
12 30 4 4
21 60 28 3.5 3.5
13 65 40 3.5 3.5
22 75 30 3.5 3.5
14 40 3.5 3.5
23 90 35 3.5 3.5
24 100 40 3.5 3.5
87
Characteristic of the bulb angle bar cross sections
N
X
0
Y
0
F Ix Iy Wx Wy
mm cm
2
cm
4
cm
3
1 3.00 4.96 0.292 0.033 0.033 0.078 0.037
30 3.67 5.79 0.352 0.117 0.066 0.115 0.058
2 2.78 7.90 0.372 0.194 0.04 0.160 0.045
35 3.41 8.19 0.505 0.271 0.082 0.229 0.071
3 3.61 8.59 0.651 0.341 0.099 0.299 0.087
31 5.25 6.58 0.634 0.390 0.226 0.223 0.153
4 2.73 10.00 0.511 0.365 0.056 0.281 0.054
5 4.08 10.41 0.771 0.647 0.178 0.443 0.128
7 4.91 10.19 1.061 0.862 0.307 0.575 0.203
32 6.90 8.75 1.348 0.988 0.701 0.608 0.385
33 3.94 12.79 1.161 1.189 0.260 0.733 0.162
18 5.59 11.81 1.118 1.261 0.513 0.737 0.264
8 4.30 12.36 0.876 1.065 0.252 0.604 0.160
9 4.57 12.52 1.151 1.360 0.321 0.778 0.208
34
6.17 11.75 1.520 1.888 0.749 0.932 0.398
10 4.29 14.88 1.261 2.012 0.333 1.000 0.212
11
5.56 16.33 1.825 3.746 0.796 1.583 0.409
19 6.53 22.12 2.500 7.928 1.421 3.063 0.605
20 5.48 23.46 2.784 9.007 0.990 3.394 0.507
12 7.05 20.63 3.533 10.858 2.106 3.697 0.918
21 6.14 28.86 3.875 17.949 1.656 5.164 0.757
13 9.30 25.99 5.687 29.358 6.279 7.525 2.045
22 6.46 37.12 5.302 38.006 2.436 10.033 1.035
14 9.34 32.04 7.650 52.531 7.541 12.228 2.460
23 7.34 44.65 7.093 73.528 4.398 16.213 1.590
24 8.40 49.58 8.878 114.134 7.260 22.637 2.297
88
N
Dimensions, mm
S S
1
18 19 12 3 4
1 25 15 1.5 1.5
2 25 20 2.5 2.5
30 25 25 5 5
3 30 15 1.5 1.5
4 30 18 1.5 1.5
20 30 20 2 2
31 32 25 1.8 1.8
32 32 25 2.5 2.5
33 35 20 2.5 2.5
5 40 18 2 2
6 40 18 2.5 2.5
7 40 18 3 3
21 40 25 2 2
8 40 25 3 3
34 40 32 3 3
35 45 40 3 3
36 46 25 5 5
9 50 20 4 4
10 50 30 4 4
19 55 25 5 5
11 55 30 3 3
12 60 25 4 4
14 70 25 3 3
15 70 30 5 4
16 70 40 5 5
37 75 45 5 5
38 80 35 4.5 4.5
17 80 40 4 4
Channel bar
106 - N
89
Characteristics of channel bars
N X
0
Y
0
F I
x
I
y
W
x
W
y
mm cm
2
cm
4
cm
3
18 4.83 9.5 1.307 0.590 0.168 0.621 0.234
I 4.55 12.5 0.795 0.771 0.170 0.617 0.163
2 6.96 12.5 1.520 1.454 0.584 1.163 0.448
30 10.18 12.5 3.250 2.693 1.892 2.154 1.271
3 4.23 15 0.870 1.185 0.180 0.790 0.161
4 5.37 15 0.960 1.368 0.302 0.912 0.239
20 6.38 15 1.335 1.886 0.522 1.257 0.383
31 8.17 16 1.437 2.446 0.915 1.529 0.544
32 8.26 16 1.925 3.128 1.148 1.955 0.686
33 6.15 17.5 1.110 3.248 0.656 1.856 0.474
5 4.93 20 1.453 3.418 0.421 1.709 0.322
6 5.10 20 1.795 4.114 0.505 2.058 0.391
7 5.27 20 2.129 4.761 0.581 2.380 0.456
21 7.57 20 1.730 4.421 1.062 2.210 0.609
8 7.92 20 2.549 6.201 1.504 3.100 0.881
34 10.87 20 2.978 7.668 3.062 3.834 1.445
35 13.74 22.5 3.638 12.319 5.961 5.475 2.270
36 8. 20 23 4.300 12.491 2.318 5.431 1.380
9 5.81 25 3.331 11.153 1.049 4.461 0.739
10 9.48 25 4.131 15.396 3.439 6.158 1.676
19 7.59 27.5 4.819 19.756 2.429 7.184 1.395
11 8.81 27.5 3.299 15.282 2.804 5.557 1.323
12 7.04 30 4.131 20.706 2.145 6.902 1.794
14 6.24 35 3.449 23.677 1.785 6.765 0.951
15 8.27 35 4.931 34.563 3.825 9.876 1.760
16 12.30 35 7.000 51.978 10. 493 14.851 3.788
37 13.90 37.5 7.831 67.425 15.029 17.980 4.832
38 9.60 40 6.414 53.126 6.742 14.731 2.654
17 11.32 40 6.131 59.310 9.109 14.827 3.176
90
N Dimensions, mm
H B S S
1
15 20 15 1.2 1.2
16 20 15 1.5 1.5
1 25 18 2 1.5
2 25 18 2.5 2
8 25 20 3 2
17 25 23 3.5 3.5
9 30 25 2.5 2
18 34 25 3.5 3.5
11 40 20 2 1.5
3 40 25 2 1.5
4 40 25 3 2
5 40 25 4 3
19 50 19 2.5 2.5
6 50 35 5 4
7 50 35 6 5
Z bar 105 -N
91
N
Geometric characteristic of cross section
F I
x
I
y
cm
2
cm
4
15 0.587 0.364 0.237
16 0.721 0.458 0.286
1 1.048 1.082 0.673
2 1.32 1.294 0.802
8 1.609 1.596 1/341
16 2.267 2.066 2.248
9 1.77 2.657 2.269
18 2.764 4.771 2.949
11 1.353 3.512 0.937
3 1.558 4.235 1.878
4 2.209 5.874 2.714
5 3.011 7.436 3.382
19 2.102 7.391 0.939
6 5.180 20.195 11.732
7 6.216 23.074 13.411
92
N Dimensions, mm
H B S S
1
10 23 38 1.2 1.2
11 26 34.5 3.5 3.5
1 30 30 1.5 2
2 35 30 2 2.5
3 40 50 2 3.5
4 50 50 2.5 4
12 57 93 7 8
5 60 70 3 5
13 68 37 2.5 2.5
14 86 95 9 8
15 102 38 1.8 2
H section 125 -N
93
N Geometrical characteristic cross section for H sections.
F I
x
I
y
cm
2
cm
4
10 1.178 1.191 1.098
11 3.157 3.341 2.407
1 1.616 2.615 0.882
2 2.140 4.499 1.099
3 4.239 12.477 7.138
4 5.153 23.154 8.139
12 17.789 94.351 106.966
5 8.661 57.082 27.975
13 3.509 25.929 2.295
14 21.539 258.397 114.332
15 3.351 53.929 10.574
94
Appendix #4
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
National Aerospace University
Kharkiv Aviation Institute
Strength Department
DETERMINATION OF LOAD-CARRYING STRUCTURE FOR
AIRPLANE UNITS
Explanatory book
(ALL THE WAY-0000-0000LEB)
Fulfilled by:
Checked up by:
Kharkiv, 2011
95
REFERENCES
1. . . .
. . 1985.
2. . ., . .
. . . 1989.
3. . ., . . .
.. 1978.
96
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION..3
1. WINGS GENERAL DATA3
1.1. WINGS GEOMETRICAL DATA3
1.2. WINGS WEIGHT DATA.....................8
2. WINGS LOADS CALCULATION.11
2.1. AIR LOADS ALLOCATION ON THE WINGS LENGTH13
2.2. THE WING STRUCTURE MASS LOAD ALLOCATION16
2.3. CALCULATION OF THE TOTAL DISTRIBUTED LOAD ON A
WING16
2.4. THE CHEAR FORCES. BENDING AND REDUCED MOMENTS
DIAGRAMS PLOTTING..................16
2.5. LOAD CHECKING FOR WING ROOT CROSS SECTION.22
2.6. CALCULATION OF SHEAR FORCES POSITION IN THE DESIGN CROSS
SECTION23
3. DESIGN CALCULATION OF WING CROSS SECTION... 23
3.1. GENERAL RELATIONS..24
3.2. SELECTION OF LONGITUDINAL LOAD-CARRYING SET IN THE TOP
COMPRESSED PANEL... 26
3.3. SELECTION OF LONGITUDINAL LOAD-CARRYING SET FOR THE
TENSION BOTTOM PANEL31
3.4. THE SIMPLIFIED TECHNIQUE OF OPTIMUMDESIGNING FOR
MONOLITHIC (INTEGRAL) WING PANELS AT COMPRESSION33
3.4.1. EXAMPLE OF ACCOUNT FOR THE OPTIMUM MONOLITHIC PANEL ON
COMPRESSION 35
3.4.2. EXAMPLE OF ACCOUNT OF THE TENSION MONOLITHIC PANEL TAKING
INTO ACCOUNT SPECIFIED LIFE40
3.5. CROSS SECTIONS ELEMENTS ARRANGEMENT.42
3.6. ESTIMATION OF SPAR WEBS THICKNESSES...43
3.7. ESTIMATION OF RIB PITCH..46
4. CHECKING STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF WING..47
4.1. SOURCE DATA PREPARATION AND COMPUTER-AIDED CALCULATION
RECOMMENDATIONS....48
4.2. THE "WING-STRENGTH" PROGRAM DESCRIPTION...51
4.2.1. INPUT OF NUMERICAL DATA..51
4.2.2. OUTPUT DATA.53
5. STRENGTH ESTIMATION OF CROSS SECTION..55
APPENDIXIES.59
APPENDIX #1.CHARACTERISTIC OF AIRFOIL..60
APPENDIX # 2. VALUES OF STANDARD ATMOSPHERE77
APPENDIX # 3. THE GAGE OF TYPICAL ROLLING SECTION78
APPENDIX # 4. THE EXECUTION OF TITTLE PAGE ...............................95
REFERENCES.96