Proceedings of the Eleventh (2001) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference Stavanger, Norway, June 17-22, 2001

Copyright 2001 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers ISBN 1-880653-51-6 (Set); ISBN 1-880653-55-9(VoL IIO; ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)

Bulk Carrier Corrosion Modelling

C.P. Gardiner and R.E. Melchers
The University o f Newcastle Newcastle, Australia

ABSTRACT Methods for modelling the progress of corrosion with time in bulk carriers are investigated. Operational parameters affecting the rate of corrosion are identified and their relevance to the current approach to modelling corrosion progress outlined. It is suggested that these parameters should be accounted for when sampling databases of survey thickness measurements. Progress at developing a physicallybased method of corrosion prediction is then reported. Models representing corrosion in porous media and enclosed atmospheric environments are presented. These relate to corrosion within a loaded cargo hold and empty spaces, respectively. KEY WORDS: bulk carrier, ship, corrosion, coal ~TRODUCTION Bulk carriers are used to transport coal, iron ore, grain and other bulk cargoes. Paik et al., (1998) report the relative frequencies to be approximately; 40% coal, 35% iron ore and 20% grain. The remaining 5% constitute less common cargoes such as bauxite, limestone and scrap steel. Single side skin and double bottom layout using mild steel is the most common structural arrangement, although, double side skin designs and high strength steel are also employed. A schematic diagram of a typical single side skin bulk carrier is shown in Figure 1. Coal cargo is loaded to the full depth of a cargo hold. Iron ore has a considerably higher density than coal and therefore a full load of iron ore does not occupy the full space of every cargo hold. When sailing without cargo the topside ballast tanks, lower hopper tanks and double bottom ballast tanks are ballasted with seawater to obtain an acceptable draft. The forepeak tank may also be ballasted on long ballast voyages and/or in rough seas. Additionally, one cargo hold is also designated as a ballast hold and used to control draft during cargo handling procedures in port. The remaining life assessment of bulk carriers has assumed increased importance in recent years. This is most likely due to the continued tendency of structural failures to occur on older vessels (Mortensen, 1998) and aging of the worldwide fleet. Typically, remaining life assessment is part of a strategy for safe and economical fleet management. In its most advanced form it involves a probabilistic assessment of slTuctural loading and resistance. Structural resistance

refers to the capability of a structure to resist a load state and is timedependent (Melchers, 1999). This is due to the effect of deterioration caused by fatigue and/or corrosion. A reasonable understanding of fatigue and its influence on ship structural integrity is available (eg., Capanoglu, 1992). However, a comparable understanding of the effects of corrosion is still developing, as discussed below.

Ha~hcover

Topside Ballast Tank

rS
UpperStool
"Frames

Sideshell

Cargo Hold

DuctKeel

l~lest Tank

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of single-side skin bulk carrier crosssection. Viner and Tozer (1985) describe the main types of corrosion that can occur in ship structures. They also identified the factors which influence corrosion, including salinity of seawater, temperature, marine fouling, pollution, corrosion films, speed of flow, straycurrents, frequency of tank washing, humidity and oxygen availability, cargo type, cargo residues and mechanical abrasion. Evidently, this is a formidable array of factors and suggests that accurate prediction of corrosion rates is likely to be difficult. Corrosion processes occurring in tankers have been described by Pollard (1991) and the Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum (TSCF,

609

1992, 1997). Estimates of tanker corrosion rates are available from survey thickness data (Pollard, 1991; TSCF, 1992, 1997; Loseth, 1994). Estimates of corrosion rates for various ship types, derived from compilations of survey thickness data, have been given by Yanamoto et al., (1994) and Ohyagi (1987). Such statistical summaries can indicate whether corrosion is likely to be a problem and which areas are more likely to be affected. However, such aggregated data are not necessarily useful for developing maintenance strategies for an individual vessel since there are likely to be considerable differences in the environments encountered by each vessel. The corrosion specifically of bulk carriers has been considered only recently. Yanamoto and Ikegami (1996) proposed an empirical probabilistic model for estimating the corrosion rates of corrugated bulkheads and bulkhead stools in bulk carriers. Similar approaches were taken by Paik et al., (1998) and Guedes Soares and Garbatov (1999) for estimating corrosion rates of longitudinal strength members, and tank top plating and sideshell plating, respectively. In addition Paik et al., (1998) discussed factors that influence the progress of corrosion, namely; the types of cargo and the time in ballast, the effectiveness of corrosion protection, the location of components and their orientation, and their ability to collect or trap seawater, the levels of oxygen and temperature, and the degree of local flexibility. Yanamoto and lkegami (1996) suggested three stages; (i) wear of a protective paint coating, (ii) initiation of corrosion, and (iii) actual corrosion of exposed steel. Somewhat different models for stages (i) and (iii) were described by Paik et al., (1998) and Guedes Soares and Garbatov (1999). The ability of each model to represent corrosion progress in a bulk carrier is determined by several factors, including; (a) how well the underlying model represents the corrosion phenomenon, (b) how well the model can represent the uncertainty of parameters influencing corrosion, and (c) the quality of the data used to determine the empirical model parameters. The literature has tried to address point (a) with some degree of success, such as through dividing the progress of corrosion into the stages of wear of protective coatings followed by corrosion of exposed steel. Point (b) is not addressed directly by any of the proposed models. In the main, the model parameters are calibrated empirically against measured survey thickness (or corrosion rate) data. Modelling and measurement of the parameters influencing corrosion does not appear to be undertaken. Point (c), about the quality of the data, is particularly relevant for empirical ship corrosion models. Survey thickness data such as reported by Yanamoto and Ikegami (1996) and Paik et al., (1998) is characterised by high variability, with coefficients of variation for corrosion rates derived from each database typically greater than 0.50. Similar variability has also been documented for tankers (Pollard, 1991; Violette, 1994) and various ship types (Ohyagi, 1987). The above models for bulk carrier corrosion are each based on reasonable assumptions about the progress of corrosion and are therefore likely to be useful for corrosion prediction purposes. However, tighter estimates of corrosion might be achieved if the variability of the database could be reduced. To do so would require survey thickness data with clearer discrimination of the operational and other parameters that influence bulk carrier corrosion rates. This has been the subject of recent research (Gardiner, 1999), and is discussed below. In addition, comments are made about the development of corrosion models for bulk carriers. This work is aimed at developing physically realistic models for corrosion and for the influence, both in magnitude and in variability, of the contributing parameters.

PARAMETERS AFFECTING CORROSION The aim of this section is to relate influencing factors to parameters that define bulk carrier operation. Such parameters may be used to refine procedures for sampling survey thickness databases. The factors that influence the rate of corrosion of bulk carriers include those relating to operation (type of cargo, time in ballast) and those relating to ship detail, such as component location and orientation and the ability to collect/trap seawater (Paik et al., 1998). Similar factors were identified by Viner and Tozer (1985) for various ship types and by Pollard (1991) for tankers. Based on observations and discussions with ship surveyors, general corrosion is considered to be the most widespread form of corrosion occurring on bulk carriers. This observation is suggested by Paik et al., (1998), although Yanamoto and Ikegami (1996) considered pitting corrosion to be more important for bulkheads. The rate of general corrosion can vary with time either due to a change of exposure environment or due to the effect corrosion products providing an increasing resistance to oxygen diffusion as the corrosion product layer becomes thicker and less porous. The internal structure of a bulk carrier is exposed to a range of corrosive environments and these do not necessarily remain constant throughout the normal operation of a bulk carrier. As a result, characteristic patterns of corrosion can become evident for each internal space (cargo hold, ballast tank or void space). Similarly there can be variation within each space, with some structural components more prone to corrosion than others. Typical patterns of corrosion found to occur in bulk carriers are now described. Tank Top Plating The tank top plating forms the inner plating of the double bottom structure (Figure 1). The upper-surface usually is uncoated and general corrosion with minimal retention of corrosion products is typical, due to the abrasiveness and aggresiveness of the cargo. Thus corrosion of tank top plating evidently may be expected to remain approximately constant with time if operational conditions remain consistent. Typically there is considerable plate dishing. In addition, due to grab impact, localised indentation of tank top plating is a common occurrence. This leads to the breakdown of the protective coating on the under-surface of the plating, within the duct keel and in the double bottom ballast tanks. During inspections a clean and powdery corrosion product was observed on these surfaces. This is consistent with observations in semi-enclosed and open marine atmospheric exposure sites which indicate that this type of corrosion product offers minimal protection (Panchenko and Strekalov, 1990; Wo, 1984). Evidently, the coating breakdown and the resulting increased corrosion caused by excessive impacts from cargo grabs, is related to the frequency of cargo changes. Lower Stools Lower bulkhead and side stools are typically uncoated. When coatings are used they usually have a short lifetime again due to the abrasiveness and aggresiveness of the cargo (Yanarnoto, 1997). Observations undertaken as part of the present study showed corrosion to be approximately uniformly distributed, the presence of a thick corrosion product layer, and fewer indentations compared to the tank top plating. This suggests less mechanical abrasion and damage from cargo impact, grab and bulldozer operations occuring on the lower stools compared the adjacent tank top plating. There was evidence of magnetite (Fe304) in the inner layer of the corrosion product immediately adjacent to the steel. Typically magnetite is formed in the oxygen reduced zone of the corrosion product layer and its presence indicates that corrosion rates may decrease with time as

610

the magnetite layer becomes thicker and less porous. Such a trend is consistent with corrosion rates deduced by Palk et al., (1998), who reported that average corrosion rates for bulk carriers up to the age of 15 years as 0.14 mm/yr for tank top plating, and 0.13 mm/yr for lower stools. For ships up to the age of 25 years, the rate of corrosion of tank top plating remained at 0.13 mm/yr, while for lower stools it decreased to 0.08 mrrdyr. However, the data could have been influenced by unknown plate replacements. Samples of corrosion product taken from a lower side stool of a bulk carrier engaged in coal and iron ore transport were analysed by powder x-ray diffraction to determine the primary crystal structures. Several ferrous hydroxides and oxyohydroxides were found, including magnetite and akaganeite, respectively. As noted earlier, magnetite is relevant and the detection of akaganeite confirms the presence of chloride ions in the corrosive environment. An iron sulphate compound (Fe2(SO4)H2SO42HzO) was also detected. The presence of chloride and sulphate in the corrosive environment is due to leachate from coal cargo and/or saltwater from cargo hold washing. Sideshell Frames Typically each component of a sideshell frame is fully paint coated. Field observations of ships engaged in the carriage of coal and iron ore cargo indicate that the protective paint coating applied to the lower bracket connection wears further than other components. This appears to be associated with contact from iron ore cargo. Similar observations can be made from data reported by the classification society Nippon Kaiji Kyokai (NKK, 1992), despite their overall conclusion to the contrary. A summary of corrosion rate data for the sideshell frames of a vessel reported to carry coal for approximately 80% of voyages and iron ore for 20% is shown in Figures 2 and 3.
0.350.30. 0.25.

0.35.

0.30.
0.25. E

= Upper Region =- - Mid Region Lower Region

g 0.20.
g
0.15-

'~ O.lO8 0.05 0.00 Cargo Hold Number

Figure 3: Average corrosion of sideshell frame- web plating, data from Case 4 (NKK, 1992). Data from case 3 in NKK(1992) for a vessel reported exclusively to carry coal cargo shows a reasonably even distribution of corrosion over the vertical section of sideshell frames (Figure 4). It appears that the rate of corrosion over the vertical span of sidesheU frames is only even for vessels engaged primarily in the carriage of coal cargo. Vessels carrying a proportion of iron ore cargo (normally loaded only part-depth) appear to have a higher corrosion rate at the lower bracket cormection due to premature coating wear. Evidently the type of cargo is apparent.

Upper Region
0.50 -

0.452
o.4o-'

g e
w t-.
O

0.20.

0.352 0.302

0.15.

Bow

Stern

z
.~
o O

0.25: 0.20:
0.15

~ 0.10, 0.05.

: A

Upper Region Mid Region Lower region

0.10 0.05 0.00

Cargo Hold Number

0.00

~~

~ ~

Cargo Hold Number

Figure 2: Average corrosion of sideshell frame - flange plating, data from Case 4 (NKK, 1992). It is apparent that corrosion rates are higher for the lower connection. Furthermore, the increasing material loss with depth is more evident for the flanges (Figure 2) than the webs (Figure 3). Flanges are more freely exposed to cargo and therefore this observation is consistent with cargo induced wear and hence loss of protection.

Figure 4: Average corrosion of sideshell frame - web plating, data from Case 3 (NKK, 1992). The free moisture of coal and iron ore in the loaded condition typically varies in the range 5-9 wt% and 3-5 wt%, respectively. Therefore, increased moisture at the sideshell due to sweating is not necessarily the cause of corrosion. However, as will be shown, moisture variation does affect the rate of corrosion and therefore factors affecting sideshell sweating are important. It can be shown that sidesbell sweating is a function of the temperature of cargo and the local seawater (Gardiner, 1999). These are a function of trading route.

611

Ballast Tanks Inspections undertaken during this study showed topside tanks to have larger areas of coating breakdown and rust than double bottom ballast tanks (DBBTs). Again, this is consistent with average corrosion rates calculated for a large number of bulk carriers (Paik et al., 1998) and should be expected. Firstly, unlike DBBTs, topside tanks are not subjected to coating breakdown caused by indentation of plating due to cargo handling procedures. Also, both the mean temperature and the range of temperature are likely to be higher in the topside tanks compared to DBBTs. Accelerated coating breakdown and high corrosion rates for under-deck structures has commonly been attributed to higher temperatures (eg., Viner and Tozer, 1985; Violette, 1994). In addition to the above factors, the corrosion environment within a tank is determined by the ballast condition, which in turn is determined by the loading condition of a vessel'. This is illustrated in Figure 5. When the vessel is fully loaded, the ballast tanks are deballasted and exposed to an enclosed atmospheric environment with humidity approaching 100%. It is commonly accepted that corrosion occurs when the relative humidity exceeds approximately 70% (Strekalov, 1998) and that in this condition sacrificial anodes are ineffective. When the vessel is in the unloaded and ballast condition, the tanks are fully pressed, and corrosion will proceed by immersion in seawater. The rate of corrosion may be limited, however, as sacrificial anodes, if installed, are effective in this condition.

Other Factors Two other parameters are relevant also. These are the corrosion protection system, and the location and orientation of members. The rate of corrosion within ballast tanks is strongly influenced by the type of corrosion protection system (coating only, or coating plus anodes). The location of a structural member determines to what extent it is exposed to ballast or different types of cargo, and wear and mechanical damage from cargo handling. The orientation of a member may also be a consideration, independent of location. This is primarily related to moisture retention and the potential to form a protective corrosion product layer. However, this remains to be clarified (Gardiner, 1999). Summary The parameters listed in Table 1 are considered to have a strong influence on the corrosion rates of a bulk carrier. Table 1: Parameters influencing bulk carrier corrosion rates. Operational Parameters Cargo Ratio Ballast Ratio Trade Route Coal Corrosivity Frequenc~ of Cargo Changes Internal (vessel-related) Parameters Type of Corrosion Protection Member Location

Ballast Tank Corrosion

PHYSICALLY-BASED CORROSION PREDICTION

Corrmlon Protection

Protectlvc Coating & Sacrificial Anodes

TankStatus

g
Corrmlon Coadlflou Immersion

g
[

Cormslon at Coating Breakdown

Enclmed Atmospheric Exposure Coating at Breakdown

Area of Coating Breakdown Protected by Sacrificial Anodes

A common approach to the prediction of corrosion rates in atmospheric and seawater environments is to fit a regression equation to measured data An alternative approach is to develop models that represent the physical and chemical attributes of the corrosion process. The magnitude and variability of ship corrosion rates, for example, may then be predicted based on a probabilistic assessment of the magnitude of the variables to which a vessel is likely to be exposed. This section briefly reports progress in developing this approach for a loaded cargo hold and for empty ship spaces. Loaded Cargo Hold Coal and iron ore cargo represent types of porous media that contain moisture. The existence of moisture makes these cargoes corrosive to mild steel. Moreover, the quantity of moisture, temperature and impurities such as chlorine and pyritic sulphur determines the level of corrosivity. Laboratory experiments have been conducted to investigate the effect of moisture content on the corrosivity of coal and iron ore (Gardiner, 1999). Two types of coal were sieved to three different size fractions, -600+0, 600-1180, and 1180-2360 microns. One iron ore sample was sieved to 600-1180 microns. Uncoated mild steel specimens were then covered with each size fraction of coal and iron ore to a depth of 18mm, at various levels of moisture, for a period of six weeks. Results for the two coal types and the iron ore sample are shown in Figure 6. The moisture is represented as a percentage of the maximum Water holding capacity (MWHC) of the sample.

Figure 5: Ballast tank corrosion conditions. A more detailed discussion of ballast tank corrosion is available (Gardiner, 1999). In summary, the main factors influencing the corrosion rate (or consumption of anodes) are temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen concentration. It follows that the ballasting state of the vessel and its trading route will have a significant effect on the 'rate of corrosion of ballast tanks. Coal Corrosivity The corrosivity of coal can be highly variable. The most significant constituents that affect corrosivity are chlorine and pyritic sulphur. Pyritic sulphur may also facilitate the formation of acidic leachate (Rawat, 1976). The mining location and and source of coal governs the extent of corrosive impurities in coal. For example, Australian black coals are known to have generally lower quantities of sulphate compared to coal from other countries (ISR, 1999). The concentration of chlorides and sulphates can vary between 50-1000 parts per million and this has been shown to have a large effect on corrosivity (Spero and Flitt, 1988). Additionally, the temperature and moisture content also influence corrosivity.

612

0.16. 0.14. 0.12.

: Coal A (600-1180) ---e--. Coal A (1180-2360) ....a,... Coal B (0-600) -'-~"- Coal B (600-1180)

calculated moisture and oxygen content of fine-particle surface deposit. Some example results for a cargo hold of depth 18.5m and breadth 47.0m are now considered. The initial moisture content of coal cargo was assumed to be 8 wt% and the initial cargo temperature 300K. The temperature of air and seawater outside the cargo hold was assumed to remain constant at 295K and 291K, respectively. Figures 7 and 8 show the variation of oxygen concentration and water vapour concentration as a function of time and depth along the centreline of the cargo hold, respectively. The moisture content of fine-particle coal on the furface of the upper and lower stools and sideshell plating is shown in Figure 9. The increase in moisture at the sideshell ("sideshell sweating") is due to the boundary condition where the backside of the plating is exposed to seawater, as opposed to upper and lower stools thatare exposed to air on the backside. From this, the calculated corrosion rate is shown in Figure 10. It is observed that the corrosion rate initially increases during the voyage and then decreases as the moisture at the surfaces moves out of the critical 60-80 %MWHC range.

-.-.-..-co=B(118o-2o5o) / ....... Iron 0re(600-1180) '

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0.00

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........

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10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100 110

Moisture (% Maximum Water Holding Capacity)

Figure 6: Experimental results for coal and iron ore exposure. It is seen that the maximum corrosion rate occurs approximately in the range of 60-80 %MWHC for both types of coal and the iron ore sample. Mild steel samples were also placed on the access ladder on the lower bulkhead stool of a cape-size bulk carrier for a triangular voyage of coal - ballast - iron ore operation. The mean and standard deviation corrosion rate of the eleven samples was 0.10 and 0.014 mm/yr, respectively. This is similar to the maximum corrosion rates measured in the laboratory for fine-particle coal and iron ore (Figure 6) and suggests that these experiments are representative. Based on these results and visual observations it has been proposed that the corrosion of mild steel exposed to coal and iron ore cargo is dominated by contact with fine-particles that wear off the cargo and adhere to the surface (Gardiner and Melchers, 1998). The observed relationship between corrosion rate and moisture content for coal and iron ore may be described as follows. As the moisture is increased from a dry state the electrical conductivity increases, thereby accelerating the electrochemical corrosion reaction. When the moisture increases further a continuous phase of fluid is established and the electrical conductivity approaches a constant value. At this point the gaseous phase (air) becomes discontinuous and the diffusion of oxygen to the corroding surface is hindered. The cathodic reaction then becomes increasingly limited and the corrosion rate decreases as the moisture approaches saturation. Theoretical calculations supporting this proposal and a corrosion rate model representing the phenomena have been developed (Gardiner and Melchers, 1998). The model parameters are; moisture, oxygen content, salt concentration, particle size and porosity. Unfortunately, it is currently difficult to use the corrosion model noted above to calculate corrosion rates in a bulk carrier cargo hold because the model parameters appear never to have been measured adjacent to cargo hold surfaces. Nevertheless, a theoretical approach has been developed to illustrate the procedure (Gardiner, 1999). Three steps are involved; (i) calculate cargo environmental parameters (temperature, oxygen and moisture distributions), (ii) calculate the oxygen and moisture content of fine-particle media on each surface as a function of the cargo environmental parameters, and (iii) use the proposed corrosion model to calculate corrosion rates. The first stage is based on a model adapted for a cargo hold configuration from Arisoy and Akgun (1994) for self-heating of coal stock-piles due to oxidation. The calculation of step (ii) involves a moisture adsorption isotherm described by Gardiner (1999). Finally, the corrosion model noted above is used to calculate the corrosion rate as a function of the

0.300.25 ~" i o 0.200.15, 0.10 0.05, O 0.00

! i i i , i = . i J * . f .

initial 2 days 6 days 12 days

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Relative Depth from Top of Cargo Hold

Figure 7: Calculated distribution of oxygen concentration in gaseous phase of coal in cargo hold.

0.025. 0.020e I " 1~ ~ / " -~

----.

- - , - - i

_,c

0.015-

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O

V ~ . - - - - - V - - V - - I I ~ - - - - - - V i V - -

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0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

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Relative Depth from Top of Cargo Hold

Figure 8: Calculated distribution of water vapour concentration in coal cargo hold.

613

100 9080-

A v

2 days 6 days 12 days

T - air temperature, k=, k2, k3 - constants TOW - time of wetness. The TOW represents the total cumulative time the relative humidity is greater than a critical value (~,70%). For ballast tanks the TOW is equal to the duration of the voyage as the relative humidity is continuously near 100% in the de-ballast condition. The model has been in part verified using atmospheric exposure data from the literature (Figure 11) (Gardiner and Melchers, 1999). At this time the model has not yet been verified with measurements from a bulk carrier.

7060 5040-" 30" 20 -~ 10-" 0 0.0

i i i . i . i . i i i . i i

"",,...._.,...
"-..,___,___,
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=;

Sideshell
0.5 0.6 0.7

Lo~werStool
0.8 0.9 1,0
0.7-

Relative Depth from Top of Cargo Hold

.~ 0.6-

Figure 9: Vertical distribution of moisture along upper and lower sloped plating and sideshell plating for coal cargo hold.

O~0.5E "

0.40.3-

0.16'

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0.04

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Observed (Mass Lossrrovv) (mm/yr)

Upper Stool
0.00
g i . i = -

Sideshell
= i .

Lower Stool
i i i

Figure 11: Predicted corrosion rates using equation (1).

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.0

1.0

Relative Depthfrom Top of Cargo Hold

CONCLUSION

Figure 10: Vertical distribution of corrosion rate along upper and lower sloped plating and sideshell plating for coal cargo hold.

At present, the proposed method is not fully validated as it has not been yet been possible to obtain all necessary measurements.

Enclosed Atmospheric Corrosion It is usually considered that the corrosive nature of coal cargo and the occurrence of mechanical damage during cargo handling are the most significant modes of deterioration within a cargo hold. However, corrosion can be considerable when a hold is empty. As noted, atmospheric corrosion occurs when the relative humidity increases above approximately 70% (Strekalov, 1998). This also applies to deballasted tanks and also to void spaces. Based on a theoretical analysis of corrosion under a thin film and a review of atmospheric exposure data and reported trends from the literature, a linear model has been proposed to calculate the thickness loss due to corrosion per voyage (Gardiner and Melchers, 1999); ML Voyage where; ML/voyage- mass loss per voyage, [Salt] - surface salt concentration, TOW(k, + k2[Salt]+ k3T )

Bulk carrier corrosion rates, in general, are highly variable. Corrosion occurs due to exposure to porous media (the cargo), due to enclosed atmospheric environments or due to immersion in seawater. It is suggested that existing models for estimating corrosion rates can provide improved corrosion rate estimates. To do so requires that they be calibrated by selectively sampling databases of survey thickness data to discriminate between parameters that influence corrosion. Important parameters are; cargo ratios, ballast ratios, trading route, coal corrosivity, frequency of cargo changes and type of corrosion protection. It is likely that the availability of such data will increase in future as computerised databases for recording ship data become increasingly available. The corrosion rate of mild steel exposed to coal or iron ore cargo is strongly dependent on the moisture content of the cargo. A maximum corrosion rate occurs when the moisture is in the range of 60-80 % of the maximum water holding capacity (defined by wt%).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was supported by the Australian Maritime Engineering Cooperative Research Centre.

(i)

614

REFERENCES Arisoy, A, and Akgun, F (1994), "Modelling of spontaneous combustion of coal with moisture content included," Fuel, Vol 73, No 2, pp 281-286. Capanoglu, CC (1992). "Fatigue technology assessment and strategies for fatigue avoidance in marine structures," U.S Department of Commerce. Gardiner, CP (1999). "Corrosion analysis of bulk carriers," PhD Thesis, The University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia. Gardiner, CP, and Melchers, RE (1998). "Corrosion under a fineparticle porous medium," Research Report No. 170.10.1998, Department of Civil, Surveying and Environmental Engineering, The University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia. Gardiner, CP, and Metchers, RE (1999). "Enclosed atmospheric corrosion in an unloaded bulk carrier cargo hold," Proc. Corrosion & Prevention-99, 2 !-24 Nov 1999, Sydney, Australia, Paper 045. Guedes Soares, C, and Garbatov, Y (1999). "Reliability of maintained, corrosion protected plates subjected to non-linear corrosion and compressive toads," Marine Structures, Vol 12, pp 425445. ISR (1999). "Australia's Export Coal Industry," 5th edition. Industry Science Resources - Energy Minerals Branch - Department of Industry Science and Resources, Commonwealth of Australia. Loseth, R, Sekkesaeter, G, and Valsgaard, S (1994). "Economics of high-tensile steel in ship hulls," Marine Structures, Vol 7, pp 31-50. Melchers, RE (1999). "Structural Reliability Analysis and Prediction", 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons. Chichester, England. Mortensen, NB (1998). "Bulk carrier safety - the view and role of an industry organisation,". Proc. of International Conference on Design and Operation of Bulk Carriers, Royal Institution of Naval Architects, London, UK, Paper I. NKK (1992). "Study Report on Bulk Carriers Loss," Nippon Kaiji Kyokai. Ohyagi, M (1987). "Statistical survey on wear of ship's structural members," NK Technical Bulletin, pp 75-85. Paik, KP, Kim, SK, and Lee, SK (1998). "Probabilistic corrosion rate estimation model for longitudinal strength members of bulk carriers," Ocean Engineering, Vo125, No 10, pp 837-860. Panehenko, YM, and Strekalov, PV (1990). "Corrosion kinetics of metals by coastal atmospheres in a semienclosed site," Protection of Metals, Vol 26, pp 589-593. Pollard, RR (199l). Evaluation of corrosion damage in crude and product carriers. Report No. SMP-I, Department of Naval Architecture & Offshore Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, 67 pp. Rawat, NS (1976). "Corrosivity of underground mine atmospheres and mine waters: a review and preliminary study," British Corrosion Journal, Vol I 1, No 2, pp 86-91.

Spero, C, and Flitt, HJ (1988). "The corrosion performance of mild steel in coal leachate," Materials Forum, Vol 12, pp 73-78. Strekalov, PV (1998). "The atmospheric corrosion of metals by adsorbed polymolecular moisture layers," Protection of Metals, Vol 34,No 6, pp 501-519. Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum (TSCF), (1992). "Condition evaluation and maintenance of tanker structures," Witherby & Co. Ltd., London. Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum (TSCF), (1997). "Guidance manual for tanker structures," Witherby & Co. Ltd., London. Viner, AC, and Tozer, DR (1985). "Influence of corrosion on ship structural performance," Hull New Construction Division No. 85/29, Lloyd's Register of Shipping. Violette, FLM (1994). "The effect of corrosion on structural detail design," Proe. of International Conference on Marine Corrosion Prevention: a re-appraisal for the next decade, London, U.K. Wo, DW (1984). "Mierostructure of rust layers on carbon and lowalloy steels due to atmospheric corrosion in tropical regions of Vietnam," Protection of Metals, Vo120, pp 62-65. Yanamoto, N, Kumano, A, and Matoba, M (1994). "A study on life assessment of ships and off-shore structures - 2nd Report: Effect of corrosion and its protection on hull strength (in Japanese)," Journal of the Society of Naval Architects of Japan, Vol 176, pp 281-289. Yanamoto, N, and Ikegami, K (1996). "A study on the degradation of coating and corrosion of ship's hull based on the probabilistic approach," Proc. of the International Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Symposium (OMAE '96), Vol 2, pp 159-166. Yanamoto, N (1997). "Probabilistic corrosion model of ship structural members", Proc. of the 11th International Maritime and Shipping Conference (IMAS '97), Paper I, pp 5-11.

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