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PLATE GIRDER Introduction Plate girders are built-up welded members used to carry large loads over long spans. They are generally used in buildings and industrial structures for long-span floor girders, for heavy crane girders and in bridges. Because plate girders are custom-made sections, they are associated with several structural problems that do not require the same attention when rolled sections are used. The most important of these are related to shear buckling as well as post buckling shear resistance of webs. To improve cost effectiveness, the web of a plate girder is normally made relatively thin as compared to rolled section. Intermediate web stiffeners are usually needed to be introduced to increase the shear buckling resistance of the thin web. Stiffeners are also required at load points and supports to prevent local failure of web (web bearing and buckling) and to act as anchors (known as end posts) at the ends of a plate girder. Typical plate girders:

a
Stiffener spacing

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Typical sections of a plate girder

Typical range of beams of various span lengths

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Typical section dimensions of I-shaped plate girders Depth (D) may be limited by headroom requirement or typically taken as 1/10 to 1/20 span length. usually about 0.3 to 0.5 D with 0.4D typical.

Breadth (B)

The deeper the girder, the smaller the flanges, but the thicker the web and additional stiffeners may be necessary. However, a shallow girder can be very much heavier and more expensive than a deeper girder. Component Dimensions of webs and flanges Generally, a plate girder may be assumed to consist of semi-compact flange plates (which alone resist the applied moment) and a slender web (which carries the applied shear). Flanges: at least semi-compact with
b 275 13 T pyf

Webs: often designed with the condition of shear buckling and their minimum thickness can be established based on the following two conditions - Min web thickness for serviceability (to prevent damage in handling) Cl.8.4.2 (a) without intermediate transverse stiffeners
t d 250
d 250 d a t 250 d t

(b) with intermediate transverse stiffeners where a > d , where a < d ,

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- Min web thickness to avoid the compression flange buckling into the web Cl.8.4.3 (a) without intermediate transverse stiffeners or with stiffeners at spacing a > 1.5d
t d pyf 250 345

(b) with intermediate transverse stiffeners a < 1.5d

t pyf d 250 455

Typical web thickness: When t 10 mm as d = 1200mm ; t 20 mm as d = 2500mm Typical web stiffener spacing: end panel spacing:
a 1.2 1.6 d a 0.6 1.0 d

Moment Capacity of Restrained Plate Girder (Cl. 8.4.4) While the thin web of a plate girder is generally susceptible to shear buckling (i.e. d t > 62 for welded sections according to Cl. 8.4.4.2), the flanges are plastic, compact or semi-compact, the moment capacity Mc can be calculated as follows: (a) When the co-existing applied shear is low, i.e. V < 0.6 Vw , the moment capacity should be determined from Clause 8.2 in the usual way as for restrained beams.

(b) When the co-existing applied shear is high, i.e. V > 0.6 Vw , Simplified flanges only method

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a conservative value Mf for the moment capacity may be obtained by assuming that the moment is resisted by the flanges alone, with each flange subject to a uniform stress not exceeding pyf.

D T D-T pyf Af Mf = pyf Af (D-T) = pyf BT (D-T)

Alternative methods given in BS5950 Annex H.3 can be used when the contribution of webs to moment capacity is allowed for.

Shear Buckling and Post buckling Behaviour of Web As the web of a plate girder is generally designed as a thin element, this section is focused on the behaviour of shear buckling and post-buckling resistance of a stiffened web plate. Since the most severe condition in terms of shear buckling is normally the pure shear case, it follows that it is those regions adjacent to supports or in the vicinity of point loads which generally control the design.

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Lets first consider the case of pure applied shear acting on a stiffened web panel. At buckling:

- For pure beam shear action, principal stresses occur at 45 inclinations - Web buckling occurs when the 45 principal compressive stress reaches it critical limit qcr , which can be determined analytically by a linear elastic instability analysis procedure. The critical shear buckling strength qcr for a stiffened web can be expressed in terms of the ratios of d/t and a/d.

Post-buckling tension field action: - After web buckling, a tensile membrane stress t develops at an inclination t to the horizontal - This tension field action gives the shear panel considerable post-buckling strength since the increase in tension is limited only by the yield stress - Truss analogy

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- Total stress state at the inclination of the tension field (t)

t = qcr sin 2t + t

t + 90o

= qcr sin 2t

t = qcr cos 2t

- Apply the von Misses-Hencky yield criterion

2 2 t + +90o +90o + 3
t t t

2
t

= pyw 2
1 2

t = pyw 3qcr + 2.25qcr sin 2t

2 2 2 2

1.5qcr sin 2t

- Maximum shear gained by tension field action using web anchorage alone occurs approximately when
d 2t = tan 1 sin 2t = a

1 a 1+ d
2

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- So the basic tension field strength, yb, is obtained as

y b = t = pyw 2 3qcr 2 + t 2
1 2

t ,

where t =

1.5qcr a 1+ d
2

- Determine the web shear resistance due to tension field action Resultant of tension field action:
Ft = y bt ( d cos t a sin t + Ch sin t )

Shear resistance of web due to Ft:

Vt = Ft sin t = y bt sin 2 t ( d cot t a + Ch )

Note that Ch represents the distance of the flange which acts an anchorage for developing the tension field action.

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At collapse:

- Once the web has yielded, final failure occurs when plastic hinges have formed in the flanges at points W, X, Y and Z. - Note that the plastic hinge at point W is developed at the position where the moment is maximum such that the corresponding shear value is zero.

Determination of the distance Ch Take moment at X,

2M pf = y b tCh sin t Ch sin t 2

Ch =

2 sin t

M pf y bt

Take moment at W, additional flange dependent shear resistance upon collapse,

Vf = 4M pf Ch

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Ultimate Shear Resistance (Vult) Vult = Vcr + Vt + Vf

= qcr dt + y bt sin 2 t ( d cot t a + Ch ) + 4M pf Ch

4M pf a = qcr dt + y b sin 2 t cot t dt + y bt sin 2 t Ch + d Ch

Divide Vult by dt to obtain the ultimate shear strength,

qult = Vult = qb + qfd dt

where qb = basic shear strength = qcr + y b sin2 t cot t

a d

4M pf 1 qfd = flange dependent shear strength = y bt sin2 t Ch + Ch dt

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Design Formulas for Shear Resistance of Thin Webs (HKSC2005 Clause 8.4.6, Appendix 8.3) The web of a section is deemed thin when the d/t ratio of the web exceeds 70 for a rolled section or 62 for a welded section according to clause 8.4.6. When the web of a section is not thin, then the shear design of such a web needs to be checked for shear capacity only, i.e.

V Vc
where V = applied shear force py Vc = shear capacity = Av 0.6 py Av (see Cl. 8.2.1) 3

Note that the webs of all standard UB sections are thick. When the web of a section is thin, then the shear design of the web needs to be checked for shear buckling resistance according to Cl. 8.4.6. Shear buckling resistance can be checked under either of the following conditions: 1) Web designed utilizing partial tension field action

V Vw
where Vw = shear buckling resistance = d t qw as given in Cl. 8.4.6 in which qw is the shear buckling strength obtained from Tables 8.5a 8.5l or Appendix 8.3 depending on the values of the d/t and a/d ratios as well as the design strength of steel for the web. Note that the shear buckling strength given in clause 8.4.6 is basically equivalent to the theoretically derived basic shear strength (i.e. qb as given on page 5-10) which is given as the sum of the critical shear strength and a part of the post buckling shear strength using only the web stiffeners as the anchor for the development of tension field action.

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2) Web designed without utilizing partial tension field action

V Vcr
where Vcr = critical shear buckling resistance without T.F.A. given in Cl. 8.4.8b as follows If qw = 0.6 py If 0.6 py > qw > 0.432 py

qcr = 0.6 py

qcr = (9qw 2 0.6 py ) 7

qcr = ( qw 0.9 )2 (0.6 py )

If qw < 0.432 py

Note that if the web is to be designed without utilizing T.F.A., no end anchorage (or end post) will then be required for the plate girder (see Cl. 8.4.8).

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For shear buckling resistance design of thin webs, HKSC2005 has adopted a simplified approach that utilizes the post buckling tension field action based on web anchorage alone while the additional flange dependent tension field action has been neglected. In lieu of using Tables 8.5a-8.5l, the shear buckling strength qw for the web of an I-section may also be determined from Appendix 8.3 of HKSC2005 as - for welded I-section: if w 0.8 ,
qw = pv = 0.6 pyw

if 0.8 < w < 1.25 , qw = if w 1.25 ,

13.48 5.6w 9

0.6 pyw

qw = 0.9 0.6 pyw w

- for rolled I-section: if w 0.9 , if w 0.9 ,

qw = 0.6 pyw
qw = 0.9 0.6 pyw w

in which w = 0.6 pyw qe where

2 1 1000 qe = 0.75 + (a / d )2 d / t 2 0.75 1000 = 1 + 2 (a / d ) d / t

when when

a 1, or d a 1 d

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In summary, the values of the critical shear buckling strength qcr and the shear buckling strength qw for thin webs with py =275 N/mm2 can be
plotted as follows.

Shear strength

0.6 py

d/t 75 100 125 150 225

a/d 1 1 1 1 1

qe 311.1 175.0 112.0 77.8 34.6

w 0.728 0.971 1.214 1.457 2.185

qw 165 147.4 122.5 102.0 68.0

qcr 165 142.4 105.6 77.8 34.6

qw (see Cl. 8.4.6, Appendix 8.3)

qcr (see Cl. 8.4.8b)

Design of Web Stiffeners Two main types of stiffeners: (1) Intermediate stiffeners they divide the web into panels and prevent the web from buckling due to shear. They can also serve as an anchor for the development of post buckling tension field action. (2) Load-bearing stiffeners they are required to prevent local buckling and bearing of the web due to concentrated loads applied through the flange when the web itself cannot support the load. Note that the bearing capacity and buckling resistance of the web alone have been discussed earlier on pages 4.10 - 4.12.

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Design of Intermediate Transverse Web Stiffeners (Clause 8.4.7) Shear buckling resistance of a web plate can be improved by dividing the web into a series of panels by intermediate transverse stiffeners. Intermediate transverse stiffeners can be provided on either one or both sides of the web. The spacing of intermediate transverse webs stiffeners should conform to clauses 8.4.2 and 8.4.3. In general, a stiffener spacing having an aspect ratio of a/d of between 0.5 and 2 is the most cost efficient. Maximum outstand of stiffener (Cl.8.4.10.1) The width-to-thickness ratio bs ts of the outstand should not exceed 19 . If 13 bs ts 19 , the design is to be based on an effective outstand of 13 ts ts bs Bs

Minimum stiffness of stiffeners (Cl.8.4.7.3)

The bending moment of inertia of the stiffener Is about the centerline of 3 the web (i.e., ts Bs 12 ) should not be less than the minimum stiffness given by when a d 2 when a d < 2
3 Is,min = 0.75 d tmin
3 Is,min = 1.5(d a )2 d tmin

where tmin is the minimum required web thickness for the actual stiffener spacing a as given in clauses 8.4.2 and 8.4.3.

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Buckling Resistance check of web stiffener (Cl.8.4.7.5)

The stiffeners should be checked as if columns, and are required to resist a force (Fq) equal to the difference between the shear in the web adjacent to the stiffener (V) and the critical shear buckling resistance (Vcr) of the web panel without tension field.

Fq = V Vcr Pq
where

Vcr = the critical shear buckling resistance of the web panel; Pq = the buckling resistance of the intermediate web stiffener
determined from clause 8.4.10.6.2 as follows.

The flexural buckling resistance of the intermediate web stiffness can be determined as

Pq = As pc
in which the effective area As = the area of the stiffeners plus the part of the web with an effective width on each side of the centerline of the stiffeners limited to 15 times the web thickness t.

t 15t 15t

Axis of web

As = 2 bs ts + 30 t 2

The compressive strength pc should be determined from Table 8.8 using strut curve (c). The effective length of the web stiffeners should be taken as 0.7 times the length L of the stiffener clear between flanges. The radius of gyration of the cruciform area As of the stiffener is taken about the axis of the web.

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The design strength py should be taken as the lower value of the web or the stiffeners .The reduction of 20 N/mm2 referred to in clause 8.7.6 should not be applied unless the stiffeners themselves are welded plates.

Load Carrying and Bearing Stiffeners (Cl. 8.4.10)

Maximum outstand same as set out for intermediate stiffeners Buckling Resistance check (Cl. 8.4.10.6.2)

The applied point load or reaction FX on a load carrying stiffener should not exceed the buckling resistance PX of the stiffener as
FX < PX = As pc where FX = the external load or reaction. PX = the buckling resistance of the stiffener in which the compressive strength is determined from Table 8.8 using strut curve (c).

Provided that the flange through which the load or reaction is applied is effectively restrained against lateral movement relative to the other flange, the effective length of the stiffener can be taken as (a) flange restrained against rotation in the plane of the stiffener
LE = 0.7 times the length L of the stiffener clear between flanges.

(b) flange not so restrained

LE = 1.0 times the length L of the stiffener clear between flanges. Bearing Capacity check (Cl.8.4.10.5.2)

Bearing stiffener should be designed for the applied force FX minus the bearing capacity Pbw the unstiffened web given in clause 8.4.10.5.1. The area of the stiffener in contact with the flange As.net is the net cross sectional area after allowing for cope holes for welding

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The capacity Ps of the stiffener should be obtained from

Ps = As.net py
If the web and the stiffener have different design strengths, the smaller value should be used to calculate both the web capacity Pbw and the stiffener capacity Ps.

Contact bearing area Stiffener cut back allowing for cope hole

Web check for loads applied between stiffeners

If loads are applied to the web directly or through a flange between the web stiffeners, it is necessary to check the compression edge of the web as given in clause 8.4.10.6.2.

End Anchorage (Clause 8.4.8)

Special consideration must be made in the design of end stiffeners of a plate girder since adequate anchorage is necessary if one utilizes tension field action in the design of the girders web panel. End anchorage need not be provided under either one of the following conditions

a) the shear capacity, but not the shear buckling resistance, governs the design of the web as:

V Vc = Vw

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b) Sufficient shear buckling resistance is available without utilizing tension field action.

V Vcr in which Vcr = the critical shear buckling resistance without tension
field action given by If Vw = Vc If Vc > Vw > 0.72Vc If Vw < 0.72Vc

Vcr = Vc Vcr = (9Vw 2Vc ) 7

Vcr = (Vw 0.9 )2 Vc

When end anchorage is not needed, then the end stiffener can then be designed as a load carrying and bearing stiffener as set out in clause 8.4.10. When the end panel and internal panels are designed utilizing tension field action, the end post must be designed as if a beam spanning between the flanges to resist a longitudinal anchor force representing the longitudinal component of the tension field. End post design

The end post of a plate girder may consist of - a single stiffener - a pair of twin stiffeners - an anchor end panel without utilizing tension field action
Longitudinal anchor force Longitudinal anchor force

TFA

TFA

TFA

TFA

Reaction

Reaction

(a) End Post Single Stiffener

(b) End Post Twin Stiffeners

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Longitudinal anchor force

Anchor panel

TFA

The end panel designed without utilizing TFA can be used as anchor panel for developing TFA in the interior panels.

Reaction

(c) End Post Anchor Panel

Details of the end post design are not given in HKSC2005, but can be referred to relevant literature or other codes such as BS5950 clause 4.4.5.4 and Annex H.4.