Electroretinography measures the electrical responses of various cell types in the retina, including the photoreceptors (rods and

cones), inner retinal cells (bipolar and amacrine cells), and the ganglion cells. Electrodes are usually placed on the cornea and the skin near the eye, although it is possible to record the ERG from skin electrodes. During a recording, the patient's eyes are exposed to standardized stimuli and the resulting signal is displayed showing the time course of the signal's amplitude (voltage). Signals are very small, and typically are measured in microvolts or nanovolts. The ERG is composed of electrical potentials contributed by different cell types within the retina, and the stimulus conditions (flash or pattern stimulus, whether a background light is present, and the colors of the stimulus and background) can elicit stronger response from certain components. http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/electrophysiology/the-electroretinogram-clinicalapplications/

If a flash ERG is performed on a dark-adapted eye, the response is primarily from the rod system. Flash ERGs performed on a light adapted eye will reflect the activity of the cone system. Sufficiently bright flashes will elicit ERGs containing an a-wave (initial negative deflection) followed by a b-wave (positive deflection). The leading edge of the a-wave is produced by the photoreceptors, while the remainder of the wave is produced by a mixture of cells including photoreceptors, bipolar, amacrine, and Muller cells or Muller glia.[1] The pattern ERG, evoked by an alternating checkerboard stimulus, primarily reflects activity of retinal ganglion cells. Clinically used mainly by ophthalmologists and optometrists, the electroretinogram (ERG) is used for the diagnosis of various retinal diseases.[2] Inherited retinal degenerations in which the ERG can be useful include:

Retinitis pigmentosa and related hereditary degenerations Retinitis punctata albescens Leber's congenital amaurosis Choroideremia Gyrate atrophy of the retina and choroid Goldman-Favre syndrome Congenital stationary night blindness - normal a-wave indicates normal photoreceptors; absent b-wave indicates abnormality in the bipolar cell region. X-linked juvenile retinoschisis Achromatopsia Cone dystrophy Disorders mimicking retinitis pigmentosa Usher Syndrome

Other ocular disorders in which the standard ERG provides useful information include:

Diabetic retinopathy

Other ischemic retinopathies including central retinal vein occlusion (CRVO), branch vein occlusion (BVO), and sickle cell retinopathy Toxic retinopathies, including those caused by Plaquenil and Vigabatrin. The ERG is also used to monitor retinal toxicity in many drug trials. Autoimmune retinopathies such as Cancer Associated Retinopathy (CAR), Melanoma Associated Retinopathy (MAR), and Acute Zonal Occult Outer Retinopathy (AZOOR) Retinal detachment Assessment of retinal function after trauma, especially in vitreous hemorrhage and other conditions where the fundus cannot be visualized.

The ERG is also used extensively in eye research, as it provides information about the function of the retina that is not otherwise available. Other ERG tests, such as the Photopic Negative Response (PhNR) and pattern ERG (PERG) may be useful in assessing retinal ganglion cell function in diseases like glaucoma. The multifocal ERG is used to record separate responses for different retinal locations. The international body concerned with the clinical use and standardization of the ERG, EOG, and VEP is the International Society for the Clinical Electrophysiology of Vision [3]

What is electroretinography?
Electroretinography (ERG) is an eye test used to detect abnormal function of the retina (the lightdetecting portion of the eye). Specifically, in this test, the light-sensitive cells of the eye, the rods and cones, and their connecting ganglion cells in the retina are examined. During the test, an electrode is placed on the cornea (at the front of the eye) to measure the electrical responses to light of the cells that sense light in the retina at the back of the eye. These cells are called the rods and cones.

How is an ERG done?

The patient assumes a comfortable position (lying down or sitting up). Usually the patient's eyes are dilated beforehand with standard dilating eye drops. Anesthetic drops are then placed in the eyes, causing them to become numb. The eyelids are then propped open with a speculum, and an electrode is gently placed on each eye with a device very similar to a contact lens. An additional electrode is placed on the skin to provide a ground for the very faint electrical signals produced by the retina. During an ERG recording session, the patient watches a standardized light stimulus, and the resulting signal is interpreted in terms of its amplitude (voltage) and time course. This test can even be performed in cooperative children, as well as sedated or anesthetized infants. The visual stimuli include flashes, called a flash ERG, and reversing checkerboard patterns, known as a pattern ERG.

What do the electrodes do?

The electrodes measure the electrical activity of the retina in response to light. The information that comes from each electrode is transmitted to a monitor where it is displayed as two types of waves, labeled the A waves and B waves.

How are eletroretinography readings made?

Readings during eletroretinography are usually taken first in normal room light. The lights are then dimmed for 20 minutes, and readings are again taken while a white light is shined into the eyes. The final readings are taken as a bright flash is directed toward the eyes.

Why is an ERG done?

An ERG is useful in evaluating both inherited (hereditary) and acquired disorders of the retina. An ERG can also be useful in determining if retinal surgery or other types of ocular surgery such as cataract extraction might be useful.

What diseases is my doctor looking for with an ERG? There are a number of conditions, mostly ocular in nature, in which the ERG may provide useful information. The diagnoses most commonly suspected when ordering an ERG are predominantly conditions of the retina, including: retinitis pigmentosa,

retinitis punctata albescens,

retinitis pigmentosa sine pigmento o , related hereditary retinal degenerations,

disorders that mimic retinitis pigmentosa,

Leber's congenital amaurosis,

choroideremia,

 gyrate atrophy of the choroid,

gyrate atrophy of the retina,

Goldman-Favre syndrome,

congenital stationary night blindness,

X-linked juvenile retinoschisis,

achromatopsia,

cone dystrophies, and

Does the test hurt?

The test is painless. However, the electrode that rests on the eye may feel a little like an eyelash has lodged in the eye. This sensation may persist up to several hours following completion of the ERG.

What are the risks of an ERG?

There are no risks specifically associated with an ERG. Some patients experience mild ocular discomfort during or after the procedure. Rarely, a corneal abrasion may occur, which is readily treated with early detection. If you believe you have irritation or a corneal abrasion following an ERG, you should call your eye doctor or the doctor who ordered your ERG.

How long does the ERG take?

The ERG takes about an hour or less.

How about after the test?

One should not rub the eyes for an hour after an ERG (or any test in which the cornea has been anesthetized), lest one injure the cornea.

How much does an ERG cost?

Generally speaking, an ERG will be billed by your doctor or your hospital back to your insurance company. The same vagaries that haunt the billing process for most complex cases can undoubtedly affect collections for ERG. Any claim can lead to some reimbursement rejections by insurance or difficulties for patients tasked with handling their own billing matters. The cost for an ERG performed on a Medicare patient is about $150. Medicaid reimbursement may be lower.

http://webvision.med.utah.edu/book/electrophysiology/theelectroretinogram-clinical-applications/
ERG (electroretinography) electrodes UniMed supplies DTL thread electrodes, which are easy to use and comfortable for the subject. DTL electrodes are made with a conductive thread that is laid along the lower eyelid, in contact with the tear film and cornea. We supply the thread on a card for users to make their own electrodes, or as ready made single-use electrodes. All of our DTL electrodes are CE-compliant and FDA approved.
DTL Thread card winding

The ER04 card provides 100 inches (254cm) of DTL thread, sufficient for approximately 30 electrodes. The connection to the recording equipment is made using the mini-grabber and cable.

Use self-adhesive tape to

fix the thread into the corner of the eye, and to tape the mini-grabber to the side of the face.

Ready-made DTL electrodes

These are available in unsterilised single-electrode packs, complete with self-adhesive tabs, or in sterile packs of 2 electrodes. Note that the non-sterile electrodes require cable ER51 to connect to the recording equipment, whilst the sterile type requires cable ER12/TP.

Gold foil ERG electrodes Recently added to our range. Conductive gold foil on Mylar backing with touchproof connector. Single-use only.

ERG-jet electrode Another recent addition to our range of ERG electrodes. Contact lens electrode with a conductive gold ring on the inner surface. Supplied in a sterile blister pack and suitable for human and veterinary clinical use. Single-use item.

Electrooculography (EOG/E.O.G.) is a technique for measuring the resting potential of the retina. The resulting signal is called the electrooculogram. The main applications are in ophthalmological diagnosis and in recording eye movements. Unlike the electroretinogram, the EOG does not represent the response to individual visual stimuli. Eye movement measurements: Usually, pairs of electrodes are placed either above and below the eye or to the left and right of the eye. If the eye is moved from the center position towards one electrode, this electrode "sees" the positive side of the retina and the opposite electrode "sees" the negative side of the retina. Consequently, a potential difference occurs between the electrodes. Assuming that the resting potential is constant, the recorded potential is a measure for the eye position.

Principle
The eye acts as a dipole in which the anterior pole is positive and the posterior pole is negative. 1. Left gaze: the cornea approaches the electrode near the outer canthus of the left eye, resulting

in a positive-going change in the potential difference recorded from it. 2. Right gaze: the cornea approaches the electrode near the inner canthus of the left eye, resulting in a positive-going change in the potential difference recorded from it (A, an AC/DC amplifier).

[edit] Ophthalmological diagnosis

The EOG is used to assess the function of the pigment epithelium. During dark adaptation, the resting potential decreases slightly and reaches a minimum ("dark trough") after several minutes. When the light is switched on, a substantial increase of the resting potential occurs ("light peak"), which drops off after a few minutes when the retina adapts to the light. The ratio of the voltages (i.e. light peak divided by dark trough) is known as the Arden ratio. In practice, the measurement is similar to the eye movement recordings (see above). The patient is asked to switch the eye position repeatedly between two points (usually to the left and right of the center). Since these positions are constant, a change in the recorded potential originates from a change in the resting potential.

Application in Entertainment
Electrooculography was used by Robert Zemeckis and Jerome Chen, the visual effects supervisor in the movie Beowulf, to enhance the performance capture by correctly animating the eye movements of the actors. The result was an improvement over the technique used for the film The Polar Express. Electrooculography was used in the Neural Impulse Actuator, a product of the now defunct company OCZ Technology. This device helps gamers to increase their playing speed.

http://www.hindawi.com/journals/cin/2010/135629/

EOGs have been used to help gamers improve their playing speed.