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JOURNAL
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MEMBERSHIP

OF THE EDITORIAL BOARD Director, ILGS (Editor-in-chief) UGBS, University of Ghana, Legon Studies, University of London

Dr. Esther Ofei-Aboagye, Prof. Ameyaw-Domfeh,

Prof. Richard Crook, Institute of Commonwealth Nana Boachie-Danquah,

UGBS, University of Ghana, Legon

Prof. Gordon Woodman, University of Birmingham, UK Prof. T.B Wereko, Former Director General, GIMPA

MEMBERSHIP

OF EDITORIAL TEAM

Dr. Esther Ofei- Aboagye (Editor-in-Chief) Dr. Callistus Mahama (Associate Editor) Ohene Sarfoh (Associate Editor) Sethina Annang Danquah (Design Editor) Mawunyo Amenyawu (Publications Assistant) Felix Amakye (Research Associate)

Annual Subscription Fee (including postage) Ghana: GH 30 Elsewhere: 50 USD

ISSN: 978-9988-1-1317-x COPYRIGHT 2009

Institute of Local Government Studies Printed in Accra by O'Mens Graphix

Journal of Local Government Studies

,BLE OF CONTENTS
Foreward Abbreviation Economic Decentralization And Local Economic Development: Concepts And Issues
Esther Oduraa Ofei-Aboagye
V

vii 1

Local Economic Development And Local Governments In Ghana: Navigating A Viable Path To Reform 29
Callistus Mahama

Urban Development And Poverty Reduction Some Institutional Issues

Olivia A. T. F. Kwapong

55

Planning Realities In The Northern Region: A Ground Level Perspective

Dan Olsen, Nicholas Jimenez, Jen Hiscock and G. Ian Gourley

67

Urban And Peri-Urban Agriculture (UPA): A Sustainable Livelihood And Poverty Reduction Strategy For Effective Local Governance Faustina Essandoh- Yeddu Security And Peace Building At The Local Level
Richard Abankwa Agyepong

89

113

Empowerment as a Key To Local Governance: Two Decades Of Decentralization In Ghana

Ben Kasimu Wumbla and Dirk Otten

137

Reflections On The Institutional Arrangements For Decentralised Rural Water And Sanitation Delivery In Ghana 159
Joseph Ampadu-Boakye and Nii Odai Anidaso Laryea

Communication And Networking As An Effective Tool For Disseminating Local Government Resources: A Case Study Of The Institute Of Local Government Studies Mawunyo Amenyawu

171

Journal of Local Government Studies

FOREWARD BY THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF The Journal of Local Government Studies aims at providing scholarly and authoritative source of information for academics and professionals in the field of Local Government in Ghana. Each edition of the journal is devoted to a particular theme of local governance in Ghana. In this particular edition contributors were encouraged to write on local economic developments issues at the local level. The responses have been encouraging as evidenced by the quality of papers accepted for publication. In all, there are nine articles in this edition. The first article reflects on local economic development and approaches to poverty reduction in Ghana. The paper provides a historical background to Ghana's efforts at placing responsibility for stimulating enterprise and employment creation with local authorities and reviews the administrative structures and mandates for local economic and social development in the current decentralization arrangements, as well as poverty reduction efforts at the local level. The second article assesses local economic development in Ghana by looking at the role local governments play in local economic development. Local governments are the primary stakeholders in local development but their roles have not been well supported as a result of a number of constraints. The paper examines these constraints. The third article focuses on institutional issues confronting the urban sector. Specifically provision of a snapshot of the economic and social conditions of selected urban areas in Ghana, identification of some of the critical institutional issues confronting urban areas in Ghana and suggestions of some policy directions that could be pursued to address the identified issues. The paper concludes that at the top of needed policy direction is political willingness and a genuine commitment to pro-poor policies. Observations on local governance and aid effectiveness in Ghana's Northern Region are the focus of the fourth article. This article explores three core problems that combine to create a difficult environment for effective planning by district assemblies. The next article describes the challenges of urbanization in most African

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countries including Ghana and its implications for livelihoods, access to basic services and food security. Urban planners often pay more attention to housing, water supply as against efforts at ensuring urban food security. Yet, urban agriculture has also provided a means of livelihood for some urban dwellers, and served as a source of employment for youth, women and others and could also be a major strategy for securing household food security and reducing poverty. The sixth paper looks at the principles of security at the local level through the analysis of some of the threats, effects, and the mechanisms for peace-building at the local level. It concludes that, due to the high cost of conflicts and also the equally high cost of post conflict reconstruction, peace building measures should be integrated into the activities and programmes of local authorities to ensure sustainable development. This next paper discusses African concepts of citizenship and approaches to participation and empowerment of citizens in order to consolidate local governance and democratic practice in Ghana. The framework for the delivery of community water and sanitation is the theme of the eighth paper. The paper reflects on the institutional arrangements which require the Municipal/District Assemblies to establish Water and Sanitation committees (WATSANs), Water and Sanitation Development Boards (WSDBs) and District Water and Sanitation Teams (DWSTs) to facilitate effective project implementation and sustainability of interventions at the community and district levels. The last paper reflects on the opportunities and challenges of networking at the In~titute of Local Government studies; It identifies the advantages that are associated with ILGS as a result of networking. It concludes by recommending solutions that could facilitate the full harnessing of networking to the Institute in the performance of its functions.

Editor-In-Chief

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Journal of Local Government Stumes

SECURITY AND PEACE BUILDING AT THE LOCAL LEVEL

RICHARD ABANKWAAGYEPONG Institute of Local Government Studies

Journal of Local Government Stumes

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SECURITY AND PEACE BUILDING AT THE LOCAL LEVEL

ABSTRACT The legitimacy of every state lies in its ability to provide protection, in 1 form of physical security, to its citizens in return for compliance with " legal requirements, or its ability to withhold protection, or even use -' coercive monopoly against its citizens as an alternative to voluntary co pliance (Toif, 1999). These therefore suggest a direct link between see rity, democracy and development. Democracy and sustainable devd ment becomes a reality when the citizenry feels very confident and ccfortable to participate in the governance process. This confidence, i: submitted, could be attained when there is peace within the communif. and this is the prime duty of the state exercised through its agents. -;'" paper therefore seeks to present a conceptual discussion on security .... peace building at the local level primarily situated within the Ghm decentralisation process. The paper looks at the principles of secl through the analysis of some of the threats to security, some of its effeand the mechanisms for peace-building at the local level. It concludes that, due to the high cost of conflicts and also the eq' high cost of post conflict reconstruction, peace building measures s/: be integrated into the activities and programmes of local authoriric: ensure sustainable development. This is important if all understand accept that conflicts are man-made hence its solution and/or preve should be human centered. This therefore requires governance strue at the local level to be strengthened to provide the platform for all sholders to pursue peace building activities and/ or programs.

Key words Security, Peace Building, Local Level, Conflict, Decentralisation

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INTRODUCTION The protection of life and property is a major function that every government must perform. In practical terms, governments are instituted among men, law and order, and to safe guard life and property. A society without law and order and a means of enforcements, is a society that functions in a state of nature where the strong rules. Historically, societies and communities evolve around a core group of persons who were considered to have the ability and resources to ensure their protection. As nations evolve and seek their identity, humanity has experienced different forms of conflicts ranging from empire building, colonisation and decolonisation, the propagation of ideology and belief amongst others. All this causes could be attributable to the ambitions of menlo It is therefore no coincidence that conflicts are described as man-made. Regardless of the cause and form of conflicts, they have resulted in destruction, pain and suffering to humanity. Many Sub-Saharan African countries have been involved in different levels of conflicts. Some of these conflicts could be described as liberation wars aimed at ensuring de-colonisation, (for instance, the liberation wars in the Rhodesia's (Zimbabwe), the ANC uprising against the apartheid government of South Africa, and the Maji-maji rebellion in East Africa) to civil wars with ethnic dimensions (for instance the succession war in Nigeria, the clan war in Somalia, and the 'genocidal' war in Rwanda amongst others). Towards the end of the 1980s, while the world was celebrating the end of the cold war and the collapse of the "iron curtain", West Africa woke up to the sound of armed conflict in its oldest independent state, Liberia. With the entry into Liberia of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia ., (NPFL) rebellion, with its varied composition2 and often obscured agenda, the region, which was peaceful for almost two decades after the bitter secession dispute in Nigeria, was caught unawares and conflict spread through other sovereign states.
1 2

Men or man is used in this context to refer to both sexes (males and females) it is argued by some commentators that the rebellion was composed of dissidents not only from Liberia but other west African countries as well.

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For instance, the states geo-politically referred to as the Mano River Union (MRU) states (Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea) suffered the most from this conflict. As noted by Gberie (2004), one of the troubling characteristics of the conflicts that erupted during this period was the deliberate targeting of civilians by various belligerent groups - often also involving state security agencies as well. Compared to the conflicts during the Cold War era, the level of violence directed at civilians during these periods has been unprecedented. A major cause of intrastate3 conflicts in the world can be attributed to the state failing in its responsibilities, notably, the maintenance of peace and security. According to Rotberg (2002), a fundamental function of states [local authority] is the provision and delivery of public goods. This includes security, rule of law, infrastructure and general welfare services. At the core of these public goods is security, since it has direct bearing on the provision of all other political goods. Rotberg in arriving at this conclusion described the state as being composed of two main pillars on which rests the people. The first pillar of the state is the institutional framework for the delivery of public goods and the second pillar is the function the state performs using the identified institutions. Based on the identified composition of the state, Rotberg further categorized the state into Strong state, Weak State, Failed State and Collapsed state 4 The categorization stresses the importance of security in the affairs of the state. These statement is further reinforced by Schlichte (2003, 28) when he writes " ... the state is seen as a political organization, sovereign in its relation to other agencies concerning the administration of violence and the economic order and the establishment and enforcement of rules." These descriptions of the state and the assumptions inherent in them, equip the state with an apparatus of coercion and control, with a capacity of extraction and an ability to set and enforce rules i.e., state controlled agents of security. Crucial to the expansion of the legitimacy of the state lies in the state's ability to provide protection, in the form of physical security, to its citi3 4

Intrastate conflict is used in this context to refer to conflicts confined to one state regardless of the fonn or level. Explanation and description of the categories are attached as an appendix

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zens in return for compliance with tax requirements, or it could withhold protection, or even use its coercive monopoly against its citizens as an alternative to voluntary compliance (Toit, 1999). This according to Toit (1999) hinges on the credibility of the state's claim to the monopoly on violence, for as Tilly (1985) puts it "A tendency to monopolise the means of violence makes a government's claim to provide protection, in either the comforting or the ominous sense of the word, more credible and more difficult to resist." Security in these context, is seen in the form of physical protection for each citizen against every other, against the arbitrary actions of the state [itself], and against threatening actions from beyond the borders of the state (Toit, 1999).Where the state's security apparatus is weakened or the state looses its monopoly for security provision for its citizens, the private sector may intervene with its attendant problems of vigilantism or warlordism. It is worth noting that where the private sector is allowed a role in the security of the state, there should be a clear monitoring mechanism and the states security apparatus should be strong and resolute in dealing with any deviations. There is a direct link between security, democracy and development, and this lies in the ability of the state to provide security to all citizens on an equitable basis. Security, including "human security", is a critical foundation for sustainable development. This implies protection from systematic human rights abuses, physical threats, violence and extreme economic, social and environmental risks, and territorial and sovereignty threats. Therefore, for states to achieve sustainable economic development there is the need for the state to help in the improvement in the lives of its citizens. In a democratic state, where citizens' participation in governance is a key ingredient, the coercive monopoly of the state is used to provide protection to all citizens as a basic right. Creveld (1991) supports this assertion by stating forcefully: "the most important single demand that any political community must meet is the demand for protection. A community which cannot safeguard the lives of its members, subjects, citizens, comrades, brothers, or whatever they are called is unlikely either to command their loyalty or to survive for very long .... The rise of the modem state is explicable largely in terms of its

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military effectiveness vis-a-vis other war-making organisations. If, as seems to be the case, that state cannot defend itself effectively against internal or external low-intensity conflict, then clearly it does not have a future in front of it". This statement provides a clear justification for the state to ensure its inhabitants live in peace and harmony with one other regardless of their linguistic, religious and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, it is of no coincidence that security of the citizens of the Republic of Ghana is giving much prominence by the Constitution of the republic. For instance, the preamble of Ghana's Constitution notes among others the "the protection and preservation of Fundamental Human Rights and Freedoms, Unity and Stability for our Nation" as one of the pillars for the Nation. Ghana in its quest to achieve the objectives and vision set forth in its Constitution has adopted decentralisation as a governance system to make governance and development participatory.

DECENTRALISATION, LOCAL GOVERNANCE AND LOCAL LEVEL SECURITY

Towards the end of the 20th century, decentralisation which promised better economic development mechanism swept through the developing world. Decentralisation refers to the transfer of decision-making from the central level to a local level with the aim of transferring power and resources to a level that is closer, better understood and more easily influenced by local people. These should result in gains in efficiency and competitiveness of service delivery, local economic development, better governance and greater accountability. Litvack (1998), further provides some reasons for effective decentralization as addressing some cross-cutting reforms, such as, fiscal development, microeconomic stability, poverty alleviation and social safety-net, institutional capy.city, corruption and governance, investment in infrastructure and the provision of social services. All this conditions have a bearing on the security of the state and the local community. Decentralisation provides the platform for more citizen engagement in the governance of their community and is an important ingredient in good governance which is deemed as an important vehicle for the achievement

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of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, crisis and conflict are key obstacles to human development, poverty reduction and the achievement of the MDGs. According to Hadi (2005), "crisis undermines development progress but poor or unequal developmental progress can also contribute to risks of crisis and human-made disasters. Freedom from the effects of crisis through preventing conflicts from becoming violent and natural hazards from becoming disasters - must thus be considered an essential pre-condition for the achievement of the MDGs". In this regard, effective local governance provides the right 'vehicle' for sustainable and equitable development of the country. THREATS TO LOCAL LEVEL SECURITY Local authorities the world over in the pursuit of their developmental goals are faced with many challenges, such as, inadequacy of resources (both human and financial), central government interference and citizen cooperation of stakeholders. However, within the Ghanaian context, there are certain factors that constitute a threat to local level security. Some of these are: Chieftaincy Succession The importance of chieftaincy in the governance of the country cannot be understated, this is emphasised by Boafo-Arthur (2002): "chieftaincy institutions have served not only as the centrepiece for mobilising people for communal development but also the effective link between the people and the central administration." Based on this recognition and other factors, chapter 22 of the Republic of Ghana Constitution is devoted to the chieftaincy institution. Article 270 (1) states "the institution of chieftaincy, together with its traditional councils as established by customary law and usage is hereby guaranteed." This article further prevents parliament or any state agency from interfering in functions, activities or the succession processes within the chieftaincy institution, rather a body independent of the state referred to as the National House Chiefs has been set up to adjudicate in chieftaincy mat-

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ters including succession. However this laudable virtue of the chieftaincy institutions not withstanding, the process of succession to either a stool or skin as may be described in the Ghanaian context often generates some levels of tensions which do often pose a threat to security at the local level. For instance, in 2001, there was a conflict situation within the Dagbon traditional area of the Northern Region of Ghana as a result of a protracted chieftaincy succession dispute. In the central region, chieftaincy succession dispute caused the celebration of a traditional festival (which is a major community development mobilisation platform) to be cancelled, in the Ga Dangbe traditional council, the installing and outdooring of the Ga Mantse (the King of the Ga Mashie traditional area) has faced several challenges including court suits, also within the same Ga traditional area. the installation of the Gbese Mantse (a divisional chief) led to the destruction of the palace and other properties and even injury to the members of the police service. In the Anglo traditional area of the Volta Region, the throne is currently unoccupied because of succession dispute. Though the various disputes or challenges surrounding the succession to the chieftaincy thrones in the different localities in Ghana maybe aimed ~at providing the "space and leverage" for the rightful heir to occupy the throne, however, its management and the actors can make it degenerate into a fully fledged conflict which could spread throughout the country. These disputes are also often exploited by politicians and other interested parties for their own parochial interest. For instance, the two gates involved in the disputes in the Dagbon traditional area of the Northern region of Ghana are tagged either NPP or NDC after the two leading political parties in Ghana, and exploited as such. Some potential conflict situations chieftaincy successions in Ghana, present at the local level were captured in the speech by Ghana's vice president Aliu, when he stated, "the delicate process of forging an integrated national identity could be seriously threatened by numerous disputes over chieftaincy succession and land ownership" (Sampson, 2006).

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Land Ownership The importance role land plays in the culture of Ghanaians cannot be underestimated. Various traditional proverbs underscore how intricately land and land ownership is bound into the social, economic, cultural and traditional religious lives of Ghanaians. Land is considered as the main form of wealth accumulation and the principal source of economic and political power. Land has both direct and indirect or facilitating roles in economic development. In sum land is seen in all the cultures of Ghana as a status symbol. For a long time, Ghana's land administration suffered because of its sheer complexity, insecurity of land holdings and lack of transparent access. Ghana's land tenure system recognizes the state, traditional authorities and individuals/ families as owners and custodians therefore has the property right to transfer ownership through outright sale or rent. The role of the local authorities however has been limited to the process of development of such acquired properties through the provision of site plans and the issuance of permits for the development of the lands so acquired. However, in the process of the land acquisition especially stool and family lands, there have been issues of multi sales of same parcels of lands. This "multiple sales" syndrome has led to some form of "militia" activities popularly referred to as "land guards". The activities of this land guards have resulted in the destruction of properties and the murder of several innocent persons in the country. For instance, two police officers were brutally murdered in Ablekuma, a sub...:rb Accra by land guards. The land guard menace has been so wideof spread that the Ghana police service has had to establish a unit within its :anks responsible for the combat of such a menace. Another threat of and-related conflicts is to do with the traditional control of land. Examples of such conflicts are the Alavanyo and Nkonya clashes, Peki md Tsito, all in the Volta Region of Ghana, the Nanumba and Kokomba 'ar could all be attributed to traditional land ownerships. -. must be emphasised that conflict situations, arising out of land owner..:lip,becomes more pronounced when the economic importance of the .:rnd has been identified, for instance the confrontation between the La uth in Accra and the State over the control of the La pleasure beach, the

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Ada Songhor land disputes and conflicts arising out of it. An emerging issue worftl addressing is what will happen when a victim of the activities of land guards also constitutes his or her own land guards for same activity? The District Assembly Structure Tbe current decentralisation process in Ghana aims at providing the opportunity to as many Ghanaians as possible to participate in the governance of the country. Article 241 of the Republic of Ghana Constitution enjoins the state to divide the country into administrative districts and also provide for the establishment of local government machinery referred to as the MetropolitanlMunicipal/District Assemblies (MMDAs) for the overall administration and development of the local area (District). However, over 15 years of implementing Ghana's decentralisation programmes and the Assembly concept, the creation of districts and the constitution of the Assembly has been noted, unfortunately, as a potential threat to local level security. Some of the instances could be the coverage and even the name of the district where local politics plays an important role rather than socio-development consideration. For instance, the christening of the district Komenda-Edina-Eguafo District Assembly (KEEDA) reflects all the traditional "chiefdoms" and the district boundaries reflect same. Another important issue worth noting is the citing of district capitals. Due to the traditional development perception that district capitals provides a node of development due to the need to establish offices and structures for the provision of certain social amenities which serves as ingredients for development. Evidently, several of the newly created districts5 underwent a period of bitter rivalry and lobbying to establish the need for citing such district capitals. When these issues are not well managed, the local government structures could become a vehicle destabilising the local area. Ethnicity The state of Ghana came into existence as a result of colonial exercise of grouping a number of settlements and dispersed population together for ease of colonial administration. Upon the declaration of independence, all settlements constituting the colonial administrative unit, referred to then,
~

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JOlima oj Loed Govemrzen! S,uaes

as the colony and those which sought to join it through the pre-ind~~ence plebiscite, became the state known as Ghana. The state is compos.ec of over twenty-five ethnic groups with varied cultures and belief systems. Due to the settlement patterns, some ethnic groups finds themselves becoming the minority while others dominate. Ethnicity in itself is not a bad concept as it provides a basis for cultural identification and a sense of belonging, but when exploited for negative purposes then the output could be an ethnic conflict and distabilisation at the local level. For instance, in 1994, there was an ethnic conflict between the Nanumba's and Konkomba's of the Northern Region of Ghana. Another dangerous by-product of negative usage of ethnicity is when politicians, in their quest to secure power, make unrealistic promises, such as, the granting of some land rites, the promising of some levels of political autonomy to minority ethnic groups or the organisation of political party activities along ethnic lines. This danger is clearly recognised by Article 55 (4) of Ghana's 1992 Constitution: "every political party shall have a national character, and membership shall not be based on ethnic, religious, regional or other sectional divisions." Furthermore, there could be ~ danger when leadership of ethnic groups are also perceived to favour one political party over the other. The Constitution also tries to address this through Article 276 (1), "a chief shall not take part in active party politics; and any chief wishing to do so and seeking election to parliament shall ab~icate his stool or skin".

Religion Though Ghana is considered a secular state, religion plays an important role in the development of the nation. Several religious denominations have co-existed in the country and have contributed immensely to the development of the nation. Religion, as a faith based activity, is a major form of social and community mobilisation. However, doctrinal differences, sectarianism, and blind enforcement of religious rules and beliefs can present threats to local level security. These tensions can be within the same religious faith, fot instance, thy reported conflicts between the Al-sunnah and Tijaniya sects of the Islamic faith and the tension which emeq~ed within the ranks of the Methodist Church of Ghana in the Tarkoradi circuit.
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The second source of threat to local level security is that which arises among different religious groups, for instance, the tension which arose between the Osu Wulomo (chief priest) and the leadership of the Christ Apostolic Church during the ban on drumming and noise making which precedes the annual festival of the Ga traditional council. These religious differences creates 'fertile grounds' and needs to be managed well since religion is a faith based activity and therefore members of a religious group tend to follow the instructions of the leaders 'blindly'. Weak Security Infrastructure The security agencies in every society are effective in maintaining la'\ and order to the extent that the citizens' are confident that their prope~ and well being are guaranteed. In Ghana, through Constitutional provisions, as well as, the Security and Intelligence Agency Act of 1996 (Act 526), different agencies and organisations have been tasked with the security if the citizenry. This Act also provides the guidelines and responsibilities of such agents and actors. Conventionally, people submit themselves for protection to their peers only to the extent of perceiving their peers stronger than they are and in a position to grant them protection from their adversaries. This partially informs the criteria for selecting agents of the securi~ agencies. Traditionally, recruitment into the Ghana Police Service for example, requires applicants to be of a certain height that is imposing enough to send signals to citizens and potential trouble makers that the~ have the strength and ability to protect the citizenry. However, when the public gain the perception that members of the security services are ineffective and therefore they (public) can violate the rules and codes of society, a condition for local level insecurity could be created. For instance, the public perception that the security agencies are ineffective in containing criminal elements in society and the judicia: service is ineffective in ensuring the effective and appropriate punishment of suspected criminals, the public resorts to usurping the authori~ of security agencies, and thereby assault and lynch suspected criminals often resulting in deaths and severe injury to sometimes innocent people. This act has been euphemistically referred to as "instant justice" or "mob justice"


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Urgent attention is required to address the phenomenon of -~ -tice" to avert potential serious conflict. An important issue worm ;:;. = __ is what could happen when a prominent person or even a tradition a: r.::..~ from a different ethnic group is murdered by another ethnic group C~ mere suspicion of being part of a criminal syndicate as happened in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana when the Hospital Administrator conveying the mortal remains of his mother-in-law was lynched. This is much more serious against the back-drop of the country's ethnic composition and the tensions inherent with it, as well as the role traditional rulers plays in the country's socio-cultural development. It can thus be concluded that an attempt by any person or party to undermine the credibility and effectiveness of the traditional security agencies could also mean weakening the security of the local areas. It is for this and other reasons that the security agencies are empowered to be resolute in dealing with security infraction swiftly and effectively to boost citizen confidence. Environmental and Demographic Factors The economies of many developing countries, including, Ghana is predominantly agricultural based and therefore vulnerable to the effects of environmental stress. The effects of the environment on human activities relates to the factors which directly affects the livelihoods of members of the community. In this regard the unavailability of agricultural land (both for farming and pasture), forests, water, and fish; contributes significantly to violence and conflicts (Percival and Homer-Dixon, 1995). These conditions of environmental scarcity or unavailability, or some negative effects of the environment on human lives are caused in three ways. The first is demand-induced scarcity, which is a result of population growth in a region, the second, supply-induced scarcity, arises from the degradation of resources, and the third, structural scarcity occurs because of the seriously unequal social distribution of these resources. These three types of scarcity are not mutually exclusive; they often occur I' simultaneously and interact. '
In many developing countries, in the quest to achieve rapid economic

growth, there is often 'unhealthy rivalry' between the community's use of

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land and the state's uses. For instance, the state may wish to offer an arguably fertile land, good for farming to a mining company for exploration. This often creates conflict situations in our communities. Also due to environmental changes, there has been the migration of nomads or herdsmen in search of pasture for their animals to graze, this results in competition for land between this herdsmen and local farmers, resulting in instances of numerous violent clashes between Fulani herdsmen and farmers in Eastern region of Ghana. Poverty and Illiteracy Poverty and illiteracy breeds ignorance and therefore undermine the development processes of the state. Poverty brought about by a perception of exclusion, discrimination, dispossession, especially in the areas of land rights and general lack of opportunities creates tension which could lead to threats to local level security. Communities with high levels of youth unemployment and equally greater levels of illiteracy provide a pool of disgruntled youth who could be mobilised to engage in criminal activities and the subsequent destabilisation of localities. Resettlement and Creation of New Settlements As nations develop or embark on the path of economic development, there will be the need for the development of infrastructures. This may sometimes require the state to acquire lands (depending on the land tenure system), and result in the creation of some settlement patterns or the need for the resettlement of members of communities where land has been acquired. Some of these infrastructure development activities that require the acquisition of land include the construction of hydro electric dams, the creation of industrial enclaves, schools, markets, hospitals. amongst others. In the development of the infrastructure of the nation and due to other natural disasters, inhabitants could be resettled as a safety measure. Resettlements create mass movement of persons and properties which have the potential of disturbing the socio-cultural norms of the receiving communities. For instance, upon the construction of the Akosombo hydro electric dam. many communities leaving along the flood plains were moved to new


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areas, in such a situation, traditional authorities were re-Iocated to areas which had unique traditional authority structures with the attendant problem of allegiance and cultural norms. Such resettlement programs can also create the problem of ethnic minorities and majorities with their attendant problems. Even the process of acquiring the land itself could be a source of conflict if it is not properly done and cultural and traditional considerations are not part of the negotiations. A proposal to address these potential threats to local level security could be the streamlining of the laws on compulsory acquisition, as well as, the rules on compensation payment and the general management of such rules to reflect local customs, norms and beliefs. Communication and Broadcast Technology

The importance of communication to the development of any society can not be understated. Their unique role in the development of Ghana led to the establishment of the National Communications Authority (NCA) to regulate the industry. In fact, many commentators have argued that the success of Ghana's democracy could partly be credited to the media industry which forms an integral part of the communication industry. Furthermore, the media serve as channels of information between the state and the citizenry and also serve as an important feedback mechanism for the state to evaluate its decision. But the unfortunate problem could arise when the important role of the media is allowed to be manipulated to serve sectional interest and for negative propaganda. A case in point is the role the broadcast industry played during the Rwandan civil war with the bulletins of the infamous Radio Kigali. It is worth noting that, due to the level of literacy among the citizens at the local level, broadcast technology should be used to advance the development needs of the people and help educate the citizens on their rights and responsibilities rather than to "inflame passions" that lead to conflict situations. Effects of Conflicts Violent conflict is certainly one of the most significant impediments to sustainable development. Besides the more immediate effects on human life, such as, war casualties and destruction of properties and social infra-

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structures, violence also affects societies in the medium and long term. For instance, mutual trust between different groups in society is destroyed in the course of violent action and poses a serious obstacle for more favourable economic and social relations (www.zef.de). Furthermore, violent conflict also has severe effects on issues, such as, health, education and on the future shape of society as well. At the local level, some of the effects of conflicts include issues enumerated below: Conflict areas serve as breeding grounds for criminal activities.;. violent conflicts create refugees and internally displaced persons. The pain and suffering such displaced persons might have gone through as a result of the loss of family members and property might make them more susceptible to criminal activities. This is especially so when people from diverse social backgrounds congregate together under such circumstance. Also the areas become breeding grounds for criminal activities as people could be easily mobilised. The reconstruction cost is very high: post conflict reconstruction, that is, the process of redeveloping after destruction of lives or property in violent conflict is expensive. This is particularly so because the process requires the stabilisation of the area first through adequate provision of security that sometimes requires the high concentration of a standing army or security agents. Furthermore, the cost of maintaining a high level professional expatriate staff to assist in the process of post conflict reconstruction is high. Violent conflicts create the problem of internally displaced persons: Conflicts result in mass movement of persons from the conflict areas into other areas. This movement creates distortion in the education and other economic activities of the people from the conflict areas. Displaced persons can also distort the culture and economic activities of the receiving areas. Negatively affects Investment Programmes of Local Authorities: the decentralisation programme being implemented in Ghana requires the assemblies to ensure the overall development of the local areas. Local authorities seek to achieve this through the promotion of local economic development programmes (LED). These programmes seek to provide an environment conducive to attracting private investment into local com-

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mumties, as obviously, no one invests in an insecure environment. Conflicts tend to serve as disincentive for investment and therefore affect local level development. Also in the area of investment in human resource, conflicts create a negative environment for the recruitment and retention of, often, competent and highly skilled professionals needed for the development of the local area. MECHANISM FOR PEACE-BUILDING AT THE LOCAL LEVEL

The first security guarantee in any society is when all members resolve to live in peace and harmony with each another, and pursue objectives devoid of ethnic, religious and other social considerations. This is much more important than the overbearing presence of security agents and logistics. For instance, there are more security agents in Baghdad (the Iraqi capital) than the whole of Ghana, but Ghana is relatively peaceful compared to Iraq and citizens undertake their normal economic and social activities without any form of threat to their lives and property. It is argued that, good governance creates the conditions for peaceful coexistence among members of a society. Some of the attributes of good governance are the rule of law, the preservation and protection of human life and property as well as responsible and accountable local office holders (this includes responsible behaviour of traditional authorities, in the disposal of stool lands a!1d other property, their strict adherence to traditions on the succession to stools or skins, and transparency in the adjudication of traditional and customary disputes). The resolution or prevention of violent conflict is key to poverty reduction and sustainable development. The realisation that processes of conflict resolution goes beyond the process of peace keeping, peace enforcement and post conflict reconstruction, to include the crucial process of preventing the re-occurrence of violent conflicts, led to the adoption of the principle of peace-building. The term peace-building was introduced by the former UN Secretary General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, in his policy paper: An Agenda for peace, presented to the UN General Assembly in June 1992.


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Peace-building as a concept of conflict resolution, seeks to address current and future conflicts and establishes structures aimed at preventing the reoccurrence of violent conflicts with the aim of promoting lasting and sustainable peace (DECD, 2005). By this definition, both the proximate and root causes of contemporary conflicts including structural, political, socio-cultural, economic and environmental factors are addressed. Stakeholders in applying the principles of peace-building for sustainable development need to adopt some mechanisms for attaining the goals of peace building. Some of these mechanisms are: the use of constructive engagement and creative approaches that provide incentives to peace; stakeholders must be transparent, communicate intentions, widen and deepen dialogue with partners at all levels in order to ensure ownership; actively engage all stakeholders (women, men and youth) in peace-building and policy-making processes; all actors need to take better account of the pervasive linkages between gender differences and violent conflicts and their prevention and resolution; reinforce local capacities to influence public policy, and tackle social and political exclusion.

In Ghana, the politico-administrative framework has made provision for structures to integrate peace-building in the governance. These structures are replicated at the local level for the management of local level insecurities. This is much more important because without local level initiatives and involvement, peace building remains incomplete and unsustainable (IDEA, 2005). These structures also ensure democracy at the local level as the platform is provided for citizen and civil society participation in governance. Democracy, it is argued provides the means for managing and resolving disputes peacefully, in an atmosphere of mutual trust. In the Ghanaian context therefore, some of the structures engaged in peace building at the local level are the District Assemblies, the traditional authorities (chieftaincy institution), local security agents, religious leaders, civil society organisations, opinion leaders and the general pub-


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lie. Though their mandate and resources vary, they often work collectively to achieve lasting peace at the local level. DISTRICT ASSEMBLIES The district assemblies perform the administrative and governance functions of the local area. They derive their mandate and authority from the Constitution of the Republic of Ghana. For instance, Chapter 20 and all the articles contained therein, enjoin the state to have a system of decentralisation with a clearly established local government system. The powers of the local government system, which include the protection of life and property within the local area for sustainable development, are exercised by the district assembly. The Constitution further provided for the enactment of an Act of Parliament to prescribe detailed activities of the district assemblies and also regulate their conduct. This led to the promulgation of the Local Government Act (Act 462) of 1993. The act provides for the establishment of an Executive Committee responsible for the performance of executive and administrative functions of the district assembly. In carrying out its functions, the Local Government Act also provides for the establishment of six mandatory sub-committees under the executive committees. One of the mandatory sub-committees is the Justice and Security Sub-Committee. The Justice and Security Sub-Committee is "charged with the resolution of intra-district and inter-district conflicts and considerations of issues pertaining to the enforcement of byelaws" (Woode 2002, 11). The establishment of these sub-committees clearly provides the framework for the district assembly to ensure peace and security at the local level. Secondly, the role of the District Assemblies in peace-building is enhanced by the Security and Intelligence Act (Act 526) of 1996. This Act presents a national framework for the prevention of breaches to the security of the nation. It recognises the important role the local level plays in the security of the nation, and this has informed the establishment of both a Regional Security Committees (REGSEC) and the District Security Committees (DISEC) as contained in Section 5(1) of the Act. The Act also prescribes the membership of the REGSEC and DISEC which is drawn principally from the executive council of the assembly.

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Section 9(b) prescribes their functions, thus, "A DISEC, shall in relation to the district provide early warning to Government of the existence or likelihood of any security threat to the Government." TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES The term "Traditional authorities" is used in this context to refer to the chieftaincy institution. Chiefs as heads of traditional authorities are responsible for the control and management of all resources of the traditional authority. They also play an important role in the land tenure system of Ghana. Succession to a stool or skin in chieftaincy is also hereditary but unfortunately in Ghana many of the ethnic groups do not have clear and well laid out succession plans, which often create conflict situations. Considering the important role of traditional authorities, their vital role in pursuing peace building programmes at the local level cannot be overemphasised. In fact, the traditional authorities through the various houses of chiefs have a critical role to play in averting local conflicts as a result of chieftaincy successions. Their authority over people within a traditional area also positions them adequately for influencing disputing parties and ensuring peace at the local level. RELIGIOUS LEADERS Religion as a faith based concept provides the leadership of the various religious denominations the moral authority over followers. Though Ghana is constitutionally a secular state, religion plays an important role in the social affairs of the citizens. In this regard, religious leaders have a greater role to play in peace building programmes. For instance, inter faith dialogue has been used as one of the tools of peace building in Ghana. This has to a large extent averted conflicts which have hitherto been associated with the annual ban on drumming and noise making preceeding the Homowo festival in the greater Accra region.

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CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS

(CSOs)

Civil society organisations through their mobilising and advocacy work provide a "voice" for many segments of the society. The nature of their activities enables them to interact adequately with both the public and the state, and also enables them to articulate their views and concerns. An important ingredient in peace building is the ability of the stakeholders to interact with each other, and these CSOs have a greater role to play. Also some sections of the CSO community are engaged in providing humanitarian services to victims of conflict. This position creates trust and respect and to a greater extent a bond among the parties to the conflict and the organisation. This relationship could be utilised for peace building engagement, s~nce trust is important in any peace building initiatives. Finally, in Ghana, the majority of CSOs operates at the local level and deals directly with the local communities. This enables them to integrate much more freely with the local community and therefore could provide early warning signals to the state in preventing conflicts. CONCLUSION The various discussions on conflicts point to the fact that all causes of conflict are man-made, hence, its solution and/or prevention should also be human centered. It is equally quite clear that there is a direct correlation between democracy and conflict prevention. This assertion is boosted by the statement of former UN Secretary General, Mr. Kofi Annan that, "democracy is practiced in many ways, and none of them is perfect. But at its best it provides a means for managing and resolving disputes peacefully, in an atmosphere of mutual trust" (IDEA, 2005,1). In this respect therefore, democratic structures, such as, the local government system which provide the platform for citizens' participation in governance need strengthening. Peace building is a complex task which involves different stakeholders with different expectations and time lines. But what needs to be made clear is that peace building is a continuum which requires long term perspective in assessing its successes or failures. However, the success of Peace building efforts should be observed in the citizens' ability to live in harmony with one another rather than the absence of violent conflicts.

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As a means of pursuing peace building programmes, the governance structure of the country must make adequate provisions for peace building programmes. At the local level, the composition of the district assemblies and the procedures and legislations for the conduct of assembly business all provide opportunity and justification for the assemblies tc lead in peace building programmes to ensure adequate security at the local level. It could thus be concluded that, since conflicts are man-made, preventing conflicts is imperative because post-conflict reconstruction and peace building efforts are more difficult and expensive. Yet when conflict does break out, peace keeping and peace making efforts like preventing the conflict recurring is profoundly in the interest, not only of the inhabitants of the conflict ridden areas, but also for the stability of the whole nation and the world at large. Due to the high cost of conflicts and also the equally high cost of post conflict reconstruction, peace building measures should be integrated into the activities and programmes of local authorities to ensure sustainable development.

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REFERENCE
Boafo-Arthur, (2002) Chieftaincy and Politics in Ghana since 1982, West Africa Review ISSN: 1525-4488 Vol. 3, No. 1. Du Toit, P. (1999) Peace building in Africa: Prospects for security and democracy beyond the state. In African Security Review, Vol 8 No 1, 1999 (10/04/2007). Hadi, S.(2005) Enhancing Local Governance through Decentralization Policy in Managing Conflict-Affected Regions in Indonesia, Paper presented at the International Conference on Engaging Communities; UNDESA/UNCRD Workshop on Decentralization: Poverty Reduction, Empowerment and Participation, Brisbane, Australia, 14-17 August. IDEA. (2005) Democracy and Peace building at the Local Level: Lessons Learned; A Report of the Programme in Democracy and Conflict Management; International IDEA (Institute for Democracy and Election Assistance) Working Draft [13 June] Litvack, 1. (1999) Human Development Report, World Bank, Percival, V. and Homer-Dixon, T. (1995) Environmental Scarcity and Violent Conflict:

The Case of Rwanda (Part 1). Occasional Paper, Project on Environment, Population and Security, Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science and the University of Toronto, June (http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/eps/rwanda/rwandal.htm ) Sampson, P. D. (2006) The Ghanaian Times, Monday January 9 ,6. Van Creveld, M. (1991) The Transformation of War, Free Press, New York, 199.

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PROFILE

OF CONTRffiUTING

AUTHORS

ES THER OFEI-ABOAGYE hold<;a PhD from the University of Binningham and an MA from Carleton University. She has extensive experience in local governance and has been a mernber of many local government statutory bodies. She is currently the Director of the Institute of Local Government Studies. Her research interests inclure genrer and local governance, local government administration, nomic revelopment and community improvernent initiatives. Email: eofeiaboagye@ilgs~.org local and eco-

CALLISTUS MAHAMA hold<; a PhD and an MPhil from the University of Cambridge, England and a B.Sc from KNUST. He is a chartered Surveyor. His research interests inclure local government administration, socio-economic impact assessment, local and regional economic revelopment, planning, monitoring and evaluation. Email: callistus@ilgs~.org O. ADWOA TIWAAH FRIMPONG KWAPONG hold<; a PhD from the

University of Ghana. She has studied as a special Doctoral Candidate at Harvard University. She is currently a senior resirent tutor at the Institute of Adult Education, University of Ghana. Her studies have focused on areas of genrer and revelopment, infonnation and communication technologies, open and distance learning and rural and urban revelopment. Email: okwapong@ug.edJ..gh DANIEL OLSEN gradIated in 2005 from McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada with a Master's Degree in Applied Science in Civil Engineering. His thesis project centered on reveloping a recision support system for rural water supply in Tamil NadI, India. Following his Master's program, he worked for three years with CH2M Hill Engineering Consulting finn, as a water and wastewater infrastructure project manager. Daniel is currently working with the Engineers without Bord:rs Governance and Rural Infrastructure team in the Northern Region of Ghana. He worked in the Central Gonja District Assembly for four months supporting the revelopment of a data management system and tools for facilitating evirence-based recision making, and is currently with the Northern Region Planning and Coordinating Unit in Tamale. Email: danielolsen@ewb.ca GATO IAN GOURLEY gradIated in 2004 with a Bachelor's regree in Sociology from University of California Santa Cruz. In 2007, he graduated with an MSc in Development Management from the Lonoon School of Economics and Political Science. Over the years, Gato Ian has worked with a variety of organizations including: the University of California Atlas of Global Inecpality, the Global Infonnation Internship Program,Acaremic Associates PeaceWorks (Nigeria), and Marin Organic. Currently he is on a year's placement with Engineers Without Borrers Canada (EWB) in the Northern Region of Ghana. Since March 2009 he has been working with EWB's Governance and Rural Infrastructure team involved in activities at the the Central Gonja District Planning and Coordinating Unit. His research interests inclure

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aid effectiveness, process of dxentralization, on state revelopment. Email: gatogourley@ewb.ca

and the effects of natural resource wealth

JEN HIS COCK Graduated in 2004 from Carleton University, Ottawa Canada with a
Bachelor's regree in Engineering. After a few years of working as a research engineer for the fereral government in Canada, she combined her interests with technology revelopment and human revelopment by embarking on a 13 month placement in Ghana through Engineers Without Borrers, Canada. She worked with the Regional Planning and Coordinating Unit in Northern Region to revelop systems supporting a more rigorous planning process, and to help create a Strategic Plan for Capacity Development - a first of its kind effort by the region and for the region. She has just returned to Ottawa to apply the knowledge and skills she reveloped in Ghana where she now works with the Department of Natural Resources Canada, helping to implement their recently reveloped Strategic Science & Technology Development Plan. Email: jenhiscock@ewb.ca

NICK JIMENEZ got involved with EWE in 2004 while attending the University of British Columbia studying Civil Engineering. After two years of working with the university's chapter in presentations to high school classes in Vancouver, fund raising, and ching outreach events, Nick was selected to go on a four month placement with EWE. In Livingstone, Zambia, Nick worked alongsire district agriculture staff, in mobilizing rural communities to maintain communal earth dams. Upon returning to Vancouver, Nick led a team of motivated university volunteers to reach over 1400 high school sturents that year through EWE. After graduating with his bachelor's regree in Civil Engineering, Nick qualified for a placement in Saboba, Ghana, with EWE. While there, he worked alongsire District Assembly staff to formalize an infrastructure sitting process. Aiming to increase government transparency and improve evirence based planning, district assembly staff and Nick created a new borehole ranking tool, and performed a district-wire survey and sensitization activity to link communities to the government. Now back in Canada, Nick is currently seeking employment opportunities in Civil Engineering and hoping one day to return again to Africa. Email: nickjimenez@ewb.ca
holds a Masters Degree in the Management of Development (Genrer and Agriculture), Larenstein University of Professional Education Deventer, The Netherlands; Masters in Adult Education, University of Ghana, Legon; Post Graduate Certificate in Public Administration, GlMPA; BSc. Tropical Agriculture (Genrer & Extension Work), Larenstein International Agricultural College, Deventer, The Netherlands and Diploma In Home Science, University of Ghana, Legon.

FAUSTINA ESSANDOH-YEDDU

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Her interest ~ure Agriculture and Home Science Extension, Rural and Community Developme.m. Participatory Approaches, Programme Planning, Adult Teaching Techni<pes.Entrepreneurial skills, Group dynamics, Leachship skills and cbvelopment issues.

I
t

She has worked extensively with Department of Community Development for almost 20 years and rose to become the National Co-ordinator for Women's Work Programme. She currently works with the Institute of Local Government Studies as LecturenTrainer and also assists in Consultancy work. Email: fessandoh@yahoo.com RICHARD ABANKWA AGYEPONG is a lecturer of the Institute of Local

Government Studies (ILGS). He holds a Master of Philosophy (MPhil) regree in African Studies (Gender and Development Option) from the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, Legon and a Master of Public Management (MPM) degree from the Universitat Potsdam, Germany. Professionally, he has been in the employment of the ILGS since November 1999. He has progressed through the ranks from a position of research Assistant through Research and Consultancy Officer to the current position of a lecturer in the Faculty of Local Government Achninistration. In acXJitionto his core function, he serves as the focal person for some of the Institute's external collaborations such as the GTZ/LRED program, the GRAP and the LOGNet. Email: richard@ilgs-edu.org DIRK OTTEN obtained his degree from the University of Cologne, Germany in African Studies, Anthropology and Linguistics. After his degree, he was a member of a special research unit and later on project-coordinator at the University of Bayreuth, Germany. From this, several research trips to Eastern and Southern Africa emerged. Besides this research orientation on African Studies and his activities as a lecturer, his focus lies on applied developmental work as well as conflict transformation. Since 2006, he has been working for the DED (German Development Service) at the ILGS Tamale in Northern Ghana, on the support and promotion of decentralization reforms and the democratization process in the three northern regions. Subsequently, his view on development intervention is emphasizing an integrating approach. He is currently co-editor of qfrikanistik-online, a digital peer publishing journal. Email: dirk.otten@web.de BEN KAS IMU WUMBLA is employed at the Institute of Local Government Studies (ILGS), Tamale Campus. He is the project-coordinator for the collaborative activities of ILGS and the German Development Service. He holds an M.A. in Development Studies from the Institute of Social Studies (lSS), The Hague (Netherlands) and a B.A. in Political Science from the University of Ghana, Legon. His research interests include conflict and conflict transformation, governance and decentralization, indigenous knowledge management, participation, human rights, and environmental management, among others. Email: benkaswu@yahoo.com

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JOSEPH AMPADU-BOAKYE is a dwelopment planner and a Member of the

Ghana h1stitute of Planners (GIP). He is a Senior Consultant with MAPLE (Management, Planning and Environment) Consult, a private revelopment consultancy firm based in Accra. He has interest and expertise in recentralisation, revelopment planning and management and water and sanitation issues. He has successfully carried out consultancy assignments for several local and international organisations notably the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD), h1ternational Development Association (IDA) and Danish h1ternational Development Agency (DANIDA). Email: maplecon@4u.com.gh

NIl ODAI ANIDASO LARYEA is a revelopment planner and a Director of MAPLE (Management, Planning and Environment) Consult, a private revelopment consultancy firm based in Accra. he has interest and expertise revelopment planning, water and sanitation and capacity building and training. He has been at the forefront in the resign and implementation of several district based water and sanitation projects in Ghana. He has interfaced strongly with national, regional, district and sub district level stakeholrers especially in Ghana's rural water and sanitation sector. Prior to joining MAPLE Consult, he had worked with lGIP Consulting Engineers, United Nations Development Programme/Ghana Water and Sewerage Corporation and the Water Resources Research h1stitute of the Council for Scientific and h1dustrial Research.
Email: maplecon@4u.com.gh

MAWUNYO AMENYAWU graduated from the University of Ghana, Legon in

2007 with a BA in h1formation Studies. She currently works at the h1stitute of Local Government studies as a Public Relations Assistant. Her research interests inclure information technology and management and networking among public institutions. Email: mawuny07@hotmail.com

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