TEN PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING (10 nguyn l ca vic hc)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

We learn to do by doing. We learn to do what we do and not something else. Without readiness, learning is inefficient and my be harmful. Without motivation there can be no learning at all. For effective learning, responses must be immediately reinforced. Meaningful content is better learned and longer retained than less meaningful content. 7. For the greatest amount of transfer learning, responses should be learned in the way they are going to be used. 8. One's response will vary according to how one perceives the situation. 9. An individuals responses will vary according to the learning atmosphere. 10. One does the only thing one can do given the physical inheritance, background, and present acting forces.

ACTIVE LEARNING (HC TCH CC)

By L. Dee Fink Reprinted with permission of the University of Oklahoma Instructional Development Program, July 19, 1999

Many college teachers today want to move past passive learning to active learning, to find better ways of engaging students in the learning process. But many teachers feel a need for help in imagining what to do, in or out of class, that would constitute a meaningful set of active learning activities. The model below offers a way of conceptualizing the learning process in a way that may assist teachers in identifying meaningful forms of active learning.

A Model of Active Learning This model suggests that all learning activities involve some kind of experience or some kind of dialogue. The two main kinds of dialogue are "Dialogue with Self" and "Dialogue with Others." The two main kinds of experience are "Observing" and "Doing."

Explanation of the Components

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Dialogue with Self: This is what happens when a learner thinks reflectively about a topic, i.e., they ask themselves what they think or should think, what they feel about the topic, etc. This is "thinking about my own thinking," but it addresses a broader array of questions than just cognitive concerns. A teacher can ask students, on a small scale, to keep a journal for a course, or, on a larger scale, to develop a learning portfolio. In either case, students could write about what they are learning, how they are learning, what role this knowledge or learning plays in their own life, how this makes them feel, etc. Dialogue with Others: This can and does come in many forms. In traditional teaching, when students read a textbook or listen to a lecture, they are "listening to" another person (teacher, book author). This can perhaps be viewed as "partial dialogue" but it is limited because there is no back-and-forth exchange. A much more dynamic and active form of dialogue occurs when a teacher creates an intense small group discussion on a topic. Sometimes teachers can also find creative ways to involve students in dialogue situations with people other than students (e.g., practitioners, experts), either in class or outside of class. Whoever the dialogue is with, it might be done live, in writing, or by email. Observing: This occurs whenever a learner watches or listens to someone else "Doing" something that is related to what they are learning about. This might be such things as observing one's teacher do something (e.g., "This is how I critique a novel."), listening to other professionals perform (e.g., musicians), or observing the phenomena being studied (natural, social, or cultural). The act of observing may be "direct" or "vicarious." A direct observation means the learner is observing the real action, directly; a vicarious observation is observing a simulation of the real action. For example, a direct observation of poverty might be for the learner to actually go to where low income people are living and working, and spend some time observing life there. A vicarious or indirect observation of the same topic might be to watch a movie involving poor people or to read stories written by or about them. Doing: This refers to any learning activity where the learner actually does something: design a reservoir dam (engineering), conduct a high school band (music education), design and/or conduct an experiment (natural and social sciences), critique an argument or piece of writing (the humanities), investigate local historical resources(history), make an oral presentation (communication), etc. Again, "Doing" may be direct or vicarious. Case studies, role-playing and simulation activities offer ways of vicariously engaging students in the "Doing" process. To take one example mentioned above, if one is trying to learn how to conduct a high school band, direct "Doing" would be to actually go to a high school and direct the students there. A vicarious "Doing" for the same purpose would be to simulate this by having the student conduct a band composed of fellow college students who were acting like (i.e., role playing) high school students. Or, in business courses, doing case studies is, in essence, a simulation of the decision making process that many courses are aimed at teaching. Implementing This Model of Active Learning So, what can a teacher do who wants to use this model to incorporate more active learning into his/her teaching? I would recommend the following three suggestions, each of which involves a more advanced use of active learning. 1. Expand the Kinds of Learning Experiences You Create. The most traditional teaching consists of little more than having students read a text and listen to a lecture, a very limited and limiting form of Dialogue with Others. Consider using more dynamic

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forms of Dialogue with Others and the other three modes of learning. For example: Create small groups of students and have them make a decision or answer a focused question periodically, o Find ways for students to engage in authentic dialogue with people other than fellow classmates who know something about the subject (on the web, by email, or live), o Have students keep a journal or build a "learning portfolio" about their own thoughts, learning, feelings, etc., o Find ways of helping students observe (directly or vicariously) the subject or action they are trying to learn, and/or o Find ways to allow students to actually do (directly, or vicariously with case studies, simulation or role play) that which they need to learn to do. 2. Take Advantage of the "Power of Interaction."
o

Each of the four modes of learning has its own value, and just using more of them should add variety and thereby be more interesting for the learner. However, when properly connected, the various learning activities can have an impact that is more than additive or cumulative; they can be interactive and thereby multiply the educational impact. For example, if students write their own thoughts on a topic (Dialogue with Self) before they engage in small group discussion (Dialogue with Others), the group discussion should be richer and more engaging. If they can do both of these and then observe the phenomena or action (Observation), the observation should be richer and again more engaging. Then, if this is followed by having the students engage in the action itself (Doing), they will have a better sense of what they need to do and what they need to learn during doing. Finally if, after Doing, the learners process this experience by writing about it (Dialogue with Self) and/or discussing it with others (Dialogue with Others), this will add further insight. Such a sequence of learning activities will give the teacher and learners the advantage of the Power of Interaction. Alternatively, advocates of Problem-Based Learning would suggest that a teacher start with "Doing" by posing a real problem for students to work on, and then having students consult with each other (Dialogue with Others) on how best to proceed in order to find a solution to the problem. The learners will likely use a variety of learning options, including Dialogue with Self and Observing. 3. Create a Dialectic Between Experience and Dialogue. One refinement of the Interaction Principle described above is simply to create a dialectic between the two principle components of this Model of Active Learning: Experience and Dialogue. New experiences (whether of Doing or Observing) have the potential to give learners a new perspective on what is true (beliefs) and/or what is good (values) in the world. Dialogue (whether with Self or with Others) has the potential to help learners construct the many possible meanings of experience and the insights that come from them. A teacher who can creatively set up a dialectic of learning activities in which students move back and forth between having rich new experiences and engaging in deep, meaningful dialogue, can maximize the likelihood that the learners will experience significant and meaningful learning.

COMMON TEACHING METHODS (cc PPDH thng thng)

Revised from 1989 addition by Pat McCarthy, RN, MSN, 1992

Lecture STRENGTHS: - presents factual material in direct, logical manner - contains experience which inspires - stimulates thinking to open discussion - useful for large groups LIMITATIONS: - experts are not always good teachers - audience is passive - learning is difficult to gauge - communication in one way PREPARATION: - needs clear introduction and summary - needs time and content limit to be effective - should include examples, anecdotes Lecture With Discussion STRENGTHS: - involves audience at least after the lecture - audience can question, clarify & challenge LIMITATIONS: - time may limit discussion period - quality is limited to quality of questions and discussion PREPARATION: - requires that questions be prepared prior to discussion Panel of Experts STRENGTHS: - allows experts to present different opinions - can provoke better discussion than a one person discussion - frequent change of speaker keeps attention from lagging LIMITATIONS: - experts may not be good speakers - personalities may overshadow content - subject may not be in logical order PREPARATION: - facilitator coordinates focus of panel, introduces and summarizes - briefs panel Brainstorming STRENGTHS: - listening exercise that allows creative thinking for new ideas - encourages full participation because all ideas equally recorded - draws on group's knowledge and experience - spirit of congeniality is created - one idea can spark off other other ideas LIMITATIONS: - can be unfocused - needs to be limited to 5 - 7 minutes

- people may have difficulty getting away from known reality

- if not facilitated well, criticism and evaluation may occur PREPARATION: - facilitator selects issue - must have some ideas if group needs to be stimulated Videotapes STRENGTHS: - entertaining way of teaching content and raising issues - keep group's attention - looks professional - stimulates discussion LIMITATIONS: - can raise too many issues to have a focused discussion - discussion may not have full participation - only as effective as following discussion PREPARATION: - need to set up equipment - effective only if facilitator prepares questions to discuss after the show Class Discussion STRENGTHS: - pools ideas and experiences from group - effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be analyzed - allows everyone to participate in an active process LIMITATIONS: - not practical with more that 20 people - few people can dominate - others may not participate - is time consuming - can get off the track PREPARATION: - requires careful planning by facilitator to guide discussion - requires question outline Small Group Discussion STRENGTHS: - allows participation of everyone - people often more comfortable in small groups - can reach group consensus LIMITATIONS: - needs careful thought as to purpose of group - groups may get side tracked PREPARATION: - needs to prepare specific tasks or questions for group to answer Case Studies STRENGTHS: - develops analytic and problem solving skills - allows for exploration of solutions for complex issues - allows student to apply new knowledge and skills LIMITATIONS: - people may not see relevance to own situation - insufficient information can lead to inappropriate results

PREPARATION: - case must be clearly defined in some cases - case study must be prepared Role Playing STRENGTHS: - introduces problem situation dramatically - provides opportunity for people to assume roles of others and thus appreciate another point of view - allows for exploration of solutions - provides opportunity to practice skills LIMITATIONS: - people may be too self-conscious - not appropriate for large groups - people may feel threatened PREPARATION: - trainer has to define problem situation and roles clearly - trainer must give very clear instructions Report-Back Sessions STRENGTHS: - allows for large group discussion of role plays, case studies, and small group exercise - gives people a chance to reflect on experience - each group takes responsibility for its operation LIMITATIONS: - can be repetitive if each small group says the same thing PREPARATION: - trainer has to prepare questions for groups to discuss Worksheets/Surveys STRENGTHS: - allows people to thing for themselves without being influences by others - individual thoughts can then be shared in large group LIMITATIONS: - can be used only for short period of time PREPARATION: - facilitator has to prepare handouts Index Card Exercise STRENGTHS: - opportunity to explore difficult and complex issues LIMITATIONS: - people may not do exercise PREPARATION: - facilitator must prepare questions

STRENGTHS: - personalizes topic - breaks down audience's stereotypes LIMITATIONS: - may not be a good speaker PREPARATION: - contact speakers and coordinate

Guest Speaker

- introduce speaker appropriately Values Clarification Exercise STRENGTHS: - opportunity to explore values and beliefs - allows people to discuss values in a safe environment - gives structure to discussion LIMITATION: - people may not be honest - people may be too self-conscious PREPARATION: - facilitator must carefully prepare exercise - must give clear instructions - facilitator must prepare discussion questions

GOOD TEACHING: THE TOP TEN REQUIREMENTS

By Richard Leblanc, York University, Ontario This article appeared in The Teaching Professor after Professor Leblanc won a Seymous Schulich Award for Teaching Excellence including a $10,000 cash award. Reprinted here with permission of Professor Leblanc, October 8, 1998.

One. Good teaching is as much about passion as it is about reason. It's about not only motivating students
to learn, but teaching them how to learn, and doing so in a manner that is relevant, meaningful, and memorable. It's about caring for your craft, having a passion for it, and conveying that passion to everyone, most importantly to your students.

Two. Good teaching is about substance and treating students as consumers of knowledge. It's about doing
your best to keep on top of your field, reading sources, inside and outside of your areas of expertise, and being at the leading edge as often as possible. But knowledge is not confined to scholarly journals. Good teaching is also about bridging the gap between theory and practice. It's about leaving the ivory tower and immersing oneself in the field, talking to, consulting with, and assisting practitioners, and liaisoning with their communities.

Three. Good teaching is about listening, questioning, being responsive, and remembering that each
student and class is different. It's about eliciting responses and developing the oral communication skills of the quiet students. It's about pushing students to excel; at the same time, it's about being human, respecting others, and being professional at all times.

Four. Good teaching is about not always having a fixed agenda and being rigid, but being flexible, fluid,
experimenting, and having the confidence to react and adjust to changing circumstances. It's about getting only 10 percent of what you wanted to do in a class done and still feeling good. It's about deviating from the course syllabus or lecture schedule easily when there is more and better learning elsewhere. Good teaching is about the creative balance between being an authoritarian dictator on the one hand and a pushover on the other.

Five. Good teaching is also about style. Should good teaching be entertaining? You bet! Does this mean
that it lacks in substance? Not a chance! Effective teaching is not about being locked with both hands glued to a podium or having your eyes fixated on a slide projector while you drone on. Good teachers work the room and every student in it. They realize that they are the conductors and the class is the orchestra. All students play different instruments and at varying proficiencies.

Six. This is very important -- good teaching is about humor. It's about being self-deprecating and not
taking yourself too seriously. It's often about making innocuous jokes, mostly at your own expense, so that the ice breaks and students learn in a more relaxed atmosphere where you, like them, are human with your own share of faults and shortcomings.

Seven. Good teaching is about caring, nurturing, and developing minds and talents. It's about devoting
time, often invisible, to every student. It's also about the thankless hours of grading, designing or redesigning courses, and preparing materials to still further enhance instruction.

Eight. Good teaching is supported by strong and visionary leadership, and very tangible institutional
support -- resources, personnel, and funds. Good teaching is continually reinforced by an overarching vision that transcends the entire organization -- from full professors to part-time instructors -- and is reflected in what is said, but more importantly by what is done.

Nine. Good teaching is about mentoring between senior and junior faculty, teamwork, and being
recognized and promoted by one's peers. Effective teaching should also be rewarded, and poor teaching needs to be remediated through training and development programs.

Ten. At the end of the day, good teaching is about having fun, experiencing pleasure and intrinsic
rewards ... like locking eyes with a student in the back row and seeing the synapses and neurons connecting, thoughts being formed, the person becoming better, and a smile cracking across a face as learning all of a sudden happens. Good teachers practice their craft not for the money or because they have to, but because they truly enjoy it and because they want to. Good teachers couldn't imagine doing anything else.

THE TEACHER AS AN ORGANIZER (GV nh mt nh t chc)

Introduction Teaching may best be defined as the organization of learning. So the problem of successful teaching is to organize learning for authentic results. Teaching may be thought of as the establishment of a situation in which it is hoped and believed that effective learning will take place. This situation is complicated and made up of many parts. 1. There must be a learner, or more usually a group of learners. 2. There must be facilities; a stated place and time for meeting, and books and other printed materials for learning. 3. There must be an orderly and understood procedure (routine and regular, or highly varied) for presenting, discussing and evaluating. 4. There must be some way of grading so that the teacher and more importantly the pupil, will know how the learning is coming along. 5. There must be an organizer who brings these parts into a whole -- in other words, the teacher. Teaching is the organization of learning. Thus it follows that a teacher is essentially an organizer. The task of any organizer is to enable a group and the individuals in it to function effectively together for the achievement of a common purpose. This is precisely your proper role as a teacher.

MOTIVATING STUDENTS: 8 SIMPLE RULES FOR TEACHERS

By Lana Becker and Kent N. Schneider, East Tennessee State University becker@etsu.edu or kent@etsu.edu Principles of Accounting has the reputation of being a "hard and boring" course. It is difficult to motivate students to invest the time and effort necessary to succeed in the course. To meet this challenge, we have assembled a list of eight simple rules for keeping students focused and motivated. These rules are not original, and they aren't just for those of us who teach accounting classes. Indeed, most of these time-honored suggestions apply to any course students find hard and boring, and we think that makes them broadly applicable. Rule 1: Emphasize the most critical concepts continuously. Reiterate these concepts in lectures and assignments throughout the course. Include questions relating to these critical subjects on every exam, thus rewarding students for learning, retaining, and, hopefully, applying this knowledge in a variety of contexts. Rule 2: Provide students with a "visual aid" when possible to explain abstract concepts. A significant proportion of today's students are visual learners. For these students, a simple diagram or flowchart truly can be more valuable than a thousand words in a text or a lecture. Rule 3: Rely on logic when applicable. Point out to students which information is merely "fact" that must be memorized and which course material is based upon "logic." Show students how to employ logical thinking to learn and retain new information. For example, in the double-entry bookkeeping system, "debits" equal "credits," and debit entries cause assets to increase. These are "facts" or features of the system; they are not based on logic. However, once the student accepts the system, logic can be used to operate within the system. Continuing the example, if debit entries increase assets, it is logical that credit entries will cause assets to decrease. Rule 4: Use in-class activities to reinforce newly presented material. After a new concept or subject has been presented via text reading, lecture, or class discussion, allow the students to put the concept into action by completing an in-class assignment. These assignments can be short, but they must be developed to ensure that the students understand the critical concepts underlying the new material. Typically, the most learning takes place when the students are permitted to work in small groups, to refer to their text and notes, and to ask questions of the instructor while completing the assignment. If these in-class assignments are part of the course grading scheme, class attendance also improves. Rule 5: Help students create a link when teaching something new. If the student can link the new material to something already learned, the odds of learning the new material are greatly increased. Examples of possible links include: prior material learned in this course (e.g., the critical concepts described in Rule 1), material learned in prerequisite courses, and real-life experiences of the students outside the classroom. Rule 6: Recognize the importance of vocabulary in a course. Students often struggle with new vocabulary in many courses, especially introductory ones. To succeed in these courses, students must become comfortable with the new terminology. As subjects are presented, new and/or confusing terms should be identified and introduced to the students. Present real-world definitions and alternative terminology, in addition to textbook definitions. One way to help students assimilate the course vocabulary is to create a living glossary on the instructor website where new terminology is added, explained, and illustrated throughout the course. Rule 7: Treat students with respect. Patronizing behavior may be expected in primary school teachers, and drill sergeant strategies may be effective in military book camps. However, most college student will not respond well to these techniques. Give students their dignity, and they will give you their best efforts.

Rule 8: Hold students to a high standard. If students are not required to maintain a specified level of learning and performance, only the most highly motivated students will devote the time and effort necessary to learn. In contrast, maintaining high standards not only will motivate student learning, it will also be the source of student feelings of accomplishment when those standards are met. Each of these rules can help motivate even the most lethargic student, but Rule 7 and 9 are the most important. If students are not treated with respect and held to a high standard, scrupulously following the first six rules will have much less impact and might end up being an exercise in futility.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS BASED ON BLOOM'S TAXONOMY

From Bloom, et al., 1956

As teachers we tend to ask questions in the "knowledge" category 80% to 90% of the time. These questions are not bad, but using them all the time is. Try to utilize higher order level of questions. These questions require much more "brain power" and a more extensive and elaborate answer. Below are the six question categories as defined by Bloom. KNOWLEDGE (BIT) remembering memorizing recognizing recalling identification recalling information who, what, when, where, how ...? describe COMPREHENSION (HIU) interpreting translating from one medium to another describing in one's own words organization and selection of facts and ideas retell... APPLICATION (VN DNG) problem solving applying information to produce some result use of facts, rules and principles how is ... an example of ...? how is ... related to ...? why is ... significant? ANALYSIS (PHN TCH) subdividing something to show how it is put together finding the underlying structure of a communication identifying motives separation of a whole into component parts what are the parts or features of ...? classify ... according to ... outline/diagram ... how does ... compare/contrast with ...?

what evidence can you list for ...? SYNTHESIS (TNG HP) creating a unique, original product that may be in verbal form or may be a physical object combination of ideas to form a new whole what would you predict/infer from ...? what ideas can you add to ...? how would you create/design a new ...? what might happen if you combined ...? what solutions would you suggest for ...? EVALUATION (NH GI) making value decisions about issues resolving controversies or differences of opinion development of opinions, judgements or decisions do you agree that ...? what do you think about ...? what is the most important ...? place the following in order of priority ... how would you decide about ...? what criteria would you use to assess ...?

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C HIU VIT LI (TM TT) KIN, SUY NGH VN DNG CHO BN THN