Natalie Grimes Psychology 121-03 Dr.

Jen Arner Welsh September 14 2012 Chapter 2: Biological and Environmental Foundations Biological Foundations - genotypes: genetic makeup of an individual - phenotypes: observable characteristics of an idividual Genetic Foundations - Chromosomes: store and transmit genetic information - genes: segments of DNA located along the chromosomes - DNA: substance of which genes and chromosomes are made of - Mitosis: cell copying, from one regular (somatic) cell to another - Meiosis: stripping chromosome pairs apart to form gametes Autosomes The 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes Sex Chromosomes Gametes Zygote Twins - Fraternal or Dizygotic: two zygotes, or fertililzed ova - Identical or Monozygotic: one zygote that divides into two individuals Alleles: two forms of the same gene - appear at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair - one inherited from each parent - homozygous: two alleles are alike vs. heterozygous: the alleles differ 23rd pair of chromosomes, determines sex, XX=female XY=male Sex cells: sperm and ova (23 chromosomes ) Sperm and ovum united (46 chromosomes, 23 pairs)

Incomplete Dominance: both alleles of a single gene are expressed - combined trait like AB blood - intermediate between the two (sickle cell carrier more resistant to malaria) Polygenic Inheritance: many genes combine to influence a trait (human skin color, eye color) Imprinting: chemical marker that activates either father's or mother's genes, relatively rare -Prader-Willi, Fragile-X Mutation: sudden, permanent change in a DNA segment, germline vs. somatic mutations Chromosomal Abnormalities: often result from errors in meiosis - ex. Down Syndrome: problem with the 21st chromosome - sex chromosome abnormalities: ~ XXY males, XXX females, XXY males (Klinefelter's) X girls (Turner's) ~ generally specific consequences, in some cases may be particular cognitive deficits ~ may be infertile Alternate Reproductive Choices - causes: miscarriages, infertility, age, genetic conditions, choice, etc. Reproductive Technologies: Conception - donor insemination

- in vitro fertilization (own or donor gametes) risk of multiple births - surrogate mothers politics/economics? - new technologies post-menopause donation and IVF, selecting traits, cloning Genetic Counseling - helps couples assess chances of hereditary disorders and choose the best course of action ~ choices related to risks and family goals - recommended when the couple has had difficulty conceiving, is aware of genetic problems, or if the woman is over 25 Prenatal Diagnostic Methods - amniocentesis-----------figure 2.5 in text - chorionic villus sampling----^ - ultrasound - fetoscopy - maternal blood analysis - preimplantation genetic diagnosis Adoption - trends: international adoption (intercultural/interracial), older children, developmental issues - exhibit some difficulties, but most fare well Environmental Foundations for Development cultural context Family Influences on Development - direct: two-person relationships - indirect: third parties, within or without family - adapting to change: changes from withing or outside of the family Socioeconomic Status - social status: years of education, job prestige ans skill - economic status: income - family functioning ~ timing and duration of family life cycle ~ values and expectations ~ education, status of women ~ communication and discipline styles ~ children's cognitive development Affluence: alcohol and drug use, anxiety, depression - unavailable parents who are over-scheduled and demanding Education Benefits Poverty: 12.5% in the United States - parents under age 25 with young children, elderly living alone,especially women, ethnic minoritites - how does this affect development? Homelessness: 23% are families with children - majority under age 5, poor school attendance, health issues, developmental delays Benefits of Community Ties - social interaction, activities - cooperation to provide clean, safe environment - participation in important tasks - mutual assistance - (SES? urban or rural differences) Culture: differences in culture affect development throughout the lifespan - ideas about the family structure vary - extended families: three or more generations living together, is more common in minority cultures ~ reduces stress of poverty, as stance for all generations ~ emotional bonds and support Individualist culture: people define themselves as separate from other people, are largey concerned with personal needs and goals Collectivist culture: people define themselves as part of a group, stress group goals over individual goals

Government Policies: - the macro system includes government and governmental policies this is part of the context of development - public policies are intended to improve the condition of the public - education funding, health care policy, minimum wage, welfare, etc. - US public policy aiding children and the elderly actually lags behind other industrialized nations - Issues involving children: ~ lack of health care ~ lack of funding for education ~ lack of consistent standards and funding for childcare ~ why do these programs lag behind those for the elderly?? - Issues involving the Elderly ~ health care costs, social security is not adequate for all needs How Much Does Heredity Contribute to Behavior? - Heritability Estimates: portion of individual differences attribute to genetics ~ ranges from 0 to 1.00 ~ for different populations, differ in each population ~ different traits can vary widely (schizophrenia vs. depression) ~ based on twins: overestimates heritability ~ estimates don't always do very much good - Kinship Studies: what percent of the time do family members or twins show a trait ~ ranges from 0 to 100% Nature and Nurture Working Together Range of Reaction

Canalization - how much does hereditary restrict the outcome of development? - highly canalized traits turn out the same unless there is an extremely strong force interrupting development ~ ex. Infant motor development (rolling over), language Genetic-Environment Correlation - passive correlation: parents - evocative correlation: child behavior - active correlation: active choice; niche-picking Evocative Genetic-Environmental Correlation The Epigenetic Framework