Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Fatigue loading is primarily the type of loading which causes cyclic variations in the applied stress or strain on a component. Thus any variable loading is basically a fatigue loading. Variable Loading Variable loading results when the applied load or the induced stress on a component is not constant but changes with time i.e. load or stress varies with time in some pattern. Most mechanical systems and devices consists moving or rotating components. When they are subjected to external loadings, the induced stresses are not constant even if the magnitude of the applied load remains invariant.
Crack Initiation Areas of localized stress concentrations such as fillets, notches, key ways, bolt holes and even scratches or tool marks are potential zones for crack initiation.
Crack also generally originate from a geometrical discontinuity or metallurgical stress raiser like sites of inclusions As a result of the local stress concentrations at these locations, the induced stress goes above the yield strength (in normal ductile materials) and cyclic plastic straining results due to cyclic variations in the stresses. On a macro scale the average value of the induced stress might still be below the yield strength of the material. Crack Propagation This further increases the stress levels and the process continues, propagating the cracks across the grains or along the grain boundaries, slowly increasing the crack size. As the size of the crack increases the cross sectional area resisting the applied stress decreases and reaches a threshold level at which it is insufficient to resist the applied stress. Final Fracture As the area becomes too insufficient to resist the induced stresses any further a sudden fracture results in the component.
C is experimentally found to be between 0.7 and 2.2. Usually for design purposes, C is assumed to be 1. This can be thought of as assessing what proportion of life is consumed by stress reversal at each magnitude then forming a linear combination of their aggregate. Though Miner's rule is a useful approximation in many circumstances, it has two major limitations: It fails to recognize the probabilistic nature of fatigue and there is no simple way to relate life predicted by the rule with the characteristics of a probability distribution. There is sometimes an effect in the order in which the reversals occur. In some circumstances, cycles of low stress followed by high stress cause more damage than would be predicted by the rule. It does not consider the effect of overload or high stress which may result in a compressive residual stress. High stress followed by low stress may have less damage due to the presence of compressive residual stress.
Geometry: Notches and variation in cross section throughout a part lead to stress concentrations where fatigue cracks initiate. Material Type: Fatigue life, as well as the behavior during cyclic loading, varies widely for different materials, e.g. composites and polymers differ markedly from metals. Residual stresses: Welding, cutting, casting, and other manufacturing processes involving heat or deformation can produce high levels of tensile residual stress, which decreases the fatigue strength. Size and distribution of internal defects: Casting defects such as gas porosity, nonmetallic inclusions and shrinkage voids can significantly reduce fatigue strength. Direction of loading: For non-isotropic materials, fatigue strength depends on the direction of the principal stress. Environment: Environmental conditions can cause erosion, corrosion, or gas-phase embrittlement, which all affect fatigue life. Corrosion fatigue is a problem encountered in many aggressive environments. Temperature: Higher temperatures generally decrease fatigue strength.
typical fighter aircraft flight load spectrum is considered for the fatigue analysis of the lug joint. Calculation of fatigue life is carried out by using Miner`s Rule. For the fatigue calculation the variable spectrum loading is simplified as block loading. Each block consists of load cycles corresponding to 100 flights. Each block consists of 1,03,050 cycles. The aircraft considered for the current work is designed for 5,000 flights. Damage calculation is carried out for the complete service life of the aircraft. The load magnitudes range considered for the fatigue analysis is given in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Load Magnitude Range 0.5 g to 1.0 g 1.0 g to 1.5 g 1.5 g to 2.0 g 2.0 g to 2.5 g 2.5 g to 3.0 g 3.0 g to 3.5 g 3.5 g to 4.0 g 4.0 g to 4.5 g 4.5 g to 5.0 g 5.0 g to 5.5 g 5.5 g to 6.0 g 15000 25000 10000 12000 15000 20000 5000 450 350 250 150
In the above mentioned load cycles the term g corresponds to the acceleration due to gravity. The load corresponding to 1g is equivalent to the weight of the aircraft.
6.2.1 Maximum stress obtained by analysis of wing fuselage lug attachment bracket:
In above analysis of wing fuselage lug joint, we considered the maximum loading condition and factor of safety. Therefore by considering the maximum conditions the stress in the structure is 69.5kg/mm2. Stress values at various g conditions are as shown in table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Stress values at various g conditions g conditions 0.5 g 1.0 g 1.5 g 2.0 g 2.5 g 3.0 g Stress in kg/mm2 5.79 11.58 17.38 23.17 28.96 34.75 Stress in ksi 8.23 16.49 24.75 32.99 41.24 49.49 Stress in N/mm2 56.82 113.63 170.45 227.26 284.08 340.89
The maximum stress value obtained from the analysis is corresponding to 6 g condition. Therefore the stress value corresponding to 0.5 g condition is obtained as (69.5/6)*0.5 The Stress at 0.5 g in kg/mm2 =5.79kg/mm2. Stress in KSI =5.79 (25.4)2/.453 =8248.4347 PSI =8.23 KSI. Stress in N/mm2 =5.799.81 =56.82 N/mm2. Similar calculations are carried out to obtain the stress values corresponding to different g conditions and the values are tabulated in the above table 6.2.
Fmax (maximum stress) the highest algebraic value of stress cycle, for either tensile stress (+) or compressive stress (-). Fmin (minimum stress) the lowest algebraic value of stress cycle, for either tensile stress (+) or compressive stress (-). Fa (alternating stress or variable stress). Fa=
R (stress ratio): R=
0.5 g to 1.0 g 1.0 g to 1.5 g 1.5 g to 2.0 g 2.0 g to 2.5 g 2.5 g to 3.0 g
3.0 g to 3.5 g 3.5 g to 4.0 g 4.0 g to 4.5 g 4.5 g to 5.0 g 5.0 g to 5.5 g 5.5 g to 6.0 g
1) A typical calculation of stress ratio and stress amplitude for the range 0.5 g to 0.75 g Stress ratio=min stress/max stress =5.79/11.58 =.5 Stress amplitude in ksi=max-min/2. =11.58-5.79/2 =4.13 ksi. Stress amplitude in N/mm2 = max-min/2 =113.63-56.82/2 = 28.41 N/mm2 The stress amplitude of value of ranges g is obtained by considering maximum design load. The obtained value of stress ratio and stress amplitude by using the life diagram fatigue behavior of low carbon and alloy steel AISI-4130, heat treated alloy. The fatigue life at crack initiation is predicted.
6.2.4 Calculation of the fatigue cycles by using S-N Diagram for all ranges from 0.5 g to 6 g.
Fig.6.3: Typical S-N Diagram for un-notched fatigue behavior of Low Carbon and alloy Steel AISI-4130, Heat treated alloy.
Using the maximum stress and value of R from Table6.3 in the S-N curve given in Figure 6.3 The fatigue cycle for various stress levels are found out. Table6.4 gives the range of g, the actual number of cycles in that range and the fatigue cycle.
Table 6.4: the range of g, the actual number of cycles in that range and their fatigue cycle. Range of g Actual no of cycles Fatigue cycle by using graph
0.5 g to 1.0 g 1.0 g to 1.5 g 1.5 g to 2.0 g 2.0 g to 2.5 g 2.5 g to 3.0 g 3.0 g to 3.5 g 3.5 g to 4.0 g 4.0 g to 4.5 g 4.5 g to 5.0 g 5.0 g to 5.5 g 5.5 g to 6.0 g
15000 25000 10000 12000 15000 20000 5000 450 350 250 150
>108 >108 >108 >108 56106 5.7106 58103 104 5.7103 4800 3700
The simplest and most practical technique for predicting fatigue performance is the palmgren-Miner hypothesis. The hypothesis contends that fatigue damage incurred at a given stress level is proportional to the number of cycles applied at that stress level divided by the total number of cycles required to cause failure at the same level. If the repeated loads are continued at the same level unit failure occurs, the cycles ratio will be equal to one From Miners equation, ni/Nf= C Where ni= Applied number of cycles Nf= number of cycles to failure
6.2.5 Calculation of the damage accumulated from miners formula for all ranges from 0.5 g to 6 g.
LOAD CASE 1: Damage accumulated for 0.5 to 1 D1= n1/N1 = 15,000/108 =1.510-4
LOAD CASE 2: Damage accumulated for 1 to 1.5 D2= n2/N2 =25,000/108 =2.510-4
LOAD CASE 3: Damage accumulated for 1.5 to 2 D3= n3/N3 =10,000/108 = 110-4 LOAD CASE 4: Damage accumulated for 2 to 2.5 D4= n4/N4 =12,000/108 =1.210-4 LOAD CASE 5: Damage accumulated for 2.5 to 3 D5= n5/N5 =15000/56106 =2.6810-4 LOAD CASE 6: Damage accumulated for 3 to 3.5 D6= n6 /N6 =20000/5.7106 =3.510-3 LOAD CASE 7: Damage accumulated for 3.5 to 4 D7= n7/N7 =5000/58103 =86.210-3 LOAD CASE 8: Damage accumulated for 4 to 4.5 D8= n8/N8 =3000/104 =0.3 LOAD CASE 9: Damage accumulated for 4.5 to 5 D9= n9/N9 =1000/5.7103 =0.175
LOAD CASE 10: Damage accumulated for 5 to 5.5 D10= n10/N10 =250/6000 =41.6710-3 LOAD CASE 11: Damage accumulated for 5.5 to 6
The damage calculated at different g range with reference from S-N data is tabulated in the table below. Table 6.5 the range of g, the damage accumulated from miners formula Range of g Applied no of cycles Ni 15000 25000 10000 12000 15000 20000 5000 450 350 250 150 No of cycles to failure from graph Nf >108 >108 >108 >108 56106 5.7106 58103 104 5.710 4800 3700
3
Damage accumulated from miners formula Di 1.510-4 2.510-4 110-4 1.210-4 2.6810-4 3.510-3 86.210-3 0.045 .0614 .0521 .0405
0.5 g to 1.0 g 1.0 g to 1.5 g 1.5 g to 2.0 g 2.0 g to 2.5 g 2.5 g to 3.0 g 3.0 g to 3.5 g 3.5 g to 4.0 g 4.0 g to 4.5 g 4.5 g to 5.0 g 5.0 g to 5.5 g 5.5 g to 6.0 g
Total damage accumulated for all load case is given by Da=D1+D2+D3+D4+D5+D6+D7+D8+D9+D10+D11 =1.510-4+2.510-4+110-4+1.210-4+2.6810-4+3.510-3+86.210-3+.045+.0614+.0521 +.0405 Da=.2896 Considering the correction factors for finding out the total damage accumulated. Correction factors for fatigue life calculations of wing fuselage Lug attachment bracket. 1) Surface roughness correction factor=0.8 2) Type of loading=1 3) Correction factor for reliability in design=0.897 Therefore the total damage accumulated by considering the correction factors is D=.2896 / (.81.897) D=.4036
Total damage accumulated is .4036, which is less than 1. Therefore a crack will not get initiated from the location of maximum stress in the lug for given load spectrum.
CONCLUSIONS
Stress analysis of the wing fuselage lug attachment bracket is carried out and maximum tensile stress is identified at one of the lug-holes. FEM approach is followed for the stress analysis of the wing fuselage lug attachment bracket. A validation for FEM approach is carried out by considering a plate with a circular hole. Maximum tensile stress of 69.5 kg/mm2 is observed in the lug. Several iterations are carried out to obtain a mesh independent value for the maximum stress. A fatigue crack normally initiates from the location maximum tensile stress in the structure. The fatigue calculation is carried out for an estimation of life to crack initiation. From the calculations maximum damage fraction of 0.4035. The value of damage fraction is much less than 1. hence the crack will not get initiated for the given load spectrum Since the damage accumulated is less than the critical damage the location in the wing fuselage lug attachment bracket is safe from fatigue considerations.
REFERENCES
[1] Application of finite element analysis techniques for predicting crack propagation in lugs. O. Gencoz, U.G. Goranson and R.R. Merrill, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company, Seattle, Washington, 98124, USA. Experimental characterization of cracks at straight attachment lugs, Gianni Nicoletto, Bologna, Italy. Damage tolerance assessment of aircraft attachment lugs. T.R. Brussat, K. Kathiresan and J.L. Rudd, Lockheed-California Company, Burbank, CA 91520, U.S.A., AT&T Bell Laboratories, Marietta GA 30071, U.S.A., AFWAL/FIBEC, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH 45433, U.S.A. Stress intensity factors for cracks at attachment lugs. R. Rigby and M. H. Aliabadi, British Aerospace, Filton, Bristol BS99 7AR, U.K., Wessex Institute of Technology, Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton S040 7AA, U.K. Failure in lug joints and plates with holes. J. Vogwell and J. M. Minguez School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K., Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Del Pais Vasco, Bilbao, Spain. Aircraft landing gear failure: fracture of the outer cylinder lug. C. R. F. Azevedo, E. Hippert, Jr. , G. Spera and P. Gerardi, Laboratory for Failure Analysis, Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnolgicas, PO Box 0141, So Paulo, Brazil. Finite element mesh refinement criteria for stress analysis. Madan G. Kittur and Ronald L. Huston, Aero Structures, Inc., 1725 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite 704, Arlington, VA 22202, U.S.A., Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0072, U.S.A. Fatigue crack growth behavior of Al7050-T7451 attachment lugs under flight spectrum variation. Jong-Ho Kim, Soon-Bok Lee and Seong-Gu Hong. Fatigue crack growth in lugs. J. SCHIJVE and A. H. W.HOEYMAKERS, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands. Fatigue crack growth of a corner crack in an attachment lugs. K. Kathereean, H.S Pearson, and G.J. Gilbert, Department 72-77, zone 415, Lock Head, Georgia Company, Marietta, Georgia, 30063, USA. Fatigue crack growth of corner cracks in lug specimens. S.Freidrich, J. Schijve. Delft university of technology, Department of aerospace engineering, Netherlands. Jan 1983. Stress analysis for a lug under various conditions. G. S. Wang, The Aeronautical Research Institute of Sweden, Bromma, Sweden.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Air Vehicles Division, Defence Science and Technology Organization, 506 Lorimer Street, Fishermans Bend 3207, Australia. [14] Critical parameters for fatigue damage. A.K. Vasudevan, K. Sadananda, G. Glinka a. Materials Division, Code-332, Office of Naval Research, Arlington, VA 222175660, USA. b. Materials Science and Technology, Code-6323, Naval Research, Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA. c. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.