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DC ELECTRICITY

The aims of this unit are:

AIMS

1.

To explain the fundamental concepts of electricity, electric charge, electric current, electromotive force, potential difference (voltage), and resistance. To demonstrate how to calculate DC voltages, currents and power dissipation in simple DC resistor networks. To introduce the concept of electric fields. To introduce capacitance and capacitors. To demonstrate how to calculate voltage, charge and energy in a capacitor. To introduce the main types of capacitor and higlight some of their applications.

2.

3. 4. 5.

6.

After studying this sub-unit, you should be able to:

THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY

1. Define or explain the meaning of the following terms: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 3. ampere conductor conventional current coulomb electricity electric charge electric current electromotive force (emf) free electrons drift velocity ion insulator positive and negative charge potential difference (PD) schematic diagram volt voltage

OBJECTIVES

Understand how positive and negative electric charges interact. Explain electrical phenomena in terms of the atomic theory of matter. Perform calculations involving the units of coulombs and amperes.

4.

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INTRODUCTION

What is electricity? Where does it come from? How can it be produced? Is there more than one type of electricity? How do positive and negative electric charges interact? These are the sorts of questions that we will shortly try to answer. It was through rubbing certain materials together that mankind first produced and investigated the mysteries of electricity. The first recorded experiments took place around 600 BC, in the era of Pythagoras, Confucius and Buddha. The pioneering physicist was Thales, who lived in Miletus, a Greek-run territory located in the south-eastern corner of what is now modern Turkey. Thales demonstrated that if amber ( a yellowish substance used for ornamental purposes ) was rubbed with animal fur, the amber would attract to it pieces of dry straw or feathers. In England in 1600, William Gilbert, personal physician to Queen Elizabeth 1, published a study which listed many other substances capable of producing the same effect after rubbing. Gilbert called these substances electrics, after elektron, the Greek word for amber. It was French scientist Charles Dufay who produced the next step forward. In the 1730s he found that there was not just one type of electricity - but two. Furthermore, Dufay found that like types of electricity repelled while opposite types attracted. We can illustrate this point with the following experiment. Take a piece of amber and a piece of glass, two substances which can be electrified by rubbing with fur and silk respectively. Electrify the amber and glass, and suspend each by a thread so that it is free to move. Now bring them close together. Result: the amber and the glass attract one another. However, if two pieces of amber are brought close, they repel one another. Similarly, two pieces of glass repel if they are suspended in close proximity. After numerous experiments with many substances, no type of electric was ever discovered which was not attracted either to the amber or the glass. In other words, there were two types of electricity and only two: the amber-type and the glass-type. In 1747 the American inventor and statesman Benjamin Franklin introduced the terms positive charge and negative charge into the language of electricity. Franklin described substances which act like electrified amber as having a negative charge and those which act like electrified glass as having a positive charge. We continue to use Franklins terms today and we can now state Dufays discovery, which is a fundamental law of electricity, in these terms: Unlike charges attract one another, while like charges repel. It is important to note that the words positive and negative are purely arbitrary terms; positive electricity is not in any way better than negative electricity. We can summarise as follows the basic facts about electricity, all verifiable from simple experiments: . An object can be made electrified by friction. Some materials are easier to electrify than others. There are two types of electric charge - positive and negative.

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. .

Like charges repel; opposite ones attract. The strength of the attractive or repulsive electric force decreases with distance. The electric force is far more powerful than gravity. And like gravity, the electric force can act through empty space. The electric force which an object is capable of exerting is independent of its mechanical properties - its shape, size, density, etc.

THE ATOMIC DESCRIPTION OF ELECTRICITY

Benjamin Franklins terms of positive and negative charge were rooted in his idea that electricity was some form of subtle fluid, of which electrified materials had either too much (when positively charged) or too little (when negatively charged). A material which was not charged he called electrically neutral, as it contained its proper amount of this mysterious fluid. Franklin believed that all charged bodies sought to become electrically neutral - to discharge their surplus or deficiency of electric charge. This explained why oppositely charged bodies attract one another: the positive and negative charges attempt to cancel one another out, as the body with positive charge tries to surrender its excess of charge to the negative body with a deficiency of charge. This theory also explained why bodies with a similar charge repel one another. A positive body could not discharge to another positive one; a negatively charged body could not satisfy its deficiency of charge through another body with a similar deficiency. Franklin furthermore suggested that if the charge on two oppositely charged bodies was large enough, the excess on one would leap or spark across to the other without the two bodies needing to be in physical contact. It was from this theory that he developed the idea that lightning in the atmosphere was simply the discharge of electricity from clouds to the earth, and for lightning to take place, the clouds had to carry a large electric charge opposite in sign to that of the area of earth beneath them. It was known at the time that spark discharges were best attracted by metal rods with sharp points. Franklin recommended placing such rods (now called lightning conductors) on top of tall buildings, and connecting each one by a length of wire to another metal rod, driven into the ground. In this way, the electricity in the clouds would be discharged safely to the earth. The lighting conductor provides a low-resistance path to earth for the electricty, therebydiverting the electricity away from the fabric of the building in the event of a lightning strike. But what is the subtle fluid of which Franklin reckoned electricity was composed? In the 1830s, English physicist Michael Faraday suggested that there was within all matter two particular types of tiny particles, one carrying a basic amount of positive charge and the other a basic amount of negative charge. All observed charges were simply multiples of these basic charges. As the atomic theory of matter took root in the nineteenth century, scientists concluded that if matter was atomic, then so too was electric charge. It is from these beginnings that our present theories have developed.

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All matter consists of large numbers of tiny, spherical particles called atoms, each with a radius of about 10-12 m. The structure of a typical atom is illustrated in Figure 1.1. It consists of a central nucleus (radius 10-14 m), containing a number of sub-atomic particles called protons and neutrons. Around the nucleus even smaller particles, the electrons, orbit like planets around the sun. Each of the over 100 naturallyoccurring or artificially-produced elements is characterised by a unique combination of protons, neutrons and electrons in its atoms.
Electrons (negative charge)

Nucleus

+ +

+ +

Figure 1.1 Illustration of atomic structure

Neutron (no charge) -

Proton (positive charge)

Neutrons, as their name suggests, carry no electric charge. Protons carry a positive charge. Electrons carry a negative charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the positive charge of the protons. It is the charge on the protons and electrons in every atom of matter that accounts for the phenomenon of electricity. The atom is held together by the force of attraction between the protons and the electrons. Normally, an atom contains the same number of each and is therefore electrically neutral; that is, its net charge is zero. If an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, it becomes negatively or positively charged respectively. (An electrically charged atom is called an ion.) In either situation, the atom is unstable and tries to return to the neutral state, by repelling the gained electron into orbit around an adjacent atom or by attracting an electron from an adjacent atom to make up its deficiency of negative charge. We will return to this subject in more detail in Unit 3. According to the principle of charge conservation, the charge of an isolated system cannot change. If an additional positively charged particle appears within a system, a particle with a negative charge of the same magnitude will be created at the same time; thus, the principle of conservation of charge is maintained.The unit of electric charge is called the coulomb (C). The smallest sub-division of the amount of charge that a particle can have is the charge of one proton, +1.602 10-19 coulomb. The electron has a charge of the same magnitude but opposite sign, ie 1.602 10-19 coulomb.

PRINCIPLE OF CHARGE CONSERVATION

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ELECTRIC CURRENT

In Italy in 1800 Alessandro Volta invented the electric battery, which for the first time enabled scientists to experiment with a steady flow of electric charge through a circuit. Previously, the only form of electric charge movement which could be produced and investigated was the sparking discharge that leapt from one electrified body to another. Such was the fame brought to Volta by his invention that Emperor Napolean called him to France in 1801 for a command performance of his experiments. Voltas battery truly revolutionized the study and application of electricity; his invention was an essential component in the early telegram and telephone communication systems which appeared in the second half of the nineteenth century. The flow of electric charge generated by Voltas battery was called an electric current. Like their modern-day counterparts, the original batteries had two terminals, one of which possessed a negative charge and the other a positive one. Which way does the electric current flow - from the positive end of the battery or from the negative? Clearly, it must be one or the other. The early experimenters with electricity knew nothing of electrons, so they had to choose one terminal or the other; in effect, they had to make an even-money guess. And as it happened, they got it wrong. They decided that current originates at the positive terminal of the battery and terminates on the negative one. This convention, that current flows from positive to negative, is still retained today, even though we now know that current is carried by electrons and that electrons move from negative to positive. In short: Conventional current flow is from positive to negative; the actual movement of electrons is in the opposite direction, from negative to positive. For practical purposes, it does not really matter in which direction we believe the current to flow - as long as we are consistent in any particular case. Different materials exhibit different abilities to conduct electricity. For example, copper conducts electricity very well and is therefore a good conductor; plastic hardly conducts electricity at all and is accordingly a good insulator. This wide range of electrical conductivity shown by different materials can be explained in terms of their atomic structure. Metals and other good conductors have electrons in their outer orbital paths which are not strongly attracted by the protons in the nucleus. These electrons are called free electrons and normally drift randomly from atom to atom throughout the conductor. However, when a battery or other electrical source is applied across both ends of the conductor, these free electrons all move in the same direction towards the positive terminal of the source, so giving rise to an electric current. In insulators, all the electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus, so that it is difficult to remove them from their orbital paths. There are therefore no, or very few, electrons free for conduction. Consider a movement of electrons along a length of conducting metal wire, similar to the flow of water through a pipe. See Figure 1.2.

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Area A

Figure 1.2 Electron flow

Electron Flow

Direction of Conventional Current

If the electrons move at a uniform rate and a total charge, denoted by the letter Q, passes through a cross-section of the wire in a time of t seconds, then this is equivalent to an electric current, I, where: electric current = amount of moving charge time taken

I=

Q t

As indicated previously, the units of electric charge are coulombs (C). Current is measured in amperes (A). A current of 1A flows when 1C of charge passes a point every second. How many electrons are involved in carrying a current of 1A; that is, in moving 1C of charge per second? As previously indicated, the magnitude of the charge on each electron has been measured to be 1.6 x 10-19 C. Current is the rate of flow of charge, ie the amount of charge passing a given point in a conductor every second. Therefore for a current of 1A, we can say that the rate of flow is 1 coulomb every second. Thereore the number of electrons required to make 1 coulomb of charge is
N= 1 1 18 = 19 = 6.25 10 charge on each electron 1.6 10

As you can see, quite a large number of electrons is involved! Another question is, how fast do the electons move? In order to answer this question, imagine a length of conducting wire with cross-sectional area A carrying a current I, as shown in Figure 1.3, and suppose there are n free electrons per unit volume of the wire, each carrying the basic unit of negative charge, e, and moving at an average velocity v. In a time of t seconds the electrons will travel a distance

l = vt
Thus in t seconds all those electrons N in a volume Al=Avt will pass through a plane P of the wire. Thus N = nAvt

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and the total charge Q in motion is

Q = Ne = neAvt

Therefore, the electric current is given by the expression: I= Q Ne neAvt = = = neAv t t t

Electron

Area A Conductivity Wire

Figure 1.3 Calculation of drift velocity in a conductor

electron flow conventional current

In order to estimate the drift velocity v of the electrons, suppose I=1.6 A, A=1 mm2 = 10-6 m2, e = 1.6 10-19 C, and n =1028 electrons / m3. Then from the equation above

v=

I 1.6 = 28 = 10 3 m / s = 1mm / s 6 nAe 10 10 1.6 10 19

This is a surprisingly slow drift speed compared with the average thermal speeds of the electrons which can be of the order of several hundred metres per second. It should be noted therefore that the electrons which leave the negative terminal of the electrical energy source are not necessarily the same ones which enter the positive terminal. Individual electrons progress only very slowly along a conducting wire. As calculated above, their typical speed is about 1mm/ s or, in other words, in the above case, it takes nearly 17minutes for the electrons to travel along one metre of conducting wire. The current, however, travels at a speed close to that of the speed of light (3 108 m/ s). The situation may be compared to that of having a long tube filled with marbles; push one marble at one end of the tube, and another marble pops out at the other end. Each marble may be likened to a packet of electrons carrying an amount of charge. While the marbles may pop out quite slowly, the amount of charge emerging each second can be quite high. The rate of flow of charge in coulombs per second gives the current in amperes (A).

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit is formed when electrical energy is applied, via an uninterrupted conducting path, to one or more devices. Consider the simple circuit shown in Figure 1.4, which consists of a battery, a length of wire and a bulb.

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+ Battery

Connecting Wire

Light and Heat

Figure 1.4 Battery and bulb circuit

Bulb

The bulb lights (and heats up) due to the flow of electricity from one terminal of the battery to the other, along the wire and through the bulb itself. The source of electrical energy for a circuit may take many forms: battery, dynamo, alternator, mains supply, etc. The device to which the electrical energy is transferred may be a bulb, water-heater, television set, washing machine, computer system or whatever. It must be stressed that for a current to flow in any circuit, there must be a continuous conducting path from one terminal of the source, through the device, and back to the other terminal of the source. Most circuits contain a switch; if open, the switch interrupts the conducting path and so no current can flow; if in the closed position, the switch enables the current to flow. To simplify the drawing of electric circuits, a standard set of symbols is used, each one representing a typical circuit component. Figure 1.5 shows the schematic diagram of the battery and bulb arrangement illustrated in Figure 1.4 and includes a switch. Additional circuit component symbols will be introduced as we encounter them. Voltas battery and its modern-day counterparts are examples of a source of electromotive force (emf). An emf source provides the electrical energy which is necessary for an electric current to flow. The concepts of electromotive force and potential difference (PD) may be more readily understood by considering the simple analogy shown in Figure 1.6, in which a pump continuously circulates water around a closed-pipe system.

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Positive Battery Symbol Negative Terminal Terminal

+ -

Switch

Figure 1.5 Schematic diagram of a battery and bulb circuit

Bulb Terminal

Bulb Symbol

Bulb Terminal

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At this point water (current) can take one of two different routes

pressure difference = potential difference

water flow = current

Figure 1.6 The water-system analogy

pump = emf

To keep the water flowing in the system, the pump must be in continuous operation. Similarly, in an electric circuit the continuous output from an electrical energy source (a battery, generator or whatever) is required to keep the electric current flowing in the circuit. The driving force provided by the electrical energy source is called the electromotive force or emf. In the water system, water flows between any two points only when there is a pressure difference between them. Similarly, in an electric circuit, current can only flow between any two points when there is a potential difference between them. The unit of potential difference is called the volt, after Alessandro Volta. The volt is defined as the energy in joules required to carry one coulomb of charge from one point to another. Thus, the emf of a source is the potential difference (PD) across its terminals, expressed in volts.

SAQ 1

For an electric current to flow between any two points in a conductor, state which of the following conditions are true and which are false: a. b. c. A potential difference must exist between the points. The same potential must exist at each of the points. There must be a movement of electrons between the points. The conductor must be free of electrons. A source of emf must be present. The circuit may have a break in it.

d. e. f.

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SAQ 2

A torch battery is capable of delivering a current of 300mA continuously for a period of 5 hours before running flat. Calculate the initial charge stored in the battery.

1.

SUMMARY
2.

An atom is a particle of matter consisting of a central nucleus of protons and neutrons, around which electrons orbit. Protons carry a positive charge; electrons a negative one. Neutrons carry no charge and are electrically neutral. Forces exist between electrically charged particles and bodies, such that like charges repel and opposite ones attract. Electric charge, denoted by the symbol Q, is measured in units of coulombs (C). An electric current, symbol I, is a flow of negative charge, carried by electrons. I= Q t

3.

4.

5.

Electric current is measured in amperes (A), where 1A represents 1C of charge flowing past a point for one second. 6. Good conductors have many free electrons. Good insulators have none or very few. An electromotive force (emf) is a source of electrical energy required to produce an electric current. Current flows between any two points in a circuit between which there is a potential difference (PD). The unit of both PD and emf is the volt (V). For an electric current to flow in a circuit, there must be a continuous, uninterrupted path between the positive and negative terminals of the source.

7.

8. 9.

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ANSWER TO SAQS

SAQ 1
a. True. b. False. c. True. d. False. e. True. f. False.

SAQ 2 charge = current time:

Q = I t => Q = 300 10-3 60 60 5 = 5400 C

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DC CIRCUITS
After studying this sub-unit, you should be able to:

OBJECTIVES

1.

Define or explain the meaning of the following terms: . . . . . . . . direct current (DC) electric power dissipation Kirchoffs laws Ohms law resistance internal resistance resistivity superposition theorem

Calculate the resistance of a conductor given resistivity and the appropriate data. Perform simple circuit calculations involving Ohms and Kirchoffs laws. Calculate the equivalent resistance of series, parallel and seriesparallel resistor networks. Calculate the voltage, current and power dissipation in series, parallel and series-parallel resistor networks.

3.

4.

5.

INTRODUCTION

We begin our analysis of electric circuits by considering a particular type of circuit, called a direct current or DC circuit. In a DC circuit, current always flows in the same direction through the circuit. For such circuits, the voltage output of the source of emf stays constant with time as shown in Figure 1.7.
emf (volts) V

Figure 1.7 Voltage output of a DC source

Time t

The other main source of electricity is the AC (alternating current) type. As its name implies, the direction of the current in AC electricity is constantly changing. The most common example of an AC source of emf is the mains electricity supply. Many of the principles of DC circuits can also be applied to AC ones. We will be studying AC electricity in the next unit.

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RESISTANCE AND OHMS LAW

So far in our study of electric circuits we have learnt of potential difference and current, and that the first produces the second. We have also learnt that some materials are better at carrying a flow of current than others; or, to put it the other way around, some materials offer less of a resistance to current flow than others. Are these three quantities - potential difference, current and resistance - related in some simple way? It was this task of finding such a relationship that the German physicist George Ohm set himself in the years immediately following Voltas invention of the battery. In 1827, Ohm showed that the flow of current in a conductor (at constant temperature) is directly proportional to the potential difference across the conductor and inversely proportional to the resistance of the material carrying the current. Today, this statement is known as Ohms law. Letting V represent potential difference (voltage), I for current and R for resistance, we can write Ohms law mathematically as follows: I= V ; R V = RI ; R= V I

Ohm was a humble school teacher at the time of his discovery. Instead of bringing him fame and fortune, however, Ohms law embroiled him in controversy with other scientists of the day, as a result of which he lost his school teaching position and spent the next six years in poverty and bitter disappointment. Eventually, recognition came. Five years before his death at the age of 52, Ohm was made Professor at the University of Munich. When he died in 1854, a statue was raised to him and a Munich street named in honour of the man who discovered that V = RI. Today, the unit of resistance is the Ohm, represented by the Greek symbol omega (). A material has a resistance of 1 if a current of 1A flows through it when an emf of 1V is applied across it.

SAQ 3
a. A PD of 20V is applied between the ends of a conductor and a current of 2A flows. Calculate the resistance of the conductor.

b. What PD must be connected across a 100 resistor to obtain a current of 10mA flowing in it? c. A car light bulb has a resistance of 6. Calculate the current, which flows through it when it is connected across the cars 12V battery.

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RESISTIVITY

The resistance of a conductor depends on both its size and shape, and on the material from which it is made. The resistance, R, of a regularly shaped piece of material is proportional to its length, L, and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, A. Mathematically, we may write R= L A

Where is a constant of the material called the resistivity. The unit of resistivity is the Ohm-metre (m).

SAQ 4
Calculate the resistance of a cylindrical piece of copper wire of length 80cm and diameter 1mm. The resistivity of copper is 1.72 10-8 m.

So far, we have considered resistance as being the property of a single conductor to resist current flow. In addition, electronic components are manufactured with specific resistive properties: these are called resistors. A typical resistor is shown in Figure 1.8, together with its circuit symbol. A wide range of resistors are manufactured, with the resistance value indicated in coded form by coloured band markings.

Tolerance Band R

Figure 1.8 Illustration of a resistor component

Colour Code Bands

RESISTORS IN SERIES

When two or more resistors are connected end-to-end, as shown in Figure 1.8, they are said to be connected in series. If an emf is applied across the ends of the network, a current I will flow. Since there is only one path for current to travel, it must be the same in all parts of the circuit. That is: I = I 1 = I 2 = I3
V

(1)

I + R1 I1 V1 I2 V2 + R2 I3 V3 + R3 -

Figure 1.9 Resistors in series across a battery

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For the current I to flow through the resistors, there must be a potential difference (voltage) across each. These are labelled V1, V2 and V3 respectively in Figure 1.9, with the plus sign (+) indicating the point of highest potential and the minus sign (-) indicating the point of lowest potential. The sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 must equal the supply voltage, V. That is: V = V 1 + V2 + V3 (2)

Using Ohms law for each resistor, we can say that: V1 = I1R1 ; V2 = I2R2; V3 = I3R3 If Rs represents the equivalent resistance of R1, R2 and R3, then we can write: V = V1 + V2 + V3 IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

(3)

Thus, for resistors connected in series, the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. This rule holds for any number of resistances connected in series.

EXAMPLE

A 30V DC power supply unit (PSU) is applied across 3 resistors of value 10, 20 and 30 connected in series. Calculate the current supplied by the power supply and the voltage across each resistor.

SOLUTION

The circuit is illustrated in Figure 1.10. Let I denote the current flowing in the circuit, and let V1, V2 and V3 represent the potential differences (PDs) across the three resistors. Total resistance, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 = 10 + 20 + 30 = 60 By Ohms law, I = V/R = 30/60 = 0.5A

Therefore, the current supplied by the PSU is 0.5A. Now let us find the voltages, V1, V2 and V3, across each resistor. V1 = IR1 = 0.5 10 = 5V V2 = IR2 = 0.5 20 = 10V V3 = IR3 = 0.5 30 = 15V

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As a check, let us see if these three voltages add up to the supply voltage, V = 30V. V = V 1 + V2 + V3 = 5 + 10 + 15 = 30V
DC Power Supply Unit 30V + V I _ + R1 = 10 V1 _ + R2 = 20 V2 _ + R3 = 30 V3 _

Figure 1.10 Series resistor network

SAQ 5
a. A DC electric motor, with a resistance of 3, is operated from a 24V supply. What value of resistor must be connected in series with the motor if the current through it is to be limited to 500mA?

b. When 3 identical resistors are connected in series across a 15V DC supply, a current of 10mA flows. Find the potential difference across each resistor and its resistance value in Ohms.

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

When two or more resistors are connected side-by-side, as shown in Figure 1.11, they are said to be connected in parallel. When a source of emf is applied across a parallel connection of resistors, there is more than one path through which current can flow.
V1 + R1 _

I1

I2

V2 + R2 _

I3

V3 + R3 _

Figure 1.11 Resistors connected in parallel across a battery

30V + _ V

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In addition, as each individual resistor is connected across the supply, the PD across each resistor is equal to that of the supply voltage. That is: V = V 1 = V 2 = V3 The total current, I, flowing into the parallel circuit divides amongst the various branches in inverse proportion to the individual resistance in each branch. The sum of the individual branch currents must equal the current flowing into the parallel circuit. That is: I = I 1 + I 2 + I3 (4)

Let Rp denote the equivalent resistance of the parallel connection. Then, using Ohms law and equation (4), we can write

V V V V = 1 + 2 + 3 Rp R1 R2 R3
But V = V1 = V2 = V3. Therefore:

V V V V = + + Rp R1 R2 R3 1 1 1 1 = + + Rp R1 R2 R3

(5)

Therefore, for a network of resistors connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of each of the individual resistances. A special situation arises when there are just two resistances, R1 and R2, connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 1.12.

R1 R2

Figure 1.12 Special case of two resistors in parallel

is equivalent to
Rp

Rp =

R1 R2 R1+ R2

Using equation (5) to obtain the equivalent resistance gives:

1 1 1 R + R2 = + = 1 Rp R1 R2 R1 R2

Rp =

R1 R2 product of resistances = R1 + R2 sum of resistances

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The expression provides a useful short-cut to finding the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected in parallel. It is important to remember, however, that it does not hold true for more than two resistors.

EXAMPLE

Three resistors with resistance 5, 10 and 30 are connected in parallel across a 30V battery. Calculate: a. The current flowing in each resistor. b. The total current supplied by the battery. c. The equivalent resistance of the network.

SOLUTION

The circuit diagram is given in Figure 1.13 a. Using Ohms law, I1 = V/R1 = 30/5 = 6A = V/R2 = 30/10 = 3A = V/R3 = 30/30 = 1A = I 1 + I 2 + I3 =6+3+1 = 10A

I2

I3

b. Total current,

c.

Let Rp be the equivalent resistance. Then: 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/5 + 1/10 + 1/30 = 6/30 + 3/30 + 1/30 = 10/30 Rp = 30/10 = 3

As a check, the total current supplied by the battery can be calculated using the expression: I = V/R = 30/3 = 10A

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I1

R1 = 5

I2

R2 = 10

I3

R3 = 30

Figure 1.13 Parallel resistor network

30V + _ V

SAQ 6
Three resistors of 10, 15 and 30 are connected in parallel across a supply of V volts. The total current drawn from the supply is 2A. Calculate the supply voltage V and the current through each resistor.

SAQ 7
What value of resistor must be connected in parallel with a 47k resistor to obtain an equivalent resistance of 42k?

Very often resistor networks contain both series and parallel circuits. Such networks can be analysed by dealing with each series section and each parallel section separately. This procedure is demonstrated in the following example.

EXAMPLE

For the circuit shown in Figure 1.14, calculate: a. b. c. The total current supplied by the battery. The PD across each resistor. The current flowing in each resistor.
18V

I + + _ R1 = 4 + R2 = 6 R4 = 10 V1 V2 V3 _ _ R3 = 40

Figure 1.14 Network of series and parallel resistors

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SOLUTION

a.

To calculate the total current supplied by the battery, we need to calculate the total equivalent resistance of the circuit. Consider firstly the equivalent resistance, Rp, of R3 and R4 in parallel. Rp = R3R4/(R3 + R4) = 40 10/(40 + 10) = 400/50 = 8 Thus, the circuit can now be redrawn as in Figure 1.15. Total resistance, R =4+6+8 = 18 = V/R = 18/18 = 1A

From Ohms law, I

Therefore, the current supplied by the battery is 1A.

b.

Let V1, V2 and V3 respectively.

denote the PDs across R1, R2 and Rp

Again from Ohms law, V1 = IR1 =14 = 4V V2 = IR2 =16 = 6V V3 = IRp =18 = 8V Since Rp represents the effective resistance of R3 and R4 in parallel, we can also say that the voltage V3 = 8V is the voltage across R3 and R4 in Figure 1.15. c. The current flowing in R1 and R2 is the battery current, I = 1A. Let I1 and I2 denote the currents flowing through R3 and R4 respectively. From Ohms law, I1 = V3/R3 = 8/40 = 0.2A I2 = V3 /R4 = 8/10 = 0.8A As a check, determine if I I = I1 + I2 = 1A = I 1 + I2 = 0.2 + 0.8 = 1A

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18V

I + R1 = 4 _ + R2 = 6 _ + Rp = 8 _

Figure 1.15 Equivalent circuit

V1

V2

V3

SAQ 8
For the circuit shown in Figure 1.16, determine the current through the 20 resistor.

R1 = 9

R2 = 12

R5 = 15

40V

Figure 1.16 Circuit for SAQ 8

R3 = 6

KIRCHOFFS LAWS

So far we have analysed electric circuits by simplifying them, step-bystep, into a form to which we can apply Ohms law. For relatively simple circuits this procedure is quite adequate. However, it is not always easy to reduce more complex circuits to a form in which Ohms law can be directly applied. In such situations, Kirchoffs two laws for electric networks are extremely useful. First, let us define two terms. A junction is a point in a circuit at which three or more conducting paths are joined. A loop is any closed conducting path in an electric circuit. We can now state the two laws of Gustav Kirchoff (1824-1887), the eminent German physicist, developed by him when he was only twenty years old. Kirchoffs first law (the current law) states that: The total current flowing into any junction equals the total current flowing out of it. If we adopt the convention that current flowing into a junction is positive and that current flowing out is negative, we can re-state Kirchoffs current law as follows: The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction in a network is zero.

Unit 1: DC Electricity

R4 = 20

1-21

Consider Figure 1.17.

I2

I1
I3 I5 I1 + I 4 = I 2 + I 3 + I 5

Figure 1.17 Illustration of Kirchoffs current law

I4

Junction (node)

The current entering junction = current leaving junction I 1 + I4 = I 2 + I 3 + I5 Or, I1 - I2 - I3 + I4 - I5 = 0 Kirchoffs second law (the voltage law) states that: In any closed loop in a network, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (PDs) around the loop is equal to the emf acting in that loop. Consider Figure 1.18.
V1 + _ + E V2

Figure 1.18 Illustration of Kirchoffs voltage law

_ _ V3 E = V1 + V2 + V3

In this case, there is only one loop. emf = sum of voltage drops = V 1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 In applying Kirchoffs voltage law, we must carefully assign the correct polarity (positive or negative value) to the voltage drops. The general convention used is as follows. When progressing around a loop, a PD going from high to low in the direction of progress is taken as positive; conversely, a PD going from low to high is taken as negative. Therefore, if we progress around a loop and the current is in the same direction as our progress, the PD is taken as positive. If the current direction is opposite to our direction of progress, the PD is taken as negative.

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Communication Technology 1

EXAMPLE

As an example of the application of Ohms and Kirchoffs laws consider the circuit shown in Figure 1.19. Given the information indicated on the diagram, calculate the values of I1 and R2 . From Ohms law - : V3 = I3R3 = 3 4 =12V, which is also equal to V2 since the resistors R2 and R3 are in parallel. From Kirchoffs Voltage law - : V1+V2 =36V. Therefore V1 = 36 V2 = 36 - 12 = 24V . From Ohms law - : I1 = V1 / R1 = 24 / 6 = 4A. From Kirchoffs current law - : I1 = I2 + I3. Therfore I2 = I1 - I3 = 4 3 = 1A. From Ohms law - : R2 = V2 / I2 = 12 / 1 = 12.
I2 R1= 6 + V1 I1 + V2 I 3 = 3A + V3 R3 = 4 R2 -

SOLUTION

Figure 1.19 Illustration of Ohms and Kirchoffs Laws

36V

SAQ 9
Given the information indicated on the diagram in Figure 1.20, calculate the values of I1 , I2 , I 3 , V2 and V3.
I1

R1 = 2 + 4V + -

I3 I2

R3 = 2 V3
4V

10V

V2 -

R2 = 6

Figure 1.20 Circuit for SAQ 9

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-23

INTERNAL RESISTANCE

So far the voltage sources in our circuits have been ideal in that they have had zero internal resistance. Practical voltage sources, including power supplies and batteries possess some internal resistance. When a voltage source delivers current to a circuit a potential difference is developed across this internal resistance and so not all of the e.m.f of the source is produced at its terminals; some potential (voltage) is lost across the internal resistance of the source. Practically, the internal resistance of a source can be represented as a resistance, r, in series with the e.m.f. as shown in Figure 1.21 (a). Now consider this source connected to an external resistance R as shown in Figure 1.21(b). This circuit is just a source of e.m.f which causes a current to flow in a resistive circuit consisting of two resistances, r and R, connected in series, which is a simple circuit and can be analysed using the methods we have been studying. The main point is that because there is a voltage drop across the internal reistance r, the voltage developed across the external resistance R is less than the e.m.f. value E. Thus in circuit analysis problems where it is required to take into account the internal resistance of the source, the technique is to place the internal resistance value in series with the source of e.m.f and then treat it like any other resistive component.
Vr r A + + r _ A +

+ E _ VAB = E _ B (a) E

+ _

I= E R+r

R _ B (b)

VAB = R .E R+r

Figure 1.21 Internal Resistance of a Voltage Source

The Superposition Theorem states that:

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

In any (linear) circuit,the voltage or current in any part of the network is the sum of the voltages or currents caused by each generator acting separately, with the other generators replaced by their internal resistances. To use the Superposition Theorem, one of the sources of e.m.f. is selected and the circuit is re-drawn with only this source of e.m.f. present, and all other sources of e.m.f. are replaced with their internal resistances only. The voltages or currents at the required parts of the circuit are then determined using Ohms law and the relationships for resistors in series and in parallel. This is then repeated in turn for each of the other sources of e.m.f., and finally all of the voltage or current values are summed. The sum is the actual voltage or current due to alll of the sources of e.m.f. in the circuit acting together.

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Communication Technology 1

ELECTRIC POWER

Suppose we have a current I flowing through a resistance R, as illustrated in Figure 1.22, where the PD across the resistance is V.
Heat

Figure 1.22 Illustration of power dissipation in a resistor

A R I + V _

If the current, I, flows for a time t seconds, then a charge of Q coulombs will be transferred from B to A, where Q = It. It may be shown that, the work done, W, in transferring this charge Q from B to A, against a potential V, is given by: W = QV = VIt joules This work done by the voltage source is expended in the form of thermal energy (heat). The energy dissipated per second in the resistor is defined as the power dissipation in the resistor. It is measured in watts. Hence: P = W/t = VI t/t = VI watts From Ohms law: V = RI or I = V/R P = VI = (IR)I = I2 R Also: P = VI = V(V/R) = V2/R Therefore, there are three, equivalent expressions for electric power dissipation in a resistance. These are: P = VI; P = I2R; P = V2/R

EXAMPLE

For the circuit shown in Figure 1.23, calculate: a. b. c. The power delivered by the battery. The power dissipated in each resistor. Verify that the total power dissipation is equal to the power delivered by the battery.
10V I

Figure 1.23 Two resistor circuit

R1 = 3

R2 = 2

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-25

SOLUTION

a.

I = 10/(3 + 2) = 2A

The power, P, delivered by the battery is: P = VI = 10 2 = 20W b. Let P1 and P2 denote the power dissipation in R1 and R2 respectively: P = I 2 R1 = (2)2 3 = 12W P = I 2 R2 = (2)2 2 = 8W c. Total power dissipation = P1 + P2 = 12 + 8 = 20W This equals the total power delivered by the battery, as calculated in part a. of this example.

SAQ 10
a. A car light bulb is rated at 24W, 12V. What current flows in the bulb when it is switched on and what is its resistance?

b. An electric soldering iron has an element of resistance 100 and carries a steady current of 0.5A for 1 hour. How much electrical energy is converted into heat energy during this period? What is the power rating of the iron? 1. A DC source of emf is one whose voltage output remains constant with time. The resistance R of a conductor of length L and cross-sectional area A is given by: R = L/A where is a constant of the material known as the resistivity. 3. Ohms law states that resistance, voltage and current are all interrelated as follows: R = V/I; V = RI; I = V/R 4. In a series resistor circuit: Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + ........ + Rn I = I1 = I2 = I3 = ............. = In V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ........ + Vn

SUMMARY
2.

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Communication Technology 1

5.

In a parallel resistor circuit: 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + ...... + 1/Rn I = I1 + I2 + I3 + ................... + In V = V1 = V2 = V3 = ............. = Vn In the special case of two parallel resistors: Rp = R1R2/(R1 + R2) (= product/sum)

6.

For series-parallel resistor networks, each series and parallel section has to be treated separately and their equivalent resistances calculated. These are progressively substituted in the combined circuit until the original circuit is reduced to a simple series or parallel circuit. Kirchoffs first law (the current law) states: The algebraic sum of the currents flowing towards a junction in an electric circuit is zero. That is, the current flowing into the junction is equal to the current flowing out of it. Kirchoffs second law (the voltage law) states: In any closed loop in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops (PDs) around the loop is equal to the emf acting in that loop. The Superposition Theorem states: In any (linear) circuit,the voltage or current in any part of the network is the sum of the voltages or currents caused by each generator acting separately, with the other generators replaced by their internal resistances.

7.

8.

9.

10. Electric circuits can be analysed to obtain the currents and voltages in each part of the circuit using a combination of Ohms law, Kirchoffs laws and the Superposition Theorem. 11. When an electric current flows in a resistance R, electrical energy from the source of emf is converted into heat. The power dissipation, P, in watts, which defines the rate at which energy is converted, is given by the three equivalent expressions: P = VI; P = I2R; P = V2/R. 12. The power, P, produced by a source of emf, V, which delivers a current, I, to a circuit is given by: P = VI.

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-27

SAQ 3 ANSWERS TO SAQS

From Ohms Law: R = V/I; V = IR; I = V/R a. R = V/I = 20/2 = 10 = IR = 10 10-3 100 = 1V = V/R = 12/6 = 2A

b. V

c.

SAQ 4
The cross-sectional area, A, of the wire is given by the expression: A = r2 = (0.0005)2 m2 = 7.85 10-7 m2 The resistance of the wire is given by the expression: R = L/A where: = 1.72 10- 8 Ohm-metres L = 0.8m A = 7.85 10-7 m2 Therefore: R = (1.72 10-8 0.8)/(7.85 10-7) = 0.0175

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Communication Technology 1

SAQ 5
a. The circuit is illustrated in Figure 1.24 Let R = the resistance of series resistor Rm = resistance of motor I = V/(R + Rm) 0.5 = 24/(R + 3) 0.5(R + 3) = 24 0.5R + 1.5 = 24 0.5R = 22.5 R = 45 b. The circuit is illustrated in Figure 1.25 Let R represent the resistance of each resistor. The total resistance, RT, is therefore: RT = R + R + R = 3R RT = V/I 3R = 15/(10 10-3) = 1500 R = 1500/3 = 500 V1 = V2 = V3 = IR = 10 10-3 500 = 5V
Motor

R = 3

I = 500mA = 0.5A V

Figure 1.24 Circuit for SAQ 5a

_ 24V

V = 15V

I = 10mA

Figure 1.25 Circuit for SAQ 5b

R V1

_ +

R V2

_ +

R V3

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-29

SAQ 6
The circuit is illustrated in Figure 1.26 Let Rp represent the equivalent resistance of R1 , R2 and R3 in parallel. 1/Rp = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 = 1/10 + 1/15 + 1/30 = 3/30 + 2/30 + 1/30

Rp = 30/6 = 5 V = IRp =25 = 10V Let I1, I2 and I3 denote the currents through R1, R2 and R3 respectively. I1 = V/R1 = 10/10 = 1A I2 = V/R2 = 10/15 = 0.67A I1 = V/R3 = 10/30 = 0.33A
I = 2A
I1 I2 I3

R2 = 15

Figure 1.26 Circuit for SAQ 6

1-30

R1 = 10

Communication Technology 1

R3 = 30

SAQ 7
For two resistors R1 and R2 in parallel, their equivalent resistance Rp is given by the expression: Rp = R1 R2 /(R1 + R2) In the case, Rp = 42k and R1 = 47k The problem is to calculate R2 : 47 R2 /(47 + R2) 47R2 47R2 5R2 R2 = 42 = 42(47 + R2) = 1974 + 42R2 = 1974 = 394.8k

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-31

SAQ 8
To find the current through the 20 resistor R4, we need to know the voltage across it. Since R2, R4 and R5 are in parallel, it is possible to reduce these to a single series circuit, as shown in Figure 1.27. It is now easy to find the voltage across Rp and hence R2 . 1/Rp = 1/R2 + 1/R5 + 1/R4 = 1/12 + 1/15 + 1/20 = 5/60 + 4/60 + 3/60 = 12/60 = 60/12 = 5

Rp

Total resistance, R = R1 + Rp + R3 =9+5+6 = 20 Current, I = V/R = 40/20 = 2A Voltage across Rp = IRp =25 = 10V

Current through R4 = I4 I4 = 10/20 = 0.5A

I R1 = 9

Figure 1.27 Circuit for SAQ 8

R3 = 6

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Communication Technology 1

Rp

40V

SAQ 9
Using Ohms law - : I1 = V1 / R1 =4 /2 = 2A. Using Kirchoffs voltage law- : V2 = 10 - 4 = 6V. Using Ohms law - : I2 = V2 / R2 = 6 / 6 = 1A. Using Kirchoffs current law - : I1 + I3 = I2 . Therefore I3 = I2 - I1 = 1 - 2 = -1A. The minus sign above indicates that the current is in fact opposite in direction to that indicated, ie a value of 1A in the left to right direction through R3. From Ohms law - : V3 = I3R3 = -12 = - 2V Note again that the negative sign indicates that the polarity of the voltage across R3 is opposite to that originaaly marked on Figure 1.20, ie the left side of R3 is at a potential which is 2V higher than the right side. This shows that current directions and voltage polarities must be borne in mind when dealing with circuits of this type.

SAQ 10
a. Power = voltage current P = VI 24 = 12I I = 2A Resistance, R = V/I = 12/2 = 6 b. Electrical energy transferred = power time = (VI) t = (I2R) t In the case: I = 0.5A R = 100 t = 1 hour = 60 60 seconds = 3600 seconds Energy converted to heat = (0.5)2 100 3600 = 90,000 joules = 90kJ Power, P = I2R Power rating of soldering-iron = (0.5)2 100 = 25W

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-33

ELECTRIC FIELDS
After studying this sub-unit, you should be able to:

OBJECTIVES

1.

Define or explain the meaning of the following terms: electric field electric field strength equipotential lines lines of electric force permittivity

2. Calculate the force on electric charges situated in an electric field, given the appropriate data. 3. Calculate the work done in moving a charge in an electric field.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS

We have already seen that charged bodies in close proximity exert forces upon one another. For like charges, the forces are repulsive; for opposite charges, the forces are attractive. We will now try to explain how these forces arise. One of the first people to try and do this was the English physicist Michael Farady, who, in the 1830s, suggested that the space around charged objects was filled with something he called an electric field. This field served as the medium for transmitting the electrical forces, just as water transmits waves or air carries sound through it. Consider two parallel plates a small distance d apart, having a potential difference of V volts between them as shown in Figure 1.28. Assume that this potential difference causes plate A to have a positive charge +Q and plate B to have a negative charge -Q. An electric field exists in the area between the two plates. If the distance between the plates is very small compared to their area, virtually all of the field will be confined to the region between them. There will be a slight fringing effect, ie the electric field also exists in a small region outside that exactly between the two plates. (See Figure 1.28.) As an aid to visualising this electric field, Faraday developed a pictorial scheme called lines of force. These imaginary lines represent electrical force in the following way: . . The direction of the force at any point in space is along the lines. The strength of the force is greatest where the lines are closely spaced. The direction of the lines is that in which a positively charged body would move if it were placed in the field. The lines always repel and never cross one another.

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Communication Technology 1

V = V1 - V2 'fringing'

A V1

B V2 E= V1 - V2 d

V1 > V2 +Q -Q

Figure 1.28 Field between two parallel plates

If a small positive charge is inserted anywhere in the field between the two plates, it will experience the same net force. Although the force of attraction towards plate B and the force of repulsion from plate A varies with the distance of the charge from the plates, the resultant of the forces is always constant. Since the force on a given charge is the same at all points, the strength of the electric field must be the same at all points: the field is said to be uniform. Another useful device in visualising the electric field is the idea of equipotential lines. These lines are drawn at right angles to the lines of force and link points in an electric field which are at the same potential. If the potential on the plates is V1 and V2 respectively, and the field between them is uniform, the potential of points in the field must progress linearly from V1 at plate A to V2 at plate B. This means that lines of equipotential can be drawn through the field parallel to the plates as shown in Figure 1.29(a). There exists a potential gradient which varies linearly with distance between the plates as shown in Figure 1.29(b).

d (a) Equipotential Lines V1

Equipotential Lines

V2

(b) Potential Gradient

V1

Figure 1.29 Equipotential lines and potential gradient

v d V2

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-35

The potential difference between these lines compared to the distance between them is a measure of the electric field strength E: V volts per metre d

E =

The direction of field strength is positive in the direction of lower potential, which is also the direction of the force on a positive charge placed between the two points. Electric field strength is sometimes called voltage gradient.

SAQ 11

(a) A potential of 200V is applied between two parallel plates spaced 2mm apart. Calculate the field strength between the plates. (b) Two parallel plates are situated 1mm apart. What potential must be applied between the plates to produce a field strength of 5000V/m?

An alternative definition of electric field strength is as follows: The electric field strength at any point in a field is defined as the force which would be exerted on one unit of positive charge if it were placed at that point. Thus if a charge Q is placed in an electric field E, it experiences a force F given by: F = QE

SAQ 12
A charge of 10C is situated in an electric field of strength 2000V/m. Determine the force acting on the charge.

The work done, W, in moving a charge, Q, a distance, d, in an electric field of strength, E, is equal to the product of the force on the charge and the distance moved in the direction of the force. That is: W = Fd = QEd But E = V/d. So: W = Q(V/d)d = QV Or, V = W/Q This expression leads to a formal definition of potential difference: The potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done in moving a unit of positive charge between the two points.

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Communication Technology 1

1.

SUMMARY

Electric fields can be represented graphically by lines of force. Lines of force are directed from positive to negative charge (potential) and never cross one another. Their closeness represents field strength.

2 . The electric field strength, E, is defined in magnitude and direction as the force exerted by the field on a unit of positive charge. For two conductors a distance d apart having a potential difference V between them, the electric field strength, E, is given by: E = V/d 3. An equipotential line links points in an electric field which are at the same potential. Their direction is always at right-angles to the lines of force. 4. A charge, Q, placed in an electric field of strength, E, experiences a force F given by the expression: F = QE 5. The potential difference between two points in an electric field is the work done in moving a unit of positive charge between the two points.

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-37

SAQ 11 ANSWERS TO SAQS

(a) Electric field strength = voltage between plates/distance between plates E = = = = V/d 200/0.002 100 000V/m 105 V/m

(b) E = 5000 = V = = V/d V/0.001 5000 0.001 5V

SAQ 12
Force = charge electric field strength F = QE = 10 10-6 2000 = 0.02N

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Communication Technology 1

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE

After studying this sub-unit, you should be able to:

OBJECTIVES

1. Define or explain the meaning of the following terms: . . . . . . . . . . . capacitance capacitor dielectric dielectric field strength equivalent capacitance Farad maximum working voltage parallel-plate capacitor relative permittivity time-constant parasitic capacitance

2. Calculate the amount of charge stored on a capacitor, given the appropriate data. 3. Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor, given the appropriate data. 4. Calculate the electric field strength in the dielectric of a capacitor, given the appropriate data. 5. Calculate the energy stored in a capacitor, given the appropriate data. 6. Calculate the time-constant of simple resistor-capacitor networks. 7. List the main types and applications of capacitors.

CAPACITANCE

One of the most important circuit components of our electronic age is the capacitor. A capacitor is a device for storing charge. They are used to minimise voltage variations in power supplies, to increase the efficiency of electric power transmission, to measure time, and to detect and generate radio waves. We can illustrate the operation of a capacitor by considering the circuit shown in Figure 1.30. The two terminals of a battery are each connected to a length of conducting wire. Each length of wire goes to a small, flat plate, also made of conducting material. The two plates are separated from each other by a small air gap. What happens in such a circuit? The emf of the battery causes current to flow until the plate connected to the positive battery terminal receives a charge Q and achieves the same positive potential as the battery terminal itself. Similarly, the plate connected to the negative terminal of the battery receives a negative charge, - Q. In other words, the flow of current stops when the potential difference across the capacitor equals the potential difference across the battery. Note that the charges on the two plates are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-39

-Q _ Conducting Plates Air-gap V + V I +Q V

Figure 1.30 Operation of a capacitor

Charging current flows into capacitor

Suppose we remove the battery. What happens? Answer: The positive and negative charges remain on the two plates. Hence, this arrangement of two flat plates separated by an air gap has the ability to store an electric charge. The capacity of a device to store electric charge, called its capacitance, is defined as the ratio of charge on either plate to the potential difference between the two plates. If Q (in coulombs) is the charge on either plate and V (in volts) represents the potential difference between the plates, then C (the capacitance) is equal to: Capacitance = Charge on either plate/Potential difference C = Q/V coulombs/volts Rather than measure capacitance in coulomb/volts, physicists have given it a special unit of its own: the farad (F), named after Michael Faraday. A device has a capacitance of one farad if it holds a charge of one coulomb when a potential of one volt is applied across it. In practice, the farad is an extremely large unit. For example, a capacitor of 1 farad capacity, with two parallel plates 1mm apart in air, would require each plate to have an area of over 40 square miles! Practical capacitors typically have values in microfarads (F) nanofarads (nF) and picofarads (pF): 1 microfarad (F) = 10-6 F 1 nanofarad (nF) = 10-9 F 1 picofarad (pF) = 10-12 F We may summarise the properties of a capacitor thus: . A capacitor is not like a resistor: it does not allow DC current to pass through it. A capacitor is not like a battery or other emf generator: it must be charged before it can supply a current. It can also be charged to many different voltages. A capacitor stores electric charge.

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Communication Technology 1

THE PARALLELPLATE CAPACITOR

Any configuration of conductors separated by an insulating material is capable of storing charge and, consequently, of possessing capacitance. For example, the earth and the ionosphere, a layer of charged particles surrounding our planet at a height of roughly 100km, may be together considered as a huge capacitor. The simplest form of capacitor is the type considered above - two flat, metal plates, separated by a thin layer of insulating material (air). (Figure 1.31). This is termed a parallel-plate capacitor. Assuming the potential of the battery or other emf source is constant, how can we vary the capacitance of our parallel-plate device? Because the two plates are oppositely charged, there must be an electric field between them; if the plates are close together, we can assume that the electric field lines are straight and parallel. In the area within the plates, the electric field (E) is simply the potential difference (V) divided by the distance (d) between them. electric field = potential difference/distance apart E = V/d One value which cannot change in this equation is V, the potential difference across the plates; as V is generated by the constant emf source, V remains fixed in magnitude. If we reduce the distance (d) between the two plates, the electric field (E) must increase, as the potential difference (V) cannot change. As E increases, then so too must the charge (Q) on each plate. This in turn increases the capacitance. Hence, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance separating the two plates. Mathematically: C 1/d Another option is to increase the area (A) of the two plates. Suppose two larger plates are held the same distance apart and the same potential applied across them. The charge per unit area must remain the same, since the electric field is the same as before. As the area is greater, so too must be the amount of charge stored. Hence, the capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates: CA Combining this with the previous equation gives us: C A/d In summary, the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor (Figure 1.31) is directly proportional to the area of its plates and inversely proportional to their distance apart. For any given insulating material between the plates, it is found that: C = A/d

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-41

where is a constant known as the permittivity of the insulator. By permittivity we mean the degree to which the insulator permits the storage of charge on the two plates; the greater the permittivity, the greater the charge stored and the greater the capacitance. The units of permittivity are farads per metre (F/m).

DIELECTRIC

Spacing d

Figure 1.31 Parallel-plate capacitor

Area A

Usually, the permittivity is not expressed directly, but in relation to the permittivity of free space (a vacuum), where 0= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m. The relative permittivity of an insulator, denoted by the symbol r, is its own, unique permittivity divided by the permittivity of free space. Relative permittivity has no units. relative permittivity = permittivity of insulator/permittivity of free space r = /0 Insulators used to separate the two plates of a capacitor are called dielectrics. r is therefore termed the relative permittivity of a dielectric. In conclusion, we can now answer the question with which we began this section: for a constant emf source, how can capacitance be varied? . . . by moving the plates closer together or further apart by increasing or decreasing the area of the plates by using a dielectric with a greater or lesser permittivity.

These three factors are related to capacitance by the following equation: C = r0A/d

EXAMPLE

A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two plates of dimension 10cm 5cm, separated by 1mm layer of mica which has a relative permittivity of 5. Calculate the capacitance of the device and the charge stored when the PD between the plates is 100V. (0 = 8.85 10-12 F/m)

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Communication Technology 1

SOLUTION

area of plates

= 10 5cm = 50cm2 = 0.005m2

capacitance C

= 0r A/d = (8.85 10-12 5 0.005)/10-3 = 0.22 10-9 F = 220pF

charge stored Q

= capacitance voltage = CV = 0.22 10-9 100 = 0.22 10-7 C = 0.022C

SAQ 13
List three possible ways of changing the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor.

SAQ 14
Calculate the amount of charge stored in a 0.1F capacitor which is charged to 25V; that is, with a potential difference of 25V across it.

SAQ 15

A 2700pF capacitor is to be constructed using a paper dielectric of thickness 0.5mm. If the relative permittivity of paper is 2.5, calculate the required area of the plates. (0= 8.854 10-12 F/m) An important quantity in capacitor design is dielectric field strength. This is the magnitude of the applied electric field which the material of the dielectric is capable of withstanding without breaking down. Because of the very close proximity of the plates in a parallel-plate capacitor, the electric field in the dielectric can be very large. (E = V/d; E is large if d is small). If high enough, the electric field can cause the dielectric to break down and conduct current. This happens when the force of the electrons on the atoms of the dielectric (normally an insulator) is so great that these electrons become detached from their nuclei and cause conduction, often damaging the dielectric. The maximum amount of field strength which a given dielectric can withstand is called the dielectric field strength of that dielectric. As the distance d between the plates is fixed during manufacture, an upper limit must be set on the voltage that can be applied across the capacitor. Since: dielectric strength, E = V/d Vmax = dE

Unit 1: DC Electricity

1-43

In practice, a maximum working voltage, which is less than the value capable of causing dielectric breakdown, is quoted for the capacitor, so that the dielectric strength limit is never reached in normal use.

SAQ 16

A capacitor uses a dielectric of thickness 0.1mm and operates at a voltage of 50V. Calculate the amount of dielectric field strength across the dielectric. Like resistors, capacitors may be connected together into series or parallel networks, or in some combination of each. In every case, these networks may be represented by a single, equivalent capacitance.
S C1 Q1 C2 Q2 C3 Q3

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Figure 1.32 Parallel Capacitor Network

Figure 1.32 shows three capacitors connected in parallel. Note here the standard, circuit symbol for a capacitor: two parallel lines, separated by a small space. It may easily be shown that the equivalent capacitance Cp of this parallel connection is Cp = C1 + C2 + C 3

Thus, for any number of capacitances connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances. Figure 1.33 shows three capacitors connected in a series network. It maybe shown that the equivalent capacitance Cs for this series connection is given by
C1 Q1 + Charging Current I S _ V1 Q2 + _ V2 C2 Q3 + _ V3 C3

Figure 1.33 Series Capacitor Network

1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

Thus, for any number of capacitors in series, the reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances. You will notice that the above cases are exactly opposite to those for resistors in series and parallel.

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ENERGY STORAGE IN A CAPACITOR

A capacitor, a powerhouse of stored charge, is also a powerhouse of stored electrical energy. When a capacitor receives charge from an emf source, energy is transferred from the source to the capacitor and stored in the form of an electric field between the plates. The capacitor will continue to hold this energy even when the supply is removed; it therefore becomes a small energy source in its own right. The energy stored in a capacitor can be regained by allowing the capacitor to discharge through a resistor or other circuit component, for example an electronic flash for a camera. It may be shown that the amount energy E stored in a capacitor C charged to a voltage V may be quantified as E = CV2 /2 The energy stored in a capacitor is therefore equal to half the product of the capacitance and the square of the voltage across the two plates. Since capacitors can store electrical energy, could they be used to replace batteries, such as the standard car battery for example? The typical 12V car battery can transfer a total of about 3.6 10-4 C of charge. Using the equation C = Q/V, the capacitance of the battery is 3 10-3 F. Assuming that capacitor plates are 1mm apart and the dielectric is free space, the area of the plates required is given by the equation: A = Cd/0 which gives the result of 3.39 105 m2. This corresponds to a square of about 360 miles to a side! We can therefore conclude that, in this example at least, a capacitor cannot be used as a large source of electrical energy. As energy storers, however, capacitors can perform functions that batteries cannot. For example, camera flash-bulbs are powered by a capacitor which is in turn charged by a battery. The advantage of using the capacitor is that it can provide a short duration flash as it is discharged. In addition, capacitors are not damaged by such sudden discharge of all their electrical energy; most types of battery would be. Consider the circuit of Figure 1.34(a) consisting of an initially uncharged capacitor C, a resistor R and a switch S that are connected in series to a dc power supply E. How will the voltage VC across the capacitor vary when the switch is instantaneously closed? Closing the switch suddenly connects the positive terminal of the supply to the resistor forming a complete circuit and current begins to flow. This current begins to charge the capacitor, so that a positive charge accumulates on the plate A of the capacitor ( and a negative charge accumulates on the other plate B). As a result, the potential (voltage) on plate A increases from zero to a positive value. As more charge accumulates on the capacitor, this positive potential continues to increase. As it does so, the value of the potential across the resistor is reduced; consequently, the current decreases with time, approaching the value of zero as the capacitor potential reaches its final maximum value of E volts.

CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTANCE

Unit 1: DC Electricity

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R 1k

+ E(10V) _

1F + C _ Vc

(a) Circuit Vc(t) E i(t) E/R i(t) = E e-t/RC R

Figure 1.34 Charging a Capacitor from a Voltage Source through a Resistance

Vc(t) = E(1 - e-t/RC) t (b) Variation of capacitor voltage with time

t (c) Variation of charging current with time

Figure 1.34(b) graphs this voltage VC as a function of the time and Figure 1.34 (c) shows how the current i varies with time. Theoretically full charging of the capacitor takes an infinite amount of time but in practice it becomes virtually fully charged after a finite amount of time. The quantity = RC is known as the time-constant of the circuit. After a time equal to one time-constant , the capacitor is charged to 63.2% of its fully charged value and after a time equal to 5 (5 x time-constant), the voltage has reached 99.3% of its fully charged value. The charge and discharge of a capacitor has many important applications in modern electronics, particularly in relation to timing circuits. There are many capacitor types and they are utilised in a wide variety of application areas across the broad spectrum of electronic engineering. For example they are used as the basic storage element in certain types of digital computer memories a charged capacitor represents the storage of a binary value of 1 and an uncharged capacitor represents the storage of a binary value of 0. They are used as part of a smoothing circuit in dc power supplies in which a time-varying alternating current (ac) input voltage is converted to a constant dc output voltage. As indicated above they are are utilised in timer circuits which operate on the time for the capacitor to be charged to a certain voltage. In conjunction with resistors and other electronic components they are used to design electronic filter circuits which are capable of passing signals in a certain frequency range and rejecting frequencies outside this range. This can be particularly useful in separting wanted signals which are contaminated by electronic noise. These are just some examples of the application of capacitors and throughout the remainder of this unit and the course in general you will study these and other applications of capacitors in more detail. Capacitors are classified according to the type of dielectric. Figure 1.35 provides summary information on a variety of capacitors classified according to the type of dielectric. Table 1.1 summarises the main features of each capacitor type and also lists some broad application areas.

TYPES OF CAPACITOR AND MAIN APPLICATIONS

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Temperature compensation High dielectric constant type Semiconductor type Polyester (Myler)

Multi layered Single layered Multi layered Single layered Single layered

Ceramics

Capacitors

Film

Polypropylene Polystyrene

Aluminum electrolytic

Figure 1.35 Classification of Capacitor Types

Tantalum electrolytic Mica

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Type

Feature

Application circuit

Multi-layered ceramic capacitor

This type of capacitor has been developed to meet demands for high-density ceramic capacitors. Multilayered ceramic capacitors incorporate multiple printed layers of electrode plates made of 20 to 50-f thick ceramic sheets. These capacitors are more compact and have better temperature characteristics than singlelayered ceramic capacitors. Multi-layered ceramic capacitors are, however, rather expensive because their electrode plates use precious metals. With the further development of materials for electrode plates, these capacitors are expected to take the lead in the main stream of ceramic capacitors. Like a single-layered ceramic capacitor, a multi-layered ceramic capacitor is either a product of high dielectric constant construction or a product that has excellent temperature characteristics ideal for temperature compensation.

Circuits of general electronic equipment

Single-layered ceramic capacitor

This type of capacitor that incorporates a ceramic dielectric is either a product ideal for temperature compensation, a product that has a high dielectric constant, or a product that is of a semiconductor type, which depends on the kind of ceramic dielectric. The single-layered ceramic capacitor for temperature compensation does not have a high electrostatic capacity but it covers a wide temperature characteristic range including temperatures below 0C. The capacitor of high dielectric constant construction is compact yet it has a high electrostatic capacity. The semiconductor type capacitor is far more compact yet it has the highest electrostatic capacity of all single-layered ceramic capacitors.

Circuits that require excellent frequency characteristics, such as high-frequency circuits and digital circuits

Film capacitor

The high-frequency and temperature characteristics of film capacitors excel those of ceramic capacitors. Furthermore, high-capacity film capacitors are available, which are, however, more expensive and larger than ceramic capacitors that are the same in capacity. Polyester (Myler), polypropylene, or polystyrene can be used for the film of this type of capacitors.

High-frequency circuits and analog circuits

Metal-glazed film capacitor

This type of capacitor incorporates electrode plates made of film vacuum-evaporated with metal such as aluminum. Metal-glazed film capacitors can be more compact yet higher in electrostatic capacity than film capacitors. Polyester, polypropylene, or polycarbonate can be used for the film of this type of capacitors.

High-frequency circuits, switching circuits, and analog circuits

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Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

This type of capacitor incorporates a metal oxide film dielectric produced from electrolysis and its anode is made of aluminum. That is the reason this type of capacitor is called aluminum electrolytic capacitor. It is possible to produce high-capacity aluminum electrolytic capacitors. Their frequency and temperature characteristics are, however, bad.

Power supply circuits, audio circuits, timer circuits, and backup circuits

Tantalum electrolytic This type of capacitor is similar to aluminum electrolytic capacitor capacitors, but its anode is made of tantalum instead of aluminum. Tantalum electrolytic capacitors are a little inferior in electrostatic capacity to aluminum electrolytic capacitors. The frequency and temperature characteristics of tantalum electrolytic capacitors, however, excel those of aluminum electrolytic capacitors.

Noise limiters, coupling circuits, and filter circuits

Others

Mica, glass, and paper are used for dielectric elements as well as the materials described above. Mica is the best dielectric but it is expensive. Glass ensures a stable temperature coefficient over a wide range. Paper is used for high-voltage capacitors.

Precision equipment and highvoltage equipment

Table 1.1 Summary of Capacitor Features and General Application areas

Unfortunately capacitance arises naturally in many situations in electronic circuits when it is unwanted since it can be detrimental to their performance. For example, two parallel copper tracks on a printed circuit board have a small capacitance between them. The copper tracks act as the parallel plates and the insulating material of the board substrate acts as a dielectric. This type of naturally occurring capacitance is known as parasitic capacitance and it can greatly reduce the speeed at which electronic signals can be transmitted on the printed board in this example. Because of the materials used and the way in which electronic components such as transistors, diodes, inductors, and even resistors are constructed, parasitic capacitance exists throughout electronic circuitry and care has always to be taken to minimise its effects.

PARASITIC CAPACITANCE

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1. A capacitor is a device for storing electric charge.

SUMMARY

2. Any configuration of conductors, separated by an insulating material has capacitance - that is, the ability to store charge. 3. The capacitance of any device is the ratio of the charge stored to the voltage across it. Mathematically: C = Q/V Capacitance is measured in farads (F). One farad equals one coulomb/ volt. 4. A parallel-plate capacitor, consisting of two conducting plates of cross-sectional area A, separated by a dielectric of thickness d and relative permittivity r, has a capacitance given by the expression: C = r0 A/d where 0 is the permittivity of free space (a vacuum). 5. A dielectric is the name given to the insulating material in a capacitor. 6. The maximum value of the applied electric field which the dielectric material can withstand without breaking down and conducting current is called the dielectric field strength. Capacitors have a particular maximum working voltage. This is less than the breakdown value and should not be exceeded in normal use. 7. For capacitors connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is given by the expression: 1/Cs = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + ...... 8. For capacitors connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is given by the expression: Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ..... 9. The energy, E, stored in the electric field of a capacitor of capacitance C, charged to a potential of V volts, is given by the expressions: E = CV2 /2 10. Unwanted capacitance arising naturally in electronic circuits is known as parasitic capacitance.

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SAQ 13 ANSWERS TO SAQS

The three ways of changing the capacitance are: moving the plates closer together or further apart; increasing or decreasing the area of the plates: and using a dielectric with a greater or lesser permittivity.

SAQ 14
The charge stored on the capacitor equals the capacitance multiplied by the voltage applied across it. Q = CV = 0.1 10-6 25 = 2.5 10-6 C = 2.5C

SAQ 15
For a parallel-plate capacitor: C = 0r A/d where: 0= 8.85 10-12 F/m r= 2.5 d = 0.0005m C = 2700 10-12 F Therefore; A = dC/0r = (0.0005 2.7 10- 9)/(8.85 10-12 2.5) = 0.0609m2 = 609cm2

SAQ 16
E = V/d = 50/0.0001 = 500000V/m = 500kV/m

Unit 1: DC Electricity

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