THE BEHAVIOURAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (SPOTLIGHT ON SKINNER AND BANDURA) BY

BATTON CLETUS
INTRODUCTION Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviours in various situations. As one of the oldest theories of personality, behaviourism dates back to Descartes, who introduced the idea of a stimulus and called the person a machine dependent on external events whose soul was the ghost in the machine. Behaviourism takes this idea to another level by suggesting that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. They study observable and measurable behaviours, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account. This work will throw the lens on the works of Skinner and Bandura; a general overview of their respective theories of personality development and the implications therein for counselling. Historical background Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in the small Pennsylvania town of Susquehanna. His father was a lawyer, and his mother a strong and intelligent housewife. His upbringing was old-fashioned. He was an active, out-going boy who
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loved the outdoors and building things, and actually enjoyed school. Skinner received his B.A. in English from Hamilton College in Upstate New York. He did not fit in very well, not enjoying the fraternity parties or the football games. He wrote for the school paper, including articles critical of the school. He was an atheist in a school that required daily chapel attendance. He wanted to be a writer and did try writing poetry and short stories. When he graduated, he built a study in his parents attic to concentrate, but it did not work for him. Ultimately, he resigned himself to writing newspaper articles on labour problems, and lived for a while in Greenwich Village in New York City as a bohemian. After some travelling, he decided to go back to school, this time at Harvard. He got his Masters in Psychology in 1930 and his Doctorate in 1931, and stayed there to do research until 1936. Also in that year, he moved to Minneapolis to teach at the University of Minnesota. There he met and soon married Yvonne Blue. They had two daughters, the second of which became famous as the first infant to be raised in one of Skinners inventions, the air crib. Although it was nothing more than a combination crib and playpen with glass sides and air conditioning, it looked too much like keeping a baby in an aquarium. In 1945, he became the Chairman of the Psychology Department at Indiana University. In 1948, he was invited to come to Harvard, where he remained for the rest of his life. He was a very active man, doing research and guiding hundreds of doctoral candidates as well as writing many books. While not successful as a writer of fiction and poetry, he became one of our best psychology writers, including the book Walden II, which is a fictional account of a community run by his behaviourist principles. On

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August 18, 1990, Skinner died of leukemia after becoming perhaps the most celebrated psychologist since Sigmund Freud.

Definition of terms Reinforcement: The rewarding or punishing of actions, for the purpose of changing a subject's behaviour Operant conditioning: A form of learning that takes place when an instance of spontaneous behaviour is either reinforced by a reward or discouraged by punishment. Reinforcer: A reward or stimulus used to encourage an action in order to increase the probability that it will be repeated Shaping: A process of reinforcing successive steps or approximations leading toward the accomplishment of an ultimate objective Extinction: The decreasing or dying out of a behavioural response created by conditioning because of a lack of reinforcement Spontaneous Recovery: The return of an extinguished conditioned response without reinforcement

Development of personality A hallmark feature of Skinners view of personality is the role of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning means that reinforcement operates or manipulates behaviour. Operant conditioning is the process whereby learned responses are controlled
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by the consequences (Weiten, 2007). The organism is in the process of "operating" on the environment, during this "operating," the organism encounters a special kind of stimulus, called a reinforcing stimulus, or simply a reinforcer. This special stimulus has the effect of increasing the operant that is, the behaviour occurring just before the reinforcer. This is operant conditioning. The behaviour is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behaviour in the future. Operant conditioning consists of two important elements, the operant or response and the consequence. If the consequence is favourable or positively reinforcing, then the likelihood of another similar response is more than if the consequence is punishing (Mischel, 1993). For instance, in Skinner's experiment a rat was put into a box with a lever. Each time the lever was depressed, food was released. As a result, the rat learned to press the lever to receive favourable consequences. However, when the food was replaced with shocks, the lever depressing stopped almost immediately due to punishing consequences. Similar results were produced by stopping the positive reinforcement of food altogether in a process called extinction, but the operant conditioned response decreased at a much slower rate than when punishment was used. This kind of operant conditioning occurs in the rewarding or punishing action taken towards a child (Schwartz, 1982). Now, if the pellet machine is turned on again, so that pressing the bar all over again provides the rat with pellets, the behaviour of bar-pushing will re-emerge much more quickly than it took for the rat to learn the behaviour the first time. This is because the return of the reinforcer takes place in the context of a

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reinforcement history that goes all the way back to the very first time the rat was reinforced for pushing on the bar.

Schedules of reinforcement. There are four types of intermittent schedules: fixed interval schedules that reinforce a response after a certain fixed amount of time, variable interval schedules that reinforce a response after an amount of time that varies from reinforcement to reinforcement, fixed ratio schedules that reinforce a response after a certain fixed number of responses have been made, and varied ratio schedules that reinforce a response after varied numbers of responses are made. Maintenance of behaviour is actually increased on these intermittent schedules as opposed to continuously reinforced behaviour. This is due to the fact that with these occasional reinforcement patterns, the extinction of reinforcement takes a long time to recognize. As soon as it is recognized, the reinforcement is often quickly rescheduled and the extinction of the reinforcement now takes even longer to recognize. Thus, intermittent schedules keep the organism guessing as to when the reinforcement will occur and will reinforce the behaviour without the actual reinforcement taking place (Schwartz & Lacey, 1982).

Shaping

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A question Skinner had to deal with was how we get to more complex sorts of behaviours. He responded with the idea of shaping or "the method of successive approximations." basically, it involves first reinforcing behaviour only vaguely similar to the one desired. Once that is established, the experimenter looks out for variations that come a little closer to what she wants, until she has the animal performing a behaviour that would never show up in ordinary life. Skinner and his students have been quite successful in teaching simple animals to do some quite extraordinary things. One of these was teaching pigeons bowling . Shaping is also used on humans to elicit particular sorts of behaviour. This is the same method that is used in the therapy called systematic desensitization, invented by another behaviourist named Joseph Wolpe. A person with a phobia such as arachnophobia (fear of spiders) would be asked to come up with ten scenarios involving spiders and panic of one degree or another. The first scenario would be a very mild one say seeing a small spider at a great distance outdoors. The second would be a little scarier, and so on, until the tenth scenario which would involve something totally terrifying like a tarantula climbing on his face while he is driving his car at a hundred kilometres an hour. The therapist will then teach him how to relax his muscles which is incompatible with anxiety. After he has practiced that for a few days, he comes back and he and the therapist go through his scenarios, one step at a time, making sure he stays relaxed, backing off if necessary, until he can finally imagine the tarantula while remaining perfectly tension-free. Aversive stimuli

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An aversive stimulus is the opposite of a reinforcing stimulus, something one might find unpleasant or painful. A behaviour followed by an aversive stimulus results in a decreased probability of the behaviour occurring in the future. This both defines an aversive stimulus and describes the form of conditioning known as punishment. If a rat receives an electric shock for doing x, it will do a lot less of x. If Kofi is spanked for throwing his toys he will throw his toys less and less. On the other hand, if an already active aversive stimulus is removed after Kofi performs a certain behaviour, this is negative reinforcement. If one stops his perpetually nagging wife when he finally washes the dishes in the kitchen, he is more likely to continue washing the dishes every day. He feels good when the aversive stimulus (nagging) stops, this serves as a reinforcer. Behaviour followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus results in an increased probability of that behaviour occurring in the future. Dynamics of personality The dynamics of Skinners personality theory is premised on a technique called behaviour modification. It is very straight-forward: extinguish an undesirable behaviour (by removing the reinforcer) and replace it with a desirable behaviour by reinforcement. It has been used on all sorts of psychological problems such as addictions, neuroses, shyness, autism and schizophrenia. It works particularly well with children. There are examples of psychotics who have not communicated with others for years who have been conditioned to behave themselves in fairly normal ways, such as eating with a knife and fork, taking care of their own hygiene needs, dressing themselves, and so on(Schwartz & Lacey, 1982). There is an offshoot of behaviour modification called the token economy.
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This is used primarily in institutions such as psychiatric hospitals, juvenile halls, and prisons. Certain rules are made explicit in the institution, and behaving oneself appropriately is rewarded with tokens in the form of tickets, funny money and recorded notes. Putting up a poor behaviour is also often followed by a withdrawal of these tokens. The tokens can be traded in for desirable things such as candies, games, movies, time out of the institution, and so on. This has been found to be very effective in maintaining order in these often difficult institutions. There is however a drawback to token economy: when inmates of these institutions leave, they return to an environment that reinforces the kinds of behaviours that got them into the institution in the first place. Juvenile offenders may go right back to the previous environment where no one is giving them tokens for eating politely. The only reinforcements may be gang glory for robbing. In other words, the environment does not help sustain their modified behaviour.

Strengths The methods employed in Skinnerian approach are of tremendous benefit especially to children with behavioural disorders. It helps them to maintain behaviours that are desired and do away with those that are undesirable. When the behavioural theory is used in therapy, it accomplishes what the theory predicts will happen (Guilliard, James & Bowman, 1994). The basic idea is simple and the behavioural technique can be applied successfully in different situations. Counsellors, teachers, parents and psychologists find the concept relatively easy to and apply
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 A variety of techniques such as shaping and behaviour modification may be utilised in the therapy (Corey, 2005).

Weaknesses Overdependence on animal research (Weiten, 2007). Skinners theory is grounded on his research on animals which may not always apply to humans. A traditional behavioural theory like Skinners denies the existence of free will and the importance of cognitive processes (Weiten, 2007). It mechanizes the mental process and treats the organisms like a machine. This dehumanizes learning process. The theory treats symptoms rather than underlying issues (Corey, 2005). For example, if a behavioural therapist was working with a client that has an alcohol problem, the behavioural therapist would design a program to eliminate the behaviour of drinking but there would be no focus on the issues or pathological symptoms causing the alcohol problem. Does not provide insight (Corey, 2005). The treatments do not focus on clients achieving insights into their behaviour, rather the focus is just on changing the behaviour.

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 The theory is superficial and does not deal with the depth of the mind. Personality structure only focuses on stimulus-response associations. There is no emphasis on underlying concepts (Weiten, 1998).

Historical background Albert Bandura was born on December 4, 1925, in the small town of Mundare in Northern Alberta, Canada. He was educated in a small Elementary School and High School with minimal resources, yet his success rate was remarkable. He received his bachelors degree in Psychology from the University of British Columbia in 1949. He went on to the University of Iowa, where he received his PhD. in 1952. It was there that he came under the influence of the behaviourist tradition and learning theory. He developed the Social Learning Theory while studying at the university of Iowa, Bandura believed that psychologists should "conceptualize clinical phenomena in ways that would make them amenable to experimental tests" (Evans, 1976). He believed that psychological research should be conducted in a laboratory to control factors that determined behaviour. After graduating, he took a postdoctoral position at the Wichita Guidance Center in Wichita, Kansas. In 1953, he started teaching at Stanford University. While there, he collaborated with his first graduate student, Richard Walters, resulting in

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their first book, Adolescent Aggression, in 1959. Bandura was president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1973 and received the APAs award for distinguished scientific contributions in 1980. He continues to work at Stanford to this day.

BANDURAN TERMINOLOGY Modelling: The demonstration of a way of behaving to somebody, especially a child, in order for that behaviour to be imitated. Perceived self-efficacy: The extent to which a person believes that he or she can perform the behaviors required by a particular situation. Psychological processes: Ones ability to entertain images in mind and language Reciprocal determinism: A term used by Bandura to expound that the world and a persons behaviour cause each other.

Structure of personality Banduras Social Learning Theory affirms that people learn from one another via observation, imitation, and modelling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation. Social Learning Theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental
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influences. Perhaps it is worth clarifying the fact that traditional behaviourism places emphasis on experimental methods, focuses on variables we can observe, measure, manipulate, and avoids whatever is subjective, internal, and unavailable. That is, mental. In the experimental method, the standard procedure is to manipulate one variable, and then measure its effects on another. All this boils down to a theory of personality that says that ones environment causes ones behaviour. Bandura found this a bit too simplistic and so decided to introduce another layer to the formula: He consented that the environment causes behaviour but behaviour causes environment as well. He labelled this concept reciprocal determinism: the world and a persons behaviour cause each other. Later, he went a step further. He began to look at personality as an interaction among three variables: the environment, behaviour, and the persons psychological processes. These psychological processes consist of our ability to entertain images in our minds, and language. At the point where he introduces imagery, in particular, he ceases to be a strict behaviourist, and stood out as a neo-behaviourist. Adding imagery and language to the mix allows Bandura to theorize much more effectively about two things of the human species: observational learning (modelling) and self-regulation. Development of personality Of the hundreds of studies Bandura was responsible for, one group stands out above the others the bobo doll studies. He made a film of one of his students, a young woman, essentially beating up a bobo doll. (An inflatable, egg-shaped balloon creature with a weight in the bottom that makes it bobble back up when you knock him down).
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The woman punched it, shouting "sockeroo!" she kicked it, sat on it, hit it with a little hammer, and so on, shouting various aggressive phrases. Bandura showed his film to groups of kindergartners who liked it a lot. They were then let out to play. In the play room, where a brand new bobo doll and a few little hammers were placed, a lot of the little kids beat the bobo doll. They punched it and shouted "sockeroo," kicked it, sat on it, hit it with the little hammers, and so on. In other words, they imitated the young lady in the film. He called the phenomenon observational learning or modelling, and his theory is usually called Social Learning Theory. Bandura did a large number of variations on the study: the model was rewarded or punished in a variety of ways, the kids were rewarded for their imitations, and the model was changed to be less attractive or less prestigious, and so on. Responding to criticism that bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, he even did a film of the young woman beating up a live clown. When the children went into the other room and saw the live clown, they proceeded to punch him, kick him, and hit him with little hammers, and so on. All these variations allowed Bandura to establish that there were certain steps involved in the modelling process. Necessary conditions for effective modelling: 1. Attention. In order to learn anything, one has to pay attention. Anything that detracts on attention decreases learning. If, for example, an individual is sleepy, sick or nervous, he will learn less well. Just like if one is distracted by competing stimuli. Some of the things that influence attention involve characteristics of the model. If the model is colourful and dramatic, for example, people tend to pay more attention. If the model is attractive, or prestigious, or appears to be particularly competent, people will
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pay more attention. And if the model seems more like ourself, the tendency to pay more attention will be high. These kinds of variables directed Bandura towards an examination of television and its effects on children. 2. Retention. Second, we must be able to remember what we have paid attention to. This is where imagery and language come in: we store what we have seen the model doing in the form of mental images or verbal descriptions. We can then later visualise the image or description, so that we can reproduce it with our own behaviour. 3. Reproduction. At this point, the individual is just sitting there daydreaming. He/she has to translate the images or descriptions into actual behaviour to have the ability to reproduce the behaviour in the first place. For instance we can watch a table tennis player all day long, yet not be able to reproduce the skills, because we do not have the skills at all. On the other hand, if we could play the game, our performance would in fact improve if we watch players who are better than us. Another important fact about reproduction is that our ability to imitate improves with practice at the behaviours involved. Our abilities also improve even when we just imagine ourselves performing. Many athletes, for example, imagine their performance in their minds eye prior to actually performing. 4. Motivation. Yet, with all this, we are still not going to do anything unless we are motivated to imitate, that is until we have some reason for doing it. Bandura mentions a number of motives: A. Past reinforcement; as in traditional behaviourism. B. Promised reinforcements; (incentives) that we can imagine. C. Vicarious reinforcement; seeing and recalling the model being reinforced.
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These are, traditionally, considered to be the things that cause learning. Bandura is saying that they do not so much cause learning as cause us to demonstrate what we have learned. That is, he sees them as motives. The negative motivations are there as well, giving us reasons not to imitate someone: Past punishment. Promised punishment (threats). Vicarious punishment. Like most traditional behaviourists, Bandura says that punishment in whatever form does not work as well as reinforcement and, in fact, has a tendency to backfire on us. Dynamics of Personality Self-regulation: That is, controlling our own behaviour is the key source of human personality. Here Bandura suggests three steps: 1. Self-Observation: We look at ourselves, our behaviour, and keep that under control. 2. Judgment: We compare what we see with a standard. For example, we can compare our performance with traditional standards such as rules of etiquette. or we can compete with others, or with ourselves. 3. Self-Response: If we did well in comparison with our standard, we give ourselves rewarding self responses. If we did poorly, we give ourselves punishing self-responses. These self-responses can take the form of treating ourselves to a bottle of champagne or working late. It can also take the covert form of feelings of pride or shame. A very important conception in psychology that can be understood well with self-regulation is
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self-concept (better known as self-esteem). If, over the years, we find ourselves meeting our standards and life is loaded with self-praise and self-reward, we will have a pleasant self-concept (high self-esteem). If, on the other hand, we find ourselves forever failing to meet our standards and punishing ourselves, we will have a poor self-concept (low selfesteem). It is worth recalling here that behaviourists generally view reinforcement as effective, and punishment as fraught with problems. The same goes for self-punishment. Bandura sees three likely results of excessive self-punishment: A. Compensation a superiority complex and delusions of grandeur. B. Inactivity apathy, boredom, depression. C. Escape drugs and alcohol, television fantasies, or even the ultimate escape, suicide. These have some resemblance to the unhealthy personalities Adler and Horney talk about: an aggressive type, a compliant type, and an avoidant type respectively. Banduras recommendations to those who suffer from poor self-concepts come straight from the three steps of self-regulation: 1. Regarding self-observation know yourself. Make sure you have an accurate picture of your behaviour. 2. Regarding standards make sure your standards are not set too high. Do not set yourself up for failure. Standards that are too low, on the other hand, are meaningless. 3. Regarding self-response use self-rewards, not self-punishments. Celebrate your victories; do not dwell on your failures.

Strengths
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1. Banduras straightforward, behaviourist-like style makes good sense to most people. His action-oriented, problem-solving approach also appeals to those who want to get things done, rather than philosophize about ids, archetypes, actualization, freedom, and all the many other mentalistic constructs 2. The theory retains the experimentally-oriented flavour of behaviourism, without artificially restraining the researcher to external behaviours as the mental life of clients and subjects is so obviously important. 3. Banduras Social Learning Theory has maintained an important place in the study of aggression and criminal behaviour. In order to control aggression, he believes family members and the mass media should provide positive role models for their children and the general public.

Weaknesses 1. The theory completely ignores the individuals biological state. Also, social learning theory rejects the differences of individuals due to genetic, brain, and learning differences (Jeffery, 1985). For example, if a person witnessed a hanging or a violent murder, he or she might respond in many different ways. "Biological theorists believe that the responses would be normal and come from the autonomic nervous system which controls involuntary activity 2. In the bobo doll experiment, critics have argued that the children were manipulated into responding to the aggressive movie. The children were teased
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and became frustrated because they could not touch the toys. The experiment was unethical and morally wrong because the children were trained to be aggressive 3. Feshbach and Singer believe that television actually decreases the amount of aggression in children. They conducted a six-week study on juvenile boys who regularly watched television violence compared to juvenile boys who were exposed to non-violent shows. After the six-week period, they found out that the juvenile boys that viewed the non-violent shows were more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviour than the juvenile boys that witnessed the violent shows. "The study shows that the violence on television allows the viewer to relate with the characters involved in the violent act. In doing so, the viewer is able to release all aggressive thoughts and feelings through relation, causing them to be less aggressive than they would have been without watching the violent television(Feshback & Singer, 1971: p.247).. This theory that viewing violence on television leads to a decrease in aggression is called the catharsis effect (Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Melody, W.H.).

SKINNER AND BANDURA, THE POINT OF DIVERGENCE The following issues distinguish Bandura from Skinner and by extension, make him stand out clearly as a neo-behaviourist. His works on personality development sought among other things to:

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 To correct behaviourism's limited approach to psychology by emphasizing the importance of inner causes of behaviour, including thoughts, expectations, selfperceptions, and beliefs. To correct Skinner's overemphasis on external influences by showing that we exert a reciprocal influence on our environment. To correct Skinner's overemphasis on external influences by showing that we set standards for ourselves and reinforce ourselves for doing well, and that self-reinforced behaviour tends to be maintained more effectively than behaviour that has been externally reinforced. To correct Skinner's overemphasis on operant conditioning by showing that the

majority of human learning takes place through observation, and does not necessarily involve reinforcement. To argue that aggression and destructiveness are due primarily to observational learning (social learning, modeling), with emphasis on violence in the media. To show that the extent to which we believe that we can perform the behaviours required by a particular situation (perceived self-efficacy) has a significant effect on our behaviour. To show that psychopathology can be caused by dysfunctional thoughts as well as by faulty learning. To advocate methods of psychotherapy that help patients increase their perceived selfefficacy and believe that they can achieve their goals through their own efforts.

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COUNSELLING IMPLICATIONS OF SKINNER AND BANDURAS THEORIES 1. Maladaptive behaviours are learned. They can therefore be removed through systematic desensitization, a procedure which gradually teaches phobics to be relaxed in a situation that would otherwise frighten them.

2. Again, stemming from the behaviourists standpoint, maladaptive behaviour can be corrected by withdrawing the reinforcement that previously followed the behaviour.

3. Counselors can use shaping to elicit the right behaviours in clients that is by reinforcing successively closer approximations of the desired behaviour. 4. Since behaviour is learned it can be unlearned. Behaviourists do this by considering the stimulus response paradigm in their therapy. For example, a client who is a chain smoker and wants to quit smoking can be helped through the use of behavioural diaries which keep track of the details, the when and where of their habit: does the client smoke more after meals, with coffee, with certain friends, in certain locations? This behavioural diaries can then be used to
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establish the kind of cues associated with the habit. The environment is then altered. For example, the cues that lead to the bad behaviours are removed or avoided: putting away the ashtrays, drinking tea instead of coffee. These are then replaced with best suited good alternative behaviours. 5. Counselors can also use modelling to help people overcome certain neurotic fears. Banduras original research on this involved herpephobics people with a neurotic fear of snakes. The client would be led to a window looking in on a laboratory room. In that room is nothing but a chair, a table, a cage on the table with a locked latch, and a snake clearly visible in the cage. The client then watches another person an actor go through a slow and painful approach to the snake. He acts terrified at first, but shakes himself out of it, tells himself to relax and breathe normally and take one step at a time towards the snake. He may stop in the middle, retreat in panic, and start all over. Ultimately, he gets to the point where he opens the cage, removes the snake, sits down on the chair, and drapes it over his neck, all the while giving himself calming instructions. After the client has seen all this, he is invited to try it himself. Many clients (lifelong phobics) can go through the entire routine first time around, even after only one viewing of the actor. This is a powerful therapy.

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CONCLUSION It is clear from the exposition so far that the Behaviourist's theory is another attempt to explain human personality. Behaviourists believe that cultural and sub-cultural conditioning moulds and shapes behaviour and subsequently the personality. Rewards, denials, punishment, desensitization, aversion therapy, modelling are all constituents of this theory. To the behaviourist, normal behaviour results from acceptable conditioning, reinforcing and modelling, while abnormal behaviour results from defective conditioning, reinforcing and modelling. Even though both Skinner and Bandura agree that personality is developed in a social milieu, Bandura moved a notch up and introduced another strand by theorizing that personality is an interplay of what both nature and nurture has thrown ones way. In spite of this cleavage, Skinner and Banduras theories are mutually reinforcing.

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REFERENCES Bandura, A. (1975). Social Learning & Personality Development: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, INC: NJ. Corey, C. (2005). Theory and practice of counseling & psychotherapy. (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Evans, R.I. (1989). Albert Bandura: the man and his ideas---a dialogue. New York: Praeger Feshbach, S., & Singer, R.D. (1971). Television and Aggression, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco Gerbner,G., Gross,L.P., Melody,W.H. (1982), Violence and Aggression, Television and Behavior: Ten Years of Scientific Progress and Implications for the Eighties : NJ Guilliard, B., James, R., & Bowman, J. (1994). Theories and strategies in counseling and psychotherapy. (3 ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Jeffery, C.R. (1990). Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Prentice Hall, NJ
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Mischel, W. (1993). Behavioural conceptions. In W. Mischel, Introduction to Personality (pp. 295-316). New York: Harcourt Brace. Schwartz, B., & Lacey, H. (1982). Behaviorism, science, and human nature. New York: Norton. Skinner, B.F. (1983). A matter of consequences. New York, Knopf.
th

Weiten, W. (2007). Psychology: themes & variations. (7 ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Thomson Publishing Inc. http://www.mhcollegeco/socscienc/comm/bandur-s.mhtml

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