NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN ENGINEERING SCIENCES

TRAINING REPORT
GENARAL INDUSTRIAL TRAINING AT

CEYLON ELECTRICITY BOARD

SUBMITED BY : P.A.U.A.BANDARA ADD. NO FIELD DURATION : EP\01\4701 : ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (POWER) : 06 / 10/ 2003 TO 31/ 08/ 2004

TECHNICIAN TRAINING INSTITUTE KATUNAYAKE.

CONTENTS
Acknowledgement Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Vision 1.3 Mission 1.4 The boards statuary obligation 1.5 Environment policy statement 1.6 Power stations operated by CEB Chapter 2 Government Installation 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Cinnamon Garden Depot 2.3 Wiring Installation & testing 2.4 Trip switch Chapter 3 High Tension Maintenance 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Main element connected in Ring system 3.3 Underground Cables 3.4 Construction of cables 3.5 Cables for three-phase service 3.6 Types of cable faults 3.7 Fault location 3.8 Cable fault Locating Methods Chapter 4 Sub Stations (Kolonnawa & Biyagama Grid Sub Station) 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Types of Sub Stations according to the service 4.3 Types of Sub Stations according to the construction 4.4 Switch yard Equipment 4.5 Oil breakers 4.6 Circuit breaker testing 4.7 Interlocking System 4.8 Transformer protection 4.9 Operation of transformers 4.10 Transformer testing 4.11 Laying underground cables Chapter 5Generation (Victoriya power station) 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Water ways 5.3 Underground Power station 5.4 Generators 5.5 Protection of generators 5.6 Excitation 2

5.7 Control room 5.8 Switch yard Chapter 6 Medium voltage maintenance 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Equipment applied in overhead distribution lines 6.3 Hot line Maintenance 6.4 sub Station Maintenance 6.5 Line Maintenance

Acknowledgement
It is indeed a great pleasure to present the training report in the completion of the second practical training 6 months of general industrial training at Ceylon electricity board which were very satisfactory places to cover most of the modules that gave me technical and management knowledge. It is pleasure to thank the chairmen and all the managers and engineers at C.E.B for contributing the optimum support and guidance to receive a standard training in electrical field. Further Im very much thankful to other engineers, electrical superintendents, foremen, supervisors in various technical work shops & fields in addition I received the fullest cooperation from all segments of general workforce. I would also like to thank the TTI management Including all the IT & Academic staff for providing necessary instructions, guidance, and giving me the fullest cooperation. Finally I thank all my colleagues for been with me exchanging views, sharing experiences, etc during this period.

Thank You, P. A.U.A.Bandara EP / 01/4701

TRAINING SCHEDULE OF CEB

Period From To

Work site

Government installation (Cineman garden) High Tension Maintenance (Maligawatta) Grid substation (Biyagama) Grid substation (Kolonnawa) Mahaweli complex (Victoriya power station) Medium Voltage Maintenance (Piliyandala)

1.1 INTRODUCTION CEB is a leading government institute. It has the responsibility of handling almost all the control of electricity sector in Sri Lanka. Namely, Generation Transmission Distribution (major part) Ceylon Electricity Board has the monopoly of electrical power sector in Sri Lanka. C.E.B. constituted under the Ceylon Electricity Board Act No 17 of 1969, which had been subsequently amended by Act No 31 of 1969 and Act No 29 of 1979. Now CEB is under ministry of energy and power and the ministry of energy and power is Mr. Susil Premjayantha 1.2 Vision Be an internationally recognized efficient utility providing high quality service to all its stakeholders. 1.3 Mission To provide reliable quality electricity to the entire nation at internationally competitive prices effectively and efficiently through a meaningful partnership with skilled and motivated employees using appropriate state-of-the-art technology for the socio economic development of the country in an economically sustainable manner while meeting acceptable environment standards. 1.4 The boards statutory obligation The Board is under a statutory duty to develop and maintain an efficient, coordinated and economical system of Electricity Supply. It is also the duty of the Board to generate or acquire supplies of electricity; to construct, maintain and operate the necessary works for the generation of electricity by all means, to construct, maintain and operate the necessary works for the inter-connection of Generating Stations and Substations and for the transmission of electricity in bulk from

Chairman, Vice Chairman And Board of Directors

Chief Internal Auditor

General Manager

Secretary To The Board

A.G.M. Generation

A.G.M. Transmission

A.G.M. Distribution Operation

A.G.M. Distribution Development and Services D.G.M. Engineering Audit

A.G.M. Commercial

A.G.M. Human Resources

Finance Manager

Manager Investigation

Pension and Provident Fund

Generating Stations and Sub-stations to such places as may be necessary from time to time; to distribute and sell electricity in bulk or otherwise. It is the duty of the Board to exercise its powers and perform its functions so as to secure that the revenue of the Board are sufficient to meet its total outgoing properly Chargeable to revenue account including depreciation and interest on capital, and to meet a reasonable proportion of the cost of the development of the services of Board. 1.5 Environment policy statement Ceylon Electricity Board will manage all its business activities in a manner, which cares for the natural and manmade environment and contribute to sustainable development. By means of openness in dealing with environmental issues, CEB intends to create confidence in their activities on the part of the public, customers, authorities, employees, and owners. CEB will actively pursue a policy of incorporating and integrating environmental considerations into CEB activities. CEB policy is elaborated below in more concrete terms

a. CEB will lead the development of environmentally compatible and efficient

energy solutions.

b. CEB will, by means of quantifiable environmental targets, endeavor to cause

minimum impact on the environment.

c. CEB will, in all our operations, economize on natural resources and energy. d. CEB will attach key importance to human health and safety. e. CEB will analyze in advance the environmental impact of all new activities. f. CEB will improve the environmental awareness of their staff by training and
motivating them to take responsibility for the environmental consequences of their activities.

g. CEB will place the same high environmental demands on our suppliers,
contractors and business partners as CEB place on their own operations.

h. CEB will be able to discuss environmental issues with their customers from an
overall perspective and promote electricity's environmental benefits.

i. CEB will openly report on our environmental work and their impact on the
environment, and conduct a close dialogue with various interested parties on environmental issues important to our activities.

1.6 Power station operated by CEB

The details of power stations operated by CEB are given in Table.1.1and Table. 1.2 Installed Capacity MW Generation (million units/yr)

Plant Laxapana Complex Canyon Wimalasurendra Old Laxapana New Laxapana Polpitiya Laxapana Total Mahawelli Complex Victoria

Commissioning

2 * 30 2 * 25 3 * 8.33 2 *12.5 2*50 100 2*37.5 35 3* 210

60 50 50

137.3 122.1 260.8 465.8

Unit 1 March 1983 Unit 2 1988 Jan 1965 Dec 1950 Dec 1958 Unit 1 Feb 1974 Unit 2 Mar 1974 April 1969

75 3

396.8 1382.8

70

663.7

Unit 1 Jan 1985 Unit 2 Oct 1985 Unit 3 Feb 1986 Unit 1 April 1985 Unit 2 Feb 1988 Unit 3 Feb 1988 July 1986 Unit 1 July 1976

Kotmale

3*67 201

445.13

Randenigala Ukuwela

2*61 122 2*19

10

326.4 164.4

38 Bowatenna Rantambe Mahawelli total Samanalawewa Small hydro Plants Inginiyagala Uda walawe Nilambe Small hydro Total Under construction Kukule Total hydro 2*35 70 12 306 3803.63 2*2.475 11 2*3.15 3*2 6 2*1.6 3 2 0 1*40 40 2*24.5 49 66 0 2*60 120 48.8 189.1 1837.53 277.3

Unit 2 Aug 1976 Jan 1981 Jan 1990

Oct 1992

June 1963 26.8 7.6 11.6 April 1969 July 1988

Jan 2002

05 Table1.1Hydro Power plants of Sri Lanka

11

Thermal Plant Kelanitissa Turbines Gas

Installed (MW) 6 120 1* 115 2*22 44 4*18 72 4*10 40 *

Capacity 20 115

Commissioning Nov 1980-Mar 1982 August 1997

Kelanitissa Steam

June 1962 & Sep 1963 May 1984- Oct 1984 Sep 1997

Sapugaskanda Diesel Sapugaskanda Diesel Extension (ADB) Lakdanawi (BOO) Asia power (BOO) Diesel

Late 1997 22.5

diesel 51

Mid 1998

Under construction Kelanitissa combined Cycle Sapugaskanda Diesel Extension 1*150 150 4*10 40 Late 1999 - 2000

Early 1999

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2.1 INTRODUCTION

The government installation branch of CEB has established to under take the installation and maintenance of electricity supply in government organizations. All the materials used by government installation branch are satisfied with British Standard and all the wiring is carried out according to the IEE regulations. After the installation they check whole wiring to make sure that all the wirings have done properly. They check Earthling are proper - Correct wires have used for correct place 2.2 Cinnamon Gardens depot At Cinnamon Gardens depot we studied the following things, Brief idea about the motor windings of fans Direct online starter Operation of MCB and trip switches Domestic consumer box Electric wiring planning of a house

2.3 WIRING INSTALLATIONS AND TESTING Main elements of a wiring installation are Main switch Distribution Board RCD (Trip switch) MCBs Electrical equipments Earthings

Testing
Check live, neutral and earth are properly connected Check earthings are properly connected Live and neutral and live and earth are properly insulated 13

L N Coil Test Button E Second Earth wire Main earth wire Live Neutral Earth

Fig 2.1 Voltage Control Trip Switch

Test Resister L Test button N E Fig 2.2 Current Control Trip Switch

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INSULATION TEST Insulation test for wiring is usually carried out with a 500v megger and tests should be made. Insulation Test Between Live and Neutral Conductors Before carryout this test, Circuit breakers must be closed, Switches must be on and lamps out. Then megger is connected between live and neutral. The reading should not be less than 1. INSULATION TESTS BETWEEN LIVE AND EARTH Live and neutral must be connected together. Circuit breakers must be closed. All switches must be on and lamps must be in. The megger is connected between conductor and earth. The reading should not be less than 1 .

Trip switch
There are mainly two types of trip switches and they are Voltage control trip switch Current control trip switch (Rcd)

The function of operation of Voltage control trip switch is based on the leakage current in the earth wire. Hence these types of trip switches prevent the electric hazards, which could arise from any electric appliances and protect the human body. Current control trip switch operation is based on current different between live and neutral conductor. Hence prevents having electric shocks from live conductor. 2.4 OPERATION OF MCB Miniature circuit breaker (MCB) is a device which act as switch and it can be operated either manually or automatically. The tripping action may be either magnetic or thermal. Both these actions have applied in the MCBs, which is observed in the G.I. branch. Protection against current slightly higher than the rated current is given by the bending of a bimetal strip, while high-speed protection against a short circuit is given by magnetic operation. 15

3.1 INTRODUCTION High-tension maintenance can be divided into 6 parts. Routine maintenance Seasonal maintenance Breakdowns Shifting Augmentation Civil and other minor works

Routine maintenance is done without interrupting the supply .eg: cleaning, visual inspection. Seasonal maintenance are done without supply.(Oil circuit breakers 3yrs,Vacuum circuit breakers/ Air circuit breakers-1yr.,Ring main unit-3yrs.) Breakdowns are done as they incur. Other three are very rare situations. Colombo City Colombo city electricity distribution is carried out order of area office namely South, East, West and North. An Area Engineer leads each area. Area staff does commercial functions, LT breakdown and LT maintenance work. A control center is opened over 24 hrs a day at Maligawatta to accommodate consumer complaints, coordinating breakdown staff, HT operation and maintenance. HT operation, HT maintenance, primary substations maintenance and fault location staff and rehabilitation staff are located at Maligawatta. Colombo city demand is supplied by approximately 1020 substations (11kV/HT) as shown in figure 7.1, which are having ring connections to enable alternative feeding. There are 8 primary substations (33kV/11kV)namely A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H Primary substations A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H are fed from Kolonnawa receiving station, Kelanitissa power station, etc. (at 33kV or 132kV levels) 11kV/LT substations: There are few types, Ring substation 16 Substations are connected to primary substation in ring, radial and satellite

Radial substation Satellite substation

Test terminal To Ring

Test terminal To Ring

Fuse

Power taking off To the sub T/F Fig 6.3 17

Internal wiring of ring main unit

3.2 MAIN ELEMENT CONNECTED IN RING SYSTEM Ring main unit This is very important device is connected to ring in 11KV underground system 11KV supply will be feed through the RMU for each transformers. To protect transformers against over current RMU contains three 50A fuses are available in each phase. In the RMU fuses will immerse in oil because to get a high insulation between each phase reduces heat build up in each phase. Transformers In underground system used step down transformers (132KV/33KV), (132KV/11KV ), (33KV/11KV), (11KV/415V). Mostly used 11KV/415V transformers because out put is directly connected to the consumers. Where transformers KVA rating is depend on the consumers requirement. Generally following ratings are commonly used 800 KVA, 500 KVA and 1000 KVA. Bus-bar panel This is a metal box, which is consisting of Cu bars that are isolated from fiber plates. The current rating of the bus bar depending upon the consumer capacity and the requirement. In general 1600A, 800A, 400A rating bus bars panels are placed in Colombo city. Feeder piller panels This is a low voltage panel same as bus bar panels. But this panel has neutral bus bar, which is connected to transformer neutral point. To protect the human life to the electric shock metal panel casing should be grounded properly. Circuit brakers Circuit breakers are placed low voltage side for purpose of protect the transformer where overload the consumer side. 18

3.3 UNDERGROUND CABLES Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by overhead system or by underground cables. I n modern cities and towns, the distribution of power by bare over head conductors is avoided for reasons of safety and cables laid in air are not pleasing to the eye. Therefore we use underground cable system. An under ground cable essentially consists of one or more conductor covered with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protecting cover. ADVANTAGES OF UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

In the under ground system, the cable is not effected by weather condition, such as rain, storm, snow, etc. On the other hand, overhead lines are exposed to weather conditions with consequent chances of interruption of power. Under ground cables do not suffer from such fault as birdcage, breaking of conductors owing to falling objects, flash over fault because of lightening. In densely populated areas, overhead line is unsafe and can lead to accidents. Since the chances of faults on underground cable are low, the maintenance cost of the under ground system is low. The underground system does not disturb the environmental because of its location. Therefore, it is increasingly preferred in modern town and cities. Because of the metallic sheath covering g on the underground cables, the system concerned does not interfere with telecommunication cables. The inductive reactance of cables is less compared to that case of overhead conductors. This is because the spacing between the cables is less. Therefore the voltage drop on the under ground system is less compared to the overhead system.

DISADVANTAGES OF UNDERGROUND SYSTEM The capital cost of laying under ground cable is high The incidence of fault in under ground system rare. However, once a fault occurs it is difficult to locate and repair it. 19

The current carrying capacity of the cable is reduced due to the close grouping of cables and unfavorable conditions for distribution of heat.

3.4 CONSTRUCTION OF CABLE Core or conductor A cable may have one or more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type of service for which if is intended. For instance, the three-conductor cable as shown above used for phase service. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminum and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable. Insulation Each core or conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of layer depending upon the voltage to be with stood by the cable. The commonly used material for insulation ate impregnated paper, varnished cambric or rubber mineral compound. Metallic sheath In order to protect the cable from moisture, gases or other damaging liquids (acids or alkalies ) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath of lead or aluminium is provided over the insulation as shown in figure. Bedding Over the metallic sheath is applied a layer of bedding, which consists of a fibrous material. The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical injury due to armoring. Armouring Over the bedding armoring is provided which consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose protects the cable from mechanical injury while laying and during the course of handling. Armoring may not be done the case of some cables.

20

Serving In order to protect armoring from atmospheric condition, a layer of fibrous material (like jute) similar to deeding is providing over the armoring. This is known as serving.

3.5 CABLES FOR THREE PHASE SERVICE Belted cables These cables are used for voltages up to 11kv but in extraordinary cases, their use may be extend up to 22kv. The cores are insulated from each other by layers of impregnated paper. Another layer of impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is wound round the grouped insulated cores. The gap between the insulated cores is filled with fibrous insulating material to give circular cross section to the cable. The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect the cable against moisture and mechanical injury. The lead sheath is covered with one or more layers of armouring with an outer serving. Screened cables These cable are used for voltage up to 33KV but in particular cases their use may be extended to operating voltage up to 66KV.There are two types of screened cable. H type cable In this layer of impregnated paper insulates each core. The insulation in each core is covered with a metallic screen, which usually consist of perforated aluminum and oil. The cores are laid in such a way that metallic screens make contact with one another. An additional conducting belt (copper woven fable tape) is wrapped round the three cores. The cable has no insulating belt but lead sheath, bedding, armoring and serving as usual.

21

SL type cable It is basically H type cable but the screen around each insulation is covered by its own lead sheath. There is no overall lead sheath but only armoring and serving is provided. There are two main advantages than H type. Frost the separate sheaths minimizes the possibility of core-to-core breakdown. Secondary, bending of cables because easy due to the elimination to overall lead sheath.

Pressure cable For voltage beyond 66KV,solid cable is unreliable because there is a danger of breakdown of insulation due to the presence of voids. When the operation voltages are greater of than 66KV, pressure cables are used. There are two types of pressure cable.

Oil filled cable Gas pressure cable

Oil filled cable In such type of cables, channels of duets in the cable for oil circulation. The oil under pressure is kept constantly supplied to the channel by means of external reservoirs placed at suitable distance along the tout of the cable oil filled cables are of three types, viz. single core conductor channel, single core sheath channel and there core filler space channel. Gas pressure cable The voltage required setting up ionization inside void increases as the pressure is increased. Therefore, if ordinary cable is subjected to another eliminated

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3.6 TYPES OF CABLE FAULTS Cables are generally laid directly in the underground distribution system. For this reason, there are little chances of faults in under ground cables. However, if a fault does occur, it is difficult to locate and repair the fault because conductor is not visible. Nevertheless, the following are the faults most likely to occur in underground cables. Open circuit fault When there is a break in the conductor of a cable, it is called open circuit fault. The open circuit fault can be checked by a megger. For this purpose, the three conductors of the 3-corecable at the far end are shorted and earthed. Then resistance between each conductor and earth is measured by a megger. The megger will indicate zero resistance in the circuit of the conductor that is not broken. How ever if the conductor is broken, the megger will indicate infinite resistance in its circuit. Short circuit fault When two conductors of a multi-core cable come in electrical contact with each other due to insulation failure, it is called a short circuit fault. We can seek the help of megger to check this fault. For this purpose, the two terminals of the megger are connected two any two conductors. If the megger gives zero reading, it indicates short circuit fault between these two conductors. The same step is repeated for other conductors taking two at a time. Earth fault When the conductor of a cable comes in contact with earth, it is called earth fault or ground fault. To identify this fault, one terminal of the megger is connected to the conductor and the other terminal connected to earth. If the megger indicates zero reading, it means the conductor is earthed. The same procedure is repeated for other conductors of the cable. 23

3.7 Fault Location In a good power system stability and continuity are very important.. When a fault occurs on the network and power is lost, the companys priority is to reconnect as many customers as quickly as possible. Switching customers to alternative supplies wherever possible does this. The fault location and maintenance is done by operation control center and HTM complex to Maligawatta. The maintenance and repairing of high-tension line of 11KV and 33KV and low tension of Colombo city is done by above branch. All of the high-tension lines are installed in an underground ring system. Therefore special kinds of underground cables, special type of joints and special kind of insulation are used to maintain that system. Test-Vans The branch has three state-of-the-art test vans equipped with the latest fault finding technology. This equipment on board enables faults to be detected by sending a signal down the cable to highlight any inaccuracies, which are shown on a computer screen. A trace is put on the signal to pick up any mismatch to determine how far down the cable the problem is. The exact fault is found by using a surge generator to pinpoint the area of irregularity. The equipment is used mainly on the 11,000-volt and 33,000 volt underground cable network Rezaps Low voltage cables are designed to be very resilient and when a fault does occur, they have a tendency to rectify them, which can make fault location and repair extremely difficult. This ability to self-repair means that low voltage faults can often be intermittent. To help engineers locate them, the branch uses devices called Rezaps. Connected at a local substation, this device automatically switches the power back on after a fuse has blown, restoring customer supplies in seconds if the fault has cleared. Once the fault develops permanently, engineers are dispatched to locate and repair it. Although customers will experience short interruptions to their supply during this period, it does reduce the time off supply from several hours to a minute or so. 24

Transient interruptions Brief supply interruptions with duration of less than one minute are called transient interruptions. There are many causes, such as lightning strikes, contact by animals and birds, and high winds blowing tree branches onto overhead lines. By using sensitive electrical equipment to disconnect the supply for a few seconds and then restoring it, the cause of the fault is given the chance to clear. This ensures customers supplies are restored quickly and prolonged interruptions are often avoided. The HTM knows that transient interruptions are inconvenient to customers and continues to work towards reducing the causes. This work involves extensive tree cutting near overhead lines and installing modern, automatic switches, which can be set to operate more sensitively without causing transient interruptions. These measures will reduce the number of transients.

3.8 CABLE FAULT LOCATING METHODS Echo Meter (Tele Fault) Battery operated and portable, the instrument is microprocessor based and utilizes the well-established pulse echo technique of fault location but with an entirely new level of simplicity of operation and accuracy. The unique combination of hardware and software filtering in the echo meter allows it to continue operating normally, without distortion or instability of the displayed fraces, even when connected to energize low voltage power cables. Echo meter can therefore be used locate many types of faults on low voltage on low voltage power cables, e.g. open circuit s, phase to phase etc. Without the need to disconnect supplies to consumers. In addition if echo meter is triggered from an external fault-detecting device such as a ct or voltage dip detector transitory faults may also be located. The LCD graphics panel displays the reflected pulse signals and calibrated cursors are used to measure the distance to the fault. In addition the LCD panel displays alphanumeric message giving the instrument status and measured fault distance. We can 25

be measured approximately 3.2 km distance. According to the waveform we can identify the types of the fault. Cable Finder (CAT) Complicated cities electrical network go through as underground network. The under ground cables lay different different directions in consumers requested. After few years any one dont know underground cable layouts and the further extension are also carried out. At this times electrical company face to more problems find out the cables for maintenance work. In this time electrical company is used handiness, ruggedness and reliability in and interesting design equipment as called cable finder (CAT), the cable finder consists of two parts. Those are one hand locater and signal transmitter. First we select cable end and the signal transmitter is connected the cable end. The signal transmitter consist two terminals. One terminal is connected to the good earth and there other terminal is connected to the one of conductor of the cable. We can find the cable layout by using one hand locator. The track of the line is determined by swiveling the CAT from one side of the line to the other, where by the instrument is carried crosswise to the track of the line. Both visual and acoustic indications reach a maximum directly over the line. In this way the track can be selected continuously.

Surge (Thumber) Method

This method consists if using a charge capacitor to transmit high-energy pulse between the conductor and ground. The pulses creates an arc at the fault, which in turn heats the surrounding air, and the energy is released as an audible thump. The fault location can be found by listening to the acoustical thump or by tracing the magnetic field generated by the air. The surge source is a capacitate discharge circuit consisting of power supply, capacitor bank and high voltage switch. The surge signal can be detected by means of a magnetic loop antenna, a microphone, an earth gradient detector, or a seismic transducer. 26

3.9 LAYING OF UNDERGROUD CABLES The reliability of underground cable network depends to a considerable extent upon the proper laying and attachment of fittings. There are three main methods of laying underground cables. Direct laying Draw in system Solid system

Direct laying This method of laying underground cables is simple and cheap and is much favored in modern practice. In this method, a trench of about 1.5 m deep and 45 cm wide is dug. The trench is covered with a layer of fine sand bed. The sand prevents the enter of moisture from the ground and thus protects the cable from decay. After the cable has been laid in the trench, it is covered with another layer of sand of about 10 cm thickness. The trench is then covered with bricks and other materials in order to protect the cable from mechanical injury. When more than one cable is to be laid in the same trench, A horizontal or vertical inter axis spacing of at least 30 cm is provided in order to reduce the effect of mutual heating and also to ensure that a fault occurring on one cable does not damage the adjacent cable. This method of laying cables is used in open areas where excavation can be done conveniently and at low cost. Draw-in system In this method, conduit or duct of glazed stone or cast iron or concrete are laid in the ground with manholes at suitable positions along the cable route. The cables are then pulled into position from manholes. Figure shows section through four way underground duct line. Three of the ducts carry transmission cables and the fourth duct carries relay protection connection, pilot wires. The distance between the manholes should not be too long so as to simplify the pulling in of the cables. This method of cable laying is suitable for congested areas where excavation is expensive and inconvenient, for once the conduits have been laid, repairs or alterations can be made without opening the ground. This method is generally used for short length 27

cable routes such as in workshops, road crossing where frequent digging is costlier or impossible. Solid system In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes or through dug out in earth along the cable route. The troughing is of cast iron, stoneware, asphaltic compound and covered over. Cables laid in this method are usually plain lead covered because troughing affords good mechanical protection. This method of laying underground cables is rarely used now a days. Because it is more expensive than direct laying system & due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the current carrying capacity of the cable is reduced.

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

The

Present day Electrical power system is Generated, transmitted and

distributed in the form of alternating current. The electric power is produced at the power stations which are located quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumers through a large network of transmission and distribution. Substation is the assembly of apparatus with use to transform the electrical characteristic from one form to another. Near the consumer localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization level. This job is done by sub stations. Kolonnawa Stanley substation had four switchyards. There are 33kv, 66kv, 132kv and 11kv. 11kvswitchyard is indoor switchyard and other three are out door switchyards. But these outdoor switchyards converted to the indoor substation and gas insulation substation (GIS). It has two switchyards. Those are 33kv and 132kv. 4.2 TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS ACCORDING TO SERVICE REQUIREMENT. Transformer sub-stations Switching sub-stations Power factor correction sub-stations Frequency changer sub-stations Converting sub stations Industrial sub-stations

Transformer substations Those sub stations which change the voltage level of electric supply are called as transformer substations. These substations receive power at some voltage and deliver it at some other voltage. Transformer is the main component in such substations.

29

Switching substations These substations do not change the voltage level. There for incoming and outgoing lines have the same voltage. They simply perform the switching operations of power lines. Power factor correction substations Those sub stations which improve the power factor of the system are called power factor correction substations. Such substations are generally located at the receiving end of transmission lines. Frequency changer substations Those substations which change the supply frequency are known as frequency changer substation. Such a frequency change may be required for industrial utilization. Converting substations These substations which change a.c power into d.c power are called converting sub stations. These substations recive a.c power and convert it into d.c power with suitable apparatus to supply for such purpose as electroplating, electric welding etc. Industrial sub stations. Those substations which supply power to individual industrial concern are known as industrial sub stations. 4.3 TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS ACCORDING TO CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES.

Pole mounted substation Out door substation Indoor substation Underground substation

30

4.4 SWITCHYARD EQUIPMENT Isolators Isolators are the disconnectors. There are two types according to operating mechanism.

Manual (spring loaded) Motor controlled After closing the isolator physically checking is required. (If possible). Also

isolators can categorized in two parts there are single operated and ganged operated (3 phase together) Circuit breakers Mainly circuit breakers are used for protection of equipment in a grid substation. Also it is avoided over current faults and earth faults. Circuit breaker should be defiantly placed in between two isolators. When close the circuit breaker first the isolators must be disconnected. Operating principle A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes. Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. The contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired, When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit. When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck between them. Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value. Methods of arc extinction There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers. High resistance method Low resistance or current zero method 31

High resistance method The resistance of the arc may be increased by, (i) Lengthening the arc The resistance of the arc is directly proportional to its length. The length of the arc can be increased by increasing the gap between contacts. (ii) Cooling the arc Cooling helps in the deionisation of the medium between contacts. This increase the arc resistance. Efficient cooling may be obtained by a gas blasted direct along the arc. (iv)Splitting the arc The resistance of the arc can be increased by splitting the arc into a number of smaller arcs in series. Each one of these arc experiences the effect of lengthen and cooling. The arc may be split by introducing some conducting plates between the contacts. Low resistance method This method is employed for arc extinction in a.c circuits only. In this method, arc resistance is kept low until current is zero where the arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented from restriking in spite of the rising voltage across the contacts. There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers.

Circuit breakers are divided in to three types according to operating mechanism. There are;

Mechanical (spring chargeable) This is two types. Spring is charge manually and spring is charge by using motor. Pneumatic Hydraulic Also circuit breakers are classified in to parts according to arc extinguishing

medium. There are; oil circuit breakers, SF6 gas breakers, air breakers.

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4.5 OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS In such circuit breakers, some insulating oil is used as an arc quenching medium. The contacts are opened under oil and an arc is struck between them. The heat of the evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it in to a substantial volume of gaseous hydrogen at high pressure. The hydrogen gas occupies a volume about one thousand times that of the oil decomposed. The oil is there for pushed away from the arc and an expanding hydrogen gas bubble surrounding the arc region and adjacent portions of the contacts as shown in the figure. The advantages of oil as an arc quenching medium are;

It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into gases which have excellent cooling properties. It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between live conductors and earthed components. The surrounding oil presents cooling surface in close proximity to the arc. It is inflammable and there is a risk of a fire It may form an explosive mixture with air The arcing products remain in the oil and its quality deteriorates with successive operations. This necessitates periodic checking and replacement of oil.

The disadvantages of oil as an arc quenching medium are;

The breaking unit consists of braking chamber, top cap and mechanism housing. The unit is hermetically sealed, filled with oil and nitrogen. The breaker chamber contains an inner support cylinder, manufactured of glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin and constituting a consolidating and pressure absorbing element. The cylinder is housed in an outer porcelain insulator. The active elements are the upper terminal, the fixed contact, the extinguishing chamber, the moving contact, the rolling contacts and lower terminal. The contact unit consists of the fixed sleeve contact and the moving plug contact/The contact material is silver plated copper. Those parts of the contacts, which are exposed to arcs during the breaking, which reduces, contact bum to a minimum. The top cap is made of welded steel and constitution the expansion chamber for the gases, which develop when high current are interrupted. It also houses the gas 33

cushion providing the permanent overpressure, which ensures restrike free interruption of capacitive current. A magnetic oil level indicator and a pressure gauge shown oil level and internal readings are clearly visible from ground level. A control valve maintains the overpressure within the permissible limits. The mechanism housing is a light alloy casting and contains the actuating mechanism for the moving contact. It is furnished with an oil drain cock. The operating force is transmitted via the link gear and operating insulator to the rectilinear motion mechanism and further to the contact unit. SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS The most used gas circuit breakers are SF 6 gas circuit breaker. In such breakers, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas is used as the arc-quenching medium. The SF6 is an electro negative gas and has a strong tendency to absorb free electron. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high-pressure flow of sf6 gas and an arc is stuck between them. The sf6 circuit breakers have been found to be very effective for high power and high voltage service. 4.6 CIRCUIT BREAKER TESTING Gas leakage test This instrument is used for find gas leakages but this instrument is sensed only SF6gas .If gas leakage is in any where of pole, instrument detect it and came sound. Dew point test Temperature of SF6 vapor is measured by dew point instrument. According to this temperature, moisture amount of SF6 vapor is conformed by a chart. Moisture particles per mass should be less than 150. Resistance test Micrometers are used to measure contact resistance in high voltage breakers, disconnecting switches (isolators), bus joints, line joints etc. Resistance should be less than 50 micro ohms.

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4.7 INTERLOCKING SYSTEM

First off the isolators between circuit breakers and then can off circuit breaker. First off the line isolator then can on earth isolator.

This is used castle key system. Busbar Bus bars are the hollow circular Cu bars. Basically this bus bar arrangement is classified in to five parts. There are;

Single Double One and half Ring Mesh (complicated ring system)

Bus section Bus section is a breaker which it can connect and disconnect both side of bus bar. Bus coupler Bus coupler is the circuit breaker which it can connect and disconnect two bus bars. Current transformer An instrument current transformer also called a CT is used to step down a relatively high current to some lower value for the operation of instruments and isolate current measuring instruments and relay s from the high voltage line. The primary of the CT is connected in series with the load circuit and the secondary is connected to the instruments or relays. The CT is filled with oil and fine grain quartz sand for mechanical stabilization and reduction of the oil quantity .The CT is completely sealed and expansion space is filled with dry nitrogen gas.

35

Voltage transformer It is essentially a step down transformer and step down the voltage to a known ratio. The primary of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wire connected across the line. The secondary winding consists of a few turns and provides for measuring instruments and relays a voltage which is known fraction of the line voltage. PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER Conservator Conservator is a sort of drum, mounted on the top of the transformer. A level indicator is fixed to it. Conservator is connected through a pipe to the transformer tank containing oil. This oil expands and contracts depending upon the heat produced and sob the oil level in the conservator rises and falls. Pipes connected to the conservator is left open to the atmosphere through a breather so that the extra air may go out or come in. Breather Breather is mounted on the top of the conservator tank & it is a small cylindrical unit containing silica gel to absorb moisture of air entering the conservator tank. Radiator These are fitted for cooling the transformer oil. The hot oil circulate through these unit where it becomes cool due to the air touching. windings Transformer windings are wound with rectangular, cable paper insulated copper wires. There are two windings HV side and LV side.

36

Tap changer Tap changer is used for on load changing of the voltage ratio. It is a threephase unit located in one container, which is placed in the transformer tank. Each phase regulating winding is located at the star point of HV side of transformer. Tap changer is controlled from a motor drive unit, fixed to the transformer tank. Transformer voltage may have to be constantly regulated and it is often very inconvenient to cut off the power supply each time. On load tap changer solve such problems, and are being used increasingly as a means of offering better power supply service as well as for general power receiving purposes. Tap changer may be classified in to three groups; there are D type, V type and MS type. 4.8 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION Buchholz relay This relay is situated in the pipe connected between the transformer and the conservator. Relay is a gas actuated relay which is meant for the protection of oil immersed transformer from insulation failure, core heating or any type of internal fault which may cause the heating of coil beyond the specified temperature due to this faults either alarm circuit or the trip circuit operate. Pressure & relief valve If is the fault condition in transformer a signal is came to relief valve and it is operated. There fore circuit breaker is tripped. Temperature meters Those meters measure oil temperature and winding temperature and meters are set to fixed temperature when temperature is rise over that settings circuit breakers tripped. Arching horns Arching horns are situated top of the transformer it is protected transformer by lightings. 37

Differential When two or three transformers are parallel, if the tap or impedance differs from each other, this tripped without alarm. 4.9 OPERATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS Master follower method This method is used in substations. One transformer act as a master and other transformers are followed it. In this case master transformer keep to operate manually and other one or two transformers act auto mode. If master transformer had a fault another transformer will be master or transformers will be run individual. 4.10 TRANSFORMER TESTING Transformer oil testing The oil is to be tested is poured in to the glass container supply with the tester. This should be done in a dry day. Because humidity can change the actual reading that the oil test shows. Oil samples should be taken carefully without opening to the atmosphere. Applying a voltage across terminals is increased slowly until the sparking occurred. Now the reading of the indicator is the break down voltage of the insulating oil. This is done several times to obtain average breaking voltage of oil. We have use two different kinds of oil testers. In one tester we have to manually increase the voltage apply to it and the final value that the dial shows is the test reading. And the other tester voltage is automatically increased by it self and it shows the voltage that the sparking occurs. Meter reading > 30Kv -it is good for breakers Meter reading > 45Kv -it is good for transformers After this test, if transformer oil is bad oil refilling or oil filtering. Vector group test Normally transformer vector group is represented by this format; DY1 or DY11. It means; DY1

38

delta

star angle between primary and secondary=300

Always vector group is in transformer nameplate. Sometimes if vector group is not showing clearly or nameplate missing we can use this method to check vector group. Firstly R and r terminals are shorted. Then these voltages are taken. Rr-0V Ry-138V Rb-138V RN-80V Yr-409V Yy-298V Yb-430V YN-375V Br-410V By-298V Bb-299V BN-315V RY-409V YB-409V RB-409V

Diagram (vector group) was plotted by using those readings.

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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Medium Voltage maintenance (MVM) branch is responsible for maintaining 33KV distribution system of entire Island. [i.e. both routine maintenance and restoration of supply after major break down in 33KV lines or primary substations] There are four sections.

Substation maintenance Distribution line maintenance Hot line maintenance Service primary substations

6.2 EQUIPMENT APPLIED IN OVER HEAD DISTRIBUTION LINE Overhead distribution lines are generally to faults due to high winds, lighting, falling tree, birds etc. Most faults are transient in nature and the system would be ready for operation again as soon as the fault has been interrupted by the system protection. The fault current might have been caused by a falling tree, which falls across the high voltage line .In many tree will fall off the line again after a circuit breaker has de-energized line. Alighting stroke will cause the same transient fault; a flash over will cause a short circuit current to flow, but as soon as this current is interrupted, the system is back to normal again. Usually majority of the faults recoded in an overhead line system is of a transient in nature. This is in contrast to a cable network distribution system where most faults are of a permanent nature. Expulsion Fuse A non-current-limiting device interruption the current by the melting of a fuse element and an arc is drawn inside a gas evolving type. These may be recharged with limited cost. Interruption principal similar to load break switch.

40

Drop Down Lift Over (DDLO) An expulsion fuses in a holder, arranged in such a way that the expulsion fuse tube drops out of the electrical circuit when the fuse has operated. These are commonly used in the CEB distribution network mainly for the protection of distribution transformers and some cases for sectionalizing spur MV lines. Air break Switch A switch device, which is normally, only used as a disconnection, i.e. only operated in a de energized system. However a very limiting making and breaking and breaking performance. Contact velocity at making is operator dependent; an arcing horn may give a high arcing contact velocities at oppugn sufficient for the interruption of load transformers. The switch can in most cases be equipped with a load current interrupting device. Still, the switch has only very limited making performance .In the CEB, the ABS were installed in area boundaries, interconnection points and on long spur line etc. to facilitate isolation of section for fault location, maintenance and repair works. Load Break Switch The so-called general purpose switch is according to standards defined as follows; mechanical switching device capable of making, carrying the breaking currents under normal. A circuit condition, which may include specified operating overload conditions, such as those of a short circuit .It may also be capable of as those of a short circuit. It may be capable to making but not breaking of short circuit current. The load break switch contains some special arts .One of the interrupter head. It reduces there formed. When the switch is operate. Aout Recloser Auto reclosers are self contaminated devises that make and break the distribution system under normal at and fault conditions. A basic feature of a recloser is to reclose immediately once the circuit under which it served breaks due to temporary fault. Recloser will lock out its operation whenever it senses a permanent fault clears before lock out, recloser will reset for another cycle of operation. 41

Before CEB has introduced auto reclosers to the distribution system, only DDLOs are provided as the protective devices. But this needs some one to operate the DDLO in order to isolate the line from the power supply. Therefore by introducing auto reclosers to distribution system, the speed of fault clearing has improved and hence which promotes the stability of the power system. Because of these reasons the concepts of auto reclosers entered as a time and money saving method [the interruption period becomes less]. The minimum requirement for installing an auto recloser is 100 km 1 MVA. The reclosers are sensitive for over current, and in modern types sensitive earth faults too. There are three types of auto reclosers available in medium voltage system in CEB.

SF6 gas auto recloser Oil auto recloser Vacuum auto recloser

McGraw Edison type These type reclosers are insulated with oil. This is the earliest type of auto reclosers installed in distribution system by CEB. The major disadvantage of this type is that its tripping times are fixed and cannot be adjusted at the site. The set time is 2 seconds. And also after some operations the oil contained in the recloser should change. The faulty level is about 14.1Ka. PMR Dynatrip type These type reclosers are mainly installed in DERP gantries. Only 33KV dynatrip model is available in CEB system. They are filled with SF6 gas at normal pressure. These reclosers are equipped with following devices;

A closing coil protection system A control battery supply 12V and 24V battery pack for control circuit and energized auxiliary closing coil and main trip coil. Electronic control unit; the settings can be change within a range at 25% to 225% with 25 % intervals.

42

Dynatrip reclosers having CT ratio of200/1 is available in CEB .The advantage of this type is that the recloser s are independent of thee total no of trips can be set as dead time, reclosing time, auto/non auto switch and earth protection enable /disable. The major disadvantage of this type is that the possibility to leak SF6 gas if the bushings are damaged. PMR Micro type The following types are available in CEB 33KV CT ratio 300/100/1, 11KV CT ratio 300/100/1. The main advantage of this type is;

Micro trip type is programmable and therefore different settings can be given Availability of memory facility, data for later viewing can be stored. This will includes the no of tripping occurred, the no of occurred as over current and earth fault or sensitive earth fault and the percentage of these failures .The only thing is to maintain the pressure of the gas in side at specified region given in the name plate. The tripping period (dead time) for this type when connecting in the

distribution system are selected as follows; 1st tripping operation 0.25 sec. 2nd tripping operation 0.50 sec 3rd tripping operation 1.00 sec 4th tripping operation trip /lockout This type of reclosers is guarantied for 2500 tripping operations without maintenance. Not like in previous type there is no any possibility to leakage of SF6 gas under a damage of bushings.

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6.3 HOT LINE MAINTANANCE Hot Line Maintenance includes routine inspection and maintenance in 33kV tower lines all over the country. The purpose of the hot line maintenance is to carry out the operations without the power being cutoff. This promotes the reliability and the stability of the system. The main functions of the hot line maintenance are

Inspection and replacement of suspension and pin insulators of the 33kV towers Replacement of cross arms on poles To do above functions specially trained sets of people (Gangs) are needed.

There are three gangs and each gang has eight workers. The workers are working with the live 33KV wires. If there is a small mistake, it will cause damages to their lives. So the safety precautions shown below are extremely needed.

Always use safety belts and helmets. Use the appropriate tools Do maintenance in suitable weather conditions Always keep the required clearance with the live wire.

6.4 SUBSTATION MAINTANANCE Substation maintenance is the major functions of this branch are;

Maintaining existing primary substations Building and commissioning new primary substations. Primary substation is always converted 33KV to 11 KV. Always 33KV side

is in out door and 11 KV side is indoor. There is the normal diagram of primary substation. 6.5 LINE MAINTANANCE This section involves in maintenance of 33KV tower lines, routine maintenance, installation and restoration of air break switch [ABS], load break switch [LBS] and DDLO, identification of breakdowns, and preventive maintenance of 33KV network. 44

5.1 INTRODUCTIOn

The Victoriya Project is one of five major hard works projects being under taken the accelerated Mahaweliganga Scheme. It is the most upstream of these projects and develops the hydro potential of a major right bank tributary of the MahaweliGanga,at Hakuruthale. The Victoriya is SriLanka largest power station. The primary functions of the project is the generation of electric power but additional irrigation and power benefits will arise from the improved regulation of river flows at the Randenigala &Rantabe division Woter way tunnel is 5.8 km ,before the power generating water way has many main point. There are 3 machines 71 MW each,(Type vertical axis medium head Francis) On the first day we reported at the Mahawelli complex office at Ampitiya, and the next day visited the power station. We were given the training schedule and an explanation about the power station. 5.2 WATER WAYS We studied about the waterways. It includes Reservoir, Tunnel intake, Tunnel, Surge shaft, Penstock, Spiral casing, Draft tube and Tailrace.

Dam and reservoir The dam is constructed as 438 m high with concrete membrane dam across the reservoir.

Top water level

Maximum operation level

438 m
370 m 45

- MSL
- MSL

Tunnel and Penstock Penstocks is begin in 516 m down from the surge shaft and 60^ angled to the horizontal axis. The penstock is steel lined. Length of tunnel Type Diameter of penstock 5.8 km linier concrete lined (Steel line at base) 3m

Surge shaft The surge tank is a concrete lined, 145 This is situated in 5 km from the beginning of the tunnel. These are some of the functions of a surge chamber. When the load on the turbine decreases, the governor closes the gates of turbine, reducing water supply to the turbine. The excess water at the lower end of the conduit rushes back to the surge tank and increases its water level. When load on the turbine increases, additional water is drawn from the surge tank to meet the increased load requirement. Hence the surge tank acts as a reservoir during increase of load on the turbine. The gat in the surge chamber is use to separate low-pressure tunnel and highpressure tunnel.

Draft Tube This is the end of the water way . Draft tube divide to 2 part four end s at tail raise with rectangular opening. The two gates per machine availability insulated draft tube from tail raise. Tail Race The water after having done its usual work in the turbine is discharged to the tailrace, which may lead it to the same stream or to another one.

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5.3 POWER STATION Main Inlet Valve Each turbine is protected on the upstream side by a 2.7 m inlet valve of the lattice blade butterfly type, constructed in cast steel and operated by two double acting oil operated servo motors is supplied from an air/oil 60 bar hydraulic accumulator which is charged by an oil pumping set. In the event of power failure, the valve can be closed using the residual oil pressure in the accumulator. So that the inlet valve does not have to open against full different at head, an oil operated needed valve is provided as a bypass to balance the penstock the pressure between the penstock and the spiral casing of the turbine prior to opening. spiral casing and guide vanes Water flows through the spiral casing and is guided 18 guide vanes on to the 2.25m stainless steel one-piece runner. Each guide vane is connected by links and levers to a regulating ring which is moved by two hydraulic servo motors .The oil to move the servomotors is provided by an air/oil receiver and pumping set similar to that provided for the main inlet valve. Governor Each turbine is controlled by an electronic governor taking its speed and power signals from the generator terminals, with the toothed wheel mounted on the shaft providing signals for the speed relays. The electronic governor cubicle is located on the turbine floor and transmits instructions electrically to and electro hydraulic actuator which converts them to oil hydraulic signals to the guide vane servomotors. Turbine Water turbines are divided in to two main categories. The impulse type and reaction type. In the impulse type, water flows out of a nozzle in the form of a jet such that all the pressure energy is converted in to kinetic energy. This jet hits one of a series buckets mounted on a runner. Because of the impact, the runner is rotated about the axis. There for the turbine is called the impulse turbine.

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The reaction type turbines works on the principle of reaction. Water enters the turbine at high pressure and low velocity in the guide passage. Some pressure energy is converted in to kinetic energy and water then enters the runner and pressure energy is converted in to kinetic energy. As the water flowing through the runner is accelerated, it creates a reaction on the runner vane and the runner is rotated. According to the type of flow of water, the water turbines used as prime movers in hydroelectric power stations are of four types.

Pelton weel type This is suitable for high head and low flow plants. Pelton type used above 300m

to 1800 m head.

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49

Francis type This is suitable for low to medium head and water flow plants. These type

turbines can be constructed in vertical and horizontal forms. In Kotmale the three vertical shaft turbines are designed to operate at 375rev/min, and to deliver 90 MW under a net head of 201.5m. Spiral case This is an angular spiral-shaped casing forming the circumference of the turbine. One end of it is connected to the penstock to receive the water under pressure from it, and this water is admitted uniformly all over the circumference of the runner. The cross sectional area of the casing decreases progressively, as more and more water is diverted on the runner so that the velocity of the flow is constant. The inner shape of the casing is cylindrical, Where the stay vanes ring is attached. The Stay vanes ring This is a ring with a number of fin-shaped stay vanes welded between two angular rings. The functions of the stay vanes are, (i) To guide the water received from the Spiral case at a proper angle on the movable guide vanes for which their shape is carefully designed. (ii) To strengthen the spiral case against the high pressure of the water passing through it. There for it is rigidly welded to the spiral case. Guide Vanes The guide vanes are located between the stay vanes and the runner.This serves three functions (i) To receive water from the stay vanes and direct it at proper angles on the runner vanes Kaplan type

Low loads due to rotary motion of water in Francis turbine is overcome.

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5.4 GENERATORS The three generators are of the vertical shaft, salient rotor type of construction and are designed for counter clockwise rotation as viewed from above the unit. Each generator has a rated output of 95MVA at 0.85 power factor with a stator winding temperature rise of 600c and a maximum continuous output of 95,000 kVA with a rise of 40c. The generated voltage is 1250 V at 50 Hz and the normal running speed is 333.3 rev/min. It will be noted that a semi umbrella arrangement has been adopted in which a combined thrust and guide bearing is mounted below the rotor and a second guide bearing is located above the rotor. The thrust bearing is designed for a maintain the maximum load. The generator stator is enclosed above the machine floor level by a D shaped sheet steel casing, which completes the air circuit and also forms an integrated design with the line and neutral terminal cubicles. The ventilating air is circulated by axial fan mounted at each end of the rotor. These fans are assisted by the natural fan action on the rotating salient pole s. Cool air is drawn in at each end of the machine and forced between the poles, where it flows across the machine air gap into radial ducts formed in the stator core. After passing through these ducts and cooling the stator winding and core, the hot air passes through to water cooled air cooler units mounted on the back of the stator frame. The cooled air is then re circulated to the top and bottom of the machine. The generator slip ring s and brush gear, together with creep detector unit and a speed signal toothed wheel are mounted in a separate enclosure located above the casing floor panels for ease of access and maintenance. Six combined braking and jacking units are mounted on the bottom bracket .W hen used as breaks the units are operate by compressed air from the unit break air compressor and when used as jacks by oil from a portable high pressure pump. Installed capacity Turbine - Type Rating 80.75 MW Vertical Francis 71 MW

Speed
51

333.3 R.P.M.

5.5 PROTECTION OF GENERATORS The generating units, especially the large ones, are relatively few in number and higher in individual cost than most other equipments. Therefore it is desirable and necessary to provide protection to cover the wide range of faults which may occur in the modern generating plant. Some of the important faults which may occur on a generator are; (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) Over voltage Over speed Stator winding faults Unbalanced loading Stator over voltage Loss of excitation External faults

5.6 EXITATION D.C current should be fed to the poles to excite them. Standby battery bank use for first excitation. Now a days static excitation system is used in which a transformer brings down the generator voltage to 230 V and thyristors convert it to D.C and feed it to the rotor . In Victoriya, excitation system is as follows. When the r.p.m is increased up to 300 the battery supply disconnects and the need voltage is taken from the generator out put. From the excitation transformer the 415 v out put is step down into 230v and then the thyristors convert this A.C supply in to D.C. Then it is given to the stator winding through the field breaker.

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5.7 CONTROL ROOM The special room called, control room where all controlling of the plant and system being done. In controlling room, the main task is to control the system frequency and it is tried to maintain within the range of (49-51) Hz. The rated frequency is 50 Hz. In there, all equipments including the protective devices, auxiliary devices being controlled and inspections are done. There is a computer which being used to locate the faults, which happened in the past and analyze them. There are so many panel boards, which are used to indicate the controlling position of the all the equipments. For example if we want to maintain particular generator first we should indicate it in the board so that it may make the controller clear idea about the generators, which are in operation. Then it will help to get idea about total load, which can be handled and the total generating capacity. 2.8 SWITCH YARD Net work of all controlling backing & distribution equipments are situated at switch yard. Mainly it consists of transformers, Isolators, Lighting arrestors, CTs, VTs & several busbars.

Victoriya power Station

On the first day we had to go to the Mahawelli complex office at Ampitiya. On the second day we went to the power station. We were given a training schedule and we were to follow that schedule. Studied about the general layout of the power station. We had the opportunity to attend to a routine maintenance of the generator number 3. For a routine maintenance they were cleaned and a visual inspection is done. We studied about the 220KV switchyard and their operations. In the switchyard there were two outgoing feeders. One feeder is to Randenigala and others are to the . We were able to do Circuit Breaker MeggerTest& Contact resistance test. There is a Diesel Generator for Emergency auxiliary supply . Normally auxiliary supply is taken as follow.33kv Generating voltage is step down to 415v by using earthing transformer

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Indoor sub stations Generally, local substations, which control a large no: of LT feeders are of indoor type. In these substations usually the primary voltage is 11kV and the secondary is 400/440 volts. Gas insulation substation is the indoor substation. All apparatus are inside therefore cannot see close or open condition. There are only two Gas Insulated Sub stations in Sri Lanka. One is in Kolonnawa And the other is in Kelanitissa. In these sub stations all the apparatus are computerized and all the readings for voltages and current can be read from the computers. Outdoor sub stations Generally, main substations for primary and secondary transmission are outdoor type substations for which control 11kV to 132 kV. It is because for such voltages the clearance between conductors and the space required for switches, circuit breakers and other equipment become so great that it is not economical to install the equipment indoor. Pole mounted sub stations This type of substation is suitable for low rating say ,up to about 100kVA . It does not require much attention for its operation. It is cheaper in first cost and maintenance cost is also low. For village electrification work, distributions to small residential colonies, and medium consumers pole mounted type of substations are most common. It consists of H type of structure for the poles at the end of the line. At a suitable height, a platform of roll steel joint is created for placing transformer. Other accessories are:

HRC fuse on primary side Gang operating switch on HT side Lighting arresters Switch and fuses for secondary distribution

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Underground sub stations In thickly populated areas, the space available for equipment and building is limited and the cost of land is high. Under such situations, the sub station is created underground.

generating station to the substations and from substations to the consumers premises. So conductors are made of that material which has;

High electrical conductivity High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses Low cost so that it can be used for long distance Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small

Following conductors are used for overhead line:

Copper Aluminium ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) AAC (All Aluminium Conductor) ABC ( Arial Bundle conductors)

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56

4.1 INTRODUCTION Electric power can be transmitted or distributed either by means of under ground cables or by overhead lines. The underground cables are rarely used for power transmission due to two main reasons. Firstly, power is generally transmitted over long distances to load centers. Obviously, the installation costs for under ground transmission will be very heavy. Secondly, electric power has to be transmitted at high voltages for economic reasons. It is very difficult to provide proper insulation to the cables to withstand such higher pressures. Therefore as a rule, power transmission over long distances is carried out by using overhead lines. With the growth in power demand and consequent rise in voltage levels, power transmission by overhead lines has assumed considerable importance. An overhead line is subjected to uncertain weather conditions and other external interferences. This calls for the use of proper mechanical factors of safety in order to ensure the continuity of operation in the line. 4.2 CONDUCTORS AND THEIR MATERIALS The purposes of the conductors are to carry the load current from the

CU From the point of view of conduct and tensile strength copper conductor is used, but being very costly and requiring to be imported, nowadays, it is not used as conductor material for overhead lines in our country. ACSR Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors produce greater sag. This prohibits their use for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance 57

transmission. In order to increase the tensile strength, the aluminium conductor is rain forced with a core of galvanized steel wires. In CEB the mostly used conductor is ACSR. AAC These are stranded conductors made of aluminium wires. Stranded aluminium conductors are durable and flexible. Stranded Aluminium conductors are durable and light. Mainly used of this conductor on low voltage distribution system. Aluminium has conductivity of 60% that of copper and therefore, for the same resistance and voltage drop in carrying same current, aluminium conductor has 1.6 times the cross sectional area of copper. The density of aluminium is 2.7 gm/cc as against that of 8.89 gm/cc for copper. Taking combined effect of low conductivity and low density of aluminium into account, the weight of aluminium required for the same resistance of the line, is nearly half that of copper. This is big advantage in favor of aluminium. Moreover, the aluminium is cheep and easily available, main drawback of aluminium is that its ultimate tensile strength is about half that of copper and therefore, it cannot be used as such for long spans. ABC A bundled conductor is made up of two or more stranded ACSR sub conductors per phase. Bundle conductors are called duplex, triplex etc. With the higher effective diameter of the bundle conductor the corona inception increases. Bundle conductors are used for 400 kv lines. The sub conductors are held apart by means of spacers at regular intervals along the length of line.

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4.3 MAIN COMPONENTS OF OVERHEAD LINES An overhead line maybe used to transmit or distribute electric power. The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a great extent upon the mechanical design of the line. While constructing an overhead line, it should be ensured that mechanical strength of the line is such so as to provide against most probable weather conditions. 59

INSULATORS The successful operation of an overhead line depends of a considerable extent upon the proper selection of an insulator. There are several types of insulators but the most commonly used are pin type, suspension type, strain insulator and shackle insulator. Pin insulators The part section of a pin type insulator is shown in figure 5.1. As the name suggests the pin type is secured to the cross arm on the pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the conductor. The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the annealed wire of the same material. Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up to 33KV.Beyond operating voltage of 33KV, the pin type insulators become too bulky, and hence uneconomical. Suspension insulators The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the working voltage is increased. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33KV. For high voltage (>33KV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in figure 5.2. They consist of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal link in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the string is secured to the cross arm of the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11KV .

The number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage .For instance, if the working voltage is 66KV, than six discs in series will be provided on the string. Strain insulators When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected to greater tension .In order to relive the line of excessive tension, strain 60

insulators are used for low voltage lines (<11KV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltages transmission lines, strain insulators shown in figure 5.3. The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When the tension in the lines is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel. Shackle insulators Now a days shackle insulators are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm. Figure shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire. LINE SUPPORTS The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of poles and towers called line supports. In general the line supports should have the following properties.

High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind loads etc. Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength. Cheap in cost and economical to maintain Long life Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance

The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power are of various types including wooden poles, RCC poles, steel poles and lattice steel towers .The choice of supporting structure for a particular case depends upon the line span, cross sectional area, line voltage, cost and local conditions. Towers

61

For every great heights and extra high voltage, transmission towers are used. Various angle iron sections are used to form a close cage to form tower. Wooden poles These are light in weight and cheap in comparison with all other types of poles, made up of modern beam. These are easily affected and spoiled by atmosphere, rain water, white ant soil, moisture, etc. These are used for temporary works and with special chemical coating for works of permanent nature. R.C.C poles These are made by reinforcing steel rods in concrete slabs of pole shape .The usual ratio of mixture is 1:1:5:3 for cement, sand, stone rubbles and steel rods respectively. These poles are of permanent nature, long life, unaffected by rain sunlight etc. So are usually used nowadays. Ducts are provided inside the poles section along its length for,

Drawing cables/wires To keep its weight less

Steel poles Steel poles are of L shape, rail type and tubular in shape. These poles are heavy in weight and cheaper than R.C.C poles. Atmospheric moisture, rain etc., affect these poles hence while using, these poles are always painted or coated with chemicals to avoid rusting.

4.4 LINE CONSTRUCTION

Selection of route Following factors should be considered when selecting a line route.

One side of the road is used as far as possible. Amount of way leave to be cleared shall be minimized. 62

Inconvenience caused to the other services shall be minimized. Swampy ground and areas liable to flood shall be avoided. Routes which would involve excavation in rock shall be avoided The use of taller poles at uplifts shall be avoided and construction of tension points at uplifts also be avoided. As far as possible route shall be least expensive to board.

Selection of poles All poles used in the LV lines should be concrete poles. However wooden poles may be used in difficult terrain with the recommendation of the chief engineer (construction) of the province. 8.3 m 100 kg RC poles shall be used for LV lines. However 9m 115 kg poles may be used to maintain the ground clearances where necessary. 8.3 m 100 kg pre stressed poles also may use in difficult terrain. Erection of self-supported 8.3 m 500 kg RC pole may be recommended where erection of stays and struts is not possible due to ground conditions. Handling and transportation of concrete pole Concrete poles for electrical distribution networks are designed to have a strength in the down line direction at least the strength in the transverse direction. The shape of a section through a typical concrete pole easily demonstrates this difference in strength. Therefore a pole must be stored, transported, and handled at all times with its longer axis in the vertical plane to ensure that the resulting forces are always resisted by the poles stronger direction.

Poles must not be dropped off a truck but lifted by means of crane. Poles should not be jarred by twisting the cross arm. During erection the pole should not be allowed to bend on the flat or wide sides, or to lurch against the side of the hole when it is dropped into place.

63

The poles should be transported on a suitable vehicle supported full length or with a limited amount of overhang. The poles should be lifted by crane from the transporter and placed on the ground. They must not be dropped. Hole digging The position of the hole is usually indicated by a peg. The hole must be dug so that as nearly as possible the pole is erected in its correct position. If the peg indicates the center of the hole it is a good idea to place a temporary peg at a definite distance away so that it is not disturbed during digging operations .The hole can be excavated either by hand, or by truck mounted augers. The depth of the hole is usually made equal to one sixth the length of the pole. Precautions should be taken to prevent soil subsidence in loose ground or in close proximity to roadways or buildings. One method taken to prevent soil subsidence is to support the hole by wood planks and struts similar to cable trench work, but the struts should be arranged such that they can be removed easily during pole erection. When it is required to excavate a hole adjacent to an existing pole, temporary stays should be added on the existing pole prior to excavating. Foundation design For the purpose of support foundation design it is convenient to consider three categories of soil, good, poor and water logged. The allowable ultimate vertical bearing pressure for each category of soil has a fixed value but lateral soil resistance is assumed to increase with depth and to be inversely proportional to the width of bearing surface of the foundation. The inverse relationship has been introduced to take account of the dimensioning contribution of the boundary effect as the foundation, which increases.

Foundation types Where poles have to be erected in wet or swampy locations, special foundations are required to prevent the pole sinking. Where the conditions are very wet

64

and soft additional outrigger supports must be added bellow the ground surface to prevent sideways movement of the pole. A 100 mm layer of concrete is poured in the bottom before erection of pole and allowed to harden. The cuission is backfilled with concrete. Temporary stays can be used to support the pole until the concrete has hardened. Erecting of poles The preferred method of erection is by cranes of adequate size for the weight of pole being handled. Traffic wardens should be posted when the crane obstructs the road and interference with normal traffic flow must be kept to an absolute minimum. Manual methods of inaccessible to cranes.

Poles should be erected vertically The face of the narrow side must be aligned with the LV line in straight sections of the line. This method is applicable to both tension and terminal poles. Pole should be erected to be bisect the angle at angle points D brackets, stay clamps and earth damps shall be fixed end to the pole using nut and bolts at the ground level before erection of the pole.

Facing poles The fact of a pole is defined as the side of the pole on which the D brackets are mounted the narrow side of the pole. In straight sections of the line, the face must be line with the distribution line Poles should be erected vertical

Back filling of pole pits The back filling of pole pits and stay pits shall be done with earth or gravel and well rammed. The filling shall be up to a height not less than 25 cm above ground level.

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4.5 installation of stays and struts When a line changes direction, an additional force is introduced at the angle pole. This force is the resultant of line tensions acting at the pole .The resultant force tries to move the top of the pole in the direction that bisect the angle between the wires. These forces, due to angles, can be considerable. The stays, struts and flying stays shall be fixed to neutralize the resultant force on the poles. Number of stays to be used at any particular pole location is designed on the overturning force acting on the pole. The force acting on the pole depends on the following factors;

Number of conductors and size of the conductor along with conductor tension. Length of adjacent spans. Angle of deviation of the line. Equipment mounted on the pole. Geographical position of the pole. Stay insulators, thimbles and brackets shall be used in all stays. Following

shall be noted in fixing stays and struts.

The angle between pole and the stay wire or strut pole shall not be less than 300 Stay, strut and flying stays should be erected so as to avoid disturbances to pedestrians or vehicular traffic. If shall be ensured that the correct side of the ratchet nut faces the ratchet force of the cross head of the buckle before tighting the stay buckle. Stay and flying stay wire over a street must not be less than 5.5m from the ground. Stay shall be installed conforming to drawing. In flat terrain poles used for struts and flying stays shall be of the same size as line poles.

Stay insulator shall be positioned below the level of the lowest current carrying conductor and not less than 3.7 m above the ground. Splicing of stay wire shall be done according to drawing. Depth of the pole pit of the strut pole shall not be less than 800mm.

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String of conductors During running out, the cable drum should be securely supported on drum jacks, with and the axle should be level. The work areas should have sufficient employees on site to ensure that the conductors are not damaged by contact with the ground or pole equipment during running out. Care should be taken to avoid kinking, twisting or abrading the conductor in any manner. Conductor should not be trampled on, run over by vehicles or dragged over the ground. Vehicles should not be used to run out conductors. Special care must be taken when running out conductors near other existing electrical systems, whether they are alive or not. 4.6 TENSIONING AND BINDING (BARE CONDUCTORS) All aluminium 7/3.40 mm (fly) and all aluminium 7/4.39mm (wasp) conductors shall be used for LV lines. Earth wire no: 8 shall be strung on the top of the pole before stringing the bare conductors. Conductors shall be strung in vertical formation as per drawings. After final tension of the conductor LV shackle insulator shall be fixed to the D brackets of the intermediate poles. Conductors shall be bound to the insulator at each support using aluminium-binding wire no: 11. Only one mid span joint per conductor shall be allowed for a shackle point span .All mid span joints shall be compression type. During stringing of conductors maximum precautions shall be taken to prevent excessive strain and damage to the conductor. Standard sag and tensions applicable ton the particular size of conductor shall be maintained. The conductors shall be tensioned using ratchet pullers and wire grips (come along clamps) designed to prevent damage to the conductor using tensioning. 4.7 EARTHING ARRENGMENT Bottom part of the down run of the shackle point and the terminal point shall be covered using 2m length of 12mm PVC conduit pipe. No: 8 GS wire shall be connected to the copper clad earth rod using a crimp type tinned copper adaptor at the 67

ground level to ensure a proper connection of the GS wire and the earth rod. Down run shall be clamped along the pole by stainless steel at three positions. The earthing rod shall be grounded approximately 500mm away from the base of pole. The top of the earthing rod shall be approximately 300 mm below finished ground after installation is completed. All hardware parts of the pole shall be bridged together and connected to the earth clamp on the pole top-using no: 8 GS wire.

8.2 TYPES OF ELECTRIC ENERGY METERS Single phase watt-hour meter

Three phase watt-hour meter kVA meter 68

kVAr meter Maximum demand meter Two rate meter (peak-normal) Poly phase meter

NAME PLATE OF A SIGLE PHASE METER 10A base current 40A the maximum load current Class 2- accuracy class is 2. i.e. error can be varied +2% to 2% 240 v- rated voltage 50 Hz frequency 2002- manufactured year - Some adjustment are there - Indicate disk rotation

8.3 ELECTRIC ENERGY The Electric Power Company (PC) supplies electric energy (W) to its consumers. Although these customers are considered as consumers, the electric energy delivered to them is only converted into mechanical work, heat or light. The electrical devices (appliances, machines, motors etc.), which transform electric energy into some other form to satisfy the needs of the consumers, have, in modern times, become legion. The consumer turns them on and off at will. Those, which are switched on at any given moment, constitute the consumer load, as they load the power companys supply and distribution network. Although the expression power belongs to the power companys domain and the expression load to that of the consumer, power and load are generally interchangeable In order to bill the consumer for the exact amount of energy supplied to him, the power company measures this energy with an electricity meter. The magnitude of the load is generally measured in kilowatts (KW). The power company uses the kilowatt hour (KWh) as the units of measurement for the energy it supplies to its customers.

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8.4 MECHANICAL PRINCIPLE The electricity meter uses on aluminium disc as a rotor. Electromagnetic forces are produced in this disc. In order to obtain rotation, a torque must drive the disc the driving torque. The operating principle of the meter requires that the driving torque be proportional to the consumer load. As the load becomes larger, the driving torque constant determines the rate at which driving torque is increased as a function of the load. A breaking torque opposes the driving torque. The breaking torque must be proportional to the meter disc speed. As the disc rotates more rapidly, the breaking torque is linearly increased. Disc speed is measured in revolution per minute (r/min). For steady-state equilibrium, i.e. when no other force (no friction) is present, driving torque is equal and opposed to the braking torque. Thus, disc speed is proportional to consumer load. As the load becomes larger, the disc speed is linearly increased. The meter constant (k) determines the ratio: Disc speed /consumer load = Meter constant (revolutions per kwh = r/kwh) The meter constant is an important parameter, which is always a shown on the meter dial plate. Disc revolutions are proportional to the energy. Therefore Meter constant = disc revolutions /energy KWh-Display on Register A register is used to count the disc revolutions. However, the register should display KWh and not disc revolutions. The register has 6 figure rollers. The figures: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 (evenly spaced over the roller circumference) are printed on each roller. Only that figure is displayed, which appears in a small opening of the dial plate. It is, therefore, possible to count from 000000 to 999999 with this register. In order to display the measured energy (KWh), and not the disc revolutions, the disc speed must be geared down according to the meter constant. 70

8.5 MEASUREMENT OF ACTIVE ENERGY Today, single-phase and three-phase AC distribution networks are universally used by the power companies to supply electric energy to their consumers. For the large majority of consumer only the active energy (kilowatt-hours) is measured and billed. We shall, therefore, deal only with the active energy meter, and concentrates on the task it must be perform.

KWH METER 1 2 3 4

P
supply
71

P
Load

N
Figure 8.1

Wiring diagram of a single phase meter

8.6 SINGLE-PHASE METER APPLICATION The description of electrical meter operation is restricted to the measurement of active energy [KWH] in single-phase network. However, active energy meters in other networks [e.g. three phase network] are similar to the single-phase meter in design and operation. Basically, to measure the active load, the meter must perform the multiplication operation, voltage X current. As a measure of the quantities to be multiplied, two magnetic fluxes, voltage flux and current flux, are produced in the meter .In preparation for the multiplication operation, eddy current s are induced by these fluxes in the meter disc. To measure the load, the line voltage and the consumer load current must be introduced into the meter. The current phase displacement (cos ) must also be measured, in order to produce a driving torque, which is proportional to the active load. The current is measured by driving it through a coil (the current coil) in the meter current coil is in series with the consumer load, always in the phase wire. To measure the voltage a second coil (the voltage coil) in the meter is connected to the line voltage between the phase wire and the neutral wire. The ends of the both coils are connected to the terminal block inside the meter. The cable from the power company and the consumer wiring are connected to the outside of the terminal box.

72

The phase wire current enters and leaves the meter via the two terminals [1 and 4]. Two terminals [2 and 3] serve to connect the neutral wire and the voltage coil. The other end of the voltage coil is connected internally [2] to the current input terminal [1], which carries phase potential. A link [called calibration link] serves to separate the voltage circuit from the Current when the meter is beginning tested and calibrated. The consumer load, i.e. the power at the metering location, is measured by individual measurement of the voltage (U) and the current (I). The consumer load, i.e. the power at the metering location, is measured by individual measurement of the voltage and the current. The magnitude of current and voltage and their phase position, i.e. the lag angle of the current with respect to the voltage, are measured. 8.7 METERING ELEMENT DESIGN The metering element produces two torques, the driving torque [MD] and the barking torque [MB], required to measure the electric energy. The metering element comprises, primarily; The voltage element With voltage coil, voltage core and counter -pole

The current element With current coil and current core The brake magnet

The meter disc [as rotor] The voltage element produces a magnetic field, the voltage flux, which traverses the meter disc [From voltage core to counter-pole]. The current element produces a magnetic field, the current flux that traverses the meter disc. The brake magnet produces a magnetic field, the braking flux that traverses the meter disc. 73

The magnetic fluxes are utilized to produce a driving torque [MD] and a barking torque [MB] in the meter disc. Together, the voltage fluxes, representing the voltage and the current flux, representing the current, act to produce a driving torque (MD) proportional to consumer load. The breaking flux is issued to produce a breaking torque (MB) proportional to the speed of the meter disc.

Induced disk current Voltages and Currents are induced in all conductors, which move through a magnetic field. No currents are produced in a stationary meter disc. Only a magnetic flux, whose magnitude varies, would induce currents in the disc. As soon as the disc begins to rotate, however eddy currents are induced in the area, where the braking flux traverses the disc. The eddy currents flow in closed loops, to both sides of the magnetic flux, whereby the sense of rotation on one side is opposed to that on the other side. 8.8 TESTING PROCEDURE OF SINGLE PHASE METERS wiring Remove the cover and disconnect the inner voltage link between the current and voltage terminal. Place the meter onto the test bench and connect the wires. Check the tightness of accessible screws.

Heating

Pre heat the meters by applying the rated voltage and basic current at 1.0 power factor for approximate 30 minutes.
Quality test Check the meters by applying the maximum current (40 A ) for approximate 5 minutes. Full load check Set the power source to the base current (IB) at 1.0 power factor (unity).

74

Power factor test Set the power source to the base current (IB) at 0.5 power factor. Low load test Set the power source to the rated voltage 0.5% of basic current at 1.0 power factor. Starting current test Check that the rotor of the meter rotates and continues to run at the rated voltage, frequency, 1.0 power factor and 0.5% of the rated current.

75

76

Creep test With no current in the current circuit, check that the rotor of the meter does not make one complete revolution when a voltage between 80% and 110% of the rated voltage is applied. Dial test Set the meter to rotate rated speed (420rev/kwh) and check the unit consumption. Shown in fig: 6.testing report of single-phase meters. 8.9 WIRING OF ENERGY METERS There are several types of L.T. single phase, three phase (Direct) and three phase (CT operated) meters in CEB. Hence the wiring methods are also different from type to type of the meter, especially in CT operated meters. Wrong wiring of a meter would result a high magnitude error. Therefore it is very essential to wire the meters correctly. Following steps should be taken when meters are wired. Direct Meters 1. Meter should be selected according to the consumer load 2. Meter should be installed vertically 3. Load wire should be connected properly. CT Operated Meters 1. Meter should be selected according to the consumer load 2. Meter should be installed vertically. 3. CTs should be inserted correctly (correct direction) 4. CT connection to the meter should be correct. 5. Voltage connection to the meter should be correct. 6. Do not use single strand wire for meter wiring. Always use multi strand wires. 7. Check phase sequence. 8. Terminal cover should be sealed properly after meter connection. 77

P
Connect to 11th

Terminal P Timer N (English Type)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11

1212 1 2 3 E 4 56 6

Connect to 11th

terminal

Supply

Wiring Diagram of 3 phase two rate kWh meter GEC with timer(English type)
Figure 8.3

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8.9 TIMERS 1.correct wiring of the timer. 2.proper wind up by using the key (when the timer is mechanical one) 3.To set the time turn the dial in direction of arrow until pointer indicates the time of day at the moment of setting. 4.turn dial one round to the correct side and check whether the solenoid in the timer operates in set time. 5.Timer also should be sealed properly. 8.10 ELECTRICITY METERING ERROR The electric meter serves the CEB to measure and bill electrical energy consumption. It is essential that the meter reading represent, with the smallest possible deviation, the true value of the energy supplied to the consumer. All disturbance factors, which can cause metering errors, must be recognized and attended to.

Metering error=actual value-nominal value nominal value where, Actual value=the result of the measurement as indicated by the measuring device Nominal value=the true value of the measured On the first day we had the chance to dismantle a kWh meter and to identify various parts and to reconnect. Then an idea about the basic procedure of a meter testing was taken. Also we had the chance to study about the causes and methods of meter repairing. CT testing procedure was observed.

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80

9.1 INTRODUCTION Lift has been an essential component in modern multi storied buildings. It makes easy for passengers and it is economically worth and it save most of the time that takes to travel up and down of a building. All the Lifts in the Government Buildings are maintain by the lift branch. 9.2 MAIN PARTS OF A LIFT Lift well In most buildings lift well is situated near the main entrance. Lift well is created to cover machinery and open space to present a smooth finished surface for passenger protection. The area of the well depend on the size and number of the cars, and by the disposition of the car and landing entrance. The necessary clearance for the car and counter weight is also determine when creating the lift well. Car and the two door system There is a door provided for the car extending the full height and width of the car opening and Another door is provided at all landing openings. When the lift reaches to a floor these two doors open together. These are provided for the protection of the passengers. Counter weight The object of the counter weight is to provide traction and to balance the weight of the car. Incidentally the counter weight provides a certain measure of safety when landing on its buffer and removing traction from the car. This is made up of cast iron sections firmly secured against movement by at least two steel tie rod having lock nuts or split pins at each end and passing through each section. Car traveling cable This is made by means of multi core hanging flexible cable, one end is connected to a terminal box fitted under the car floor. The other to a terminal box fitted in the well at approximately the mid position to remove any twist in the cable.

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Machine room This is at the top of the well and it consists of driving motor, break, gearing and the control panel. 9.3 THE OPERATING MECHANISM OF LIFTS There are mainly two types of roping system in lifts. Those are (i) (ii) 2 x 2 system 2 x 1 system

In first type there are four or six ropes as sown in the figure. There is a spring connected to one end of the cable. So that if there is a break in any rope the spring get release and it operate a switch for emergency stop. In the Second type The one end of the rope is connected to the car and the other to the counter weight. Over load alarm Modern lifts are made to give maximum protection to the passengers. There are four springs which acts as resistors and those are connected according to the principle of vinston bridge. If R1 R2 The voltage between Point A & B is zero. If the lift is over load the ratio get unbalance & there will be a voltage difference at point a& B. This makes an alarm to operate. Read contactor This is use to stop the lift at a floor. Normally it is in close position because of the Magnetic field of the magnet in the floor level. When The lift reaches in between of the read contactor and the magnet The magnetic field breaks and the contactor open and the lift stop at the floor. R3 R4

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10.1INTRODUCTION
In Western Province There are five area offices as follows. Kelaniya, Ja-Ela, Gampha, Negambo and Veyangoda. Under Kelaniya area office there are three Consumer Service Centers. Those are Delgoda, Mavaramandiya andKirillawala. We were at the Kelaniya area office for three week. During that period, we were asked to go to the Mawaramandiya depot for One week, to Area Maintenance Branch Kiribathgoda for One week and one week at the area office. Kelaniya depot is responsible for billing, new connections, disconnections Maintain the low voltage lines and Take actions for consumer complains. The main function of an area office is making bills. There are meter readers and they take the reading and the billing part is done by the area office. Electricity bill chargings are different from each other according to the purpose of the building. Tariff is the rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer. There are five main types. 1. Domestic tariff 2. Tariff applicable to religious premises and charitable institutions 3. Tariff applicable for bulk sales to Lanka Electricity Company (pvt)Limited. 4. General purpose Tariff 5. Industrial Tariff.

10.2 MAVARAMANDIYA CONSUMER SERVICE CENTER At mavaramandiya depot we identified some equipments and units used in power distribution. Main activities of the Consumer Service Center are 1. Give new service connections 2. Service maintenance of H.T Lines & L.T Lines 3. 24 hours breakdown service 10.3 TYPES OF SERVICE CONNECTIONS 1. Single phase - 30 A only 2. Three phase - 30 A & 60 A

83

84

1. Giving new connections There are four steps to follow when giving new connection 1. Receiving an application 2. Estimation 3. Payment 4. Giving connection Connections are giving according to the regulations. 2.Service maintenance Replacement of Service wires, meters, Meter boxes 3.Bulk supply connections There are two types of bulk consumers. 1. L.T Bulk consumers 2. H.T Bulk consumers L.T bulk supply is given using a L.T transformer. Consumption is measured through KWH meters and KVh meters, using CTs . H.T bulk connection is given through a CT/PT transformer. Consumption is measured by using CT/PT. H.T bulk supply is given in 11 KV or 33KV. 4. Maintenance of H.T & L.T lines The depot with the assistance of Area Maintenance Unit does both H.T & L.T Line Maintenance. 5. Break down service Break downs occur at both H.T & L.T lines and bulk supply connection are reported to the depot break down section. There is a 24 hour break down service to attend to the service. 10.4 AREA MAINTENANCE UNIT

We were able to study about cable Joints, Sub stations, Auto reclosers, Breakers, Insulators,.etc. The duties of this unit is to maintain the overhead lines in Kelaniya area, take actions for customer complains and requestsetc.

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10.5 CLEARANCES
When laying a voltage line we must keep particular distance between conductors, and high enough from ground. It is always pre calculated value, mainly depend on line voltage.

Clearances between low voltage bear/aerial bundled conductor Across the road or street In any other plane Clearances above Voltage exceeding 650 V & below 11 KV Across the road street In any other plane Place in accessible to vehicular traffic Voltage exceeding 11 KV & below 33 KV Across the road street In any other plane Place in accessible to vehicular traffic 6.1 m 5.2 m 4.6 m 6.1 m 5.2 m 4.6 m 5.5 m 4.9 m

Clearances between other conductors Conductors of same circuit

Over head line conductors must have following clearances from other conductors of same circuit.

low voltage 11 kV 33 kV

0.2 m 7.0 m 6.7 m

0.3 m 0.6 m 0.9 m

86

Bare conductors of different circuit on the same supports.

The medium voltage circuits & the vertical clearances between conductors of the different circuits at any point of the support under normal working conditions shall not be less then specified below;
circuit voltage low voltage & 11 kV low voltage & 33 kV 33 kV & 11 kV 11 kV & 11kV 33 kV & 33 kV clearance 0.2 m 0.5 m 0.9 m 0.9 m 0.2 m

Horizontal spacing between different circuit.

The horizontal spacing between different shall not be less than specified below.
circuit voltage low voltage & 11 kV low voltage & 33 kV 33 kV & 11 kV 11 kV & 11kV 33 kV & 33 kV clearance 1.2 m 1.5 m 1.2 m 0.9 m 1.2 m

Safety clearances

To ensure personnel safety, the following maximum safety clearances shall be maintained. Medium voltage bare conductors Any part of human body Any construction building Low voltage bare conductors Any part of human body 0.15 0.8 m 5.0 m

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Location of poles Poles are located so as to provide a easy access for maintenance works. some compromise may also be needed to ensure that poles located on corners and drive way will not unduly obstruct vehicular traffic maximum pole spacing are : Pole height MV on 11m pole MV on 30m pole Along the road 70m 70m Across the road 35m 35m

10m pole only be used with maximum span of 80m, when runs across country. The distance between shackle poles are not exceed either of following. Pole height MV 12m MV 11m MV 11m Distance between two adjacent poles 560m 490m 490m Maximum number of poles 07 07 07

11.1 INTRODUCTION 88

Demand side management activities are those involve action on the demand side of the electric meter either directly caused or indirectly simulated by the utility. DSM branch of CEB provides a range of services to industrial and commercial electricity consumers. Features of some DSM services are described below.

Energy audit : an analysis of energy consumption patterns and measures available to reduce monthly energy cost. Pre construction consultancy services :an overview of technical drawings and recommendations based on energy efficiency. Power quality analyzing :an analysis of voltage, power, harmonic variations and measures available to suppress harmonic and improve voltage quality. Lighting design :professional lighting design for buildings Implementation monitoring and testing :monitoring and testing of implementation of DSM recommendations based on energy audits to verify the saving potential and testing on customers request. Customer education programs

11.2 MODERN EQUIPMENT AND SOFTWARE It is necessary to use various types of modern equipment and software in the Demand Side Management branch when giving the several services specially to their industrial and commercial customers. Those are; 1. Power analyzer 2. Recording poly phase power meter (Data logger) with software 3. Flue gas analyzer 4. Light meter 5. Infra Red thermometer 6. Digital thermometer / humidity meter 7. Energy balance software 8. Photo/ Contact tacho meter 9. Power quality analyzer

1. Power analyzer 89

Power analyzer is mainly used for getting any reading of consumed electricity. According to the customers required, when gives the service like energy audit we must used the power analyzer. By using current transformers and other component it must be connected to the supply and can get readings. 2. Data Logger Also data logger is act as the power analyzer. By using data logger we can record the data of the supply within number of days as required. After setting the data logger to the supply, it can be recorded any data and after required days, it must be down loaded and disconnect from the electricity supply. The comparison between power analyzer and data logger Power analyzer Can record the harmonics Need external power supply Memory capacity is less All data were recorded 3. Flue gas analyzer Mainly it is used for measuring the combustion efficiency of the boilers. Inserting the flue gas analyzer in to the chimney and can get the measurement of content of gases like CO2, CO in air as a percentage. 4. Light meter By using this we can measure the amount of light rays in unit of Lux in any required area. 5. Infra red thermometer In the places or equipment that we cant reach like boilers, used this for measuring the temperature. By using the beam of red light rays, it can be detected the temperature of element. 6. Digital thermometer By using this can be measure the temperature of any thing like water, ice Data logger Cant recorded harmonics, only can seen Not need external power supply Memory capacity is high Recorded only the selected data

90

7. Photo/ contact tachometer For measuring the RPM value of any rotating device like motor shaft the tachometer is used. If the meter cannot touch that surface can use the photo sensor method. 8. Power quality analyzer Its action is same as the action of power analyzer. But it cant save data and we can see the data at the required time. 11.2 DSM OBJECTIVES DSM activities are broadly categorized under the headings such as load management strategic conservation electrification , strategic growth. Those objectives are intended to achieve by, Peak clipping generally involves reduction of load during peak hours(for Srilanka system peak is experienced from 6.00 to 9.00 p.m.) to defer the need to install new capacity by reducing the peak demand. Peak requirement, thus saving on expensive fuels. Peak reduction can be achieved through the use of more efficient end-use equipment or direct utility control of end-use equipment as well as time-of-use and interruptible tariffs For example effective use of efficient lights such as compact fluorescent lamps can substantially reduce the peak load. clipping will also reduce the energy

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Peak Clipping

Valley Filling

figure 11.1

figurer 11.2

LOAD SHIFTING

STRATEGIC CONSERVATION

figure 11.3 FLEXIBLE LOAD SHAPE

figure 11.4

figure 11.5

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Valley Filling Valley filling essentially includes building off-peak loads resulting in an increase in the total energy consumption with no increase in the peak load. This is applicable for utilities with low cost plants running on low load factors. In the case of Srilanka, for example railway electrification can successfully achieve high utilization of inexpensive plants in the system during off-peak hours.

Load Shifting Load shifting can be viewed as a combination of peak clipping and valley filling. Consumers are encouraged to reduce consumption during the peak hours by shifting their consumption from peak to off-peak hours. Some industrial consumers whose consumption can be shifted to off-peak hours with minimum disturbance can take advantage of load shifting . This is achieved mostly through introduction of two-part (time-of-use) tariffs. Other methods such as direct load control and thermal energy storage can also be used . Strategic Conservation Strategic conservation targets selected applications for energy conservation .Reduction of electricity consumption mostly through efficient use of end-use equipment, will generally cause a downward shift in the load curve. The reduction in the peak demand will be determined by the coincidence factor. Flexible Load Shape Some customers may be willing to trade reliability for some incentive such as reduced rates. Utilities are then able to make some adjustments to the load shape according to their operating needs. Utilities (by offering a choice of reliability) can effectively reduce the necessity for adding peaking plants.

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11.3 Activities of DSM

Customer education Energy survey/ audits Seminars Workshops Promotional programs Publicity programs Introduce DSM programs Provide direct incentives and other financial options for customer to adopt DSM measures Low interest loans Cash grants Subsidised installation Rebates Promote the manufacture of energy efficient appliances and equipment. Set efficiency standards for electrical machinery /equipment /appliances(coordinate with SLS) Proposals to GOSL on taxes /tariffs to promote the use of energy efficient appliances.

BENEFITS FROM DSM PROGRAMS Customer Reduced electricity bills. Utility Avoided supply cost. Reduced demand. Utility incentives.

The DSM branch identifies the customer segments as follows; Retail sector (Domestic customers, Small Industry, Small commercial buildings) Industry sector Hotel and large commercial buildings sector 94

From the figure we can see that that the most electricity consumption is taken by the industrial sector and the retail sector is the least contributor to the electric power consumption. 11.5 ENERGY EFFICIENCY Energy efficiency measures available for domestic customers Efficiency lighting. Efficient refrigerators Good house keeping.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES AVAILABLE FOR INDUSTRIES Energy audits/surveys Efficient motors Power factor correction Efficient lighting. Load management. Fuel switching. Captive generation. Efficiency A/C and ventilation system. Efficient boilers and steam distribution system.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MEASURES AVAILABLE FOR HOTELS/ BUILDINGS. Energy audits/surveys Power factor correction Efficient lighting. Load management. Fuel switching. Captive generation. Efficiency A/C and ventilation system.

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Energy Audit

The main service provided by DSM to industrial and commercial customers is conducting Energy Audit programs. Energy audit is an analysis of your energy consumption pattern. In addition it, provides an array of recommendations on the measures available to reduce the monthly energy costs. The fees on energy audit based on the contract demand.
The energy audit involves the following major functions Power quality analysis The voltage, power ,harmonic variations are analysed, and measures are recommended to suppress undesirable harmonics and to improve the voltage. Energy management programs Conduction of employee education programs Load research services Pre construction consultancy services

Make recommendations for energy efficiency improvements. System monitoring Lighting designs Energy efficiency building code Applicable for new commercial buildings of more than 4 storied Covers lighting ,ventilation and air conditioning ,building envelope ,electrical power and distribution, and service water heating. 11.6 ENERGY EFFICIENCY BUILDING CODE (EEBC) Purpose

Reduce energy consumption of new buildings by 40%. Reduce energy consumption of existing building by 20%. Four stories or higher Floor area of 2000m2 or greater

This is used for commercial buildings only. Initial requirements of this;

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Energy efficiency lighting

Maximum allowable power Power credit for lighting controls Recommended light levels Equipment efficiency levels Efficient A/C system design Equipment efficiency levels Commissioning and testing Maintenance Water treatment Building orientation Wall construction to reduce heat gain Window design and selection of glass to reduce heat gain Air leakages Equipment efficiency Internal distribution requirements Motor rewinding

Energy efficiency ventilation and airconditing

Building structure

Electrical power and distribution

11.7 ENERGY LABELING CEB in association with the SLSI & ECF has decided to implement energy labeling program on a voluntary basis. Main Objectives of the program is to promote use of energy efficient electrical items to save energy. The purpose of energy labels - To provide information to consumers regarding the energy efficiency of products - To encourage consumers to buy the most energy-efficient appliances

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Evaluation

Monitoring & Enforcement

Standards

Labeling

Testing Facilities

Testing Procedures

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Main components of energy labeling Figure 11.6

Figure 11.7

How does energy labels work? - Influences consumer purchase decisions - Influences manufacturer production and marketing (More stars means more energy efficient) Watt loss loss <4 W 4 W < loss < 6 W 6 W < loss < 8 W 8 W < loss < 10 W 10 W < loss < 12 W loss > 12 W 11.8 ENERGY AUDIT An energy audit is a systematic gathering and evaluation of energy data about a plant/process, for the purpose of promoting energy efficiency. COMPONENTS OF AN ENERGY AUDIT 99 Star rating ***** **** *** ** * no stars

Pre audit consultation Site analysis and data logging including metering Preparation of report

AUDIT PROCEDURE

Customer request Information to customer Analysis of historical data Customer interview/ incoming electricity supply logging Sub section data logging Data collection Analysis of data Preparation of energy balance Identification of energy efficiency measures Preparation Of costs/benefits Formulate recommendations Preparation of audit report Prepare monitoring schedules Presentation of report

11.9 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION Power factor (PF) is given by the ratio of useful current to the total current; it is also the ratio of useful power expressed in kW to total power expressed in kilowatt amperes (kVA). Power factor is usually expressed as a decimal number or a percentage. PF = Useful power (kW)/Total power (kVA) 11.10 FUNCTION OF CAPACITORS Electrical used by industrial plants consists of two major components:

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Real power (generally expressed in kilowatt) that produces useful work ranging from providing motive power to industrial machinery to lighting a single bulb in ones home. Reactive power (generally expressed in kilovar), necessary to generate magnetic fields to operate electrical machinery. Inductive electrical equipment such as motors and transformers draw their

reactive power requirements from the electricity distribution system to which they are connected. The ratio of useful power to total power is called the power factor. When equipment has a low power factor, it will require a relatively large amount of reactive power. The power factor correction capacitors essentially provide the necessary reactive power requirements from the electricity distribution system

11.12 TYPES AND SELECTION OF CAPACITORS The load in typical industrial installation changes virtually every instance. As a result, the amount of kVAr to be provided externally to maintain a desired power factor also changes with the changing kW demand. Although it may be technically possible to provide the correct amount of kVAr in other words, to follow the load curve so as to maintain a fixed power factor, it is generally uneconomical to do so. Fixed capacitors: Power factor correction capacitors are commercially manufactured to provide a fixed quantity of reactive power (5kVAr, 10kVAr, 50kVAr, etc). In some situations, installing a fixed capacitor may suffice to improve the power factor to an adequate level. For example, fixed capacitors are often recommended for individual machines such as motors or installations exhibiting relatively steady demands. One should, however, exercise caution in selecting the correct rating of fixed capacitors as a higher rating than necessary (over compensation0 could lead to problems. Automatic capacitor banks: In some situations, fixed capacitors may not provide the necessary correction. A bank of capacitors with the facility to sense the reactive 101

power demand and provide the right amount of reactive power demand and provide the right amount of reactive power (by connecting the required number of capacitors) is more appropriate in such situations. This method, obviously, is more expensive than installing fixed capacitors as additional switching circuits are involved. Switched capacitor banks, however, are superior in performance as they could follow the load curve closely (provided capacitor selection is done carefully). FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE ELECTRICITY BILL The energy charge number of units used during the billing period in kilowatt hours (kWh);

Demand charge this charge compensates the utility for the capital investment required to serve the plants peak load. Demand charge can be a large portion of the total electricity bill. Demand charge can be reducing by smoothing out the peaks. This charge usually involved power factor or kVAr.

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11.13 LOAD RESEARCH PROJECT Load research is primarily aimed at analyzing and understanding the utilitys system load profile. This entails breakdown of the system load profile into various sub components. Therefore, the main objectives of the load research can be identified as follows:

To develop shapes at the system, regional, and customer sector level To develop shapes database by major end uses within customer sectors. It will be evident that these objectives are quite flexible to accommodate any

sub system of the main network and to analyse any sub categories of end uses. Load research may either be conducted by starting from customer end use to build and develop the total system load shape or by starting form the total system load shape and breaking it down two. Both approach require primary and secondary data collection and are generally accomplish through a combination of the following data collection methods: 103 to customer end use .it may well be a combination of the

Metering Market survey Statical methods Using engineering models By analyzing other data Substation log book data System control data Sales and billing data Fig: 11.8 Shows the conceptual approach that was used in the load research

of the CEB system. It has used the bottom-up approach, with a combination of data collection by metering, customer surveys and using other recorded load data. RESULTS Final results of the load research project consisted of the following load profiles and the associated data for the CEB network.

1. CEB system 2. Provincial load profiles 3. System load profiles by sectors 4. Domestic sector by segments 5. End use load profiles

Domestic Domestic (by lighting technology) Small commercial and industrial Industrial and commercial (bulk) customers

11.14 LOAD SHAPE OBJECTIVES DSM activities in Sri Lanka cannot considered to be an alternative to supply side options available for power system capacity expansion. But some load shape objectives of demand side management could effectively complement the supply side options. 104

The knowledge available from load research regarding the composition of the load shape is of valuable to design any of these DSM activities and to forecast their impacts. Through subsequent load research, i.e. after implementing the DSM measures, the utility would also be able to evaluate and monitor the impacts of such measures. 11.15 AIR CONDITIONING INTRODUCTION Air conditioning is the control the temperature and moisture content of the occupied space.

Discharge line Hot vapor High pressure

Expansion valve

Filter Liquid line

Evaporator

Compressor

Suction line Cold vapor Low pressure

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Figure 11.9

Evaporation

Liquid

Vapor

Condensation Most air conditioners have their capacity rated in British Thermal Units (BTU). Generally speaking a BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one found (0.45 kg) of water 1 degree Fahrenheit (0.560C). 11.16 REFRIGERATION CYCLE

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An air conditioner is basically a refrigerator without the insulated box. It uses the evaporation of a refrigerant, like Freon, to provide cooling. The mechanics of the Freon evaporation cycle are the same in a refrigerator as in an air conditioner. This is how the evaporation cycle in an air conditioner works.The compressor compresses cool Freon gas, causing it to become hot, high-pressure Freon gas. This hot gas runs through a set of coils so it can dissipate its heat, and it condenses into a liquid. The Freon liquid runs through an expansion valve, and in the process it evaporates to become cold, low-pressure Freon gas. This cold gas runs through a set of coils that allow the gas to absorb heat and cool down the air inside the building. 11.17 AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS NON DUCTABLE SYSTEM This system is categorized in two types. There are window type and split type.

Window type Normal small size air conditioning plants are available in this form. We can identify the following parts and assures in this plant, there are compressor, condenser, evaporator, blower, fan expansion valve and controlling arrangement etc. Window type plants are available in as a compact set including all mentioned above. But the unit can be filter, exporter, motor drives fan remote bulb and refrigerant control. The out side part consists of compressor condenser and motor driven fan. The two fan driven by the same motor. The condenser cooling system is air-cooling. Split type This type air-conditioning plants are available in small and medium size, which differ from the other parts. This type has several advantages than window type or package type, which is not noise. Evaporator can be installed very suitable place etc. This plant consists of air-cooling and water-cooling system.

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DUCTABLE SYSTEM This system is categorized in two types. There are package type and chill water type. Package type This type air conditioning plants available in large sizes , which are better to use corridors and large halls. Where condensing unit and evaporator are separate one and the duct line are used to distribute cooled air into rooms or anything. This is two types fresh air type and return air type .In fresh air type we supply atmospheric gas into room through the evaporator and the return air type cooled air release to evaporator from the room and then re cooled the gas. Central type Large size air conditioning system are commonly used this system. Which has as advantage of comparatively low refrigerant volume is used for

Condenser Water (95)

Outdoor Air

Outdoor Air

Condenser Water (85)

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Figure 11.10

refrigerant cycle. According to condenser cooling system the chill water plants are two types.

Chill water plants with condenser water cooling system Chill water plants with condenser air cooling system Generally chill water plant is consists of high power compressor (normally use

centrifugal or reciprocating type), water cooled or air cooled condenser, filter, cooling tower, duct line, evaporator with large chill water system expansion valve and various types of controlling and protection device. Compressor Compressors may be classified as either open or hermetic.

Open compressor: A compressor unit consisting of a compressor, motor, and safety controls mounted as a unit.(see fig:8. )

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Hermetic: A condensing unit consisting of a compressor unit plus an interconnected water cooled or air cooled condenser mounted as a unit.

Cooling tower The cooling tower is used in a conjunction with the water-cooled condenser (see fig:11.). Water in passing through the condenser water tubes only gets warmed up but does not get contained. It can therefore be used again, after cooling. The cooling tower cools the warm water for re circulating it in the condenser. It is thus a water conservation equipment .The heat removed by the refrigeration system from the space or product to be cooled is ultimately thrown to the atmosphere through the cooling tower in a water-cooled condenser system. Thus cooling tower should function efficiently for the refrigeration system to perform well. The warm water from the condenser is pumped to the top of the cooling tower. From there it is allowed to fall down a substantial height to the cooling tank or through at the bottom. The falling water droplets are cooled by the air circulating through the tower. The cooling is brought about both by sensible heat transfer and by the evaporation of the water.

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