The Poor Prognosis of Childhood-Onset Bipolar Disorder

GABRIELE S. LEVERICH, MSW, LCSW-C, BCD, ROBERT M. POST, MD, PAUL E. KECK JR, MD, LORI L. ALTSHULER, MD, MARK A. FRYE, MD, RALPH W. KUPKA, MD, PHD, WILLEM A. NOLEN, MD, PHD, TRISHA SUPPES, MD, PHD, SUSAN L. MCELROY, MD, HEINZ GRUNZE, MD, KIRK DENICOFF, MD, MARIA K.M. MORAVEC, BS, AND DAVID LUCKENBAUGH, MA

Objective We examined age of onset of bipolar disorder as a potential course-of-illness modier with the hypothesis that early onset will engender more severe illness. Study design A total of 480 carefully diagnosed adult outpatients with bipolar disorder (mean age, 42.5 11.6 years) were retrospectively rated for age of illness onset, time to rst pharmacotherapy, and course of illness. Clinicians prospectively rated daily mood uctuations over 1 year. Results Of the 480 patients, 14% experienced onset in childhood (12 years or younger); 36% in adolescence (13 to 18 years); 32% in early adulthood (19 to 29 years); and 19% in late adulthood (after 30 years). Childhood-onset bipolar illness was associated with long delays to rst treatment, averaging more than 16 years. The patients with childhood or adolescent onset reported more episodes, more comorbidities, and rapid cycling retrospectively; prospectively, they demonstrated more severe mania, depression, and fewer days well. Conclusions This study demonstrates that childhood onset of bipolar disorder is common and is associated with long delays to rst treatment. Physicians and clinicians should be alert to a possible bipolar diagnosis in children in hopes of shortening the time to initiating treatment and perhaps ameliorating the otherwise adverse course of illness. See editorial, p 459 (J Pediatr 2007;150:485-90) he recent follow-up studies of Geller et al1,2 suggest a relatively difcult course of illness in children with bipolar disorder treated naturalistically in the community. Although 65% of the patients studied recovered for 2 weeks by the end of 2 years, 55% relapsed within this 2-year period, and 64% relapsed during the 4-year follow-up. Birmaher et al3 reported extremely long delays to achieving acute remission, along with relatively high subsequent relapse rates, in children with bipolar I, bipolar II, and especially bipolar NOS (not otherwise specied) disorders. Controlled clinical trial ndings in long-term prophylaxis of childhood bipolar illness have reported high dropout rates due to inefcacy of either lithium or valproate monotherapy.4 There remains much controversy about the quality of symptoms and severity/ duration thresholds sufcient for diagnosing childhood-onset bipolar illness.5-8 Given this ongoing controversy, many children with bipolar illness are not being identied until after many years of psychopathology. In some instances, these children are being treated with stimulants or antidepressants for their comorbid attention decit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) without the recommended coverage of a mood stabilizer or atypical antipsychotic.6 Much of the diagnostic controversy derives from the lack of characteristic discrete episodes so often seen in adult-onset bipolar disorder.9 In contrast, many of the youngest children with otherwise profound manic and depressive mood and behavioral swings associated with considerable social or educational dysfunction show brief bursts and rapid changes in mood, sometimes several times within a 24-hour period, a phenomenon called ultradian cycling.1,2,10,11 A second reason underlying the controversy is that the extremes

ADHD Attention decit hyperactivity disorder NIMH-LCM National Institutes of Mental Health Life Chart Method

SCID

Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders

From the Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, Biological Psychiatry Branch, Bethesda, MD; Psychopharmacology Research Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH; Mental Health Care Line and General Clinical Research Center, Cincinnati VA Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH; Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Science, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles and West Los Angeles VA Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA; Altrecht Institute for Mental Health Care, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital, Groningen, The Netherlands; University of TexasSouthwestern Medical Center, Dallas; and Psychiatrische Klinik der LMU, Munich, Germany. Supported by the National Institutes of Mental Health and the Stanley Medical Research Institute. Submitted for publication Mar 3, 2006; last revision received Aug 3, 2006; accepted Oct 27, 2006. Reprint requests: Gabriele S. Leverich, MSW, LCSW-C, BCD, NIMH, NIH, DHHS, Biological Psychiatry Branch, Bldg 10, Room 3S239, 10 Center Drive MSC-1272, Bethesda, MD 20892-1272. E-mail: levericg@ mail.nih.gov. 0022-3476/$ - see front matter Copyright 2007 Mosby Inc. All rights reserved. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.10.070

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of activation, impulsivity, irritability, and anger that these children exhibit can occur in other childhood disorders, such as ADHD, oppositional deant disorder, or major depressive disorder.12 In this article, we examine the proportion of adults who had childhood and adolescent onset of their illness and assess the illness outcomes related to these different ages of onset. One retrospective study by Perlis et al13 based on the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar Disorder (STEP-BD) cohort of 983 patients found that 27.7% had on onset of bipolar illness in childhood (age 12) while another 37.6% had their onset in adolescence (from ages 13 to 18). They found that both of these groups had a much more difcult course of illness compared with those with adult onset, including faster cycling, more days depressed, greater number lifetime of manic and depressive episodes, an increased risk of substance abuse and other comorbidities, and a greater lifetime risk of suicide attempts. We also revisit this issue in another adult outpatient cohort with several new methodological approaches. We obtained daily prospective clinician ratings for 1 year during naturalistic treatment of adult bipolar illness by experts to supplement the retrospective self-report ndings. We also examined data on the lag between the onset of rst symptoms likely meeting DSM-IV diagnostic criteria and the onset of rst drug treatment for either mania or depression.

METHODS
The methods of study of this outpatient cohort have been presented in detail elsewhere.14-18 Outpatients were recruited between 1995 and 2002 largely from local advertisements and outpatient settings located near 4 research clinic sites in the United States (Los Angeles, Dallas, Cincinnati, and Bethesda) and 3 sites in Europe (Utrecht, Freiburg, and Munich). All patients provided informed written consent for participation in naturalistic follow-up. The population was a broad and representative sample, because patients were not excluded for the presence of comorbidities; the only exclusions were for active ongoing substance abuse that required separate treatment in another facility or other serious medical illnesses that might preclude participation in subsequent treatment protocols if this became necessary. Patients were diagnosed using the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID)19 and completed questionnaires about the extent of their previous course of illness.16-18,20 The self-report questions included (1) age of onset of rst depressive symptoms associated with dysfunction, (2) age of onset of rst hypomanic or manic symptoms, and (3) age of rst treatment for either mania or depression. Age of onset was also obtained from the SCID19 interviews by trained clinicians based on an assessment of when symptoms similar to those experienced in adulthood rst occurred. Ages of onset as assessed by these 2 methods were highly correlated (r .80; P .001). In this study, we used patients self-reported age, because it was derived from the same pa486 Leverich et al

tient assessment instrument that also provided retrospective data on course of illness and time to rst treatment. The 480 patients were assessed on various cross-sectional measures18,20 during each visit, as well as on the daily prospective National Institutes of Mental Health Life Chart Method (NIMH-LCM).21 Because the severity of mania and depression ratings on the NIMH-LCM are based on the degree of mood-related functional impairment in a patients usual social, educational, or occupational roles,21 they are readily remembered by the patient and rated by a clinician during the clinical interview. Such prospective NIMH-LCM clinician ratings are highly reliable over a period of several weeks to 1 month between visits and have been validated against more conventional cross-sectional rating scales, as described by Denicoff et al.22,23 Sequentially admitted patients who also had a full year of prospective daily clinician ratings were included in the analysis. Because preliminary analysis suggested potential nonlinear relationships between age of onset and various outcome measures, age of onset was divided into 4 groups as was done by Perlis et al.13 Onset at age 0 to 12 years was considered childhood onset; at 13 to 18 years, adolescent onset; at 19 to 29 years, early-adult onset; and after 30 years, late-adult onset. Average severity of days ill (with euthymic days included) for the prospective year was calculated using the mood ratings for mania and depression on the NIMH-LCM on a scale of 0 to 4, with 0 euthymic (not ill); 1 mild severity, with little or no role dysfunction; 2 low moderate (some dysfunction); 3 high moderate (much dysfunction); and 4 severe (essentially incapacitated).21 Days with ultradian cycling (ie, switching between mania and depression within a 24-hour period) were recorded separately and not counted in the assessment of number of episodes. The normality of continuous measures was examined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, and homogeneity of variance was examined using Levenes test. Continuous demographic and outcome measures were examined using 1-way analysis of variance with the 4 onset groups. Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons were used post hoc. A 2 test was used with categorical measures, with omnibus significance followed up with a 2 2 2 test to determine the location of differences. All P values were evaluated for significance at .05 (2-tailed). Results were Bonferroni-corrected for the 15 measures compared across onset groups.

RESULTS
The mean age at network entry (42.5 11.6 years) was not signicantly different among the patients with childhood, adolescent, and early-adult onset; however, the late-adult onset group was signicantly older at network entry than the other groups (Table I). Of the 480 individuals with at least 1 year of complete prospective daily ratings, 65 (14%) reported onset at age 12 years or younger, 171 (36%) reported onset during adolescence, 154 (32%) reported early-adult onset, and 90 (19%) reported late-adult onset.
The Journal of Pediatrics May 2007

Table I. Patient demographics and retrospective illness variables as a function of age of onset
Variable n (percent) Mean age at rst symptom, years SD Mean age at network entry, years SD Female Bipolar type I II Married/cohabitating Parental history of bipolar disorder Parental history of depression Physical abuse as a child Sexual abuse as a child Dysphoric mania Rapid cycling (lifetime) Number of mood episodes ( 20 lifetime) Comorbidities: Lifetime anxiety disorder Lifetime alcohol abuse or dependence Lifetime drug abuse (excluding alcohol) Childhood (0 to 12 years) 65 (14%) 9.57 2 39.95 42 (65) 54 (83) 11 (17) 28 (46) 23 (47) 25 (52) 22 (36) 19 (31) 48 (79) 45 (70) 50 (83) 11 Adolescent (13 to 18 years) 171 (36%) 15.92 2 40.37 12 Early adulthood (19 to 29 years) 154 (32%) 22.60 3 40.95 11 Late adulthood (30 years) 90 (19%) 38.51 7 51.20 45 (50) 63 (73) 23 (27) 49 (50) 12 (17) 18 (25) 10 (12) 8 (10) 46 (52) 35 (40) 30 (38) 9 F 24.06 4.87 3.57 .001 .18 .31
2

98 (57) 132 (80) 33 (20) 82 (50) 52 (37) 60 (43) 36 (22) 33 (20) 94 (59) 83 (51) 105 (66)

78 (51) 125 (83) 26 (17) 78 (30) 27 (21) 39 (29) 21 (15) 15 (11) 68 (46) 66 (45) 63 (44)

0.82 21.62 14.06 16.22 17.63 19.40 15.92 43.14

.84 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001

38 (60) 27 (42) 16 (25)

63 (37) 60 (35) 42 (25)

56 (37) 46 (30) 30 (20)

21 (24) 22 (25) 7 (8)

21.07 5.77 11.14

.001 .12 .01

Includes patients with 1 full year (365 days) of prospective life chart data.

The duration from onset of illness to rst pharmacologic treatment for depression or mania, available in 420 patients, was strongly inversely related to age of onset (Figure). The lag averaged 16.8 10 years in those with childhood onset and 11.5 10 years in those with adolescent onset. In contrast, those with onsets in early and late adulthood received their rst treatment after average delays of only 4.6 7 years and 2.6 5 years, respectively. As shown in Table I, patients with childhood-onset bipolar disorder had the highest incidence of parental history of bipolar illness and unipolar depression, and these percentages declined progressively in patients with later age of onset. Environmental adversity, also a potential vulnerability factor,24-26 was higher in those with early onsets of bipolar disorder, as revealed by the incidence of physical or sexual abuse in childhood. A higher percentage of patients with childhood and adolescent onset reported having more than 20 affective episodes before network entry compared with those with adult onset. The incidence of dysphoric (as opposed to euphoric) mania was also substantially higher in patients with childhood onset (ie, mania was unpleasant, with more anxious and depressive symptoms). Among the comorbidities, patients with childhood onset had a higher prevalence of lifetime anxiety disorders and of drug abuse, with a nonsignicant trend in the same direction for alcohol abuse. As shown in Table II, in the rst year of daily prospective ratings during naturalistic treatment, patients with childThe Poor Prognosis of Childhood-Onset Bipolar Disorder

Figure. Childhood- and adolescent-onset bipolar disorders are associated with extremely long delays from rst symptoms to rst treatment for either manic or depressive symptoms. Total n 420. Plotted is the average delay per onset group 1 standard error of the mean.

hood onset remained substantially more ill than those with adult onset. The childhood-onset group had greater severity of both mania and depression, as well as more days depressed and days with ultradian cycling. They also had more total
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Table II. Outcome in childhood- and adolescent-onset bipolar disorder: One-year prospective follow-up on the NIMH-LCM (n 480)
Variable Total days (hypo-) manic Total days depressed Days cycling Days euthymic Mean severity of depression* Mean severity of mania* Mean number of episodes (DSM IV) Childhood (0 to 12 years) 51.4 162.2 26.7 125.74 2.2 0.72 5.4 49 97 50 91 1.54 0.88 3.72 Adolescent (13 to 18 years) 51.9 139.3 11.6 162.18 1.7 0.59 4.1 59 96 32 103 1.37 0.68 3.43 Early adulthood (19 to 29 years) 34.7 108.5 8.7 213.14 1.4 0.45 2.6 43 98 23 108 1.51 0.57 2.48 Late adulthood (30 years) 39.7 128.6 4.6 192.19 1.6 0.43 2.8 51 105 18 112 1.62 0.63 3.34 F 37.56 5.29 6.59 12.97 5.23 4.35 15.78 P .01 .001 .001 .001 .01 .01 .001

*1, mild; 2, low moderate; 3, high moderate; 4, severe on the NIMH-LCM.

affective episodes during the prospective year and fewer days well (euthymic).

DISCUSSION
Our ndings reveal that approximately 50% of adult outpatients with bipolar disorder had an onset of illness in either childhood or adolescence (ie, before age 19), and these individuals had long lags before initial treatment for mania or depression. These ndings in a clinically identied cohort are convergent with recent epidemiologic data reported by Kessler et al27 demonstrating a substantial incidence of early onset and long lag to treatment. However, Kessler et al could not determine whether or not the lag to rst treatment reected the presence of mild symptomatology and had little functional impact. Our combined retrospective and prospective data indicate that early onset of bipolar disorder is associated with an adverse lifetime course of illness that extends into 1 year of naturalistic treatment in adulthood. When we analyzed data by site, we found that the sites in the United States had a signicantly greater rate of childhood- and adolescent-onset bipolar disorder than those in Europe, as discussed in detail elsewhere.28 When considering only the US sites, our ndings (62% onset in childhood or adolescence) are even more similar to those of Perlis et al,13 who found this onset pattern in 65% of their US participants. Our data are also consistent with ndings of Perlis et al13 indicating that earlier age of onset was associated with a more difcult and complicated course of illness, including faster cycling, more days depressed, greater lifetime manic and depressive episodes, increased risk of substance abuse and other comorbidities, and greater lifetime risk of suicide attempts. In our study, those with childhood onset had more mood episodes, as well as more anxiety disorder and substance abuse comorbidity (Table I). Furthermore, they also experienced more dysphoric mania and more ultradian cycling than the other groups. These 2 retrospective accounts and the report by Lish et al29 of a more severe course of bipolar disorder in patients with earlier illness onset are now validated by clinician-rated daily prospective follow-up as adults. During naturalistic treatment (i.e., treatment as usual), those patients with early onset had more time depressed and more severe mania and
488 Leverich et al

depression, as well as less time well. The fact that these patients experienced a greater number of episodes in this 1 year of prospective follow-up indicates that the greater proportion of early-onset patients with high numbers of episodes reported retrospectively is not just an artifact of a greater number of years of potential exposure (ie, duration of illness). Kessler et al,30,31 in their epidemiologic data from 983 community survey participants in the National Comorbidity Study Replication, found that 13% of bipolar patients had an onset of illness by age 10 and that time lags between illness onset and rst treatment correlated inversely with age of onset. The data from our cohort and that of Perlis et al13 indicate that 14% to 28% of patients with bipolar disorder experience onset of illness before age 13 and that 50% to 67% experience onset before age 19. Lish et al,29 in a study of bipolar patients surveyed from an affective illness advocacy group, also found that early onset of illness and long delay to appropriate diagnosis and treatment were very common. All of these ndings taken together with the longest lags in onset of rst treatment in those with the earliest onsets27-29 suggest that very early-onset bipolar disorder was quite common even a generation ago, but was relatively underrecognized and undertreated at that time. Lange and McGinnis32 reviewed evidence likely indicating both cohort (year of birth) and anticipation (generational) effects in childhood-onset bipolar illness, possibly yielding even more children with early onset today than were found several decades ago when the adults in our study were at risk. Consequently, providers who assess and treat children and adolescents in various health care settings, including primary and family practice, pediatrics, and neurology, who see many children with ADHD and other externalizing disorders, should be particularly alert to the possibility of bipolar disorder in the differential diagnosis. Such vigilance may begin to shorten what were the extraordinary long delays to rst treatment some 20 years ago. Keep in mind, however, that even in adults, in whom there is much less diagnostic controversy, only 9.8% of those in a primary care clinic who screened positive for bipolar symptomatology were recognized as potentially having this disorder.33 Similarly, the underdiThe Journal of Pediatrics May 2007

agnosis and treatment of bipolar illness in adults is apparent in epidemiologic samples.27-29,34,35 Most strikingly, even when bipolar illness is diagnosed, adults in the community are often given antidepressants without concomitant mood stabilizers,36 contrary to the recommendation in most treatment guidelines.36-40 Instead of being a diagnosis of exclusion and last resort in children, as has often been the case, bipolar disorder should be actively considered and ruled in or out. This is particularly important in children at high risk due to having 1 or both parents with a diagnosis of bipolar illness (as seen in this study and in the studies of Lapalme et al41 and Pavuluri et al12) or the presence of environmental stressors, such as the occurrence of traumatic events in childhood.24-26 Most children with bipolar disorder also have a comorbid diagnosis of ADHD, whereas the vast majority of children with ADHD do not have bipolar disorder.6,12,42,43 Nonetheless, in patients with apparent ADHD and additional indicators of extreme mood lability and behavioral dyscontrol (especially in the presence of periods of euphoria, decreased need for sleep, increased sexual interest or acts, delusions, hallucinations, or suicidal behaviors), providers should carefully consider the possibility of bipolar disorder before initiating treatment with stimulants and antidepressants alone, because rst treatment with mood stabilizers or atypical antipsychotics is the recommended approach in consensus guidelines.6 Inadequate recognition, diagnosis, and treatment of adult-onset bipolar illness in clinical samples and in the community now appear to be paralleled by equal problems in recognizing and treating childhood-onset bipolar illness, particularly in the United States. Given the likely adverse consequences of long periods of untreated or inadequately treated mood-related symptomatology, as seen in this and other studies,44,45 efforts to ensure earlier diagnosis and institution of treatment are important. Whether such earlier intervention will in fact ameliorate the long-term difculties associated with childhood-onset bipolar disorder remains to be ascertained. Additional statistical support was provided by Sun Hwang at the Department of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA. We thank Chris Gavin for his editorial support.

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