Introducing the Ner vous System This fact sheet briefly outlines the nervous system: its components,

functions and how they communicate.

The nervous system is an electrical-chemical communication network that detects, interprets, and responds to changes in internal and external conditions to control and regulate the body. In doing so it plays a key role in maintaining homeostasis (relative constancy of the bodys internal environment despite external environmental changes) ensuring we remain alive and healthy. The nervous system consists of the Central Nervous System (CNS) containing the brain and spinal cord; and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprising a complex network of nerves (cranial and spinal) and wiring that carry all messages exchanged between the CNS and the rest of the body. The brain is the central computer that controls bodily functions including thinking, feeling, learning, memory, imagination, talking, breathing, heart beat, digestion and blood pressure in this way the brain contributes to homeostasis of other body systems, for example sending instructions to muscles for movement. The spinal cord is the major "highway" connecting the brain and PNS. It runs from the brain down through the back and contains threadlike nerves that branch out to every organ and body part.
This way
for

Brain

proce ssing

nerve impulse

The brain and spinal cord are well protected by bone (skull and vertebrae) and cushioned by layers of membranes (meninges) and fluid (cerebrospinal) which acts as a shock-absorber and keep it healthy. The brain is in constant contact with all body parts, sending instructions and receiving feedback from the senses. Sensory receptors are activated by a stimulus (change in the internal or the external environment) which is converted to an electronic signal and sent as tiny electrical currents or nerve impulses to the brain for integration and processing. The brain tells the body how to react, communicating instructions by sending electro-chemical (nerve) impulses via the spinal cord to effector organs (an organ responding to CNS nerve impulse) such as muscles and glands, and back again. For example, on accidentally touching a hot stove (stimulus), nerves in your skin (PNS sensory receptors) shoot a message (nerve impulse) of pain to the brain, which sends a message back telling the hand muscles (effectors) to pull away.
Brain Functions

The PNS is Brain Part Cerebrum

Largest part of the brain

divided into the Somatory Nervous System (SNS) and Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). Functions
Frontal Lobe: planning, organising, reasoning, decision-making, judgement, skilled movements, personality, emotions. I Olfactory smell Parietal Lobe perceives and interprets sensations like touch, temperature, pressure and pain, help in understanding words II Optic vision and sentences, reading, drawing, writing, ability to use numbers. III Oculomotor eye accurately. Occipital Lobe: vision, identifying colours, locating objects in the environment and seeing objectsmovement IV Trochlear eye movement Temporal Lobes: hearing, memory, understanding language, emotions, ability to enjoy music, recognise and identify Ophthalmic nose, eyebrows, forehead things we see, such as faces or objects. Maxillary upper lip, cheek, nose, The cerebrum is split into two equal hemispheres that communicate with each other. The right hemisphere is visual, V Trigeminal lower eyelid creative, thinking in pictures. It sees, recognises and organises information for the left side to analyse and process further, Mandibular mastication, chewing therefore controlling muscles on the left side. The left is responsible for speech, language, calculations, maths and logical VI Abducens eye movement abilities, controlling muscles on the right side of the body. VII Facial muscles of scalp The cerebellum sits underneath the back of the cerebrum and is involved in coordinating muscles todeep pressure in face taste, allow precise movements and control of balance and posture. VIII Vestibulocochlear balance, equilibrium, hearing Located between thalamus & spinal cord it regulates many life support mechanisms, such as your heart rate, blood IX pressure and circulation, digestion, breathing, plus sleeping and waking, swallowing, appetite Swallowing, taste, BP and the need for water. Located beneath the middle of your cerebrum, on top of brain stem, contains thalamus and hypothalamus. X Vagus heart, smooth organ muscles The hypothalamus also regulates visceral (organ-related) activities, playing a vital role in keeping internal conditions viscera, ear, pharynx, etc. constant. It does this by regulating your body temperature, thirst and hunger, circadian rhythms, emotionsneck,controls the XI Spinal swallowing, and release of hormones (antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin ) from the pituitary gland. accessory back muscles Thalamus acts as a relay station for incoming sensory nerve impulses, sending them onto appropriate brain regions for XII Hypoglossal tongue muscles processing. Its responsible for sensory processing, movement - letting the brain know what's happening externally. Limbic area, includes the hippocampus (memory) controls the emotional response to a given situation.
Glossopharyngeal

Cranial Nerve Function

Cerebellum 2nd largest part Brain stem Diencephalon Hypothalamus

Thalamus Limbic System

The SNS allows deliberate (conscious) movement of skeletal muscles. It includes 12 pairs of cranial nerves that carry information from special sensory receptors for balance, smell, sight, taste, and hearing. General sensory receptors control movements in the face and throat, such as smiling and swallowing. It also includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves radiating to either side of the body: 8 cervical (neck, upper back), 12 thoracic (mid back), 5 lumbar (lower back), 5 sacral (base of spine), and 1 coccyx. Spinal nerves carry information via nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the body and from the body back to the spinal cord. Automatic, involuntary reflexes can occur when sensory nerve impulses travel to the spinal cord instead of the brain. E.g. tapping the tendon (impulse) below the kneecap causes the leg to jerk involuntarily as the impulse travels to the spinal cord, triggers the response (involuntary jerk), then travels directly back to the leg. The ANS is an involuntary system that controls muscles in the skin, eye, stomach, intestines, bladder, heart, around blood vessels and glands, to maintain homeostasis/normal function. It conveys messages from organs and smooth muscles to regulate automatic activities such as of the heart and lungs to regulate breathing. The ANS has three divisions, the sympathetic system which manages fight or flight responses (dilating pupils, increasing heart rate) and the parasympathetic system, which manages rest and digest functions (pupils constrict, heart rate decreases) necessary to our everyday existence. The ANS works with other body systems to regulate homeostasis i.e. regulating heart beat (cardiovascular) and breathing rates (respiratory). The third division is the Enteric Nervous System (ENS) which is responsible for the regulation and operation of digestive organs such as the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas and gall bladder. The Senses Sensory organs (nose, mouth, ears and eyes) contain special sensory receptors (i.e. taste buds) that constantly communicate with the relevant sensory parts of the brain allowing us to taste, hear, see, smell and maintain balance. General sensory receptors in the skin produce tactile sensations of touch, itch, tickle, pressure, pain and temperature. Messages sent to the brain travel to the emotions area also allowing like/dislike (emotional) responses and are linked to memory, allowing long-lasting impressions of different senses. Smell and taste respond to chemicals and are linked to memory. Food chemicals that dissolve in saliva stimulate taste receptors in taste buds to detect the five main tastes sour, sweet, bitter, salty and umami (meaty or MSG). A smell, formed by chemicals in the air, dissolves in nasal fluid (mucus) covering the tiny nose hairs, which stimulate the extremely sensitive smell receptors which can detect thousands of different smells. These chemical senses are complementary for example food tastes bland without your sense of smell. The eye works much like a camera. Sensory eye receptors (photoreceptors: rods or cones) respond to light energy. Dim-light, black-and-white vision and peripheral vision occur via rods. Cones operate in bright light and provide colour vision. The retina turns light rays into images. Information from the photoreceptors travels via the optic nerve into the brain for interpretation. 3D vision occurs because the brain merges both eye images. The ear detects sound waves for hearing and interprets head position in space for balance. Sound waves enter the outer ear through the ear canal striking the eardrum which vibrates and messages are sent for brain interpretation. Sense of balance receptors in the inner ear sense movement in space which start responses that fix the eyes on objects and stimulate muscles to maintain balance.

Introducing the Endocrine System This fact sheet briefly outlines the endocrine system: its components, functions and how it works.
The endocrine system influences almost every cell, organ, and bodily function. It is instrumental in regulating mood, the rate of chemical reactions in various cells, growth, repair and development, tissue function, metabolism, digestion, sexual function and reproductive processes. Together with the nervous system, the endocrine system regulates and controls homeostasis (constant internal balance) which is essential for humans to stay alive and healthy. Also these two systems work with the immune system to help the body to cope with different events and stresses. How the Endocrine System Works The endocrine system is a communication network made up of glands that produce chemicals called 'hormones which they secrete (pass) directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. Hormones are chemical messengers that communicate with a specific part of the body (target site). Upon reaching its target site, the hormone binds to a receiving cell (receptor) only if it fits the receptor, like a key fitting into a lock. Once the hormone locks into its specific receptor, it gives a message that causes the target site to take a specific action. Endocrine glands constantly get feedback from the body so they can adjust the hormones and keep them at the right levels. Hormones released via the endocrine system usually take effect quite slowly and last for a longer time compared to electro-chemical messages of the nervous system which are fast acting and dont typically last long, e.g. breathing, movement. Very small amounts of hormones can trigger very large body responses. Other organs not in the endocrine system such as the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, and skin also produce and release hormones. Exocrine glands such as mammary, sweat, and saliva glands are not part of the endocrine system as they do not secrete into the bloodstream, producing instead external secretions. Endocrine system glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries and testes. The hypothalamus located in the lower central part of the brain, is the main link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary gland. The Pituitary Gland is considered the most important part of the endocrine system. It's often called the "master gland" because it makes hormones that control several other endocrine glands such as the thyroid and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus provides information sensed by the brain (such as environmental temperature, seasons, light exposure patterns, and feelings) to the pituitary gland, this information can affect its hormone production and secretion. The pituitary also secretes chemicals (endorphins) that act on the nervous system to increase happy feelings and reduce pain. In contributing to homeostasis the pituitary releases hormones that regulates reproductive organs, controls ovulation and the female menstrual, stimulates bone and tissue growth, handles nutrient and mineral uptake, activates breast milk, controls water balance and triggers the contractions of the uterus in a woman having a baby. The Thyroid Gland controls the rate (speed of chemical reactions) at which cells burn food to produce energy. Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that function together and release parathyroid hormones which regulate the level of calcium in the blood. The two Adrenal Glands, on top of each kidney influence or regulate the body's response to stress, salt and water balance, metabolism (all critical in homeostasis regulation), the immune system, and sexual development and function. The Pancreas produces insulin and glucagon to maintain a steady level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood and to keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of energy. The Pineal Gland secretes the hormone melatonin regulating sleep/wake patterns. Testes produce testosterone regulating male sexual development, puberty and sperm production. Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone that regulate female sexual development, menstruation and female reproduction.

A Summary of Major Hormones of the Endocrine System

Site of Production (& Hormone)
Pituitary gland (Antidiuretic hormone Pituitary gland Corticotropin (ACTH) Pituitary gland Growth hormone Pituitary gland (Luteinizing hormone & follicle-stimulating hormone) Pituitary gland (Oxytocin) Pituitary gland (Prolactin) Pituitary gland (Thyroid-stimulating) Parathyroid glands (Parathyroid hormone) Thyroid gland (Thyroid hormone) Thyroid gland (Calcitonin) Adrenal glands (Aldosterone) Adrenal glands Cortisol Adrenal (DHEA) Adrenal Epinephrine, norepinephrine Pancreas (Glucagon) Pancreas Insulin Kidneys (Erythropoietin) Kidneys (Renin) Ovaries (Estrogen) Ovaries (Progesterone) Testes (Testosterone) Digestive tract (Cholecystokinin) Digestive tract (Glucagon-like peptide Digestive tract (Ghrelin) Adipose (fat) tissue (Resistin) Adipose (fat) tissue (Leptin) Adipose (fat) tissue (Placenta Chorionic gonadotropin) Adipose tissue (Estrogen, Progesterone)

Function
Causes kidneys to retain water and, along with aldosterone, helps control blood pressure Controls the production and secretion of hormones by the adrenal glands Controls growth and development; promotes protein production Control reproductive functions, production of sperm and semen, egg maturation, and menstrual cycles; control male and female sexual characteristics (hair distribution, muscle formation, skin texture and thickness, voice, and perhaps even personality traits) Causes muscles of the uterus and milk ducts in the breast to contract Starts and maintains milk production in the ductal glands of the breast (mammary glands) Stimulates the production and secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland Controls bone formation and the excretion of calcium and phosphorus Regulates the rate at which the body functions (metabolic rate) In pe ople, function is unclear; in other species, regulates calcium balance Helps regulate salt and water balance by retaining salt and water and excreting potassium Widespread effects throughout the body; anti-inflammatory action; maintains blood sugar level, blood pressure, and muscle strength; helps control salt and water balance Has effects on bone, mood, and the immune system Stimulate the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and nervous system Raises the blood sugar level Lowers the blood sugar level; affects the processing (metabolism) of sugar, protein, and fat throughout the body Stimulates red blood cell production Controls blood pressure Controls the development of female sex characteristics and the reproductive system Prepares the lining of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and readies the mammary glands to secrete milk Controls the development of male sex characteristics and the reproductive system Controls gallbladder contractions that cause bile to enter the intestine; stimulates release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas Increases insulin release from pancreas Controls growth hormone release from the pituitary gland; causes sensation of hunger Blocks the effects of insulin on muscle Controls appetite Stimulates ovaries to continue to release progesterone during early pregnancy Keep uterus receptive to foetus and placenta during pregnancy

Common problems of the endocrine system include: Diabetes - too much sugar in the blood caused by problems with insulin production. Premenstrual tension symptoms include bloating, breast tenderness and mood swings.

Thyroid problems - when the

gland is over or under active causing poor appetite, weight gain, depression, easy fatigue, exhaustion and many more symptoms.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Tortora, G Derrickson, B 2009, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th edn, John Wiley & Sons, USA. Ross, M & Reith, E 1995 Histology: A Text and Atlas, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, USA. Marieb, E & Hoehn, K 2006, Human Anatomy and Physiology, 7th edn, Benjamin Cummings, USA. Ottoson, D 1982, Physiology of the Nervous System, 1st edn, Oxford University Press, USA. G. Chapouthier, J. Matras, 1986, The Nervous System and How It Functions, Abacus Press, UK. Student Companion Site, Tortora, Derrickson: Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 12th Edition http://bcs.wiley.com/ - accessed 9.00 am 22nd July 2010 http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/factfiles/ - accessed 2.00 pm 22nd July 2010 http://www.biology-online.org/8/1_nervous_system.htm - accessed 2.30 pm 22nd July 2010 Image of a neuron, viewed on 24th July 2010, http://www.robinpzander.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Nerve.jpg Image of Endocrine System, McGraw Hill Companies Inc, viewed on 24th July 2010, http://academic.kellogg.edu/herbrandsonc/bio201_mckinley/f20-1_endocrine_system_c.jpg Image of nerve impulse travel viewed on 24th July 2010, http://www.google.com.au/imgres? imgurl=http://www.antipersonnel.net/links/images/R3001.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.antipersonnel.net/links/R003.h tml&usg=__8abdoVX9G31E5op0yZGzlu43Qs=&h=854&w=742&sz=49&hl=en&start=6&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=vIPlUtImteI_FM:&t bnh=145&tbnw=126&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dnerve%2Bimpulses%2Btravelling%2Bto%2Bbrain%26um %3D1%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1W1ADFA_en%26tbs%3Disch:1