Chapter 14

Kaon decay, CERN

Particle Decays
14.1 Two-Body Decays

Consider the decay of an unstable particle with mass M decays into two daughters with masses m1 , m2 . If we choose to work in the rest frame of the parent we have:
Before After

M P = ( Mc, 0) _ =

2 p = (E , p ) _2 _ 2 =2 c .

p = (E 1 , _ 1 ) _ p =1 c

Conservation of 4-momentum, P = p + p , requires

1 2

Mc

E1 + E2 p1 + p2

conservation of energy conservation of 3-momentum.

(14.1) (14.2)

0 =

From Eq. 14.2 we can write p2 and p1 as p. The energy-momentum relation tells us that E1 = m 2 c4 + p 2 c2 m 1 c2 1 and E2 = m 2 c4 + p 2 c2 m 2 c2 2 (14.3)

so that, substituting in Eq. 14.1, we nd that M c2 m 1 c2 + m 2 c2 We conclude that: For an unstable particle to decay into two particles, its mass must be greater than or equal to the sum of the masses of the decay products. Conversely, if mass is conserved, then the daughters are produced at rest (in the parents rest frame). We can calculate E1 and E2 in terms of the various masses involved, by using 4-vector algebra. (We will continue to use the rest frame of the parent particle.) First note that P =p +p
1 2 2

M m1 + m2 .

(14.4)

p =P p .
2 1

(14.5)

Taking the scalar product of p with itself yields p p = (P p ) (P p ) = P P + p p 2P p .

2 2 1 1 1 1 1

(14.6)

63

64 Now we note that P P = M 2 c2 , so that p p = m2 c2 , 1

1 1

CHAPTER 14. PARTICLE DECAYS

p p = m2 c2 2
2 2

(14.7)

m2 c2 = M 2 c2 + m2 c2 2P p = M 2 c2 + m2 c2 2M E1 . 2 1 1
1

(14.8)

On rearranging, we nd E1 =
1 1

(M 2 + m2 m2 ) 2 1 2 c . 2M

(14.9)

We can nd E2 either by starting from p p , or simply using energy conservation: E2 = M c2 E1 , so that E2 = (M 2 + m2 m2 ) 2 2 1 c . 2M (14.10)

We could use these results and Eq. 14.3 to derive the corresponding expressions for the particles momenta. For the special case of identical decay products, E1 = E2 = M c2 , 2 p= c 2 M 2 4m2 . (14.11)

If the decay products are photons with m = 0, we obtain E1 = E2 = pc = M c2 /2. (14.12)

Aside on Units
The most frequently used unit of energy in high energy physics is the electron volt , eV, or multiples thereof: 1 keV = 103 eV 1 MeV = 106 eV 1 GeV = 109 eV 1 TeV = 1012 eV

Masses are often quoted not in kilograms, but in eV/c2 . Thus the mass of the proton is usually given as 938 MeV/c2 , meaning that a proton at rest has energy mc2 = 938 MeV.

14.2

Three-Body Decays

Now suppose the parent particle decays into three daughters with masses m1 , m2 , m3 and 4-momenta p , p , p . In the rest frame of the parent, conservation of 4-momentum gives:
1 2 3

M c2 = E1 + E2 + E3 0 = p1 + p2 + p3 .

(14.13) (14.14)

We saw for two-body decays that conservation of 4-momentum leads to explicit expressions for the daughter energies and 3-momenta in terms of the particles masses. Although Eq. 14.13 allows us to deduce that three-body decay is only allowed if M m1 + m2 + m3 , conservation of 4-momentum does not uniquely determine the energies and momenta of the daughters. For a given set of particle masses, 4-momentum conservation can be achieved in a great many (essentially an innite number of) ways.

Invariant mass
To explore this range of possible decay outcomes it is useful to dene what is known as the invariant mass of, say particles 2 and 3, m23 , by the expression m2 c2 = (p + p ) (p + p ) = m2 c2 + m2 c2 2p p . 2 3 23
2 3 2 3 2 3

(14.15)

14.2. THREE-BODY DECAYS It is clear that this is a Lorentz-invariant quantity. Then, using 4-momentum conservation m2 c2 = (P p ) (P p ) = M 2 c2 + m2 c2 + 2P p . 1 23
1 1 1

65

(14.16)

In the rest-frame of the decaying particle, we have 4-momenta components: P = M c, 0 and p =

1

E1 ,p c 1

(14.17)

and hence P p = M E1 . It follows that the energy of particle 1 is

1

E1 =

M 2 + m2 m2 2 1 23 c 2M
2

with

m2 = m2 + m2 2p p /c2 . 23 2 3
2 3

(14.18)

We can choose to evaluate the dot product p p in any inertial frame. It is particularly useful to pick the cm frame of the 2-3 subsystem, in which the 4-momenta have components1 p =
2 E2 ,p c 3

and

p =
3

E3 , p c

(14.19)

with
E2 =

m2 c4 + p2 c2 2

and

E3 =

m2 c4 + p2 c2 . 3

(14.20)

This gives p p =
2 3 E2 E3 + p2 . c2

(14.21)

The minimum value of m2 is achieved when 2 and 3 are at rest in the cm frame of the 2-3 subsystem: 23 p = (m2 c, 0)
2

and

p = (m3 c, 0).
3

(14.22)

Thus mmin = m2 + m3 23 and hence we can deduce the maximum possible value that E1 can take:
max E1 =

(14.23)

M 2 + m2 (m2 + m3 )2 2 1 c . 2M

(14.24)

The minimum possible value of E1 is simply m1 c2 , i.e. when this daughter is produced at rest. Notes: 1. In the -decay of a neutron, a proton is produced and an electron is ejected from the nucleus. It is found that electrons produced in this way exhibit a spectrum of energies. Since the decay products should have specic energies in a two body decay, Pauli deduced a third particle is involved. This was the rst prediction of a particle we call the neutrino. 2. The , of mass 494 MeV/c2 , can decay into three mesons, each of mass 140 MeV/c2 . What is the maximum energy of any pion in the rest frame of the decaying K meson?
max E = 2 MK + m2 (2m )2 2 (494)2 + (140)2 (280)2 c = MeV = 187.5 MeV. 2MK 2 494

(14.25)

3. In this Chapter we have considered the decay of a massive particle into daughter particles which comprise less mass but have more kinetic energy than the parent. Of course the reverse process, by which kinetic energy is converted to mass, is also possible. We will consider such processes in the next Chapter.
1 Note

that here were using the asterisk to denote the cm of the 2-3 subsystem, not the whole system of particles.

66 We have seen that SR implies a mass-energy relationship, suggesting that mass is a measure of internal potential energy. We should not think that a particle with some mass comprises substituents with real mass plus some interaction energy. There is no concept of real mass! Consider again the K + meson. As noted above, it can break up into 3 pions. However it can also decay into 2 pions! So the question of a particle being made of something really is more subtle than we might have supposed.

CHAPTER 14. PARTICLE DECAYS

14.3

A Gravity Puzzle

Suppose we have an object of mass m1 . To our surprise it spontaneously emits a photon which travels horizontally with energy h. Mindful of Einsteins mass-energy relationship, we realise that, since the internal energy went down when the photon took some energy, the mass of the object must also have fallen. In fact some of its remaining energy must now be spent upon KE since the photon has some momentum and and the object must recoil. We will consider this scenario accurately in Problem Sheet 9, but here let us neglect recoil, leaving: h = m1 c2 m0 c2 . (14.26) Suppose we have a large supply of objects identical to the rst, and we discover that they are in fact hydrogen atoms with the electron in the rst excited state (i.e. n = 2 rather than n = 1, where n is the principal quantum number2 ). We grow tired of atomic physics and place our collection of excited H atoms on a high shelf, spending energy m1 gh upon each one in the process. Whilst on the shelf one atom emits a photon which travels down to ground level. We lower the atom to ground level and recover some energy, but we get back less than we put in because the mass is lower than it used to be! We lost the amount (m1 m0 )gh on the deal. Where did this energy go? Surely the photon was created with energy h = m1 c2 m0 c2 and should deliver this amount to ground level. Could gravity somehow return the energy it cheated from us? Some time ago (in fact it was in 5 on page 17), we derived expressions for the observed acceleration, a , when frame S accelerates. We then multiplied by mass so that we could speak of ctitious forces that account for dierences between a and a. An unfortunate aspect of this procedure is that it obscures the fact that photons must also suer ctitious accelerations (since the eect of a force on an entity lacking mass is unclear). We saw that the particular case of constant linear acceleration appeared to reproduce the eect of a uniform gravitational eld and wondered if it were possible to distinguish between them, either in practice or in principle. But wait - if acceleration can aect light, can gravity? For now lets leave all these threads dangling. We will try to tie them up soon.

2 There is a further puzzle here: why do H atoms with the electron in the second shell decay? To lower their energy you say. It is true that the energy of the atom is lowered by the electronic transition but the n = 2 state is a valid stationary state and should be stable, rather like a ball which is at rest on a horizontal table. The ball could lower its energy by falling to the ground but it cannot do so unless we give it a push. What pushes the electron?