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Module 5.5
Installation and Commissioning of Controls
5.5.1
Controller
Strainer
Trap set Fig. 5.5.1 A pneumatic pressure reducing station with steam conditioning
5.5.2
Actuators / sensors
Again, the manufacturers instructions must be observed. Actuators are normally mounted vertically above the control valve, although different arrangements may be recommended if an electric actuator is mounted to a valve handling a high temperature medium, such as steam. Generally, actuators should be located away from conditions such as excess heat, high humidity or corrosive fumes. These are likely to cause premature failure in components such as diaphragms or electric / electronic items. Manufacturers should state the recommended maximum ambient temperature conditions for their equipment. With some electric actuators, if condensation is likely to occur within the actuator, models with a built-in heater are available. Where such conditions cannot be avoided, actuators should be purchased which are suited to the installed conditions. Enclosures for actuators, positioners, and so on, will usually carry an enclosure rating conforming to a national electrical code. This should specify the degree of immunity of the box to the ingress of dust and water. It is worthless using an electric actuator whose enclosure has a low rating to the ingress of water, if it is likely to be hosed down! Care must be taken to ensure that sensors are fully and correctly immersed if they are to carry out their sensing function effectively. The use of pockets will enable inspection or replacement to take place without the need to drain the piping system, vessel or process plant. In contrast, pockets will delay response times. The use of heat conducting paste in the pocket will minimise any delay in response.
With a pneumatic system, compressed air and pneumatic signal lines must be dry, free from oil and dirt, and leak tight. Locating the pneumatic controller near the valve and actuator will minimize any delay due to the capacity and resistance of the signal line. Usually, the valve, actuator and any positioners or converters, will be supplied as a complete pre-assembled unit. If they are not, the actuator will need to be mounted to the valve, and the positioner (for a pneumatic control) to the actuator. The assembly will then have to be set up properly, to ensure that the correct valve stroke, etc. is achieved, all in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
All too often, many apparent control problems are traced back to incorrect wiring. To quote an obvious problem encountered as an extreme example, connecting a 110 V supply to a 24 V rated motor, will result in damage! Care must be taken with the wiring system, in accordance with the manufacturers instructions, and subject to any local regulations. Noise or electrical interference in electrical systems is often encountered, resulting in operational problems which are difficult to diagnose. The use of screened cable, separately earthed conduit or a self-acting or analogue controller may be necessary. Cables should be protected from mechanical damage.
Controllers
As mentioned earlier, the application will generally produce changes that are slower than the response time of the control system. This is why the parameters of the controller, the proportional band or gain, integral time and derivative time, must be tuned to suit each specific application / task. There are a number of methods for adjusting controller parameters, most of which involve the use of mathematics. The behaviour of a control loop can be predicted mathematically but the process or application characteristics are usually determined by empirical measurement, which can be difficult. Methods based on design heat transfer ratios can be found, but these are outside the scope of this Module. Before setting the control parameters, it is useful to review each of the control terms (P I and D), , and the three options regarding settings, for instance, too wide, too narrow, and correct. 5.5.3
If P-band is too wide, large offset occurs but system is very stable (curve A). Narrowing the P-band will reduce the offset. Too narrow a P-band will cause instability and oscillation, (curve B). The optimum P-band, curve C, is achieved at a setting just slightly wider than that causing permanent oscillation.
Temperature A - Too wide C - Correct
Set point
B - Too narrow Time Fig. 5.5.2 P-band setting reaction to change in load Summary of P-band (proportional action) Good stability, good response Some offset Better stability, slower response Larger offset Instability, quicker response Smaller offset with oscillation
With too short an integral time, temperature (curve A) will cross the set point and some oscillation will occur. An excessive integral time will result in the temperature taking too long to return to set point (curve B). Curve C shows a correct integral time setting where the temperature returns to set point as rapidly as possible without any overshoot or oscillation.
Temperature
B - Too long
A - Too short
Set point C - Correct B - Too long Time Fig. 5.5.3 Integral time reaction to change in load Summary of integral action Elimination of offset Stable - no overshoot Elimination of offset Response too fast, causing instability and overshoot Elimination of offset Slow response, stable, no overshoot
5.5.4
Derivative action (Figure 5.5.4) An excessive derivative time will cause an over-rapid change in temperature, overshoot and oscillation (curve B). Too short a derivative time allows the temperature to deviate from the set point for too long (curve A). The optimum setting returns the temperature to the set point as quickly as possible and is consistent with good stability (curve C).
Temperature B - Too much D time
Set point A - Too little D time C - Correct D time Fig. 5.5.4 Derivative time reaction to change in load Time
Summary of derivative action Quick response, stable Faster response leading to overshoot and instability Slower response
Commissioning
Practical methods of setting up a controller
Each controller has to be set up individually to match the characteristics of a particular system. Although there are a number of different techniques by which stable and fast control can be achieved, the Ziegler-Nicholls method has proven to be very effective.
The Ziegler-Nicholls frequency response method (sometimes called the critical oscillation method) is very effective in establishing controller settings for the actual load. The method uses the controller as an amplifier to reach the point of instability. At this point the whole system is operating in such a way that the temperature is fluctuating around the set point with a constant amplitude, (see Figure 5.5.5). A small increase in gain, or a reduced proportional band, will make the system unstable, and the control valve will start hunting with increasing amplitude. Conversely, an increased proportional band will make the process more stable and the amplitude will successively be reduced. At the point of instability, the system characteristic is obtained for the actual operating conditions, including the heat exchanger, control valve, actuator, piping, and temperature sensor. The controller settings can be determined via the Ziegler-Nicholls method by reading the time period (Tn), of the temperature cycles; and the actual proportional band setting at the point of instability.
5.5.5
Temperature
Set point
Tn Time Fig. 5.5.5 Instability caused by increasing the controller gain, with no I or D action
The procedure for selecting the settings for PID parameters, using the Ziegler-Nicholls method, is as follows: 1. Remove integral action on the controller by increasing the integral time (Ti) to its maximum. 2. Remove the controllers derivative action by setting the derivation time (TD) to 0. 3. Wait until the process reaches a stable condition. 4. Reduce the proportional band (increase gain) until the instability point is reached. 5. Measure the time for one period (T n) and register the actual P-band (proportional band) setting on the controller at this point. 6. Using this setting as the start point, calculate the appropriate controller settings according to the values in Figure 5.5.6.
Proportional band P-band x 1.7 P-band x 2.2 P-band x 2.0 Integral time Tn/ 2 Tn/ 1.2 Derivative time T n/ 8
The controller settings may be adjusted further to increase stability or response. The impact of changing the setting of the PID parameters on stability, and the response of the control, is shown in Figure 5.5.7.
Increase P Band Increase Ti Increase TD Stability Increased Increased Decreased Fig. 5.5.7 Effect of changing PID settings Response Slower Slower Faster
Bumpless transfer
The technical specifications for controllers include many other terms and one that is frequently encountered is bumpless transfer. Most controllers incorporate a Manual Auto switch and there can be times when certain control situations require manual control. This makes interruption of the automatic control loop necessary. Without bumpless transfer, the transfer from Auto to Manual and vice versa would mean that the control levels would be lost, unless the manual output were matched to the automatic output. Bumpless transfer ensures that the outputs - either Manual to Auto or Auto to Manual - match, and it is only necessary to move the switch as appropriate.
5.5.6
Self-tuning controllers
Contemporary microprocessors provide the ability for some functions, which previously required a computer, to be packed into the confined space of a controller. Amongst these, was the ability to self-tune. Controllers that no longer require a commissioning engineer to go through the process of setting the P I D terms have been available for many years. The self-tune controller switches to on / off control for a certain period of time. During this period it analyses the results of its responses, and calculates and sets its own P I D terms. It used to be the case that the self-tune function could only apply itself during system start-up; once set by the controller, the P I D terms remained constant, regardless of any later changes in the process. The modern controller can now operate what is termed an adaptive function, which not only sets the required initial P I D terms, but monitors and re-sets these terms if necessary, according to changes in the process during normal running conditions. Such controllers are readily available and relatively inexpensive. Their use is becoming increasingly widespread, even for relatively unsophisticated control tasks.
5.5.7
Questions
1. A pneumatically actuated pressure control is fitted on the steam supply line to an air heater battery, which runs for about 5 minutes every 30 minutes. Each time the valve opens, a banging noise in the pipework occurs and the life of the valve is shortened. What might be the first thing to investigate? a| There may be no strainer before the control valve b| The valve is fitted with the flow arrow pointing in the wrong direction c| Unsuitable PID values may have been used d| There may be no separator or steam trap set before the control valve 2. A replacement sensor and pocket is installed to work with an electronic controller. The response of the system is now slower than with the original sensor. What might be the first thing to investigate? a| The controller may not have been reconfigured when the replacement sensor was fitted b| The air space around the sensor may not have been filled with a heat conductor c| The sensor may have been fitted upside-down d| The replacement signal wiring between the sensor and controller may now be a lot longer
3. On a controller with adjustable P-band, the optimum P-band is achieved at a setting:? a| With no offset b| When the oscillation around the set point is regular c| Not more than 5% d| Just slightly wider than that which will cause oscillation 4. What is the correct integral action time (IAT)? a| Where the process returns to the set point as rapidly as possible, without any overshoot or oscillation b| Where the process temperature returns as rapidly as possible to the set point, ignoring oscillation at this stage of the setting up process c| Where the offset is 0.5 x the proportional band d| When the actual temperature oscillates equally around the set temperature 5. What is the correct derivative time setting? a| P-band x 0.85 b| The time taken for the temperature overshoot to return to the set point as quickly as possible, consistent with good stability c| The time taken for the temperature overshoot to return to the set point as quickly as possible with even periodic oscillation times
d| As long as possible in order to bring the temperature overshoot as quickly as possible back to the set point. Any oscillations can be minimised by subsequent adjustments to P and I
5.5.8
6. What is an adaptive controller? a| A controller which self-tunes, thus avoiding manual commissioning b| A controller which calculates and displays the most suitable PID terms for the process which can then be programmed into the controller c| A controller which automatically sets the required initial PID terms, but resets them if necessary according to changes in the process system or changing application situations d| A controller which automatically sets the required PID terms, but then intermittently shuts itself off to save energy when no change in load has been detected for a certain time
1: d, 2: b, 3: d, 4: a, 5: b, 6: c
Answers
5.5.9
5.5.10