1

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London

2M Dynamics: Vibration



Contents

1. Free motion of un-damped single degree of freedom systems
2. Free motion of damped single degree of freedom systems
3. Forced vibration of single degree of freedom systems
4. Vibration isolation
5. Base excitation of single degree of freedom systems
6. Two degree of freedom systems
7. Systems with distributed mass: the stretched string




Spectral analysis of vibration from an air-conditioner unit (the Beast)
measured at different locations throughout a residential building. The photo
shows accelerometer mounted on the unit. The boards and cardboard boxes
shown in the picture are there to hold the Beast in place. Otherwise, it would
vibrate loose from its mounts and walk down the hallway terrorizing all in its
path. From Gulf Coast Data Concepts LLC, Waveland, Mississippi, website
http://www.gcdataconcepts.com/ viewed Sept 2010.
2
1. Free Motion of Un-damped Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) Systems

1.1 Objectives
Having followed these notes, you should be able:-
1. To represent any system having one degree of freedom as an equivalent
spring-mass model;
2. To calculate the un-damped natural frequency of the system and obtain the
free response of the system for any given initial conditions.
1.2 Natural Frequency
The simplest vibrating systems can be represented by a model comprising a
rigid mass attached by a massless spring to a fixed abutment. Consider such a
system constrained to move in the horizontal plane with the mass resting on a
frictionless surface (Fig 1).


Fig 1.1 Horizontal spring-mass system Fig 1.2 FBD of mass

The spring has a stiffness k, meaning that if a force, F is applied to the spring it
will change length by an amount x with F = kx. Consider the mass displaced (in
the positive x direction) by a distance x as shown in Fig 2.
For a positive displacement, x, the force exerted by the spring on the mass is in
the negative x direction. From Newton's second law, the force is equal to the
mass times the acceleration:

k x = mx or mx + k x = 0 (1.1)

Where x denotes the second derivative of the displacement with respect to
time (
2
2
d
d
t
x
x =
, the acceleration). This has a (harmonic) solution (see Appendix
1A for details),

x(t)= A cos e
n
t + B sin e
n
t ; where e
n =
m
k
(1.2)
The displacement x varies periodically with time, t, a phenomenon known as
vibration!

e
n
is called the natural frequency of vibration (units rad s
-1
)


x
x
kx
k
m
3

The period of the vibration, t
0,
defined so that x(t) = x(t + N t
0
), where N is a
whole number) is 2t/e
n
so the frequency in Hertz (complete cycles of
vibration per second is) f = 1/t
0
= e
n
/ 2t.
A and B are arbitrary constants which may be found from the initial (t = 0)
conditions. For example, if the displacement at t = 0 is
0
x and the initial
velocity is
0
x

then from Eq. 1.2 with t = 0, A =
0
x
t
x
t x t x
n
n
n
e
e
e sin cos ) (
0
0

+ = (1.3)

Thus if the mass is given an initial displacement,
0
x , and is released from rest
(i.e,
0
x

= 0 ) the motion is given by,
x(t) = x
0
cos
n
t (1.4)
The vibration continues undiminished for an indefinite period. This is known as
simple harmonic motion.
The natural frequency is not changed if the motion is in the vertical rather than
the horizontal plane. In both cases, the mass oscillates about the static
equilibrium position, i.e. the rest position. If the system is horizontal, the spring
will have zero extension in the equilibrium position, while if the system is
vertical it will have extension mg/k (see Appendix 1B).




1.3 Energy
Suppose a spring-mass system is vibrating harmonically with amplitude, x
0
.
The strain energy, V, stored in the spring reaches a maximum at the instant
when the displacement is a maximum and the velocity is zero, so :
V
max
=
2
0
2
1
kx
(1.5)
The kinetic energy, T, of the mass reaches a maximum when the velocity is a
maximum and the displacement is zero. The motion is simple harmonic and is
of the form:

x(t) =
0
x sin
n
t so that x (t) =
0
x
n
cos
n
t (1.6)

and the maximum velocity is
0
x
n
. Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy is
given by:
In all vibration problems, the displacement origin (x = 0)
should be taken as the static equilibrium position.

4

2
0 max
) (
2
1
n
x m T e = (1.7)
But
n

2
= k/m, so

max
2
0
2
0 max
2
1
2
1
V kx
m
k
mx T = = = (1.8)
The maximum kinetic energy in the vibrating system equals the maximum
strain energy stored. Vibration may be thought of as an oscillation between
strain energy stored .in the spring and kinetic energy stored in the mass. The
total energy remains constant.

Equating the maximum kinetic and strain-energies is frequently a very
convenient method for calculating the natural frequencies. See example 1.4.5.

1.4 Worked Examples
The spring-mass system may appear trivial, but in fact spring-mass models
can be used to represent a very wide range of engineering systems.
1.4.1 Motor mounted on beam.
Calculate the natural frequency of a large electric motor, mass, m, mounted at
the centre of a simply supported beam of length L, second moment of area I,
and Youngs modulus, E.
If the mass of the beam is small compared with that of the motor, the mass of
the spring itself may be neglected. The stiffness, k, is the force per unit
deflection. For a simply supported beam loaded at midspan, the midspan static
deflection, o, is given by,
o = WL
3
/ 48EI (1.9)
so the stiffness, k, is,
k W / o = 48E / L
3
(1.10)
Hence, the natural frequency is,

e
n
=

m
k
=
3
48
mL
EI
(rad/s)

f =
3
48
2
1
mL
EI
t
(Hz) (1.11)
1.4.2 Float
A circular ball of mass, m, and external
radius, r, floats exactly half submerged
in a large cistern. What is the natural
frequency of its free oscillations? (You
may ignore the effect of the linkage
attached to the ball.)

x
U
5

Consider the equilibrium of the ball when it is displaced a small distance x
downwards from its static position.

The extra upthrust force U produced by the displacement x is given by the
weight of extra water displaced. For small x, the volume of water displaced is
tr
2
x so the upthrust is,
U = p
w
g tr
2
x (1.12)
where p
w
is the density of water. This corresponds to the spring restoring force
kx considered in 1.2 The upthrust is in the negative x direction so the equation
of motion is :
m
b
x = p
w
g tr
2
x (1.13)
where m
b
is the mass of the ball.

However, the ball floats exactly half-immersed, so the weight of the ball must
equal the weight of half its volume of water (the condition of static equilibrium).
m
b
g = 2/3 p
w
g

t r
3
(1.14)

Substituting in (1.13) gives:
2/3 t p
w
r
3
x = p
w
g tr
2
x
Or: 0
3
2
= + gx x r (1.15)
Now compare this with the equation of motion for a spring-mass system, Eq.
(1.1),
mx + k x = 0 (1.1)
The equation has the same form; comparing the coefficients suggests that the
effective stiffness is g and the effective mass is r
3
2
. The natural frequency is
therefore given by,

e
n
=

m
k
=
r
g
2
3
(rad/s); f =
r
g
2
3
2
1
t
(Hz) (1.16)
1.4.3 Torsion of a rotor system.
A propeller has mass moment of inertia, J, and is driven via a shaft of torsional
stiffness, k
T
, and negligible inertia. The other end of the shaft is connected to a
gearbox whose inertia is much larger than that of the propeller, so this end of
the shaft can be considered as built-in. What is the natural frequency of
torsional vibration of the rotor system?
Consider the propeller rotated through an angle, u. The resulting torque (or
moment) on the propeller is k
T
u (The torque is negative because it acts in
the negative u, sense.)
From Newtons second law, this applied moment is equal to the moment of
6
inertia times the angular acceleration,
k
T
u = J u

or, J u

+ k
T
u = 0
The natural frequency of the torsional oscillation is therefore
J
k
T
rad/s.
Note that the units of k
T
are N m/rad and of J are kg m
2
.
1.4.4 Pendulum
A pendulum comprises a uniform rod of length, L,
pivoted-about one end with a mass, M, attached at
its free end. The rod is slender and uniform with
mass, m. What is the natural frequency of the
pendulum?

Consider the pendulum displaced through a small
angle, u, as shown. The resulting moment, Q, about
the pivot due to the small angular displacement is

Q = (mg L/2 u + Mg L u ). (17)

The mass moment of inertia, J, of the rod about the
pivot is mL
2
/3 and that of the end mass about the
pivot is ML
2
.

From Newtons second law, the applied moment is equal to the moment of
inertia times the angular acceleration, u

.

Q = J u

(1.18)

Hence, substituting in (18) for C and J, the equation of motion of the pendulum
is :

L
2
(M+ m/3)u

+ (mgL/2 +MgL) u = 0 (1.19)

Hence, the natural frequency is,
e
n
=
( )
( )L m M
g m M
3
2
+
+
(rad/s) (1.20)
Question: Why does gravity control the natural frequency of the pendulum
whereas it does not affect the natural frequencies of the other systems we
have analysed?


L/2
L/2
Mg
mg
u
7
1.4.5 Combined translation and rotation
A uniform wheel of radius R can roll without slipping on an inclined plane.
Concentric with the wheel and fixed to it is a drum of radius r around which is
wrapped one end of a string. The other end of the string is fastened to an
anchored spring, of stiffness k, as shown in the diagram. Both spring and string
are parallel to the plane. The total mass of the wheel and drum assembly is m
and its moment of inertia about the axis through the centre of the wheel, 0, is I.
Calculate the natural frequency of oscillation.








This problem is perhaps most easily solved by using the energy method.
Consider the centre of the wheel vibrating with a small amplitude
0
x up and
down the plane. If there is no slip, the rotation of the wheel associated with the
maximum displacement is u
0
=
0
x /R, and the total extension of the spring is
0
x + ru
0
=
0
x +
0
x r / R =
0
x (R + r) / R (1.21)
If the amplitude of oscillation is
0
x the maximum strain energy stored in the
spring is :

V
max
=
2
0
2
2
x
R
r R k
|
.
|

\
| +
(1.22)

The maximum kinetic energy has rotational and translational components. The
maximum translational KE is (see section 1.3),

T
max (trans)
= ( )
2
0
2
n
x
m
e (1.23)
Similarly, the maximum rotational KE is,
k
r
R
8
T
max(rot)
= ( )
2
0
2
n
I
e u =
2
0
2
|
.
|

\
|
R
x I
n
e (1.24)
Hence, the maximum kinetic energy is,
T
max
= ( )
2
0
2
n
x
m
e +
2
0
2
|
.
|

\
|
R
x I
n
e (1.25)
Equating V
max
and T
max
gives,

2
|
.
|

\
| +
R
r R
k = |
.
|

\
|
+
2
2
R
I
m
n
e or
( )
( )
2
2
mR I
r R k
n
+
+
= e (rad/s) (1.26)

1.4.6 Checking validity of massless spring model
The motor of example 4.1 has a mass of 10,000 kg. The beam is made of
I-section steel; it is 5 m long and has second moment of area 9 l0
4
m
4
. Its
cross sectional area is 0.05 m
2
. What is the natural frequency of the system?
From equation .(1c),
e
n
=
3
48
mL
EI
= (48 20710
9
910
4
) / (10
4
5
3
)
1/2
= 84.6 rad/s

or f = e
n
/ 2t = 13.5 Hz

However, this calculation has ignored the mass of the beam which is
m
beam
= p A L = 7850 0.05 5 = 1963 kg
Hence, the beam mass is approximately 20% of the motor mass so neglecting
it may introduce a significant error. However, the ends of the beam are pinned
and so cannot contribute to the kinetic energy of the system. The mass of the
beam close to the ends is therefore unimportant. The middle of the beam
moves with the same amplitude as the motor, so the mass in this region will
contribute to the kinetic energy. It may be shown* that for a simply supported
beam, the effective beam mass is about half its total mass. Therefore, the total
effective mass in this example is the motor mass plus half the beam mass
which is 10,982 kg. This is a 9.8 % increase over the previous estimate so the
natural frequency will be reduced by (9.8/2)% i.e. by 4.9%, to 12.8 Hz.
* This may be done by Rayleigh's method; see. for example. CF Beards,
'Vibration analysis and control system dynamics', Ellis Horwood, 2nd edition,
1992.
9
Appendix 1A. Solution of Equation of Motion.
The equation of motion for free vibration is,
0 = + kx x m (1A1)
dividing by m gives,
0
2
= + x x
n
e (1A2)
where m k
n
= e .
Let us first try a solution of the form:
t t
De Ce t x
2 1
) (
o o
+ = (1A3)
where the values of C and D are arbitrary constants depending the initial
conditions:
0
x and
0
x .
Differentiating (1A3):
t t
De Ce t x
2 1
2 1
) (
o o
o o + = ;
t t
De Ce t x
2 1
2
2
2
1
) (
o o
o o + = (1A4)
Substituting in (1A2) gives:
0
2 1 2 1
2 2 2
2
2
1
= + + +
t
n
t
n
t t
De Ce De Ce
o o o o
e e o o (1A5)
To make the left hand side zero for all t, we have to set o
1
2
= e
n
2
,

so o
1
= i
e
n

(similarly for o
2
) where i = 1 . Thus, selecting the positive root for o
1
and
the negative foro
2
:
t i t i
n n
De Ce t x
e e
+ = ) ( is a solution of (1A2) (1A6)

Rearranging gives,
) (
2
) (
) (
2
) (
) (
t i t i t i t i
n n n n
e e
D C
e e
D C
t x
e e e e

+ +
+
= (1A7)
so that,
x(t)= A cos e
n
t + B sin e
n
t (1A8)

When t = 0, x(t) = x
0
, and substituting in (1A8) gives, x
0
= A.
Also, when t = 0,
0
x x = and substituting in (1A8) gives
B x
n
e =
0

So finally we have:
t
x
t x t x
n
n
n
e
e
e sin cos ) (
0
0

+ = (1A8)
It is possible to show that this solution is unique.


10

Appendix IB. Vertical System.
Consider the mass in Fig Bl deflected-downwards a distance x from the static
equilibrium position so the overall spring deflection, y, is given by,
y = x + mg/k (1B1)

Fig Bl. Vertical spring-mass system Fig B2 FBD of mass
From Fig B2, the net downward force acting on the mass, is
mg ky = mg k (x + mg/k ) = kx (1B2 )
so the final equation of motion is:
m x + k x = 0 (1B3)
which is the same as for the horizontal system.
k
m
ky
x = y mg/k
mg
x
11
1.5 Tutorial Questions
1. A Frahm's tachometer for measuring the rotational speed of machinery
consists of many small cantilever spring steel strips, each being rigidly
fastened to the frame of the instrument at one end and having a mass at the
other (free) end. A strip will vibrate (and so give a visual indication) when the
speed of the machine is equal to the strip's natural frequency. One such strip is
1 mm thick, 7 mm wide and 50 mm long. Calculate the mass required at the
free end so that the natural frequency will correspond to 1800 rev/min.

(0.079 kg)
Hint: Obtain the cantilever stiffness from data book.

2. A circular diaphragm, fixed all round its edge, has a natural frequency of
5000 Hz. When an additional mass of 0.5 kg is attached to the centre of the
diaphragm, the natural frequency is reduced to 4900 Hz. What are the effective
mass and effective stiffness of the diaphragm, both referred to the central point

(12.14 kg,12.0 GN/m)
Hint: Write the natural frequency formula twice, considering the cases of with
and without added mass.

3. Which of the following systems, when undergoing small oscillations, have a
natural frequency which depends on the local value of the gravitational
acceleration ?
(a) A particle suspended on a string;
(b) A disc clamped normal to the end of a shaft, the other end of which is
fixed (torsional oscillations);
(c) A particle attached to the free end of a horizontal cantilever beam;
(d) A liquid in a vertical U tube;
(e) A cylinder with its axis vertical, floating in a liquid.
Hint: Try to establish the restoring force in each case.

4. What is the natural frequency of the systems depicted below? Levers are
massless and pivots frictionless.
(a)


(b)


[
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2 2 1 2
, ,
l
g
ml
kl
ml
kl
m
k k
n
+
+
= e ]
m
k
2
k

x

l
2
l
1
m
m
l
2
l
1
k

(c) k
1
12
More difficult questions:

5. Part of a fluid-level measurement
indicator consists of a sealed cylinder
(outer diameter d, length L, mass M) which
floats half immersed inside a concentric
cylindrical container of fluid
(density p).

(i) If the inner diameter of the container
is much larger than the diameter of the
float, and if it floats freely exactly half
immersed in the fluid, determine the
natural frequency at which oscillations of
the float will take place it is disturbed from
its equilibrium position.
Hint: Use Upthrust force=stiffness displacement to obtain equivalent stiffness.
(ii) In the complete assembly, the top of the float is connected to one end of a
uniform bar (mass m and length l) which is freely pivoted at its midpoint, as
shown below. Derive and expression for the natural frequency of the complete
indicator system.
Hint: Determine the additional effective mass (force/acceleration) due to the
bar.
(i)
L
g 2
rad/s (ii)
( ) M m L
g
+ 3
6

6. The mass in the diagram is
constrained by frictionless guides to
move along a vertical, straight line. Both
bars rigid, massless, and free to rotate in
the plane of the diagram. The mass is at
the centre of one bar, and the spring k
3
is
attached at the centre of the other bar.
Find the natural frequency of small
vertical oscillations of the mass for k
1
= k
2

= 100 N/m; k
3
= 200 N/m, k
4
= 300 N/m;
m = 1 kg.

(2.76 Hz)
Hint: Start with k
1
& k
2
. Add k
3
. Note that there will be rotation of the bar when
adding k
4
.

L
M
l
m
m
k
4
k
1
k
2
k
3
13
7. The mechanism shown in the diagram consists of one central disc A, and
of three smaller discs B. The system may be assumed to be undamped and to
be subject to torsional oscillation in the plane of the discs.


Disc A is free to rotate about its axis while the three discs, B, are attached to
clamped shafts each of which provides a torsional stiffness of k
t
= 0.12 N m/rad.
Attached to Disc A is a bar of mass M = 0.01 kg and length L = 0.02 m. The
natural frequency of the system is controlled by adjusting the value k
0
of the
spring which is attached to the bar, as shown in the diagram.
Disc A has moment of inertia about its axis I
A
= 10 10
-6
kg m
2
and radius,
R
A
= 0.03 m. Each disc B has a moment of inertia I
B
= 0.8 10
-6
kg m
2
and
radius R
B
= 0.01 m.
(i) Calculate the natural frequency of the system for k
o
= 0, i.e. no attached
spring.
Hint: Use T
max
= V
max
. Note that the shafts will provide the strain energy terms,
while the discs and rod will provide the kinetic energy terms.
(ii) Determine the value of k
o
that will be necessary to double the natural
frequency of the system?
(41.4Hz, 6.075kN/m)
Hint: Use T
max
= V
max
, noting that the spring k
o
will give rise to just one additional
term for strain energy.










k
0
L/2

L/2

R
A
R
B
k
t
k
t
14
2. Free Motion of Damped Single Degree of Freedom Systems

2.1 Objectives
Having followed these notes, you should be able:-
1. to represent any system having one degree of freedom and a source of
energy dissipation (ie damping) as an equivalent spring-mass-dashpot
model;
2. to state and explain the difference between the damped and undamped
natural frequencies of the system, and calculate their values;
3. to obtain and sketch the response of the system for any given initial
conditions;
4. given the response of the system, to calculate the logarithmic decrement
and
hence obtain the damping ratio.

2.2 Free Motion
Real vibrating systems often have a source of
energy dissipation and it is frequently
convenient to represent this by a massless
viscous damper as shown in Fig 1. This
produces a drag force opposing the motion and
which is proportional to the velocity of the mass.
Thus the damping results in an additional force on the mass of:

c x (t)
Fig 1. Spring-mass-damper system
where c is a constant, called the damping
coefficient or damper rate.

Thus the equation of motion becomes :
m x (t) = k x(t) c x (t) (2.1)
or
mx + c x + k x = 0 (2.2)
It is useful to divide equation (2) by m and to rearrange so that we obtain,
x +2 . e
n
x + e
n
2
x = 0 (2.3)


where e
n
= m k is the un-damped natural frequency, as before and
km
c
2
= . is called the "viscous critical damping ratio".
When c = km 2 then . = 1 and the damping is critical (see Appendix 2A).
The solution of equation (2.3) has different forms depending on the value of .
c
k
m
x
15
For . < 1,
) sin cos ( ) ( t B t A e t x
d d
t
n
e e
.e
+ =

(2.4)
This is a decaying oscillation of frequency,
2
1 . e e =
n d
which is called
the damped natural frequency. The derivation of this expression is given in the
Appendix 2A together with the results for . = 1 and . > 1. These two cases are
very unusual in structural vibration problems, but they do occur in the analysis
of control systems.
2.3 Logarithmic Decrement
The solution for free motion given in equation (2.4) may be written as,
) sin( ) ( o e
.e
+ =

t Ce t x
d
t
n
(2.5)

where tan o = A/B. The ratio of the
amplitudes of successive peaks (Fig 2)
is given by :

) (
1
1
) (
) (
+

+
=
m m n
t t
m
m
e
t x
t x
.e

(2.6)
Fig 2.2. Decaying Oscillation
But, (t
m
t
m+1
) = (t
m+1
t
m
) is the period of the oscillation, t
0
= 2t/e
d
so:


d n
e
t x
t x
m
m
e .e / 2
1
) (
) (
=
+
(2.7)
Also,
2
1 . e e =
n d
, so:
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
+
2
1 1
2
exp
) (
) (
.
t.
m
m
t x
t x

We now define the logarithmic decrement, o, given by:
2
1 1
2
) (
) (
ln
.
t.
o

= =
+ m
m
t x
t x
or t. o 2 = if . is small (< 0.1 ) (2.8)
o can be directly measured from vibration signals such as that shown in fig 2.2.
For example, if the amplitudes of the m
th
and (m + N)
th
peaks are measured, the
log of their ratio is :
o
.
. t
N
N
t x
t x
N m
m
=

=
+
2
1
2
) (
) (
ln
(2.9)
and so if . is small, it is given by:
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
~
+N m
m
t x
t x
N
ln
2
1
t
.
(2.10)
x(t
m
)
x(t
m+1
)
t
m+1
t
m

16
2.4 Worked Example
A radio transmitter and its power
supplies are to be dropped by
parachute to a polar expedition. In
order to protect the electronics from
excessive dynamic loading, the
package, which is of mass 20 kg, is
mounted on a spring-damper system
as shown in the diagram.

The spring has. a stiffness of 10 kN/m,
the damper has a rate c = 540 N s/m,
and the base plate has negligible
mass. If the terminal velocity of the
parachute is 8 m/s what is the
maximum distance which the spring is
compressed, assuming that the
ground on which the package lands is
rigid?
m k
n
= e = 20 10
4
= 22.36 rad/s.
km
c
2
= . = 540/2 ( ) 20 . 10
4
= 0.604.
2
1 . e e =
n d
= 22.36
2
604 . 0 1 = 17.83 rad/s.
At the instant of impact, there is no compression in the spring. However, in the
static equilibrium position which we take as our datum, the spring is
compressed by mg /k Hence, taking x as positive downwards, the initial
conditions are
0
x = mg/k = 20 9.81/10
4
= 0.0196 m; and we are given
0
x = 8 m/s.
Now ) sin cos ( ) ( t B t A e t x
d d
t
n
e e
.e
+ =

so
0
x = A = 0.0196m
) cos sin ( ) sin cos ( ) ( t B t A e t B t A e t x
d d
t
d d d
t
n
n n
e e e e e . e
.e .e
+ + + =


( ) t B A t A B e
d n d d n d
t
n
e . e e e . e e
.e
sin ) ( cos ) ( + =



Hence, B A x
d d
e . e + =
0
and substituting for e
n
. e
d
. . . and A gives:
B = 0.434 m.
Therefore, the displacement response is given by:
| | t t e t x
d d
t
n
e e
.e
sin ) m 434 . 0 ( cos ) m 0196 . 0 ( ) ( + =


The maximum displacement occurs when the velocity is zero, i.e. when:
m
c
k
17
( )
. e e
. e e
e
e . e e e . e e
e . e e e . e e
.e
n d
n d
d
d n d d n d
d n d d n d
t
B A
A B
t
t B A t A B
t B A t A B e
n
+

=
+ =
= +

tan
sin ) ( cos ) (
0 sin ) ( cos ) (

Substituting for A, B, e
n
. e
d
and . gives: tane
d
t = 1.452 so e
d
t = 0.97 rad
Hence, the maximum displacement is at t = 0.054 s.
Substituting t = 0.054 s in the expression for x(t) gives x = 0.167 m. This is the
displacement of the mass down from the equilibrium position, so the overall
compression of the spring is this value plus the static deflection, i.e.
The maximum compression is 0.167 + 0.0196 0.186 m
18
Appendix 2A. Solution of Equation of Motion
The equation of motion of a free, damped single degree of freedom system can
be written as,
0 2
2
= + + x x x
n n
e .e (2A1)
This has a solution of the form,

t t
De Ce t x
2 1
) (
o o
+ = (2A2)

where the values of C and D are given by the initial conditions, and o
1
and o
2

are found as before by substituting
t
Ae t x
o
= ) ( in Eq. (2A1) giving:
0 ) 2 (
2 2
= + + o e o .e o
o
n n
t
Ae Hence, 0 ) 2 (
2 2
= + + o e o .e o
n n
(2A3)

so ( )
n
n n
n
e . .
e .e
.e o 1
2
4 ) 2 (
2
2 2
2 , 1
=

=
There are now three possibilities for the solution of this equation depending on
the value of the damping ratio, . :
(a) Oscillatory motion.
When . < 1 the roots of Eq. (2A3) are complex :
( )
n
i e . . o
2
2 , 1
1 =
and the general solution becomes,

t i t i
n n
De Ce t x
e . . e . . ) 1 ( ) 1 (
2 2
) (
+
+ = (2A4)

+ =
t i t i t
n n n
De Ce e t x
e . e . .e ) 1 ( ) 1 (
2 2
) ( (2A5)
This equation can be re-written in terms of sin and cos, as shown in lectures
appendix 1A:
) 1 sin 1 cos ( ) (
2 2
t B t A e t x
n n
t
n
e . e .
.e
+ =

(2A6)

It can be seen that the exponential term
t
n
e
.e
determines the decay rate and
the rest of the equation determines the oscillation.
n
e .
2
1 is the damped
natural frequency, e
d
. Eq. (2A6) can then be written as:

) sin cos ( ) ( t B t A e t x
d d
t
n
e e
.e
+ =

(2.4)




19
(b) Non-oscillatory motion.
When . > 1 the roots of Eq. (2A3) become real and the solution to Eq. (2A1)
can be written as,
t t
n n
De Ce t x
e . . e . . ) 1 ( ) 1 (
2 2
) (
+
+ =
(3A8)

In this case the displacement will not oscillate, but will gradually decay to zero
due to the high damping.
(c) Critically damped motion.
When . = 1 so that km c 2 = , the roots of Eq. (2A3) are equal,
o
1
= o
2
= e
n

The general solution then becomes,

t
n
e Dt C t x
e
+ = ) ( ) ( (3A8)
As for . > 1, The displacement will gradually decay to zero, the rate of decay
being a maximum in the case of critical damping.
20
2.5 Tutorial Questions
1. The stiffness of the spring mounting of a heavy machine is 210
5
N/m. The
machine is deflected and released. A trace of its subsequent motion is shown
below. Find the actual and undamped natural frequencies, the mass of the
system, the damping ratio, ., and the damping coefficient c.

4t rad/s and 12.6 rad/s 1260 kg , .=0.081, c=2580 Ns/m
Hint. Obtain the damped natural frequency from the damped period (from
graph). Obtain the log decrement from successive cycles. Convert it to
damping ratio.

2. Derive expressions for the critical damping ratio and the damped natural
frequency of the system shown below, for small vertical vibrations of the point
mass? You may assume the levers have no mass and the pivot is frictionless.







2 / 1
2
2 2
4
2
4
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
km
c
p r
q
m
k
p
r
km rp
c q
d
e
.

x
k
r
p
m
c q
21
More Difficult Question
3. In a type approval test, a helicopter is dropped under gravity from a height, h,
with its rotors stationary. The pilot's seat is mounted on springs of combined
stiffness k, and of dampers of combined rate c. The combined mass of the
(dummy) pilot and seat is m.
(i) Show that the equation of motion of the pilot and seat after impact with the
ground, which occurs at t = 0, is
mx + c x + k x = 0
with initial conditions: x(0) = mg/k, and ) 0 ( x = gh 2 , the positive coordinate
direction being as shown in the diagram. x(t) is the displacement from
equilibrium at time, t.
Hint. Use static equilibrium condition.
(ii) Consider the case where m = 100 kg, k = 2.5 x 10
5
N/m, c = 3000 N s/m,
and h = 5 m. Calculate the maximum acceleration experienced by the pilot after
the helicopter strikes the ground. To simplify the calculation, you may assume
that ) 0 ( x = 0. You should justify this assumption in the light of your calculations.
Hint: Unlike the case of un-damped motion, the maximum acceleration does
NOT occur at the time when the velocity is zero. Differentiate the expression
for the acceleration and set it to zero. (Answer 404 m/s
2
)
(iii) Compare the acceleration calculated above with that which would be
obtained without the dampers. (Answer: 495 m/s
2
)
(iv) What would be the maximum acceleration of the pilot if the spring stiffness
were reduced to 6 10
4
N/m with no dampers fitted? What would be the
drawback of using a softer spring? (Answer: 242 m/s
2
)














22
3. Forced Vibration of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Objectives. .
Having followed these notes, you should be able:-
1. to calculate the amplitude and phase of the steady-state vibration response
of a single degree of freedom system for a given harmonic exciting force;
2. to represent the motion of the system by a phasor diagram;
3. to sketch the frequency response curves for the system with different levels
of damping;
4. to describe qualitatively the effect of damping on the response of the
system in different frequency regions;
5. to recognise that the full solution to forced vibration problems is given by a
transient component (complementary function) plus a steady state component,
(particular integral) and be able to derive the full solution for simple cases such
as sinusoidal and step inputs.
3.1 Solution for Harmonic Force Input
Consider a single degree of freedom system
subject to an applied force, F(t) as shown in Fig 1.
The equation of motion is :

) (t F kx x c x m = + + (3.1)

This is a linear, second order, inhomogeneous
differential equation with constant coefficients.
The general solution is the sum of the
complementary function (solution of the
homogenous equation formed by 3.1 with the right
hand side set to zero) and a particular integral (a
solution of the inhomogenous equation).
The complementary function is the solution of Eq. (2A1), which we have
already shown is:
) sin cos ( ) ( t B t A e t x
d d
t
n
e e
.e
+ =

(2.4)
where A and B depend on the initial conditions. The most common forcing
function of interest is sinusoidal (or harmonic) excitation of the form, F(t) = F
sin et, so Eq. (3.1) becomes,
t F kx x c x m e sin = + + (3.3)
It is a property of linear systems that if they are subject to harmonic excitation,
the steady-state response (the particular integral) is also harmonic, and is at
the same frequency as the input. Therefore the steady-state response is given
by :
) sin( ) (
0
o e = t x t x (3.4)
Figure 3.1 Forced system
with damping.

c
k
m
x
F(t)
23
It is straightforward to show that (3.4) is a solution of (3.3) by differentiation and
substitution. It therefore qualifies as a particular integral of (3.3) and the
general solution will be:
) sin( ) sin cos ( ) (
0
o e e e
.e
+ + =

t x t B t A e t x
d d
t
n
(3.5)
In other words, the full solution is a damped vibration at the (damped) natural
frequency, e
d
which dies away as the damping takes effect (the
complementary function), together with a steady harmonic vibration at the
frequency of the applied force, e. It is this harmonic solution we are most
concerned with here.
x
o
is the amplitude of the response and o defines its phase with respect to the
exciting force. The values of x
o
and o may be found by substituting equation
(3.4) into (3.1) and rearranging the terms (see appendix, 3.8). Alternatively, we
may use the phasor diagram approach as shown in section 3.4 below. The
solution is,

( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
e e c m k
F
x
+
= and
( )
2
tan
e
e
o
m k
c

= (3.6)
Rearranging and setting r = e/e
n
gives,

( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
2 1
1
r r
F
kx
. +
= ;
( )
2
1
2
tan
r
r

=
.
o (3.7)
where . is the critical damping ratio.

Note that 0 o 180 so
from equation (4), the
response lags the force as
illustrated in Fig 2.



Fig 3.2 Phase lag between force and response
3.3 Frequency Response Function
-The response given by equations (5) and (6) is a strong function of frequency
and the relationship x
o
/ F is called the frequency response function (FRF). For
practical values of damping the amplitude reaches a maximum at a frequency
close to e
n
. This is known as resonance.
The phase varies between 0 o 180 and is 90 at e = e
n
. The FRF is
plotted in Fig 3 for . = 0.1.
Amplitude, x
0

o
x(t)
F(t)/k
24


Fig 3.3 Frequency response functions - magnitude and phase.

NB: The response is given by x
o
sin(et o and the function o has been
plotted in order to emphasise that the response lags behind the force.




Fig 3.4 Frequency response functions for different damping ratios


F
kx
0

r
o
r
F
kx
0

, r = e/e
n

, r = e/e
n

0.05
25
3.4 Phasor diagrams

Consider the force, F(t) = F sin et. This
may be represented as a phasor of
magnitude F rotating at speed e, the
value at any instant being given by its
projection on the vertical axis (Fig 4).

Figure 3.5 Phasor diagram
representation of harmonically
varying quantity


Now, the steady state solution to equation (3.3) is of the form:

x t x t x
t x t x t x
t x t x
2 2
0
0 0
0
) sin( ) (
) 2 / sin( ) cos( ) (
) sin( ) (
e o e e
t o e e o e e
o e
= =
+ = =
=

so ,


Hence the velocity leads the displacement by t/2 while the acceleration leads
the velocity by t/2 and is therefore in antiphase to the displacement. The LHS
of equation (3.3) may therefore be re-written as:

) sin( ) 2 / sin( ) sin(
0
2
0 0
o e e t o e e o e + + t x m t x c t kx (3.8)
This may be represented on a phasor diagram as shown in Fig 3.6:

Fig 3.6. Phasor diagram for LHS of Eq. 1. Fig 3.7. Full phasor diagram of Eq. 1.

From equation (3.3), the resultant vector of this sum equals the force vector so
the full phasor diagram is as shown in Fig 3.7. By Pythagoras theorem:
F
2
= x
0
2
(me
2
k)
2
+ x
0
2
(ce )
2
or
( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
e e c m k
F
x
+
=
And tan o =
( )
2
e
e
m k
c

F(t) = F sin et
F
e
et
me
2
x
0

ce x
0

e t o
e t o
o
F
me
2
x
0

ce x
0

kx
0
kx
0

26

3.5 Excitation by Rotating Out of Balance
Excitation by rotating out-of balance is a particularly common case. For
example, a turbo-machine with a slightly out of balance rotor mounted on a
platform will excite the platform at a frequency equal to the rotational speed of
the rotor :

The out of balance is represented
by a mass, m', at a radius r
(Fig 3.7) The centripetal force
exerted on m' to maintain the
motion is m're
2
.
The vertical component of this
force is
e
2
sin et
Similarly, the horizontal component
is:
e
2
cos et

Fig 3.8; Rotating out-of-balance

There are therefore equal and opposite forces on the machine mass, m, so the
machine is subject to harmonic forces of magnitude e
2
in both the
horizontal and vertical directions.
We are frequently only concerned about motion in one direction, in which case
equation (3.1) becomes,
(m+m') x + c x + k x = m'r e
2
sin e

t (3.9)
Note that m' is usually very small compared with m and so m+m' m.

3.6 Worked Example
A machine of mass 1000 kg creates a sinusoidally alternating vertical force of
maximum value 1500 N at a frequency of 50 Hz. The machine is supported
equally by four spring mountings each of stiffness 4 MN/m and which exert a
total viscous damping force such that the damping is 20 % of the critical.
Calculate the steady state amplitude of the motion and the phase angle of the
displacement with respect to the force. Sketch the corresponding phase
diagram.
. = c/2 m k. = 0.2.
Hence c = . 2 m k. = 0.2 2 1000 10 4 4
6

= 5.06 l0
4
N s/m.
From equation 5,
( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
e e c m k
F
x
+
=
r
m
e
c
m
k
27

Now, F = 1500 N; e = (50 x 2t) = 100 t rad/s; m = 1000 kg; k = 16 x 10
6
N/m;
c = 5.06 x 10
4
N s/m. Hence, x
0
= 1.8 x 10
-5
m = 0.018mm
The phase angle between the force and the displacement is given by:
( )
2
tan
e
e
o
m k
c

= ; substituting values gives:

o = 169, taking principal values 0 o 180.

This phase angle implies that the system is operating well above resonance.
Check: m k
n
= e = 1000 10 16
6
= 126 rad/s; f = 20 Hz which is well
below the running speed of 50 Hz.
Phasor diagram values :

kx
0
= 16 10
6
1.8 10
-5
= 288 N = spring force

cex
0
= 5.06 10
4
100 t 1.8 10
-5
= 286 N = damper force

me
2
x
0
= 1000 (100 t )
2
1.8 l0
-5
= 1777 N = inertia force


me
2
x
0
= 1777 N
cex
0
= 286 N
kx
0
= 288 N
F = 1500 N
28

3.7 Glossary:

Vibration Cyclic variation of displacement
Natural frequency e
n
angular frequency of freely vibrating system
without damping (rad/s)
Equation of motion Differential equation relating displacement and
time; follows from equilibrium (fbd) of mass
Viscous damping Retarding force proportional to velocity x c F =
Damped natural frequency e
d
angular frequency of damped system (rad/s)
Amplitude Maximum value of harmonic function (e.g. of
displacement, velocity or acceleration)
Critical damping ratio
km c 2 / = . ratio of damping coefficient to that
which causes critical damping (onset of non-
vibrating behaviour in free damped system
Harmonic Varying with time in a sinusoidal manner; x is
harmonic if t B t A t x e e cos sin ) ( + =
Excitation External (e.g. harmonic) force or displacement
applied to a (e.g. spring-mass) system
Response Displacement resulting from an external force
Phase angle Angle (rad) between harmonic functions of
identical frequency
3.8 Appendix: Derivation of Amplitude Eq. (3.6)

Equation of motion: t F kx x c x m e sin = + + (3.3)

Consider a harmonic solution of the form: ) sin( ) (
0
o e = t x t x (3.4)

We can express this as t B t A t x e e sin cos ) ( + = (3.10)
(The amplitude of x is
2 2
0
B A x + = )

Differentiating (3.10):
t B t A t x e e e e cos sin ) ( + = , t B t A t x e e e e sin cos ) (
2 2
=

Substitute into (3.3) and collect sine and cosine terms:

( ) ( ) t F t kA Bc Am t Bk Ac Bm e e e e e e e sin cos sin
2 2
= + + + + (3.11)

Since this must be true at all times, the coefficients of the sine and cosine
terms must be the same on both sides of the equation.

Sine coefficients:
( ) F Bk Ac Bm = + e e
2
(3.12)

Cosine coefficients:
( ) 0
2
= + + kA Bc Am e e
29
Or:
k m
c
B
A

=
2
e
e
(3.13)

Substitute (3.13) into (3.12) to eliminate A:


2 2 2
2
2
2
) ( ) (
) (
e e
e
e
e
e
e
c k m
F k m
B
F Bk c
k m
c
B Bm
+

=
=
|
.
|

\
|
+

(3.14)
Likewise, eliminating B:


2 2 2
2
2
2
) ( ) ( e e
e
e
e
e e
e
e
c k m
F c
A
F k
c
k m
A Ac m
c
k m
A
+

=
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

(3.15)

We have found the unknown coefficients A, B, in the displacement solution,
(3.10). Now determine the amplitude of x(t):
2 2
0
B A x + = :

Square (3.14) and (3.15) and add together:

( )
| |
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
0
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
e e
e e
c k m
F k m c
B A x
+
+
= + =
2 2 2
2 2
0
) ( ) ( e e c k m
F
B A x
+
= + = (3.16)

This is the steady state amplitude of displacement in a 1DoF system excited by
a sinusoidal force of amplitude F.

30
3.8 Tutorial Questions
1. The phasor diagrams of Figs 3.6 and 3.7 correspond to the case when the
forcing frequency is above the undamped natural frequency. Sketch the
corresponding diagrams when the forcing frequency is below the undamped
natural frequency and is equal to the undamped natural frequency. What are
the relative values of the spring, damper and inertia forces in these cases?
Discuss the diagrams with your tutor.
2. A simply supported girder carries a rotating machine at its centre
The mass of the girder is small compared with the mass of the machine. The
total mass of the machine is 500 kg and its out-of-balance is equivalent to a
mass of 12 kg acting at a radius of 50 mm.

The damping of the whole system can be determined from an equivalent force
proportional to the velocity acting at the middle of the girder. Such a force is
estimated to be 400 N at a velocity of 20 mm/s

The weight of the machine causes the girder to deflect 0.25 mm.

(i) Determine the steady-state amplitude of forced vibration for a rotor
speed of 80 rad/s.

(ii) Determine the amplitude of forced vibration at resonance.
(0.23mm, 5.9mm)

Hint . Calculate the equivalent stiffness from F= kx and the effective damping
from F = c x . Use equation (3.5).

31
4.Vibration Isolation

4.1 Objectives
Having followed these notes, you should be able:-
1. to define vibration isolation and state the difference between isolation and
damping;
2. to calculate the magnitude and phase of the force transmitted to the
foundations of a vibrating system, given the magnitude and frequency of the
force exciting the system;
3. to sketch transmission vs frequency curves for different levels of damping
and state the region in which it is desirable to operate an isolation system.
4.2 Analysis
We are often concerned with the force transmitted by a vibrating system to its
surroundings. For example, a car engine produces large forces over a wide
frequency range due to the rotation of an out of balance crank-connecting-rod-
piston system and due to the combustion process. If this force were
transmitted directly to the car body, severe vibration would be produced and
the noise in the passenger compartment would be very unpleasant. The engine
is therefore mounted on rubber blocks to isolate it from the body.
Consider a one degree of freedom system subject to a harmonic force, Fsinet.
The force transmitted to the base, F
T
, is given by the sum of the forces
generated by the spring and the damper. Hence:
F
T
= k x + c x (4.1)

and from the phasor diagram Figure (4.1)
( )
2 2
0
e c k x F
T
+ = (4.2)
But we know that the amplitude of motion, x
0
is given by :

( ) ( )
2
2
2
0
e e c m k
F
x
+
= ,


Fig 4.1. Phasor diagram showing transmitted force

so the transmissibility, T, is given by:
o
e t o
F
me
2
x
0

kx
0

ce x
0

32
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2
e e
e
c m k
c k
F
F
T
T
+
+
= = (4.4)

Rearranging and setting r = e /e
n
gives:

( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2 1
2 1
r r
r
T
.
.
+
+
= (4.5)

where . is the damping ratio.

The transmissibility is plotted in
Fig 2 as a function of frequency
for different damping ratios. Note
that a log scale has been used.
The force transmitted is higher
than the exciting force for
0 < r < 2 and damping reduces
the transmitted force in this region.

Above r = 2 the force transmitted
is less than the exciting force and
the base is isolated from the
excitation. In this region, damping
increases the force transmission
and so is not beneficial.
4.3 Example
A machine of mass 1000 kg creates a sinusoidally alternating vertical force of'
maximum value 1000 N at a frequency of 40 Hz. The machine is supported on
four rubber mounts which act as both springs and dampers. The mounts are
symmetrically placed with respect to the centre of mass and the effective
damping ratio is 0.15, Calculate the required stiffness of each mount if the
amplitude of the steady state alternating force transmitted through the mounts
to the floor is to be under 300 N.
From equation (4.5)
( )
( ) ( )
3 . 0
1000
300
2 1
2 1
2
2
2
2
= =
+
+
=
r r
r
T
.
.

Setting . = 0.15 and solving for r gives r = 2.2. (Or use the curves in figure 4.2!)
Now, r = e/e
n
, and e = 2t 40 = 80 t rad/s, so e
n
is 80 t / 2.2 = 114 rad/s or
f
n
= 18.2 Hz.
Now, e
n
= m k so k = m e
n
2
= 1000 114
2
= 13 x 10
6
N/m.
Hence, the required stiffness of each mount is 13/4 = 3.2 MN/m.
Fig 4.2. Transmissibility
curves
. = 0
. = 0.1
. increasing
. = 0.5
r = e/e
n

T
33

4.4 Tutorial Questions
1. For frequency ratios above 2 , the best isolation is obtained with no
damping. Explain this physically.
A machine operates at high speeds and it is proposed to mount it on metal
springs with minimal damping. Comment on the proposal.
2. An instrument of mass 7 kg is supported from a fixed base by a spring and
a viscous damper which work in parallel. The system is constrained so that
only vertical motion is possible. The instrument generates a harmonic
disturbing force of the form F sinet in the vertical direction. If the damping ratio
is 0.3 and the frequency of the disturbing force is 50 Hz, calculate the spring
stiffness required so that only 10% of the force generated by the instrument is
transmitted to the base.
(17.2kN/m)
Hint. Use equation (4.5) for T = 0.1.
3. At its running speed of 500 rev/min, a spring-mounted machine of mass
850 kg produces a vertical harmonic excitation force of 275 N, the excitation
frequency being equal to the running speed. The design specification is as
follows:
- At this running speed, the force transmitted to the floor must not exceed
60 N.
- The static deflection of the machine on its springs must not exceed 60
mm.
- The damping associated with the springs must be as high as possible
(subject to the force transmissibility constraint) in order to limit the
amplitude at resonance.
Find the spring stiffness and the viscous damping coefficient necessary to
achieve the required design conditions
(1.39 10
5
N/m, 8944 N m/s)
Hint. Obtain equivalent stiffness from static deflection. Use equation (4) for
T = 60 / 275.



34
5. Base Excitation of Single Degree of Freedom Systems

5.1 Objectives
Having followed these notes, you should be able:-
1. to calculate the amplitude and phase of the steady-state vibration of a
single degree of freedom system for a given harmonic base motion;
2. to represent the motion of the system by a phasor diagram;
3. to sketch the frequency response curves for the system with different levels
of damping;
4. to recognise that the full solution to base excitation problems is given by a
transient component (complementary function) plus a steady state component
(particular integral) and be able to derive the full solution for simple cases such
as sinusoidal and step inputs.
5. 2 Solution for Harmonic Input
In many cases, we are concerned with the
excitation of a system via its base. Examples
are the vibration of a car driving along a rough
road and the vibration of buildings by motion
of the ground caused by earthquakes.
Consider a single degree of freedom system
(Fig 1) subject to base motion, y(t) . The
spring is compressed by (y x) so the force on
the mass in the positive x direction is k(y x).
Similarly, the force on the mass due to the
damper is c( y - x ).

Fig 5.1. Base Excitation
Hence, the equation of motion is :

) ( ) ( x y c x y k x m + = (5.1)
Or, rearranging : y c ky kx x c x m + = + + (5.2)
This again is a linear ODE with constant coefficients so the general solution is
the sum of the complementary function and the particular integral. The
complementary function is the solution of equation (5.2) with the RHS set to
zero which we have already shown is :
) sin cos ( ) ( t B t A e t x
d d
t
n
e e
.e
+ =

(2.4)
where A and B depend on the initial conditions.
The most common base motion of interest is sinusoidal motion of the form,
t y t y e sin ) (
0
= (5.3)
for which the particular integral is also a harmonic function with frequency e.
This means that the steady vibratory solution (the P.I.) can be represented, as
x
c k
m
y
35
before, by a phasor rotating at an angular speed e. Now, we are interested in
the amplitude and phase of the motion of the mass with respect to that of the
base. Fig 5.2 shows the phasor diagram representation of the LHS of equation
(2) when the excitation, and hence the response is harmonic (sinusoidal in
form). We know that for the equation to be satisfied, the vector formed by the
RHS must equal the resultant vector of the LHS. The complete phasor diagram
is shown in Fig 3.

Fig 5.2. Phasor diagram of LHS of
equation (5.2)
Fig 5.3. Full phasor diagram for
harmonic base excitation.
From the geometry of Fig. 5.3, using Pythagoras theorem:
2 2 2 2 2
0
2 2 2
0
) ( ) ( ) ( e e e c x m k x c k y
o
+ = +
or
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2
0
0
e e
e
c m k
c k
y
x
+
+
= (5.4)

Setting r = e /e
n
gives :
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
0
0
2 1
2 1
r r
r
y
x
.
.
+
+
= (5.5)
where . is the damping ratio.

The ratio x
0
/y
0
is sometimes
known as the motion
transmissibility and you will
notice that it is given .by the
same expression as the force
transmissibility in the case of a
fixed base and harmonic force.
The Frequency Response
Function (FRF) is shown in Fig
5.4 for . = 0.1.

Fig 5.4, FRF for base excitation; . = 0.1.
36
5.3 Worked Example

A car has a body of mass 1500 kg which is mounted on four equal springs in
parallel which deflect 0.20 m under the weight of the body. Each of the four
shock absorbers has a damping coefficient of 1100 Ns/m.

The car is placed with all four wheels on a test platform which is moved
sinusoidally up and down at approximately the resonance frequency (e = e
n
)
with an amplitude of 25 mm Find the steady-state amplitude of the car body
relative to the fixed ground, assuming the centre of mass to be in the centre of
the wheel base.

The centre of mass of the car is in the centre of the wheel base so when
subject to equal excitation at the four wheels, the motion will be purely vertical
and a single degree of freedom model can be used.
The total spring stiffness, k = mg/ o = 1500 9.81 / 0.2 = 73575 N/m.
The overall damping coefficient, c = 4 1100 = 4400 N s/m.
The critical damping ratio, . = c /2 km= 4400 / 2 1500 7357 = 0.209.

From equation 5.5 :
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
0
0
2 1
2 1
r r
r
y
x
.
.
+
+
=

and setting r = l and substituting for . gives x
0
/y
0
= 2.59 (>1 i.e. amplification).
Therefore, since y
0
= 25 mm, x
0
= 64.7 mm.

37
5.4 Tutorial Questions
1. A simple way to study the vibration of a vehicle travelling over a
rough road is to model it as a SDOF system of mass m, stiffness k, and
damper rate c, and subject it to base excitation.

(i) Consider the case where the car is travelling at uniform speed V over a
sinusoidally undulating surface with wavelength L and peak-to-peak amplitude
2h. Derive an expression for the amplitude of vibration of the vehicle body by
assuming steady state conditions.
Hint. Excitation frequency, in Hz, is e / 2t = V/L (frequency of going over one
wavelength). Use equation (5) on Page 26.
(ii) For the specific case where m =750 kg, k = 6 10
4
N/m, c = 2650 Ns/m,
L = 10 m, h =0.03 m, calculate the amplitude of vibration when the vehicle
travels at a steady speed of 17.5 m/s.
(iii) Estimate the speed at which the vibration amplitude of the vehicle will be a
maximum.
Hint. Max response when excitation frequency = natural frequency
(0.047 m, 14.2 m/s)

2. A body of mass m lying on a smooth horizontal plane has a spring of
stiffness k fixed to it, the axis of the spring being horizontal and passing
through the centre of mass of the body. The other end of the spring is suddenly
given, in the line of the spring,

(i) a constant velocity v,
(ii) a constant acceleration o.

Find the displacement of the body as a function of time in cases (i) and (ii).
For case (i), if m = 1.0 kg, k = 400 N/m and v = 3 m/s, find the maximum force
in the spring and the time taken for this value to be reached first.
(60N, 0.0785 s)
Hint: Start from equation (5.2) and ignore damping. Note that v y = and
y = vt + y
o
in case (i). Similarly, o = y in case (ii).


x
k
c
x
V
h
L
38
6. Two Degree of Freedom Systems

6.1 Objectives
Having followed these notes, you should be able:-
1. to define the term 'degree of freedom' and recognise that a system with n
degrees of freedom has n natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes;
2. to calculate the natural frequencies and mode shapes for any given two
degree of freedom system;
3. to recognise that the free motion of an n degree of freedom system may be
represented as a sum of oscillations at each of the n natural frequencies, the
proportion of each mode depending on the initial conditions;
4. to recognise that the frequency response function for an n degree of
freedom system will have n peaks corresponding to the n natural frequencies.
6.2 Degrees of Freedom
A system has n degrees of freedom if its position may be completely defined by
n coordinates. The systems we have considered in parts 1-5 were completely
defined by one coordinate (a translation or a rotation) and so were termed
single degree of freedom systems. An unconstrained rigid body has six
degrees of freedom: translation along the x, y and z axes and rotation about
each axis.
6.3 The Analysis of Two Degree of Freedom Systems
Consider the system shown in Fig 1 in which each of the masses is
constrained to move in the line of the springs. The position of the system may
therefore be completely described by the two displacements x
1
and x
2
so the
system has two degrees of freedom.


Fig 6.1. Two degree of freedom System

As in the case of single degree of freedom systems, we take the datum of each
coordinate as the static equilibrium position so if the system is vertical, gravity
forces may be omitted from the analysis.



m
1

m
2
x
1
x
2

k
1

k
2

39
Step 1. Write Down Spring Deflections
The deflections of the springs k
1
and k
2
in Fig 1 are governed by the
displacements x
1
and x
2
. In general, for any displacements x
1
and x
2
, we may
write:
Compression of spring k
1
= x
1
(6.1)
Compression of spring k
2
= x
1
x
2
(6.2)

Step 2. Obtain Forces (and moments if applicable) on Each Mass
Now, the force on m
1
in the positive x
1
direction is
{(compression of k
1
)

k
1
} {(compression of k
2
) k
2
}

as shown in the free body diagram of Fig 6.2a. Hence,
F
1
= ( x
1
) k
1
k
2
(x
1
x
2
)

Likewise, the force on m
2
in the positive x
2
direction is: (compression of k
2
) k
2

as shown in Fig 6.2b.




Fig 6.2a FBD for mass m
1
Fig 6.2b. FBD for mass m
2












kx
1
k
2
(x
1
x
2
)
x
1

k
2
(x
1
x
2
)
x
2

m
1

m
2

40
Step 3. Obtain Equations of Motion
Applying Newton's second law to mass m
1
gives:
m
1
x
1
= F
1
= k
1
x
1
k
2
(x
1
x
2
) or,
m
1
x
1
+ (k
1
+ k
2
) x
1
k
2
x
2
= 0 (6.3)

Similarly for mass m
2
,
) (
2 1 2 2 2 2
x x k F x m = =
0 ) (
2 1 2 2 2
= x x k x m (6.4)

Step 4. Write in Matrix Form

Assume harmonic solutions of the form :

) sin(
1 1 1
o e = t X x and ) sin(
2 2 2
o e = t X x

Then, differentiating twice with respect to time gives :


1
2
1 1
2
1
) sin( x t X x e o e e = = and

2
2
1 2
2
2
) sin( x t X x e o e e = =

Substituting in equations (6.3) and (6.4) gives :

0 ) (
2 1 1 2 1 1
2
1
= + + x k x k k x me (6.5)
0
1 2 2 2 2
2
2
= + x k x k x m e (6.6)

Equations (6.5) and (6.6) may now be re-written in matrix form as

( )
( )

+
0
0
2
1
2
2 2 2
2
2
1 2 1
x
x
m k k
k m k k
e
e
(6.7)
or,
0 ) (
2
= x M K e (6.8)
where,


( )

+
=
2 2
2 2 1
k k
k k k
K ;

=
2
1
0
0
m
m
M ;

=
2
1
x
x
x

K is known as the stiffness matrix, M is the mass matrix and x is the
displacement vector.

41
Step 5. Check Symmetry

The stiffness and mass matrices should each be symmetrical and should have
positive terms on the leading diagonal. It is very easy to get a sign wrong in the
analysis and this check frequently reveals the error. The mass matrix of a
system with rigid masses or inertias is always diagonal.

Step 6. Obtain Natural Frequencies

Equation (6.8) has a null right hand side (mathematically it is a homogeneous
equation) so non-trivial solutions for x can only exist if the matrix (K Me
2
) is
singular, i.e. its determinant is zero. Hence:

( )
( )
0
2
2 2 2
2
2
1 2 1
=

+
e
e
m k k
k m k k
(6.9)
Expanding the determinant gives:
0 ) )( (
2
2
2
2 2
2
1 2 1
= + k m k m k k e e (6.10)
or multiplying out brackets: ,
( ) 0 ) ( ) (
2
2 2 2 1
2
1 2 2 2 1
4
2 1
= + + + + k k k k m k m k k m m e e (6.11)

This is a quadratic equation in e
2
which may readily be solved to give two
natural frequencies, e
n1
and e
n2
. The usual convention is to call the lower
natural frequency e
n1
and the higher one e
n2
.

Step 7. Obtain Mode Shapes

Having found the two natural frequencies, these may then be substituted into
equation (6.8) to obtain the corresponding displacement vectors, x. Since the
matrix (K M e
2
) is singular, equation (6.8) has no unique solution; the ratio of
the components of the displacement vector can be found, but the amplitude of
the vector is arbitrary.

Physically, this means that at a natural frequency the ratio of the
displacements of the two masses is defined, but that any absolute values of
the displacements are possible. In other words, the amplitude of vibration at a
resonance can build up to any value. Since we know that the amplitude of the
displacement vector is arbitrary, we can solve for the ratio x
2
/x
1
(called the
mode shape). The first row of equations (6.7) gives

0 ) (
2 2 1
2
1 2 1
= + x k x m k k e (6.12)
so at the first natural frequency, e
n1
:
42

2
2
1 1 2 1
1
2
) (
1
k
m k k
x
x
n
n
e
e
+
=

(6.13)
This ratio x
2
/x
1
defines the mode shape at the first natural frequency, e
n1
.

Similarly, the mode shape at the second natural frequency e
n2

is:
2
2
2 1 2 1
1
2
) (
2
k
m k k
x
x
n
n
e
e
+
=

(6.14)

6.4 Complete Solution for Free Motion
Let A
1
and A
2
be the amplitudes of motion of the mass m
1
in the first and
second modes respectively. Then in the first mode:
) sin(
1 1 1 1
o e + = t A x
n
; ) sin(
1 1 1 1 2
o e | + = t A x
n

where |
1
= x
2
/x
1
in the first mode. Similarly in the second mode:
) sin(
2 2 2 1
o e + = t A x
n
; ) sin(
2 2 2 2 2
o e | + =
n
A x
where |
2
= x
2
/x
1
in the second mode. The general solution of equation (8) is
obtained by adding (superposing) these two 'normal modes', i.e.:
) sin(
1 1 1 1
o e + = t A x
n
) sin(
2 2 2
o e + + t A
n
(6.15a)
) sin(
1 1 1 1 2
o e | + = t A x
n
) sin(
2 2 2 2
o e | + +
n
A (6.15b)
The constants A
1
, A
2
, o
1
and o
2
are found from the initial conditions (the initial
displacements and velocities of the two masses). The free motion consists of
components from both modes, the proportion of each mode depending on the
initial conditions.
6.5 Forced Motion
Consider a harmonic force, F
1
sinet applied to mass m
1
in Fig 6.1. The matrix
equation (6.8) now becomes
F x M K = ) (
2
e (6.16)

where

=
0
1
F
F is termed the force vector. This equation may be solved for x
at any given excitation frequency, e. However, if e = e
n1
or e = e
n2
, the matrix
) (
2
e M K is singular so the amplitude of the response is indeterminate as in
the case for a single degree of freedom system discussed earlier.
43


Fig 6.3 shows a typical form of the function x
1
/F
1
for the case where
k
1
= k
2
= 1 N/m; m
1
= m
2
= 1 kg. The response rises sharply to maxima at the
natural frequencies and is zero at
a frequency between the two
natural frequencies. This null
response even though a force is
being applied is exploited in some
vibration absorbers. There are
three other frequency response
functions for a two degree of
freedom system: x
2
/F
1
, x
1
/F
2
,

x
2
/F
2

which can be obtained in a similar
way.


Fig 6.3. Typical 2 Degree of Freedom FRF


6.6 Worked Example
A box containing delicate electronics is mounted on two springs as shown in
the diagram. Find the natural frequencies and
corresponding mode shapes of the
system, when k
1
= 1 kN/m; k
1
= 2 kN/m; the mass
of the box , m = 1 kg and its moment of inertia
about its centre of mass, I = 0.01 kg m
2
. The
dimension a = 0.05 m. The centre of mass is
constrained to move vertically and only motion in
the plane of the diagram is to be considered.
Step 1. Write Down Spring Deflections
Compression of spring u a x k =
1

Compression of spring u a x k + =
2

NOTE opposite signs for rotational terms.
Step 2. Obtain Forces and Moments
Now, the force on mass in the positive x direction is
{(compression of k
1
)

k
1
} {(compression of k
2
) k
2
}
Hence,
) ( ) (
2 1
u u a x k a x k F
x
+ =
The moment applied by the springs about the centre of mass in the positive u
direction is :
) ( ) (
2 1
u u a x ak a x ak M + =

x
1
/F
1


a a
u
m, I
k
1 k
2
x

k(x au) k(x+ au)
44

Step 3. Obtain Equations of Motion
Applying Newton's second law in translation gives :

0 ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
1 2 2 1
2 1
= + + +
+ = =
u
u u
k k a x k k x m
a x k a x k F x m
x


(6.17)
Similarly in rotation:

0 ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2 1
2
1 2
2 1
= + + +
+ = =
u u
u u u
k k a x k k a I
a x ak a x ak M I


(6.18)
Step 4. Write in Matrix Form
Assume harmonic solutions of the form :
) sin(
1 0
o e = t x x and
2 0
sin o e u u = t
Then differentiating twice gives x x
2
e = and u e u
2
=

.
Substituting in equations (6.17) and (6.18) and writing in matrix form gives:

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

+
+
0
0
2
2 1
2
1 2
1 2
2
2 1
u e
e x
I k k a k k a
k k a m k k
(6.19)
or,
0 ) (
2
= x M K e (6.8)
Where, in this case:

( )
( )

+
+
=
2 1
2
1 2
1 2 2 1
) (
) (
k k a k k a
k k a k k
K ;

=
I
m
0
0
1
M ;

=
u
x
x
Step 5. Check Symmetry
The stiffness matrix is symmetrical and has positive terms on the leading
diagonal.
Note also that the leading diagonal term corresponding to the rotational
equation has dimensions (stiffness length
2
). It is a very common mistake to
omit one of the length terms. The mass matrix is diagonal.

Step 6. Obtain Natural Frequencies
The frequency equation is

( )
( ) ( )
2
2 1
2
1 2
1 2
2
2 1
( ) (
) (
e
e
I k k a k k a
k k a m k k
+
+
= 0
Expanding the determinant and substituting the numerical values gives:
e
n1
= 25.4 rad/s (4.04 Hz) and e
n2
= 55.7 rad/s (8.87 Hz)
45


Step 7. Obtain Mode Shapes
The first row of equations (6.19) gives :
0 ) ( ) ) (
1 2
2
2 1
= + + u e k k a x m k k
so at the first natural frequency, e
n1
= 25.4 rad/s, the ratio u / x is given by,
( )
( )
1 2
2
1 2 1
1
k k a
m k k
x
n
n

+
=

e u
e

and substituting numerical values gives u / x = 47 rad/m. Similarly, at the
second natural frequency, e
n2
= 55.7 rad/s, u / x = +2.05 rad/m. Note that had u
been defined in the opposite sense, the signs of these ratios would have been
reversed.
46
6.7 Tutorial Questions
1. How many degrees of freedom does the (free-free) system shown in figure
Q1 have? What is its natural frequency?



[
2 1
2 1
) (
m m
m m k
n
+
= e ]

2. A simplified model of an automobile suspension system is shown in Fig Q2.
Determine the two natural frequencies and mode shapes for this system when
m
2
= 250 kg, m
2
= 20 kg, k
2
= 40 kN/m and k
1
= 250 kN/m.

[Mode 1:1.88 Hz, x
2
= 7.2 x
1
& Mode 2: 19.2 Hz, x
1
= 90 x
2
]
3. Fig Q3 shows a motor car mounted on springs. The springs are constrained
so that the centre of mass can move in the vertical direction only. The car has
a mass of 1200 kg, the spring pairs have stiffnesses: k
1
= 24 kN / m
k
2
= 26 kN / m and the dimensions are L
1
= 1.2 m, L
2
= 1.5 m. The radius of
gyration of the body about its centre of mass for in plane rotation is 1.1 m.
Find the natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes, considering
motion only in the plane of the diagram.

[Mode 1:1.0 Hz, u / x = + 0.27 rad/m & Mode 2:1.3 Hz, u / x = 2.9 rad/m.]



Fig Q2 Fig Q3

Fig. Q1


m
1
m
2

k
L
1
L
2

m
2
m
1
k
2
k
1
k
1
k
2