Dear Amaresh,

Design could be viewed as an activity that translates an idea into a blueprint for something useful, whether it's a car, a building, a graphic, a service or a process. The important part is the translation of the idea, though design's ability to spark the idea in the first place shouldn't be overlooked. Scientists can invent technologies, manufacturers can make products, engineers can make them function and marketers can sell them, but only designers can combine insight into all these things and turn a concept into something that's desirable, viable, commercially successful and adds value to people's lives. There are many misconceptions about design.

Q 10. What are the FOS of mechanical design ? There is no single uniform value for FOS. It is common practice to size the machine elements, so that the maximum design stress is below the UTS (Ultimate Tensile Stress) or yield stress by an appropriate factor the Factor of Safety, based on UTS(Ultimate Tensile Stress) or Yield Strength. The factor of safety also known as Safety Factor, is used to provide a design margin over the theoretical design capacity to allow for uncertainty in the design process. Factor of safety is recommended by the conditions over which the designer has no control, that is to account for the uncertainties involved in the design process. The uncertainties include (but not limited to), Uncertainty regarding exact properties of material. For example, the yield strength can only be specified in between a range. Uncertainty regarding the size. The designer has to use the test data to design parts which are much smaller or larger. It is well known that a small part has more strength than a large one of same material. Uncertainty due to machining processes. Uncertainty due to the effect of assembly operations like riveting, welding etc. Uncertainty due to effect of time on strength. Operating environments may cause a gradual deterioration of strength, leading to premature and unpredictable failure of the part. Uncertainty in the nature and type of load applied. Assumptions and approximations made in the nature of surface conditions of the machine element.

Selection of factor of safety The selection of the appropriate factor of safety to be used in design of components is essentially a compromise between the associated additional cost and weight and the benefit of increased safety or/and reliability. Generally an increased factor of safety results from a heavier component or a component made from a more exotic material or/and improved component design. An appropriate factor of safety is chosen based on several considerations. Prime considerations are the accuracy of load and wear estimates, the consequences of failure, and the cost of over engineering the component to achieve that factor of safety. For example, components whose failure could result in substantial financial loss, serious injury or death usually use a safety factor of four or higher (often ten). Non-critical components generally have a safety factor of two. Extreme care must be used in dealing with vibration loads, more so if the vibrations approach resonant frequencies. The vibrations resulting from seismic disturbances are often important and need to be considered in detail. Where higher factors might appear desirable, a more thorough analysis of the problem should be undertaken before deciding on their use. 1.25 1.5 - Material properties known in detail. Operating conditions known in detail. Loads and resultant stresses and strains known with with high degree of certainty. Material test certificates, proof loading, regular inspection and maintenance. Low weight is important to design. 1.5 2 - Known materials with certification under reasonably constant environmental conditions, subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined using qualified design procedures. Proof tests, regular inspection and maintenance required. 2 2.5 - Materials obtained for reputable suppliers to relevant standards operated in normal environments and subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined using checked calculations. 2.5 3 - For less tried materials or for brittle materials under average conditions of environment, load and stress. 3 4 - For untried materials used under average conditions of environment, load and stress. Should also be used with better-known materials that are to be used in

uncertain environments or subject to uncertain stresses. Usually the factor of safety is kept larger, except in aerospace and automobile industries. Here safety factors are kept low (about 1.15 1.25) because the costs associated with structural weight are so high. This low safety factor is why aerospace parts and materials are subject to more stringent testing and quality control. Now computers are being used to provide more accurate simulation of stresses that occur in components, particularly in the case of high value products where safety and saving weight is essential. We can specify on several of the parameters. It depends on the material. Plastic, metal , alloy Brittle or ductile ? E.L. U.T.S. U.E. U.S.S U.C.S.. = = = = = Elastic limit Ultimate tensile strength Ultimate elongation Ultimate shearing strength Ultimate compressive strength

For fasteners generally we keep very high FOS on YS not less than 3 some times 5 and more For battery end plate the MOS can be 1.5 to 2 on UTS In some cases you may have to keep it quite low as in the case of leak before burst. To avoid catastrophic failures we may keep the FOS low. For burst disk we may not keep very high. 1.25 to 1.5 on UTS

Safety factors are based on several considerations, such as the accuracy of predictions on the imposed loads, strength, the environmental effects to which the product will be exposed in service etc.; the consequences of engineering failure; and the cost of over-engineering the component to achieve that factor of safety. For example, components whose failure could result in substantial financial loss, serious injury, or death may use a safety factor of four or higher (often ten). Non-critical components generally might have a design factor of two. Risk analysis, failure mode and effects analysis, and other tools are commonly used. Design factors for specific applications are often mandated by law, policy, or industry standards. Pressure vessels use 3.5 to 4.0, and aircraft and spacecraft use 1.2 to 3.0 depending on the application and materials. Ductile, metallic materials tend to use the lower value while brittle materials use the higher values. The field of aerospace engineering uses generally lower design factors because the costs associated with structural weight are high (i.e. a spacecraft with an overall safety factor of 5 would probably be too heavy to get off the ground). This low design factor is why aerospace parts and materials are subject to very stringent quality control and strict preventative maintenance schedules to help ensure reliability. A usually applied Safety Factor is 1.5, but for pressurized fuselage it is 2.0, and for main landing gear structures it is often 1.25. In some cases it is impractical or impossible for a part to meet the "standard" design factor. The penalties (mass or otherwise) for meeting the requirement would prevent the system from being viable (such as in the case of aircraft or spacecraft). In these cases, it is sometimes determined to allow a component to meet a lower than normal safety factor, often referred to as "waiving" the requirement. Doing this often brings with it extra detailed analysis or quality control verifications to assure the part will perform as desired, as it will be loaded closer to its limits. For loading that is cyclical, repetitive, or fluctuating, it is important to consider the possibility of metal fatigue when choosing factor of safety. A cyclic load well below a material's yield strength can cause failure if it is repeated through enough cycles.