Interpretive guide for

ASEAN

GAP
November 2006

Good agricultural practices for production of fresh fruit and vegetables in ASEAN countries

PRODUCE QUALITY MODULE

Quality Assurance Systems for ASEAN Fruit and Vegetables Project ASEAN-Australia Development Cooperation Project

Copyright ASEAN Secretariat 2006 All rights reserved. Reproduction and dissemination of materials from this publication for educational or other non commercial purposes is authorised without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of materials in this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Disclaimer The views expressed in this information product are not necessarily those of the ASEAN Secretariat nor does the ASEAN Secretariat vouch for the accuracy of the material. No responsibility or liability will therefore be accepted by the ASEAN Secretariat in relation to any use or reliance on the material contained in this publication. Reference to any other organisations does not constitute endorsement by the ASEAN Secretariat of those organisations or any associated product or service.

Contents
Acknowledgements
1. Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Purpose and scope of guide 1.2 Guide sections

2.

Hazards and causes of quality loss.............................................................................. 3

2.1 Quality hazards 2.2 Quality loss during production 2.3 Quality loss at harvest 2.4 Quality loss during postharvest handling

3.

GAP requirements...........................................................................................................10
3.1 Quality plan 3.2 Planting material 3.3 Fertilisers and soil additives 3.4 Water 3.5 Chemicals 3.6 Harvesting and handling produce 3.7 Traceability and recall 3.8 Training 3.9 Documents and records 3.10 Review of practices

4. 5. 6.

Self-assessment checklist good agricultural practices........................................... 27 Example quality plan...................................................................................................... 32 Examples of documents and records........................................................................... 37

Appendices 1. 2. Glossary of terms References and additional information

ii

Acknowledgements
Editors
Mr. Scott Ledger, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia Dr. Robert Premier, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia

Working group
This publication was prepared by a working group involving representatives from all ASEAN member countries and the editors of this guide. The representatives from the ASEAN countries were: Mr Jamalludin Haji Mohd Yusoff, Department of Agriculture, Brunei Darussalam Ms Hajjah Aidah binti Hj. Hanifah, Department of Agriculture, Brunei Darussalam Mr Ly Sereivuth, Dept. of Agronomy & Agricultural Land Improvement, Cambodia Mr Mean Chetna, Dept. of Agronomy & Agricultural Land Improvement, Cambodia Ms Dwi Iswari, Directorate of Fruit Crops, Indonesia Ms Susiami, Directorate of Fruit, Indonesia Mrs. Khamphoui Louanglath, Department of Agriculture, Lao PDR Mr Kham Sanatem, Department of Agriculture, Lao PDR Mr Mohd Khairuddin Mohd Tahir, Department of Agriculture, Malaysia Ms. Norma Othman, Department of Agriculture, Malaysia Mr Mohd Hussin Yunnus, Department of Agriculture, Malaysia Mr. U Kyaw Win, Myanma Agricultural Service, Myanmar Mr Ko Ko, Myanma Agricultural Service, Myanmar Mr. Gilberto F. Layese, Department of Agriculture, Philippines Ms. Mary Grace Rivere Mandigma, Department of Agriculture, Philippines Dr. Paul Chiew King Tiong, Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore Ms. Khoo Gek Hoon, Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore Dr. Supranee Impithuksa, Department of Agriculture, Thailand Dr. Surmsuk Salakpetch, Department of Agriculture, Thailand Mrs. Psyanoot Naka, Department of Agriculture, Thailand Dr. Nguyen Munh Chau, Southern Fruit Research Institute, Viet Nam Ms Nguyen Thu Hang, Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development, Viet Nam

Project funding
The development of ASEAN GAP is an activity within the project, Quality Assurance Systems for ASEAN Fruit and Vegetables (QASAFV). The QASAFV project is an initiative under the ASEAN Australia Development Cooperation Program (AADCP). The AADCP is funded by Australias overseas aid agency, AusAID, and Cardno ACIL Pty Ltd is AusAIDs Australian managing contractor for the program. The QASAFV project is managed by RMIT International Pty Ltd in association with the Department of Primary Industries, Victoria and the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland. The project contact person is: Mr Mick Bell Project Coordinator Business Development Division RMIT International Pty Ltd Level 5, 225 Bourke Street Melbourne Victoria 3000 Australia Tel. +61 3 9925 5139 Fax +61 3 9925 5153 mick.bell@rmit.edu.au

iii

1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose and scope of guide
ASEAN GAP is a standard for good agricultural practices to control hazards during the production, harvesting and postharvest handling of fresh fruit and vegetables in the ASEAN member countries. ASEAN GAP is divided into four modules 1. Food safety, 2. Environmental management, 3. Worker health, safety and welfare and 4. Produce quality. ASEAN GAP has been developed to enhance the harmonisation of GAP programs amongst the ASEAN member countries. It covers the production, harvesting and postharvest handling of fresh fruit and vegetables on farm and postharvest handling in locations where produce is packed for sale. This interpretive guide was designed to assist producers, packers, supply chain businesses, trainers, government representatives and others to understand the practices required for implementing the Produce Quality Module of ASEAN GAP. It provides guidance on what has to be done to implement the required practices. Separate interpretive guides are available for the other ASEAN GAP modules.

1.2 Guide sections

The guide contains background information on types of quality hazards and causes of quality loss, guidance on implementing the GAP requirements, a self-assessment checklist to review compliance with the requirements, examples of documents and records, a glossary of terms and references and additional information.

Section 2. Hazards and causes of quality loss

This section provides information about the potential quality hazards and causes of quality loss. A quality hazard is any characteristic that prevents the produce from meeting the requirements of a customer or government regulation. Produce quality can be lost at any step during production, harvesting and postharvest handling.

Section 3. GAP requirements

The good agricultural practices for controlling quality hazards are grouped into 10 elements. Each element has background information to explain how quality can be lost. Specific information is then provided for each practice to explain what is required to implement the practice. In some cases, two or more practices are grouped together as the guidance information is the same for both practices. Section 4. Self-assessment checklist The self-assessment checklist enables the level of compliance with the good agricultural practices contained in the food safety module to be checked. The relevance of the practices will depend on the location of the farm or packing business, type of produce, and the systems used for production, harvesting, handling, packing, storage and transport. The person assesses whether the practice is done correctly or if attention is needed or if the practice is not relevant. If attention is needed, the actions required are identified and recorded.

Section 5. Example quality plan

This section contains an example of a quality plan for production, harvesting and postharvest handling of mangoes. For each process step, the quality plan describes the quality hazards that may occur, the causes of quality hazards and the good agricultural practices required to prevent or minimise the risk of the quality hazards occurring.

Section 6. Examples of documents and records

The section contains examples of documents and record forms that are required to implement various practices in the produce quality module. The documents and record forms are examples only and other methods and formats can be used. ASEAN GAP specifies the information that has to be documented and the records to keep, but does not specify how to document information and keep records.

Appendix 1. Glossary of terms

This appendix contains definitions for the abbreviations and terms used in the guide.

Appendix 2. References and additional information

This appendix contains references and additional information on control of quality hazards for fresh produce. It includes lists of training programs, GAP guidelines, publications, GAP systems and organisations.

2. Hazards and causes of quality loss

2.1 Quality hazards
A quality hazard is any characteristic that prevents the produce from meeting the requirements of a customer or government regulation. For example the produce quality may not meet the requirement of a customer for size, colour, maturity, external appearance, flavour, or shelf life. The produce may also not meet the quarantine regulations of an importing country because of the presence of a pest or disease or it may be incorrectly labelled. There are three types of quality characteristics external appearance, internal quality, and hidden quality. External appearance includes those characteristics that can be seen by the eye. Examples are colour, size, shape, disease, insects, blemishes, and packaging. Internal quality includes those characteristics that cant be seen from the outside and the produce needs to be cut or eaten to identify the quality. Examples are colour, firmness, texture, flavour, aroma, disease and insects. Hidden quality includes those characteristics that cant be seen, smelt or tasted. Examples are shelf life, nutritional value and genetic modification. There are some basic quality characteristics that customers expect when purchasing fresh produce. Examples are: Free of major injury, spoilage or blemish likely to affect keeping quality Not overripe, excessively soft or wilted Free of excessive dirt, unacceptable chemical residues and other foreign matter Free of foreign odours and taste Free of quarantine pests

Produce quality can be lost at any step during the production, harvesting and postharvest handling of fresh produce.

Grading for quality

Not only is the quality of individual pieces important, but the overall quality of the combined saleable unit is also important. The buyer will have expectations for the quality of the saleable unit for example, bundles of leafy vegetables, a basket, crate or carton of fruit. Many customers require the produce to be uniform in quality within the package. This may be uniform colour, size, weight, shape, or some other characteristic. To achieve uniformity, the produce is graded for quality either at harvest, packing or during a repacking stage. Grading is usually done by humans, either pickers or packers, although machinery or measurement devices are increasingly being used. Accuracy of humans is typically lower than with machinery, but can be improved with suitable training. Achieving perfect uniformity is rarely possible so some level of variability has to be allowed. Decisions have to be made about what range of attribute between the lower limit and upper limit will be allowed. For example, for a produce weight requirement of 250 grams with an allowance of 10%, the weight range would be 225 to 275 grams.

Figure 1.

Grading tomatoes by colour to satisfy the requirements of different buyers

2.2 Quality loss during production

The inherent quality of produce is determined by the production practices. Once produce has been harvested, produce quality can not be improved. Production practices affect all types of quality characteristics. External characteristics such as colour, size, and shape are affected by practices that impact on plant growth and crop load such as water and nutrition management, pruning and thinning. External appearance can be reduced by disease infection, pest damage and mechanical injury such as wind rub. The internal appearance, eating quality, shelf life and nutritional value of produce is reduced by water stress, inadequate plant nutrition and excessive crop loads. GAP during production is aimed at increasing the inherent quality of produce at the time of harvest.

2.3 Quality loss at harvest

The maturity of produce not only affects the quality at harvest but also the self life of the produce. Maturity refers to the stage of development in the process of growing of the fruit or vegetable. Maturation continues until the start of senescence, leading to the death of the produce. Determining when produce is mature and ready for harvest can be a difficult decision. For some crops, maturity indices have been developed to assist in the decision process. For other crops, harvesting at the correct time can be highly subjective. The optimum maturity for harvest is when the plant has completed sufficient growth and development to ensure that produce quality and shelf is acceptable to the consumer. Most produce start to senescence once harvested, eventually leading to death. If this produce is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer. If this produce is harvested immature, quality characteristics such as colour, size, shape, flavour and texture will be reduced. Fruit crops undergo a ripening process as part of maturation. Ripening involves changes in fruit characteristics that lead to increasing eating acceptability. Examples of these changes are softening, decrease in acids and tannins, increase in sugars, development of aroma and changes to skin colour. For some fruit such as mango, banana and tomato, these changes continue after the produce is harvested. If fruit is harvested when they are not mature, they may lack the required flavour or texture for the consumer. If fruit is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer.

Examples of the different types of produce are: Stems and leaves asparagus, celery, lettuce, cabbage Flowers artichoke, broccoli, cauliflower Partially developed fruit cucumber, green bean, okra, sweet corn Fully developed fruit apple, pear, citrus, tomato Roots and tubers carrot, onion, potato

The methods for measuring maturity must be simple, as it may need to be assessed in different places such as in the field or packing shed or in the market.

2.4 Quality loss during postharvest handling

There are many causes of quality loss after harvest. Quality loss can be due to the normal biological processes, which can be slowed but not stopped, and can be the result of poor handling practices. Major causes of quality loss after harvest are Acceleration of senescence (aging) Water loss Mechanical injuries Physiological disorders Disease infection Growth and development

Acceleration of senescence (aging)

All fruits and vegetables are alive and the biological processes continue to be active after harvest. Senescence is the process of aging leading to death, and it commences immediately at harvest. The rate of senescence has to be managed to minimise loss of quality. Common symptoms of senescence are excessive softening, tissue breakdown, loss of colour, loss of flavour, off-flavours, and tissue discolouration. Fruit and vegetables continue to use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide after harvest. This process is called respiration. During respiration, heat is also produced. There are two different types of respiration processes climacteric and non-climacteric. With climacteric respiration, the produce undergoes a burst of respiration that coincides with the initiation of ripening in fruit. After reaching a peak, respiration falls again. Examples are ripening fruit such as mango, banana, papaya and tomato. With non-climacteric respiration, there is no burst or rapid rise in respiration. Examples of non-climacteric produce are vegetables and fruits such as carambola, citrus, and pineapple. Produce varies greatly in the rate of respiration rate. The rate of deterioration of produce is related to the respiration rate. The following table shows four categories of respiration and examples of produce for each category. Generally, mature plant parts have low respiration and actively growing plant parts have high respiration.

Respiration rate
Low Moderate High Very high

Product
Garlic, onion, citrus Cabbage, carrot, mango, tomato, banana Cauliflower, strawberry Broccoli, asparagus, sweet corn, mushroom

The respiration rate is temperature dependent the higher the temperature, the higher the respiration rate. Control of temperature is crucial to minimising loss of quality through senescence. Temperature control starts with rapid cooling after harvest to remove field heat. Common methods used to cool produce include cooling with air, water, and package icing.

Source: Dr. T. OHare, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia

Figure 2.

Effect of temperature on quality of Chinese mustard after 4 days storage.

Water loss
All plants undergo water loss through a process called transpiration. This process continues after harvest. Produce varies greatly in transpiration rate. Generally produce with large surface areas have high transpiration rates and produce with protective skins have low transpiration rates. Symptoms of water loss include shrinking, wilting, shrivelling, softening and loss of crispness and juiciness. The level of water loss where symptoms become visible varies between products. Some leafy products show symptoms at about 2% water loss while some fruit do not show symptoms below 6% water loss. The rate of water loss rate is temperature dependent the higher the temperature, the higher the water loss. Air movement across the produce surface can also accelerate water loss. For produce with high transpiration rates, protecting produce during storage or transport from excessive air movement is important. Water loss can be reduced by holding the product at reduced temperature and in an environment with high moisture content (for example in a plastic bag). Application of a surface coating such as wax can also reduce water loss but is suitable mainly for low respiration products because the coating can impede oxygen and carbon dioxide movement.

Mechanical injuries
Mechanical injuries can occur at any stage of harvesting, grading, packing and transport. Injury symptoms can appear externally or internally. They may be visible almost as soon as they occur, or they may only become visible at some later time. Mechanical injuries not only cause a loss of appearance, they can also increase water loss, stimulate increased respiration or ethylene production, and allow entry of disease organisms. The major types of injuries are Bruising Abrasion Wounds (cuts and punctures) Cracking and splitting

When soft produce are bruised, external symptoms are usually easy to recognise, such as flat spots or shape distortions. On produce with firm or hard external surfaces, bruising is frequently not visible. The hard surface may

distort and return to normal shape after impact, leaving damaged areas inside that only become visible to the consumer. The areas of damage usually appear as translucent or discoloured areas. Bruising can be caused by impact or pressure damage. Impact damage can occur from dropping of individual produce or packages or hard knocks on equipment and during transport. Pressure damage can occur in product stacked too high or packed in a container unable to support the required weight. Abrasion (rubbing) of surface tissue leads to rupture of cells. Loss of water and cell death occurs, leaving dry black or brown areas on the surface. Some of this injury may be visible immediately, but frequently takes several days to become visible. Symptoms can be severe for fruit which undergo ripening such as banana. Common causes of abrasion injury are rubbing of produce against dirty or rough surfaces of containers and equipment and rubbing of loosely packed produce during transport. Heavy impacts to rigid or hard produce can cause cracking or splitting. This can occur when a single produce is dropped on to a hard surface, a container of produce is dropped or loose produce bounce against each other during transport. Bruising Abrasion

Cracking and splitting

Wounds

Figure 3.

The major types of injuries are bruising, abrasion, cracking and splitting and wounds

Physiological disorders
External factors can cause some of the active biological processes occurring in produce to fail or be disrupted, resulting in quality loss. Examples of these physiological disorders are: Heat injury Chilling (cold) injury Ethylene damage Carbon dioxide damage Low oxygen (anaerobic) injury

Heat injury. When produce is exposed to high temperatures, some of the quality characteristics are adversely affected. The effect of high temperature is produce specific but generally occurs above 30C.

Sources of heat can be the sun shining onto packed produce, or onto the side of a transport vehicle. Excess heat build-up can also occur in stacks of produce with high respiration rate. The heat of respiration causes the produce to self-heat, particularly if it has not been adequately cooled. Colour changes can be affected, such as inhibition of green colour loss. In extreme cases brown areas can appear on the skin. Other symptoms include Excessive softness Off flavours Yellowing of leaves Wilting

Chilling injury. Produce exposed to excessively low temperatures can suffer chilling injury. Common symptoms are surface pitting, discoloured skin areas, darkening of flesh or water soaked areas of flesh. Chilling injury can occur during cooling, storage and refrigerated transport. Produce varies greatly in sensitivity to low temperatures. For example, climacteric tropical and sub-tropical fruit are affected by temperatures below 12C while pineapple has been shown to suffer chilling injury at 20C.

Figure 4.

Bananas (grey skin) can suffer chilling injury below 12C and pineapples (flesh browning and blackening) below 20C.

Ethylene damage. Ethylene is a hormone that is involved in plant growth, development, ripening and senescence. Climacteric fruit experience an increase in ethylene production rate that coincides with ripening. These fruit release ethylene during ripening. Non-climacteric produce generally have a low ethylene production rate. Ethylene in the air around produce can have both a positive and negative effect. The positive effect is the use of ethylene to control the ripening of climacteric fruit such as banana and tomato. However if unwanted ethylene builds up in the air around sensitive produce, it can induce or increase the rate of ripening and water loss and cause injuries. Symptoms of ethylene damage include surface pitting, increased disease incidence, yellowing, and increased softening. Ethylene damage is typically caused by the mixing of ethylene producing and ethylene sensitive produce during storage and transport. Carbon dioxide damage. Carbon dioxide produced by respiration can build up in situations where ventilation is inadequate. For example, plastic bags can be used to create a modified atmosphere to extend the life of the product. Carbon dioxide can build up and be difficult to manage, particularly when temperature control is below optimum. Some leafy products such as lettuce and chinese cabbage are sensitive to 2% carbon dioxide, suffering brown spots or brown vascular tissue. Carbon dioxide injury in fruit usually appears as skin discolouration and internal discolouration and possibly with water-soaked appearance. Low oxygen injury. Produce, particularly fruit, held at atmospheres below 2% oxygen can suffer injury. Normal respiration fails and the product undergoes anaerobic respiration. This can occur when controlled or modified atmosphere storage and transport is incorrectly managed. The most common symptom is the formation of off-flavours.

Disease infection
Infection by disease organisms, mostly bacteria and fungi, is a major cause of quality loss in many fruit and vegetables. Infection can occur in the field during growth, or during postharvest handling. Spoilage organisms can be spread in wash water, particularly when the water is not is not changed frequently. The susceptibility of produce varies considerably and is affected by several factors. One important factor is mechanical injury, where bruises, abrasions, cracks and cuts allow the organism to enter the produce. Subjecting produce to stress such as excessively high or low temperatures, high or low humidity or unsuitable atmospheres can allow infection to occur or can increase disease development. Disease develops quickly in produce in an advanced stage of senescence.

Figure 5.

Mechanical injury increases the susceptibility of produce to disease infection. Bruises, abrasions, cracks and wounds allow disease organisms to enter the produce.

Disease symptoms may range from small surface lesions that degrade appearance to severe infections with external and internal breakdown of a substantial part of the produce. Symptoms of moderate severity commonly appear as areas of excessive softness, off-colour or off-flavour.

Growth and development

Some types of produce continue growing after harvest. This can detract from the appearance of the produce and also cause quality deterioration internally as the produce uses its reserves to support the growth. Sprouting of potatoes, shooting of onions, and elongating and changing shape of asparagus are examples of continued growth after harvest. Formation of fibres can also occur in some produce.

3. GAP requirements
The good agricultural practices for controlling produce quality hazards are grouped into 10 elements. For the first element, Quality plan, the method for developing a quality plan is described. For the other elements, potential causes for quality loss are described and specific information is then provided for each practice to explain what is required to implement the practice. In some cases, two or more practices are grouped together as the guidance information is the same for both practices.

3.1 Quality plan

Practice 1. Practices that are critical to managing produce quality during production, harvesting and postharvest handling are identified in a quality plan for the crop grown. The good agricultural practices required to control produce quality hazards vary with the type of produce and how it is grown, harvested, handled, packed and transported. Each farmer or employer must identify the practices that are critical to managing quality and document them in a quality plan. A quality plan contains the following information: Process steps Quality hazards Causes of quality loss Good agricultural practices What steps are involved in growing, harvesting and postharvest handling? What quality loss can happen if something goes wrong during the process? What can go wrong during the process to cause the quality loss? What control measures, monitoring activities and record keeping are needed to prevent or minimise the risk of the quality hazard occurring? An example of a quality plan for production, harvesting and postharvest handling of mangoes is described in section 5.

3.2 Planting material

Practice 2. Crop varieties are selected to satisfy market requirements.

It is important that the crop variety selected to be grown is acceptable to the customers who purchase the produce. There are often many varieties available from which to select. The best way to identify the preferred varieties is to read industry publications and talk to customers such as traders, wholesalers and retailers. Practice 3. If planting material is obtained from another farm or nursery, either a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality is provided by the supplier.

The health of the planting material will directly affect the growth of the crop, which impacts on the quality of the produce. Unhealthy plants are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and disorders such as misshapen produce, and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life. To ensure that the planting material is healthy when obtained from another farm or nursery, the farmer should request the supplier to provide a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality.

3.3 Fertilisers and soil additives

Fertilisers are used to provide nutrients for plant growth and soil additives are used to improve soil structure. Some examples of soil additives are gypsum, animal and plant manures, sawdust and coconut pulp. Adequate nutrition is essential to ensure healthy plant growth. Unhealthy plants are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and disorders such as misshapen produce, and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life. Excessive fertiliser use can cause excessive plant growth, which can lead to quality loss such as poor colour, deformities, internal disorders and reduced shelf life.

10

Practice 4.

Nutrient application is based on recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing and the nutritional requirements for the crop grown.

Nutrient requirements vary depending on the type of produce grown, the production method, the soil type and characteristics, and the previous application of fertilisers and soil additives. Nutrient application must be based on the nutritional requirements of the crop and recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing. Recommendations for fertiliser application are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers. Before using an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence. Examples of proof are qualifications from an education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate. Advisers can also provide advice on soil and plant testing. Soil testing is done to check the availability of nutrients in the soil while leaf or sap testing is done to check the level of nutrients in the plant. Practice 5. Equipment used to apply fertilisers and soil additives is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person. Faulty operation of equipment may lead to insufficient or excessive application of fertilisers and soil additives. Equipment must be checked by a technically competent person at least annually to ensure that application rates are within the acceptable range. A technically competent person can be the farmer or a worker who is skilled in operating the equipment or an adviser such as a representative from the equipment supplier. Practice 6. Areas and facilities for composting of organic materials are located, constructed and maintained to prevent contamination of crops by diseases.

Rainfall runoff from compost made from plant materials, particularly old crop residues, may be a source of disease if the compost heap is located close to production sites and water sources. Compost areas and facilities need to be constructed with barriers, drainage systems, and covers to prevent contamination of produce from plant diseases.

Figure 6.

Rainfall runoff from compost made from plant materials, particularly old crop residues, may be a source of disease if the compost heap is located close to production sites and water sources.

Practice 7.

The application of fertilisers and soil additives is recorded, detailing the name of the product or material, date, treatment location, application rate and method, and operator name.

11

A record of fertilisers and soil additives applied must be kept to help guide the nutrient application for the crop grown and for future crops. The history of fertiliser application on the site is an important factor when determining the nutritional requirements of a crop. If problems occur with produce quality, the fertiliser and soil additive record may help determine if poor nutrition is the cause of the problem. The record of the application of fertilisers and soil additives can be recorded in a log book or on a record form. An example of a record form is contained in Section 6. Examples of documents and records.

3.4 Water
Adequate water is essential to ensure healthy plant growth. Unhealthy plants caused by water stress are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life. Excessive water application can also stress the plant and lead to quality loss such as splitting and reduced shelf life. Practice 8. Irrigation use is based on crop water requirements, water availability, and soil moisture levels.

The need for irrigation varies with each type of produce grown and the location and production method. The important factors to consider are crop water requirements, water availability and soil moisture levels. Recommendations for irrigation use are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers. Before using an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence. Examples of proof are qualifications from an education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate. Water for irrigation may be available from a range of sources for example, farm dams, underground bores, rivers and watercourses, irrigation schemes. A range of irrigation systems are available and selection depends on how much water is available, the type of produce grown, production system, availability of labour and finances. Irrigation systems vary from low volume, efficient systems such as trickle irrigation to high volume systems such as spray and flood irrigation. Soil moisture levels can be measured by a simple method such as digging a hole in the soil or by using equipment such as tensiometers and soil moisture probes.

Spray irrigation Figure 7. Practice 9.

Trickle irrigation

Selection of irrigation systems depends on how much water is available, the type of produce grown, production system, availability of labour and finances. A record of irrigation use is kept, detailing the crop, date, location, and volume of water applied or duration of irrigation.

A record of irrigation use helps plan the application of water for crop growth. If problems occur with produce quality, the irrigation record may also help determine if water stress or excessive irrigation is the cause of the problem. The record should detail the crop, date of irrigation and location of the production site and either the volume of

12

water applied or the duration of irrigation. Some irrigation systems are automated and work on a set time schedule. In this case the duration and volume of irrigation is set so only the crop, date of irrigation and location has to be recorded. A record of rainfall should also be kept. The record of irrigation use can be recorded in a log book or on a record form. An example of a record form is contained in Section 6. Examples of documents and records.

3.5 Chemicals
Agrochemicals
Chemicals are used during the production of fresh produce for control of pests (insects, disease, weeds), regulation of growth and thinning of crops, and after harvest for treating produce for disease and insect control, applying surface coatings to reduce moisture loss or improve appearance, and for sanitising water and equipment surfaces. To ensure that chemicals are used effectively to prevent or minimise quality loss, chemicals must be approved for use on the type of produce grown and must be applied according to label or permit instructions. Integrated pest management systems are recommended where possible to reduce the risk of chemical resistance and excessive residues and the impact of chemicals on the environment. Practice 10. Employers and workers have been trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical application.

Incorrect selection, mixing, and application of chemicals can lead to inadequate pest control, spray burn, residues exceeding the MRL or visible chemical residues on the produce. Training is important to ensure that employers and workers have the appropriate level of knowledge and skills, which varies with area of responsibility. For example, the person who has overall responsibility for chemical use must have knowledge about all aspects and be able to train workers. A worker who applies the chemical must have knowledge and skills on preparing the spray mix and the operation of equipment. Evidence is required to show that people have been trained to the appropriate level. This may vary from a certificate from a formal training course to a note in a log book. The information to record is the persons name, date of training and topics covered.

Source: Mr. S. Menon, QA Plus Asia-Pacific Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia

Figure 8.

Employers and workers must be trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical use. Crop protection measures are appropriate for the control of pests.

Practice 11.

The crop protection measures required vary with the type of produce grown, the production system, pest pressure and environmental conditions. Recommendations for crop protection are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers. Before using an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence. Examples of proof are qualifications from an education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate. Practice 12. Integrated pest management systems are used where possible.

13

An integrated pest management (IPM) system integrates multiple strategies for managing pests to minimise the use of synthetic pesticides. The strategies include encouraging beneficial insects and microorganisms to flourish, good crop hygiene and plant health, regular monitoring of crops for pests, using biological control agents, and selective use of synthetic pesticides. Evidence is required to show that an IPM system is used. Examples of evidence are records of crop protection practices such as pest monitoring results, use of biological control agents, and spray application. Practice 13. Chemicals are only obtained from licensed suppliers.

Chemicals obtained from unlicensed suppliers may be incorrectly identified or not true to the label contents or may contain impurities. This can lead to inadequate pest control, spray burn, residues exceeding the MRL or visible chemical residues on the produce. Practice 14. Chemicals used on crops are approved by a competent authority in the country where the crop is grown and intended to be traded, and documentation is available to confirm approval.

The use of approved chemicals is not only important for food safety but also to ensure that the chemicals are effective for the purpose and produce quality is maximised. Most countries have authorities responsible for registering the use of chemicals on farms. Approval to use the chemical may be listed on the label or a permit may be issued for its use. Chemicals are typically approved for a particular purpose for specified crops. The approved use and MRL must be confirmed for not only for the country where the produce is grown but also for where the produce is intended to be traded. It is possible that a chemical may be approved with a particular MRL in the country where the produce is grown but is banned or has a different MRL where the produce is to be traded. Biopesticides, which are made from biological sources, must also be approved for use on the produce grown. Documented lists of approved chemicals and MRLs can be obtained from publications or downloaded from websites or direct contact with the appropriate authorities. The Codex Alimentarius Commission (www.codexalimentarius.net) provides standards for MRLs that many countries have adopted. Practice 15. Chemicals are applied according to label directions or a permit issued by a competent authority.

To ensure that chemicals are effective for the purpose, chemicals must be applied according to the label or permit directions. Ineffective use can occur if mixing is incorrect or the application rate is too low or high. Labels that are written in a foreign language must be translated accurately to ensure that mixing and application rates are correct.

Fiqure 9. Practice 16.

Chemicals are applied according to label directions or a permit issued by a competent authority. A chemical rotation strategy and other crop protection measures are used to avoid pest resistance.

14

Continuous use of the same chemical may lead to pest resistance and loss of quality through pest damage. A chemical rotation strategy and the use of integrated pest management strategies reduce the risk of pest resistance to chemicals. Practice 17. Equipment used to apply chemicals is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person.

Faulty equipment may lead to incorrect application rates, either too low or too high. During each use, the equipment should be checked for leaks and faulty nozzles. At least annually, the equipment should be calibrated to check that the volume of spray delivered is correct. The calibration must be done by a technically competent person. This can be the farm owner, a farm worker, an advisor, or an equipment representative as long as they have been appropriately trained. A record of the calibration should be kept. The information to record includes the name of person who did the calibration and the date and results of the calibration. The information can be recorded in a log book or on a record form. Practice 18. The application of chemicals is recorded for each crop, detailing the chemical used, reason for application, treatment location, date, rate and method of application, weather conditions, and operator name.

A record of chemicals applied must be kept to show that chemicals have been applied correctly and for traceability in the event of unacceptable quality loss occurring due to pest damage. The records enable possible causes of pest damage to be investigated. The information required can be recorded separately or together in a log book or on a record form. Examples of records for applying chemicals are contained in Section 6. Examples of documents and records.

3.6 Harvesting and handling produce

Quality can be lost during the harvesting operation, during handling and packing of produce and during storage and transport of produce to the customer. Good agricultural practices are aimed at preventing or minimising quality loss through optimising maturity at harvest, handling produce carefully, grading produce to customer requirements, and effective control of temperature and moisture loss.

Harvesting
Quality loss during the harvesting operation can be caused by: Incorrect maturity Acceleration of senescence (aging) Water loss Mechanical injury Disease infection Practice 19. An appropriate maturity index is used to determine when to harvest produce.

Determining when produce is mature and ready for harvest can be a difficult decision. For some crops, maturity (harvest) indices have been developed to assist in the decision process. For other crops, harvesting at the correct time can be highly subjective. The optimum maturity for harvest is when the plant has completed sufficient growth and development to ensure that produce quality and shelf is acceptable to the consumer. Most produce start to senescence once harvested, eventually leading to death. If produce is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer. If produce is harvested immature, quality characteristics such as colour, size, shape, flavour and texture will be reduced. The methods for measuring maturity must be simple, as it may need to be assessed in different places such as in the field or packing shed or in the market. The best methods are those that are objective rather than subjective. The following examples of maturity indices can be used separately or in combination depending on the fruit or vegetable.

15

Days from flowering Mean heat units calculated from weather data Development of abscission layer visual or force of separation Surface structure visual appearance Size length or diameter Specific gravity floatation techniques Shape dimensions, ratio charts Solidity feel, bulk density, x-rays, near infrared (NIR) Textural properties firmness, tenderness, toughness Colour external, internal use of colour charts Internal structure visual, NIR Compositional factors such as content of sugar, starch, acid, juice and oil

Visual appearance Figure 10. Practice 20. Practice 21.

Destructive test

Some maturity indices are non-destructive such as skin colour of lychee while others are destructive such as measuring the sugar content of melons with a refractometer. An appropriate technique is used for harvesting of produce. Equipment and tools are suitable for harvesting and are checked for cleanliness before use and cleaned as required.

Mechanical injuries during harvesting can be caused by unsuitable harvesting methods and rough handling by workers. To prevent mechanical injury, the harvest technique must be appropriate for the produce and workers trained in correct methods. Dirty equipment and tools can be a source of disease infection and should be checked before use and cleaned as required. The harvesting technique will vary depending on the type of produce, the availability and cost of workers, and the size of farm. The method can be simple such as hand picking into baskets or more complex such as using harvesting aids with conveyors for transferring produce into bulk containers. Rough handling can occur when the produce is removed from the plant and placed into a container. Some produce is removed by hand while others are removed by cutting with a knife or secateurs. Dropping produce from excessive heights into the harvest container will caused impact damage. The softer the produce, the more susceptible it is to impact damage. Practice 22. Practice 23. Practice 24. Containers are suitable for harvesting of produce and are not overfilled. Liners are used to protect produce if containers have rough surfaces. Containers are covered to reduce moisture loss and exposure to the sun.

16

Practice 25.

Containers are checked for soundness and cleanliness before use and cleaned or discarded as required.

The type of harvest containers and the packing method can be a source of quality loss. Sharp and rough surfaces on the inside of the container can cause wounds and rub damage. Overfilling the container with produce packed too high can cause pressure damage. Dirty containers can cause rub damage and disease infection. Produce that is susceptible to moisture loss, such as leafy vegetables, can lose moisture quickly if left exposed in the container. Liners can be used to protect produce if the containers have rough surfaces. Examples of liners are banana leaves, paper, and straw. The liner must be clean to ensure it is not a source of food safety hazards and spoilage organism. Moisture and exposure to the sun can be reduced by covering containers with materials such as banana leaves, paper, hessian bags, and plastic. Containers should be checked before use for soundness and cleanliness and cleaned or discarded as required.

Figure 11. Practice 26. Practice 27. Practice 28.

Liners will protect produce if harvesting containers have rough surfaces. Produce is harvested in the coolest time of the day and harvesting in the rain is avoided if possible. Produce is removed from the field as quickly as possible. Harvested produce is placed in the shade if long delays occur before transport.

The process of senescence, aging leading to death, commences immediately at harvest. The higher the temperature and the longer the produce is held at high temperatures, the faster the rate of senescence. To minimise the effect of high temperature, particularly for produce that deteriorates quickly, harvest during the coolest time of the day, cover harvest containers, remove produce from the field as quickly as possible and place harvested produce in the shade if there are long delays before removing from the field. If produce is harvested in the rain, it may remain wet for a long period and provide a favourable environment for disease development. Disease will develop quickly if produce such as leafy vegetables remain wet at high temperature. Harvesting during rain is best avoided.

Source: Dr. Vong Nguyen, Department of Primary Industries, NSW Australia

Figure 12.

Removed produce from the field as quickly as possible or place in the shade if there are long delays before removing from the field.

17

Practice 29. Practice 30.

Packed containers are not stacked on top of each other unless they are designed to support the container and minimise mechanical damage. Containers are secured during transport to minimise mechanical damage.

Mechanical injury can occur if containers are stacked on top of each other and the container is not designed to support the weight above. Examples are using open top baskets, boxes and crates. The container must have sufficient stacking strength and either have a lid or stacking device to allow the container above to placed on top without causing pressure damage. Shelves or raised floors can be used in the transport vehicle to allow multiple layers of open top containers to be stacked. Containers must be secured during transport to prevent rub damage from excessive vibration or impact damage from containers bouncing or falling over. Different methods of securing the containers can be used such as ropes, straps or canvas covers.

Figure 13.

Shelves can be used in the transport vehicle to allow prevent pressure damage when stacking multiple layers of open top containers.

Handling and packing produce

Produce may be prepared for marketing either in the field or in a separate packing area or shed. Quality loss during handling and packing can be caused by: Incorrect grading Acceleration of senescence and water loss Mechanical injuries Physiological disorders Disease infection Growth and development Practice 31. Equipment is constructed to minimise excessive drops and impacts.

Practice 32. Equipment, containers and materials that contact produce are regularly cleaned and maintained to minimise mechanical damage. Excessive drops and impacts can occur when produce is removed from harvest containers and placed onto benches or tables for packing or onto grading and packing equipment. They can also occur at points along the grading and packing equipment and at the end when produce drops into packing bins or packages. Appropriate equipment design and training of workers are needed to minimise physical injury. Dirty equipment, containers and packaging materials can cause rub damage and disease infection and should be checked before use and cleaned as required.

18

Practice 33.

Measures are taken to prevent the presence of pests in and around handling, packing and storage areas.

Pests such as rats, mice, birds and cockroaches can chew and eat produce while produce is being held in handling, packing and storage areas. The presence of pests can be minimised with physical barriers or chemical treatments. Examples of control measures are: Use baits and traps to control rodents. Use blinds or fixtures over openings in walls (doors and windows) to prevent entry of birds. Regularly dispose of waste from areas where produce is packed, handled and stored. Store containers and materials off the ground or floor and keep them dry, ventilated and covered. Practice 34. Where required, produce is treated to minimise disease development and loss of quality.

Some produce can be treated after harvest to minimise disease development. The treatment can be a chemical treatment such as dipping or spraying with a fungicide or a physical treatment such has hot water or storage at a low temperature.

Figure 14. Practice 35.

Disease development can be reduce by dipping or spraying with a fungicide or a physical treatment such has hot water or storage at a low temperature Water used after harvest for handling, washing, and produce treatment is treated or changed regularly to minimise contamination from spoilage organism.

Water used after harvest for handling, washing and produce treatment can be a source of spoilage organisms. The water must be either changed frequently or treated with a sanitiser or a non-recirculating system is used where water runs to waste.

Figure 15.

To avoid a build of spoilage organisms, water used to wash produce must be either changed frequently or treated with a sanitiser or a non-recirculating spray system is used where water runs to waste.

There are a number of chemical and non-chemical sanitising methods that can be used to treat water for spoilage

19

organisms. Chemical sanitisers must be approved for use by a competent authority. Technical advice should be sought to ensure that the best option is used. Common options are: Chlorine Chlorine dioxide Chloro-bromine compounds Hydrogen peroxide Peracetic acid Peroxy compounds (combinations of hydrogen peroxide and peracetic acid) Ozone Ultraviolet light Practice 36. Produce is packed and stored in covered areas.

Packing and storing of produce in areas that are exposed to the sun will accelerate the rate of senescence and can cause sunburn of produce in open top containers. Covering these areas reduces the temperature of the surrounding air and direct exposure to the sun. It can be a simple structure with a roof on supports with no walls to a fully enclosed packing shed. Practice 37. Produce is not placed in direct contact with soil or the floor of handling, packing or storage areas.

Once produce is harvested, it should not be placed in direct contact, particularly the cut surfaces, with the ground or the floor of handling, packing and storage areas. Soil and dirty floors can be a source of spoilage organisms. The cut surfaces of produce can provide entry points and nutrients for growth of spoilage organisms. Materials such as paper, plastic and timber can be placed on the ground or floor to prevent contact of harvested produce with dirt and other matter. The materials should be clean to prevent them being a source of contamination.

Figure 16. Practice 38.

Once produce is harvested, it should not be placed in direct contact, particularly the cut surfaces, with the ground or the floor of handling, packing and storage areas. Produce is graded and packed according to customer or market requirements.

Many customers require the produce to be uniform in quality within the package. This may be uniform colour, size, weight, shape, or some other characteristic. To achieve uniformity, the produce must be graded for quality. Grading is usually done by humans, although machinery or measurement devices are increasingly being used. Accuracy of humans is usually less than machinery, but can be improved with suitable training. Photographs or produce samples showing different quality grades can be used to train workers. Achieving perfect uniformity is rarely possible so some level of variability has to be allowed. Decisions have to be made about what range of attribute between the lower limit and upper limit will be allowed. For example, for a produce weight requirement of 250 grams with an allowance of 10%, the weight range would be 225 to 275 grams.

20

Figure 17. Practice 39.

Grading citrus for size. The sizing rings increase in diameter along the machine and fruit from small to large drop through into different bins for packing. Protective materials are used where required to protect produce from rough surfaces of containers and excessive moisture loss.

Rough surfaces on the inside of the container must be covered with protective materials to prevent wounds and rub damage. Examples of protective materials are banana leaves, paper, straw and bubble plastic. The material must be clean to ensure it is not a source of food safety hazards and spoilage organism. If produce susceptible to moisture loss is packed in open top containers or in containers with excessive ventilation in the sides, liners may be required to reduce moisture loss. Examples of liners are banana leaves, paper and plastic film and bags.

Figure 18. Practice 40.

Lettuce in this open package is susceptible to both mechanical damage and moisture loss Field heat is removed using appropriate cooling methods.

The rate of senescence, moisture loss and disease development is dependent on temperature. The higher the temperature of the produce, the higher is the rate of deterioration. Removing field heat from the produce minimises quality deterioration.

21

The need to cool produce depends on the type of produce and the time from harvest to consumption. For example, produce that is sold at a local market within 1 day of harvest or produce with a low rate of senescence and moisture loss usually do not require cooling. Produce with moderate to high rates of deterioration that are transported long distances or held for long periods should be cooled to reduce quality loss. Common methods used to cool produce include cooling with air, water, and package icing. Two methods are used for air cooling room cooling or forced air cooling. Room cooling is where cool air is swept passed stacks of produce or packed containers. Space is required around containers for airflow and cooling is typically slow and uneven. Forced air cooling is where cool air is pulled through packed containers. The containers must be vented to allow air flow past each piece of produce. Cooling is fast and uniform. Cooling with water is called hydrocooling. Produce is immersed in or showered with cold water. The produce and containers must be able to tolerate water. Cooling is very fast and even. Top icing is where ice is placed on top of produce or an ice slurry is injected in the the container. Produce must be able to tolerate ice. Cooling is slow if ice is just placed on top of the container.

Cooling with air Figure 19.

Top icing

Field heat can be removed from produce by cooling with air, water or ice.

Storage and transport

Packed produce may be transported directly to the customer, the next business in the supply chain, or held for a duration before transport. Quality loss during storage and transport can be caused by: Acceleration of senescence, water loss, disease infection Mechanical injuries Physiological disorders Practice 41. Practice 42. For long delays before transport, produce is held at the lowest suitable temperature available. Transport vehicles are covered and appropriate temperature conditions are used to minimise quality loss.

If produce is held for long periods before or during transport, it should be held at the lowest temperature suitable to the produce. Holding produce at high temperature will accelerate senescence, moisture loss and disease development. The recommended temperature for storing and transporting produce varies with the type of produce. Most leafy vegetables can be held at 0C while tropical and sub-tropical fruit are best stored at between 10 to 13C. Storing at lower temperatures will cause chilling injury. Covering the transport vehicle reduces the heating of produce from the surrounding air and the direct impact of the sun and also minimises air flow through the load. Recommendations for storage and transport of produce are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture. Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers and consultants.

22

Figure 20.

Covering the transport vehicle reduces the heating of produce from the surrounding air and the direct impact of the sun and also minimises air flow through the load.

Practice 43. Transport vehicles are checked before use for cleanliness, foreign objects, and pest infestation, and cleaned if there is a significant risk of mechanical damage and contamination from spoilage organisms. Dirty transport vehicles can be a source of pest infestation and disease infection and mechanical damage when produce is stacked loose in the vehicle. The vehicle should be checked before use for cleanliness, foreign objects and pest infestation and cleaned as required. Practice 44. Mixing of non-compatible produce during transport is avoided.

Incompatibility of produce during transport can occur if produce of different sensitivity to low temperature is transported together or if ethylene producing produce is mixed with ethylene sensitive produce. For example if bananas are transported with lettuce at temperatures below 10C and if ripening tomatoes are transported with cucumbers. Advice on mixing of produce during transport can be obtained from industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture or from advisers. Practice 45. Produce is transported quickly to the destination.

A delay in the transport of produce to the customer increases the risk of quality loss, particularly when the produce has not been cooled and the transport is not refrigerated.

3.7 Traceability and recall

An effective system for identifying and tracing produce is needed to investigate causes of quality loss when it occurs and to prevent re-occurrence of the problem. The essential requirements for an effective system are: each production site is identified by a name or code, each batch of packed containers is clearly marked with an identification code, a record is kept of the batch identification, date of supply, source and destination, and records of farm operations are kept.

A batch is defined as all produce harvested and packed on the same day from the same source, which has been treated in the same way. Practice 46. Each separate production site is identified by a name or code. The name or code is placed on the site and recorded on a property map. The site name or code is recorded on all documents and records that refer to the site.

23

A site is a defined area on the farm. If there is more than one production site on the farm, they must be identified by a name of code. For example, sites may be identified with names like road block, house block or dam block or with codes like block A, B, C or block 1, 2, 3 and so on. The whole farm can be treated as one production site. The consequence of not distinguishing separate production sites is that if a problem occurs with produce quality, it may not be possible to identify the source of the problem. If the different production sites are identified, the quality problem may be traced to a particular production site. The different production sites must be physically identified with a sign showing the site name or code. This can be as simple as a peg with the name or code written on the top of the peg. Placing a sign on the site minimises the risk of workers accidentally applying incorrect treatments. The location of the site must be identified on a farm plan, with the name or code shown. The site name or code must also be recorded on all documents and records for cross-referencing and to enable trace back. Practice 47. Packed containers are clearly marked with an identification to enable traceability of the produce to the farm or site where the produce is grown. Packed containers that are prepared for sale must be marked with an identification to enable trace back to the farm or production site. This includes produce packed on the farm and produce in field containers ready for transport to another establishment for packing. Simple methods can be used to identify the farm. Examples are attaching a card or label onto the container with the name of the farm or using a particular colour for the container. Markings and labels should be waterproof to prevent deterioration. If more than one production site is present on a farm, marking the site name or code on the container enables trace back to each individual production site. For example the letter A marked on a container would indicate that the produce was harvested from Block A. Similarly, where produce is harvested a number of times from one production site, traceability is enhanced by marking the date of packing or a code on the container. An example of a packing code is the day number for the month and the year for example 240906 would refer to the 24th day of September, 2006. Where produce from more than one farm is packed together in the same batch, the name of the farm or a code must be marked on each container to identify the farm. For example, each farm could be allocated a number and the number is then marked on the container.

Figure 21.

Where produce from more than one farm is packed in the same brand, marking of field and packed containers with a name or code will enable produce to be traced back to each farm.

Practice 48. A record is kept of the date of supply, quantity of produce and destination for each consignment of produce.

24

The date of the supply of the produce, quantity of produce and the destination where the consignment was sent must be recorded. This information can be recorded in a log book or on a record form. An example of the information to record is as follows: 30 baskets of tomatoes from Block B were picked and packed on the 20th April 2006 and sold to trader X in Ho Chi Minh City.

3.8 Training
Practice 49. Employers and workers have appropriate knowledge or are trained in their area of responsibility relevant to good agricultural practice and a record of training is kept. People whose roles may impact on produce quality must have adequate knowledge and skills to perform their duties. Their training needs should be considered and appropriate training planned and carried out. The training may take the form of on-the-job training or formal training. Refresher training and signs in the work area help to reinforce the correct methods for doing tasks and reduce the risk of quality loss. A record of training must be kept to show that employers and workers have been trained. This information can be recorded in a log book or on a record form. An example of a job responsibility and training record form is contained in Section 6. Examples of documents and records.

3.9 Documents and records

Practice 50. Records of good agricultural practices are kept for a minimum period of at least two years or for a longer period if required by government legislation or customers. Records enable tracing back of consignments to investigate possible causes of quality loss and also provide evidence for auditors and customers that good agricultural practices have been implemented. They must be kept for a minimum of 2 years or longer if required by government legislation or customers. Practice 51. Out of date documents are discarded and only current versions are used.

To avoid the use of obsolete documents, any out of date documents must be discarded and only current versions used. Placing the date of preparation at the bottom of the document will identify the latest version.

3.10 Review of practices

A review of practices is necessary to confirm that practices are being carried out as required and records are accurate and contain the required information. This self-assessment identifies the practices that are not being done correctly and actions needed to investigate and rectify the problem. Practice 52. Practice 53. All practices are reviewed at least once each year to ensure that they are done correctly and actions are taken to correct any deficiencies identified. A record is kept of practices reviewed and corrective actions taken.

All practices must be reviewed at least once each year. The practices do not have to be reviewed at the same time. It is best to review the practices at the time when they are being undertaken. For example at harvest time, review the practices that are associated with harvesting and preparation of the product for sale. A review of the application of pesticides during production would be undertaken before produce is harvested. Despite best intentions, problems arise from time to time. The review may identify a practice that is not being done correctly. The problem must be investigated and actions taken to correct the problem and prevent it happening again. A record must be kept of the practices reviewed and corrective actions taken. A self-assessment checklist is a useful tool. It provides a simple, systematic outline for reviewing practices and when completed it provides a record of the review and corrective actions taken. Examples of a self-assessment checklist and corrective action form are contained in Section 4. Self-assessment checklist. Practice 54. Actions are taken to resolve complaints related to produce quality, and a record is kept of the complaint and actions taken.

25

Complaints from customers or others concerning produce quality must be investigated and actions taken to resolve the complaint. A record of the complaint and actions taken must be kept. This information can be recorded in a log book or on a record form.

26

4. Self-assessment checklist good agricultural practices

This self-assessment checklist enables the level of compliance with the good agricultural practices contained in the food safety module of ASEAN GAP to be checked. The relevance of the practices will depend on the location of the farm or packing business, type of produce, and the systems used for production, harvesting, handling, packing, storage and transport. Each practice is assessed and a tick is placed in the relevant column. If attention is needed, the actions required are recorded in the column titled, Actions required/ taken. When the actions have been taken, the assessor checks that the actions are satisfactory and writes a comment in the Actions required/ taken column with the date and a signature. Yes Needs attention Not relevant

Quality plan

Actions required/ taken

1.

Practices that are critical to managing produce quality during production, harvesting and postharvest handling are identified in a quality plan for the crop grown.

Planting material

2.

Crop varieties are selected to satisfy market requirements.

3.

If planting material is obtained from another farm or nursery, either a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality is provided by the supplier.

Fertilisers and soil additives

4.

5.

Nutrient application is based on recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing and the nutritional requirements for the crop grown. Equipment used to apply fertilisers and soil additives is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person.

6.

7.

Areas and facilities for composting of organic materials are located, constructed and maintained to prevent contamination of crops by diseases. The application of fertilisers and soil additives is recorded, detailing the name of the product or material, date, treatment location, application rate and method, and operator name.

Water

8.

Irrigation use is based on crop water requirements, water availability, and soil moisture levels.

27

Water - continued
Yes Needs attention Not relevant

Actions required/ taken

9.

A record of irrigation use is kept, detailing the crop, date, location and volume of water applied or duration of irrigation.

Chemicals

10.

Employers and workers have been trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical application.

11.

Crop protection measures are appropriate for the control of pests.

12.

Integrated pest management systems are used where possible.

13.

Chemicals are only obtained from licensed suppliers.

14.

Chemicals used on crops are approved by a competent authority in the country where the crop is grown and intended to be traded, and documentation is available to confirm approval.

15.

Chemicals are applied according to label directions or a permit issued by a competent authority.

16.

A chemical rotation strategy and other crop protection measures are used to avoid pest resistance.

17.

Equipment used to apply chemicals is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person.

18.

The application of chemicals is recorded for each crop, detailing the chemical used, reason for application, treatment location, date, rate and method of application, weather conditions, and operator name.

Harvesting produce

19.

An appropriate maturity index is used to determine when to harvest produce.

20.

An appropriate technique is used for harvesting of produce.

21.

Equipment and tools are suitable for harvesting and are checked for cleanliness before use and cleaned as required.

22.

Containers are suitable for harvesting of produce and are not overfilled.

28

Harvesting produce continued

Yes Needs attention Not relevant

Actions required/ taken

23.

Liners are used to protect produce if containers have rough surfaces.

24.

25.

Containers are covered to reduce moisture loss and exposure to the sun. Containers are checked for soundness and cleanliness before use and cleaned or discarded as required.

26.

Produce is harvested in the coolest time of the day and harvesting in the rain is avoided if possible.

27.

Produce is removed from the field as quickly as possible.

28.

Harvested produce is placed in the shade if long delays occur before transport.

29.

Packed containers are not stacked on top of each other unless they are designed to support the container and minimise mechanical damage.

30.

Containers are secured during transport to minimise mechanical damage.

Handling and packing produce

31.

Equipment is constructed to minimise excessive drops and impacts.

32.

Equipment, containers and materials that contact produce are regularly cleaned and maintained to minimise mechanical damage.

33.

Measures are taken to prevent the presence of pests in and around handling, packing and storage areas.

34.

Where required, produce is treated to minimise disease development and loss of quality.

35.

Water used after harvest for handling, washing, and produce treatment is treated or changed regularly to minimise contamination from spoilage organism.

36.

Produce is packed and stored in covered areas.

37.

38.

Produce is not placed in direct contact with soil or the floor of handling, packing or storage areas. Produce is graded and packed according to customer or market requirements.

29

Handling and packing produce continued

Yes Needs attention Not relevant

Actions required/ taken

39.

Protective materials are used where required to protect produce from rough surfaces of containers and excessive moisture loss.

40.

Field heat is removed using appropriate cooling methods.

Storage and transport

41.

For long delays before transport, produce is held at the lowest suitable temperature available.

42.

43.

Transport vehicles are covered and appropriate temperature conditions are used to minimise quality loss. Transport vehicles are checked before use for cleanliness, foreign objects, and pest infestation, and cleaned if there is a significant risk of mechanical damage and contamination from spoilage organisms.

44.

Mixing of non-compatible produce during transport is avoided.

45.

Produce is transported quickly to the destination.

Traceability and recall

46.

Each separate production site is identified by a name or code. The name or code is placed on the site and recorded on a property map. The site name or code is recorded on all documents and records that refer to the site.

47.

Packed containers are clearly marked with an identification to enable traceability of the produce to the farm or site where the produce is grown.

48.

A record is kept of the date of supply, quantity of produce and destination for each consignment of produce.

Training

49.

Employers and workers have appropriate knowledge or are trained in their area of responsibility relevant to good agricultural practices and a record of training is kept.

Documents and records

50.

Records of good agricultural practices are kept for a minimum period of at least two years or for a longer period if required by government legislation or customers.

30

Documents and records continued

Yes Needs attention Not relevant

Actions required/ taken

51.

Out of date documents are discarded and only current versions are used.

Review of practices

52.

All practices are reviewed at least once each year to ensure that they are done correctly and actions are taken to correct any deficiencies identified.

53.

A record is kept to show that all practices have been reviewed and any corrective actions taken are documented.

54.

Actions are taken to resolve complaints related to produce quality, and a record is kept of the complaint and actions taken.

Name of assessor:

Signature:

Date:

31

5. Example of a quality plan

The good agricultural practices required to control produce quality hazards vary with the type of produce and how it is grown, harvested, handled, packed and transported. Each farmer or packer must identify the practices that are critical to managing quality and document them in a quality plan. A quality plan contains the following information: Process steps Quality hazards Causes of quality loss Good agricultural practices What steps are involved in growing, harvesting and postharvest handling? What quality loss can happen if something goes wrong during the process? What can go wrong during the process to cause the quality loss? What control measures, monitoring activities and record keeping are needed to prevent or minimise the risk of the quality hazard occurring?

The following table contains an example of a quality plan for production, harvesting and postharvest handling of mangoes.

32

Mango Quality Plan

Causes of quality loss
Not enough consultation done with potential customers and checking of industry publications. Varieties are selected to satisfy market requirements. Unhealthy planting material

Process step

Quality hazard Good agricultural practices

Planting trees

Variety not suitable for market

Increased susceptibility to pest and disease damage, fruit disorders, small fruit size, reduced shelf life Pesticide concentration too high or applied too close to harvest.

The supplier of the nursery trees is requested to provide a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality.

Crop protection

Pest and disease damage

Employers and workers have been trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical application. Crop protection measures are appropriate for the control of pests. Integrated pest management systems are used where possible. Chemicals are only obtained from licensed suppliers. Chemicals used on crops are approved by a competent authority in the country where the crop is grown and intended to be traded, and documentation is available to confirm approval.

Ineffective control of pests and disease insufficient pest monitoring, wrong pesticide, wrong concentration, poor spray coverage, incorrect timing of sprays, faulty equipment.

Visible chemical residue

Chemicals are applied according to label directions or a permit issued by a competent authority. Pesticide concentration too high or incompatible spray mixture used. A chemical rotation strategy and other crop protection measures are used to avoid pest resistance. Equipment used to apply chemicals is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person. The application of chemicals is recorded for each crop, detailing the chemical used, reason for application, treatment location, date, rate and method of application, weather conditions, and operator name.

Spray burn

33

Mango Quality Plan

Causes of quality loss
Unhealthy trees from poor nutrition. Excessive tree growth from too much nitrogen fertiliser.

Process step

Quality hazard Good agricultural practices

Crop nutrition

Increased susceptibility to pest and disease damage, fruit disorders, small fruit size, reduced shelf life, green ripe fruit

Nutrient application is based on recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing and the nutritional requirements for mango production.

Equipment used to apply fertilisers is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person. The application of fertilisers is recorded, detailing the name of the product or material, date, treatment location, application rate and method, and operator name. Unhealthy tress from either insufficient or too much water applied Maturity is not checked before harvesting of block. Lack of skill and care of pickers. Irrigation use is based on crop water requirements, water availability, and soil moisture levels. A record of irrigation use is kept, detailing the crop, date, location, and volume of water applied or duration of irrigation. Flesh colour and dry matter of a sample of mangoes is checked to determine when to start harvesting blocks of trees. Pickers are trained in correct fruit selection and picking methods before starting work. Equipment, containers and tools are checked for soundness and cleanliness before use each day and cleaned or discarded as required. Fruit are not harvested during rain. Harvested produce is placed in the shade if long delays occur before transport to the packing shed.

Irrigation

Increased susceptibility to pest and disease damage, fruit disorders, small fruit size, reduced shelf life

Harvesting

Fruit immature or overmature.

Impact and abrasion injury Rough handling by pickers. Dirty picking containers. Over filling of picking containers Stems break due to lack of skill and care of pickers. Dirty picking containers and picker hands. Produce in containers is left exposed to the sun for long periods

Sapburn

Sunburn

34

Mango Quality Plan

Causes of quality loss
Collapse of picking containers. Containers not secured properly. Careless driving. Excessive dust in uncovered load Stems break due to rough transport. Rough handling Contact of sap on skin due to lack of skill and care of workers. Sap build up on equipment, workers hands, and dipping solutions Workers are trained in correct handling methods. Workers are trained in correct destemming methods. Fruit is dipped in a detergent solution before the stem is removed. Fruit is placed on racks after stem is removed. Equipment is checked for build of sap and cleaned as required. Dip solutions are checked for build up of sap and replaced as required. Workers check hands and gloves regularly for sap and clean as required. Graders and packers check fruit for sap and dirt and inform packing shed manager if levels are excessive. Brushes and cloths are regularly checked and cleaned or discarded as required. Containers are tightly secure on the picking trailer. Driving are instructed to drive carefully to avoid rough transport and excessive dust.

Process step

Quality hazard Good agricultural practices

Transport to packing shed

Impact and abrasion injury

Shelving is used on picking trailers for staking two layers of containers.

Sapburn

Unloading picking containers

Impact and abrasion injury Sapburn

Destemming

Sapburn, skin browning

Cleaning

Sapburn, skin browning, abrasion injury

Sap and dirt remains on fruit due to inadequate washing and brushing. Dirty or worn brushes. Dirty cloths used to wipe fruit.

35

Mango Quality Plan

Causes of quality loss
Fruit are dried before packing. Produce is graded and packed according to buyer requirements. Workers are trained in correct grading and packing standards. Equipment is designed to prevent excessive dropping of fruit. Equipment is checked regularly for build of sap and dirt and cleaned as required Packages have sufficient stacking strength for handling and transport to buyers. Correct temperatures and methods are used for ripening, storage and transport as recommended by a competent authority. Measures are taken to prevent the presence of pests in and around ripening areas and in transport vehicles. Dip solution is topped up and discarded as required. Ineffective treatment due to incorrect mixing, insufficient dip time, stripping of dip concentration, dirty dip solution. Browning of the skin when fruit are packed wet Incorrect grading and packing due to lack of skill or care of workers. Excessive dropping of fruit. Dirty equipment Package collapse Build up of sap on equipment (conveyors, tables, benches. bins) Fruit ripens at high temperature. Fruit held for too long before transport or transport temperature too high. Storage and transport temperature too low. Pest build up in ripening areas and transport vehicles. Workers are trained and instructions are followed for mixing and operation of fungicide dip.

Process step

Quality hazard Good agricultural practices

Fungicide treatment

Disease development

Skin browning

6.
36

Grading and packing

Fruit does not meet quality and packing standards of buyer

Impact and abrasion damage

Sapburn, skin browning

Ripening, storage and transport

Disease development, green ripe fruit

Reduced shelf life

Chilling injury

Chewing of produce by rats, mice and cockroaches

Examples of documents and record

The section contains examples of documents and record forms that are required to implement various practices in the produce quality module. The documents and record forms are examples only and other methods and formats can be used. ASEAN GAP specifies the information that has to be documented and the records to keep, but does not specify how to document information and keep records. The example documents and record forms contained in this section are: Farm plan Planting material record Chemical inventory Spray record Postharvest chemical record Fertiliser and soil additives record Irrigation record Harvesting and packing record Job responsibility and training record Cleaning and pest control plan Corrective action report

37

Farm Plan

38

Planting Material Record

Business/Grower Name:
Supplier (name and address) Quantity obtained Location where planted

Date

Crop

Variety

39

Chemical Inventory

Business/Grower Name:
Place of purchase Batch no. (where available) Manufacture /expiry date Method and date of disposal

Date purchased

Name of product

Quantity

Stocktake

Date:

Name:

Date:

Name:

40

Spray Record
Crop/ Variety:
Product Dilution rate Application rate

Business/Grower Name:

Year:

Date/ Time

Block/ Row

Crop stage/ target

Equipment / method Date safe to Comments/ weather Operator used conditions harvest or WHP

41

Postharvest Chemical Record

Business/Grower Name:
Chemical Tank Size Tank Mixing Rate Top-up Fresh Application Method

Date

Time

Chemical

Fresh (F) or Top-up (T)

Comments

Signature

42

Fertiliser and Soil Additives Record

Year:
Product Supplier of product Application rate Comments Operator

Business/Grower Name:

Date

Crop/ variety

Block Row

43

Irrigation Record
Year:
Block/ row Rainfall Comments Volume of water applied

Business/Grower Name:

Date

Crop

Variety

44

Harvest and Packing Record

Business/Grower Name:
Harvest/ packing date Batch code Amount packed Destination / Consignment No. Comments (eg. quality, temperature)

Crop / Variety

Planting date

Block ID

45

Job Responsibility and Training Record

Business/Grower Name:
Irrigation Harvesting Cleaning Grading and packing Personal hygiene Repairs and maintain Self assessment checklist

Name

Chemical application

Fertilising

C = attended farm chemical user course = performs job and training completed

= performs job, training completed and has responsibility for area

46

Cleaning and Pest Control Plan

Date:
Responsibility Method

Business/Grower Name:

Area / equipment cleaned

Frequency

47

Corrective Action Report

Action taken to fix problem Signature/ date when problem fixed

Business/Grower Name:

Date

Problem and cause

48

Appendix 1. Glossary of terms

Abbreviations
AADCP ASEAN AusAID GAP MRL QA QASAFV ASEAN-Australia Development Cooperation Program Association of Southeast Asian Nations Australian Agency for International Development Good Agricultural Practice Maximum Residue Limit Quality Assurance Quality Assurance Systems for ASEAN Fruit and Vegetables

Terms
Biopesticide Biosolids Cleaning Competent authority A pesticide that is manufactured from biological sources. Solid, semi-solid or slurry material produced from the treatment of human sewage. The removal of soil, dirt, grease or other foreign matter. An organisation or company that is a recognised authority to develop or monitor standards, rules of operation, codes of practice, regulations, and policies. Examples include government departments, international committees such as CODEX, industry organisations, QA/GAP system owners, and auditing companies. A managed process where organic materials are subjected to moisture, heat and microorganisms for a specified period to produce a product known as compost. Food safety the introduction or transfer of a food safety hazard to produce or to the inputs that contact produce, such as soil, water, equipment, and people. The level of acceptability for a practice or standard. Exceeding the critical limit will result in a practice being unacceptable or high risk of a food safety hazard occurring. A business or person who buys or receives produce. For example, a packer, marketing group, distributor, wholesaler, exporter, processor, retailer, or consumer. Animals that are raised as family pets or as a source of food for the family for example dogs, cats, cows, chickens, ducks, birds, sheep, monkeys, mice, rabbits. Animals that are raised for commercial purposes for example, cows, sheep, chickens, ducks. The waste from the intestinal tract of animals, also known as manure. The application of nutrients through an irrigation system. Any chemical, biological or physical substance or property that can cause fruit and vegetables to become an unacceptable health risk to consumers. Unwanted objects in or around produce that may affect food safety or quality for example, glass, metal, wood, stones, soil, leaves, stems, plastic, and weed seeds. The applicant of a chemical to control pests in the soil or substrate, such as insects, diseases and weeds. Practices used to prevent or reduce the risk of hazards occurring during production, harvesting, postharvest handling of produce.

Composting Contamination Critical limit

Customer

Domestic animals Farm animals Faeces Fertigation Food safety hazard Foreign objects

Fumigation Good agricultural practice

Integrated pest management A system for managing pests that integrates multiple strategies to minimise the use of chemical pesticides, such as encouraging beneficial insects and

49

microorganisms to flourish, good crop hygiene and plant health, regular monitoring of crops for pests, using biological control agents and soft pesticides, and selective use of chemical pesticides. Maximum level (ML) The maximum amount of a heavy metal in fruit and vegetables for sale for human consumption, which is permitted by a competent authority.

Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) The maximum amount of a chemical in fruit and vegetables for sale for human consumption, which is permitted by a competent authority. Obsolete chemical A chemical that is no longer suitable for use. For example approval for use of the chemical may be withdrawn, the chemical is older than the use by date, the container may be damaged and the chemical soiled. A material or commercial product originating from plants and animals and not from synthetic sources. Organochlorine pesticides, heavy metals and other chemicals that remain for long periods in soil, water and the general environment (for example, herbicides in ground water). An unwanted animal or plant that affects the production, quality and safety of fruit and vegetables for example, insects, diseases, weeds, rodents, birds. Products used to control pests for example, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, fumigants. Pesticides can be manufactured from chemical or biological sources. Water that is suitable for human consumption as approved by WHO or equivalent country regulations. Fruit and vegetables (including herbs) The whole area of a farm or business. It includes all houses, buildings, production areas, roads, fauna and flora, and watercourses within the surveyed boundaries of the property. Action taken to remove or minimise or prevent re-occurrence of a hazard. The chance of something happening that will impact upon a hazard (for example, food safety). It is usually measured in terms of likelihood and consequences. Reducing the level of microorganisms through using chemicals, heat and other methods. The application of a fertiliser or soil additive beside a growing plant either on top of or beneath the ground. A defined area on the property for example, a production site. Products or materials that are added to the soil to improve fertility, structure or control weeds. Examples are animal manure, sawdust, compost, seaweed, fishbased products. The item or site to which an activity is directed. For example, applying a pesticide spray to a target crop to control a target pest or applying fertiliser to a target pad dock for crop nutrition. The ability to follow the movement of produce through the specified stages of production and distribution. The minimum period permitted between application of a pesticide and harvest of the produce. All people working on a farm or in a business, including family members and contractors.

Organic material/ product Persistent chemicals

Pest Pesticide Potable water Produce Property

Remedial action/ corrective action Risk Sanitise Side dressing Site Soil additives

Target

Traceability Withholding period Workers

50

Appendix 2. References and additional information

Global organisations
= = = = World Trade Organisation of the United Nations - WTO www.wto.org World Health Organisation of the United Nations - WHO www.who.int Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations www.fao.org Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) www.codexalimentarius.net

Guidelines for good agricultural practice:

= Guidelines for On-Farm Food Safety for Fresh Produce Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australia. 2004 www.daff.gov.au/content/publications.cfm?Category=Food Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Growers Guide. Good Agricultural Practices for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables Cornell University, USA. 2004 www.gaps.cornell.edu Food Safety Begins on the Farm: A Grower Self Assessment of Food Safety Risks Cornell University, USA. 2004 www.gaps.cornell.edu Good Agricultural Practices. University of California, Davis, USA. 2004 http://ucgaps.ucdavis.edu A summary of on-farm food safety programs or guidelines for fresh fruits and vegetables worldwide www.foodsafetynetwork.ca/food/onfarm.htm Commodity specific food safety guidelines for the melon supply chain. 2005. Produce Marketing Association and United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association www.pma.com or www.uffva.org Commodity specific food safety guidelines for the lettuce and leafy greens supply chain. 2006. Produce Marketing Association and United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association www.pma.com or www.uffva.org Improving the safety of fresh fruit and vegetables. Wim Jongen. 2005. Woodhead Publishing Limited. www.woodheadpublishing.com

= = = =

= =

Training programs
= = Quality Assurance Systems for ASEAN Fruit and Vegetables project www.aphnet.org Improving the quality and safety of fresh fruits and vegetables: a practical approach manual for trainers. FAO 2004 www.fao.org/es/ESN/food/foodandfood_fruits_en.stm Improving the safety and quality of fresh fruits and vegetables: a training manual for trainers. University of Maryland, USA. 2002 www.jifsan.umd.edu/gaps.html Food Quality and Safety Systems A Training Manual on Food Hygiene and the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System. FAO. 1998 www.fao.org/docrep/W8088E/W8088E00.htm

= =

Codex/ FAO publications:

= = = Recommended International Code of Practice General Principles of Food Hygiene. Codex www.codexalimentarius.net Draft Code of Hygienic Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. Codex www.codexalimentarius.net International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides. FAO. ww.fao.org/ag/agp/agpp/Pesticid/Default.htm

On-farm quality and food safety programs Program

EUREPGAP ChileGAP Freshcare On-Farm Food Safety Program (Australia) SQF 1000 and 2000 CIES The Food Business Forum Thailand Q system, Malaysian SALM system, Singapore GAP-VF system, Indonesian INDON GAP system QASAFV project website

Website
www.eurep.org www.chilegap.com www.freshcare.com.au www.sqfi.com www.ciesnet.com www.aphnet.org

51