Deskriptivna sintaksa, prva parcijala 1.

Two main constituents of a sentence and example: The 2 main constituents of sentence are the subject and the predicate. E.g. My mum left. 2. Five elements of sentence structure and examples: The subject, verb, object, adverbial, and complement. a)My mum left. b) My mum left. c) She is selling her car. d) I brush my teeth after meals. e) She is beautiful. 3. Three types of verbs and examples: INTRANSITIVE verbs are followed by no obligatory element and occur in type SV(shine); TRANSITIVE verbs are followed by an object and occur in types SVO(bore), SVOO(send), SVOC(find) & SVOA(put); and COPULAR verbs are followed by a subject complement or an adverbial, and occur in types SVC(seem) & SVA(be). Sun is shining. I send her a message. She is stupid. 4.The distinction between optional and obligatory adverbials and examples: Adverbial elements may b added irrespective of the verb type e.g. My purse has disappeared from the desk. But with some verbs, adverbials are obligatory e.g. Did you put the watch in the drawer. 5. The distinction between function and form: We have five functions of elements in sentence - the subject, object, adverbial, complement and verb, and five forms that are used to realize these functions - NP, VP, AdvP , AdjP, PrepP. The functions of S and O are usually realized by NP. The function of complement is usually realized by a NP or an AdjP. Adverbials may be realized as NP, AdvP, or PP. 6. Adverbials may be realized as NP, AdvP, or PP. He sounded a bit doubtful that night. He must apparently have taken my watch from the drawer. By chance a policeman witnessed the accident. 7. Give a sentence containing two coordinated clauses: My mum is normally a cheerful preson, but she seemed rather unhappy that day. 8. Give 3 sentences containing a subordinate clause functioning as subject, object, adverbial: Your failure is most regrettable. I suddenly remembered something. She seemed rather unhappy that day. 9. Give a sentence containing a relative clause: The police questioned every person who lived in the neighbourhood. 10. Two classes of words: closed and open. 11. Characteristics of closed classes of words, and list them: Closed classes of words have finite (and often small) number of words; they have stable and unchanging membership, and they are often referred as grammatical/function/structure words. These are pronouns, determiners, primary verbs, modal verbs, prepositions and conjunctions. 12. Characteristics of open classes of words, and list them: Open classes of words have vast number of words, new words can be added, and they are also known as lexical words. These are: nouns, adjectives, full verbs and adverbs. 13. Give examples illustrating the distinction between generic and specific: The tiger lives in China, India, and Malaysia. A keeper is coming to feed the tiger. 14. Give examples illustrating the distinction between marked and unmarked: The tiger lives in China, India, and Malaysia.UM; These tigers are living in a very cramped cage.M 15. The distinction between stative and dynamic. Which words are stative, which dynamic? Most verbs in most contexts are used dinamically and they relate to action, activity, and to temporary or changeable conditions. Stative verbs are verbs whose meaning denote lack of motion. Verbs are normally dynamic, nouns and adjectives are stative in that they denote phenomena or qualities that are stable and permanent.. 16. Give a sentence with a verb that cannot be used dynamically: He was knowing great deal about economics. 17. Pro-form refers back to an expression without repeating it. He lives in L. and they live there too - a pro-form for the adverbial of place.

18. Repetition can be avoided by ellipsis. My parents live in L. and my sister too - ellipsis of the V and A. 19. An operator is the first or only auxiliary in the verb phrase realizing the sentence element V. (must have been) The operator permits the coordination of two predications. Predication is a constituent of a predicate, together with operator. (Predicate=operator+predication). It must have been love. 20. How are negative sentences formed and example: Negation is expressed by inserting not after the operator. They should not have bought a new house. 21. How are questions formed and example: Questions are formed by placing the subject of the sentence after the operator. Should they have bought a new house? 22. How are negative sentences andquestions formed if there is no operator and examples: Where the V element in a positive declarative sentence has no operator, a form of do is introduced as operator in the negative or interrogative version. Did they buy a new house. They did not buy a new house. 23. Which verbs may function as operators in addition to do and modals and examples: Where the V element is realized by a form of be, this functions as itself an operator. The sea is very rough. The sea is not very rough. Is the sea very rough? The verb have can function like be, especially in BrE. She has the time to spare. She has not the time to spare. Has she the time to spare? 24. The distinction between assertive and nonassertive items: Predication in positive statements is an assertive territory and predication in negative sentences and in questions is nonassertive territory. While most words can be used equally in assertive and nonassertive predication, some determiners, pronouns and adverbs have specifically assertive or nonassertive use. 25. Five assertive items: already, some, somebody, something, someone; five nonassertive items: yet, any, anything, anybody, anyone. 26. A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause. E.g. The sun is shining. 27. 7 types of clauses are: SV, SVO, SVC, SVA, SVOO, SVOC, and SVOA. 28. Which verb has multiple class membership: Verb Get can belong, in its various senses to more than one class, and can enter into more than one clause type. The verb get is particularly versatile, being excluded only from type SV (and even then not universally, because in informal AmE, get is used imperatively as an intransitive verb eg. 'leave at once'). 29. Ambigous sentence due to the multiple class membership of its verb: She made a good model. SVC or SVO 30. INTRANSITIVE verbs are followed by no obligatory element and occur in type SV(shine). The sun is shining. 31. TRANSITIVE verbs are followed by an object and occur in types SVO(bore), SVOO(send), SVOC(find) & SVOA(put); Subtypes: Monotransitive occur in type SVO. The lecture bored me. Ditransitive occur in type SVOO. I send her a message. Complex-transitive occur in types SVOC and SVOA. Most students have found her reasonably helpful. You can put the dish on the table. 32. COPULAR verbs are followed by a subject complement or an adverbial, and occur in types SVC(seem) & SVA(be). Your dinner seems ready. The sun is shining. 33. Give 2 sentences in which the same verb is used, once as a transitive, once as an intransitive: I am eating. I am eating lunch. 34. Give a sentence containing two types of object: I poured him some whiskey. 35. Characteristics of the Ind. Object: whenever there are two objects (in type SVOO), the indirect object normally comes before the direct object. Although the indirect object is more central in being closer to the verb, in other respects it is more peripheral than the direct object: it is more likely

to be optional and it can often be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverbial. 36. Two main types of complements and examples: subjective complement in SVC He is becoming quite mature; and objective complement in SVOC I consider him quite mature. 37. The form of complements and examples: He is becoming quite mature. the complement is AdjP. He becoming a conscientious student- NP. 38. Two clause types in which obligatory adverbials appear are SVA & SVOA clause types. He stayed in bed. I kept him in bed. 39. Syntactic characterization of Verb: the verb is always realized by a verb phrase. It is normally present in all clauses, including imperative clauses(where the subject is typically absent). The verb determines what other element (apart from the subject) may or must occur in the clause. 40. Syntactic characterization of Subject: The S is typically a noun phrase; normally occurs before the verb in declarative clauses and after the operator in yes-no interrogative clauses; determines the number and person, where relevant, of the verb; in finite clauses requires the subjective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms. 41. Syntactic characterization of Object: The O is typically a noun phrase; normally follows the subject and verb, and if both objects are present, the indirect object normally comes before the direct object; Generally, it may become the subject of the corresponding passive clause; in finite clause it requires the objective form for pronouns that have distinctive case forms. 42. Syntactic characterization of Complement: The Complement is typically a noun phrase or an adjP; normally follows the subject and verb if the subject complement, and the direct object if object complement; it relates to the subject if subject complement, or to the direct object if object Complement; doesnt have a corresponding passive subject; in finite clauses it requires the subjective form of pronouns in formal use (AmE) but otherwise the objective form. 43. Syntactic characterization of Adverbial: the Adverbial is normally an adverb phrase, prepP or clause, but it can also be a NP. It is typically capable of occurring in more than one position in the clause, though its mobility depends on the type and form of the adverbial. It is optional, except for adverbials in the SVA and SVOA clause types. 44. 4 main semantic roles: Main semantic role of a Subject: in a clause that has a direct object is that of the agentive participant (the animate participant that instigates or causes the happening denoted by the verb). Main semantic role of the DO is that of the affected participant: a participant (animate or inanimate) which doesnt cause the happening denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way. Main semantic role of the IO is that of the recipient participant: ie of the animate being that is passively involved by the happening or a state. Main semantic role of the S.com and O.com is that of attribute. 45. Agent or agentive participant - the animate participant that instigates or causes the happening denoted by the verb. She is mowing the grass. 46. Affected - a participant (animate or inanimate) which doesnt cause the happening denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way. He sold his digital watch yesterday. 47. Recipient the animate being that is passively involved by the happening or a state. We paid them the money. 48. Attribute - Main semantic role of the S.com and O.com is that of attribute. She is my daughter. 49. 4 types of attributes: We can distinguish two subtypes of role for attribute: identification (They named their son John) and characterization (I am a good student). Attribetes may be 'current' (e.g. He is my brother), normally with verbs used statively, or 'resulting' (ie from the event decribed by the verb), with verbs used dynamically (She felt ill).

50. Ten semantic roles of the subject: 1. external causer: it expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) cause of an event; 2. instrument: the entity (generally inanimate) which an agent uses to perform an action or instigate a process; 3. affected role (with intransitive verbs); 4. recipient role with verbs: have own possess benefit{from}; 5. experiencer subject with perceptual verbs see and hear; 6. positioner with intransitive stance verbs: sit, stand, lie, live, stay, remain and with transitive verbs related to stance verbs: carry, hold, keep, wear, etc); 7. locative role of designating the place of the state or action; 8. temporal role of designating its time; 9. eventive role (the noun at the head of the noun phrase is commonly deverbal-derived from a verb, or a nominalization); 10. and there are clauses in which no participant is required. In such cases the subject function may be assumed by the prop word it, which has little or no semantic content. Prop it mainly occurs in clauses signifying time, atmospheric conditions, and distance. 51. The perceptual verbs see and hear require an experiencer subject, in contrast to look at and listen to, which are agentive. The other perceptual verbs taste, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning corresponding to look at, and an experiencer meaning corresponding to see. I can taste the pepper in my soup. Verbs indicating cognition or emotion may also require an experiencer: I liked the play. 52. 5 semantic roles of a DO are: 1. locative role with verbs walk, swim, pass, jump, turn, leave, reach, surround, cross, climb; 2. resultant or effected: its referent exists only by a virtue of the activity indicated by the verb; 3. cognate similar to a resultant object in that it refers to an event indicated by the verb; 4. In one type of resultant object, the activity re-creates the referent. 5. eventive - an extension of the verb and bears the major part of the meaning. It takes the form of a deverbal noun preceded by a common verb of general meaning, such as do, give, have, make, take. 53. Cognate object is similar to a resultant object in that it refers to an event indicated by the verb. He lives a good life. 54. 2 semantic roles of the indirect object: Main semantic role of the IO is that of the recipient participant: ie of the animate being that is passively involved by the happening or a state. affected indirect object is the one exception to the normal role of recipient taken by the indirect object, it combines with an eventive direct object and the most common verb is give; the indirect object has the same role as the affected DO in the paraphrases. 55. Affected indirect object is the one exception to the normal role of recipient taken by the indirect object, it combines with an eventive direct object and the most common verb is give. I gave the baby a bath. 56. Type of concord illustrated in: My son watches TV> it is the most important type of concord in English (grammatical concord) and it is the concord of 3rd person number btw S and V. This is a singular subject that requires a singular verb. 57. What is the form of the verb when the subject is a clause, prepositional phrase or adverb: Clauses as subject count as singular for number concord: Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to your health. The same applies to prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as subject: In the evenings is the best for me; Slowly does it! 58. What is the form of the verb when the subject is a nominal relative clause: Nominal relative clauses resemble noun phrases in this respect and may have plural as well as singular concord. What ideas he has are his wife's. 59. The government have broken all their promises> notional concord is agreement according to the idea of number rather than the presence of the grammatical marker for that idea. In BrE collective nouns such as government are often treated as plural. 60. The principle of proximity denotes agreement of the verb with a noun or pronoun that closely precedes it in preference to agreement with the head of the noun phrase. E.g. One in ten take drugs. 61. The verb may occur in sg. and pl. form with one

type of nouns. Which nouns, give e.g.? Collective nouns. The audience were/was enjoying every minute of it. 62. Ungrammaticality *The audience were enormous: Singular has to be used in sentences like The audience was enormous , where the group is being considered as a single undivided body. 63. The distinction between coordination and coordinative apposition: Coordination comprises cases that correspond to fuller coordinate forms. A plural verb is used even if each conjoin is singular (Tom & Alice are now ready). Conjoins express a mutual relationship, even though they can only indirectly be treated as reductions of clauses in this way, also take a plural verb (your problem and mine are similar). Coordinative apposition is less common and no reduction is implied, since each of the units has the same reference. A singular verb is required if each NP is singular (This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was erected in the main street of the city). 64. Explain the difference His brother and the editor of his book was/were with him: Singular was is used if the brother and the editor are the same person, and plural were if they are two different people. 65. What determines the number of the V when conjoins in coordinated S differ in number? When conjoins coordinated with or differ in number, recourse is generally made to the principle of proximity: the number of the second conjoin determines the number of the verb. 66. Concord of person in the present tense: I am your friend/He knows you. Concord of person in past: I was your girlfriend and you were my friend. 67. Which noun phrase determines the person of the verb when the subject is coordinated with or? In a coordinate subject noun phrase where the coordinator is or or nor, the last noun phrase determines the person of the verb, in accordance with the principle of proximity. 68. What are other types of concord and e.g.? Concord of number between subject and subject complement (My child is an angel) and between direct object and object complement (I consider my child an angel). 69. A reflexive pronoun must agree with its antecedent in: number, person and gender. I wrote to them about myself. 70. Personal pronoun and possessive determiner in the 3rd person agree with their antecedents in number. Those in the 3rd person singular also agree with their antecedents in gender. Tom hurt his foot. Lucy knows that she is late. The books were too heavy, so I left them. 71. Which pronoun is often used as a 3rd person sg. Pron. that is neutral between masc. and fem.? pronoun they. 72. In order to negate a positive clause in Eng, we insert NOT btw the operator and the predication (they are readythey are not ready); if no operator is present in the positive clause, the dummy operator do is introduced (she works hard-she doesnt work hard); except in formal Eng, the negator more usually occurs also as enclitic (attached to the preceding word) in the contracted form n't: I haven't finished. There are commonly two possibilities for contraction in negative clauses in informal Eng: negator contraction and auxiliary contraction (I havent finished and Ive not finished). 73. Four synt features of clause negation are: they differ from positive clauses, they can typically be followed by positive tag questions; they can be followed by negative tag clauses, with additive meaning; they can be followed by negative agreement responses; and they can be followed by nonassertive items. 74. Three words negative in form and meaning: no, not, never; e.g. She would say not a word. 75. What happens when the negative element is moved to initial position: In formal style, the negative element may often be moved from its usual position to initial position, in which case there is inversion of subject and operator. Not a word would he say.

76. Seven words negative in meaning but not in form: : seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely, little, few (in contrast to the positive a little & a few). I seldom get any sleep, either. 77. What happens when the negative adverb is moved to initial position: When positioned initially, the adverbs normally cause subject-operator inversion: Little did I expect such enthusiasm. 78. Five nonasserive items which may follow clause negation: any, anybody, at all, ever, any longer, either, much 79. Five syn contexts in which non-assertive items appear: question, conditional clauses, comparative clauses, putative-should clauses and restrictive relative clauses within generic noun phrases, which have conditional meaning. 80. Is I can't not obey her positive or negative? The two negatives cancel each other out, producing positive values, but the sentence remains negative syntactically. 81. The scope of the negation is the stretch of language over which the negative item has a semantic influence. It normally extends from the negative item itself to the end of the clause. She defiantly didnt speak to him (its definite that she didnt); she didnt definitely speak to him (Its not definite that she did) 82. The difference between I didn't listen to some/any of the speakers: 1. I listened to some. 2. I listened to none. 83. Local negation negates a word or a phrase, without making the clause negative. (Shes not unintelligent woman) 84. The scope of negation may or may not include the meaning of the modal auxiliaries. We therefore distinguish btw auxiliary negation and main verb negation. The contrast is shown in the two following sentences with may not, where the paraphrases indicate the scope of negation. A.N> you may not smoke here (you are not allowed to smoke here) MVN> they may not like the party (its possible that they do not like the party) 85. Four major synt types of simple sentences are: declaratives, interrogatives (yes-no interrogatives and whinterrogatives), imperatives, and exclamatives. Four major type of discourse functions are: statements are primarily used to convey information; questions are primarily used to seek information on a specific point; directives are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something; and exclamations are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is impressed by something. 86. Declaratives are sentence in which it is normal for the subject to be present and to precede the verb. She gave him a digital watch for his birthday. 87. Yes-no interrogatives: an operator is placed in front of the subject Did She gave Tom a digital watch for his birthday? 88. Wh-interrogatives: an interrogative wh-element is positioned initially and there is generally subject-operator inversion; What did she gave Tom for his birthday? 89. Imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base form. Gave Tom a digital watch for his birthday. 90. Exclamatives are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how usually with subject-verb order. What a fine watch he received for his birthday! 91. Statements are primarily used to convey information. 92. Questions are primarily used to seek information on a specific point. 93. Directives are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something. 94. Exclamations are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is impressed by something. 95. Three major classes of questions according to the type of reply they expect are: those that expect affirmation or negation are yes-no questions; those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies are wh-question; & those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question are alternative questions.

96. Yes-no questions are those that expect affirmation or negation, as in Have you finished the book? 97. Wh-questions are those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies, What is your name? 98. Alternative questions are those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question, Would you like to go for a walk or stay at home? 99. Yes-no questions are usually formed by placing the operator before the subject and giving the sentence a rising intonation e.g. the boat has left>has the boat left 100. Main verb that function as operator in BrE: have e.g. Has she (got) a cold? 101. Did anyone/someone call last night-diff? Anyone is non-assertive item(this kind of question is generally neutral, with no bias in expectation towards a positive or negative response); unlike someone which is assertive item(this is a conducive question which may indicate that the speaker is predisposed to the kind of answer he has wanted or expected, so if it uses assertive forms-it has positive orientation. 102. Form negative yes-no questions from Did they warn you: Didn't they warn you? Did they not warn you? 103. What is orientation of Didn't someone call last night (which meaning is implied)? If a negative question has assertive items, it is biased towards positive orientation. (meaning: I expect that someone did) 104. Orientation of yes-no q which contain negative form: Negative questions are always conducive. Negative orientation is found in questions which contain a negative form of one kind or another. Don't you believe me? Has nobody called? If a negative question has assertive items, it is biased towards positive orientation: Hasn't the boat left already? (Surely it has.) 105. What is expressed by negatively oriented yes-no q and e.g.: Negative orientation is complicated by an element of surprise or disbelief. The implication is that the speaker had originally hoped for a positive response, but new evidence now suggests that the response will be negative. Hasn't he told you what to do? means 'Surely he has told you what to do, hasn't he?' 106. Tag questions: Maximum conduciveness is expressed by a tag question appended to the statement (in the form of a declarative): The boat hasnt left, has it? (Surely the boat hasn't left.) The tag question is negative if the statement is positive and vice versa; it has a form of a yes-no question consisting of merely an operator and a subject pronoun, the choice of operator and pronoun depending on the statement, and the nuclear tone of the tag occurs on the operator and is either rising or falling. 107. 4 main types of tag questions: positive statement + negative tag (rising tone on tag He likes his jb. Desn't he? and falling tone on tag - He likes his jb. Desn't he?); and negative statement+ positive tag (rising tone on tag He doesn't like his jb, des he? and falling tone on tag - He doesn't like his jb, des he?) 108. Difference between tag questions with rising intonation and those with falling: The tag with a rising tone invites verification, expecting the hearer to decide the truth of the proposition in the statement. The tag with the falling tone invites confirmation of the statement, and has the force of an exclamation rather that a genuine question. 109. Other types of sentences can tag q be appended to: imperatives and exclamatives: Turn on the light, won't you? Open the door, can't you? How thin she is, isn't she? What a beautiful painting it is, isn't it? 110.The declarative question have the form of a declarative, except for the finial rising intonation. Youve got tickets? Boris will be there, I suppose? They are conducive and resemble tag question with a rising tone intonation that they invite the hearers verification. 111. Orientation of positive declarative questions: Positive questions have positive orientation and can thus accept only assertive items: He wants something to eat? Somebody is with you?

112. Orientation of negative declarative questions: Negative questions have negative orientation, and nonassertive forms may be used following the negative: You didn't get anything to eat? Nobody ever stays at your place? 113. Wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following simple interrogative words (or wh-words): who/whom/whose, what, which, when, where, how, why. What did you base your prediction on? 114. Difference between yes-no q and wh-questions in intonation: Unlike yes-no questions, wh-questions generally have falling intonation. As a rule, the wh-element (ie the clause element containing the wh-word) comes first in the sentence, and the wh-word itself takes first position in the wh-element. 115. Possible functions of wh-element: subject (Who is coming to the party?), direct object (What did you buy for your sister?), subjective complement (Whose beautiful antiques are these?), objective complement (How wide did they make the bookcase?), and adverbials (When will you be prooted?, Why didn't you tell me?, How much does he care?, How did you mend it?, How often do you visit New York?, etc.) 116. The function of wh-element in How wide did they make the bookcase: objective complement. 117. Koga eli? (2options, and explain): Whom/Who did you want? Whom is used in formal style. Except in formal style, who rather than whom is used as object(Who did you want?) or complement of preposition (Who did you give it to?). 118. Kome si dao poklon? (3options, which is ungrammatical): Many speakers do not accept an indirect object as wh-element: ?who(m) did you give the present? They use the equivalent prepositional phrase instead (Who(m) did you give the present to?) or in formal style (To who did you give the present?). 119. Ko sta kome kaze? Who said what to whom? 120. There are 2types of alternative questions. The first resembles a yes-no question (Would you like chcolate, strwberry, or vanlla ice-cream?) It differs from a yes-no question only in intonation and that is important, in that ignoring it can lead to misunderstanding. The second type of alternative questions resembles a wh-question & it is really a compound of two separate questions: a wh-question followed by an elliptical alternative question (which icecream would you like? Choclate, vanlla, or strwberry?)

121. The difference between yes-no questions and alternative questions in intonation: The first type of alternative questions differs from a yes-no question only in intonation; instead of the final rising tone, it contains a separate nucleus for each alternative: a rise occurs on each item in the list, except the last, on which there is a fall, indicating that the list is complete. The difference of intonation between alternative and yes-no questions is important, in that ignoring it can lead to misunderstanding as the contrast between these replies indicates; alternative A: Shall we go by bs or trin? B: By bs.; yes-no - A: Shall we go by bus or trin? B: No, let's take the cr. 122. Three minor types of questions are: exclamatory questions (Hasnt she grown?), rhetorical questions (Is that a reason for despair?) and echo questions (Take a look at thistake a look at what?) 123. Exclamatory question is interrogative in structure, but has the force of an exclamatory assertion. Typically it is a negative yes- no question with the final falling instead of rising tone. Hasnt she grown! Wasn't it a marvellous concert! 124. The rhetorical question is interrogative in structure but has the force of a strong assertion. The speaker doesnt expect an answer. Isnt the answer obvious? ('Surely the answer is obvious.') Is that a reason for despair? ('Surely that is not a reason.')

125. Echo questions repeat part or all of what has been said. Replicatory echo questions do so as a way of having their content confirmed;.(A: Ill pay for it. B: Youll what?; A: He's a doctor. B: What is he?) and explicatory echo question, which are always wh-questions, ask for clarification. They have a falling tone on the wh-word. A: Take a look at this! B: Take a look at what? 126. Imperative sentence: Directives typically take the form of an imperative sentence, which differs from a declarative sentence in that that it generally has no subject and that it generally has a verb in the base form. Jump. Be reasonable. Consider yourself lucky. 127. Ungrammaticality Be old*> imperatives are restricted to verbs used dynamically, hence the incongruity of *Be old. Many predications that are stative with respect to disallowing the progressive are available with a dynamic interpretation: Forgive us. 128. How are second person imperatives formed (with a subject expressed) and e.g.s: The meaning of a directive implies that the omitted subject is the 2nd person pronoun you. The implication can be demonstrated by the occurence of you as subject of a following tag question (Be quiet, will you?), by the occurence of only yourself or yourselves as the reflexive (Behave yourself or Help yourselves), and by the occurence of only the emphatic possessive your own (Use your own comb). There is, however, a type of directive in which the stressed subject you is added. You may be noncontrastive and admonitory: You take the book. 129. How are first and third person imperatives formed: First person imperatives can be formed by preposing the verb let followed by a notional subject in the objective case: Let us work hard ('We must work hard'). The same applies to 3rd person subjects: Let each man decide for himself. ('Each man must decide...?) 130. How are negative imperatives formed: To negate imperatives, one simply adds an initial Don't or Do not, replacing assertive by nonassertive items where necessary. Open the door. Don't open the door; Someone open the door. Don't anyone open the door; You open the door. Don't you open the door. 131.How are negative imperatives with let formed: Imperatives with let are informally negated with don't. Don't let's say anything about it. Let's don't say anything about it. Don't let me disturb you. Don't let anyone fool himself he can get away with it. Variants occur, especially with let's, where not is inserted after the pronoun: Let's not say anything about it. 132. A positive imperative can be made more persuasive or insistent, how and e.g.: A positive imperative can be made more persuasive or insistent, especially in BrE, by adding do (usually with a nuclear tone) before the verb: Do have some more tea. Do let's go for a walk. This use of do applies only when a subject is absent or when let's is present. 133. Exclamatives are a formal category of sentence that are restricted to the type of exclamatory utterances introduced by what (predeterminer in a noun phrase) or how (intensifier of an adjective, or adverb, or a degree adverbial). What a time weve had today! How quickly you eat! How I used to hate history! 134. Echo exclamatives repeat part or all of a preceding utterance, and is characterized by a rise-fall or high-fall tone. E.g. A:Have you been to Madrid? B: Been to Madrid! I certainly have. 135. Irregular sentence with the formulaic subjunctive: So help me God! God save the Queen! Long live the Queen! God forbid! Long live the Republic! 136. Irregular wh-question: How about another kiss? Why all the noise? Why listen to him? What if it rains? What about coming to my place? 137. Subordinate clause used as sentence: To think that you might have been killed! That I should live to see such ingratitude! If only I'd listened to my parents! 138. Block language appears (especially in writing) in such

functions as labels, titles, newspapers headlines, notices and advertisements. Simple block language messages consist of a noun phrase in isolation: English department; For Sale, The New York Times, Entrance, No dogs without leash, etc.