Due to its unique manner of migrating and pooling within soil pores and rock fractures, DNAPL in free-phase

or residual form is difficult to find and measure. DNAPLs typically contain chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds or industry-specific contaminants resulting from activities such as woodtreating, pesticide/herbicide manufacturing, or coking operations. Relatively small quantities of DNAPL that sink into soil and accumulate below the water table constitute a long-term source of groundwater contamination. Geophysical methods may be used for a number of purposes in DNAPL investigations and remediation: Geologic characterization, including lithology and thicknesses of strata and the topography Aquifer characterization, including depth to water table, general water quality, and water Contaminant plume distribution when a dissolved DNAPL chemical is mixed with other

of the bedrock surface below unconsolidated material, to assess preferential flow pathways; bearing fractures; contaminants that have properties that can be distinguished by the geophysical method (e.g., conductive landfill leachate); DNAPL mass location when the mass is sufficiently large to cause a resolvable change in DNAPL mass remediation by steam where the geophysical technique is used to track the the physical characteristics of the host matrix; movement of the steam front to ensure the area thought to contain the DNAPL is completely immersed; and Buried leaking drums or tank locations. DNAPL investigations and Geophysical methods may be used for a number of purposes in remediation. The choice of appropriate measures depends largely on site-specific geology, the types of subsurface anomalies that are of interest, and the cultural noise present at the site.

The following are lists of the various synonyms for the most common chlorinated solvents:
1,1,1-Trichloroethane TCA methyl chloroform Chlorothene Solvent 111 Tri-ethane Dichloromethane DCM methylene chloride methylene dichloride methylene bichloride Trichloroethylene Perchloroethylene TCE PCE ethinyl trichloride tetrachloroethylene ethylene Tri-Clene tetrachloride Trielene Nema Trilene Tetracap Trichloran Tetropil Trichloren Perclene Algylen Ankilostin Trimar PerSec Triline Trethylene Westrosol Chlorylen Gemalgene Germalgene

Principal uses of these solvents:

Application Adhesives Aerosols Intermediate Cold cleaning Dry cleaning Electronics Degreasing Paint stripping Urethane foam Miscellaneous Percentage use TCA DCM PCE TCE

9 11 20 6 44 3

29 8 9 27 10 8

1 29 56 11 85 4 6

Data from Pankow & Cherry (1996)

TCA - 1,1,1-TRICHLOROETHANE DCM - METHYLENE CHLORIDE PCE - PERCHLOROETHYLENE TCE - TRICHLOROETHYLENE

Main uses of chlorinated solvents

Solvent DCM (dichloromethane) TCM (trichloromethane) TCA - (trichloroethane) CTC (carbontetrachloride) TCE (trichloroethylene) PCE (perchloroethylene) Uses (in descending order of importance) Paint stripper, metal cleaning, pharmaceuticals, aerosols, acetate films. Fluorocarbon synthesis, pharmaceuticals. Metal/plastic cleaning, adhesives, aerosols, inks. Fluorocarbon synthesis, fire extinguishers. Metal cleaning, (>90% of UK use), dry cleaning, extractions. Dry cleaning, metal cleaning, intermediates in processes.
From RIVETT, LERNER AND LLOYD (1990)

Physicochemical properties of Chlorinated Solvents relating to contamination

It was the high volatility of chlorinated solvents that originally prompted the disposal practice of pouring spent solvent on dry ground, responsible for causing prodigious groundwater pollution (although the solvent appeared to volatilize, a

certain amount infiltrated and diffused into the subsurface). Once in the saturated zone, volatility has no significant effect on removing solvents. High relative solubility: a spillage can cause a high level of contamination relative Low absolute solubility: the rate of dissolution is low enough to allow the to a concentration considered harmful to DNAPL to sink to the base of the health. aquifer, forming pools which may The low viscosities of chlorinated solvents remain in place for many years. This allow them to migrate rapidly in the phenomenon makes a case for 'pump subsurface, where mobility is proportional to and treat' remediation methods. the density / viscosity ratio. Chlorinated solvents' high specific gravity (1.1 - 1.7) relative to water The low interfacial tension between water means that only a small head (pool and chlorinated solvents allow the liquids to height, H) is required to facilitate penetrate small aperture fractures and pore penetration of the water table. spaces, resulting in deeper penetration and Low degradability by chemical or a higher volume of DNAPL in a given biologically mediated reactions, giving amount of rock. a DNAPL the potential for a very long subsurface lifetime. What follows is a list of Organic Compounds that are DNAPLS. The data is taken from Pankow & Cherry (1996)

The groups of DNAPLs

Group Compound Absolute Density solubility (g/cm3) (mg/L) 200 1.63 1100 1.46 20000 1.33 1300 1.35 8000 1.49 500 1.11 825 1.59 140 1.31 119 1.29 4200 2.18

Chlorinated solvents

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Trichloroethylene (TCE) Dichloromethane 1,1,1-Trichloroethane (TCA) Chloroform Chlorobenzene Carbon tetrachloride 1,2-Dichlorobenzene 1,3-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dibromoethane (EDB) 1,1,2-Trichlorobenzene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene

Other halogenated organics Benzyl chloride

Bromobenzene Bromochloromethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform 4-Bromophenyl phenyl ether bis(2-Chloroethyl) ether 2-Chloroethyl vinyl ether 1-Chloro-1-nitropropane 4-Chlorophenyl phenyl ether Dibromochloromethane 1,1-Dichloromethane 1,2Difluorotetrachloroethane 1-Iodopropane Hexachlorodibutadiene Pentachloroethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrabromoethane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane 1,2,3-Trichloropropane
1,1,2-Trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane

4500 3000 10200 15000 4000

1.97 2.89 1.22 1.05 2.38

2900

1.6

Substituted aromatics, Chloroanilines phthalates, Chlorotoluenes and miscellaneous organics Nitrotoluenes Nitrobenzene Benzyl butyl phthalate Di-n-butyl phthalate Diethyl phthalate o-Anisidine Phenyl ether Tri-o-cresol phosphate [ PCB mixtures ] Aroclor 1221 Aroclor 1232 Aroclor 1242 Aroclor 1248 Aroclor 1254 Pesticides Chlordane Chloropicrin 1,2-Dibromo-3chloropropane 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,2-Dichloropropylene Dichlorvos Disulfoton Ethion Ethylene dibromide

Malathion Parathion

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