CHAP 11: Stabilisation of engineering structure in rock mass principle & method Construction cost of structures (tunnel &

; slope) will increase if they need some methods of stabilisation. The cost will increase further if the stabilisation. stabilisation is of higher degree & to be maintained for a long period of time. Appropriate time. design & construction method help to reduce the amount & cost of stabilisation. stabilisation. Design & construction method that are not according to correct procedures will induce significant disturbance (thicker yield zone) in rock mass consequently will require a higher level of stabilisation & higher cost!

YIELD ZONE (ZON ALAH)

CIRCULAR TUNNEL

SURROUNDING ROCK MASS

As soon as a tunnel is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be disturbed formation of yield zone. Design & method of construction zone. must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

YIELD ZONE (ZON ALAH)

CUT SLOPE

SURROUNDING ROCK MASS

As soon as a slope is excavated, surrounding rock mass will be disturbed formation of yield zone. Design & method of construction zone. must be carefully considered so that disturbance to surrounding rock is reduced (thinner yield zone, less affected volume).

Geological mapping & joint survey

Information like types of discontinuity and their geometrical conditions (dip & dip direction) are essential for initial indications on modes of instability, size of unstable blocks & direction of sliding that can be expected upon excavation of the rock mass (for tunnel or slope)

Take a very strong rock mass, continuous (solid, no weakness planes/discontinuities) & fresh (unweathered, Zone 1) unweathered, Note: slope height, H [UCS/] [UCS/

Can a near vertical slope be excavated in this rock mass, any problem on stability???

. . . . . in terms of rock mass properties of the ideal rock, a vertical slope is possible ideal e.g. for granite (UCS = 120 MPa, = 26 kN/m3) MPa, slope of few km high is possible !!!

But rock mass is always discontinuous, more than one type of discontinuities at different orientations
Types of structural discontinuity Fault plane Joint plane Bedding plane Foliation Slaty & schistosity Rock types Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Type & size of discontinuities may indicate size of unstable blocks. In general, in terms of size, the largest is fault, followed by bedding plane, and the smallest is joint

Typical slope face .... discontinuous, fresh (Grade I) to completely weathered (Grade V) rock mass

A slope face cut in a fresh (zone 1) and very strong rock mass but, with horizontal bedding planes (discontinuity or weakness plane) . . . . .

Will the stability of the cut slope be affected by the horizontal bedding planes? Is there any immediate effect due to rock mass properties & bedding planes? planes?

A slope face cut in fresh & strong rock mass with horizontal bedding planes and inclined fracture planes (e.g. joints)

SLOPE B SLOPE A

For slope (A), is the stability being affected by the horizontal bedding & inclined joint planes? planes? Let propose another slope (B) on the other side of the hill . . . .

SLOPE A

SLOPE B

The rock properties & the horizontal bedding planes have no immediate effect on the stability of both SLOPE A and B. However, with respect to the orientation of the inclined joints, SLOPE B is critical

Effect of dip & dip direction of weakness planes on stability of slope face in a discontinuous rock

Instability in rock & method of stabilisation

Different mode of instability requires different stabilisation method hence, it is important to understand 2 aspects before one can select an effective method: What is the mode of prevailing instability (plane, wedge, flexural or rock fall)? How specific stabilisation method works (mechanisms) to produce effective stability? Most rock stabilisation methods are different from those used in soils. This is mainly due to the mode of instability in rock (the less weathered ones) which is always associated with weakness planes rather than its material strength

Principles of rock stabilisation methods

To help the rock mass to support itself by improving stability & maintaining the loadloadcarrying capability of rock near the boundaries of excavation (within the yield zone!) To mobilise & conserve the inherent strength of rock mass so that it becomes selfselfsupporting! supporting!

Principally in rock slope we need to stabilise only the unstable key-blocks, not the whole rock mass!! keyIn soil, due to weak bonding between soil grains, the weakness planes are planes throughout the soil mass & in every direction, you need to stabilise the whole slope. this is why method like retaining wall is not practical for rock slope. The principal to mobilise the inherent strength so that the rock can support itself!

Key-blocks Key-

Effect of confinement on highly jointed rock

Confining pressure increases contacts between loose unstable blocks, consequently this increases frictional strength between unstable joint blocks increase resisting forces

Usually stabilisation of structure is an aspect that must be implemented. Stabilisation method is basically to increase FOS, by increasing resisting forces FOS = [S resisting forces] / [S disturbing forces]. Disturbing forces are factors that sometimes beyond our control (uncertainties) rainfall, (uncertainties) weathering rate, groundwater, rock mass, earthquakes etc. Resisting forces are methods that can be implemented to increase FOS slope profiles, avoiding problem areas & installing stabilisation method

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Considerations for selecting stabilisation method: method: (1) Types, size and geometrical orientation of weakness planes in rock (joint, fault & beddings. (2) Mode/type of instability in rock mass (plane, wedge, flexural & rock fall). The mode of unstability is dictated by the type, orientation and sets of weakness plane. (3) Understanding of the reinforcement mechanisms (reinforcing mode) of each method i.e. how each element reacts with the existing instability so to increase FOS. (4) Type of rock, strengths, weathering grade (HW & CW). Weaker rocks like schist & highly weathered granite are not suitable to be reinforced with rockbolt & dowel.

Mode of instability in rock is controlled by type, number of set and orientation of weakness planes.

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Plane failure is normally associated with almost parallel inclined discontinuities (inclined bedding plane in fold or fault). The unstable blocks are usually relatively larger in size

More than 3 sets of intersecting joints may result in rock fall (smaller rock blocks) which eventually producing or larger failure (ravelling). Near (ravelling). vertical joint set produces flexural toppling

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A single larger size joint (in granite) can lead to plane failure, and two intersect joints may lead to wedge failure

Disturbing force: mg sin Resisting force: joint = n tan

If resisting force >> disturbing force, stabilisation may not be required. However, long-term effect longmust also be considered e.g. water reduces n, & (it acts as lubricant on joint surface)

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Sliding is likely to occur along joint - shear test is to obtain shear strength of the joint

Larger unstable blocks resting on an inclined joint or bedding plane can lead to plane failure. When weakness planes intersect it may lead to wedge failure.

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Plane failure + rock fall

3 or more intersecting joint sets that are closely spaced may produce smaller loose/unstable rock blocks which may lead to rock falls

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Rock fall (note: some of the rock portion has been weathered to soil material then, failure mode is similar to soil slope)

Rock fall

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Rock fall

Combination of several small & large size intersecting joints may produce combination of instability; rock falls + wedge failure

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Rock slope failure at NKVE wedge failure + rock falls, associated with 2 intersecting faults and several joint sets It is a wedge failure failure due to two intersecting fault planes (a major & common discontinuity) in granite rock. The wedge weighs almost 1000 tonne. tonne.

One or two joint sets that are in near vertical position can produce flexural toppling

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Stabilisation and reinforcement of rock: rock: The basic principle of rock mass stabilisation method is to help rock mass to stabilise itself. itself. Correct installation of method can help to mobilise the inherent / internal strength available in the rock (e.g. frictional or residual strength of fractured rock, shear strength of discontinuities). Rock stabilisation methods are divided into 2 main groups: (1) SUPPORT SYSTEM (penyokong) (penyokong) (2) REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM (pengukuhan) (pengukuhan)

The use of support elements (e.g. steel U-section, Upre-cast slabs, shotcrete & wiremesh) that are prewiremesh) installed on rock surface. This system increase surface. the stability of rock body by imposing a confining pressure into the rock. The confining pressure increases the contact between fracture surfaces (joints) and consequently elevate the existing frictional strength in the fractured rock.

SUPPORT SYSTEM:

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U-section/steel arch support methods installed on tunnel surface. For effectiveness the system must be active (it must yields along with the movement of surrounding rock upon tunnel excavation

Stabilisation of large tunnel using shotcrete + concrete slab + rock bolt + wire mesh

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Steel U-section as support with concrete slabs Uas lining in between the U-sections U-

Interlocking pre-cast concrete preslab as tunnel lining & support

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Shotcrete is to reduce infiltration of surface run-off runwater into the slope & occasionally to prevent falling of smaller rock blocks. Bonding between the shotcrete & rock surface must be strong or otherwise the shotcrete will detach

Mixing of shotcrete

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Steel welded mesh to restrain smaller size unstable rock blocks from falling down especially the key-blocks. Falling of smaller rock blocks key- blocks may lead to a larger slope failure - ravelling. ravelling.

Spraying of shotcrete on rock surface which has been fixed with welded mesh. Shotcrete is impermeable, thus weep-holes must be installed weepto drain water out of the slope

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Shotcrete + wire mesh + weep holes.

Shotcrete + weep holes.

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Shotcrete is also applied on tunnel surface to increase stability (falling of small key rock blocks) & to reduce inflow of groundwater

Since shotcrete is impermeable to water it must be installed with weep-holes. This to drain water out weepof the slope or otherwise there will be built-up of builtpore-water pressure in the slope pore-

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The difference in properties between soil and rock must be understood, methods applicable to rock may not be suitable for soil (or weak rock e.g. schist) shotcrete is only applicable for strong rock for good bonding between shotcrete & slope face

Steel wiremesh (chain-link or welded mesh) is used to restrain (chainsmaller size unstable rock blocks from falling down especially the the key-blocks. Falling of smaller rock blocks may lead to a larger - blocks key slope failure - ravelling. ravelling.

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Rock bolt or dowel is used to secure/anchor the wire mesh on rock surface. If this anchorage is not effective (bolting in weak rock) then, the wire mesh may be detached from the rock surface & become ineffective

The use of reinforcement elements (e.g. dowel, rockbolt, rock anchor & grout) that are installed rockbolt, inside the rock body. This system stabilises the rock by increasing its internal inherent strength. strength. The element must be installed across a weakness plane. In principal it is similar to the action of rebars in reinforced concrete or pre-tensioned prerebar in pre-stressed concrete. pre-

REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM:

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When weakness plane that induces instability can be identified (distinctive) then, the inherent strength of this plane can be utilised to obtain stability approach is to increase its shear strength by increasing normal stress on this plane

Rock bolt & dowel are used to stabilise unstable blocks. Bolt must be of sufficient length so that it extends well beyond the weakness planes thus anchoring the unstable blocks to a stronger rock

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REINFORCEMENT ELEMENT: steel rebar

LOCKING NUT

BONDING AGENT: resin or grout

BEARING PLATE

Main components of ROCK DOWEL

Basic design of rock bolt & dowel

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A rock bolt is an active (tensioned) dowel used for stabilising rock joints. Similar to the use of tensioned rebar in pre-stressed concrete. Tension preinduced immedaitely during installation

Installed rock bolt with spherical bearing plate & tensioning nut. Spherical seat ensure even distribution of bolt tension

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Various types and surface finished of rebar used as for rock bolt, material can steel, fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)

ROCK BOLT: 25 mm Steel rebar (15 to 30 mm diameter) with threaded length & locking nut

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Tensioning rock bolt during installation; hydraulic jack & stressing chair

Use of rockbolts for larger unstable blocks Rockbolt has limited tensile strength (150 200 kN per bolt) and length is between few m to about less than 12 m. Installation is complex & expensive. In stabilising a larger unstable block (e.g. wedge of several thousands tonne), the number of bolts tonne), required may exceeds its economical limit and their effective lengths may not be sufficient Need for a larger size and higher capacity rock reinforcement method Option is ROCK ANCHOR with length exceeds 20 m and capacity few thousands tonnes

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Fully-grouted rock anchor & anchor head; debonded Fullyover free tendon length with fixed anchor protection material is multiple strands steel cables, similar to the cables used in suspension bridge

Tensioning of rock anchor

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Weathered strong rock like granite (Zone 4 6) are not suitable to be reinforced using rockbolt. In weak rockbolt. rock the bonding between bolt and surrounding rock are weak. Weak bonding will not produce sufficient tension in the bolt

Minerals arrangement (slatey & schistosity) in (slatey schistosity) metamorphic rocks may weakening these rocks (similar to grannular soil). Reinforcement method like rock bolt & rock anchor are not recommended in these rocks, mainly due to weak bonding

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Use of rock bolt as tunnel reinforcement

Use of rock bolt as stabilising mechanism for rock slope

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Rock dowel, rock bolt and Rock Anchor In principle, these three reinforcement elements are similar in design. The only differences are their stabilisation capacity, purpose and installation. They consist essentially of tendon/bar, anchorage (bonding agent) bearing plate & tensioning device Rock bolt is more expensive to install than rock dowel, they are effective for long-term longstabilisation (civil engineering structure). Rock dowel is for short-term reinforcement (for shortmining & temporary support in tunnel). They are used to increase the inherent strength of weakness planes in rock e.g. shear strength of unstable joint

For larger unstable blocks (e.g. unstable blocks of several tonnes in plane failure) rock anchor is recommended. Instead of tendon rock anchor consists of high capacity multiple strands steel cables (cables used in suspension bridge) The difference between dowel and rock bolt Dowel is passive bolt, installed without any tension. Tension in dowel develop eventually after there is movement in joints it intersect. Rock bolt is active dowel, installed with pretension (usually about (60 70 % Tb). Due to this pre-tension, rock bolt exhibits several prepositive characteristics as permanent reinforcement.

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tn

th

Inclined bolt

Rockbolt installed at an angle to the weakness planes may increase its stabilising effect

Sliding of rough joint surfaces may lead to dilation (opening of joint). Dilation induces tension into rock dowel and additional tension to rock bolt. bolt.

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Rock bolt intersecting rough clean joint: dilation leads to an increase in bolt tension (positive effect)

Rock bolt intersecting filled joint: no dilation due to compressibility of infill, this leads to eventual loss (creep) in bolt tension (negative effect)

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Roof section is the most critical part of a tunnel. Rock bolt of different lengths are used to reinforced highly jointed/fractured roof section (reduce roof failure rock fall & wedge failure)

Bedded strata

h2 = 2.4m h1 = 1.2m

Rectangularshaped tunnel

w = 12m

Excavation of rectangular tunnel in horizontally bedded sedimentary sedimentary rock may induce a phenomenon called bed separation at the tunnel separation roof. If the lower bed is thinner this leads to a larger deflection (as deflection 1/h3). When the lower bed deflects more downwards, it will be separated from the upper bed creating a gap between the beds

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h2 h1

Rock bolts

Bed separation can be reduced by installing rock bolts at the roof separation tunnel. When the lower & upper beds are bolted together they form form a composite beam (beam setara), the resulting bed is thicker (thus setara), smaller ) and higher shear strength at the bedding plane.

Stability & drainage are the main problems with slope excavated in schist & slate (metamorphic rocks). Even with gentle & low angle profile (2 m height with benching) the slope remains unstable

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Rock slopes can fail in various modes & each method of stabilisation is only suitable/effective for specific mode of unstability. unstability. Usually more than one methods are required to stabilise a rock slope. Commonly used method are: rockbolt + wiremesh + shotcrete. Long-term effect due to weathering is shotcrete. Longreduced by minimising the presence of weathering agents through drainage system: surface drainage & weep-holes. weepSprayed concrete/shotcrete (special cement mix concrete/shotcrete of 20-30mm thick) applied on the slope face helps 20to reduce weathering agent from seeping into the slope (Chemical weathering in Chap 6.0).

Use of shotcrete + wiremesh: wiremesh: It is a normal practice to spray shotcrete on slope face which has been protected with wiremesh, wiremesh, this is mainly due to: Both methods compliment with each other although each method delivers different mechanisms of stabilisation. stabilisation. Thin layer of shotcrete is weak and exhibits lower stiffness, wiremesh can act as reinforcement for reinforcement this layer of shotcrete. By covering the wiremesh shotcrete. (steel) with layer of shotcrete provide protection against corrosion (contact with water & O2) This procedure ensures both methods to function effectively for a long period of time

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Maintenance costs on slope & stabilisation methods (after construction) can be costly. Selection of appropriate & effective method, & correct installation procedures ensure stabilisation methods are functioning effectively for the required safety level and duration . Rockbolt is a method recommended for longlongterm stabilisation however, its effectiveness greatly depending on how it is installed e.g. borehole size, tension level & tensioning device (bearing plate & nut. Figure 11.3 exhibits several methods for stabilising rock slope of different surface conditions. Table 11.1 Examples of stabilisation methods for slope & tunnel in rock mass.

Support and reinforcement methods Grouted rock bolt + wire mesh + shotcrete.

Type of structures Structures excavated in rock mass e.g. road tunnel and service tunnel in mining. Excavation of slope for highways and building structures. Permanent underground excavations e.g. h.e.p. cavern house, mining service tunnel & sport complex.

Grouted bolt + wire mesh + shotcrete + suitable drainage system (surface drainage & weep holes). Yielding steel arches + concrete slabs + water-proof lining + shotcrete + rock anchor + grouted rock bolt.

Table 11.1: Methods of stabilisation for civil engineering structures and mining activities (after Stacey & Page, 1986)

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Plane failure is usually associated with a large unstable block block that tends to slide along a weakness plane (e.g. bedding or fault fault planes). Reinforcing the unstable block to a more stable rock mass is highly recommended, using rock bolts and rock anchor.

Wedge failure is associated with unstable medium to large size block that tends to slide along intersecting weakness planes (joints or faults). Similar to plane failure, reinforcing the unstable block to a more stable rock mass is recommended using rock bolts (for medium block) or rock anchor (for large blocks).

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Toppling or rocks fall is associated with smaller size blocks. Failure is not along distinctive sliding planes. The unstable rocks are blocks planes. that have been separated from the main rock body by intersecting joints (> 3 sets). Water can penetrate the slope easily due to many many joint sets. Reinforcement alone is not suitable for this type of unstability. Support system like wire-mesh & shotcrete together with unstability. wirerock bolts are recommended.

Flexural toppling is unstability due to rock blocks that are separated by at least one set of near vertical joints or bedding planes. Failure is Failure associated with sliding plane. The slender (thin) vertical rock blocks can be made stronger by bonding them together (composite beams) using rock bolts (thinner blocks) or rock anchor (thicker blocks) blocks)

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Drainage system (method of stabilisation) is an essential measure stabilisation) for rock slopes excavated in tropical countries (high annual rainfall). The drain also acts as buffer zone for any fallen rock rock

Drainage system (method of stabilisation) at the crest of stabilisation) protected slope

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Methods of stabilisation for rock slope

Comprehensive drainage system (surface & internal drainage] for large size slopes and where water is a critical factor.

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MAY THIS KNOWLEDGE BE APPLIED ON THE RIGHTFUL COURSE, GOD WILLING ! ENGINEER IS BEING ENTRUSTED WITH SOCIAL OBLIGATIONS & RESPONSIBILITIES

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