Chapter 4

Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

4.1 Position and displacement
4.2 Average velocity and instantaneous velocity
4.3 Average acceleration and instantaneous
acceleration
4.4 Projectile motion
4.5 Projectile motion analyzed
4.6 Uniform circular motion
1
2
4.1 Position and displacement
Position Vector
The position vector of a particle is defined as a vector whose tail is at
a reference point (usually the origin ) and its tip is at the particle at
point .
The position vec Examp tor i l n e: the f
r
O
P
igure is

i j k r x y z = + +
( )

3i 2j 5k r m = + +
P
3
t
2
t
1
Displacement Vector
1 2
For a particle that changes position vector from to we define the displacement
vector as follows:
r r
r A
2 1
. r r r A =
1 2
The position vectors and are written in terms of components as r r
1 1 1 1

i j k r x y z = + +
2 2 2 2

i j k r x y z = + +
( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1

i j k i j k r x x y y z z x y z A = + + = A +A +A
2 1
x x x A =
2 1
y y y A =
2 1
z z z A =
The displacement r can then be written as A
Position and Displacement
k j i

z

x r + + =

x
y
z
A
B
Let
k m) 4 ( j m) 2 ( i m) 2 (

r
A
+ + =

A B
r r r

= A
So, ?
= Ar

Average Velocity
k m) 2 ( j m) 1 ( i m) 2 (-

r
B
+ + =

? =
A
A
=
t
r
v
avg

If it takes 5 seconds for the

displacement stated above to
happen,
4
5
4.2 Average velocity and instantaneous velocity
Following the same approach as in Chapter 2 we define the average
velocity as
displacement
average velocity =
time interval
avg

i j k i j k r x y z x y z
v
t t t t t
A A + A + A A A A
= = = + +
A A A A A
We define the instantaneous velocity (or
more simply the velocity) as the limit:
lim
0
r dr
v
t dt
t
A
= =
A
A
2 2
avg
If we allow the time interval to shrink to zero, the following things happen:
1. Vector moves toward vector and 0.
2. The direction of the ratio (and thus ) approaches th
t
r r r
r
v
t
A
A
A
A
avg
e direction
of the tangent to the path at position 1.
3. v v
( )

i j k i j k i j k
x y z
d dx dy dz
v x y z v v v
dt dt dt dt
= + + = + + = + +
x
dx
v
dt
=
y
dy
v
dt
=
z
dz
v
dt
=
The three velocity components are given by
the equations
dr
v
dt
=
6
Instantaneous Velocity
28 2 7 31 0
2
+ + = t . t . x
30 1 9 22 0
2
+ = t . t . y
At t = 15s, what is the
instantaneous velocity?
7
8
4.3 Average acceleration and instantaneous
acceleration
The average acceleration is defined as:
change in velocity
average acceleration =
time interval
2 1
avg
v v v
a
t t
A
= =
A A
We define the instantaneous acceleration as the limit:
( )

lim i j k i j k i j k
0
y
x z
x y z x y z
dv
dv dv v dv d
a v v v a a a
t dt dt dt dt dt
t
A
= = = + + = + + = + +
A
A
The three acceleration components are given by
the equations
x
x
dv
a
dt
=
y
y
dv
a
dt
=
z
z
dv
a
dt
=
Note: Unlike velocity, the acceleration vector does not have any specific
relationship with the path.
dv
a
dt
=
( ) ( ) j 4 6 i 2 4 3
2 2

t t

t t r + + =

Let:
t
v
t
v v
a
avg
A
A
=
A

1 2
You are driving at position A and starts to slow down your car
before it stops at positon B. It takes 5 seconds for the car to
travel from Ato B. What is the instantaneous acceleration at t =
2s, t = 4s and t = 6s?
9
10
4.4 Projectile motion
You throw a ball at an angle to the horizontal plane. It travels on
the path shown in below figure and eventually fall into the
dustbin. Can we relate the parameters of ? time, and , , ,
0 0
t v y x

u
11
4.5 Projectile motion analyzed
- The motion of the projectile consists of an x-axis
(horizontal direction) and y-axis (vertical direction).
Path of a projectile fired with initial velocity at
angle u to the horizontal.
0
v

12
- Assumptions:
- Air resistance is negligible.
- The only external influence is the free-fall acceleration g
(constant). No acceleration in the x-direction.
- Is taken as a point-like object with all its mass concentrated
at its center.
- Kinematics equations for projectile motion:
(y positive upward; a
x
= 0, a
y
= -g = -9.80 m/s
2
)
Horizontal Motion
(a
x
= 0, v
x
= constant)
Vertical Motion
(a
y
= -g = constant)
v
x0
= v
0
cosu
0
v
x
= v
x0

x = x
0
+ v
x0
t
v
y0
= v
0
sinu
0

v
y
= v
y0
gt
y = y
0
+ v
y0
t
2
1
gt
2
2
y
v =
2
0 y
v 2gy

13
Assuming x
0
and y
0
= 0,
y = y
0
+ v
y0
t
2
1
gt
2

= v
y0
t
2
1
gt
2
[v
y0
= v
0
sinu
0
]
= v
0
sinu
0
t
2
1
gt
2
[x = x
0
+ v
x0
t; t =
0 x
v
x
]
= v
0
sinu
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
0 x
v
x
-
2
1
g
2
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
x
v
x
[v
x0
= v
0
cosu
0
]
= v
0
sinu
0
|
|
.
|

\
|
0 0
cos v
x
-
2
1
g
2
0 0
cos
|
|
.
|

\
|
v
x

y = tanu
0
x -
2
0 0
2
) cos ( 2 v
gx
(trajectory equation)
14
4.6 Uniform circular motion
A particle is in uniform circular motion if it moves on a circular path
of radius r with constant speed v. Even though the speed is constant,
the velocity is not. The reason is that the direction of the velocity
vector changes from point to point along the path. The fact that the
velocity changes means that the acceleration is not zero. The
acceleration in uniform circular motion has the following
characteristics:
1. Its vector points toward the center C of the circular path, thus the
name centripetal.
2. Its magnitude a is given by the equation
2
.
v
a
r
=
The time T it takes to complete a full
revolution is known as the period. It
is given by the equation
2
.
r
T
v
t
=
15
A plane, diving with constant speed at angle of 53 with vertical,
releases a projectile at an altitude of 730 m. The projectile hits the
ground 5.00 s after release.
a) What is the speed of the plane? [202 m/s]
b) How far does the projectile travel horizontally during its flight?
[806 m]
What are the
c) horizontal and [161 m/s]
d) vertical components of its velocity just before striking the
ground? [171 m/s]
Sample Problem 1:
16
Sample Problem 2:
At t
1
= 2.00 s, the acceleration of a particle in counterclockwise
circular motion is . It moves at constant speed.
At time t
2
= 5.00 s, its acceleration is . What
is the radius of the path taken by the particle if t
2
t
1
is less than one
period?
j i

) m/s 00 . 4 (

) m/s 00 . 6 (
2 2
+
j i

) m/s 00 . 6 (

) m/s 00 . 4 (
2 2
+
2 2 2 2
1 2

[(6.00 m/s )i+(4.00 m/s )j] [(4.00 m/s )i+( 6.00 m/s )j]=0. a a =
We first note that the acceleration at t
1
= 2.00 s is perpendicular to (the
acceleration at t
2
=5.00 s), by taking their scalar (dot) product.:
17
2 2 2 2 2 2
(6.00 m/s ) (4.00 m/s) 7.21 m/s .
x y
a a a = + = + =
2 2
4 / a r T t =
2 2 2
2 2
(7.21 m/s )(4.00 s)
2.92 m.
4 4
aT
r
t t
= = =
which yield
Since the acceleration vectors are in the (negative) radial directions, then the
two positions (at t
1
and t
2
) are a quarter-circle apart (or three-quarters of a circle,
depending on whether one measures clockwise or counterclockwise). A quick
sketch leads to the conclusion that if the particle is moving counterclockwise (as
the problem states) then it travels three-quarters of a circumference in moving
from the position at time t
1
to the position at time t
2
. Letting T stand for the
period, then t
2
t
1
= 3.00 s = 3T/4. This gives T = 4.00 s. The magnitude of the
acceleration is