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Introduction
Exploration for oil and gas has been an ongoing work in the Niger Delta basin. Various tools have been used by past workers to study its sedimentology, stratigraphy and economic prospects (Short and
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Stauble, 1967; Weber and Daukoru, 1975; Azeez, 1976). Sequence stratigraphy is no doubt a recent tool for these purposes. Sequence stratigraphy is a multidisciplinary approach to the study of genetically related facies within chronostratigraphically significant surfaces (Van Wagoner et al., 1990). It provides a potential unifying framework for interpreting much of rock records, and has considerable economic significance as it helps in identifying exploration prospects and predicting source rocks, seals and potential reservoir traps. This study therefore utilizes its predictive power to enhance an understanding of the stratigraphy and economic potential of Emi Field, eastern offshore Niger delta, with a view of reducing exploration risks. Also, an accurate framework for laterally extrapolating depositional environments and lithologies away from the well sites will be provided. Interpretations will be based on evidences from seismic reflections, wireline log responses and high-resolution biostratigraphy relevant to the area of study.
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Figure 2 :
Detailed studies on tectonics, stratigraphy, depositional environment, petrophysics , sedimentology and hydrocarbon potential are well documented in the literature (Short and Stauble, 1967; Weber and Daukoro, 1975; Evamy et al., 1978; Knox and Omatsola, 1989; Doust and Omatsola, 1990; Reijers and Nwajide, 1996, Nton and Adebambo, 2009; Nton and Adesina , 2009) among others. Three lithostratigraphic units have been recognized in the subsurface of the Niger Delta (Short and Stauble, 1967; Frankl and Cordy, 1967 and Avbovbo, 1978). These are from the oldest to the youngest, the Akata, Agbada and Benin Formations (Fig. 3). The Akata Formation (Eocene Recent) is a marine sedimentary succession that is laid in front of the advancing delta and ranges from 1,968ft to 19,680ft (600- 6,000m) in thickness. It consists of mainly uniform under-compacted shales with lenses of sandstone of abnormally high pressure at the top (Avbovbo, 1978). The shales are rich in both planktonic and benthonic foraminifera and were deposited in shallow to deep marine environment (Short and Stauble, 1967).
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The Agbada Formation (Eocene-Recent) is characterized by paralic interbedded sandstone and shale with a thickness of over 3,049m (Reijers, 1996). The top of Agbada Formation is defined as the first occurrence of shale with marine fauna that coincides with the base of the continental-transitional lithofacies (Adesida and Ehirim, 1988). The base is a significant sandstone body that coincides with the top of the Akata Formation (Short and Stauble, 1967). Some shales of the Agbada Formation were thought to be the source rocks, however; Ejedawe et al., (1984) deduced that the main source rocks of the Niger Delta are the shales of the Akata Formation. The Benin Formation is the youngest lithostratigraphic unit in the Niger Delta. It is Miocene Recent in age with a minimum thickness of more than 6,000 ft (1,829m) and made up of continental sands and sandstones (>90%) with few shale intercalations. The sands and sandstones are coarsegrained, subangular to well rounded and are very poorly sorted.
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Figure 4 :
120
121
baseline. Opposite sandstone or any other permeable formation, the curve shows deflection from the shale baseline. If Rw >Rmf, deflection is to the left and vice versa (Schlumberger, 1989). Resistivity logs measure the resistance of rock unit to electric current, which is determined by voltages across the electrodes. Porous and permeable sands contain fluids, which increase the resistivity while shales are compacted low resistivity rocks. Log shapes are interpreted to predict lithology, lithofacies, depositional environment and most importantly, the depositional sequence.
SB2
LPC SFC
SB1
LEGEND
SB1- Lower Sequence boundary SB2- Upper Sequence Boundary MFS- Maximum Flood Surface SFC-Slopefan Complex LPC- Lowstand Prograding Complex TST- Transgressive SystemTract HST- Highstand System tract
The nonconformity surface characterized by a downlap at the top and an apparent truncation at the bottom, represents the main condensed section of the depositional sequence. This coincides with the maximum flooding surface (MFS) as shown on Fig.6 and in agreement with the work of Vail (1987). Various systems tracts present in the recognised sequence were identified on the basis of objective geometrical criteria. The Lowstand prograding complex (LPC) was identified by its offlap configuration and it is bounded below by a sequence boundary (SB1) and above by a ravinement surface (RS). Directly overlying the ravinement surface is the Transgressive Systems Tract (TST) which is bounded above by MFS. However, the retrograding configuration characteristic of the TST
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was not clearly observed because of the chaotic nature of the reflection. Above the TST is the characteristic prograding sigmoid to oblique offlap configuration of the Highstand Systems Tract (HST). It is bounded above by a sequence boundary (SB2). Depositional Environment The seismic profile of Emi Field (Fig. 7) shows the areal association of various seismic facies within two reflector terminations. Of note is the oblique prograding configuration as it turns to chaotic configuration. An oblique prograding configuration has three zones; the upper area termed topset or undaform zone, an intermediate one (foreset or clinoform zone) and lower zone referred to as bottom set or fondoform (Brown and Fisher, 1980). The topset zone can be said to correspond to delta plain, and the upper part of the foreset will generally contain sand. The bottom set zone usually consists of shale but there can also be siltstone-sandstone intercalations. The oblique clinoforms are typically associated with delta progradation; high energy depositional environment with prevalent sands (Brown and Fisher, 1980). According to Vail,(1987), the mounded onlap fill and chaotic fill facies correspond to high energy sediments, deposited during various re-sedimentation stages. Structural Interpretation In this study, the seismic section of Emi Field (Fig. 7) shows the effect of growth fault in an expanded fault system, which is in agreement with the work of Mitchum, (1977). Below the SB1, seismic sequences have been highly displaced such that apparent truncation of beds is common. However, this is expected since the Niger Deltas tectonic setting is dominated by growth faults.
Figure 7 :
Oblique
SB2
Chaotic
Sigmoid
LEGEND
SB1- Lower Sequence Boundary SB2- Upper Sequence Boundary
TIME(Seconds)
SB1
Continous
In this study, well-log sequence analysis proposed by Vail and Wornardt (1991) and Mitchum et al. (1993) has been adopted. Lithology and Depositional Environment The gamma ray and resistivity logs of the four wells studied were interpreted for lithology and palaeodepositional environments. Within the logged intervals, the lithology is dominated by alternating sand and shale, occurring approximately in a 60:40 ratio. Based on varying proportion of sand and shale with few occurrences of silt, two major lithostratigraphic units were identified . These are; the continental sands of the Benin Formation, and the paralic Agbada Formation. Four lithofacies sequences, namely; the transitional /upper paralic, Qua Iboe member (upper Marine), Biafra member (Lower paralic) and lower marine, were identified in the Agbada Formation (Fig 8).
Figure 8 :
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The lower marine lithofacies sequences are predominantly shales with occasionally 5-25ft thick sand intercalations. These characteristics, coupled with the presence of pyrites, suggest deposition in a low energy, slightly deep anoxic marine setting . Micropaleontological evidence from Emi-6 well such as presence of Haplophragmoides sp, Textularia sp, Nonionella stella, Bolivina sp, Trochamimina sp among others, suggest deposition in inner neritic environments with appreciable middle neritic influences (Fig. 8). Also, palynological evidence demonstrated by the distinct abundance of Pediastrum, suggest strong fluvial activities characteristic of deposition during a dry palaeo-climatic phase. Such a view has been expressed by Germeraad et al, (1968). The lower Biafra subunit consists predominantly of sands interbedded with shales/siltstones of varying thicknesses. Presence of slight ferruginous materials in the analysed ditch-cuttings within this interval suggest some level of oxidation, shallow to intermediate water depths, in high to medium energy settings. Also the presence of carbonaceous detritus and pyrites indicate communication with the shoreline and intermittent anoxic conditions. On the GR log, the sands exhibit serrate to multiserrate cylinder, upward fining and occasional upward coarsening motifs, representing sub aqueous channel and sub aqueous mouth bar deposits. Available palaeoenvironmental indications from associated micro faunal from the well such as; Bolivina sp, Textularia sp, Ammonia beccarii, Quinqueloculina sp, Eggrerella scabra among others, suggest inner neritic environmental settings with middle neritic influence (Hallock and Peebles, 1993) (Fig. 8). Some rainforest/ fresh water palynomorphs identified in this study include Psilate phanocolporites, Retitricolporites irregularis and Canthium ( Muller, 1981) The middle Biafra sub unit is monotonously shaly, except for the serrate- cylinder shaped subaqueous channel sand occasionally noted on the GR logs of the studied wells. Palynofacies recorded in Emi-6 well such as Zonocostites ramonae, Botrycoccus and Monoporites annulatus at this interval indicate a deep water environmental setting within a distal fluvio-marine realm. Microfaunal assemblage for this subunit is similar to those mentioned earlier, thus implying middle to outer neritic paleo-environment (Fig. 8). The upper Biafra subunit is predominantly a sandy section with alternating thinner shale beds. The predominantly medium to fine grained nature of sands suggest deposition in shallow to intermediate water depths. The presence of occasional coarse sands, shell fragments, ferruginous materials and carbonaceous detritus in the analyzed ditch cutting of Emi-6 well indicates deposition in high energy, probably near-shore settings. The presence of rare pyrites also in the analyzed ditch cuttings of this interval in Emi-6 well suggests slight anoxity, while glauconite pellets indicate marine influences, particularly towards the upper parts of this sub unit. The sands exhibit hybrid units, consisting of a buildup of multi-serrate cylinder-shaped, upward fining, as well as upward coarsening units. These are interpreted as subaquaeous channel and barrier bar deposits in shallow water shelf settings. The Qua-Iboe member has a predominantly shaly nature, which coupled with the presence of glauconite pellets and pyrites, suggest deposition in a low energy, slightly anoxic, marine setting. The presence of rare to few ferruginous materials suggests occasional oxic conditions. Available paleoenvironmental conditions reflect deposition in inner neritic settings with littoral influences (Fig 8). The transitional /Upper paralic lithfacies sequence is monotonously sandy with the lower part of the interval having interbedded sands and silty shales. The predominantly sandy nature of the sequence suggests deposition during progradational phase of a delta out-building in a lower coastal plain setting. The medium to granule-sized nature of the sediments also indicates high-energy conditions. On GR log, the sands exhibit serrate cylinder shapes, occasional upward fining and upward coarsening motifs characteristic of delta distributary/fluvial channel and barrier bar deposits of lower coastal plain settings. The complete absence of fauna in this sequence is characteristic of supralittoral settings. The Benin Formation is dominated by continental sands. The sediments of this interval were however not analysed for their microfauna and microfloral content.
Depositional sequences, systems tracts, sequence boundaries and maximum flooding surfaces were identified based on their diagnostic characteristic log patterns in all the studied wells and are reported below. EMI-1 Well This well was logged from 500ft to 11,300ft (TD) and three maximum flooding surfaces at 10,290ft, 6,330ft and 2,670ft; and two sequence boundaries at 7460ft and 3090ft were recognized. Consequently, three depositional sequences were delineated (Table 1).
Table 1: Sequence Stratigraphic framework of EMI-1 Well
DEPTH(FT) 500 2670 3090 6330 7460 10290 11300 SYSTEM TRACTS HST TST HST TST HST TST MFS SB MFS SB MFS IMPORTANT KEY BOUNDING SURFACES
SEQUENCE 3 2
LEGEND HST Highstand system tract TST Transgressive system tract SB -- Sequence Boundary MFS Maximum Flooding Surface
EMI- 3 Well This well was logged from 500ft to 7100ft (TD). Two maximum flooding surfaces at depths 5982ft and 2490ft; and two sequence boundaries at depths 6700ft and 2860ft were delineated. Three depositional sequences were identified as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Sequence Stratigraphic framework of EMI-3 Well
DEPTH(FT) 500 2490 2860 5892 6700 7100 SYSTEM TRACTS HST TST HST TST HST MFS SB MFS SB IMPORTANT KEY BOUNDING SURFACES
SEQUENCE 3 2
1 LEGEND HST Highstand system tract TST Transgressive system tract SB -- Sequence Boundary MFS Maximum Flooding Surface
EMI-5-Well This well was logged from 500ft to 8500ft. Three MFS were identified at 8265ft, 5880ft and 2745ft; and two sequence boundaries were delineated at 6300ft and 2900ft. Consequently, three sequences were identified as shown in Table 3.
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SEQUENCE 3 2
1 LEGEND HST Highstand system tract TST Transgressive system tract SB -- Sequence Boundary
MFS Maximum Flooding Surface EMI-6-Well This well was logged from 970ft to 10796ft. Three MFS were identified at 10,490ft, 7900ft and 4130ft. Also two SBs were delineated at 8545ft and 4470ft. The three sequences recognized within the logged interval are shown in Table 4 .
Table 4: Sequence Stratigraphic framework of EMI-6 Well
DEPTH(FT) 970 4130 4470 7900 8545 10490 10796 SYSTEM TRACTS HST TST HST TST HST TST MFS SB MFS MFS IMPORTANT KEY BOUNDING SURFACES
SEQUENCE 3 2
LEGEND HST Highstand system tract TST Transgressive system tract SB -- Sequence Boundary MFS Maximum Flooding Surface
Biostratigraphic Data Interpretation Palynological analysis of Emi-6 commenced from 1,970ft down to 10,796ft. Within this depth range, 98 ditch cutting samples composited at 90ft were processed to generate the database for palynostratigraphic interpretations. The palynological zones and subzones inferred for this well are referenced against the zonal schemes of Germeraad et al. (1968), Evamy et al. (1978), Legoux (1978) and the in-house scheme currently used by ExxonMobil, Nigeria. Comparative correlation of the various palynological zones, subzones and palyno-cycles established for Emi-6 well is shown in Table 5 Palyno-cycles inferred for sediments in the analysed section were based on the succession of the peak occurrences of spores, palmae, mangrove, herbs and Gramineae. The peaks of these flora groups are indicative of an ecological phase during which a particular group was dominant (Poumot, 1989). The succession of these peaks is repetitive and each succession represents a palyno-cycle. These palyno-cycles may be useful for regional correlation. In Emi-6 well, twelve (12) palyno-cycles were identified (Table 5).
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Table 5:
DEPTH(Ft)
I 2390 II 2930 LATE III ECHITRICO 3830 P2 4320 LPOLRITE P880 P3 V 4370 5230 VI P4-P6 SPINOUS 6220 P7 6860 6820 IX P860 X 7440 UPPER 7880 LATE MIOCENE 10050 VIII 6270 PLIOCENE 4550 4910 EARLY IV 4010 3470 PLIOCENE
4000
5000
6000 7000
ZONE 8810 XI
XII 10796
11000 RF-4
RF-4
In foraminiferal biostratigraphic analysis, one hundred and forty eight (148) composite samples obtained from Emi-6 well were used for this study. The benthic foraminiferal zones established for Emi-6 are presented in Table 6. Apart from arenaceous, calcareous (benthic) and planktic foraminiferal species and their respective indeterminate forms, gastropods, shell fragments, echinoid remains, fish teeth and ostracods were also recovered.
Table 6: Alontological Zonation Of EMI 06
DEPTH (FT) 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000 11,000 BENTHIC ZONES ZONE II (VALVULINA FLEXILIS) 6.810 ZONE II 10.796 AGE PLIOCENE
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Key Bounding Surfaces SB MFS (Bolivina - 48 SB (4.1 Ma) MFS (Bolivina 48 SB (5.6 Ma) MFS (Haplophragmoides24)
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Figure 9:
130
ages assigned to the sequence boundaries are 5.6Ma and 4.1Ma. The key bounding surfaces were used for regional correlation of the wells. Late Miocene-Late Pliocene age, corresponding to the P800 zone of palynological zonation, and the zones I and III of the palaeontological zonation have been assigned to the sediments. The Miocene-Pliocene boundary was established at approximately 6,860ft. Three major sequences (1, 2 and 3) were identified in all the studied wells, with sequence 3 recognized in the seismic section. Transgressive systems tracts were recognized as fining upward (retrogradational) parasequences, and (progradational) parasequences, in the depositional sequences. The alternation of highstand sands and transgressive shales is inferred to provide the desired combination of reservoir and source rock required for hydrocarbon generation. From the results obtained, it can be concluded that the application of sequence stratigraphy to Emi field has enhanced the interpretation of the stratigraphic build-ups, recognition of isochronous surfaces and identification of prospects and leads. The correlation of isochronous, laterally persistent transgressive marker shales across fault blocks permits the recognition of the thickening or expansion of sedimentary sequences on the down-thrown blocks. It is however recommended that further work be carried out in the study area with more biostratigraphic data for more wells as well as synthetic seismogram to help balance the discrepancies in results obtained between seismic and well data.
Acknowledgement
We appreciate the assistance of the management and staff of ExxonMobil, Lagos, Nigeria , for providing the data used in this study. We are grateful to the Nigerian Association of Petroleum Explorationists (NAPE) for the opportunity given to present this paper at the International conference and exhibition in Abuja, Nigeria.
References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Adesida, A. and Ehirim, B.O. 1988. Cenozoic Niger Delta: A guide to its lithosedimentary analysis. SPDC Exploration note 88.002 (Ref: on-shore wells) p. 1-10 Assez, L.O. 1976. Review of the stratigraphy, sedimentation and structure of the Niger Delta. In: C.A. Kogbe ( ed.): Geology of Nigeria, Elisabethan Publ. Lagos, pp 331-324 Avbovbo, A.A. 1978. Tertiary lithostratigraphy of Niger Delta, American Association of Petroleum Geologist Bulletin, 62 ( 2), pp 295-300 Brown, L.F. and Fisher, W.L. 1980. Principles of seismic stratigraphic interpretation, A.A.PG. continuing education course note series, No. 16 Doust, H. and Omatsola, M.E. 1990. Niger Delta. In: J.D. Edwards and P.A. Santoyrossi ( eds). Divergent and passive margin basin. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 48, p. 201-238 Evamy, B.O., Herembourne, j., Kameline, P., Knap, W.A., Molloy, F.A. and Rowlands, P.H. 1978. Hydrocarbon habitat of Tertiary Niger Delta, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 62, p.1-39 Frankl, E. J and Cordy, E.A. 1967. The Niger Delta oil province: Recent developments, onshore and offshore, Mexico city, seventh world petroleum congress proceedings, 2, p. 195209 Germeraad, J. H., Hopping, C.A. and Muller, J. 1968. Palynology of tertiary sediments from tropical areas. Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol 6p 189-348 Hallock, P., and Peebles, M.W. 1993. Foraminifera with chlorophyte endosymbionts: habitats of six species in the Florida Keys. Marine Micropaleontology, 20: 277-292.
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List of Figures
1. Map of Niger Delta showing the location of study field 2. Base map of study area 3. Stratigraphic column showing the three formations of the Niger Delta ( After Doust and Omasola, 1990) 4. Niger Delta Cenozoic Chronostratigraphic Chart ( After Haq et al., 1988) 5. Stratal termination patterns ( After Vail., 1987) 6. Seismic stratigraphic interpretation of Emi Field 7. Seismic reflection configuration and structural features in Emi Field 8. Microfaunal Distribution and abundance chart of Emi-6 well 9. Sequence stratigraphic framework of Emi-Field
List of Tables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Sequence stratigraphic framework of Emi -1 well Sequence stratigraphic framework of Emi -3 well Sequence stratigraphic framework of Emi 5 well Sequence stratigraphic framework of Emi -6 well Palynological zonation of Emi- 6 well Palaeontological zonation of Emi- 6 well Age and depths of key bounding surfaces