Thermal Physics The Gas Laws The state of a gaseous system can be described if any three of the following

quantities are known: P V T n Pressure of the gas in Pascals (Pa) Volume in m3 Thermodynamic temperature in Kelvins (K) Number of gas Particles (1) Boyles Law Boyles Law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure once the temperature and the number of particles remains constant. i.e.
1 V k P= 1 V k1 = PV P (n, T are constant) k1 is a constant of proportional

This can be represented graphically as follows: P

V
1 V

Note that the graph never touches the axes. However, if a graph of P vs. gradient will give the constant k1. P

is drawn, the

1 V

Thermal Physics The constant k1 is the same for all values of P and V. Thus, if there are two different pressures and volumes (P1, P2, V1, V2), the following will be true:

k1 = P1V1

and

k1 = P2V2

Thus P1V1 = P2V2 Experimental Proof 0 v o l u m e pressure gauge

to pump

oil With the apparatus set up as shown above, the volume and pressure of the gas is recorded. The pump is used to force air into the space above the reservoir. This forces more air into the glass tubing resulting in an increase in pressure of the air in the tube. By varying the pressure, the corresponding volumes can be recorded. Finally a graph of P vs 1/V is drawn to give a straight-line graph to prove the relationship. Example A quantity of gas is kept at a constant temperature of 31C in a 10m3 container. If the initial pressure is 5Pa, find the new pressure if the volume is halved. Note that T remains constant and the container stays sealed. Answer P1 = 5Pa, V1 = 10m3, V2 = 5m3, P2 = ? Using Boyles Law: P1V1 = P2V2 P V 5 10 P2 = 1 1 = = 10 Pa V2 5

Thermal Physics
(2) Charles Law

Charles Law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature once the pressure and number of gas molecules remains constant. i.e.
V T V = k 2T

(n, P are constant) k2 is a constant of proportional

V T

k2 =

This can be represented graphically as follows: V

It should be noted that 0C is 273K and that temperatures can be converted using the relationships below:
TK = C + 273

C = TK 273
It should be noted that 0K is known as Absolute Zero and at this temperature all particles stop vibrating. The constant k2 is the same for all values of T and V. Thus, if there are two different temperatures and volumes (T1, T2, V1, V2), the following will be true:

k2 =

V1 T1 V1 V2 = T1 T2

and

k2 =

V2 T2

Thus

Thermal Physics Experimental Proof

volume

conc. H2SO4 water bath capillary tube dry air

HEAT The capillary tube is sealed at one end and is of uniform cross-section so the length of the dry air will give the volume of air. The thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the water bath and thus the temperature of the air. The heat is used to vary the temperature and the corresponding volume is recorded. A graph of V vs T is then plotted to give a straight line that proves the relationship. Example 100m3 of a gas is kept at 400K. It is heated to 500K but the pressure stays constant as well as the number of gas particles. Find the new volume. Answer V1 = 100m3, V2 = ?, T1 = 400K, T2 = 500K Using Charles Law: V1 V2 = T1 T2 V T 100 500 V2 = 1 2 = = 125m 3 T1 400
(3) Pressure Law

The Pressure Law states that the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature once the volume and number of gas molecules remains constant. i.e.
P T P = k 3T

(n, P are constant) k3 is a constant of proportional

P T

k3 =

Thermal Physics

This can be represented graphically as follows: P

The constant k3 is the same for all values of T and P. Thus, if there are two different temperatures and pressures (T1, T2, P1, P2), the following will be true:

k3 =

P1 T1 P1 P2 = T1 T2

and

k3 =

P2 T2

Thus

Experimental Proof pressure gauge

air flask water bath

HEAT As heat is applied, the temperature of the water bath, and thus the air in the flask, increases and can be measured using the thermometer. The increase in heat causes the air to have more energy and so will hit the walls of the container with more force. The pressure of the air thus increases and can be measured using the pressure gauge. The

Thermal Physics rubber tubing acts as a thermal insulator so no external forces can affect the experiment. By gathering several values of T and P, a graph of P vs T can be drawn to get a straight line to prove the relationship. Example A gas has a pressure of 50Pa at -173C. The temperature is doubled so find the new pressure. Answer P1 = 50Pa, P2 = ?, T1 = (-173+273)K = 100K, T2 = 200K Using Pressure Law: P1 P2 = T1 T2 PT 50 200 P2 = 1 2 = = 100 Pa T1 100
Thus, to summarise:

Boyles Law Charles Law Pressure Law

P1V1 = P2V2 V1 V2 = T1 T2
P1 P2 = T1 T2

T P V and n constant

The three laws can be combined to give one equation as shown below:

P1V1 P2V2 = T1 T2

Combined Gas Law

Temperature The temperature of a body is an indication of how hot or cold it is. It decides the direction in which heat flows. However, it is not a measure of the thermal energy of the body, but rather it measures the thermal energy of the individual particles. To understand the distinction between heat energy and temperature, consider a burning splint and a water bath. The splint has a high temperature but the heat energy it contains is not enough to affect an entire room. A water bath however, has a much lower temperature, but has enough thermal energy to warm an entire room. (Another good example is a sauna).

Thermal Physics There are several physical properties that change with temperature and they can be used as a basis for making thermometers. These properties include:

Expansion / Contraction Electrical resistance Electrical conductivity Pressure (fluids) Volume (fluids) The radiation emitted by hot objects Change in state (solid-liquid-gas)

For the laboratory and clinical thermometers, use is made of expansion/contraction; resistance for the resistance thermometer; and electrical conductivity for the thermocouple. Thermometers
(1) Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer

It uses liquid Hg and the principles of expansion (when heated) and contraction (when cooled). Since Hg has a high boiling point (b.p.), the thermometer can be used to measure high temperatures (from -39C to 400C). It cannot be used for low temperatures. Other than that restriction, the device has a fast response time (i.e. it quickly shows the new temperature value if the temperature source changes quickly) and is easy to use.

bulb or reservoir (of Hg)

capillary tube
(2) Alcohol-in-Glass Thermometer

vacuum

The design is similar to the Hg-in-glass thermometer except that the bulb holds alcohol instead. The alcohol has a lower freezing point (f.p.) of -115C, but also has a lower b.p. (~115C). The thermometer can thus be used for low temperatures but not high temperatures. Another drawback is that the alcohol wets the side of the tube and so there is the chance of an incorrect reading.

alcohol

wetting

capillary tube

Thermal Physics
(3) Clinical Thermometer

This is a special type of Hg-in-glass thermometer. Since it is for use on the human body, there is no need for the upper and lower extremes in temperature; its range is 35C to 43C i.e. the temperatures just below and above normal (human) body temperature of 37C.
35 43

constriction In the capillary tube just before the bulb is a constriction that prevents the Hg from flowing back into the bulb once the heat source (mouth) has been removed. This will allow the thermometer to hold the reading so the user can take it. The thermometer can be reset by shaking/flicking it.
(4) Laboratory Thermometer

The laboratory thermometer can be either Hg or alcohol-in-glass (with no constriction). It has a range of ~-10C to ~110C, reflecting its use (in a laboratory).
(5) Resistance Thermometer

The resistance thermometer works on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor (usually platinum wire) increases with temperature. It can measure temperatures accurately in the range -200C to 1200C but it is a bulky device and can only be used effectively for steady (non-fluctuating) temperatures.
(6) Thermocouple Thermometer

galvanometer wire X G wire X

wire Y "hot" junction "cold" junction

The thermocouple consists of two wires of different materials (Cu and Fe) joined together as part of an electrical circuit shown above. When one junction is at a lower temperature (cold junction) compared to the other that is at a higher temperature (hot junction), an electric current will flow. This small current can be measured by the Galvanometer (meter for small currents). The greater the temperature difference between the junctions, the greater the current.

Thermal Physics Thermocouples are usually used in industries to measure wide range of temperatures from -200C to 1600C. It can measure rapidly changing temperatures and, since it uses electrical conductors to function, the wires can be extended for long distances to facilitate remote monitoring from control room situated far from the actual heat source. (This is useful for situations in an iron smelter where the blast furnace will have temperatures in excess of 1000C). The thermocouple also takes very little heat from the object, so the reading is very accurate. Fixed Points & Temperature Scales A scale and unit of temperature are obtained by choosing two temperatures, called the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point, and by dividing the two fixed points into a number of equal divisions or degrees. In the Celcius scale the lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice and is taken to be 0C. The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam above pure boiling water, and is taken to be 100C. Using these fixed points, the range is then divided into 100 equal divisions (100C). The thermometer now has a scale and is said to be graduated or calibrated. upper fixed point of 100C

lower fixed point of 0C pure crushed melting ice

steam

boiling water

HEAT From these assumptions, the following can be defined:

Steam Point -

The temperature at which water will boil if the pressure on the surface of the liquid is atmospheric pressure The temperature at which pure ice just begins to melt at normal atmospheric pressure

Ice Point

Thermal Physics Thermal Expansion All the particles in a substance are in motion; in solids they vibrate, in liquids they have some degree of motion and in gases they are able to move freely in a random manner. When a substance is heated, thermal energy is given to the particles that gain energy for motion. In solids, the particles are able to vibrate faster and move further apart. In liquids, the particles are already moving so the extent of the expansion is greater until, at some point (b.p), they are given enough energy to enter the gaseous state. As for gases, the extent of expansion will be the greatest. The reverse happens when a substance cools; it loses energy and so the particles are not able to move about as much, thus the substance contracts. When a substance, especially a solid, is exposed to temperature fluctuations, special attention must be paid to the effects of the expansion/contraction.
(1) Power Lines

Power lines contain electrical conductors (metals) that will expand when heated and contract when cooled. When the pole drops, the lines shorten and can cause adjacent poles to be pulled closer together or topple over. To prevent this, the lines are hung with a degree of sag to allow the line to contract without exerting any pressure on the poles. The extent of the sag must not be too much however, as during the high temperatures the wires expand and there is the risk of human contact.

(too much sag)

temperature drops (winter)

(2) Bridges

normal

temperature rises (summer)

One end of the bridge is fixed whilst the other end rests on rollers to allow for movement during any expansion or contraction of the structure. expansion gap bridge rollers 10

Thermal Physics
(3) Railway Lines

The railway tracks use a feature called expansion joints to prevent buckling of the rails when the metal expands. railway lines expansion joints

Previously, the railway tracks were built a small distance apart to allow for the expansion of the tracks. These gaps were the cause of the clickity-click sounds that trains made when passing over the gap.
Not all the effects of expansion/contraction can be harmful or dangerous however. There are also some useful applications of these effects. (1) Thermometry

Use of expansion/contraction is incorporated into the design of all liquid-in-glass thermometers that are used to measure temperature.
(2) Shrink Fitting

To achieve a very tight (and sturdy) fit, axles are normally shrunk by cooling them in liquid N2 at a temperature of -196C. The gear wheel is then slipped into the axle easily as shown below:

The reverse process can also be used for opening tightly sealed container (covers). The cover is heated by placing (only the cover) in hot water to cause it to expand. The cover will then be fitting more loosely on the container and will be easier to remove.

11

Thermal Physics
(3) Riveting Metal Plates

As shown below, the hot rivet is placed in the rivet hole and then hammered flat. When the rivet cools it contracts to pull the plates tightly together.
rivet metal plates

(i) hot rivet placed in plates

(ii) end hammered flat, but rivet still hot

(iii) rivet cools and contracts to hold plates tightly together

(4) Bimetallic Strips

A bimetallic strip is composed of two (hence bi) different metals of equal lengths riveted together as shown below:
rivet Cu Fe

When the strip is heated, each metal expand to different amounts, i.e. one metal (Cu) expand more than the other (Fe). This causes the strip to bend since the rivets prevent the metals from moving apart otherwise.

Bimetallic strips are usually used as the sensor in fire alarms as shown below:

As the strip becomes heated, it will bend upwards to bring the contacts closer together. In the case of excessive heat (like an inferno), the strip bends to such an extent that it completes the circuit and activates the bell.

12

Thermal Physics The bimetallic strip is also used in thermostats to keep the temperature in an electric heater or a room, constant. The diagram below shows how it functions in a heater:

When the heater is at a specific temperature the strip holds the contacts together. If the heater begins to overheat, the strip bends downwards and so disconnects the circuit. As the heater cools, the temperature drops so the strip bends back upwards to return to its normal shape, and so re-activate the circuit. The strip ensures that the heater stays at a stable temperature. Freezing of Water Normally, as a liquid cools, it contracts and, as its mass is unchanged (and = V so if V drops, increases), the drop in volume causes the density to increase. Thus, the cooler parts of the liquid will be closer to the bottom whilst the warmer portions will be closer to the surface. Water behaves similarly as it is cooled, i.e. it contracts and falls, until temperature of 4C is reached. Below 4C (and 0C) water begins to expand. The density will thus drop (if V increases, decreases) and the water will now rise. As the temperature falls further (to 0C) the density will drop further. At 4C water has its maximum density.
m

Now, the rise of the colder water (between 0C and 4C) to the surface will continue until the water freezes to form ice whose density is so low that it floats on the surface of the water. However, under the ice the water will have a temperature of 1C, 2C, etc as the depth increases. The hotter temperatures allow fish to survive under the surface of frozen ponds/lakes. 13

Thermal Physics

Brownian Motion Brownian motion is the continuous random movement of microscopic solid particles when they are suspended in a fluid medium (liquid or gas). It can be demonstrated using the apparatus shown below:

The smoke cell is a transparent container that holds smoke and air particles. Now as the light shines through the cell, bright sparks will be seen moving around haphazardly through the microscope. The motion is similar to that shown below:

The specks are smoke particles (not molecules but soot) that are seen as the light reflects off them. The random motion is due to collisions with the faster moving air particles. Brownian motion in effect proves that particles (especially in a fluid) are always in a state of continuous (random) motion.

14

Thermal Physics

Heat A Historical Perspective The theories and ideas of heat have not always been the same as what is known today, but were developed over time via experimental observations. The Caloric Theory In the 18th century, heat was regarded as an invisible and weightless fluid called caloric, which flowed from a hot body to a cool one. It was thought that caloric could neither be created nor destroyed and that it was present in all matter. Caloric was also self-repellent i.e. it repelled itself so a body with a lot of caloric would expand. However, the caloric theory could not explain such effects as

James Joule

In the 1840s, Joule conducted experiments to determine the energy required to raise the temperature of a fixed mass of water by 1C. He used a metal paddle wheel fitted inside a large can of water that would generate heat as shown below:

15

Thermal Physics

As the weights fell, they turned the drums that rotated the paddles to generate heat in the water. From the experiment, Joule determined that: 1. the gravitational potential energy of the falling weights were converted into thermal energy ( EH ). 2. EH was directed related to the temperature change of the water. From these observations, it was established that heat was a form of energy and the principle of conservation of energy. Definition: The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be changed from one form to another. Specific Heat Capacity (c) Definition: The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change the temperature of 1kg of the substance by 1C or 1K.
E = mc

where: - E is the heat energy gained (or lost) in Joules (J) - m is the mass of the substance in kg - c is the specific heat capacity of the substance in Jkg 1 K 1 or Jkg 1 C 1 - is the change in temperature
Note the temperature change will be the same if it is measured in C or K.

Consider a body of initial temperature 0C being heated until it reaches 27C. Its temperature change will be given by:
= 2 - 1 = 27C - 0C = 27C

For the temperature change in Kelvin: T1 = 0 + 273 = 273K T2 = 27 + 273 = 300K = T2 - T1 = 300K 273K = 27K Thus the temperature change will be the same whether measured in C or K. 16

Thermal Physics

If the temperature change is a drop, then heat energy has been lost (or given off) by the substance; conversely, if the temperature change is an increase, then heat energy has been gained (or absorbed) by the substance. Example Water has a specific heat capacity of 4200 Jkg 1 C 1 . A pot containing 2kg of water is heated and has a temperature change of 50K. Find the heat energy gained. Answer E = = = mc 2 4200 50 420,000 J of heat energy

17

Thermal Physics
Determining c Experimentally For a Liquid (Water)

1kg of water is weighed out into a container and its initial temperature is recorded. An electric immersion heater is then inserted into the container and switched ON as shown below:

The water is stirred continuously for 5 minutes (or any fixed period of time) to distribute the heat evenly throughout the water. After the 5 minutes the heater is switch OFF but the water is still stirred and the highest temperature it gets is recorded. The specific heat capacity is then found as follows: [Assuming no heat is lost to the environment] Heat absorbed by water = Heat supplied by heater (Electrical) Heat energy from heater = Power of heater Time heater is ON =Pt But P = Voltage Current = VI Eheater = VIt Eheater = Ewater VIt
c=

= mc
VIt m

where - V is the voltage measured in circuit Note that P = VI - I is the current - t is the time the heater is ON for - m is the mass of water in the container - is the difference between the highest and initial temperature 18

Thermal Physics
Determining c Experimentally For a Metal (Aluminium)

Two identical holes are drilled into the 1kg Al block as shown below. The electric heater is placed in one hole and a thermometer in the other.

The initial temperature of the block is first measured and then the heater is switched ON. After a set period of time the heater is switched OFF and the highest temperature of the block is recorded. The specific heat capacity is then found similarly to that of the water: [Assuming no heat is lost to the environment] Heat absorbed by block = Heat supplied by heater
c= VIt m

Specific Latent Heat When a solid is heated, the particles are given energy until, at some point, they have enough energy to break the inter-particle bonds. The solid then changes state into a liquid and the temperature at which the state change occurs is called the solids melting point (m.p.). Conversely, the temperature at which the solid freezes is called its freezing point (f.p.). Note that m.p. = f.p.. At the m.p. the particles require energy to weaken the bonds to change its state whilst the temperature stays constant during the transition as shown below:

19

Thermal Physics The above diagram shows what is termed a cooling curve that illustrates the change in state as a liquid cools. During points A to B, the liquid is cooling so the temperature drops. Between B and C is the freezing point (or m.p.) during which the liquid loses energy as it changes state to a solid (particles in solid have less energy than those in liquids). This change in state takes some time during which the temperatures stays constant (at the f.p.) since this is a transition point. Finally, at C, the liquid has solidified completely so the temperature will now drop as the solid cools. The heat energy given off (or absorbed) by a substance as it freezes (or melts) is called the latent heat of fusion. Definition: The specific latent heat of fusion (lf) is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg of a solid to a liquid (or vice versa) at its melting point (or freezing point) without any temperature change.

E = ml f

where: - E is the quantity of heat energy absorbed (solid) or lost (liquid) in J - m is the mass of solid/liquid undergoing the change in state in kg - lf is the specific latent heat of fusion in Jkg 1 Similarly, during the change in state from liquid to gas (or vice versa), the temperature stays constant as the bonds are weakened further (or strengthened) as heat energy is absorbed (or lost). The heat energy given off (or absorbed) by a substance as it vaporises (or condenses) is called the latent heat of vaporization. Definition: The specific latent heat of vaporisation (lv) is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg of a liquid to a gas (or vice versa) at its boiling point without any temperature change.

E = mlv

where: - E is the quantity of heat energy absorbed (liquid) or lost (gas) in J - m is the mass of solid/liquid undergoing the change in state in kg - lv is the specific latent heat of vaporisation in Jkg 1 Example 1 How much heat is required to change 20kg of ice at 0C to steam at 100C? [c = 4200 Jkg 1 C 1 ; lf = 340,000 Jkg 1 ; lv = 2,300,000 Jkg 1 ]] Answer The transitions are illustrated as follows: ice 0C E1 water 0C E2 water E3 100C steam 100C

20

Thermal Physics E1 = = = = = = = = = = = = latent heat of fusion of ice to water m lf 20 340,000 6.8 MJ heat capacity of water (since there is no state change) mc 20 4200 100 8.4 MJ latent heat of vaporisation of water to steam m lv 20 2,300,000 46 MJ

E2

E2

Total energy supplied = E1 + E2 + E3 = 61.2 MJ Example 2 How much heat is required to change 1kg of ice at 40C to steam at 120C? [c (water) = 4200 Jkg 1 C 1 ; c (steam) = 5400 Jkg 1 C 1 ; lv = 2,300,000 Jkg 1 ]] Answer The transitions are illustrated as follows: water 40C E1 E1 water E2 100C steam E3 100C steam 120C

= = = = = = = = = = = =

heat capacity of water (since there is no state change) mc 1 4200 600 252,000 J latent heat of vaporisation of water to steam m lv 1 2,300,000 2.3 MJ heat capacity of steam mc 1 5400 20 108,000 J

E2

E2

Total energy supplied = E1 + E2 + E3 = 2.66 MJ

21

Thermal Physics
Determining lv Experimentally For Water

A beaker is filled with water and placed on an electronic balance as shown below:

The heater is then switched ON and the water is brought to a boil. The mass of the boiling water (m1) is then recorded and, simultaneously, the timer is started. After a set time the heater is switch OFF and the new mass of water (m2) is immediately recorded. It is assumed that all the heat energy supplied (from the heater) from the start of the timer is used to convert the water to steam. lv is then found as follows: [Assuming no heat is lost to the environment] Heat used to change state = Heat supplied by heater (Electrical) Heat energy from heater = Power of heater Time heater is ON =Pt But P = VI Eheater = VIt Eheater = Echange state VIt
lv =

= mlv
VIt m

where - V is the voltage measured in circuit Note that P = VI - I is the current - t is the time the heater is ON for - m is the drop in mass of water in the container ( m1 m2)

22

Thermal Physics Heat Capacity (C) Definition:

E = C

The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of the substance by 1C (or 1K).

where: - E is the energy change in J - m is the mass in kg - C is the heat capacity of the substance in J C 1 Evaporation & Boiling

Evaporation in the process whereby a liquid changes to a vapour without the temperature ever reaching the boiling point. Boiling however, occurs only at the liquids b.p. i.e. at a specific temperature.
There are four factors that affect evaporation: wind the sun humidity the surface area of the liquid Evaporation 1. 2. 3. Occurs at any temperature Boiling

1. 2. 3. 4.

Occurs only at a specific temperature, the boiling point Occurs only at the surface of the liquid Occurs throughout the liquid Both use latent heat of vaporisation Transfer of Heat Energy

There are three ways in which heat can be transferred: conduction convection radiation
Conduction

This is the process of heat transfer through a solid due to the transfer of kinetic energy between colliding particles. In a metal, there is a lattice of metal ions along with free e-s that are able to move. When a part of the metal is heated, the metal ions begin to vibrate (to a greater extent) as they gain more kinetic energy. The vibration of the ions transfers some of the energy to neighbouring ions, and also to the free e-s that can move. The free e-s can thus carry the energy to other ions and e-s in the metal. It should be noted that conduction requires the presence of free e-s in order for the heat energy to be 23

Thermal Physics transferred along the solid. Non-metals are very poor thermal conductors (but very good insulators). The rate of conduction depends on: the nature of the material the thickness of the material the cross-sectional area over which the heat is applied
Convection

This is the process of heat transfer through a fluid (liquid/gas) due to changes in density. When a fluid is heated, the area (being heated) acquires kinetic energy and so expands. This causes the volume to increase and the density to decrease. The hotter fluid thus rises coming into contact with cooler fluid, with which it transfers energy. fluid cooler fluid hot fluid

fluid

hot fluid

The higher the hot fluid rises, the more it will come into contact with cooler fluid causing it to transfer energy throughout the entire area. This movement of fluid gives rise to a circular motion of the fluid called the convection current. Sea Breezes & Land Breezes During the day, the sun heats both the land and the sea. However, water has a high heat capacity so the air over the sea takes a longer time to heat up than the air over the land. Thus, during the day, the air over the land will rise and air from the sea blows in to take its place. This movement of air from the sea produces wind that blows from the sea and is thus called sea breezes. In the night however, the air over the sea has become heated but due to the waters high heat capacity, it loses the heat energy slowly compared to the air over land that loses heat quickly. Thus, the air over the sea will rise and the air from over the land blows in to take its place and this gives rise to land breezes.
Radiation

This is the process of heat transfer

24