GOEBBELS' CONCEPTION OF PROPAGANDA Author(s): HANS HERMA Reviewed work(s): Source: Social Research, Vol. 10, No.

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GOEBBELS5 CONCEPTION OF PROPAGANDA1

BY HANS HERMA
Opeaking of National Socialist propaganda,Goebbels claims to in have developed "such a virtuosity the art of controllingthe in us massesthatsimilarattempts othercountries impress as mere He dilettantism."1 prides himselfon having created a "unique of modernpropaganda,"theaccomplishments whichmake foreign If "turnpale withenvy"and fillthemwithamazement. we experts and achievement hintsas to how such amazingprogress look for as: in we were accomplished, find, the same work,such statements mustnot lie. Propaganda "Good propagandaneed not lie, in fact, whichmakesuse of thelie ... cannothave successin thelong run. in idea mustalso be setforth theappropriate . . . But a right way." In otherwords,the secretof propagandais to tell the truthin the can form. Puzzlingas it is, such an assertion hardlybe appropriate in it just another instanceof that refined dismissedby seeking techniqueof lyingwhichis all thatNational Socialistpropaganda amountsto. What, then,does Goebbels mean by that supposedly statement? Not only has National Socialismapplied propagandaon an unmuch about it. scale, but its exponentshave written precedented the as If we take theseutterances a whole and tryto reconstruct whence theyare derived,we may arriveat a patternof thought of of better understanding theNational Socialistconception propa-

1This article been Research withtheGraduate in has Faculty prepared connection on TotalitarianCommunication. Project und Volk,"in Vlktscher zwischen Goebbels,"Propagandaals Mittlerin Fhrung to referred as "Propagandaals Mitt8, 1934,subsequently Beobachter, September the to are of translations thisand otherworks intended render lerin."The present As ratherthan the styleof expression. a resultof the peculiaruse exact meaning authorstheirmeaningis not alwaysclearlyascerof languageby the totalitarian tainable.

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of ganda and perhapssee moreclearlythe implications Goebbels' In attempting I shall relyon his own wordsand statement. this those of his disciples ratherthan on those of Hitler. Not that is Hadamovsky to be agreed with in his assertionthat under the "the despisedweapon of Gerof Goebbels* mastermind leadership man politicshas been made intoa creative art."8 Goebbels Actually has added hardly new to thefundamentals theNational of anything Socialistconceptionof propaganda.But his formulations, unlike are concernednot onlywiththe problemof how to gain Hitler's, it, powerbut also withthatofretaining and therefore are more they suitablefora discussion thepresent of stateofaffairs.
1

thatis what we our names into the pages of history, "To scratch shall do."4 When Goebbels assertedthis futurefor the National some time beforeHitler's rise to power,he can hardly Socialists, have had any notion of how inadequate his metaphorwas, comclear idea of to paredto thescale of things come. But he had a very in of the role of propagandain the accomplishment this future, impossibleeitherto writeor spiteof the factthatit is "altogether learnan ABC of propaganda,"and "you eithercan do it or you to just can't."5Propagandawould make fora unityof thoughtthat the for the would carry National Socialists through struggle power, the period afterthe ascent to power,and the eventualwar conto secutivestagesaccording the basic ideas of National Socialism. How much the laterexpansionof propagandawas containedin the premisesof National Socialist doctrineis shown by the fact in came into powermonopoly was established thatwhen the party at of as thisfield a matter course.Goebbelsscoffed thosein theparty who thoughtthatnow theyhad power theycould dispensewith propaganda.He made it clear to themthatpropagandawas neces3 Eugen Hadamovsky,Propaganda und nationale Macht (Oldenburg 1933). 4Goebbels, Michael, Ein deutsches Schicksal in Tagebuchblttern (Munich 1927). 8Goebbels, "Erkenntnisund Propaganda/' speech of January 9, 1928, published in Signal der neuen Zeit (Munich 1934) .

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sarynot only forgainingbut also forholdingpower,because in the it to enforcing will ofa minority is essential havetheapparently Here is how Goebbels social forces. spontaneous supportof strong theseviews: "It was thestrongest expresses weapon in theconquest of the state,it remainsthe strongest weapon in the consolidation and building up of the state.What in manywaysremainedununderstandable the world was a matterof course for us. The to weapon by whichwe conqueredthestatehas to remain... in the serviceof the state,lest,withpower,we run the dangerof losing the people and withthe people, the power."6 "We are not satisfied withhaving52 percentof the nation and terrorizing other48 the We want the people as the people, not onlypassively but percent. ... forif we have only a part,be it the majority the of actively nation,we shall be unable to realize the greattasksahead of us in T a largerframe." Thus propagandais an instrument politics;in fact, of according to Goebbels, it is the "most modern political instrument," and the artsof rulingthe people it ranksas one of the first."8 "among This importance the derivesfrom doctrine thatthepoliticalintentionsofNational Socialismcan be realizedonlythrough "great the masses." Goebbels followsHitler in definingthe aim of propaganda: "In politicsthisaim is alwaystheconquestof the masses."9 he More precisely, regardspropagandaas an instrument the for control themasses.Its aim,he asserts,10"to acquaint thepeople of is with certainideas in such a way that theyyield voluntarily and withoutinnerresistance the tasksand aims impliedin the ideas to of a superiorleadershipof the state. . . . Without propaganda a forcesof anarchy modernstate is helplessagainstthe subversive
"Propaganda als Mittlerin." 7Goebbels, "Der Sinn der sozialen Revolution," stenographic record of a speech given on April 24, 1933,subsequentlyreferredto as "Soziale Revolution." 8 "Propaganda als Mittlerin." Goebbels, Kampf um Berlin (Munich 1934) p. 91. Compart Hitler's assertion in Mein Kampf (Reynal and Hitchcock ed., New York 1941) p. 464, that the "preliminary winning over of the great masses" is "the presupposition for everything"after the unsuccessfulattempt to gain power by a putsch. 10 "Propaganda als Mittlerin."

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the same view in a less diploand chaos." Hadamovsky expresses maticform. The aim of propaganda,accordingto him (p. 37), is in in "theelimination all seriousresistance themasses, orderthat of theymaybe providedwithbread on the basis of the nationalwill His of themassesdevotedto the cause" (einsatzbereit). "programmatictreatise" addresses itself "the leading strataof the intellito withthetools and demandsthatthey gentsia," "acquaintthemselves whoseuse will finally again securetheirpoweroverminds" (p. 9). Whereastheliberalstate, to according Goebbels,had to takethe "had to be afraidof will of thepeople intoaccountin itsdecisions, on the people," as he puts it, no such limitations doing "what is are imposedupon thefascist whichhe choosesto state, unpopular" its call the "modernstate." On the contrary, propaganda". . . aceven themiracleofmakingpopulartheunpopular,and complishes of of securingthe unwavering support (Gefolgschaft) the people A sacrifices. governeven for decisionsthat demand the greatest to mentthatconsciously makesuse of it can afford do whatis necwithouttakingthe riskof losingthe masses.... In the cenessary out of themassesit has becomealtogether tury impossibleto carry a greatobjectiveswithoutpropaganda."" Goebbels defines "bad" like to hearbut as one who "notonlytalksas themasses demagogue selfout also is willingto carry theirintentions."" Thus, in a typical the PropagandaMinisterintimates is thathe himself a revelation, "good" demagoguebecause by sayingwhat people like he makes themaccepthisintentions hiswill. and in the National Socialistsense is linked to politics Propaganda but not only by its aim, the eliminationof resistance, also by its of relationto force.Here, as in the writings National Socialists, with thatwordis used looselyand almostinterchangeably violence I and power.For thesakeofsimplicity shall quote mainlyfrom the who has mostexplicitly elaboratedhis masbook by Hadamovsky, ter'sdictumthat"poweris alwaysthe mostconvincing factor."18
11 "Propaganda als Mittlerin." 12 "Erkenntnisund Propaganda." 18 "Soziale Revolution."

SOCIAL RESEARCH 2O4 The relation of propaganda to forceis manifold.In the first for opplace, it can serveas a substitute force.Thus Hadamovsky to the "open forceof oppression"and calls it poses propaganda of the "the art of achievingpowerwithoutpossessing instruments the power,the secretof the powerlessforovercoming holdersof too when theyfeelthemselves secure.. . . Propagandais the power as will to power" (pp. 16, 10). Also,it can supplement force, well as are as to serving an alternative it. "Propagandaand force neverabThe applicationof forcecan be partof solutely antagonistic poles. in collaboratewithpropaganda. propaganda," factmustsometimes Not only in domesticbut also in foreign and affairs, particularly if there,this combination"will have the proper effect cleverly and balanced" (pp. 48 ff.). Further, weighed propagandamustbe of supportedby force,for "the formation power throughmere propagandais unstableand can suddenlyfall apart fromone day to the otherunless it is based on the power of the organization" when forceis displayedor expressed eitherin (p. 21). And finally, thecontent in the form propagandathe latter a represenor of has tativequalitywhichmaybe called its symbolic in function regard to force. The style National Socialistpropagandais characterized of "thatcombatant notewhichis inseparable from propaganda by any instrument."14 to one of Goebbels*biographersit is According resistance itsmeregrandeur." This designed"to suffocate every by is whatleads Hadamovsky declarethat"propato symbolic quality ganda and force are indissolublyconnected with each other" (p. 10), thoughof the two propaganda is "the deeper and more secretand thusthe morepowerful, correct because,withtactically it affects humanwill itself"(p. 16). the application,
n

The factthatpropagandain theNational Socialistsenseis a political instrument linked to forceraises the question of intrinsically the difference between such propaganda and political action in thatclearlydistinguish it general.There are at least two features
14 als Gerhard Der Rundfunk Fhrungsmittel Eckert, (Berlin1941)p. 266.

205 from immediate contact politicalaction: thefactthatit establishes between and masses;and itsrole ofanticipating government political action. Like propaganda political action bringsabout changes in the charsocial institutions a traditional of situation;but it is through formalized acter,through proceduresand specializedagents,that actionrealizesthe aims of the policymakers. political Propaganda, a berealizesthoseaims through directcommunication however, tweenthe government the people. Propagandais intendedto and securefrom people thenecessary the in degreeofparticipation the that they actions,and to give them the impression government's have had somepartin thedecisions. in to Thus Goebbels,referring retrospect the wool collectionof thewinter 1941-42, asserts that"therewerepeople who propheof sied the completefailure"of the campaign,and proudlyexplains if that"thiswould,of course,have been correct thecollectionhad been runaccording an official to scheme. . . depending moreon the resources the state than on an appeal to the imaginationand of inventiveness theentirepeople." He emphasizes spontaneous of the and vital responseof the people when their"healthyimagination instinct become effective," explains thatthismeans "the moand bilizationof thepeople's immediate in interest theeveryday of life thewar,thevalue ofwhichcannotbe overrated thetotalpotenin tial of our wareffort."1* The National Socialists'claim of havingrealized "true" democstatepropagandaserves as racyis basedon thefactthatin thefascist a substitute thepeople'sexercise democratic and for of rights forthe which theyinfluence decisions.This idea is processes by political foundedon the conceptof the revolutionary massmovement, the leadersof whichderive theirpower fromthe "masses,"not from traditional In institutions. Michael, Goebbels' hero declaresthat his counterpart, figuresymbolically a Bolshevism, representing "has shownhimthewayinvoluntarily." Thus time and again we findin Goebbels*writings such re18 Das Reich, September 11, 1942.

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marks "politicalpropagandaas a principleis an activeand revoas element,"and propaganda"emergesfromthe depthsof lutionary the people and it mustdescendto the depthsof the people again in orderto findits strength. may be well to have powerwhich It rests cannons.It is better on stilland morelastingto win theheart "A the of thepeople and to keep it."16 government stemsfrom that and the betweenitself people mustneverpermitan intermediary of people. It mustbe thefirst representative thepeople"; and thereforepropagandamust "be developed into a state political art."" It mustbecome,"so to speak,theconnecting link betweengovernmentand people. ... It is thenever-resting in instigator the public of It formation opinion (ffentliche Meinungsbildung). mustunsustainthe relationbetweenleadershipand people. interruptedly ... Its sphereof influence the solid groundon whichthe state is muststand."1* "Thereforea Ministry foundedto carry was out the coordination(Gleichschaltung) betweengovernment people," and in orderthatthe government should neveragain lose contactwith them (vom Volke weichen)but should "alwaysbe in immediate contactwiththe people, listento the mostsecretvibrations the of soul of the people and adjust everypublic measureto it."M The eliminationof everyinfluencearising fromold or new kinds of institutionalized social participationin political life is of only one aspect of propaganda as an instrument immediate A morefundamental seemsto be thatpropagandais one guidance. a necessary of the "leader principle,"once the latteris transpart of to planted fromthe partyorganization the social organization thestatein general.Propagandais expectedto guaranteetheinde16 "Propaganda als Mittlerin." 17 Goebbels, Vom Kaiserhof zur Reichskanzlei (Munich 1934) p. 140. 18 "Propaganda als Mittlerin." 19 "Soziale Revolution." The postulate of immediacy is only partly contradicted by Aside from the fact that of the institutionalization propaganda in a special ministry. the Propaganda Ministry can hardly be called an independent institution,even in and that it is a mere instrument the within the narrow limits of the fascistsystem, hands of its chief,who is himselfconnected with the policymakersby close personal relationship,its assigned taskand functionis to establishand safeguardthe immediacy of the contact between the government'sactions and the people's reactions.

GOEBBELS' PROPAGANDA 207 of decisions in totalitarian or, pendence theleaderin making par' of ''initiative' the to guarantee unchallenged the lance, leading elite.In 1934Goebbels(in "Propaganda Mittlerin") rather als was confident this that grandiose scheme destroy spirit rebel"to the of "If lion"wouldwork: theactive ofthemasses influencing through is supplemented a long-range by systematic propaganda enlightenment thepeople, of and ifbothare conducted a unified as whole, andwith then connection the between leadpermanently precision, andnation always will andfrom remain and alive, ership authority followers there (Gefolgschaft) will developthatkindof modern for has democracy whichGermany set an exampleto thewhole world a conception thestate thetwentieth as of of century." Goebbels never sight thisidea ofproviding "illusion lost of the ofself-government," to quote Mussolini, thediligent by working oftotalitarian And in following idea he wrested this propaganda. theinitiative from and that everybody everything might possibly obstruct purposes. example hisuseofthedevice "selfAn his is of criticism" handling critical for the attitudes might that arisein the In masses. an article withthestrains stresses the and of dealing winter 1942, of carries title"Our the which, significantly enough, " kindof democracy," Goebbels declares: We Germans living are in a truedemocracy, however autocratic methods itsleaderthe of sometimes The most be. characteristicour of shipmay important is trust and democracythegreat uniting government people."This trust the to permits government drawthe peopleinto its confidence":"You neednot be afraid thepeople,forthey of usually notice mistakes as speedily notearlier if thanthegovernment. just . . . People do notfaint thethought something gone at that has somewhere."80 Goebbels advocates ". wrong "opendiscussion": . . to casebefore peopleand discuss openly a signnot the it is putevery ofweakness ofstrength supreme but and assurance.. . Things . like these indeed be explained." must, may, The self-criticism in contained NationalSocialist occasionally
20 Das Reich, April 17, 1942. The dates in this and the followingreferences indicate when the articles were broadcast, not when they were published.

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to propagandais in apparentcontradiction the principleofwholly is and independentleadership.But self-criticism itself superior thatleadership keepingtheinitiaby onlya deviceformaintaining of even in criticizing government's the actions.A limitation tive, are thistechniqueis noteworthy: onlythoseproblems supposedto which are "uppermostin be "explained with utter frankness" life of mind,usuallyproblems everyday withwhichwe everybody's all have to cope."21 thatpropagandais an art,a creative Goebbels'repeatedassertion is Just activity, closelylinkedto thisidea of keepingthe initiative. and creativein his political actions,so is the as the leader is free who manages the mind of the people, in supreme propagandist, command of ever new techniquesof manipulationfor meeting and demands." evernewconditions that This last pointleads us to the secondcharacteristic helps to frompoliticalaction in general.If propadistinguish propaganda is to assure a freehand forthe initiativeof the leader,unganda hamperedby the wishesor hopes of the populace, and is to make his actions appear to be the expressionof the people's wishes ("sham democracy"),then it must precede those actions,must preparethe people forthem.Thus, by whatwe have called itsanNational Socialist propaganda activelytakes function, ticipatory As in thecreationof thepoliticalsituation. Hadamovsky says, part is preparationfor political actions. Since life "Any propaganda but propagandacan never cease working, proceedscontinuously will alwayshave to take the lead. ... It will again and again have of to workforthe necessities the future.. . . Propagandadoes not of setin at theheight a politicalor military action,but is thegreat, for farflung (ausholend) educativepreparation thataction" (pp.
21 Reich, Das 2, January 1942. 22 as is that The assertion propaganda an arthas other implications well.Propaganda Goebbels, of and is a meansof self-aggrandizement, therevival a dreamof theyoung As careerdid notmaterialize. he declares to becausehis literary who turned politics to I in Michael,"The powerof thewordwas notgivenme; thereforeshallstart act. to and I shallnowbe moreruthless, shalldevote myself completely thecause" (mich . ganzeinsetzen)

209 45, 33). And Goebbels (in "Propaganda als Mittlerin")declares that: "Propaganda is to prepare the way for the practicalwork. It mustactuallyprecede it and enlighten[the people]. It stands of at the beginning everypracticalpoliticalworkin all spheresof life.It is thegreatpresupposition thatwork],fullof its [of public . Voraussetzung) . . what is unpopular meaning (ihresinngemsse in formulated its mustbe preparedin time,and mustbe correctly it. so presentation thatthe people can understand ... It is no sign Crises facts. the to of wise foresight confront nationwithfrightful and economically be musttherefore preparednot only politically so faras to assertthat but also psychologically." Hadamovsky goes all eventtakesthepropagandist surprise, he can ifan unforeseen by and do is bound to be ineffectual nothingbut a "fill-in." Propahand to mouth. cannotlive from ganda of Analysts National Socialistpropagandahave not infrequently been led astray underestimating importance thisfeature. the of by whatactuallyis for They tend to take as symptomatic the present intended preparation thefuture. as for There are severalreasonswhythe anticipatory function Naof Firstand tional Socialistpropagandais of particularimportance. mostimportant, makesforsystematic Thus Goebbels it planning. declares ("Propaganda als Mittlerin"): "Propaganda too has its It at system. cannotbe applied ad libitumand turnedoff will. If it wantsto be successful, propagandamusthave ... a clearand strictly definedobjective." Hitler has justified tacticalprinciplethat his attack is preferableto defensewith the remarkthat it can be and in plannedmorethoroughly, the same principleis discernible National Socialistpropaganda.Thus it "has not allowed theopponentto prescribe timeforitsaction,but on the contrary has the it started and conducted[its activities]accordingto its own realizationof theaims to be achievedand itsown requirements."*8 the By planningthe contentof his communications totalitarian is propagandist able to createa pictureof theworldwhich,because
politische PropagandaderNSDAP in Kampfum die Macht (Dissertation, Heidelberg 1936) p. 22. u FranzAlfred Die Six,

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SOCIAL RESEARCH 21O of its homogeneous fromreal structure, maydeviateconsiderably and events facts without subjectbeingawareofit.Consequently the the responseof the people is not to the actual historical situation but to an impression it, an "image,"whichhas been systematiof built up. Hadamovskypointsto an important cally psychological of thefactthata "shamworld"can be createdwhenhe implication discusses significance "news" (whether the of conveyed pictures, by sound or words) and its relation to reason: "People have relied its upon so-calledhumanreasonwithouttakinginto consideration we on the impressions the environment. of Nowadays dependence receive these impressionsto a large extent indirectly, namely is throughnews. Thus everybody dependenton news and must resistance the part of his believe it, in spite of the strongest on it reason,ifhe finds confirmed again and again and does not findit as refuted Against newseverybody defenseless long is anywhere can as he has to relysolelyupon himself foronlya fewfacts tell ... theirown story theirmeaning" withoutcomments bringforth to (pp. 26, 84, 121). in A secondreasonforthe importance anticipation National of Socialist propaganda becomes evidentnow. Aftera favorableor receptiveattitudehas been createdin the people towardcertain serves them for of events come,theactualoccurrence thoseevents to as a corroboration thepicture theworldpreviously of of giventhem What theyhave been made to by propagandistic manipulation.14 expect by propagandahas become true,and propagandais therein foreproved reliable. It is clear that this advantageis greatest and himself, regardto eventsthatare createdby the policymaker When thecourseofeventsevadescontrol whollyunderhiscontrol. the dangerarisesthatthe controlof mindswill also slip fromthe This has an immediate handsof the propagandists. bearingon dein featsituations war. The clumsyhandlingof such situations by revealsthe a numberof instances National Socialistpropagandain weaknessof a propagandadoctrinethatis based on the inherent
14 See Hans Herma, "Some Principles of German Radio Propaganda," in Radio Research, ed. by Paul F. Lazarsfeld (New York 1942-43).

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of of presupposition alwayskeepingthe initiative, continuedsuccessand victory. function propaganda of A thirdimplication the anticipatory of and prophecy. who predicts He is the role it allows to prediction or givestheimpression doingso, increases prestige. of his correctly, Thus anticipatory propagandahelps in creatingthe image of an "omniscient"and "omnipotent"leader. Dr. Ley, in his speech the greatness celebrating MayDay of 1942,declared:"The Fhrer's in consists notallowinghimself be surprised fate-but in himto by it! fateby foreseeing greatest the selfmastering He masters possiand success... he crushes forces natureand the of bilitiesofvictory Where such an image of the leader leads our people to victory." prevailsthe pretensethat eventstake place "accordingto plan" and evenin defeat mustbe carriedto theextreme maintained situations; if thisis impossibleit mustbe explained whyeventscould in Thus Hitler attributed difficulties the not have been foreseen. the first winterof the Russian campaignto the "coldestwinterin the last 140 years." In short, thatthetotalipropagandahelpsto givetheimpression tarianleader is independent and has controlover events.This of in of controlcontributes turn to the efficacy the of impression is propaganda.From this interrelationship created the image of the omnipotent on whose initiativealone is supposed to leader, whatis goingto happenin theworld." depend in of characterization National Socialist propaganda The foregoing formulations Germanpropaganof on the basis of the theoretical as distscan be summarized follows:National Socialistpropaganda of is an instrument politics, resembling politicalaction in its aim the of controlling massesand in itsrelationto force, distinguished

85 See Ernst Kris, "The Danger of Propaganda," in The American Imago, vol. 2, no. 1 (May 1941); Howard B. White, Prediction and Political Power, Doctoral Dissertation prepared under the Graduate Faculty of the New School for Social Research of (1943) ; H. D. Lasswell, "The Psychology Hitlerism,"in Political Science Quarterly, vol. 4 (July-September 1933) pp. 373-84.

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withthepopufrom of politicalactionin theimmediacy itscontact lace and in its anticipatory character.It is the managementof to minds,the psychological supplement the political"leader prinas are, ciple." But essential thesefeatures National Socialistpropais not exhaustively characterized unlessitsrelationto values ganda and itsidea of the natureof man are takeninto consideration. With regardto values National Socialistpropagandais a purely a managerialactivity, mere tool. The only value it recognizesis und Propaganda"): "AU critisuccess. Goebbels ("Erkenntnis Says cal standards thathavebeen applied to propagandabyotherparties mistakeits purpose,and most of the accusationsagainstit result a from wrongattitudetowardpropagandaper se. ... Nobody can say yourpropagandais too rude, too vulgar,too brutal,or is not for is decentenough,fornone of thesetraits distinctive its character If somebody tellsme: Tour propagandadoes noteven have the a civilizedlevel/ thenI don't see any sensein continuing disWhat matters not whether is cussion propagandahas anylevel it but whether leads to thegoal." In otherwords,"Propagandais a and "any means means to an end" ("Propaganda als Mittlerin"), thatservesthe end is good" (Kampfum Berlin). "If I have recogwhether is rightin it it nized something right, does not matter as the sense of theoreticalhairsplitting(in aller Theoretisiererei). I All thatmatters whether findpeople who are willingto fight is not to forit. ... The purposeof propagandais to lead to success, but of Thereforepropagandais a matternot of theory be clever. practice.The quality of the propagandaprovesitselfonly aftera und Propaganda"). certaintimelag" ("Erkenntnis of This utilitarianorientation National Socialistpropagandais in Goebone ofthereasonsforitswell-known adaptability content. und Propaganda")declaresthat"Propaganda bels (in "Erkenntnis to must adapt itselfin everything the one toward whom it is in directed."Once he complainsabout the lack of understanding and and tactics, betweenstrategy his own ranksof the difference thanof and of adds:* "Tactics is morea matter intelligence feeling
16 VomKaiserhof Reichskanzlei, 171. zur p.

213 character. One mustbe as elasticin methodsas one mustbe hard in matters principle." of The cynicism to speak in moral terms of thisattitudeis most clearlyevidentwhen the propagandist appeals to values that he in knowsto be cherished, spiteofthefactthattheirvalidity unior is versality denied by his ideology-such values as peace, freedom, affairs. This manipulahumanitarianism, decencyin international tionofvalue symbols maybe demonstrated an exampleor two. by Let us consider situation whichthepropagandist thetask a in has ofmakingthebombingof Englishtownsmorally acceptableto the Germanpeople. Since thebombingofGermantowns theenemy by has been morally thereis a dangerthatGermans, lookcondemned, doubtthemorality their of ingat thesituation might "objectively," own action. From the objectivepoint of view both actionsmight be consideredimmoral.The propagandist has to preventsuch a "detached"pointof view,has to substitute completely a subjective standardof judgmentaccordingto which an action is "good" if one does it oneself,"bad" if it is done by another.But he would succeedifhe wereso blunt.Insteadhe says:"Bath,Norwich, hardly Yorkand all theotherbombedplacesare theteeth are knocking we out of Mr. Churchill'smouthuntil he learnsto fight decently."" The bold metaphorfocusesattentionon the image of a concrete and hatedindividualin orderto detract from victims the it the in bombed towns.More relevantto the presentdiscussion, however, is the introduction "decency"as a universalvalue, one thatis of supposed to be acceptable to both sides. Bombing the enemy's townsappearsto be the deed of a championof decency, theserin vice of his ideals. Thus the use of a universalvalue symbolcovers thecrudeness theprimitive of of whichtheproparesponse revenge intendsto evoke. gandist Not alwaysis National Socialistpropagandaso subtle. Goring is hardly of capable ofsuchrefinement technique;Ribbentropand Hitlersometimes resort threats to without to anyattempt coverthe of theirargument. Then theysimplyimplythatthe Gercrudity
wGoebbels, Dos Reich, May 1, 1942.

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SOCIAL RESEARCH 214 man point of view is the only relevantone, thus encouraginga standardof judgment.As Goebbels puts it egocentric completely is ("Propaganda als Mittlerin"),"The only decisiverequirement thatpropagandagive expression thoseforces to thatrepresent the trueand undilutedvaluesofa people." Withregard majorissues, to however,such as the war guilt, such openness is rare; there is to scarcely reference thewarthatis notcoupledwiththephrase any "whichhas been forced upon us." A similarexampleis Goebbels' attempt counteract admiraan to tion forthe Russians' heroicdefense (in this instanceat Sevastopol), apparentlylatent among German civiliansand soldiers,by he explainingwhy this is not "bravery."Among the arguments in usesin thisdiscussion, an articleentitled"The so-calledRussian our because it is a description of soul," is one thatattracts interest propaganda by a self-acknowledged expert. "The Bolshevistsystem is based on the ingenious use made of the Slav soul. Only ... It was . . . Russia was capable of this gruesomeexperiment. carriedout with a logic which positively makes the expert [sic] shudder.... It is a matterof tasteto expressadmirationforthe succeededin convincing factthatBolshevist propagandahas largely and peasants,by means of a the broad mass of Russian workers and isolationfrom outerinfluence bymonotonous stringent repetithatthisstateofaffairs tionofitsworld-salvation represents phrases, paradiseon earth.. . . Independentrealizations requirea standard ... of of comparison. In a system thistypethe politicalcommissar incredible. to has a function fulfil which,to our mind,is positively no whichmightcombatsuch a system ... A nationalintelligence means The system at itsdisposalall thenecessary has longerexists. it. What is left at birthany possible attempts forstifling against massesotherthan to obey implicitly to the dull and weak-willed in whichis inherent and to submitto theirfatewiththatfatalism will theirverysoul? . . . These reflections indeed place too greata strainon theconventional pictureof theRussian soul conjuredup thelearnedphilistine."* by
v Das Reich, July17,1942.

215 The interestis The modelforthisdescription easilyrecognized. the of is thatGoebbelsstresses "subjectiveness" thepropaingpoint of gandized,and explainsit by the absenceof that"standard comthatis, for realizations," parison"whichis necessary "independent of It forindependentthinking. was Hitler who was the first the to National Socialistwriters stressthe point that eliminationof for is rationalthinking a prerequisite the controlof the masses.If to "the waveringmasses"are given an opportunity choose,or a at once steps in"; the "key standardof comparison, "objectivity he is to themasses," asserts, not the "so-called objectiveviewpoint" and fanatically onesidedorientation."" but "a ruthless In a recent articlewiththesignificant title,"Do notbe too objecis that"super-objectivitytheone blemish tive,"Goebbels,asserting on the Germansoul," statesthispoint of view in a mostexplicit manner.He declares that those who look at the enemy "objecof Admitting tively"are identicalwiththe critics thegovernment. thatone mustbe "veryskilful"if one wantsto "stirthe national a nationalegotism whichfights soul to rage,"he advocates "healthy and for beyondall objectivity unconditionally national interests, desire for justice." These "lying humanitarianconceptions"are and adds: "We do not in the leastmind being out of date,he says, accusedof prejudice.We have no desirefordecentobjectivejudgfor mentswhile fighting our existence.... In such caseswe are all party,all prejudice,all stubbornand obstinateonesidedness."80 Goebbels made thispoint of view the basis of his recentattack on "a certaintype"among the German people, the intellectuals, "who believe theyhave reachedthe peak of human ethicalstandards" by having "acquired the habit of lookingat the war from bothsides,"and "who go so farin theiraberration" to look at it as even "fromthe angle of the enemy."With regardto these"halfeducated nit-wits" Goebbels not only feels"like spitting their in faces"but also considers their"apathytowardgreatevents"as dangerous.
29 Hitler's Mein Kampf (ed. cited above) pp. 153, 467. *Das Reich, September4, 1942.

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"Today," saysGoebbels, "we have no time forfalseobjectivity Fairnesscomesonly it ... we regard as a dangerand as a threat in relationto our own people. . . . We are touchedonlyby thesufwhichfateinflicts of ferings our people,and notbythepunishment on thosenationswho intended [outrages]forus. ... Today the and the mostviolentpassionforour great mostradical fanaticism cause is the properattitudeforus. ... We do not wishto listento any otherview except what is good forour nation. Even if this because it servesthe viewmightseemwrongto us it becomesright in welfareof our people." In war "man reemerges his original The question and events revert theera ofbarbarism. to savagestate, but what promises is not what is ethicaland approvedby custom, . . . the advantageis withthosewho derivethejustification success ethics It is better rather thanfrom success fortheir actionsfrom to put oneselfin therightthanto be in theright.""Fortunately," at "the government thehead of the Reich . . . Goebbels continues, The is not subject to this German national vice" of objectivity. and they will "standup leaders"alwaysdo whattheythinkright," againstthosewho talk of the rightof the enemyin this manfully war."31 are intendedto reorientthe value judgmentsof Such remarks What he advocates thatelite addressedby Goebbels in his articles. is as withcynicalfrankness a stateof minddesirablein itself at the same timetheaim ofhis propagandistic manipulation. The National Socialistconceptionof man is that he is or can be made intoa beingwithno abilityto see anyotherpointofview than the one thathas been acceptedaround him,a being withno of moreand moreto an egocentric conception reverting objectivity, that is, to a primitivemode of mental operationwhich realityto makeshim incapable of rationalthinking." According thisview
nDas Reich,November 1942. 27, of and the egocentric betweenrational thinking "The relationship conception orientation for has beeninvestigated thechildbyJeanPiaget.The egocentric reality which of the it of thechildprevents from operations acquiring "reversibility"mental See of is characteristic rationalthinking. JeanPiaget,The Child'sConception the of and his laterworks. World(New York 1929),

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in limits thenatureofman whichwould prethereare no inherent of the freeuse of one of his basic mental clude his being deprived that functions, is,reason." and for The conditions thelossofobjectivity, withit thecapacity as to reason,are indicatedin Hitler'sstatements well as in thoseof and Goebbels: emotionalinvolvement, the absenceof choiceor of a frameof reference(other than the National Socialist Weltanof of schauung).Participation the individualin activities the comand leaves no place for makesforemotionalinvolvement munity for Actionis substituted thinking.*4 choicesor alternatives. The totalitarian organizationof societyprovidesthe optimal conditionsfor such manipulation: a monopolisticorganization; of of uniformity opinion and ideas; completeness controlover all of social spheresand activities;permanency controland thus the and punitivemeaThe of possibility systematization." preventive are such a system witnessto the formaintaining sures necessary as doctrine well as to thefactthatits of weakness the psychological has weakness been takeninto accountby National Socialism. The foregoing exposition of Goebbels*conceptionof propathatthe as ganda,incomplete it is, mayhave succeededin showing by conceptof propagandahas been redefined National Socialism. of linkedto thetotalitarian It has been closely organization society, than and may more aptlybe called "psychological management" It wantto persuadeor convince. introduces It propaganda. does not of and aims at the elimination rationality. theelementof fear, we maynow underIn view of thisnew conceptof propaganda of stand what Goebbels meantwhen he spoke of the importance
88 The model for this idea is apparentlythe manipulation of a subject by the hypnotizer. It was bequeathed to the totalitarians by an outstanding representativeof French social psychologyat the end of the nineteenthcentury,Gustave Le Bon. See Ernst Kris, op. cit. 84 See Franz L. Neumann, Behemoth, The Structureand Practice of National Socialism (New York 1942) p. 438. 85 "Propaganda has to be built up ... as the science of the psycheof the people. In in order to make its success permanent ... its work has to be systematized line with its aim" ("Propaganda als Mittlerin").

SOCIAL RESEARCH 2i8 truthin propaganda.Like all othervalue symbolsthis word too has only an operationalmeaningto him,and his remarkmay be in translated either twoways.It maymean thatwhatis to be said of mustbe broughtto the noticeof the subjectin such a way thatit is not contradicted standardsof comparisonin the subject's by and therefore be believedand can worldof immediate experience, can carryconviction.Or it may mean thatit is possible through the to propermanipulation giveanystatement appearanceof truth and thus the power of conviction. While the first interpretation a the constitutes postulateforthe techniqueof manipulation, seca ond expresses beliefas to the natureof man. But it is clear that the two are interrelated. The point is thatpsychological managehowevercompletely can be achieved,mustbe carefulnot it ment, in it to impairthebasisof itsinfluence; fact, musteven strengthen a "veracityprestige."The National that basis by building up Socialistpropagandist thusconfronted is with the apparentparaa dox thattheuse of values as a mereinstrument finds limitin the is of the verypurpose thatinstrument intendedto requirements serve.
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