SS 42A TEXTBOOK OF SesG Ue le TECHNOLOGY IN S.1. UNITS | Volume II AC&DC MACHINES meTULEN 25. Elements of Electro-mechanical Energy Conversion Introduction—Salient aspects of conversions—Energy-bal- ance—Magnetic-feld system: Energy and Co-energy—Linear System—A Simple Electromechanical System—in terms of Field Energy—tn terms of field Co-energy—Energy in terms of Efectrical parameters—Rotary Motion—Description of Simple System—Energy stored in the colls—Different Categories— ‘One coil each on Stator and on Rotor—Vital Role of Air-gap— ‘Statically induced emf and Dynamically induced emf. 26. D.C. Generators. Generator Principal—Simple Loop Generator—Practical Gen- erator—Yoke — Pole Cores and Pole Shoes—Pole Coils— Armature Core—Armature Windings—Bushes and Bearings— Pole-pltch—Conductor-Coil and Winding Element—Coil-span or Coil-pitch—Pitch of a Winding —Back Pitch—Front Pitch— Resultant Pitch— Commutator Pitch—Single-layer Winding — Two-layer Winding—Degree of Re-entrancy of an Armature Winding —Multiplex Winding —Lap and Wave Winding—Sim- plex-lap Winding —Numbering of Coils and Commutator Seg- ments—Simplex Wave Winding —Dummy or Idle Coils—Lses of Lap and Wave Windings—Types of Generators—Brush Contact Drop—Generated EMF. ot E.M.F. Equation of a Generator—lron Loss in Armature—Total loss in a D.C Generator—Stray Losses—Constant or Standing Losses— Power Stages—Condition for Maximum Efficiency. 27. Armature Reaction and Commutation Armature Reactlon—Demagnetising and Cross-magnetising Conductors —Demagnetising AT per Pole—Crossmagnetising AT per pole-—Compensating, Windings—No. of Compensat- ing Windings—Commutation—Value of Reactance Voltage— Methods of Improving Commutation—Resistance Commuta- tion—E.M.F. Commutation—Interpoles or Compoles— Equalising Connections—Parallel Operation of Shunt Genera- tors—Paralleling D.C. Generator—Load Sharing—Procedure for Paralleling D.C. Generators— Compound Generators in Parallel—Series Generators in Parallel. (ax) .887—936 ».937—96628, Generator Characteristics 967—994 Characteristics of D.C. Generators—Separately-excited Gen- erator—No-load Curve for Self-excited Generator—How to find Critical Resistance R? Haw to draw Q.C.C. at Different ‘Speeds ?—Critical Speed—Voltage Build up of a Shunt Gen- erator —Condition for Build-up of a Shunt Generator—Other factors Affecting Voltage Bullding of a D.C. Generator— External Characteristic—Voltage Regulation—Internal or To- ‘tal Characteristic—Series Generator-—Compound-woundGen- ¢rator—How to calculate Required Series Turns?—LUses of D.C. Generators Questions and Answers on D.C. Generators. 29. D.C. Motor ‘Motor Prineiple—Comparison of Generator and Motor Ac- tlon—Significance of the Back em'—Voltage Equation of a Motor—Conditions for Maximum Power—Torave—Arma- ture Torque of a Motor—Shalt Torque—Speed of a D.C. Motor—Speed RegulationTorque and Speed of a 0.C. Mo- tor—Motor Characteristics—Characteristics of Series Mo- ors—Characteristics of Shunt Motors—Compound Motors— Performance Curves—Comparison of Shunt and Serles Mo- tors—Losses and Elficiency—Power Stages. 30, Speed Control of D.C. Motors .1031—1090 Factors Controlling Motor Speed—Speed Control of Shunt Motors—Speed Control of Series Motors—Merits and Demer- its of Rheostatic Control Method—Series-Parallel Contral— Electric Braking—Electric Braking of Shunt Motor—Electric Braking of Series Motors—Electranic Speed control Method for D.C. Motors—Uncontrolled Rectifiers—Controlled Recti- fiers—Thyristor Choppers—Thyristor Inverters—Thyristor Speed Control of Separately-excited D.C. Motor—Thyristor Speed Control of D.C. Seres Motor—Full-wave Speed Control of a Shunt Motor—Thyristor Control of a Shunt Motor-— Thyristor Speed Control of.a Series D.C, Motor—Necessity of a Starter—Shunt Motor Starter-—Three-paint Starter-—Four- point Starter—Starting and Speed Control of Series Motors— Grading of Starting Resistance—Shunt Motors—Series Motor Starters—Thyristor Controller Starters 3/4, Testing of D.C. Machines O91 Brake Test—Swinburnes Test-—Advantages of Swinburnes Test—Main Disadvantages—Regenerative or Hopkinson’s Test—Alternative Connections for Hopkinson's Test—Merlts of Hopkinson’s Test—Retardation or Running Down Test— (&Field's Test for Series Motors—Objective Tests—Questions and Answers on D.C. Matars. 32, Transformer... oNIS—12 10) Working Principle of Transformer—Transformer Construc- ion—Core-type Transformers—Shell type Translormers— Elementary Theory of an Ideal Transformer—E.M.F. Equation of Transformer—Voltage Transformation Ratio—Transformer with losses but no Magnetic Leakage—Transformer on No- Jead—Translormer on Load—Transformer with Winding Re- sistance but no Magnetic Leakage—Equivalent Resistance— Magnetic Leakage—Transformer with Resistance and Leakage Reactance—Simplified Diagram—Total Approximate Voltage Drop In Transformer—Exact Voltage Drop—Equivalent Cir- cuit Transformer Tests—Open-circuit or No-load Test—Sepa- ration of Core Losses—Short-Circuit or Impedence Test— Why Transformer Rating in KVA?—Regulation of a Trans- lormer—Percentage Resistance. Reactance and Impedance— Kapp Regulation Diagram—Sumpner ar Back-to-back-Test— Efficiency of a Transformer—Condition for Maximum Effi- ciency—Variation of Efficiency with Power Factor—All-day Efficiency—Auto-transformer—Conversion of 2-Winding Transformer int Auto-transformer—Parallel Operation of Single-phase Transformers—Questions and Answers on Trans- formers. 33, Transformer -Three Phase AZ—1242 Three-phase Transformers—Three-phase Transformer Con- nections—Star/Star or Y/¥ Connection—Delta-Delta or Con- nectlon—Wye/Delta or ¥/ Connection—Delta/Wye ar /Y Con- nection—Open-Delta or V-V Connection—Power Supplied by V-V Bank—Seott Connection or T-T Connection—Three~ phase to Two-Phase Conversion and vice-versa—Parallel Op- eration of 3-phase Transformers—instrument Transformers— Current Transformers—Potential Transformers. 34, induction Motor Classification of AC Motors—induction Motor: General Prin- cipal—Construction—Sauirrel-cage Rotor—Phase-wound Rotor—Production of Rotating Field—Three-phase Supply— Mathematical Prool—Why does the Rotor Rotate ?—Slip— Frequency of Rotor Current—Relation between Torque and Rotor Power Factor—Stariing Torque—Starting Torque of a Squirrel-cage Motor—Starting Torque of a Slip-ring Molor— Condition for Maximum Starting Torque—Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Toraue—Rotor E.M.F and Reac- (xi)tance under Running Conditlons—Torque under Running Con- n—Condition for Maximum Torque Under Running Con- ons—Rotor Torque and Breakdown Torque—Relation be- tween Torque and Slip—Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Torque and Speed—Eflect of Change in Supply Frequency Torqueand Speed—full-load Torqueand Maximum T oreie— Starting Toraue and Maximum Terque—Toraue/Speed Curve— Shape of Toraue/Speed Curve—Current/Speed Curve of an Induction Motor—Torque/Speed Characteristic Under Load— Plugging al an Induction Motar—induction Motor Operating as a Generator—Complete TarquerSpeed Curve of a Three- phase Machine—Measurement of Slip—Power Stages in an Induction Motor—Torgue Developed by an Induction Mo- tor—Torque, Mechanical Power and Rotor Qutput—Induction Motor Torque Equation—Synchronous Watt—Variation in Rotor Current—Analogy with a Mechnical Clutch—Analogy withaD,C, Motor—Sector Induction Molor—Linear Induction Motor—Properties of a Linear Induction Motor—Magnetic Levitation—Induetion Motor as a Generalized Transtarnver— Rotor Outpul—Eauivalent Circuit of the Rotor—Eauivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor—Power Balance Equation— Maximum Power Qulput—Corresponding, Slip. 35, Computation And Circle Diagrams ..BIB—1366 Genetal—Circle Diagram for a Series Circuil—Circle Diagram, of the Approximate Equivalent Circle—Determination of GO and BO— No-load Test—Blocked Rotor Test—Construction of the Cirele Diagram—Maximum Quantities—Starting of Induction Motors—Direct-Switching or Line Starting of Induc~ tion Motors—Squirrel-cage Motors—Starting, of Slip-ring, Motors—Starter Sieps—Crawling—Cogging or Magnetic Lack~ ing—Double Saiurrel-cage Motor—Equivalent cireult—Speed Control of Induction Motor—Three-Phase A.C. Commutator Motors—Schrage Motor—Motor Enclasures—Standard type of Squitrel-cage Motors—Class A Motors—Ciass B Motors — Class C Motors—Class D Motors—Class E Motots—Class F Motors—Questions and Answer on Induction Motors, 36, single-phase Motors ...1367—1400 Types of Single-phase Motors—Single-phase Induction Mo- tor—Double-field Revolving Theory—Making Single-phase Induction Motor Self-starting—Equivalent Circuit. of Single- phase Induction Motor—Without Core Loss—Equivalent Cuicult—with Core Loss—Types of Capacitors—Start Mo- tors—Capacitor Start-and-Run Motor—Shaded-pole Single- phase Motor—Repulsion Type Motors—Repulsion Molor— Repulsion Principle—Compensated Repulsion Motor—Re- (xii)pulsion-start Induction-run Motor— Repulsion Induction Mator—A.C. Series Motors—Universal Motor—Speed Con- trol of Universal Motors—Unexcited Single-phase Synchro- nous Motors—Reltictance Mator—Hysteresis Motor—Ques- tions and Answers on Single-phase Motors, 37. Alternators _-MOl—1488 Basic Principle—Stationary Armature—Details of Construc- tion—Rotor—Damper Windings—Speed and Frequency— Armature Windings—Concentric or Chain Windings—Two- layer Winding—Wye and Delta Connections—Short-pitch Winding: pitch factor/chording factor—Distribution orBreadth Factor ‘or Winding Factor or Spread Factor—Equation of Induced E.M.F.—Effect of Hormonics on Pilch and Distribu- tion Factors—Factors Affecting Alternator Size—Alternator on Load—Synchronows Reactance—Vector Diagrams of Loaded Alternator—Voltage Regulation—Determination of Voltage Regulation—Synchronous impedence Method—Rothert’s MMF. or Ampere-turn Methad—General Case-—Zero Power Factor Method or Potier Method—Procedural Steps of Potier Method—Operation of Salient Pole Synchronous Machine— Phasor Diagram for a Salient Pole Synchronous Machine— Calculations from Phasor Diagram—Power Developed by a Synchonous Generator—parallel Operation of Alternators— Synchronizing, of Allernators—Synchronizing, Current—Syn- chronizing Power—Allernators Connected to Infinite Bus- bars—Synchronizing Torque Tsy—Effect of Load on Synchro- nizing Power—Allernative Expression for Synchronizing, Power—Parallel Operation of two Alternators—Effect of Un- equal Voltages—Distribution of Load—Time-Period of Oscil- Jation—Maximum Power Outpul—Questions and Answers on Alternators. 38, synchronous Motor ..M439—1534 Synchronous Motor-General—Principle of Operation—Method 4 of Starting —Motor on Load with Constant Excitation—Power Flow within a Synchronous Motor—Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous Motor—Power Developed by a Synchronous Motot—Synchronous Motor with Different Excitations— Elfect of increased Load with Constanl Excltation—Elfect of Changing Excitation of Constant Load—Different Torques of a Synchronous Motor—Power Developed by a Synchronqus Motor—Altemative Expression for Power Develaped—Vari- ous Conditions of Maxima—Salient Pole Synchronous Mo- tor—Power Developed by a Salient Pole Synchronous Motor — Effects of Excitation on Armature Current and Power Factor—Constant-Power Lines—Construction of V-curves— (xiii)Hunting or Surging, or Phase Swinging —Methods of Starting — Procedure for Starting a Synchronous Motor—Comparison between Synchronous and Induction Motors—Synchronous Motor Applications —Questions and Answers on synchronous Motors. 39. Special Machines + AS3S—1568 Introduction—Stepper Motors—Types of Stepper Motors— Variable Reluctance Stepper Motors—Multi-stack VR Stepper Motor—Permanent-Magnet Stepping Motor—Hybrid Stepper Motor—Summary of Stepper Motors—Permanent-Magnet DC Motor—Low-inertia DC Motors—Shell-type Low-intertia DC Motor—Printed-circult (Disc) DC Motor—Permanent-Mag- net Synchronous Motors—Synchros—Types af Synchros— Applications of Synchros—Control Differential Transmitter— Control Differential Receiver—Switched Reluctance Motor— Comparison between VR Stepper Motor and SR Motor—The Resolver—Servamotors—DC Servomotors—AC Servomotors. Index (xtv)CH A P TER Learning Objectives Introduction * Salient aspects of ‘conversions Energy-balance Magnetic-field system: Energy and Co-energy = Linear System. A Simple Electro- mechanical System > In terms of Field Energy > In terms of field Co- energy Energy In terms of Electrical parameters Rotary Motion > Description of Simple System Energy stored in the coils > Different Categories = One coll each on Stator and on Rotor Vital Role of Air-gap > Statically induced emt and Dynamically induced emf. ELEMENTS OF ELECTRO- MECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION ® Oe sm An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical (rotational or kinetic) energy866 Electrical Technology 25.1, Introduction “Energy can meither be created aur be destroyed”. We can only change its forms, using appropriate energy-conyersion processes An interesting aspect about the energy in “Electrical form” is that neither it is so available directly jrom nature nor it is required to be finally consumed in that form. Still, it is the most popular-form of Energy, since is can be iransported at remote Load-locations, fer optimum utilization of resources» Further, technological progress has, now made it possible to device Electricul-Power-modulation systems . So. flexible _ and controllable that modern systems tend to be energy-efficient, with | increase in life-span of main equipment and the associated auxiliary components (like switches, connecting “cables: contactors, ete.) since it is noy possible to avoid overstrain (=-oves-currents or over-voltage) on the system, This means a lot for the total production process (for which electrical energy is being used) since the quality of the production improves, and plant-maiitenance is minimal. Energy-conversion systems then assume still higher importance. ey _) © Bnergy conversion takes place between well known pairs of forms of Energy: Electrical <> jf Chemical, Electrical ++ Thermal, Electrical > Optical, Electrical > Sound, and Elcetrical + 7 Mechanical aré the common forms with munerous varieties of engineering - applications. Electrical mechanical conversion isthe focus 6f discussion in this chapter, The ements of electro- mechanical energy conversion shall deal with basic principles and Gas seals ee this aspect, Purpose of the study isto have a general approach to understand Ne ‘sip a dify the system with the help of modern technologies, for overall Tastee (a) basic cndifions to be fulfilled by the conversion system. (6) methods for innovating the Conversion systems, Electromechanical energy-conversion finds applications in following categories of systems: (a) transducers: Devices for obtaining Sijmnals for measurement / control, (6) foree-producing devices: Solenoid-actuators, relays, ¢lectromagnets, (e) devices for continuous-energy-conversion: Motors / Generators These systems have different configurations. But the principles of their working are common, Understanding these principles enables us to analyze / design / improvise / innovate such systems. As a result of such development, newer types of motors and the associated modem power controllers have recently been manufactured and become popular. Controllers using power-Elements of Electromechani Energy Conversion electronics switching devices offer energy-efficient, user-friendly, and high-performance drives. Their initial investment may be larger but two important parameters justify their use: (i) Considerable energy is saved, resulting into payback periods as short as 18-24 months, (il) The controllers ensure to’ fimit the currents to pre-set villues under conditions of starting foverload/ unbalanced supply, Hence, the entire system enjoys longer life. Both these effects lead to better production-process and hence these are readily acceptable by industries. 25.2 Salient Aspects of Conversions Purpose of clectro-mechanical conversion device is to change the form of energy. Here, for simpler discussion, only rotary systems wil] be dealt with. Whed it is converting mechanical i input io electrical output the device is “generatiig”. With electrical input, when mechanieal output is obtained; the device is. motoring. Some simple aspects. of an electrical machine (motor / generator} have to be noted at this placer of Electcatsachaabes Miia Actor, anian'ae pap A Beara e Warr alias pa, the magnetic circuithas these thrée parts in series. In general, magnetic poles are established in Stator and in Rotor. (2) Magnetic effects of following types can be categorized: (a) Electromagnetic; Duc to currents passed through windings on Stator and/ or Rotor, producing certain number of poles on these: amembers. (b) Permanent Magnets: One side (Stator or % Rotor) can have permanent magriets. tc) Reluctance variation: Surface of Rotor near the air-gap‘ean be suitably shaped to. have a particular pattem of Reluctance- Stator and Rotor variation so ax to control the machine behaviour as per requirements. (3) Basic conditions which must be satisfied by such devices are: (a) Equal number of poles must be created on the two sides, dh) In some cases, reluctanee-variation is primarily used for machine-action. The Stator side must accommodate a winding carrying current for the electromagnetic effect, when rotor surface is shaped so as to have the desired pattern of reluctance variation. Or, non-cylindrical rotor cannot bave the current -carrying winding fer machine action. (4) Out of stator, rotor and air-gap, maximum energy-storage at any angular position takes 4 place in the air-gap, since its reluctance is highest out of the three members. {5} Stored energy must depend on rotor-position and the device tends to occupy that angular position which corresponds to maximum stored energy, If this position varies as a function of time, the device produces continuous torque. (6) Ideal output of a motor is # constant unidirectional torque with given currents through its windings. In some cases, the output torque (as a compromise) is an average value of a cyclically varying torque, (7) Where current-switehing is done for motor-control, as in modem controllers, instantaneous effect has to be understood to conclude on any of the points mentioned above. (8) A device can work either as a generator or as a motor, provided pertinent conditions are satisfied for the concerned made of operation.868 Electrical Technology 25.3. Energy - Balance For an electro-mechanical system, following terms are important: (@) Electrical port (= armature terminals); receiving / delivering electrical energy. (ii) “Mechanical port (= shaft): delivering / receiving mechanical energy. (iif) Coupling field: Magnetic field or Electric field Even though, theoretically, both the types of fields mentioned above are able to convert the energy, the magnetic medium is most popular since the voltage levels required are not very high, and the devices of given power rating are smaller in size and are economical. Hence, only those will be dealt with. It is obvious that an electrical motor receives energy at the electrical port and delivers it at the mechanical port. While an electric generator —Gonwersion of electrical energy inte mechanical receives the energy at the mechanical port and energy delivers it at the electrical port. [t is also known that the following losses take place in such systems and are dissipated away as heat: (i) ir losses in the windings of the machines, (i) friction and windage losses, (iii) core-losses These can be either neglected or attached to electrical port, mechanical port and coupling magnetic field respectively, for simpler analysis. With this, the simple energy balance equation can be written as: Change in Electrical Energy = Change in Mechanical Energy + Change in Field-Energy AW eg = Wy + Wag (25.1) It is natural that this equation has +ve signs for electrical and mechanical-energy-terms when the device is motoring. For generating mode, however, both the terms assume —ve signs. In case no mechanical work is done, eqn. (25.1) reduces to eqn, (25.2) below indicating that Electrical energy - input is stored in the magnetic field. dW = AW pg vos (25.2) 25.4. Magnetic-field System: Energy and Co-energy 25.4.1 Linear System cross-sectional area = Fig. 25.1 (2) Magnetic circuitElements of Electromechanical Energy Conversion Fig. 25:1 (b) Characteristic of a magnetic circuit Fig. 25.1 (e) Energy and co-energy A simple magnetic current is shown in Fig 25.1 (a), with assumptions that air-gap length at the joints is negligible, and the magnetic medium is not saturated. With A as the cross-sectional area of the core and L,, as the mean length of the path, a coil with NW tums carrying a current of amp has an mmf of F, establishing a flux of @, related by @ = Fx ow where (%» = Permeance of the Magnetic circuit = Hot, All, with 4, = relative permeability of the magnetic medium, This corresponds to the following relationships: Coil Inductance, L = Nm = NO i= RAG where A = flux-linkage of the coil, in weber-tuens Wy, = Energy stored inthe coil =¥4 Li?=\a NtGw ? = V4 F? Oy =“ F(Fon) = 2 Fo --- (25.3) In this eqn., /%) is the slope of the characteristic in Fig 25,1 (b). Hence, the inductance is proportional to the slope of F-} plot. In Fig, 25.1 (bi, for the operating paint A, the mmf is F, and the flux @,. At the point A, the energy stored in the field is given hy eqn. below: Way = “F/O, F, is due to the current i,, Way is given by area OATO in Fig 25.1(0). In Fig 25.1(), the origin refers to the system without magnetization, ‘The system can reach the poim A, starting from @ as the current in the coil is increased from 0 toi. Let us understand the intermediate events. At point B, the flux is @ due to the mmf F. An increment in coil current results into inerease in mmf by dF. This increases the core- flux by do. New operating point is C. Eqn. (25.3) is to be suitably re-written in terms of these incremental values. Waa=f aWay= [2 Fay = f° (area of the sttip NBB'Q) = area of triangle OAT = (118) J? @.dp = 149). Fy (28.4)870 Electrical Technology Alternatively, we have the area of elemental strip KBB’M = . dF (area of the strip KBB“M) Areaof A OAS = [” =|) o.dF=0n f° Far=oy FAD = 4R,o, _ 4255) In order to distinguish with respect to the terms in eqn, (25,4), this area is called as the “Co-energy of the field” and is represented by W%,. For a Linear system, however, for a given operating point, say A, the two energy-terms are equal. Hence, Wa = Wa = 2 Fo, = 2 i? +++ (236) aid In order to have a simple and clear distinction between the two energy terms, it can bi that the differential variable “Current” (or mmf ) is related to Co-energy and the different variable “flux - linkage” (or flux) is related to Energy ‘This energy stored in the magnetic field comes from the electrical source connected to the coil in Fig. 25.1). 25.4.2. A Simple Electromechanical System A simple electro-mechanical system is shown in Fig. 25.2(a). o Fig. 25.2 (a) Fig. 25.2 (b) Reference point O corresponds to the unstretched spring. Energy stored in the spring is then Zero, In position A of the movable member, the spring is elongated by x. and the corresponding energy stored in the spring is ! “spring-constant” of the linear system in Nw /m, In Fig 25.2 (a), the distance. OA is x. The clemental distance AB is dx, so that OB is.x + dx. For simpler analysis. it is assumed that magnetic. material is highly permeable: and that the clearance at point M (for movement of the member} ix negligible. So that the mmf of the coil is required to drive the flux in the region QABC only. The flux-mmf 4 K, 2, where K, is A simple electromechanical systemElements of Electromechanical Energy Conversion ow relationships’ are plotted for these two positions in Fig 25.2 (). In position A, the movable member hus moved a distance of x from its unstretched position or reference point. Let the opérating point be H, so that the coil-mmf @A (=F) establishes a flux OB (=0), In this position, the movable member experiences a force in such a dircetion that the energy stored in the field tends to increase. It tends to reach B, so that an additional displacement of dv shifts the characteristic upwards and final operating point in position B is C”. From # to C’, the operating point can move in any one of the following way ta) HC’ vertically, if the mechanical movement is tow slow so that change of flux is slow and induced emf in the coil is fegligible. This corresponds fo the coil-mmf remaining constant at F during the transition, Constant mmf means vertical travel of the operating point from H to ©’. (2) Ho K horizontally and then K to “along the characteristic corresponding to (x + dx) as the displacement of the movable part. This is possible when the motion is very fast, resulting into flux remaining constant till the operating point traverses from H to K. Then, tram K to C’, the flux increases, an emf in induced the coil and the mmf finally reaches its value of F. at the point C”. ic) In reality, the transition from H to ©” will be somewhere in between these two extremes mentioned ubove. However, for simplicity, one of these extreme conditions has to be accepted. In (a) above, the mmf remains constant, In (#) above, the flux (and hence the flux-linkuge) remains constant. Let us take the case of constant-mmf. If the process has taken a time of df, Eleotrical-energy input during the process = dWy,. = (voltage applied to the coil) x current. x dt = edt = dhidi x ix dt = idk = iNdd = Fdo = area of rectangle SHCOD In this case, coil-resistance has been neglected. 25.4.2.1. In terms of Field Energy Atthe previous operating point H, the energy stored in the magnetic field, Wag) = area of A OHB Atthe new position corresponding to the operating point C", the field energy stored is given by Wau = urea of the A OCD The difference of these two. is the change in the energy stored in the magnetic field = UWyy = '2/0A' x AC’ — OA' x4’ Hi] = 0A [AC x AH] = 4% 0A NC” =. Fide = VW dW. ‘ Out of the energy delivered by the source, half is stored in the magnetic field, Where has the remaining half been utilized? Obviously, this must have been transformed into the mechanical work done. In this case. neglecting losses, it is finally stored in the stretched spring due to its elongation hy dx. Comparing this with the equation.(25.1), AW gc: = TW gues, + AW gg = DWrrect *% PWatee or WV cy = Wy = VA dW Consider that a force F is operative at the displacement of x. This foree is in such a direction that x increases or the movable member ix attracted towards D. In the same direction, @872 Electrical Technology displacement by dx results into the increase in the energy stored by the spring. Relating the concemed terms, Fisokge dWrecy = mechanical work done against the force of the stretched spring = -Fdv=dWiy or F — dW,,/ dx, in this case = —SW,,/ Sx, in general Alternatively, the difference in the energy stored in the spring also gives a very useful relationship. In the position corresponding to x + dr, the energy stored in the: spring = & («+ de}. Similarly, at x, the energy = 1% &, 32 Difference. = 2 &, [(x + de? —(x)*} = hk, [x + Qocde + (dx — 2] = 4% k, [2 x dx], neglecting (dx? = kx de= F de ‘This difference is nothing but dW,,..4,. which is equal in magnitude to dW, and confirms the relationship obtained earlier: 25.4.2.2. In terms of field Co-energy Proceeding along lines similar to those while dealing with field-energy above, following relationships exist. For simpler discussion, the transition is assumed to be along HKC’’. Neglecting area of the small triangle KC’, we have atx, Why = areaof A OAH atx+ dx, Way =areaaf A OA‘C (neglecting A AKC’) dW'yg = Wg — W ga) = 0 dF where dF = MA" = Co-energy in the field F dr Hence, =F = + dW" qy/ dx, in this case = + BW yy / Bx, in general 25.5. Energy in Terms of Electrical Parameters In the preceding article, the energy and force were related in terms of magnetic-system parameters, namely flux and mmf, through the third parameter, the permeance. ILis at times convenient to relate these things in terms of electrical-system-parameters, namely, the inductances and currents. That is being dealt with here only for linear systems, Let > be the permeance of the magnetic circuit and L be the coil-inductance. Wyy = Field-energy = % # @ = Ni (Ni 0) ='4 (NA)2 = he Tage F=~dW,,fdv = —Y4. 2. dlide Thus, a force exists if the coil-inductance is dependent on x, Such analysis is more suitable when the system has more than one coils coupled through the magnetic circuit. If two such coils are considered, following data should be known for evaluation of the force, in case of linear displacement: Ly = self inductance of coil - 1 Ly. = self inductance of coil - 2Elements of Electromechanical Energy Conversion 873 Ly, = Mutual inductance between two coils, 1 and 2 currents through the two coils. W, = Total energy stored in the field = 42,424 4 by #) + Lyi h Magnitude of Force F = dWiyidt =", dl, bde +P, diy, fie + ily dl fae From the right-hand side of this equation, it is noted that the inductance-term which is. dependent on x contributes to the force, 25.6. Rotary Motion Most popular systems for electro- mechanical energy are Generators and Motors. The preceding discussion dealt with the Linear motions, wherein x represented the displacement parameter, and force was being calculated. Now we shall deal with the rotary systems, wherein angular displacement parameters (such as 6) and corresponding torque developed by the system will be correlated, through a systematic procedure for a typical rotary machine 25.6.1. Description of Simple System A simple rotary system has a ‘stator’ and =a ‘rotor’, Ait-gap separates these two, Stator has two similar coils ‘a’ and ‘hb’ located at 90° electrical, with respect to cach other. Inner surface of the, stator is cylindrical. Outer surface of the rotor is also cylindrical resulting into uniform airgap length for the machine, The diagram represents a two- pole machine. Axis of coil ‘a’ may be taken as reference, with respect to which the rotor-coil axis makes an angle of 0, at a particular instant of time. For a continuous rotation of the rotor at « radians / sec, 8 = at, Coil- ‘b'-axis is perpendicular to the reference, as shown, Due to the uniform air-gap length, and due to the perpendi-cularity between coils ‘a’ and ‘6, inductance-parameters Fig. 25.3. Simple rotary system exhibit the following patterns: Let x represents the inductance parameter as a function of @. The subseripts indicate the particular parameter, x, = self-inductance of coil ‘a’, x,, = mutual inductance between coils a and band so on, x represents value of the particular inductance parameter, which will help in knowing the variation of inductance with 8.Electrical Technology (a) Self inductances of coils ‘a’-and “b' are not dependent an. rotor position. iy, = Ly, aNd ty = Lyyy at all values of O, (b) Mutual inductance between stator coils ‘a’ and *h’ is zero, due to perpendicularity. yy = Zero, for all values of 8. (e) Self-inductance of roter-coil is constantand not dependent on 0. «= L,, (= constant), at all values of @. (d) When“? and ‘a’ coils have their axes aligned, at @= 0, the mutual inductance between, them is maximum, which is denoted byx,, At@ = 90°. their axes are perpendicular resulting into no coupling or 7éro mutual inductance. When @ = 180", rand a coils are aligned in anti-parallel way and hence maxifmum mutual inductance exisis between them with negative sign. Further, whatever happens to coupling between rand q at a value of 8 tappens to that between rand » with a delay of 90", All these are mathematically represented as term L,.. 25.6.2. Energy stored in the coils Energy stored in the magnetic field can either be expressed in tefmns of mmf and flux or be expressed in terms of inductance-terms and coil currents. If i, (, and ¢, are the coil-currents, stored- energy-terms are as given below: (® W, = Energy in Self-ind. of coil ‘a’: 44 4, ?, (ii) W, = Energy in Self-ind. of coil ‘b': 4 Lay (iit) W, = Energy in Self-ind. of coil Ps aL, 2, (i) W, = Energy in mutual inductance between ‘a’ and ‘r's x.) f4y= Tq led, = gy COS Oi. i, {v) W, = Energy in mutual inductance between ‘b" and ‘r+ hy fp. fy = hy) 8D. i, iy W = Total energy stored in the system = Sum of all the energy-terms cited above W, 4 Wy+ Wy+ Wy+ WW, T = Torque produced = 5W/50 If i, fy 7, are assumed to be constant currents, for simplicity, so that their derivatives with respect to @ (and hence with respect to time f) are zero, the energy-terms which include constant inductances do not contribute to torque. W), W,, and Wy thus cannot contribute tor torque. W, and. W, contribute to torque related by: T = 6W/80 = 5/60 (W,+ W.)=8/50 [L,,i7,cos® + LE, ii, sin@] = Lyi, [-i,sin@+ j,cos@] If ij=i,= i,.T=L, ii, Lsin® + e080] For such a system, the torque is zero at @ = + 45°, and the torque is maximum at@ = — 45°. If one of the stator currents is reversed, the result differs, For this, let, = =i, and i, = +4, Bete eee) And the maximum torque ocours at @ = 45°, This.is a position for rotor, which is midway between the two stator coils,Elements of Electromechanical Energy Conversion 875 25.6.2.1. Different Categories From the torque expressions above, it is clear that the torque exists only when stator and rotor-coils carry currents, When only stator-coils (or only rotor coil) carry current, torque cannot be produced (a) One coil cach on Stator and on Rotor In the above mentioned case, let us excite only one stator-coil, Let maintained as before. T= oh, ids Following observations are made for such a case: _ fi) At@=G,F=0, Mutual induetance x, is maximum (= L,,) and hence the stored energy in mutual inductance is masimum, but torque is zero. (@) Av@=90", Tis maximum: x,, is zero, hence the concemed stored energy is zero, (i) As scen earlier, W,= Ly i,j, cos 9 = L,, ti, cos ® Torque = dW, /d0=ij, diL,,.cos 8) / dB Contributed by W,, the power is related as follows: Power = rate of change of energy with time says de Seria dO/ dt =T. w, =i,), 1,4 (-sin 8) w, Magnitudes of these terms are maximum for @ = 90", If @ can be'set at 90", at all instants of time, torque obtained is maximum, Such a situation does exist in a d. c, machine in which rotor carries an armature winding which is a lap- or wave-connected commutator winding. The brushes are so placed on the commutator that rotor-coil-uxis sal the above- mentioned condition of @ = 90°, irrespective of the rotor-position or rotor speed, Such an equivalence of a rotating armature coil with such un effectively stutionary coil is referred to as a quasi-staiionary coil. It means that a rotating coil is being analyzed as a stationary coil due to its typical behaviour for electro-mechanical energy conversion purposes (4) Two stator coils carrying two-phase currents and rotor-coil carrying dc: © When two stator coils carry Pe Pafieunet-eycchrere eiatorior two-phase alter! 2 washing machine currents, a synchronously rotating mmf is established. If the rotor-coil carries direct current, and the rotor is run at same synchronous speed, a unidirectional constant torque is developed. Mathematically, similar picture can be visualized, with a difference that the total system is imagined to rotate at synchronous speed. Such a machine is Synchronous machine, (to be discussed in Later chapters). It can be understood through the simple system described here. (c) Machines with Permanent Magnets: With suitable interpretation, the field side of the simple system can be imagined to be with permanent magnets in place of coil-excited electromagnets. All the interpretations made above are i,=0, andi, Permanent magnet876 ~—Electrical Technology a ea valid, except for the difference that in this case there is no scope for controlling the rotor-coil- current-magnitude. (d) Machines with no rotor coil, but with premeance variation. Smooth cylindrical rotor surfaces do not exist in such cases. There are no rotor-coils. Due to geometry of the rotor surface, stator-coil- self inductances vary with rotor position, Thinking on lines of relating energy terms and their derivatives for torque-calculations, the working respi can be understood. With simple construction, Reluctance motors belong to this category. (e) Switehed currents in Stator Coils. Th yet another type, stator coils are distributed and properly grouped. One group carries currents during certain time interval. Then, this current is switched off, Another group carries current in the next time interval and so on. The rotor surface is so shaped that it responds to this current switching and torque is produced, Even though stator-coil- inductances are complicated functions of rotor position, the method of analysis: for such machines is same, Prominent types of machines of this type are: switched reluctance motors, stepper motors, etc. Current in: statar coils 25.6.2.2. Vital Role of Air-gap Magnetic circuit of an electrical machine has a flux established due to coil-mmtfs. This flux is associated with stator core, rotor core and air-gap. An important point for understanding is to know which out of these three stores major portion of the field energy. Through an illustrative case, it will be clear below, in example 25.1. Example 25.1. Let a machine with following data be considered. Calculate the energy stored in the air-gap and compare the same with that stored in the cores. Stator-core outer diameter = 15 cm Stator-core inner diameter = 10.05 cm Rotor-core outer diameter = 10.00 cm Rotor-core inner diameter = 5 cm Axial length of the machine = 8 cm Effect of sloing is neglected. The core volumes and air-gap volume far the machine shown in Fig 25.4 have to be calculated. Solution. Volume of Stator-core = (m/4) x (15? — 10.057) x 8 em} =779 cm? Volume of Rotor-core =(n/ 4) x (10*~5*)x 8 em? = 471 cm? Volume of air-gap in the machine = (1 / 4) x (10.05? — 10) x 8 em? = 63 cm? Fig. 25.4Elements of Electromechanical Energy Conversion 877 Let the relative permeability of the core material be 1000. If the flux density is B Wb / m?, and }1 is the permeability, the energy-density is. % x B?/ {1 Joules / m?. Let the flux density be 1,20 Wb/ m2. Energy density im-air-gap = Vax 1.20? / (4m x 107) = 572350. Joules / m* = 0.573 Joules fcm' Energy stored in ait-gap = 0.573 x 6.3 = 3.6 Joules Energy-density in Magnetic medium = ¥% x 1.20° / (4m x 107 x 1000) = 573 J/m* itis assumed only for simplicity that the flux density is same for the entire core of stator and of rotor. Energy stored in stator-core = 573 x 779 x 10° = 0.45 Joule Energy stored in rotor-core = $73 % 471 x 10%=0.27 Joule Itis worth noting that even though the ratio of volumes is 198, the ratio of energies is 0.2, since, for the present case, & _ yolumeof (Stator-core+Rotor-core) _ 779+471 : ‘Volume of airgap 63 ky = Energy stored in cores / Energy stored in air-gap =(0.45 + 0.27)/3.6= 0.2 The ratio are like this due to ji, being 1000, and &, /, = 198 0.2 = 1000 Alternatively, an air-gap of volume 6.3 em}, [surrounded by the magnetic medium of Hi, = 1000) is equivalent to the magnetic medium of volume 6.3 x 1000 em’. Converted equivalent volumeof air-gap __6300 Volume of (Stator+ Rotor) T19+471 198 Energystored in ait-gap 36s Energystoredin (Stator+ Rotor) (0.45-+0.27) ‘This correlates the Various parameters and confirms that the stored energy is maximum in the: air-gap, ‘Or, one can now say that in the process of electro-mechanical energy-conversion, the air-gap plays a very vital role. 2 However, the stator-core and rotor-core help in completing the flux-path in a well defined manner for airgap effective and efficient working of a rotary machine. Example 25.2. An electromagnetic relay has an exciting coil of 800 turns. The coil has a cross- sectional area of 5 cm * 5 cm. Neglect reluctance af the magnetic circuit and fringing (@) (@) Find the coif inductance if the air-gap length is 0.5 em, (ii) Find the field energy siored for a coil current of 1.25 amp. (Db) Coil-current remaining constant at 1.25 A, find the mechanical energy ouput based on field- energy changes when the armature moves ta a * position for which x = 0.25 cm. Assume slow ‘Negligible gap movement of armature, . Fig, 25.5 Electro-magnatic relay878 Electrical Technology (ec) Repear (b) above based on force-calculations and mechanical displacement. (id) What wilt be change in above results of mechanical work dene, if the mechanical movement is fast, keeping the flux initially constant ? Solution. Hy 3x5x104 0.5x10" Coil Inductance = N, (mn = 800 x 800 x 6.28 x 10-7 = 0.402 H (ii) Energy stored in magnetic field = 1/2 Li? = 1/2 x 0.402 x 1.25* = 0,314 joule So xSx5x10" — =49 «107 x 10° =6.28x107 (a) (i) Permeance at air-gap = a (iif) Wy = 2 LF = x 3 = 1005x105 is x Sfx 005x10™)} 6, =[1.005x107 px vet ¥ a ‘This is tobe evaluated at = x= 0.5% 107 =1.005 % 10 x L.25%1.25 re -62.3NW (0.5x107)* This force has to be balanced by the spring-tension. (hb) Energy-computations : Inductance for x = 0.25 cm is first caleulated. L(x,) = N? e. = 800 x 800 x 2 6.28 107 = 0.804 Henry If the mechanical movement is slow, net mmf a remains unchanged and the operating point moves ry along HC vertically upwards and settles at C, Added Electrical Energy input during change-over of the py, operating point from H to C, —@)| - = area of rectangle BDCH = ($,~9,) F, [‘ i i =P (L(x) — EL ()) | = 1.25 x (0.804 — 0.402) Tis sae Fig. 25.6 Graphical correlation of = 0.628 joule tenergy-terms for the relay Out of this, the additional stored energy in field, dW, = % [Léx,) — Lee] = 0314 joule The remaining 0.314 joule is transformed into mechanical form and is related to the work- done. This is obtained when the force on moving member is mtiltiplied by the displacement. fe) As in a (iff) above, F(x) = [1.005 x 109% 1.25%] [-1/e]Elements of Electromechanical Energy Conversion 879 Way = Fld Ween = fo Fade = & [2 -Wedl=—k J? ete =L005«107 masta oa eu ENE = (1.314 O25 We *2=0.314 joule ‘This agrees with answer obtained in (>) above. With fast movement of armature, the operating point will move from H to K first, then follow the path KC. This means that the energy represented by the area of the triangle KHC corresponds to the reduced consumption of energy. OC has a slope of hi, 2.56» 107 OH has a slope of nm, = 6.28 x 107 BK = mmf required for establishing a flux of 0, with an air-gap of 0.25 cm BK = '2 OA = Ya x (800 « 1.25) = 500 amp-turns = HK in the present case. Area of the triangle KHC) = ¥2 x KH x HC = % x 500% [o,- 61 = 4th of area of rectangle BDCH, in this case =% 0.628 = 0.157 joule, Hence, Electrical energy fed during this process = area BKCD = area BDCH —area KHC = 0.628-0.157 = 0.471 joule Increase in field energy stored AW, = area OKH = area OHC — area KHC = 0.314=0,157 = 0,157 Mechanical Energy output = 0.471 - 0.157 =0.314 Joule It indicates that with fast moyement, the electrical energy-nput and the field-stored energy have decreased by (1,157 J each but the mechanical-energy-term remains unaffected by Fast or slow movements of armature. 25.7. Dynamic Equations and System-model of a Simple System [tis quite necessary to analyze electro-mechanical conversion system for predicting the performance and/or for monitoring the system. A simple system is being taken up here to deal with dynamic equations and a simple model with its components is being related to the system. The details will vary from system to system, and accordingly the equations will vary. Fig. 25.7 shows different components of such a system meant for electrical to mechanical conversion. On one side, an electrical source feeds the device at the “electrical part’. On the other side, a force f, is developed at the ‘mechanical port’. Mechanical load is connected to this port. (a) At Electrical Port ; A voltage source is shown to feed the device, ris its effective internal resistance. At the electrical port, the inputs are A (=flux linkage with the coil) and /, From 2, the voltage induced in the coil can always be evaluated, ib) Role of the Conversion device: With these inpuis, the device converts the energy into mechanical form, and is available as a force f- (in case of linear motions), and, displacement x measured from a suitable reference,880 Electrical Technology (c) Al the Mechanical Port: The possible items are: spring, damper, mass and an applied mechanical force. Their natural and simple dependence on displacement x and its derivatives are indicated below; te Fig. 25.7 Linear motion: MODEL (® Spring: Force required to overcome spring élongation is proportional to the displacement x. (@) Damper: Force required to overcome damping action in the system is proportional to derivative of x, (ii) Mass: Force required to overcome acceleration of mass is proportional to second derivative of x. (iv) Applied force, f,z This has to be overcome by f.. In terms of an equation, these terms are related as follows: = 4 G3) + Bee M E+ f where k, = spring constant X, = value of x for unstretched spring B = damping constant M = Mass to be accelerated Jf, = External mechanical force applied to the system. 25.8, Statically induced emf ord Dynamically induced emf: . In Fig. 25,7 source voltage is. v,. Let £ (x) be the coil inductance as a function of displacement x. In a very general case, v0) = ri + dale Rod Fig. 26.11 Fig. 26.12D.C. Generators 893 26.6. Pole Coils The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire or strip, are former-wound for the correct dimension (Fig. 26.13). Then, the former is removed and wound coil is put im place over the core as shown in Fig, 26.14, When current is passed through these coils, they electromagnetise the poles which produce the necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors. 26.7. Armature Core It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the magnetic flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, its most important function is to provide a path of very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from a N-pale to a S-pole. It is cylindrical or drum-shaped and is built up of ustially circular sheet stec! discs or laminations approximately 0.5 mm thick (Fig: 26.15). Itis keyed to the shaft. The slots are: either die-cut or punched on the outer periphery of the disc and the keyway is located on the inner diameter as shown. In small machines, the armature stampings are keyed directly to the shaft, Usually, these laminations are perforated for ait ducts which permits axial flow of air through the armature for cooling purposes. Such ventilating channels are clearly visible in the: lami- nations shown in Fig. 26.16 and Fig. 26.17. Frame Fig. 26.13 Fig, 26.14 Up to armature diameters of about one metre, the circular stampings are cut out in one piece as shown in Fig. 26,16, But above this size, these circles, especially of such thin sections, are difficult torhandle because they tend to distort and become wavy when assembled together. Hence, the circu- lar laminations, instead of being cut out in one piece, are cut in a number of suitable sections or segments which form part of a complete ring (Fig. 26.17), m Laminators Slot Air holes: Fig, 26.15__ 894 Electrical Technology A complete circular lamination is made up of four orsix oreven eight segmental laminations. Usually, wo ‘Air holes fee keyways are notched in each segment and.are dove-tailed _\, or Wedge-shaped to make the laminations self-locking in position. The purpose of using laminations is to.reduce the logs due toeddy currents. Thinner the laminations, greater is the resistance offered to the induced e.m.f,, smaller the current and hence lesser the f° & loss in the core. Segmental / 26.8. Armature Windings luminasion Bevinas ‘The armature windings. are usually former-wound. Fig. 26.17 These are first wound in the form of Mat rectangular coils and are then ptilled into their proper shape ina coil puller, Various conductors of the coils are insulated from each other, The conductars are placed in the armature slots which are lined with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the urmature conductors placed in the slot and is secured in place by special hard wooden or fibre wedges. 26.9. Commutator The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature condiic- tors. As shown in Art. 26.2, ibrectificd.e. converts the alternating current induced in the armature: conduetors into unidirectional current in the external load circuit, [tis of cylindrical structure and is built up of wedge-shaped segments of high-conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged copper. These Fig. 26,18 Fig. 26.19 segments are insulated from each other by thin layers ofimica, ‘The number of segments is equal to the number of armatureCoils,. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of « coppeelug of strip (or riser); To prevent them from flying out under the action of centrifu- gal forces, the segments have V-grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical micanite rings. A sectional View of commuiator is show? in Fig. 26.18 whose general appearance when completed is shown in Fig. 26:19: 26.10. Brushes and Bearings ‘The brushes whose function is to collect current from commutator, are usually made of curbon orD.C.Generators 895 graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block. These brushes are housed in brush-holders of the box-type variety. As shown in Fig, 26,20, the brush-holder is mounted on a spindle and the brushes can stide in the rectangular box open at both ends. The brushes are made to bear down on the commutator by a spring whose tension can be adjusted by changing the position of lever in the notches. A flexible copper pigtail mounted -at the top of the brush conveys current from the brushes to the holder. The number of brushes per spindle depends on the magnitude of the eurrem to be collected from the commutator. Tension adjusting handle Fig, 26.20 Bearing Because of theirreliability, ball-bearings ate frequently employed, though for heavy duties, roller beurings are preferable. The ball and rollers are generally packed in hard oil for quieter operation and for reduced beating wear, sleeve bearings aré used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed from oil reservoir in the bearing bracket. il Pe a “ 26.11. Armature Windings 7 - « Now, we will discuss the winding of an ac- wal armature, But before doing this, the mean- ing of the following terms used in connection with armature winding should be clearly kept in mind. 26.12. Pole-pitch Itmay be variously defined as : (® The periphery of the armature divided by the number of poles of the generator i.e. the distance between two adjacent Armature, winding poles. dif) Tt is equal to the number of armature conductors (or armature slots) per pole: If there are 48 conductors and 4 poles, the pole pitch is 48/4 = 12. 26.13. Conductor The length of a wire lying in the magnetic field and in which an e.m4 is induced, is called-a conductor (or inductor) as, for example, length AB or CD in Fig. 26.21._ 896 = Electrical Technology 26.14. Coll and Winding Element With reference to Fig. 26.21, the two conductors AB and CD along with their end connections constitute one coil of the armature winding. The coil may be single-turn coil (Fig. 26.21) or multi- turn coil (Fig. 26.22). A single-tum coil will have two conductors, But a multi-tumn coil may have many conductors per coil side, In Fig. 26.22, for example, cach coil side has 3 conductors. The Back connections Commutator Commutator Fig. 26.21 Fig. 26.22 Fig. 26.23 group of wires or conductors constituting a coil side of a multi-turn. coil is wrapped with a tape as a unit (Fig. 26.23) and is placed in the armature slot. It may be noted that since the beginning and the end of cach coil must be connected to a commutator bar, there are as many commutator bars as coils for both the lap and wave windings (sec Example 26,1). ‘The side of a coil (1-turn or multiturn) is called a winding element. Obviously, the number of winding elements is twice the number of coils. 26.18. Coll-span or Coil-pitch (Y,) It is the distance, measured in terms of armature slots (or armature conductors) between two sides of a coil. Itis, in fact, the periphery of the armature spanned by the two sides of the coil. If the pole span or coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch (as in the case of coil A in Fig. 26.24 where pole- pitch of 4 has been assumed), then winding is called ‘full-pitched. Tt means that coil span is 180 electrical degrees. In this case, the coil sides lic under opposite poles, hence the induced e.m.fs. in them are additive. fore, maximum ¢.m.f. is induced in the coil as a whole, it being the sum of the e.m.f.s induced in the two coil sides. For example, if there are 36 slots and 4 poles, then coil span is 36/4 =9 slots, If number of slots is 35, then ¥, = 35/4 = 8 because it is customary to drop fractions. If the coil span is less than the pole pitch (as in coil Fig. 26.24 B where coil pitch is 3/4th of the pole pitch), then theDic Generators A winding is fractional-pitched. In this case, there is a phase difference between the e.m-fs. in the two sides of the coil. Hence, the total e.m-f. round the coil which is the vector sum of ¢.m.fs. in the two coil sides, is less in this Case as compared to that in the first case. 26.16. Pitch of a Winding (Y) In general, it may be defined as the distance round the armature between two successive conduc- tors which are directly connected together. Or, it is the distance between the beginnings of two consecutive tums. In practice, coil-pitches ss low as cight-tenths of a pole pitch are employed without much serious reduction in the e.m.f, Fractional-pitched windings are purposely used to effect substantial saving in the copper of the end connections. and for improving commutation, 26.17. Back Pitch (Y,) The distance, measured in terms of the armature conductors, which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called back pitch and is denoted by Yq. As seen from Fig. 26.28, element | is connected on the back of the armature to element 8, Hence, ¥,=(%—1) = 7. 26.18. Front Pitch (Y,) ‘The number of armature conductors of elements spanned by a coil on the front (or commutator end of an armature) is called the front pitch and is designated by ¥,.. Again in Fig. 26.28, element 8 is connected to element 3 on the front of the armature, the connections being made at the commutator segment. Hence, ¥,=8-3=5. Alternatively, the front pitch may be defined as the distance (in terms of armature conductors) between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil which are connected together at the front ie. commutater end of the armature. Both front and back pitches for lap and wave-winding are shown in Fig. 26.25 and 26.26. Fig. 26.25 26.19. Resultant Pitch (Y,) It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it is connected (Fig. 26.25 and 26.26). As a matter of precaution, it should be kept in mind that all these pitches, though normally898 Electrical Technology stated in terms of armature conductors, are also sometimes given in terms of armature slots or commutator bars because commuta- tor is, after all, an image of the winding. 26.20. Commutatar Pitch (Y,) Ivis the distance (measured in commu- lator bars or segments) between the segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected. From Fig. 26.25 and 26.26 it is clear that for lap winding, Y,. is the difference of Yq and Y, whereas for wavewinding it is the sim of ¥, and ¥,. Obviously, commutator pitch is equal to the number of bars between coil leads. In general, ¥.equals the ‘plex’ of the lap-wound armature. Hence, it is equal to 1, 2.3.4 ete. for simplex-, duplex, triplex-and quadruplex etc. lap-windings Fig, 26.28 26.21. Single-layer Winding Itis that winding in which one conductor or one coil side is placed in each armature slot as shown in Fig. 26.27. Such a winding is not much used. 26.22. Two-layer Winding In this type of winding, there are two conductors or coil sides per slot arranged in two layers. Usually, one side of every coil lies in the upper half of one slot and other side lies in the lower half of some other slot at a distance of approximately one pitch away (Fig. 26.28). The transfer of the coil from one slot to another is usually made in a radial plane by means of a peculiar bend or twist at the back end as shown in Fig, 26.29. Such windings in which two coil sides occupy each slot are most Commonly used for all medium-sized machines. Sometimes 4 or 6 or 8 cs sare used in each slot in several layers because it is not practicable to have too many slots (Fig. 26.30). The coil sides lying at the upper half of the slots are numbered odd é.c. 1, 3, 5, 7 etc. while those at the lower half are numbered even i.e. 2, 4, 6, 8 etcD.C. Generators 899 26.23. Degree of Re-entrant of an Armature Winding A winding is said to be single re-entrant if on tracing through it once, all armature conductors are included on returning to the starting point. It is double re-entrant if only half the conductors are included in tracing through the winding once: and so on. 26.24. Multiplex Winding In such windings, there are several sets of completely closed and independent windings. If there is only one set of closed winding, it is called simplex wave winding. If there are two such windings on the same armature, it is called duplex winding andso on. The-multiplicity affects a number of parallel paths in the armature. For a given number of armature slots and coils, as the multiplicity increases, the number of parallel paths in the armature increases thereby increasing the current rating but decreasing the veltage rating. 26.25. Lap and Wave Windings Two types of windings mostly employed for drum-type armatures are known as Lap Winding and Wave Winding. The difference between the two is merely due to the different arrangement of the end connections at the front or commutator end of armature. Each winding can be arranged progressively or retrogressively and connected in simplex, duplex and triplex. The following rules, however, apply to both types of the windings : A Multiplex Winding Wave winding (i) The front pitch and back pitch are each approximately equal to the pole-pitch i.e, windings should be full-pitched. This results in increased e.m,f, round the coils, For special pur- poses, fractional-pitched windings are deliberately used (Art. 26,15), (f@) Both pitches should be odd, otherwise it would be difficult to place the eoils (which are former-wound) properly on the armature. For exmaple, if ¥, and ¥,, were both even, the all the coil sides and conductors would lie either in the upper half of the slots or in the lower¥- 900 Electrical Technology half. Hence, it would become impossible for one sidé of the’coil'to lie in the upper half, Hence, it would become impossible for one side of the coil to lie in the upper half of one slot and the other side of the same coil to lie in the lower half of some other slot. (ii) ‘The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of slots or coils (or half the number of conductors) because the front ends of conductors are joined to the segments in pairs. (e) ‘The winding must close upon itself ic. if we start from a given point and move from one coil to.another, then all conductors should be traversed and we should reach the same point again without a break or discontinuity in between. 26,26. Simplex Lap-winding* Itis shown in Fig. 26.25 which employs single-tum coils. In lap winding, the finishing end of ‘one coil js connected to a commutator segment and to the starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the Same pole and so on, till and the coils have been connected. This type of winding derives its name from the fact it doubles or laps back with its succeeding coils. Following points regarding simplex lap winding should be carefully noted : 4. The back and front pitches are odd and of opposite sign. But they Cannot be equal. They differ by 2 or some iultiple thereof. 2. Both ¥, and ¥, should be nearly equal to a pole pitch. 3. The average pitch ¥, = fe - Mequals pole pitch= 4. 4. Commutator pitch ¥.= +1. (In general, ¥,.=+ m) 5. Resultant pitch ¥, is even, being the arithmetical difference of two odd numbers, Le, Y= Ye 4. ‘The number of slots for a 2-layer winding is equal to the number of coils (i.e. half the number of coil sides). ‘The number of commutator segments is also the same. fay ry | Pee Simplex lap winding However, where heavy currents aré necessary, duplex or triplex lap windings are used, The duplex. lap winding is obtained by placing two similar windings on the same armature and connecting the even- numbered commutator bars-to one winding and the odd-numbered ones tothe second winding. Similarly, in triplex lap winding, there would be three windings, each connected ta one third of the commutator bars.D.C. Generators 901 i 7. Thenumber of parallel paths in the armature =mP where m is the multiplicity of the winding and P the number of poles. Taking the first condition, we have ¥j,= ¥p+ 2 (a) 1T¥,> Ypie. p= ¥,-+ 2, then we get a progressive or right-handed winding ie. a winding which progresses in the clockwise direction as seen from the commutatorend, In this case, obviously, Yp=+1, (b) If ¥,<¥pie Yp= ¥p—2, then we get a retrogressive or lefi-handed winding ie, one which advances in the anti-clockwise direction when seen from the commutator side. In this case, ¥-=—I. le) Hence, it is obvious that ie et for progressive Winding and ¥, = é #1 | forrewogressive winding ae oat % = 3-1 Obviously, 2/P must be even to make the winding possible, 26.27. Numbering of Coils and Commutator Segments In the d.c. winding diagrams (o follow, we will number the coils only (not individual turns). The upper side of the coil will be shown by a firm continuous line whereas the lower side will be shown by a broken line, The numbering of coil sides will be consecutive £e. 1, 2, 3 ..... etc. and such that odd numbers are assigned to the top conductors and even numbers to the lower sides tor « two-layer winding, The commutator segments will also be numbered consecutively, the number of the seg- ments will be the same as that of the upper side connected to it. Example 26.1. Draw a developed diagram of a simple 2-layer lap-winding for a 4-pole genera- tor with 16 coils. Henee, point owt the characteristics of a lap-winding. (Flect. Engineering, Madras Ualy. 1981) Solution. ‘The number of commutator segments = 16 Number of conductors or coil sides 16 x 2 = 32 ; pole pitch = 32/4 =8 Now remembering that () ¥y and ¥, have t be odd and (ii) have to differ by 2, we get for a progressive winding Y,=9 ; Y,=—T (retrogressive winding will result if ¥,=7 and ¥, = -9). Obviously, commutator pitch ¥-= [Otherwise, as shown in Art. 26.26, for progressive winding ¥p = 2-123 -1a7and y= -1= 2 +1 =9] ‘The simple winding table is given as under + Beck Connections Front Connections 1 tol +9)=10 1010 (10-7) =3 310(3+9)=12 1210 (12-1) =5 St0(5+9)= 14 14 to (14-7) Tto(7+9)=16 1610 (16-7) =9 18 to (18—7)= 11 20 to (20-7) = 13 2210 (22-7) =15 15'to (15 +9) = 24 24 to (24-7) =17 17 to (17 + 9) = 26 26 to (26-7) =19 19 to (19 + 9) =28 2810 (28-7) =21 © In general, y= Y, 42m where m = 1 for simplex lap winding and m = 2 for duplex lap winding etc._ 902") Electrical Technology 21 10(21+9)=30 —— We (20-7) =23 23 to (23 +9) = 32 — —- 2w G2-7)=25 25 to (25 + 9) = 34 =(34 —32)=2 ——+ 210 (34-7) =27 27 to (27+ 9) =36 = (36 —32)=4 ——» 4 to (36-7) = 29 29 to (29 + 9) = 38 = (38 —32)=6 ——> 6 to (38-7) =31 31 to (31 +9)=40 =(40-32)=8 ——+ 8 (40-7) =33=(33-32)=1 ‘The winding ends here because we come back to the conductor from where we started. We will now discuss the developed diagram which is one that is obtained by imagining the armature surface to be remaved and then laid out flat so that the slots and conductors can be viewed without the necessity of turning round the armature in order to trace out the armature windings. Such a developed diagram is shown in Fig. 26.31. cet eee Nig 8 e a nm ee E| ee ee COO aS ‘The procedure of developing the winding is this : Front end of the upper side of coil No. 1 is connected 10 a cam- mutator segment (whose number is also 1). The back end is joined at the back to the I +9 = 10th coil side in the /ower half of Sth slot. The front end of coil side 10 is joined to commutator segment 2 to which is connected the front end of 10-7 =3 ie, 3rd coil side N™ lying in the upper half of second armature slot. In this way, by travelling 9 coil sides to the right at the back and 7 to the left at theD.C. Generators 903, front we complete the winding, thus including every coil side once till we reach the coil side | from where We started Incidentally, it should be noted that all upper coil sides have been given odd numbers, whereas lower ones have been given even numbers as shown im the polar diagram (Fig. 26.32) of the winding of Fig. 26.31. Brush positions can be located by finding the direction of currents flowing in the various conduc- tors. [f currents in the conductors under the influence of a N-pole are assumed to flow downwards (as shown), then these will flow upwards in conductors under the influence of S-pole. By putting proper arrows on the conductors (shown separately in the equivalent ring diagram), it is found that commu- tator bars No. | and 9 are the meeting points of e.m.fs. and hence currents are flowing out of these conductors, The positive brushes should, therefore, be placed at these commutator bars. Similarly, commutator bars No. 5 and 13 are the separating points of e.m.fs. hence negative brushes are placed there. In all, there are four brushes, two positive and two negative. If brushes of the same polarity are connected together, then all the armature conductors are divided into four parallel paths. Fig. 26.93 Division of conductors into parallel paths is shown separately in the schematic diagram of Fig. 26.34. Obviously, if J, is the total current supplied by the generator, then current carried by each parallel path is 1/4. ‘Summarizing these conclusions, we have 1. The total number of brushes is equal to the number of poles. 2. There are as many parallel paths in the armature as the number of poles. ‘That is why such a winding is sometimes known as ‘multiple circuit’ or “parallel” winding. In general, number cof parallel paths in armature = mP where mis the multiplicity (plex) of the lap winding. For example, 6-pole duplex lap winding has (6 x 2) = 12 parallel paths in its armature. 3. The e.m-f. between the +ve and —ve brushes is equal to the e.m-f. generated in any oneof the parallel paths. Lf Zis the total number of armature conductors and P the number of poles, then the number of armature conductors (connected in series) in any parallel path is Z/P.904 Electrical Technology + Generated em4. B, = (Average eom-tleonducior) x 2 oe, eS 4. The total or equivalent armature resistance can be found as follows : Let 1 = length of each armature conductor; $= its cross-section A. = No. of parallé! paths in armature = ? — for simplex lap winding R = resistance of the whole winding then R = aye —a/4 n IZ. Resistance of each path = ce There are P (or A) such paths in parallel, hence equivalent resistance = 1, PZ pz A” SA” sa? 5, If, is the total armature current, then current per parallel path (or ¢arried by each conduc- tor)is/ JP. 26.28. Simplex Wave Winding” From Fig, 26.31, it is clear that in lap winding, a conductor (or coil side) under one pote is connected at the back to a conductor which occupies an almost corresponding position under the next pole of opposite polarity (as conductors 3 and 12). Conductor No. 12 is then connected to conductor No. 5 under the original pole but which is a little removed from the initial conductor No. 3. If, instead of returning tothe same N-pole, the conductor No. 12 were taken forward to the next N-pole, it would make no difference so far as the direction and magnitude of the ¢.m-f, induced in the circuit 12 may be duples, triplex or may have any degree of multiplicity, simplex wave winding has two paths, a duplex wave winding four paths and a triplex one six paths ctc.Generators 905 As shown in Fig. 26.35, conductor AB is connected to CP lying under 5-pole and then to EF under the next N-pole. In this way, the winding progresses, pass- ing successively under every N-pole and S-pole till it returns to a conductor A’B” lying under the original pole. Because the winding progresses in one direction. round the armature in a series of ‘waves’, itis known as wave winding. Fig. 26.35 If, after passing once round the ar- mature, the winding falls in a slot to the left of its starting point (as A°B’ in Fig, 26.35) then the winding is said to be retrogressive. If, how- ever, il falls one slot to the right, then it is progressive. Assuming a 2-layer winding and supposing that conductor AB lies in the upper half of the slot, then going once round the armature, the winding ends at A’B’ which must be-at the upper half of the slot at the left or right, Counting in terms of conductors, it means that AB and A’B’ differ by two conductors (although they differ by one slot), From the above, we can deduce the following relations. If P = No. of poles, then Yq = back pie) . neatly ¥, = front pitch pe ss then Ke tate = average pitch ;Z = total No, of conductors or coil sides wee Then, xP = Ze2 y= 44 Since P is always even and Z'= PY, #2, hence Z must always be even. Put in another way, it F 242 : ‘means that most be an even integer, P The plus sign will give a progressive winding and the negative sign a retrogressive winding. Points fo Note : 1, Both pitches ¥, and ¥,-are odd and of the same sign. 2. Back and front pitches are neurly equal to the pole pitch and may be equal ar differ by 2, in which case, they are: respectively one mere of one less than the average pitch, 4. Resultant pitch ¥p= p+ Yq. 4. Commutator pitch, ¥,= ¥, (in lap winding ¥-=21). Al _ No.of Commutator bars + 1 Iso, Yes No, of pair of poles 5. The average pitch which must be an integer is given by a = Z#2_ 3%! _ No.of Commutator bars +1 P P/2 ~~ No. of pair of poles It is clear that for ¥, to be an integer, there is a restriction on the value of Z. With winding is impossible for a d-pole machine (though lap winding is possible). Values of Z would be perfectly alright. x,906 — Electrical Technology 6. The number of coils i.e, N_-can be found from the relation. + ake ee ‘This relation has been found by rearranging the relation given in (5) above. 7. Itis obvious from (5) that for a wave winding, the number of armature: conductors with 2 cither added or subtracted must be a multiple of the number of poles of the generator. This restriction eliminates many even numbers which are unsuitable for this winding. 8. The number of armature parallel paths = 2m where m is the multiplicity of the winding. Example 26.2, Draw a developed diagram of « simplex 2-layer wave-winding for a4-pole dic. generator with 30 armature conductors. Hence, point out the characteristics of a simple wave winding. (Elect. Engg-1, Nagpur Univ. 1991) a 2 28 or7, Taking ¥, =7, we have ¥y=¥p=7 Solution. Here, ¥, = QSOS BH wi ) 9) | | r Oe xe DOOR Pa79 Te aaa S| T ST 3 N LM f (\ Q 0) 13 20 f i at | fy ‘23 I A () f I 0 310 c JUNOUUU UU UUUUUY FQ s P Fig. 26.36 As shown in Fig. 26.36 and 26.37, conductor No. 5 is taken to conductor No. 5 +7 = 12 at the back and is joined to commutator segment 5 at the front. Next, the conductor No, 12 is joined to commutator segment 5 + 7 = 12( «» ¥-=7) to which is joined conductor No. 12 +7 = 19. Continuing this way, we come back to conductor No. 5 from where we started. Hence, the winding closes upon itself, Tand ¥p=9. Incidentally, if ¥, will rotate in the opposite direction,D.C.Generators 907 The simple winding table is as-under : Back Connections Frowt Connections lto(1+7)=8 — > 8 w (8+ 7)=15 15 to (15+ 7)=22 ——+ 2t0(22+7)=29 29 to (29 +7) = 36 =(36-30)=6 ——+ 610(6+7)=19 13 to (13 +7) =20 -_— 27 27 to (27 +7) =34=(34-30)=4 ——5 4to(447)=11 Ito (11 + 7) = 18 —=F 18 to (1B +7) = 25 25 to (25 +7) = 32 =(32-30)=2 ——+ 2w(2+D= 910 (9+ 7)=16 — 16. to (16+ 7) = 23 23 to (23 + 7) = 30 —_— =(37-30)=7 Tto(T+7)= 14 ——+ 21 Q1+7)=28 ——+ —- 28 tn (28 + 7) = 35 = (35-30) =S Sto (5+ 7)=12 — —s 120 (124. 7)=19 19 to (19+ 7) = 26 —— 26 to (26 + 7) =33 = (33 —30)=3 Fto(3+7=10 SF 10 to (10+ 7)=17 17 to (17 +7) = 24 —— 24 to (24+ 7) =31 =(31 -30)=1 Since we come back to the conductor No, | from where we started, the winding gets closed at this stage. Brush Position Location of brush position in wave-winding is slightly difficult. In Fig. 26.36 conductors are supposed to be moving from left to right over the poles. By applying Fleming's Right-hand rule, the directions of the induced e.m.fs in various armature conductors can be found. ‘The directions shown in the figure have been found in this manner. In the lower part of Fig. 26.36 is shown the equivalent ring or spiral diagram which is very helpful in understanding the formation of various parallel paths in the armature. It is seen that the winding is electrically divided into two portions. One portion consists of conductors lying between points V and L and the other of conductors. lying between N and M. In the first portion, the general trend of Fig. 26.7 the induced e.m.fs, is from left to right whereas in the second portion itis from right to left. Hence, in general, there are only two parallel paths through the winding, so that two brushes are required, one positive and one negative: From the equivalent ring diagram, it is seen that point N is the separating point of the e.m.fs. induced in the two portions of the winding. Hence, this fixes the position of the negative brush, But as it is at the back and not at the commutator end of the armature, the negative brush has two alternative positions i¢, either at point P or Q, These points on the equivalent diagram correspond to commutator segments No. 3 and 11, Now, we will find the position of the positive brush. It is found that there are two meeting points of the induced e.m.fs. ie. points L and M but both these points are at the back or non-commu- tator end of the armature. These two points are separated by one loop only, namely, the loop com- posed of conductors 2 and 9, hence the middle point R of this loop fixes the position af the positive brush, which should be placed in touch with commutator segment No. 7. We find that for one position of the +ve brush, there are two alternative positions for the —ve brush. ‘Taking the +ve brush at point Rand negative brush at point P, the winding is seen to be divided into the following two paths.— 908 Electrical Technology La Af, Fig. 26.38 In path 1 (Fig. 26.36) it is found that e.m.f, in conductor 9 is in opposition to the general trend of e.m.fs. in the other conductors comprising this path. Similarly, in path 2, the emf. in conductor 2 is in position to the direction of e.m.fs, in the path as a whole, However, this will make no difference because these conductors lie almost in the interpolar gap and, therefore e.m-fs, in these conductors are negligible. te — 10-326 1912-5 28 — 2) 14—F—-39—-23—16 - 9 — R PATH 1 ~*~ APB 1B 1-22-29 6 13920-27411 1825-2 PATH 2 =Iahy Fig. 26.39 Again, take the case of conductors 2-and 9 situated between points Land M. Since the armature conductors are in continuous motion over the pole faces, their positions as shown in the figure are only instantaneous, Keeping in this mind, it is obvious that conductor 2 is about to move from the influence of S-pole to that of the next N-pole, Hence, the e.m-f. in it is at the point of reversing However, conductor 9 has already passed the position of reversal, henec its e.m-f. will not reverse,D.C. Generators 909 rather it will increase in magnitude gradually. Ttmeans thal in a very short interval, point M will = af? PATH 1 Ie 8-15 — 22 = 29—46— 13 —20—27—4—- U1 —18— 25-2 24 | 7 {7 t-s-20- 1912-5 28-9 14-9023, a P PATH 2 f = Fig. 26.40 become the meeting point of the e.m.fs. But as it lies at the back of the armature, there are two alternative positions for the +ve brush ie. either point R which has already been considered or point S which corresponds to commutator segment 14. This is the second alternative position of the posi- tive brush. Arguing in the same way, it can be shown that after another short interval of time, the alternative position of the positive brush will shift from segment 14 to segment 15. Therefore, if one positive brush is in the contact with segment 7, then the second positive brush if used, should be in touch with both segments 14 and. 15. It may be noted that if brashes are placed in both alternative positions for both positive and negative (i.e. if in-all, 4 brushes are used, two +ve and two —ve), then the effect is merely: to short- circuit the loop lying between brushes of the same polarity. ‘This is shown in Fig. 26.40 where it will also be noted that irrespective of whether only two or four brushes are used, the number of parallel paths through the armature winding is still two, Summarizing the above facts, we get 1. Only two brushes are necessary, though their number may be equal tothe number of poles. ‘The number of paralle! paths through the armature winding is two irrespective of the number cof generator poles. That is why this winding is sometimes called *two-circuit’ or “series” winding. 4 The gencrator €.m-f is equal tothe e.minduced in any one of the two patallel paths, If, is the c.m-f. indueed/conductor, then generator e.m-f. is E, = e,, x Z/2, 4. ‘The equivalent armature resistance is nearly one-fourth ef the total resistance of the arma- ture winding. Tf 7, is the total armature current, then current carried by each path or conductor is obviously 1/2 whatever the number of pales. 26.29. Dummy of Idle Coils ‘These are used with wave-winding and are resorted to when the requirements of the winding are not met by the standard armature punchings available in armature-winding shops. These dummy coils do not influence the electrical characteristics of the winding because they are not connected to the commutator, They are exactly similar to the other coils except that their ends are cut short and taped. They are there simply to provide mechanical balance for the armature be- cause an armature having some slots without windings would be out of balance mechanically. For example, suppose number of armature slots is 15, each containing 4 sides and the number of poles is 4. For a simplex wave-windings, Dummy coils— 910 Electrical Technology ee 4 which does not come out to be an integer (Art. 26.28) as required by this winding. However, if we make one coil dummy so that we have 58 active conductors, then 5842 % = B52 ciaorss This makes the winding possible. 26.30. Uses of Lap and Wave Windings ‘The advantage of the wave winding is that, for a given number of poles and armature conductors, it gives more e.m.f. than the lap winding. Conversely, for the same emf, lap winding would require large number of conductors which will result in higher winding cost and less efficient utilization of space in the armature slots. Hence, wave winding is suitable for small generators especially those meant for 500-600 V circuits. Another advantage is that in wave winding, equalizing connections are not necessary whereas in a lap winding they definitely are. It is so because each of the two paths contains conductors lying under all the poles whereas in lap-wound armatures, each of the P parallel paths contains conductors which lie under one pair of poles, Any inequality of pole fluxes affects two paths equally, hence. their induced e.m.fs. are equal. In lap-wound armatures, unequal voltages are produced which set up a circulating current that produces sparking at brushes. However, when large currents are required, it is necessary to use lap winding, because it gives more parallel paths, Hence, lap winding is suitable for comparatively low-voltage but high-current generators whereas wave-winding is used for high-voltage, low-current machines. Tutorial Problem No. 26.1 | 1. Write down the winding table for a 2-layer simplex lap-winding for a 4-pole. d.c. generator having | (2) 20 slots and (4) 13 slots, What are the back and front pitches as measured in terms of armature conductors? {Hint ; (a) No, of conductors = 40 ; ¥,= Wand ¥,=-9) (Elect. Engineering, Madras Univ. 1978) Back 12 J4 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 3234 36 38 402 46 8 NV samen SSF FO 1s LS 17 19 20 29 BS 27 20) Sr as gs 37 OL (by ae" S W922 J4 16 18 20.22 Bt 26 2 SAV Bodden E38 EE BD Bie D8 25.) L, 2. With a simplex 2-layer wave winding having 26 conductors and 4-poles, write down the winding table. What will be the front and back pitches of the winding 7 (Hint: ¥, =7 and ¥,=5) - (Bleetric Machinery-1, Madras {niv, Nov. aaD.C.Generators 917 fii 2 1 #2 12 24 1 22 8 20 3, Isit possible 10 ly wave este fora ie - machine with eae 2 iin the reason for your answer, [No, it would contain only 4 conductors] 4. State for what type of winding cach of the following armatures could be used and whether the wind- ing must be four or six-pole if no dummy coils are to be used (a) 33 slots, 165 commutator segments (b) 64. slots, 256 commutator segments (¢) 65 slots, 260 commutator segments. [(a) 4-pole lap with commutator pitch 82 or 83 or 6-pole Lap, (b) 4-pole lap or 6-pole wave with commutator pitch 85. (e) 6-pole wave with commutator piteh 87.) 26.31, Types of Generators Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. Genera- tors may be divided into (a) separately-excited generaiors and (B) self-excited generators. (a) Sepsrately-eycited generators are those whose field magnets are energised from an inde- pendent external source of d.c. current. It is shown diagramatically in Fig. 26.41 (b) Self-exeited generators are those whose field magnets are energised by the current pro- duced by the generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the poles. When the armature is rotated, some e-m-f. and hence some induced current is produced which is partly or fully passed through the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole flux, ‘There are three types of self-excited generators named according to the manner in which their field coils (or windings) are connected to the armature. ) Shunt wound ‘The field windings are connected across or in parallel with the armature conductors and have the full voltage of the generator applied across them (Fig, 26.42). (i) Series Wound hunt Field SI Fig. 26.41 In this case, the field windings are joined in series with the armature conductors (Fig. 26.43). As they carry full load current, they consist of relatively few turns of thick wire or strips. Such generators are rarely used except for special purposes i.e. as boosters etc. (ii) Compound Wound Tris a combination of a few series and a fewshunt windings and can be either short-shunt or long-shunt as shown in Fig. 26.44 (a) andsiz Electrical Technology {b) respectively. In a compound generator, the shunt field is stronger than the serics field. When series ficld aids the shunt field, generator is said to be commutatively-compounded. On the other hand if series field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to be differentially compounded. ‘Various types of d.c. generators have been shown separately in Fig. 26.45. © YU bceaie'Y (V Toa Y Mov ¥ ‘ i a ¥ . oe tt 8 leet : pe ae gh a Ee 5 et ae meme Dp ee es eet Ad eee cae om Dept ay math wm Ge Wittman) mn. —a eK a el ce heath area] nn: 26.32. Brush Contact Drop At is the voltage drop over the brush contact resistance when current passes from commutator segments to brushes and finally to the external load. [ts value depends on the amount of current and the value of contact resistance. This drop is usually small and includes brushes of both polarities. ‘However, in practice, the brush contact drop is assumed to have following constant values. for all loads. 0.5 V for metal-graphite brushes. 2.0 ¥ for carbon brushes. Example 26.3. A shunt generator delivers 450 A at 230 V and the resistance of the shunt field and armature are SQ (and 0.03 Qurespectively. Calculate the generated em. ‘Solution, Generator circuit is shown in Fig. 26.46, a ‘ ‘Current through shunt field winding is 4, = 230150 =4.6.A ‘Load current f= 450A + Armature current J,=1+ J), = 450+ 46=454.64 Armatire voltage drop AR = 854.6% 0.03 = 136'V u0.C. Generators ot; Now E,, = terminal voltage + armature drop = V+lR, eam. generated in the armature E, = 2304 13.6=243.6'V Example 26.4, A long-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50 A at 500 V and has armature, series field and shunt field resistances of 0.05 Q 0.03 2 and 250 @ respectively, Calculate the generated voltage and the armature current. Allow 1 V per brash for contact drop. (Elect. Science 1, Allahabad Univ. 1992) Solution, Generator circuit is shown in Fig. 26.47. Jy = 500/250 =2 A ‘Current through armature and series winding is = 50+2=52A ‘Voltage drop on series field winding = 52x 0.03 = 156.V Armature voltage drop LR, = 52%0.05=26V Drop at brushes = 2% 1=2V Now, E, = V+, + tod dap + ERB = $0042.64 156+ 2= 506.16 ¥ Example 26.5. A short-shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 30 Aat 220 Vand hay armature, series-field and shunt-field resistances of 0,05 2, 0.30 Q and 200 2 respectively. Calculate the induced e.m.f. and the armature current, Allow 1.0 V per brush for contact drop. (AMIE Sec. B. Elect. Machines 1991) Solution. Generator circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 26.48. Voltage drop in series winding = 30 » 0. Voltage across shunt winding = 220 + 9 Ty, = 2297200 = 1.145,.A F, = 30+ L145 = 31.145 4 IR, = 31.145 0,05 = 156 ¥ Brush drop = 2x1=2¥ V+ series drop + brush drop + I,R, 22049424 1.56 = 232.56V Exarmple 26.6. In a long-shunt compound generator, the terminal voltage is 230,V whem gen- erator delivers 150 A. Dejermine (i) induced/eamg. (il)-total power generated and (iii) distribution of this pawer. Given that shunt field, series field, divertor and armature. resistance are 92 Q, 0.015 £2 0.03 2 and 0.032 Q respectively. ov 229 (Elect. Technology, Gwalior Univ, 1987) Sulution.Since series field resistance and divertor resistances are in parallel (Fig. 26.49) their combined resistance is = 0,03 «.0.015/0.045 = 0.01 & ‘Total armature circuit resistance is 032 + 0.01 = 0.042 2 Voltage drop = 152.5 0.042 =6.4V W) Voltage generated by armature E, =230+64=2364V (ii) Total power generated in armature Eg, = 2364 x 1525 = 36,051 W Fig. 26.49 A (ii) Power lost in armature 1,R, = 1525°%0032 = 744W Power lost in series field and divertor 152.5° x00] = 232W Power dissipated in shunt winding Vi, =230%0.01 = STS W Power delivered to load = 230 150 = §500W Total = 36,051 W. Example 26.7. The following information is a een given for a 300-KW, 600-V, long-shunt compound generator ; Shunt field resistance = 75.2, armature resistance including brush resistance = 0.03 Q, commutating field winding resisiance = 0.011 Q, series field resistance = 0.012 Q, divertor resistance = 0.036 2, When the machine is delivering full load, calculate the voltage and power generated by the armature. (Elect. Engg-II, Pune Univ. Noy, 1989) Solution. Power output = 300,000 W Output current = 300,000/600 = 500A 1, = 600/75 =8 A, 1, = 500+8=508 A Since the series field resistance and divertor resistance are in parallel (Fig. 26.50) their combined resistance is 752 Fig. 26.50 _ 0.012 % 0.036 =0 a . =—a0e 009 Total armature circuit resistance = 0.030.011 + 0.009 = 0.05 0 Voliage drop = 508 x 0.05 = 25.4 V Voltage generated by armature = 6004 25.4 =6254¥ Power generated = 625.4 x 508 = 317,700 W = 317.7kW 26.33. Generated E.M.F. or E.M.F. Equation of a Generator Let © = flux/pole in weber Z = total number of armature conductorsD.C. Generators 915 No. of slots X No. of conductors/slot No. of generator poles = No, of parallel paths in armature = armature rotation in revolutions per minute (1,p.m.) = e.mf. induced in any parallel path in armature Generated e.m.f. £,= e.m-f. generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e. E. N m2>% Average emf. generated/eonductor = 22 volt ( Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d= @P Wh No. of revolutions/second = 60 =. ‘Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second Hence, according to Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction, EMR. generated/conductor = aa oe ‘volt For a simplex wave-wound generator No. of parallel paths = No, of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2 =. EMME generated/path = SEN y Z — OZPN. volt For a simplex lap-wound generator No. of parallel paths = P No. of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P _ OPN, Z_ ZN EME genesatcd/path = SPY 5-2 = SEN volt In general generated e,mf, E, = “ey x (2) volt where A = 2for simplex wave-winding = poate lap-winding Also, = +A ) oz (E )- oer ) vot - vin rad/s Fora given dic. machine, Z, P aE are constant. Hence, putting K, = ZP/A, we get E, = K,® Nvolts—where N isin tps. Example 26.8. A four-pole generator, having wave-wound armature winding has 5! slots, each slot containing 20 conductors, What will be the voltage generated in the machine when driven at 1500 rpm assuming the flux per pole to be 7.0 mWb ? (Elect. Machines-L, Allalabad Univ. 1993) _ ®ZN/P Solution. Eye igs (2) votes Here, ® = 7% 10° Wh, Z=51 x 20= 1020, A= P=4, N= 1500 p.m. Tx 107 x 1020 x 1500 (4 ss Sl sv 4 E, a (3) 3 Example 26.9. An &-pole d.c. generator has 500 armature conductors, and a useftl flix of 0.05 Wb per pole. What will be the e.m.f. generated if it is lap-connected and runs at 1200 rpm ? What must be the speed at which it is to be driven praduce the same emg. if it is wave-wound? (U.P. Technical Univ. 2001)_ 916 — Electrical Technology Solution. With lap-winding, P= a =8 E = @ (N60) (Pia) = 0.05 « 500% 20% 1, = 500 volts for lap-winding Ifitis wave-wound, P = 8,a=2, Pas and 0.05 » 500 x (N60) = 4 For E = 500 volts, N = 300 rpm Hence, with wave-winding, it must be driven at 300 rpm to generate 500 volts. Additional Explanation, Assume | amp as the cur- rent per conductor. (a) Lap-wound, 1200 rpm : 500 V per coil-group, 8 groups in parallel Net output current = 8 amp as in Fig. 26.51 (a). Power ouput = 4 kW (6) Wave-wound, 300 rpm ; 2 groups in parallel, one group has four coils in series, as shown in Fig. 26.51 (6). Total power-output is now 500% 2 = 1000 W. Itis reduced to one fourth, being proportional to the speed Fig. 26.51(b) Esumple 26.10, A dc. shunt generator has an induced voltage on open-circuit of 127 volts, When the machine is on load. the terminal voltage is 120 vats. Find the load current if the field- circuit resistance is 15 ohms and the armature-resistance is 0.02 ohm. Ignore armature reaction. (Madras University April 1997, Bharathiar University Nav. 1997) Selution. Note : Even though the question does not specify some conditions, the solution given here is based on correct approach to deal with the case. Generator on no load + ‘As shown in Fig. 26.52 (a), the machine is run at N, rpm. E, = 127+ 847 x 0,02 = 127.17 volts As in Fig. 26.52 (6), i, = Sampenerators o17 &, cam be 127.17 volts, if the speed is increased to N, rpm, such that AT “3 N= 1.05875, 847 N, = 8N5, or, ‘Thus the effect due to 5.875% decrease in flux is compensated by 5.875% increase in speed L=0 {a} Generator on no-load Fig. 26.52 If £, is assumed to remain unaltered at 127.17 V, 127.17 = 120 = neat aa Hence, I, = 358.5 -& = 350.5 amp. Example 26.0). An 8-pole dic. shunt generator with 778 wave-connected armature conductors and ran- ninig at 500 rp.m. supplies a load of 12.5 Qreststance at terminal voltage of 30 V. The armature resistance is 0.24 Qand the field resistance is 250 Q Find the armature current, the induced e.m.f. and the flux per pole. (Electrical Engg-I, Bouibay Univ. 1988) Solution, The circuit is shown in Fig. 26.53 Load current = WIR = 250/12.5=20A Shuntcurrent = 250250=1 A Armature current = 20 + 2LA Fig. 26.53 Induced emf. = 250 + (21 x 0,24) = 255.0 Y ON ,, (P Be, E, = 60 «(5) S190 (9) ' 25804 = “= (5 ® = 023 mWb Example 26.000. A 4-pole lap-connected armature of a dc. shunt generator is required to supply the loads connected in parallel : (2) SRW Geyser at 250 Vand (2) 2.5 KW Lighting load also at 250 V, ‘The Generator has an armature resistance of 0.2 ofwm and a field resistance of 250 ohms. The armature has 120 cemduetors in the slots and runs at 1000 rpm. Allowing I V per brush for contact drops and neglecting friction, final (0) Flux per pote, (2) Armanure-current per parallel path. (Nagpur Unbyeraity Nov. 1998)918 Electrical Technology Solution. Geyser current = 500/250 =20 A Current for Lighting = 2500/250= 10 A Total current = 30 A Field Current for Generator = 1 A’ Hence, Annature Current = 31 A Armature resistance drop 31% 0.2 =6.2 volts Generated emf, = 250+ 6.2 + 2=258.2 V, since E = V,+J,r,+ Total brush contact drop For a 4-pole lap-connected armature, Number of parallel paths = number of poles =4 (1) The flux per pole is obtained from the emf equation [ Z NI60] x (pla) @ x 120. LONO/60) x (474) = 20006 @ = 129.1 mWb (2) Armature current per parallel path = 31/4 = 7.75 A. Example 26.12. A separately excited generaior, when running at 1000 rp.m. supplied 200A at 125 ¥. What will be the load current when the speed drops to 800 rp.m. if is unchanged ? Given that the armature resistance = 0.04 ohm and brush drop = 2 V, (Elect. Machines Nagpur Univ, 1993) Solution. The load resistance R = 125/200 = 0.625 9, in Fig. 26.54. Ey = 125 +200 «0.04 +25 1353 N, = : 1000 rp.m. At 800 rpm. £,,= 135 x 80/1000 = 108 V If is the new load current, then terminal volt- age Vis given by V=108—0.04 7-2= 106-0.047 J T= VIR = (106 ~ 0.04 10.635 ; 1 = 159.4. Example 26.13. A 4-pole, 900 rp.m, d.c. machine has a terminal voltage of 220 V and an induced vaitage of 240 V at rated speed. The armature circuit resistance is 0.2 2 Is the machine operating as d generator or a motor ? Compute the armature current and the number of armature coils if the air-gap flux/pole ix 10 mWb and the armature turns per coil are 8. The armature is wave- wound, (Elect. Machines AMIE Sec, B 1990) Solution, Since the induced voltage E is more than the terminal voltage v, the machine is work- ing as a generator. E-V =1L8, of 240-220=1,x0.2;1,=100A Now, &, = ZN (PIA) or 240-= 10x 10> x 2x (900/600) (4/2) ; Z= 8000 Since there are $ turns in a coil, it means there are 16 active conductors/coil. Hence, the number of coils = 8000/16 = 500. Example 26.14. Ina 120 V compound generator, the resistances of the armature, shunt and series windings are 0.06 2 25 Qand 0.04 Q respectively, The load current is 100A at 120 V. Find the induced e.m.f. and the armature current when the machine is connected as (1) lang-shunt and as (ii) short-shunt. How will the ampere-turns of the series field be changed in (0) if a diverter of 0.1 ohm be connected in purallel with the series winding ? Neglect brush contact drop and ignore armature reaction. (Elect, Machines AMIE Sec. , 1992)Solution. (i) Long Shunt (Fig. 26.55 (a)] Ly = 120/125 =4.8.A Voltage drop in series winding = 104.8 x 0.04 =4.19 V Armature voltage drop = 104.8 x 0,06 = 6.29 V a B, = 12043194 629=1305 ¥ (i) Short Shunt [Fig, 26.55 (c)] Voltage drop in series winding = 100 x 0.04 =4V Voltage across shunt winding = 120+4= 124V ‘ Ty, = WANS=5A; 2 T,=10045= 105A Armature voltage drop = 105 x 0.06 E, = 120+5+4 fel Fig. 26.55 When a diverter of 0.1 Q is connected in parallel with the series winding, the diagram becomes as shown in Fig. 26.55 (b). As per current-divider rule, the current through the series winding is = 104.8 O.1/(0.1 + 0.04) = 74.86 A. It means that the series field current has decreased from an original value of 104.8 A to 74.86 A. Since No, of tums in the series winding remains the same, the change in series field ampere-turns would be the same as the change in the field current. Hence, the percentage decrease in the series field ampere-turns = (74.86 — 104.8) x 100/104:8 = —28.6%. Example 26.15. A 4-pole, long-shunt lap-wound generator supplies 25 kW at a termimal volt- age of 500 V. The armature resistance is 0,03 ohm, series field resistance is 0.04 ohm and shunt field resistance is 200 ohm, The brush drop may be taken as 1.0 V. Determine the 254 IS50A emmy. generated, Calculate also the No. of conductors if the speed is 1200 rp.m. and flux per pole is 0.02 weber. Neglect armanere reaction. (Elec. Engineering-I, St. Patel Univ, 1986) Solution. / = 25,000/500 = 50 A, J, = 500/200 = 2.5 A (Fig. 26.56) L Series field drop Armature drop = Brush drop Generatede.me,, Ey 1+ 1, =50+25=525 A 500+ 2.14 1.575 +2=505.67 'V920 Electrical Technology Now, E, = 22N (EB) 0.02 x Z 1200 (4 or 505.67 = ooh exe (4), 2 inet Example 26.16, A 4-pole dic. generator runs\at 750 rpm. and generates an emf. of 240 ¥. The armature is wave-wound and has 792 conductors. If the total flux from each pole is 0.0145 Wb, what is the leakage coefficient ? Solution. Formula used : ZN (P : _, BX 750x792 4 B= (F) vt ame SEP aS “+ Working fluvpole, @ = 0.0121 Wb; Total flux/pole = 0.0145 Wb ¢ total flux/pole: 0.0145 + Leakage coefficient A ato ih tout = een As pola ae eid oS ee va useful flux per pole of 0.07 Wb. The armature winding consists of 220 turns each of 0.004 the terminal voltage when running at 900 rp.m. if the armature current is SOA, Solution. Since each turn has two sides, = 220%2=400;N=900rp.m.;@=0.07 Wh; P=A=4 = @ZN (P)_ 007 «440% 900, (4) _ * g, = SEM (2) 0oreee 4) 462 volt ‘Total resistance of 220 tums (or 440 conductars) = 220 * 0.004 =0.88 2 ‘Since there are 4 parallel paths. in armature, + Resistance of each path = 0.88/4 = 0,22 2 Now, there are four such resistances in parallel each of yalue 0.22 2 | Armature resistance, R, = 0.22/4 = 0.055 Q Anmature drop = /,R, = 50 * 0.055 =2,75 2 ‘Now, terminal voltage V = E,-1,R, = 462— 2.75 = 459.25 volt. Example 26.18 A 4-pote; Jap-wound, tong-shunt, te 9 2 compound generator has usefiel flux per pole ef 0.07 Why The enc ane pire 7 cm a eee turn is 0.004 ohms. Calculate the terminal, respectively ; whem the generator i running at 900 p.m. with =| = armature current of 50 A. Also calculate the power output in ~ (2 KW for the generator. (Masic Elect. Machine Nagpur Univ, 1993) 2 Seton. E, = Ox alle 6900 (8) gay As found in Ex.26.17, R, = 0.055 0 An. circuit resistance = R, + R,, = 0.055 + 0.02 = 0.075 2 Amn, circuit drop = 50 x 0.075 = 3.75 V V=462 — 3.75 = 458.25 V. in Fig. 26.57. f= 431 100 = 4.58 A; 1 =50—4.58 =4542,A Output = Wi = 458,25 x 45.42 = 20,814 W = 20.814 kWExample 26.19. A separately excited d.c. generator, when running ai 1200 np.m. supplies 200A at 125 Vioa circuit of constant resistance. What will be the current when the speed is dropped ta 1000 np.m. and the field current is | reduced to 80% ? Armature resistance, 0.04.2. = and total drop at brushes, 2 V. Ignore satura tion and armature reaction, y (Elect. Machines AMIE Sec. B, 1991) Solution, We will find the generated e.m.f. when the load current is 200 A. Fig. 26.58 Ey, =¥+ brush drop + 1,8, = 1254 200 x 0.04 = 135 ¥, in Fig, 26.58, Now, £,, = ®)N, and Ey, PN, Ny Ea ON, Ep 1000 or Tas = 88% tag =30¥ Example 26.20(0), A 4-pole, d.c. shunt generator with a shunt field resistance of 100 Q and ar armature resistance of | Qhas 378 wave-connected conductors in its armatire. The flux per pole is 0.02 Wb. Ifa ioad resistance of 10.2 is connected across the armature terminals and the generator is driven at 1000 rp.m,, caiculate the power absorbed by the load, (Elect. Technology, Hyderabad Univ. 1991) Solution. Induced e.m.f. in the generator is E,= BAN (2) volt 60 \A _ 0.02 «3781000 7 60 Now, let Vbe the terminal voltage ie, the voltage available across the load as well as the shunt resistance (Fig. 26.59). Load current = V/10 A and Shunt current = V/100 A (2) = 252 volt ‘sg ok ye SLY Amature current = +5 + 799 = 799 Fig. 26.59 Now, V=E, — armature drop lv * V = 258—1% Gop) W227 volt Load current = 227/10 = 22.7 A, Power absorbed by the load is = 227 x 22.7 = 5,153 W Example: 26.20(b), A four-pole; lap-wound shunt generator hes 300 armature-conductors and a fluxdpole of 0.1 Wb. It runs at 1000 rp.m. The armature and field-resistances are 0.2: ohm and 125 ohms respectively. Calculate the terminal voltage when it is loaded ta take a load current of 90 A. Ignore armature reaction. (Nagpur University, April 1999) ‘Solution. First, the e.m.f should be calculated. E = 0.1 x 300 x (1000/60) x (4/4) = 500 volts ‘The field current 500/125 = 4 amp For the load current of 90 amp, armature current = 94 amp 8.8 volts ~ 18.8 =481.2 volts ‘Terminal voltage,922 = Electrical Technology == ‘Note : Due to the reduction in terminal voltage (as an effect of loading), the shunt field current tends to decrease, wich will further reduce V. ‘To compensate for this either increase the speed slightly or decrease the shunt-field-cireuit resistance: slightly. 26.21a). A 6-pole de generator runs at 1200) p.m. on no-load and has a generated e.m.f. of 250 V. Its arma- » ture diameter is 350 mm and the radial air-gap between the (fete poles and the armature is 3 mm. The axial length of the ‘field poles is 260 mm and the field pole effective caverage ix 80% including fringing. If the armature has 96 coils having 3 turns per coil and is wound duplex lap, calculate (a) flux per pole (6) effective pole arc length and (c) average air-gap flux density. Solution, (a) Z=(96 x3) x 2=576, P=6,A =P plex Fig. 28:60 =6x2=12,N=1200rpm. Sts = Bes76x100 (6). + 2502 SB): 260 min - ®=0.0434 Wb th) Inner diameter of the pole shoe circle is = 350 + 6 = 356 mm. Since there are 6 poles, the net field pole flux coverage is 80% of one-sixth of the pole shoe circle. Hence, the effective pole arc length is = Prd x08= 4 mx 35608 149 mm=0.149 m, {e) Pole surface area = pole shoe arc x axial length of the pole (Fig. 26.60), = 0.149 0.260-= 0.03874 mm* + Flux density B = 0,0434/0,03874 = 1.12 T Example 26.21(b). A 4-pole d.c. Generator with 1200 conductors generates 250 volts on open circuit, when driven at 500 rpm. The pole-shoes have a bore of 35 cm and the ratio of pole-arc 10 pole pitch is 0.7, while, the length of the pole shoe is 20 cm. Find the mean flux density in the airgap. (Bharthiar Univ. Nov. 1972 & April 1998) Solution. For a diameter of 35, 4-pole machine has a pole-pitch of (35n/4) = 27.5 cm Since pole-arc/pole pitch is 0.7, Pole-are = 0.7 x 27.5 = 19.25 cm Pole area = 19.25 x 20 = 385 sq. cm. Substituting in the e:m-f. equation, 250 = (6 ZN/60) (pla) For Lap-winding, in the case, p =a =4 Hence, flux/pale = (250 * 60)/(1200 x 500) = 0.025 Wb ‘This Mux is uniformly distributed over the pole-area. Mean flux density in the air-gap = (0.025)/(385 x 10) = 0.65 Wb/m"—* Example 26.21(¢). A four-pole lap-wound de shunt generator having 80 slots with 19 conduc- tors per slot generates at no-load an e.m.f. of 400 V, when run at 1000 rpm, How will you obtain a generated open-circuit voltage of 220 V ? (Nagpur University November 1996) Solution. (7) Keeping operating speed at 1000 rpm only, change the flux per pole The OC. ems. is given by E = ( ZN/60) x (Pia) For the given operating conditions, 400 = x (80 x 10) 5 (1000/60) x (4/4) which gives @ = 30mWb ‘When speed is kept constant at 1000 rpm only, Exo Or to get 220 Von O.C., o, = (220/400) x 30 mWb = 16.5 mWb‘Thus, by increasing the shunt-field-circuit resistance with the help of adding external rheostatic, the current in the field-circuit is decreased so as to decrease the flux to 16.5 mWb. (if) Keep same flux per pole, change the speed. If @ is held constant at 30 mWb, an O.C. ¢.m.f, of 220 V is obtained ata speed of Vixp.m., given 220 = 30x 107 x 800 x N/60, N= 550 rpm At 220 V, the flux can be maintained at 30 mWb provided the field current is unchanged. 400/R,, = 200/R,. or Ry = OSS Ry ‘Thus, the field circuit resistance must be reduced to the new value of 0.55 Ry, in order to obtain 30 mWb of flux per pole from a voltage of 220 V, (iti) Any other combination of proper speed and flux/pole can be chosen and worked out on similar lines Example 26.21(d), A short-shunt d.c. compound generator supplies 200A at 100 V. The resis- tance of armature, series field and shunt field windings are 0.04, 0.03 and 60 ohms respectively, Find the emf generated, Also find the emf generated if same machine is connected as a fong-shunt machine. (Nagpor University, April 1998) Soltttion, With short-shunt connection, shown in Fig. 26.61 (a). V, = armature terminal voltage = 100 (200 0.03) = 106 V Shunt field current = 106/60 = 1.767 amp Armature current = /,, = 200 + 1.767 = 201.767 amp Armature induced-e.m.f. = 106 + (201.767 x 0.04) = 114.07 volts 254 + 13 (® Short-shunt Connection Fig, 26.61(a) Now, with long-shunt connection shown in Fig. 26.61 (b), ‘Shunt field current = 100/60 = 1,667 amp Armature current = 201,667 amp Total veltage drop in armature and series field winding = 201,667 (0.04 + 0.03) = 14.12 volts Armature induced emf. = 100+ 14.12 = 114.12 volts ‘Note > In case of long shunt connection, the gencrator has to develop the e.m.f. with shunt ficld current slightly reduced, compared to the case of short shunt connection. However, the series field winding carries a slightly higher current in latter case. Still, in practice, slight speed adjustment (oF shunt field rheastatic varia- tion) may be requiresl to get this €.im-f., as per calculations done above,924 Electrical Technology Example 26.22. A tong shunt dynamo run= ning at 1000 ‘p.m. supplies 20 kW at a terminal voltage af 220 Vo The resistance of armature, shunt field; and series field are 0.04, 110 and 0,05 ohm respectively. Overall efficiency at the above load is 85%, Find : (i) Copper lass, (ii) Iron and friction loss, (iii) Torque developed by the prime mover: (Anmtravali University) 1999) Solution. fy, Load cument = 79:00 _ 99.91 amp Shunt field current, ty = 220 Armature Reaction “Srvence: REACTION AND magnetising Conductors > Demagnetising AT per ~ Etemacrating arcr COMMUTATION pole = Compensating Windings > No. of Compensating Windings = Commutation Value of Reactance Voltage Methods of Improving ‘Commutation Resistance Commutation E.M.F. Commutation interpoles or Compoles Equalising Connections Parallel Operation of Shunt Generators Paraileling D.C. Generator Load Sharing > Procedure for Paralleling D.C. Generators = Compound Generators in Paraliel = Series Generators in e Parallel t Armature reaction is the change in the neutral plane and the reaction of the magnetic field ¥ vvyVvY¥ v vvElectrical Technology — 27.1 Armature Reaction By armature reaction is meant the effect of magnetic field set up by armature current on the distribution of flux under main poles of'a generator. ‘The armature magnetic field has two effects (i) Ht demagnetises or weakens the main flux aod (ii) It crass-magnetises on disturts it. ‘The first effect leads to reduced generated voltage and the second to the sparking at the brushes. ‘These effects are well illustrated in Fig 27.1 which shows the flux distribution of a polar generator when there is no current in the armature conductors. For convenience, only two poles have been considered, though the fol- lowing remarks apply w multipolar fields as well. Moreover, the brushes are shown touch- ing the armature conductors directly, although in practice, they touch commutator segments, Inis seen that (a) the flux is distributed symmetrically with respect te the polar axis, which is the line joming the centres of NS poles. Fig. 27.4 (b) ‘The magnetic neutral axis or plane (MLN.A.) coincides with the geometrical neutral axis or plane (G.N.A.) Magnetic neutral axis may be defined as the axis along which no e.m-f- is produced in the arma~ ture conductors because they {hen moye parallel (o the lines of flux. Or M.N.A. is the axis which is perpendicular to the flux passing through the armature, As hinted in Art, 27.2, brushes are always placed along M.N.A. Hence, MLN-A, is also called “axis of commutation’ because reversal of current in armature conductors takes place across this axis. In Fig. 27.1 is shown vector OF,, which rep- resents, both in magnitude and direction, the mmf. producing the main flux and also M.N.A. which is perpendicular to OF, In Fig. 27.2 is shown the field (or flux) set up by the armature conductors alone when carrying current, the field coils being unexcited. ‘The direction of the armature current is the same as it would actually be when the generator is loaded, [t may even be found by applying Fleming’s Right-hand Rule. The current direction is downwards in conductors under V-pole and upwards in those under S-pole. The downward flow is Fig. 27.2 represented by crosses and upward flow by dots. As shown in Fig. 27,2, the m.m.{s, of the armature conductors combine to send flux downwards through the armature. The direction of the lines of force can be found by applying cork-screw rule, ‘The armature mmf. (depending on the strength of the armature current) is shown separately both in magnitude and direction by the vector OF, which is parallel to the brush axis. So fur, we considered the main m.m.f, und armature m.mn.f- separately as if they existed indepen- dently, Which 1s not the case in practice. Under actual loud conditions, the two exist simultaneously inArmature Reaction ‘Commutation 939 the generator as shown in Fig. 27.3. Fig. 27.3 Fig. 27.4 Iris seen that the flux through the armature is no longer uniform and symmetrical about the pole axis, rather it has been distorted. The flux is seen to be crowded at the trailing pole tips but weakened or thinned out at the leading pole tips (the pole tip which is first met during rotation by armature conductors is known as the leading pole tip and the other as trailing pole tip). The strengthening and weakening of flux is separately shown for a four-pole machine in Fig. 27.4. As seen, air-gap flux density under one pole half is greater than that under the other pole half. If Fig. 27.3 is shown the resultant m.m.f, OF which is found by vectorially combining OF, and OF, ‘The new position of M.N.A,, which is always perpendicular to the resultant m.m.f. vector OF, is also shown in the figure. With the shift of M.N.A., say through an angle 4, brushes are also shifted so as to lie along the new position of M_N.A. Due to this brush shift (or forward lead), the armzture conductors and henee armature current is redistributed. Some armature conductors which were earlier Armature reaction(940 _Electricat Technology under the influence of N-pole come under the influence of S-pole and vice-versa. This regrouping is shown in Fig. 27.5, which also shows the flux due to armature conductors. Incidentally, brush position shifts in the same direction as the direction of armature rotation, All conductors to the left of new position of M.N.A, but between the two brushes, carry current downwards and those to the right carry current upwards. The arma- ture m.m.f. is found to lie in the direction of the new position of M.N_A. (or brush axis). The armature m.m-f. is now represented by the vector OF, which is not ver- tical (as in Fig 27.2) but is inclined by an angle 6 to the lef. It can now be resolved into two rectangular com- ponents, OF, parallel to polar axis and OF ,. perpen- dicular to this axis. We find that (i) component OF, is at right angles to the vector OF, (of Fig. 27.1) representing the main m.m.f. It produces distortion in the main field and is hence called the cross-magnetising or distorting component of the armature reaction. (ii) The component OF, is in direct opposition of QF,, which represents the main mmf. I exerts a demignetising influence on the main pole flux. Hence, it is called the demagnetising or weakening component of the armature reaction. It should be noted that both distorting and demagnetising effects will increase with increase in the armature current, 27.2. Demagnetising and Cross-magnetising Conductors “The exact conductors which produce these distorting and demagnetising effeets are shown in Fig, 27.6 where the brush axis has been given a forward lead of @ so as to lie along the new position of M.N.A, All conductors lying within angles AOC = BOD = 20 at the top and bottom of the armature, are carrying current in such # direction as to send the flux through the armature from right to left. This fact may be checked by applying crockscrew rule, It is these conductors which act in direct opposition to the main field and are hence called the demagnetising armature conductors. Fig. 27.5 Fig. 27.6 Fig. 27.7Armature Reaction and Commutation 944 Now consider the remaining armature conductors lying between angles AOD and COB. As shown in Fig, 27,7, these conductors carry current in such a direction as to produce a combined flux pointing vertically dowmwards ie, at right angles to the main flux. This results in distortion of the main field. Hence, these conductors are known as cross-magnetising conductors and constitute dis- torting ampere-conductors, 27.3. Demagnetising AT per Pole Since armature demagnetising ampere-tumns are nevtralized by adding extra ampere-tums to the main field winding, itis essential to calculate their number. But before proceeding further, it should be remembered that the number of turns is equal to half the number of conductors because two conductors-constitute one tum, Let Z = total number of armature conductors J = current in each armature conductor 12 .. for simplex wave winding L/P ... for simplex lap winding 8,, = forward lead in mechanical o geometrical or angular degrees. 48 Total number of armature conductors in angles AOC and BOD is. seh

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