AC Materials Journal/September-October 2012 565

Title no. 109-M55

AC MATERALS JOURNAL TECHNCAL PAPER
ACI Materials Journal, V. 109, No. 5, September-October 2012.
MS No. M-2011-234.R1 received November 17, 2011, and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. Copyright 2012, American Concrete Institute. All rights reserved,
including the making of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright
proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author`s closure, if any, will be published in
the July-August 2013 ACI Materials Journal if the discussion is received by April 1, 2013.
Investigation of Properties of Engineered Cementitious
Composites Incorporating High VoIumes of FIy Ash
and MetakaoIin
by E. zbay, O. Karahan, M. Lachemi, K. M. A. Hossain, and C. Duran Atis
negative effects of higher cement content in ECC produc-
tion, Yang et al.
11
ash (FA) (up to 85% by weight) and concluded that both
the crack width and free drying shrinkage were reduced
with increased FA content. Increasing the FA/PC ratio up to
5.6 decreased compressive strength (from 52.6 to 21.4 MPa
[7.63 to 3.10 ksi]) and tensile strength (from 5.7 to 3.5 MPa
[0.83 to 0.51 ksi]) and increased chloride-ion permea-
bility
12
drastically while reducing drying shrinkage to
approximately 1000 10
-6
. However, these negative effects
of high-volume FA on the mechanical- and durability-related
properties of ECC may be remedied with the binary use of
FA and metakaolin (MK).
-
ation of a kaolin precursor by way of heating it to 650 to
900C (1202 to 1652F).
13,14
MK is a silica-based product
that, on reaction with Ca(OH)
2
, produces CSH gel at ambient
temperatures. MK also contains alumina that reacts with CH
to produce additional alumina-containing phases, including
C
4
AH
13
, C
2
ASH
8
, and C
3
AH
6
. This pozzolanic material has
been extensively investigated, particularly in relation to its
effects on the durability and other properties of portland
cement (PC) composites.
15,16
Previous research has shown
that the inclusion of MK in concrete remarkably improves
early-age mechanical properties and enhances resistance
to alkali-silica reaction,
17
sulfate attack,
18
and chloride-ion
permeability.
19
Introducing high-reactivity MK into concrete
also ameliorates the energy absorption or toughness of high-
20
Therefore,
for applications where both enhanced durability and high
toughness are required, the use of high-reactivity cementi-
tious composites containing MK may be advantageous.
13,20
This study investigated the binary uses of FA and MK in
the production of ECC. ECC mixtures with two different FA
+ MK-PC ((FA + MK)/PC) ratios (1.2 and 2.2 by weight)
were prepared by keeping the FA/MK ratio at 4.5. The
investigation focused on the experimental characterization
water absorption (WA), water porosity (WP), sorptivity,
and chloride-ion permeability of ECC incorporating FA and
MK. Two types of ECC mixtures-standard (FA/PC = 1.2)
This study was carried out to develop engineered cementitious
composites (ECCs) incorporating binary blends of high volumes
low drying shrinkage and high composite strength with adequate
ductility and improved durability. ECC, an ultra-ductile cement-
strain-hardening and multiple-cracking behavior in uniaxial
tension and bending. Standard (M45) and high-volume FA ECC
mixtures are typically produced by replacing portland cement (PC)
with 55% and 70% of FA, respectively (FA-to-cement ratio of 1.2
and 2.2 by weight). In this study, the (FA MK)/PC ratio was
maintained at 1.2 and 2.2 and the FA/MK ratio was maintained
at 4.5. Two replacement levels of MK with FA were adopted. The
investigation used 10% and 12.5% MK by weight of total binder
content, respectively. For the purposes of comparison, standard
and high-volume FA ECCs were also studied. To determine the
effect of binary blends of FA and MK on the properties of ECC, this
and compressive strengths, porosity and water absorption (WA),
sorptivity, and chloride-ion permeability. The experimental results
showed that the drying shrinkage, porosity, absorption, sorp-
reduced with the use of binary blends of FA and MK, while ECC's
ultra-high ductility and strain-hardening properties were preserved
at an adequate level.
Keywords: drying shrinkage; durability; engineered cementitious
composites; metakaolin.
INTRODUCTION
Engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) consti-
-
ites and are microstructurally tailored based on the micro-
mechanics design theory.
1-4
Their strain-hardening and
multiple-cracking behavior is characterized by a higher
which is associated with the appearance of closely spaced
multiple cracks until composite peak load is reached.
5
The
tensile strain capacity of ECCs is 2 to 5%-several hundred
times that of normal concrete. The compressive strength
ranges from 50 to 80 MPa (7.25 to 11.6 ksi), depending
on the composition of the mixture, which puts ECCs in the
same class as high-strength concrete materials but without
the associated brittleness.
6
To obtain strain-hardening and
needs to be added to the matrix to control fracture tough-
ness.
7-10
Coarse aggregates are eliminated from the mixture,
resulting in a higher cement content than that of conven-
tional concrete. As a result of this special requirement, a
high-drying shrinkage strain must be developed during the
setting and hardening of the composite.
7
To eliminate the
566 AC Materials Journal/September-October 2012
and high-volume FA (FA/PC = 2.2)-were also studied for
comparison purposes.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
reinforced cementitious composite with substantial bene-
its minimum crack width. To obtain strain-hardening and
sand needs to be added to the matrix to control the frac-
ture toughness. Coarse aggregates are eliminated from the
mixture, resulting in higher cement content than conven-
tional concrete. Therefore, a high drying shrinkage strain
must be developed during setting and hardening of this
unique composite. Researchers tried to decrease the drying
shrinkage of ECC mixtures by using high volumes of FA;
however, this resulted in a decrease in the mechanical and
durability properties. This study focused on the binary use
of FA and MK in ECC production. The negative effects of
high-volume FA on the mechanical- and durability-related
properties of ECC may be overcome with the binary use of
FA and MK.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
MateriaIs and mixture proportions
included standard and high-volume FA ECC, which incorpo-
rated Type I PC; Class F FA; normalweight microsilica sand
(with an average and maximum grain size of 110 and 200 m
[0.004 and 0.008 in.], respectively); water; polyvinyl alcohol
water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) with a solid content of
approximately 30%. The second group of ECC mixtures was
produced by replacing FA with MK at (FA + MK)/PC ratios
of 1.2 and 2.2 while maintaining a constant FA/MK ratio of
4.5. The chemical composition and physical properties of the
PC, FA, and MK used in this study are presented in Table 1.
ECCs can be found in Table 2. All four mixtures contained
m (0.002 in.) in
diameter with a tensile strength of 1600 MPa (235 ksi) and
Erdogan zbay is an Associate Professor in the Civil Engineering Department at
Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya, Turkey. His research interests include durability
of concrete, use of waste materials in concrete, and self-consolidating concrete.
Okan Karahan is an Assistant Professor in the Civil Engineering Department at
Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey. His research interests include construction
materials and concrete technology.
ACI member Mohamed Lachemi is a Professor of Civil Engineering and Dean of
the Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science at Ryerson University, Toronto,
ON, Canada. He is a member of ACI Committees 231, Properties of Concrete at Early
Ages, and 237, Self-Consolidating Concrete. His research interests include the use of
high-performance materials in the built infrastructure, including the development and
use of self-consolidating concrete in construction.
ACI member Khandaker M. A. Hossain is an Associate Professor in the Department
of Civil Engineering at Ryerson University. He is a member of ACI Committees 213,
Lightweight Aggregate and Concrete, and 232, Fly Ash and Natural Pozzolans in
Concrete. His research interests include sustainable construction, high-performance/
self-consolidating concrete, reinforced concrete, and thin-walled composite structures.
Cengiz Duran Atis is a Professor of Civil Engineering and Dean of the Faculty
of Engineering at Abdullah Gul University, Kayseri, Turkey. His research interests
include construction materials and reinforced concrete structures.
TabIe 1Characteristics of cement, FA, and MK
Chemical composition Cement FA MK
Sum (SiO
2
+ Al
2
O
3
+ Fe
2
O
3
) 27.60 85.60 95.00
SiO
2
, % 19.60 59.50 61 to 64
Al
2
O
3
, % 4.90 22.20 30 to 32
Fe
2
O
3
, % 3.10 3.90 1.10
CaO, % 61.40 5.57 0.40
MgO, % 3.00 - 0.30
SO
3
, % 3.60 0.19 0.05
Alkalis as Na
2
O, % 0.70 2.75 1.35
Loss on ignition, % 2.30 0.21 0.95
Physical properties
Blaine, cm
2
/g 3870 3060 13,900
+45 m, % 3.00 9.60 1.20
Density, g/cm
3
3.15 2.18 2.55
Notes: 1 cm
2
/g = 0.155 in.
2
/g; 1 m = 0.0000393 in.; 1 g/cm
3
= 168.45 lb/yd
3
.
TabIe 2Mixture properties of ECC mixtures
Ingredients ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2 ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2 ECC-3_(FA + MK)/PC = 1.2 ECC-4_(FA + MK)/PC = 2.2
Water (W), kg/m
3
331 327 326 318
Portland cement (PC), kg/m
3
570 386 558 375
FA, kg/m
3
684 847 547 673
MK, kg/m
3
- - 122 150
Silica sand (S), kg/m
3
455 448 446 435
Fiber (PVA), kg/m
3
26 26 26 26
HRWRA, kg/m
3
4.9 3.7 7.5 6.5
FA, % 55 69 45 56
MK, % - - 10 12.5
FA/PC 1.2 2.2 0.98 1.80
FA/MK - - 4.5 4.5
(FA + MK)/PC - - 1.2 2.2
Water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm) 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.27
Note: 1 kg/m
3
= 1.6845 lb/yd
3
.
AC Materials Journal/September-October 2012 567
a density of 1300 kg/m
3
(2190.5 lb/yd
3
chemical and friction bond.
21
The water-cementitious material ratio (w/cm) in all
mixtures was controlled at 0.27. Slight adjustments in the
amount of the HRWRA in each mixture were made to
distribution and workability. Therefore, all specimens in the
to those in self-consolidating performance.
11
As seen in
Table 2, ECC mixtures incorporating FA and MK showed
a higher HRWRA demand than those containing only FA.
MK, a soft material made primarily of amorphous silicon
dioxide and aluminum oxide and produced by the decom-
position of kaolin at a temperature of 650 to 900C (1202 to
1652F), tends to absorb water to form kaolin. After the
MK was added to the PC, it prompted cement hydration,
which shortened the setting time. However, the MK-blended
mixtures needed more water to achieve the same work-
dosage of HRWRA was added for the same workability; the
study concluded that MK-blended mixtures require more
HRWRA.
22
Moreover, ECC mixtures with an FA/PC ratio of
1.2 had higher HRWRA demand than those with an FA/PC of
2.2.
23
The smooth surface characteristics and spherical shape
of the FA improved the workability characteristics of ECC
mixtures so that similar workability properties at a constant
w/cm were achieved by using a lower HRWRA content at a
higher FA replacement level.
24
A mortar mixer was used in the preparation of all ECC
mixtures in this study. Solid ingredients, including cement,
mineral admixture (FA or FA/MK), and aggregate, were
initially mixed at 100 rpm for 1 minute. Water and HRWRA
were then added into the dry mixture and mixed at 150 rpm
for 1 minute and then mixed at 300 rpm for another 2 minutes
to produce a consistent and uniform ECC matrix (without
at 150 rpm for an additional 3 minutes.
Specimen preparation and testing
Several 285 x 25 x 25 mm (11.22 x 0.985 x 0.985 in.) bar
and 355 x 50 x 76 mm (13.97 x 1.97 x 2.99 in.) prism speci-
mens from each mixture were prepared for drying shrinkage
and four-point bending tests, respectively, and 100 x 200 mm
(3.93 x 7.87 in.) cylinder specimens were prepared for rapid
chloride permeability testing. Fifty mm (1.97 in.) cubic spec-
imens were prepared to determine compressive strength, WA,
water sorptivity, and WP. All specimens were demolded at the
age of 24 hours and cured in sealed plastic bags at 95 5%
relative humidity (RH) and 23 2C (73F 3.6F) for 7 days.
They were then air-cured at 50 5% RH and 23 2C (73F
3.6F) for 28 days prior to testing. The complete testing
program is detailed in the following sections.
The compressive strength of the ECC mixtures was
determined by testing at least three 50 mm (1.97 in.) cubic
specimens at the age of 28 days according to the procedure
described in ASTM C39-94.
25
A four-point bending test was
performed under displacement control at a loading rate of
0.005 mm/s (0.0002 in./s) on a closed-loop controlled servo-
loading was 304.8 mm (12 in.) at the tension surface with
a 101.6 mm (4 in.) center-span length at the compression
-
tion were recorded on a computerized data recording system.
Drying shrinkage
Drying shrinkage measurements for all ECC mixtures
were made on three 285 x 25 x 25 mm (11.22 x 0.985 x
0.985 in.) bars up to 120 days after an initial curing of 1 day
in the mold and 27 days in lime-saturated water in accor-
dance with ASTM C157/C157M-04.
26
The drying shrinkage
specimens were stored in a drying room at 23 2C (73F
3.6F) and 50 4% RH.
WA and porosity
WA was determined as per ASTM C642-06
27
; speci-
mens were initially oven-dried at 105 5C (222F 9F)
for 72 hours to reach constant mass and obtain oven-dry
mass (W
1
). They were then immersed in water for 72 hours
and the saturated surface-dry mass (W
2
) of the specimens
was measured. The WA of each specimen was calculated
as follows
2 1
1
W W
WA (%) 100
W
(1)
To determine the WP, the hydrostatic weight (W
3
) of the
ECC specimens was also determined and the WP was calcu-
lated as follows
2 1
2 3
W W
WP (%) 100
W W
(2)
Sorptivity
The sorptivity test was performed as per ASTM C1585-04.
28

The test evaluated the increase in the mass of a 50 x 50 x 50 mm
(1.97 x 1.97 x 1.97 in.) cubic specimen at given intervals of
time (up to 360 minutes for initial sorptivity and up to 8 days
for secondary sorptivity) when permitted to absorb water by
capillary suction. Only the bottom surface of the specimen
was in contact with water. The water depth was up to 4 mm
(0.16 in.) to prevent water ingress from the sides; the perim-
eter and top surface of the specimens were sealed with adhe-
sive aluminum tape. This test was chosen because it measures
the rate of ingress of water through unsaturated concrete and
can therefore be considered a measure of water transport
associated with capillary suction. Three specimens were used
to determine the ingress of water for each ECC mixture.
ChIoride-ion permeabiIity
The chloride-ion permeability test, conducted in accor-
dance with ASTM C1202-97,
29
measures the ease with
which the charge passes through concrete, giving an indi-
cation of the ECC`s resistance to chloride-ion permeability.
Disc specimens 100 mm (4 in.) in diameter and 50 mm
(2 in.) thick were cut from the midportion of 100 x 200 mm
(4 x 8 in.) cylinder specimens and conditioned according
to ASTM C1202.
29
Specimens were then subjected to 60 V
potential for 6 hours and the total charge that passed through
the specimens was determined and used to evaluate the chlo-
ride permeability of each ECC mixture. A minimum of three
specimens were tested for each mixture.
568 AC Materials Journal/September-October 2012
MK were slightly higher than in the ECC mixtures produced
of the FA and MK mixtures (ECC-3 and ECC-4) were
lower than those of the mixtures with only FA (ECC-1 and
demonstrated that the most important feature of ECC-high
ductility with multiple-cracking behaviors-was maintained
at an adequate level by replacing FA with 12.5% MK.
After the four-point bending test, the bending load was
released and the specimens were taken out of the closed-
loop controlled servo-hydraulic material test system. A
crack closure occurred in the unloading position; the crack
width in the loaded position was approximately 30% greater
than in the unloaded position. All crack width measurements
were conducted in the unloaded state. Crack widths were
measured on the tension surface of the specimens using a
portable crack microscope with 5 m (0.00019 in.) magni-
numbers on the span length of 102 mm (4.02 in.) at the
center of the prism specimens` tension surface. Each data
point in Table 4 is an average of at least three or more prism
specimens; more than 10 m (0.00039 in.) crack widths
were measured from each specimen. All four ECC mixtures
showed crack widths of smaller than 75 m (0.003 in.).
Mixture ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2 showed a very tight average
crack with a width of 51 m (0.002 in.). It was found
that the number of cracks increased, whereas crack width
decreased as FA content increased from 55 to 70%. ECC
mixtures (ECC-3 and ECC-4) incorporating MK and FA led
to a slightly wider crack width and a lesser number of cracks
compared to FA-ECC mixtures.
Drying shrinkage
The results of drying shrinkage testing at 120 days after
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
crack behaviors
The compressive strength variation of ECC mixtures
is presented in Table 3. It shows that with increases in FA
content and decreases in cement, compressive strength
1.2 to ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2. As seen in Table 3, the compres-
sive strength of ECC mixtures incorporating FA and MK
(Mixtures ECC-3_(FA + MK)/PC = 1.2 and ECC-4_(FA
+ MK)/PC = 2.2) was 20.3% and 12.8% higher than in
the control ECC mixtures containing only FA (Mixtures
ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2 to ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2), respectively.
Inclusion of MK into the matrix improved the bond between
the cement paste and silica sand particles and increased
improved the compressive strength of the ECC mixtures.
-
-
ural loads varied from 8.57 to 11.01 MPa (1.24 to 1.60 ksi)
bending load varied from 4.30 to 7.17 mm (0.169 to 0.28 in.),
depending on the content of FA or the FA/MK combination.
Table 4 shows that increasing the FA/PC ratio from 1.2 to
2.2 (Mixtures ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2 to ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2)
improved the bending deformation capacity by approxi-
approximately 22.3%. The improvement in bending defor-
mation capacity with increased FA content can be attributed
to the fact that greater amounts of FA tend to reduce the PVA
and increase the interface frictional bond in favor of attaining
high bending capacity
12,30
due to the change of matrix chem-
ical composition and coating effect of inert particles on a
the load-carrying capacities of ECC mixtures with FA and
TabIe 3Compressive strength and chIoride-ion
permeabiIity test resuIts of ECCs
Mixture ID
Compressive
strength, MPa
Chloride-ion permeability
Coulombs Rating
ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2 46.4 1072 Low
ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2 46.8 1719 Low
ECC-3_(FA + MK)/
PC = 1.2
55.5 627 Very low
ECC-4_(FA + MK)/
PC = 2.2
52.8 1468 Low
Notes: 1 MPa = 1.6845 lb/yd
3
; 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi. of ECCs.
TabIe 4Number of cracks, average crack widths, and bending test resuIts of ECCs
Mixture ID
Bending test results After bending test
m
ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2 5.37 11.01 33 65 11
ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2 7.17 8.57 41 51 9
ECC-3_(FA + MK)/PC = 1.2 4.35 11.33 27 73 12
ECC-4_(FA + MK)/PC = 2.2 4.30 8.75 32 68 5
Notes: 1 MPa = 0.145 ksi; 1 mm = 0.0393 in.; 1 m = 0.0000393 in.
AC Materials Journal/September-October 2012 569
ranged from 990 to 1450 at 120 days. When the FA/PC
ratio was increased from 1.2 to 2.2, drying shrinkage was
reduced by approximately 14%. Yang et al.
11
studied the
effect of the FA/PC ratio on the drying shrinkage of high-
volume FA-incorporated ECC and noticed that increasing
the FA/PC ratio from 1.2 to 5.6 effectively decreased the
drying shrinkage up to 50%. According to their conclu-
sions, a possible mechanism behind the reduction of drying
the matrix, which may prevent internal moisture evapora-
-
explanation would be that unhydrated FA particles serve
ECC can also be seen in Fig. 2. The substitution of 10%
(for Mixture ECC-3_(FA + MK)/PC = 1.2) and 12.5% (for
Mixture ECC-4_(FA + MK)/PC = 2.2) MK with FA led to
a reduction of 29.7% (according to Mixture ECC-1_FA/
PC = 1.2) and 20.8% (according to Mixture ECC-2_FA/PC
= 2.2) at the age of 120 days, respectively. The reduction
in drying shrinkage with the incorporation of MK can be
partly attributed to the lower amount of evaporable water,
-
cant amount of the free water.
7,31
With the inclusion of 10%
MK for Mixture ECC-3_(FA + MK)/PC = 1.2 and 12.5% for
ECC-4_(FA + MK)/PC = 2.2, the drying shrinkage of these
two ECC mixtures became close to each other at 120 days.
Mixtures ECC-3 and ECC-4 exhibited drying shrinkages
of 1020 10
-6
and 990 10
-6
, respectively, at the end
of 120 days.
WA and WP
Figure 3 presents the results of the WA and WP tests. An
increase of FA/PC from 1.2 to 2.2 remarkably increased both
WA and WP. Mixture ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2 had 8.63 and
14.89% WA and WP values, respectively, while those values
were 6.36 and 10.34% for Mixture ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2. It
of ECC decreased (refer to Tables 3 and 4), while WP and
specimens have also been reported by other investigators.
The most probable reason for the higher WA and WP with
high volumes of FA is the slow pozzolanic reaction of FA
'Specimen preparation and testing section of this paper,
the ECC specimens were cured in air after a 7-day sealed
curing. With the incorporation of the blend of MK and FA
(Mixtures ECC-3 and ECC-4), the WP and WA of the ECC
mixtures improved due to an increased packing density.
For example, the WP and WA values of the ECC mixture
with 12.5% MK (ECC-4_(FA + MK)/PC = 2.2) decreased
from 8.63% to 6.53% and from 14.89% to 12.84%, respec-
tively. It is widely accepted that the principal reaction is
facilitated by the dissolution of glassy/amorphous silica in
pore water, which then reacts with CH to form CSH gel.
which is the main factor behind the strength, porosity, and
pore diameter of various pozzolanic materials. Due to the
2
/g
[2154 in.
2
/g]), more of the silica enters the solution faster
than FA (3870 cm
2
/g [600 in.
2
/g]), forming additional CSH
gels on reaction and leading to an enhanced microstruc-
ture and a decreased value of the total porosity and WA of
ECC.
32
Khatip and Wild
33
studied the pore size distribution
of MK paste containing up to 15% MK and observed that
of curing, after which the pore size changed slightly. This
and porosity values than those containing only FA.
Sorptivity
Sorptivity is a material property that characterizes the
tendency of a material to absorb and transmit water by
capillary suction. Sorptivity testing measures the rate of
value indicates water mass uptake by concrete from the
bottom surface.
34
When testing the 50 mm (1.97 in.) cubic
specimens, the cumulative WA per unit area up to 6 hours
and 8 days was performed using linear regression analysis
and the slope of equation was obtained to describe the initial
and secondary sorptivity of the ECC mixtures, respectively.
Figure 4 demonstrates the initial and secondary sorptivity
from 1.2 (Mixture ECC-1) to 2.2 (Mixture ECC-2) slightly
the ECC incorporating only FA. The initial and secondary
55% FA content) were 0.0219 mm/sn
0.5
and 0.0021 mm/
sn
0.5
0.0331 mm/sn
0.5
and 0.0024 mm/sn
0.5
in Mixture ECC-2
(FA/PC = 2.2 and 70% FA content), respectively. A similar
trend for mortar and ECC has also been observed by previous
researchers.
12,35
However, even at approximately a 70%
Fig. 2-Drying shrinkage variation of ECC mixtures.
Fig. 3-Water absorption and porosity test results of ECCs.
570 AC Materials Journal/September-October 2012
time of curing, most of the FA particles in the matrix expe-
rienced no hydration and pozzolanic reactions. Because
Mixture ECC-2 had more FA content (70%) than ECC-1
(55%), it was more negatively affected by the short period
-
bility properties, such as chloride-ion permeability resis-
tance, are usually manifested at later ages with the contin-
uous supply of moisture.
12
Another possible reason could
2
/g [474 in.
2
/g]), as
of the cement used (3870 cm
2
/g [585 in.
2
/g]). As mentioned
positively affected the resistance of composites to chlo-
ride-ion permeability. ECC mixtures (ECC-3 and ECC-4)
produced with FA and MK had considerably lower chloride-
ion permeability values than the ECC mixtures made only
with FA. For instance, with the introduction of 10% MK,
chloride-ion permeability decreased from 1072 coulombs
(for Mixture ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2) to 627 coulombs (for
Mixture ECC-3_(FA + MK)/PC = 1.2), representing a
reduction of approximately 42%. Mixtures ECC-2 (FA/
PC = 2.2) and ECC-4 ((FA + MK)/PC = 2.2) demonstrated
the same behavior. The binary use of FA and MK in
Mixture ECC-4 (12.5% MK and 56% FA) decreased the
chloride-ion permeability value of Mixture ECC-2 (70%
FA) from 1719 to 1468 coulombs. Reduced capillary pores
and reduced connectivity due to the rapid pozzolanic activity
may be the reasons behind the better performance of ECCs
with MK. Using FA and MK together can compensate for
some of the shortcomings of ECC made exclusively with FA
and create ECCs with increased durability.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this experi-
mental study:
-
cantly alter the compressive strength of ECC mixtures
produced with FA. However, the use of a binary blend
of FA and MK in ECC production had a positive effect
on the compressive strength; it increased from approxi-
mately 12 to 20% with respect to ECC with only FA.
Under the four-point bending test, all ECC mixtures
exhibited multiple-cracking and strain-hardening
behavior. Although the binary incorporation of FA
-
tion capacity of ECC specimens, it could still attain a
higher than that of normal concrete. Moreover, ECC
mixtures with the binary use of FA and MK had some-
values than their ECC counterparts with only FA.
unhydrated FA constraint effect, increasing the amount
of FA reduced drying shrinkage by approximately
14%. The binary use of FA and MK in ECC produc-
tion had a very positive effect on the drying shrinkage.
The substitution of 10% (for Mixture ECC-3_(FA +
MK)/PC = 1.2) and 12.5% (for Mixture ECC-4_(FA
+ MK)/PC = 2.2) MK with FA resulted in a reduction
in the drying shrinkage as high as 30% and 21% for
Mixtures ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2 and ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2
at 120 days, respectively.
replacement of cement with FA (Mixture ECC-2_FA/PC =
2.2), the initial sorptivity was still lower than the sorptivity
36
typical
sorptivity is 0.09 mm/minute
0.5
(0.00354 in./minute
0.5
) for
normal concrete. Incorporating MK with FA in ECC produc-
tion (Mixtures ECC-3 and ECC-4) positively affected the pore
10% MK with FA in Mixture ECC-3 ((FA + MK)/PC = 1.2)
0.5

(for Mixture ECC-1_FA/PC = 1.2) to 0.0224 mm/sn
0.5
(for
Mixture ECC-3_(FA + MK)/PC = 1.2). This trend was seen
between Mixtures ECC-2 and ECC-4. These results show the
value of using a binary FA/MK mixture rather than just FA
and impermeable pore structure that will, for example, inhibit
ingress of aggressive agents into the pore structure.
37
ChIoride-ion permeabiIity
The rapid chloride-ion permeability test results of the
ECC mixtures and their chloride-ion ratings according to
ASTM C1202
29
are presented in Table 3. Rapid chloride-ion
permeability testing is based on the electrical conductivity
of ECC. The ECC sample is subjected to a potential differ-
ence of 60 V and the total charge passing through it at the
end of 6 hours is measured and expressed in coulombs. A
reduction in this total charge value indicates better resistance
to chloride-ion permeability and lower permeability.
38,39
As
seen in the table, increasing the FA/PC ratio from 1.2 (Mixture
ECC-1 with 55% FA) to 2.2 (Mixture ECC-2 with 70% FA)
reduced resistance to chloride-ion permeability. This result
performed on mortar and concrete. Normally, concrete
with high volumes of pozzolans shows lower chloride-ion
permeability due to a denser microstructure. The pozzolanic
reaction may result in fewer capillary pores and less clog-
ging of those pores, which reduces chloride-ion transport
in concrete.
40
-
to the lower chloride-ion permeability.
41
As mentioned by
Sahmaran and Li,
12
however, the trend in ECC is completely
different than in mortar and concrete. As seen in Table 3,
increasing FA content from 55% (Mixture ECC-1_FA/PC
= 1.2) to 70% (Mixture ECC-2_FA/PC = 2.2) increased
chloride-ion permeability from 1072 to 1719 coulombs. The
possible reason behind the higher chloride permeability with
higher FA content is that the ECC specimens were cured
in air after a 7-day sealed curing. Due to a relatively short
Fig. 4-Initial and secondary sorptivity test results of ECCs.
(Note. 1 mm/minute
0.5
= 0.0393 in./minute
0.5
.)
AC Materials Journal/September-October 2012 571
Increasing the amount of FA in the ECC mixtures
worsened their durability-related properties. Remark-
able increases in WA, porosity, initial and secondary
sorptivity, and chloride-ion permeability values were
monitored. This can be attributed to the inadequate
binary blend of FA and MK in ECC, however, all of the
aforementioned durability-related properties improved
-
lary pores and the reduction in pore connectivity due to
-
ness of MK, as well as better particle packing density
of the matrix.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Council of Higher Education of Turkey (YOK), the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada, and the Canada
Research Chair Program.
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