Interplay of static loads and subduction dynamics in foreland basins:

Reciprocal stratigraphies and the “missing” peripheral bulge

Octavian Catuneanu
Department of Geology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa
Christopher Beaumont
Paula Waschbusch
Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4J1, Canada

ABSTRACT
Foreland basins are created by superimposed mechanisms that flex the lithosphere. In
addition to static loads, dynamic loading below the basin by viscous mantle corner flow above a
subducting plate may cause long-wavelength subsidence. It is proposed that the interaction of
the static and dynamic forces is responsible for the formation and preservation of recently rec-
ognized “reciprocal stratigraphies” in retro-foreland regions above subducting slabs. Recipro-
cal stratigraphies refer to a correlative succession of strata characterized by contrasting stack-
ing patterns that reflect opposite base-level changes between proximal and distal settings. The
same interactions may also modify the stratigraphy of the flexural peripheral bulge and mask its
presence. An example from the Late Cretaceous of the Western Interior basin, Canada, illus-
trates the concepts.

INTRODUCTION ence is consistent with the reciprocal architecture of the Bearpaw and
It is generally agreed (see DeCelles and Giles, 1996, for a review) that Cannonball cycles from this region.
foreland basin systems form by the flexural warping of the lithosphere under
a combination of supralithospheric and sublithospheric loads. Flexure of the RECIPROCAL STRATIGRAPHY AND HINGE LINE POSITIONS
lithosphere under concentrated static loads generates a downwarp proximal FROM THE WESTERN INTERIOR BASIN
to the orogen, the foreland basin, and a low amplitude long-wavelength Examples of reciprocal correlation between proximal and distal
upwarp, the peripheral bulge or forebulge (Fig. 1). In addition to the static sequences in a retro-foreland basin are offered by the Bearpaw (late
loads, there is increasing evidence that dynamic loading by viscous mantle Campanian–Maastrichtian, ca. 77–65 Ma) and Cannonball (Paleocene, ca.
corner flow coupled to the subducting slab may superimpose long-wavelength 65–55 Ma) cyclothems in the Western Canada basin (the Canadian portion
subsidence, particularly when there is rapid subduction of a shallowly dip- of the Western Interior basin). These cyclothems include coeval marine and
ping slab beneath the foreland basin (Mitrovica et al., 1989; Gurnis, 1992; nonmarine facies separated by diachronous boundaries reflecting the time-
Holt and Stern, 1994). When combined, these loading mechanisms lead to transgressive character of both overall incursions and retreats of the interior
a conceptual model (Fig. 1) in which retro-arc or retro-foreland basins are seaways.
influenced by both static and dynamic loads. How can the signatures of
dynamic and static forcing be recognized?
Normally, when orogenic or slab pull static loads increase, the periph-
eral bulge is raised and eroded. The superposition of a sufficiently long-
wavelength dynamic subsidence can, however, offset the uplift of the bulge
and lead to sedimentation on the peripheral bulge as well as within the fore-
land basin. Under these circumstances the erosional characteristics of the
bulge are suppressed and “missing” from the stratigraphic record, and the
bulge may be unrecognizable. We suggest that this same superposition
creates a new stratigraphic package, which has recently been recognized
and termed reciprocal stratigraphies (Catuneanu et al., 1997). In the pres-
ent context, reciprocal stratigraphies are characterized by correlative prox-
imal transgressive and distal regressive strata and the converse situation.
The accommodation for the reciprocal strata is created by the combined
static and dynamic subsidence. The reciprocal properties of the strata
reflect the differential subsidence and uplift of the foreland basin and Figure 1. Static and dynamic loads that act on an orogen-foreland basin
peripheral bulge within the overall long-wavelength dynamic subsidence. system. Pro- and retro- refer to the subducting and overriding litho-
spheres. Static loads act at the surface (the orogen, foreland fold and
The latter provides the accommodation necessary to create and preserve
thrust belt, sediment and water) and beneath the system (e.g., slab pull).
the reciprocal strata. If correct, our interpretation indicates that reciprocal The subducting pro-lithosphere induces a dominant viscous corner
architecture provides a diagnostic tool by which static and dynamic loading flow (dashed lines) beneath the retro-lithosphere, which dynamically
may be recognized and separated. reduces the pressure and leads to subsidence (vertical arrows) of the
We interpret the absence of a recognized peripheral bulge in the retro-lithosphere that is greatest adjacent to the subduction zone. This
dynamical loading depends on the viscous drag force and is propor-
Canadian part of the Late Cretaceous–early Cenozoic Western Interior tional to the viscosity of mantle involved in the corner flow and the
(foreland) basin to be a consequence of superimposed moderate-wave- speed of subduction.The horizontal scale of the subsidence (λD in text)
length static flexure and long-wavelength dynamic subsidence. This infer- is maximized when the slab dip is small.

Geology; December 1997; v. 25; no. 12; p. 1087–1090; 4 figures. 1087

 The marine transgressive-regressive cycles of the Bearpaw strata have
been studied through facies analysis at the regional scale of the Western
Canada basin (Catuneanu et al., 1997). The analysis included outcrop and
core sedimentology of reference sections, gamma ray and sonic log corre-
lations along subsurface profiles (Fig. 2; Catuneanu, 1996), biostrati-
graphic (particularly ammonite) correlations (using the Caldwell et al.,
1993 synthesis), and the use of bentonite beds for correlation and chrono-
stratigraphy. As suggested by the lateral shift between open shelf and
shoreface facies, the fining-upward successions are identified as transgres-
sive systems tracts, whereas the coarsening-upward successions are identi-
fied as regressive systems tracts. Two distinct types of transgressive-
regressive sequences have been recognized within the basin: proximal-type
sequences (closer to the orogenic belt) dominated by regressive systems
tracts having a transgressive to regressive systems tract ratio of 1/3, and
distal-type sequences dominated by transgressive systems tracts having a
transgressive to regressive systems tract ratio of 3/1.
A reciprocal correlation between the proximal and distal stratigraphies
has been documented (Catuneanu et al., 1997): Proximal transgressive sys-
tems tracts and distal regressive systems tracts (as well as proximal regres-
sive systems tracts and distal transgressive systems tracts) can be mapped as
continuous, genetically related and correlative packages of strata with com-
parable thicknesses (Fig. 3). These results, anticipated in theoretical com-
Figure 2. Hinge line positions in the Western Interior basin during the
late Campanian and earliest Maastrichtian.
1088
puter models (Jordan and Flemings, 1991), are supported by extensive ben-
tonite seams that demonstrate that the correlative transgressive and regres-
sive strata are of the same age (Fig. 3). The proximal to distal facies change
takes place over an area a few kilometers wide that can be defined as a hinge
zone. The mid-point of the hinge zone may be taken as the stratigraphic
hinge line (distance λH from the orogen, Fig. 4).
Similar reciprocal stratigraphies between the proximal and distal
sectors of the Western Canada basin have been established for the
Maastrichtian-Paleocene nonmarine sequences, partially correlative with
or overlying the Bearpaw marine facies (O. Catuneanu and A. R. Sweet,
personal commun.). In addition, the interpretation of the coeval transgres-
sive and regressive shorelines indicated by Gill and Cobban (1973), in
terms of reciprocal proximal to distal stratigraphies and flexural tectonics,
allowed the mapping of the hinge line position on the United States side of
the Western Interior basin for the entire Campanian-Maastrichtian interval
(Catuneanu, 1996). As an average position for the Campanian-Paleocene
interval, the hinge line traces a semielliptical pattern outlining the region of
maximum foreland basin subsidence (Fig. 2; Catuneanu, 1996).
CONCEPTUAL INTERPRETATION OF RECIPROCAL
STRATIGRAPHIES
We interpret the synchronous reciprocal transgressive and regressive
systems tracts, described previously, to imply simultaneous deepening and
shallowing of the marine basin on either side of the hinge line. This be-
havior is attributed to a combination of static flexure of the lithosphere,
which changes sign between the proximal foredeep and the distal periph-
eral bulge (Fig.1; Beaumont et al., 1988; Jordan and Flemings, 1991) and
long-wavelength dynamic subsidence.
Static loads (LS, Fig. 4A) tend to be concentrated near the orogen and
result in flexure with an exponentially decreasing magnitude. At some dis-
tance, λS, static deflections become negligible. A static hinge line (at dis-
tance λHS) can be defined where negative static deflections (basin subsi-
dence) of a horizontal reference surface change to positive static deflections
of much lower amplitude (peripheral bulge uplift), and the converse occurs
when static loads decrease. The distance λHS depends on the flexural prop-
erties of the lithosphere and the distribution of static loads.
Dynamic loads (LD, Fig. 4A) are independent of static loads. They act
on a length scale determined by mantle corner flow (Fig. 1) and cause tec-
tonic subsidence of a horizontal reference surface over a distance λD. In
many circumstances, particularly for small subduction dip, λD > λHS
(Mitrovica et al., 1989).
When static and dynamic loads combine to cause subsidence and
λD > λHS, the tectonic deflection of the horizontal reference surface may
look like the solid line (Fig. 4B). The adjacent dashed lines (Fig. 4B) show
the conceptual change to the deflection when the static load is increased,
LS(I), or decreased, LS(D), while LD remains constant. Correspondingly, the
change in deflection when the dynamic load is increased, LD(I), or
decreased, LD(D), while LS remains constant is shown by the dashed lines
(Fig. 4C).
The sedimentary response can be complex. However, the general
effect is the creation of reciprocal increases and decreases in accommoda-
tion space on either side of λHS when LD is constant and LS varies. Corre-
sponding reciprocal transgressive and regressive systems tracts will be
created if sedimentation rates are smaller than the rate of change of accom-
modation space (Fig. 4B situation). This mechanism provides a simple
explanation for the creation of reciprocal stratigraphies. An increase in LD
provides an equally simple explanation for their preservation. The role of
the long-wavelength dynamic load is twofold: to create accommodation
space above the static peripheral bulge so that deposition, not erosion, will
occur, and to cause additional subsidence necessary to preserve reciprocal
sequences against later static uplift of the peripheral bulge. While LD
remains constant, as assumed in Figure 4B, λH ≈ λHS and the hinge line
position measures the normal static width of the foreland basin. The distal
GEOLOGY, December 1997
Figure 3. Diagrammatic illustration of reciprocal correlation between transgressive
and regressive systems tracts across foreland basin hinge line. A, B, C: proximal-
type sequences, 1, 2, 3: distal-type sequences. I, D: stages of inferred increasing (I)
and decreasing (D) static load in orogenic belt: I: proximal subsidence correlated
to distal uplift; D: proximal uplift correlated to distal subsidence. Distal ravinement
surface is superimposed on subaerial unconformity (sequence boundary), assum-
ing that nonmarine portion of the transgressive systems tract has been eroded dur-
ing marine transgression. In relationship to foreland basin flexural profile, coarsest
sediments are supplied to distal sector at end of orogenic unloading stages. Aver-
age thickness of third-order sequence is 25 m and corresponding time span is
0.75 m.y. Vertical scale represents both time and thickness.

regressive zone marks the peripheral bulge, which is apparently “missing”

because it is not uplifted and eroded. The mechanism also provides a prob-
able explanation for the creation and preservation of “back bulge” basins
(DeCelles and Giles, 1996; Giles and Dickinson, 1995) or an “eastern plat-
form” (Kauffman and Caldwell, 1993) (Fig. 4D) when dynamic subsidence
extends beyond the static peripheral bulge.
More specifically, Figure 4 (D and E) illustrates the simplest explana-
tion of Bearpaw reciprocal stratigraphies, the basin response to the tectonics
type shown in Figure 4B. Long-wavelength dynamic subsidence has created
marine accommodation space everywhere except the most distal craton.
Immediately adjacent to the orogen this space has been overfilled by sedi-
ment. As LS increases (Fig. 4D), proximal transgression (transgressive
systems tracts) will be coeval with forebulge regression (regressive systems
tracts) if the sedimentation rate is less than the rate of change of accommo-
dation space. The converse occurs when LS decreases (Fig. 4E).
Other stratigraphic responses can be envisaged. When LS and LD
change simultaneously, the positions of the transgressive and regressive sys-
tems tracts will depend on the rates of these changes and the sedimentation
rates. The distance λH is unlikely to coincide with λHS, and reciprocal stra-
tigraphies are improbable when dynamic subsidence exceeds static uplift of
the peripheral bulge. Equivalent reciprocal stratigraphies can be created in
nonmarine environments (Catuneanu et al., 1995). Their style depends on
the effect of dynamic and static loading on nonmarine (e.g., fluvial) accom-
modation space. It is notable that neither changes in the amplitude of LD nor
eustatic sea-level changes cause reciprocal stratigraphies when acting alone.
However, increases in one or both of these quantities are necessary in order
to preserve reciprocal strata. For example, the downward dynamic deflec-
tion (Fig. 1) is amplified during intervals when subduction rate increases. A
change in slab dip will also modulate the dynamical deflection. For exam-
ple, the overall effect of a decrease in slab dip is to increase distal accom-
modation space at the expense of that proximal to the orogen.
Figure 4. Conceptual effects of static (LS) and dynamic
(LD) tectonic loads on retro-foreland basins and some sedi-
mentary consequences. A:Tectonic deflection of horizontal
reference surface by loads acting independently for case
λD > λHS. B: Combined deflection when LS and LD act together
(solid line) and effect (dashed lines) of increases, LS(I), and
decreases, LS(D), in static load while LD is constant.
C: Sensitivity of same combined deflection (solid line, B) to
increases, LD(I), and decreases, LD(D), in dynamic load
while LS is constant (dashed lines). D and E: Topographic-
bathymetric profiles illustrating likely stratigraphic response
of basin to tectonics illustrated in B. Dynamic deflection has
created marine accommodation across most of basin.
D: Increased static load increases foredeep accommoda-
tion, reduces peripheral bulge accommodation, and leaves
back-bulge accommodation unchanged. If sedimentation
rates are less than rate of change of accommodation, proxi-
mal transgression (transgressive systems tracts) is coeval
with peripheral bulge regression (regressive systems
tracts). E:The converse of D.
SPECULATIONS REGARDING THE WESTERN INTERIOR
BASIN AND CONDITIONS FAVORING THE CREATION OF
RECIPROCAL STRATIGRAPHIES
On the largest scale, the eastward-dipping subducting plate beneath
western North America has been interpreted to have had a time-varying sub-
duction dip angle, largely based on sweeping magmatic patterns (Coney and
Reynolds, 1977; Armstrong and Ward, 1991, 1993; Constenius, 1996) and
varying subduction velocity (see Ward, 1995, for a review). If this interpre-
tation is correct, the changes in dip angle should be recorded in the foreland
basin stratigraphy as relative changes in the length scale, λD, of dynamic
loading. The magmatic patterns suggest that moderate to steeply dipping

GEOLOGY, December 1997 1089

subduction occurred during most of the Cretaceous period. Magmatism
migrated eastward during latest Cretaceous to early Eocene time (ca. 75–54
Ma), extending to a maximum ~1000 km east of the trench. This migration
is interpreted to result from a shallowing of the subduction dip. Early-
middle Miocene magmatism rapidly migrated westward, interpreted as a
return to a steep subduction dip angle.
What are the predicted consequences of such net changes in slab dip
angle (steep-shallow-steep) for the creation and preservation of reciprocal
stratigraphies? On the basis of λD estimates from Mitrovica et al. (1989,
Fig. 13), steep slabs (dip > 45°) have λD ≤ 500 km, so that λD ≈ λHS for the
Western Interior basin when the position of the supracrustal static loads east
of the trench is taken into account. Under these circumstances, the width of
a basin created by dynamic loads is similar to that of a basin created by static
loads and the potential to distinguish these mechanisms on the basis of
length scales is poor, particularly when the effects of other factors (e.g., sea-
level fluctuations, loading history, sediment supply, local heterogeneities)
are considered. The stratigraphy would most likely be interpreted as that
resulting from simple static orogenic loading, but the load would be incor-
rectly estimated. One diagnostic feature is that a normal peripheral bulge
should be recognizable when λD ≤ λHS. Shallow slabs (having dips of 30° or
20°) have λD ~ 1000 km or approaching 2000 km, respectively (Mitrovica et
al. 1989, Fig. 13). Therefore, λD > λHS for the Western Interior basin, and
the potential to distinguish dynamic and static effects on the basis of recip-
rocal stratigraphies increases. In addition, the net change in accommodation
space following a slab dip decrease is mainly one of increased wavelength
and can produce a distal stratigraphic signature that is similar to a first-order
sea-level rise. The converse occurs when subduction steepens.
The implications with respect to the Western Interior basin are as
follows. (1) Creation of reciprocal stratigraphies is favored when λD > λHS
(inferred to be approximately the 75–54 Ma interval) and peripheral bulges
may be “missing” (i.e., unrecognized) for this interval. (2) When λD ≤ λHS,
reciprocal stratigraphies are not favored (i.e., before ca. 75 Ma), but periph-
eral bulges are. (3) Preservation of reciprocal stratigraphies is favored when
λD > λHS and LD increases (i.e., times of accelerating subduction, inferred to
be the 75–55 Ma interval; see Ward [1995] for a review). These predictions
are in accord with the observations. Moreover, it is unlikely that eustatic sea-
level rise is the primary preserver of reciprocal stratigraphies in the Western
Interior basin during latest Cretaceous and early Cenozoic time because the
sediment thickness variation across the basin requires a persistent long-
wavelength component in accommodation space (Mitrovica et al., 1989).
CONCLUSIONS
Reciprocal stratigraphies have recently been identified in the Bearpaw
and Cannonball (77–55 Ma) cycles of the Canadian part of the Western
Interior basin. Reciprocal stratigraphies consist of correlative proximal
transgressive and distal regressive facies, and vice versa, and the interface
separating them, termed the hinge line, can be mapped in space and time.
Retro-foreland basins, including the Western Interior basin, are subject
to static and dynamic (mantle corner flow) loads, amplitudes LS and LD,
which cause subsidence with respective wavelengths λHS and λD. The sedi-
mentary response to these combined tectonic loads, when λD > λHS, is a
likely cause of reciprocal stratigraphies. The most simple combinations are:
LS varies while LD is constant (which creates reciprocal stratigraphies and
disguises the peripheral bulge), and LD increases while LS is constant
(which preserves these stratigraphies).
Our tectonic explanation of the Bearpaw and Cannonball reciprocal
stratigraphies is consistent with the inferred shallow dip (λD > λHS) and
acceleration (LD increasing) of the subducted plate beneath western North
America at that time, ca. 75–55 Ma. If the proposed relationship between
reciprocal stratigraphies and the tectonic model is confirmed, mapping such
strata has the potential to identify and separate static and dynamic effects in
foreland basin systems and to place constraints on paleo-subducting slabs.
1090 Printed in U.S.A.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Catuneanu acknowledges financial support from Natural Sciences and Engineering
Research Council (NSERC) research grant to Andrew D. Miall, University of
Toronto, and from Rhodes University. Beaumont was supported by an NSERC
research grant and the Inco Fellowship of the Canadian Institute for Advanced
Research. Waschbusch was supported by an NSERC International Postdoctoral
Fellowship and a Killam Trust Postdoctoral Fellowship during part of the time this
research was undertaken. We thank Susan Ellis and Russell Korsch for comments,
Timothy Lawton and Teresa Jordan for reviews that improved the manuscript, and
Earle Kauffman, who more than a decade ago impressed upon Beaumont that there is
more to the Western Interior basin than static flexure.
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Manuscript received April 7, 1997
Revised manuscript received August 26, 1997
Manuscript accepted September 18, 1997
GEOLOGY, December 1997