Structure and function of the Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a cylinder made up of nerve cells that run

through the vertebral column. The nerve cell bodies are grouped in the centre and this region is greyish in colour leading to the term grey matter being applied to it. The fibres of the nerve cell are found on the outside and are white in colour hence the term white matter. They may be involved in spinal reflexes or they may conduct sensory impulses to the brain or motor impulses from the brain to the muscles.

Parts of the brain: Cerebral Hemispheres: Impulses from the different sensory organs are relayed to the cerebral cortex. Over time certain nervous pathways become ingrained, this is the basis of learning. The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for conscious activity (behavior), it is also where memory is stored. Cerebellum: Responsible for balance and muscular coordination. Midbrain: Responsible for processing auditory and visual stimuli. Pituitary Gland: It is considered the master gland of the endocrine system. It produces a number of hormones and regulates the activity of all endocrine glands. Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining internal conditions (homeostasis) and contains osmoreceptors to detect levels of water in the blood. It is also responsible for maintaining body temperature.

Feedback System: A feedback system is a system that is regulated by information generated (fed back) when it functions. Negative feedback is where a change in a system causes a response that opposes the change. Eg: An increase in the bloods osmotic potential causes a secretion of ADH which reduces the bloods osmotic potential. An increase in blood glucose levels stimulates the production of insulin which reduces the levels of glucose in the blood.

Teeth: People have thirty two permanent teeth that eventually replace the first twenty milk teeth. A tooth consists of several structures: Enamel- the hard outer coating which is non-living. It is made up of calcium and phosphate. Dentine- right below the enamel, it is similar to bone. It is hard but not as hard as enamel and has strands of living cytoplasm which can make more dentine. Pulp- found at the centre of the tooth it contains sensory nerve endings (which may reach the dentine) and capillaries. The capillaries bring oxygen, food and other requirements necessary for the tooth to grow. Root- anchors the tooth to the jaw bone. Cement- covers the dentine at the root. Fibres embedded in the cement attach to the jawbone hold the tooth in place. Types of Teeth: Incisor- these teeth are require for biting Canine- pointed teeth that tear food Molars and premolars- these teeth are designed for crushing

Care of Teeth: Caries is the dental term for tooth decay. The teeth are covered by a layer of saliva that can be colonized by bacteria. These bacteria produce plaque which sticks to the tooth. The bacterial plaque contains all types of acids and enzymes that erode the enamel. The plaque can also cause gingivitis (gum disease) if it remains unchecked. If the plaque is not removed by brushing it will harden to form tartar, which can only be removed by a dentist. Eating foods rich in sugar encourages the growth of bacteria. Brushing is essential for removing plaque. Brushing should be done properly to remove food from hard to reach places such as the back of the mouth. Regular flossing should help remove food particles from in between teeth. Use of fluoridated toothpaste and drinking water with fluorine added to it also helps. Although the exact mechanism is unknown fluorine increases resistance to decay.

Bicarbonate Indicator: Normally red in colour. Will turn yellow when carbondioxide levels increase and purple when they decrease.

Modern Sewage Treatment: