I.

Transportation Systems
problem: different trucking standards among US, Canada, and Mexico (NAFTA) need to harmonize standards to allow for free cross-border trucking opposition impact on infrastructure freight rail industry trucking industry could have loss in jobs safety concerns rating factor 3 types of loads legal load (defined by Federal Bridge Formula): what can go along road system at will design load: what structure is designed to, vary based on when and where structure was built permit load (Metropolitan/Regional Issue): allows people to go across with loads greater than design load Bridge Evaluation (AASHTO Manual) Inventory Level (FS = 2.17) Operation Level (FS = 1.3) Where to draw the line? frequency type of load divisible non-divisible Rating Factor = (C-A1*D) / (A2*L*(1+I)) C = Capacity of Bridge A1 = Factor for Dead Loads (1.3) A2 = Factor for Live Loads (2.17 or 1.3) L = Live Load Effect D= Dead Load Effect I = Impact Factor

II. Water/Wastewater Systems

Water as a Global Issue (Lall paper) 3 crises access pollution scarcity (global issue!) - causes problems with access & pollution Water Concepts Scarcity Human right or commodity? contradiction: water is both necessary and scarce Virtual Water

impact from agriculture very inefficient use of water, farmers subsidized for water Water/Energy Paradox hydrofracking electricity generation by boiling water Japan: water cooled nuclear reactors Water Trends and Issues Government involvement declining Water system is capital intensive Regulation/standards federal law 1974: safe water drinking act debate over arsenic levels (balance benefits/cost) Population migration and growth Nevada fastest growing and driest Private sector acquisitions by European companies O & M contracted to private firms Hydrofracking (readings) Pennsylvania allows water to be discharged through treatment plants into rivers Limited amount of testing being done Negative impact on WTP service life Storm Drainage and Urban Form River Crossings (city tends to congregate around) Underground Utility Lines Bridges Poorly Drained Land Flood Plains Runoff: portion of precipitation not absorbed by plants and trees or returned to atmosphere through evaporation Determinants of Runoff Quality Amount and Type of Precipitation Soil Type Percent of Area covered by Impervious Surfaces Topography Vegetation Condition of Soil (saturation, weather) Size and Shape of watershed Water Supply & Distribution / Waste And Watersystems II Water Supply and Distribution History Philadelphia = 1st large city in U.S. to have public water supply system Winston Salem (NC) = first city to have city-wide system of pipes to distribute water Materials Cast iron water supply mains

Reinforced concrete large-diameter pipes 1857 Pasteur announced germ theory question quality of municipal water more importance on water filtration and treatment Chlorine - most widely practiced method of disinfection in U.S. Water Supply and Distribution System Source - wells/springs, surfaces (rivers), reservoirs, lakes Filtering & Treatment - filter out sediments and solid materials; provide water with chemical balance and eliminate undesirable biological contaminants Pressure Tower & Storage - (elevated tower or reservoir); establish water pressure throughout the water system & provide supply of water for normal use and fire fighting; must be available at times of no power Surface Water Drinking Water Plant Surface Water supply coagulant addition and rapid mix flocculation settling tank (with activated carbon on both ends) filtration chlorine and fluoride Influence Supply - supply doesnt exist no urban development / limited water supply limited population Quality - water quality restricts urban development Elevation - elevation of water supply (urban developments are usually below but can be near or above if adequate pressure) Protection/location - water trunks, mains, and branches must be protected from freezing located below surface of ground Water Pressure at House - limit development of sites Ground water - could be so meager makes individual well service impossible nondevelopment Individual wells and sewerage systems (septic tanks and leaching fields) - low-density development only; separate septic fields from water supply to prevent contamination Climate/Location - Desert (inadequate water supplies), Frigid Polar areas (difficult to establish flowing water & workable water distribution systems); Desalinization plants & water recirculation (easy in desert, polar, and waterless places) but $$$ Demand Agriculture - 900 gpcd arid western areas - agriculture uses 90% of all water produced 40% returned to streams/aquifiers 60% enters atmosphere through evaporation/transpiration Industry - 900 gpcd; comes directly from streams, lakes, or wells paper mills and steel mills use a lot of water fabricating industries use little 98% flows back to streams/aquifers 2% evaporated Municipal water systems - 150 gpcd 40 gpcd - private homes (20-80 gpcd)

Water Pressure 50 psi usually required in urban use 20 psi - 80 psi (min to max) past 80/90 need pressure-reducing valve 20 psi minimum residential water pressure gravity 1.0 ft = .433 psi Friction loss 5 ft of head per 100 ft 2.2 psi per 1,000 ft street main must be at least 6 in diameter; residential street branch must be at least 2 in diameter; branch main should be at least 8 in diameter Fire hydrants - located every 500-1,000 ft apart Wastewater Management Four Phases Production Transportation Treatment Sludge and Effluent Disposal Definitions wastewater management - process of removing, reconditioning, and reusing water that has been used by man at least once and is no longer wanted in present location and condition sewage - liquid waste containing dissolved and/or suspended solid wastes, which is conducted away from residences; institutions; and commercial, agricultural, or industrial establishments Treat water in wastewater plant and dispose of sludge - release treated liquid (effluent) to river, stream, lake or ocean and dispose of solid residue (sludge) Wastewater decomposes in septic tank and released to nearby soil - allow wastewater to flow by gravity to septic tank where its biologically digested and then allow effluent to flow to nearby soil and sludge is removed from septic tank 2-3 yrs Contaminants Microbial - viruses & bacteria from wildlife & sanitary systems Inorganic - salts & metals that occur naturally or infiltrate through urban runoff or industrial/natural processes) Organic chemical - by-products of industrial plants Pesticides & Herbicides - urban activities Radioactive - occur naturally, like hydrofracting Sanitary Sewer System in Urban Residential Areas house lateral street main branch trunk sewer trunk sewer interceptor wastewater treatment plant preliminary - influent bar screen & grit chamber

70 gpcd - local commercial uses and small industries that dont have own direct source of water 10 gpcd - fire fighting, street cleaning, park watering 30 gpcd - unaccounted for losses (20%) 90% returned to streams and aquifers (after sewage treatment)

primary - screening and settling out solids from sewage secondary - Activated sludge biological treatment (biological process where organic materials in sewage are oxidized and digested; acidity/alkalinity of sewage is controlled) final settling activated sludge recycle tertiary - detrimental inorganic chemicals (i.e. salts and heavy metal compounds) are removed; nitrates and phosphates are major targets disinfection - chlorination of contact basin effluent Sludge disposal bury burn dump in sea convert to fertilizer Wastewater Flows domestic (sanitary) - wastewater from residences, institutions, stores, and similar uses industrial wastewater - industrial plants; may contain industrial products (chemicals), or predominantly cooling water used in industrial processes infiltration - unwanted water that leaks into sewer systems combined systems - domestic and industrial wastewaters are combined with storm water flows in same sewerage system (not favored due to runoff from precipitation); 70% of NYC system 60%-70% of water introduced to area will leave in the form of wastewater (dependent on number of private wells or septic tanks) Wastewater Planning Process Determine size and location of service area Identify probable future land uses in service area estimate quantity and characteristics of flow of sewage that land uses in service area will produce Design wastewater collection and treatment facilities pipe sizes, slope, and location treatment plant capacity and location effluent discharge location and sludge removal process Design Guidelines pipe capacity pipe size pipe depth manhole spacing location of wastewater treatment plants Septic tank - underground chamber into which sewage fows. where it will be digested by biological action; solids in sewage sink to botton where gradually digested; fluids leave tank in a partially digested state and flow to adjacent leaching field Package plants - small prefabricated wastewater treatment plants that provide secondary treatment to sewage lack of assurance that package plant will be well operated & maintained potential for promoting leap frog urban development patterns Alternative forms of Wastewater Management Production

reduction of amount of wasetwater produced segregation of types of wastewater black water (high concentration of organic materials) vs. grey water (little organic material; comes from washing or cooling operations) Transportation vacuum pipe system pressure system where wastewater flows by gravity to a pump station force main treatment plant Sludge and Effluent Disposal burying it in sanitary landfill burning it dumping it in sea convert to fertilizer Storm Drainage Types River Crossings - natural circulation barriers inhibiting movement from one area to another; less frequent than the roadways at each side of river traffic concentrations Underground Utility Lines - few stream crossings as possible due to water infiltration difficulties, high cost of underwater construction, & difficulties of insulation often denied to large geographic areas for long periods of time, influencing patterns of development Bridges and Service Access - location determines desirability of area; affects employment, shopping, residence, schools, hospitals, and fires stations Poorly Drained Land - leave them basically undeveloped, until economic demand for intensive use is sufficient to absorb increased cost of building on them; attract marginal developments requiring little construction social stigma on area long after drainage condition is solved Flood Plains - attract urban development! tendency for pathyways to follow waterways flood plain are common locations for railroad lines railroad service and water source in flat ground industrial development urban development Runoff - portion of precipitation that is not absorbed by soil, transpired by plants and trees, or returned to atmosphere by evaporation Summary natural channels (rivers, streams, etc.) excavated draining ditches (channels that were dug to drain water away from lands) street gutters (carry storm waters to drop inlets) storm sewers Determinants of Runoff Quantity amount and intensity of precipitation - intensity is more important than amount; storm drainage facilities accommodate amount of runoff generated by most intense rainfall for a short period of time; can come in the form of snowfall or runoff from melting snow soil types - impervious soils (clay and silt) lots of runoff because little water is absorbed; sandy soils and gravel absorb a lot; changes in land use cause change in runoff quantities due to change in ground absorption % of area covered by impervious surfaces - urban developments have high runoff coefficient

topography - steeper slope more runoff (water is moving across surface much faster); too flat a slope drainage problems (soil is rapidly saturated standing pools) vegetation - slows flow of water increases absorption (healthy vegetable low runoff) condition of soil size and shape of watershed - influences length of time it takes for precipitation to flow through watershed (too large take too long; too small water runs off from very beginning); shape: square and circular rapid runoff (long, narrow, winding longer to drain)

III. Energy
Properties of Electric Delivery electricity cannot be stored flow path difficult to control (seek path of least resistance) disturbances difficult to control (current travels very quickly) outages unacceptable (necessity) Transmission: movement over large distances 200,000 mile network Inefficiencies only capturing less than 2% total energy push for greater energy efficiency rebound effect: if energy gets more efficient, it gets cheaper, people use more, which cuts back on energy efficiency gains Climate Change Greenhouse Effect Increase in Global mean temperature Mitigation Measures original school of thought: lower CO2 emissions now: in addition you should take measures to adapt (research in agriculture) we will not be able to limit CO2 emissions enough, so focus on other emissions (methane, CFOs, soot, etc) Threats to Infrastructure rising arctic temperature rising sea levels increased rainfall intensifying heat waves larger number of strong hurricanes Electricity Generation (from reading) Delivery System: generation transmission distribution system operations Generation fuel sources include coal, nuclear, natural gas, fuel oil, hydro, and renewables Each generation type has different operating, financial, and environmental characteristics capital costs: the up front costs associated with buying equipment and constructing the generation unit

variable costs: the costs associated with running a generation unit that are directly related to the unit output, including fuel, water and maintenance operational flexibility: how quickly can a unit be turned on or off, and how quickly can it ramp from low power to full power? environmental impact: what environmental impacts result from construction and operation, and what is the cost of environmental mitigation? fuel availability: how certain is future fuel supply? restraints on locations where units can be constructed: is location of unit constrained by fuel or water availability, land use concerns, or transmission availability? time to permit/construct: how long it takes to permit and build a new unit. Coal Nuclear high Natural Gas low Hydro high Petroleum low Renewables medium-high Cogeneration medium

Capital Cost

medium

Variable Cost

low

low

high

low

high

low

medium

Operational Flexibility Time to Permit and Construct Environmental Impact Fuel Availability

low

low

mediumhigh short

high

medium-high

low

low

long

long

long

short

short

short

high

lowmedium

low

lowhigh limited

medium

low

low

plentiful plentiful

some concerns flexible

some concerns

plentiful

some concerns flexible

Availability of Sites

limited

limited

limited

limited by air quality permits

limited by resource availability

Coal ready availability of low cost coal makes it the favorite of US utilities Coal burned to heat water in boiler tubes -> steam turbine Nuclear uses heat of nuclear fission to create steam -> steam turbine obstacles lack of water disposal site for spent fuel public concerns over risks of nuclear accident or terrorist attack Natural Gas

Hydro

combustion turbines steam turbines combined cycle

created by running water from a reservoir through a hydraulic turbine that spins and drives a generator shaft Fuel Oil similar to natural gas, but more environmental impacts! Renewables: fueled by sources that can be naturally replenished Biomass: organic non-fossil fuel that is burned directly to create steam for a steam turbine, or biogas used in a gas turbine. Biogas is created by decomposition of organic material at landfill or agricultural sites and is often at least 50% methane Geothermal: hot water or steam extracted from underground reservoirs in the earths crust that is used to drive steam turbines Hydro: small scale hydro generation, often run-of-the-river (meaning no reservoir is created), and usually less than 30 MW in size Solar: sunlight applied to a photovoltaic cell (a substance that directly converts light energy to electricity) or sunlight used to heat water and create steam which is then used in a steam turbine Wind: Electric generators whose shaft is driven by the force of wind across a wind turbine Distributed generation = genertaion that is located at an end-use consumers site Cogeneration (aka combined heat and power or CHP generators) utilize their energy input to create two forms of energy - electricity and heat Highly efficient way to use fuel because cogeneration makes dual use of fuel and distributed generation does not result in transmission or distribution losses Environmental Considerations contradiction: use of electricity at point of consumption is very clean, but generation of electricity often has significant environmental impacts Environmental Regulation Kyoto Protocol: designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by establishing national emissions limits and provide for global trading in green house gas emissions credits Demand Response as Alternative to Generation especially in peak times emergency demand response economic demand response ex: real-time pricing, voluntary load response, etc

Energy Systems Sources Incumbent oil hydrocarbon society peak-oil oil sands depwater discoveries

technology (energy efficiency, new drilling techniques, 3-d seismic mapping)

coal natural gas nuclear power hydropower Renewable Solar Biolfuels Wind Geothermal Tidal/wave/ocean thermal System Types GHG Emissions Interdependencies (System of Systems) Cascading Failure Risks (cyber-security) Consumption Transportation Industrial Heavy Light Commercial Residential Electricity Delivery System power plant generates electricity transformer steps up voltage for transmission transmission lines carry electricity long distances neighborhood transformer steps down voltage distribution lines carry electricity to houses transformers on poles step down electricity before it enters houses Electricity Basics cannot be stored flow path is difficult to control disturbances difficult to control outages unacceptable Generation Disaster - Fukushima Shifting Plates Rising Waves Inadequate Seawall Vulnerable Grid Failed Cooling System Radioactive Fallout Wasted Energy

66% Electricity 71% Transportation 20% Industry 20% Residential/Commercial Buildings Role of Government Price on Carbon (cap & trade; tax) Loan Guarantee Subsidies (transmission Lines) Climate Change Greenhouse Effect Increase Global Mean Temperature Threats to Infrastructure Rising Arctic Temperatures Rising Sea Levels Increase Rainfall Intensifying Heat Waves Larger number of strong hurricanes

IV. Sustainability/Renewables
Sustainability: question of how to make human systems last longer and have less impact ecological scarcity of natural resources climate change security of built environment natural hazards (hurricane, earthquake) manmade hazards (terrorism) Initiatives high speed rail each passenger has less emission smaller carbon footprint but need to consider construction footprint and fiscal issues electric/hybrid cars 20-25 lbs of rare earth, as opposed to 10 lbs for regular cars processing them can cause environmental damage Vulnerable Manhattan hurricane: surge barrier is very costly earthquake: unreinforced masonry and soft soil Interdependent & Cascading Effects August 2003 Power Blackout Vulnerabilities Globalization Lack of spare capacity (transmission capacity)

Terrorism (cyber security - SCADA & Cyber-Security) Renewable Energy Intermittent and Variable leads to low capacity factor storage needed huge capital costs, low operating costs, but overall more expensive Incentives Carbon Taxes Tax breaks, grants, low interest loans Renewable energy credits Renewable portfolio system (requires a minimum % of renewable electricity) Carbon Trading (cap & trade) Responsible Energy Use Energy Efficiency (LEED and green buildings) Decreased consumption (changing consumer behavior) (study Amy talked about in class) Types of Renewable Energy LEED

Sustainability Renewables - intermittent and variable; low capacity factor, storage Hydroelectric Dams (most widely used renewable energy source) generates electricity from potential energy of falling water Hydroelectric Tidal (predicable) generates electricity from kinetic energy of moving tides Wind (variable and unpredictable) tall wind tower captures wind energy; high wind speeds = greater power on shore (noise, environmental issues) vs. off-shore (high transmission & distribution costs) Solar large unobstructed land areas to convert sunlight directly into electricity stationary (cheaper but receive less sunlight) vs. tracking panels (move on 1 or 2 axis and increase sunlight received by 25%) Geothermal electricity - uses steam from underground to power electricity turbines heat - directly uses heat for residential and industrial uses Biomass biological material use to generate energy or heat Incentives Carbon Taxes makes conventional generation methods more expensive tax breaks, grants, low-interest loans renewable energy credits (RECs) gold star for using renewables Renewable portfolio system (RPS) minimum % if renewable electricity Carbon Trading limits total global carbon output LEED Buildings Water (grey water)

Heat (green roofs) Air Quality Recycled Materials Healthier work and living environments

LEED Sections Sustainable sites Alternative Transportation - Public Transportation Access Pollution Reduction - tinted windows Water Efficiency Water Use Reduction (low flow faucets) Water Efficient Landscaping Energy and Atmosphere Optimize Energy Performance On-site Renewable Energy Materials and Resources Building Reuse: maintain existing floors, walls, and roof Regional Materials Indoor Environmental Quality Low-Emitting Materials: Flooring Systems Increased Ventilation Innovation in Design Innovation in Design LEED Accredited Professional Regional Priority