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The first element is a metal. The second element is a non metal. An "ide" suffix is used to indicate that compound has been formed between the elements.
Chemical Formula of Binary Ionic Compounds Chemical formula 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. NaCl Na2O FeS AlP CaI2 Mg3N2 BaI2 LiF K2S Metal element sodium Answer sodium Answer iron Answer aluminum Answer calcium Answer magnesium Answer barium Answer lithium Answer potassium Answer Non metal element chlorine Answer oxygen Answer sulfur Answer phosphorus Answer iodine Answer nitrogen Answer iodine Answer fluorine Answer sulfur Answer Chemical name sodium chloride Answer sodium oxide Answer iron sulfide Answer aluminum phosphide Answer calcium iodide Answer magnesium nitride Answer barium iodide Answer lithium fluoride Answer potassium sulfide Answer
10.
ZnBr2
zinc Answer
bromine Answer
Periodic Table of the First 20 Elements Group 1 1 Hydrogen H 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18 2 Helium He 10
Boron B 13 Aluminu m Al
Carbon C 14 Silicon Si
Nitrogen N 15 Phosphoru s P
Oxyge n O 16 Sulfur S
Fluorine F 17 Chlorin e Cl
Neon Ne 18 Argon Ar
9. 10.
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The Periodic Table lists the all the known elements. Each element is made up of its own type of atoms. Atoms of elements vary in such properties as number of protons, Atomic weight and Atomic Radii or size There have been various models that have been proposed to describe the structure of the atom.
Billiard ball model - John Dalton Plum pudding model - J.J. Thomson Nuclear model - E. Rutherford Shell model of the atom - N. Bohr The quantum model of the atom - various scientists.
The atom consists of three subatomic particles. The proton, the neutron and the electron.
In a chemical reaction all the action takes place in the outer or valence shell of electrons.
What is a molecule?
A molecule is a group of atoms that joined together by one or more covalent bonds.
The above image represents a water molecule. The chemical formula for water is H2O. There are two hydrogen atoms thsat are joined to one oxygen atom.
The atom is the Law of Constant smallest particle of Proportions. (% mass an element. composition) The atom is a solid, Law of Multiple indestructible unit. Proportions. E.g. Two compounds of nitrogen Atoms of different oxide. The ratio of oxygen between both elements have different masses. compounds is 2:3.
J. Dalton
The Billiard Ball model (1808) The pudding is the Cathode rays (negative positive material of particles or electrons) an atom. Canal rays (positive The embedded particles with large raisins are masses) negative electrons.
J. J. Thomson
The Plum Pudding model (1903) The mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a small core called the nucleus. The scattering of alpha particles through thin gold foil.
A small percentage of particles were deflected at large Negative electrons angles, some even orbit the nucleus. returning. it is like a cannonball rebounding The atom is mostly off a piece of paper made up of empty space. (Ratio of nucleus diameter to outer electron orbit = 1 : 50,000) Ernest Rutherford The Nuclear model (1911) Protons & later neutrons are identified. Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in discrete energy levels or shells. Explains emission spectra (flame test) Explains patterns in the successive ionisation energies of an element.
Neils Bohr
The Shell model (1923) Electrons exist in orbitals. i.e. an area surrounding the nucleus that has a 90% probability of containing an electron. Orbitals differ in shape(s, p, d, & f orbitals) and size(dependent upon energy level). d-orbitals No orbital may contain more than two electrons. The electrons in an orbital spin in opposite directions. Better explains anomalies in successive ionisation energies and emission spectra. E.g. double yellow lines for sodium.
p-orbitals s-orbital
The first element is a metal. The second element is a non metal. An "ide" suffix is used to indicate that compound has been formed between the elements.
Chemical Formula of Binary Ionic Compounds Chemical formula 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. NaCl Na2O FeS AlP CaI2 Mg3N2 BaI2 LiF K2S ZnBr2 Metal element sodium Answer sodium Answer iron Answer aluminum Answer calcium Answer magnesium Answer barium Answer lithium Answer potassium Answer zinc Answer Non metal element chlorine Answer oxygen Answer sulfur Answer phosphorus Answer iodine Answer nitrogen Answer iodine Answer fluorine Answer sulfur Answer bromine Answer Chemical name sodium chloride Answer sodium oxide Answer iron sulfide Answer aluminum phosphide Answer calcium iodide Answer magnesium nitride Answer barium iodide Answer lithium fluoride Answer potassium sulfide Answer zinc bromide Answer
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There is a big difference between the "ide", "ate" and "ite" suffixes.
1. As a general rule an "ide" suffix indicates an element. eg. sulfide S2-, nitride N3- and phosphide P3The exceptions are hydroxide OH- and cyanide CN-
2. "ates" and "ites" always contain oxygen. eg. nitrate NO3- and nitrite NO2-
3. "ates" always have a higher number of oxygen atoms the corresponding "ites". eg. sulfate SO42- and sulfite SO32-
Chemical Formula Table A 1. sodium sulfide sodium sulfate B potassium sulfide potassium sulfate potassium sulfite potassium nitride potassium nitrate C magnesium sulfide magnesium sulfate magnesium sulfite magnesium nitride magnesium nitrate D calcium sulfide calcium sulfate calcium sulfite calcium nitride calcium nitrate E aluminum sulfide aluminum sulfate aluminium sulfite aluminum nitride aluminum nitrate
2.
3.
sodium sulfite
4.
5. 6.
sodium nitrite
calcium nitrite
7.
8.
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Nuclear energy
Teacher Introduction Read more Tags: energy, nuclear, worksheets
Nuclear Radiation
What to do? Design a PowerPoint presentation on Nuclear Radiation
UK Spelling - Vapour
Balancing chemical equations worksheets Practice balancing chemical equations. Worksheets with answers
Practice balancing 100's of chemical equations from simple to advanced. Each chemical equation worksheet comes with answers and can be downloaded as a pdf file.
Na2O K2O MgO CaO Al2O3 sodium oxide potassium oxide magnesium oxide calcium oxide aluminum oxide NaNO3 sodium nitrate Na2SO4 sodium sulfate KNO3 potassium nitrate K2SO4 potassium sulfate Mg(NO3)2 magnesium nitrate MgSO4 magnesium sulfate Ca(NO3)2 calcium nitrate CaSO4 calcium sulfate Al(NO3)3 aluminum nitrate Al2(SO4)3 aluminum sulfate
SO42-
PO43-
Show all formulas | Hide all formulas Read more to download a printable chemical formula worksheet with answers. Over 200 compounds to solve.
Formulas show chemistry at a standstill. Equations show chemistry in action. A. Equations show:
1. the reactants which enter into a reaction. 2. the products which are formed by the reaction. 3. the amounts of each substance used and each substance produced.
2. The sign, , means "yields" and shows the direction of the action. 3. A small delta, (), above the arrow shows that heat has been added. 4. A double arrow, , shows that the reaction is reversible and can go in both
directions.
products when they occur and write the decomposition products in their places.
Examples:
H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Carbonic acid, as in soft drinks, decomposes when it is formed. H2SO3(aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g)
You can definitely smell the odor of ammonia gas because whenever "ammonium hydroxide" is formed it decomposes into ammonia and water.
2. Nonmetal + oxygen
EX. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
5. Metal + nonmetal
EX. 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)
6. A few nonmetals combine with each other. EX. 2P(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2PCl3(g)
B. Decomposition:
A single compound breaks down into its component parts or simpler compounds. Basic form: AX A + X
Examples of decomposition reactions: 1. Metallic carbonates, when heated, form metallic oxides and CO2(g).
EX. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2. Most metallic hydroxides, when heated, decompose into metallic oxides and water. EX. Ca(OH)2(s) CaO(s) + H2O(g)
4. Some acids, when heated, decompose into nonmetallic oxides and water.
EX. H2SO4
H2O(l) + SO3(g)
6. Some decomposition reactions are produced by electricity. EX. 2H2O(l) EX. 2NaCl(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)
C. Replacement:
a more active element takes the place of another element in a compound and sets the less active one free. Basic form: A + BX AX + B or AX + Y AY + X
2. Replacement of hydrogen in water by an active metal. EX. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) EX. Mg(s) + H2O(g) 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
3. Replacement of hydrogen in acids by active metals. EX. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
4. Replacement of nonmetals by more active nonmetals. EX. Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)
NOTE: Refer to the activity series for metals and nonmetals to predict products of replacement reactions. If the free element is above the element to be replaced in the compound, then the reaction will occurr. If it is below, then no reaction occurs. Practice Predicting Products of Replacement Reactions
D. Ionic:
occurrs between ions in aqueous solution. A reaction will occurr when a pair of ions come together to produce at least one of the following: 1. a precipitate 2. a gas 3. water or some other non-ionized substance. Basic form: AX + BY AY + BX
3. Formation of water. (If the reaction is between an acid and a base it is called a neutralization reaction.) EX. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
4. Formation of a product which decomposes. EX. CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NOTE: Use the solubility rules to decide whether a product of an ionic reaction is insoluble in water and will thus form a precipitate. If a compound is soluble in water then it should be shown as being in aqueous solution, or left as separate ions. It is, in fact, often more desirable to show only those ions that are actually taking part in the actual reaction. Equations of this type are called net ionic equations. Practice Predicting Products of Ionic Reactions Back to the Top
Combustion of Hydrocarbons:
Another important type of reaction, in addition to the four types above, is that of the combustion of a hydrocarbon. When a hydrocarbon is burned with sufficient oxygen
supply, the products are always carbon dioxide and water vapor. If the supply of oxygen is low or restricted, then carbon monoxide will be produced. This is why it is so dangerous to have an automobile engine running inside a closed garage or to use a charcoal grill indoors. NOTE: Complete combustion means the higher oxidation number is attained. Incomplete combustion means the lower oxidation number is attained. The phrase "To burn" means to add oxygen unless told otherwise. Hydrocarbon (CxHy) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g) EX. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) EX. 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature can be defined as the terminology of chemical compounds. It represents the basic "language of chemistry" and, just as the student who is studying French or Spanish must learn the terminology of those languages, so must the chemistry student learn the basic terminology of the discipline. Life certainly becomes a bit easier, and safer for everyone around, if chemistry students are able to read the formulas on the bottles of stock solutions correctly when they have only the names of these substances on their lab sheet or vice versa. Okay, so it's a given......one of the basic, most important tasks that a chemistry student needs to master early on is that of Naming Compounds and Writing Formulas. There are several things that a student can do to make these tasks less tedious.
1. Learn the correct symbols for the elements. (This is similar to reciting the alphabet...a, b, c..., as well as identifying the symbols we use for each letter.) 2. Learn the names and formulas of seven (7) acids and ammonia. The acids and their formulas, along with ammonia and its formula are: hydrochloric acid nitric acid acetic acid perchloric acid carbonic acid HCl HNO3 HC2H3O2 HClO4 H2CO3
relate to the formulas of polyatomic ions, cation charges, and anions. Meaning denotes the most common number of oxygen atoms one less oxygen than in the "-ate" ion (1) one more oxygen than in the "-ate" ion, also (2) one more oxygen than the most common number one less oxygen than in the "-ite" ion ion contains only the atoms whose names are heard (1) ending for acid that contains the "-ate" form of the ion Example(s) sulfate, nitrate, chlorate sulfite, nitrite, chlorite (1) perchlorate, permanganate
per-
(2) peroxide
hypochlorite hydroxide, chloride, sulfide nitride
hypoide-
(1) sulfuric, nitric, chloric (2) ferric is iron in the 3+ state, cupric is copper in the 2+ state
-ic
(2) indicates the higher oxidation number of some cations (older method, but still used) (1) ending for acid that contains the "-ite" form of the ion (2) indicates the lower oxidation number of some cations (also older method, but still used) prefix and suffix used with acids whose anions contain no oxygen
(1) sulfurous, nitrous, chlorous (2) ferrous is iron in the 2+ state, cuprous is copper in the 1+ state
-ous
hydro- -ic
hydrochloric, hydrosulfuric
4. Notice that the acids suggested for memorization, other than hydrochloric, all
end in -ic, and thus contain the -ate form of the polyatomic ion. You can therefore, quickly identify these ions when you see them in the formula for some other compound or easily write the formula for a compound that contains one of these ions. You can then use the meanings for the other prefixes and suffixes to expand your repetoire of ions without having to memorize each of them separately.
5. Learn the names of the prefixes that are used to denote one (1)
through ten (10) atoms in a formula. 1 = mono6 = hexa2 = di7 = hepta3 = tri8 = octa4 = tetra9 = nona5 = penta10 = deca-
Writing Formulas
How to write formulas when given the names of compounds. This organizer shows the steps to follow when writing the formulas for both ionic compounds and binary covalent compounds.
Naming Compounds
How to name compounds from their formulas This organizer shows the steps to follow when naming both ionic compounds and binary covalent compounds.
Formulas show chemistry at a standstill. Equations show chemistry in action. A. Equations show:
1. the reactants which enter into a reaction. 2. the products which are formed by the reaction. 3. the amounts of each substance used and each substance produced.
2. The sign, , means "yields" and shows the direction of the action. 3. A small delta, (), above the arrow shows that heat has been added. 4. A double arrow, , shows that the reaction is reversible and can go in both
directions.
Examples:
H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Carbonic acid, as in soft drinks, decomposes when it is formed. H2SO3(aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g)
You can definitely smell the odor of ammonia gas because whenever "ammonium hydroxide" is formed it decomposes into ammonia and water.
2. Nonmetal + oxygen
EX. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
5. Metal + nonmetal
EX. 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)
6. A few nonmetals combine with each other. EX. 2P(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2PCl3(g)
B. Decomposition:
A single compound breaks down into its component parts or simpler compounds. Basic form: AX A + X
Examples of decomposition reactions: 1. Metallic carbonates, when heated, form metallic oxides and CO2(g).
EX. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2. Most metallic hydroxides, when heated, decompose into metallic oxides and water. EX. Ca(OH)2(s) CaO(s) + H2O(g)
4. Some acids, when heated, decompose into nonmetallic oxides and water. EX. H2SO4 H2O(l) + SO3(g)
6. Some decomposition reactions are produced by electricity. EX. 2H2O(l) EX. 2NaCl(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)
C. Replacement:
a more active element takes the place of another element in a compound and sets the less active one free. Basic form: A + BX AX + B or AX + Y AY + X
FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
2. Replacement of hydrogen in water by an active metal. EX. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) EX. Mg(s) + H2O(g) 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
3. Replacement of hydrogen in acids by active metals. EX. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
4. Replacement of nonmetals by more active nonmetals. EX. Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)
NOTE: Refer to the activity series for metals and nonmetals to predict products of replacement reactions. If the free element is above the element to be replaced in the compound, then the reaction will occurr. If it is below, then no reaction occurs. Practice Predicting Products of Replacement Reactions Back to the Top
D. Ionic:
occurrs between ions in aqueous solution. A reaction will occurr when a pair of ions come together to produce at least one of the following: 1. a precipitate 2. a gas 3. water or some other non-ionized substance. Basic form: AX + BY AY + BX
3. Formation of water. (If the reaction is between an acid and a base it is called a neutralization reaction.)
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
4. Formation of a product which decomposes. EX. CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
NOTE: Use the solubility rules to decide whether a product of an ionic reaction is insoluble in water and will thus form a precipitate. If a compound is soluble in water then it should be shown as being in aqueous solution, or left as separate ions. It is, in fact, often more desirable to show only those ions that are actually taking part in the actual reaction. Equations of this type are called net ionic equations. Practice Predicting Products of Ionic Reactions Back to the Top
Combustion of Hydrocarbons:
Another important type of reaction, in addition to the four types above, is that of the combustion of a hydrocarbon. When a hydrocarbon is burned with sufficient oxygen supply, the products are always carbon dioxide and water vapor. If the supply of oxygen is low or restricted, then carbon monoxide will be produced. This is why it is so dangerous to have an automobile engine running inside a closed garage or to use a charcoal grill indoors. NOTE: Complete combustion means the higher oxidation number is attained. Incomplete combustion means the lower oxidation number is attained. The phrase "To burn" means to add oxygen unless told otherwise. Hydrocarbon (CxHy) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g) EX. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) EX. 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
addition of one atom of a different element makes an entirely new compound is the reason that there are millions of organic compounds in the world. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, which is made of one carbon atom surrounded by four hydrogen atoms. The work of Pauling showed that the four hydrogens are in a tetrahedral arrangement around the carbon.
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Alkanes The next simplest hydrocarbons are those whose carbons are joined in line one to another. They are called aliphatic hydrocarbons. The first group is that of the alkanes, and the name of each of these compounds ends in "-ane". The alkanes have the generic formula of CnH2n+2. All of the carbons have single covalent bonds between them. They are also called saturated hydrocarbons, which means that all of the carbons have the maximum number of bonds (4). The first ten alkanes should be memorized, because their names are the basis for most of the naming of the rest of the organic compounds. Molecular Name Formula CH4 methane Structural Formula
C2H6
ethane
C3H8
propane
C4H10
butane
C5H12
pentane
C6H14
hexane
C7H16
heptane
C8H18
octane
C9H20
nonane
C10H22
decane
Alkenes The next group of hydrocarbons are called alkenes, and the difference between them and the alkanes is the presence of a double covalent bond in the carbon chain. They have the generic formula CnH2n and all of the names end in "-ene". They represent the simplest of the unsaturated hydrocarbons. All of the formulas for the alkanes shown above (starting with ethane) would be written with two less hydrogens and the name would end in -ene. For example, ethane would become ethene and its formula would be C2H4. Alkynes
The presence of a triple covalent bond in the carbon chain gives rise to the compounds called alkynes. They have the generic formula CnH2n-2. One of the best known examples is that of ethyne, which is often called acetylene, and has the formula C2H2. Cyclo-compounds Sometimes the chains can be circled (like the wagon train circling up for the night) and the end carbons join together. This brings about the loss of two hydrogen atoms. A common example is that of the six-carbon hexane forming the six-carbon cyclohexane which has the formula C6H12. Notice that there are two hydrogens less than in hexane. Notice, also, the use of the prefix "cyclo-" in front of the parent name, hexane. This gives a nice picture of a circle of six carbons joined together. There are two forms that the molecule can take. Pictured here is the "boat" form. The other form is the "chair" form where the molecule can be imagined as having the shape of a reclining chair. A sample of cyclohexane is composed of a 50-50 mixture of each form. Aromatics The other main group of hydrocarbons is that of the aromatic hydrocarbons. They contain six carbons arranged in a "ring" and contain three double covalent bonds between every other carbon-carbon pair. The basic aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene, C6H6. Notice that the molecule is planar, with all bond angles equal to 120 degrees. Two benzene rings can join together and form naphthalene, C10H8. Both of these compounds serve as the basis for thousands of other very important compounds.
Substituted Hydrocarbons
Atoms of other elements can be joined to the carbons in place of one or more hydrogens. Oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and the halogens are the most common atoms that replace hydrogens. The resulting compound is called a substituted hydrocarbon. Sometimes a combination of two of these other elements will be found in place of hydrogens. These other elements give rise to what are called functional groups. The presence of different functional groups causes the substituted hydrocarbon to be one of several classes of organic compounds.
Alcohols: Probably the most common of these functional groups is the "-OH" group, which is known as the hydroxyl group. It is NOT the hydroxide ion, OH1-, as it does not have a charge. The dash in front of the OH stands for a single covalent bond, which is what will be formed between the oxygen and a carbon atom. An aliphatic hydrocarbon that has one hydroxyl group attached to a carbon is called an alcohol. The symplest alcohol is methyl alcohol, or methanol. Notice that the one word name, methanol, ends in -ol and the root is methan-. You should be able to figure out that the formula would be that of methane, but with an -OH in place of one of the hydrogens. It doesn't matter where you put the hydroxyl group in methanol. The molecular formula is usually written as CH3OH, because it gives more of a picture of the actual structure than does CH4O. This way of writing the formula becomes more important as the number of carbons increases. Take the case of ethyl alcohol, or ethanol. The parent compound is ethane, so the formula is C2H6O, but C2H5OH gives specific information that the compound is an alcohol and not any other compound. Things become a bit more complex starting with the three carboned propane. The hydroxyl group can be attached to either end carbon (same compound in either case) or to the middle compound, which produces a slightly different compound. The first case represents the compound n-(for normal) propanol or 1-propanol. The use of the number tells to which postion the hydroxyl is attached. The second carbon placement of the hydroxyl group gives rise to the name 2-propanol, or, using an older system of naming compounds, isopropanol, or isopropyl alcohol. This is probably the type of rubbing alcohol in the medicine cabinet in your homes. The commercial isopropyl alcohol is usually a 70% solution in water. The molecular formula is C3H8O, with C3H7OH showing that the compound is an alcohol, and the even more specific formulas, CH3CH2CH2OH showing 1-propanol, and CH3CHOHCH3 showing 2-propanol. Isomers: Notice that in two examples described thus far there have been two different compounds for each of two molecular formulas. The ethanol and dimethyl ether were both C2H 6O and the two alcohols were each C3H8O. Both cases are examples of isomers. Let's look at the definition of an isomer: two or more different compounds, each with the same molecular formula. Notice the use of the prefix, "iso-". You have already seen on several occassions that this prefix means "same". At this point, you should stop and use the Merck Index, or CRC handbook, to look up these four compounds and compare them--the ethanol with dimethyl ether and the 1-propanol with the 2-propanol. Determine for yourself how the change in placement of a single atom of oxygen can drastically change the nature of the compound. Two different kinds of isomers are represented here:
The hydroxyl group is written -OH, whereas the way to show that the oxygen is bonded inbetween two carbons is -O-. These represent two different finctional groups, thus two different classes of organic compounds are represented. The case of the two alcohols, however, is a result of a structural difference in the placement of the same functional group. Now, back to alcohols: You should now be able to turn the remaining seven alkanes into a normal alcohol (hydroxyl on the end carbon) and write their names correctly. Notice, as the chain gets longer (has more carbons) the number of possible sites for the hydroxyl to bond also increases, thus increasing the total number of possible alcohols. There are a few important alcohols that have more than one hydroxyl group. One of the most widely used this that of ethylene glycol, the main ingredient in automobile anitfreeze. Can you figure out the formula?
First, the "ethyl" means it contains two carbons, just like ethane. Second, the "ene" means that it is short two hydrogens, but instead of a double bond between the two carbons, two hydroxyl groups are present, one per carbon. Notice the "ol" ending. This tells you that it is an alcohol. The scientific name, or IUPAC name is 1,2-ethanediol.
Based on what you've learned so far, doesn't the name written this way give you a good picture of what the compound looks like? A second important alcohol with more than one hydroxyl group is glycerol, also called glycerine. Its a three carbon alcohol that contains three hydroxyl groups, one to each carbon. Its IUPAC name of 1,2,3-propanetriol should give you a better picture. It is used in soaps and lotions, and also to make nitroglycerine. The generic formula for an alcohol is shown by R-OH, where R stands for whatever the -OH is bonded.
Ethers: An ether results when there is an oxygen atom between two carbons in the chain. The simplest is dimethyl ether, which has the same molecular formula as ethanol. The way the formula is written to show the ether, rather than the alcohol, is CH3OCH3. There are two other ethers of interest, ethylmethyl ether and diethyl ether. You should be able to write the formulas for each of these. Ethers are represented as R-O-R', where R and R' can be the same or different hydrocarbon units.
Notice: when the parent hydrocarbon, such as methane or ethane has something else attached in place of one or more hydrogens, the ending is often changed from -ane to -yl.
Aldehydes: A new class of substituted hydrocarbons arises when an oxygen atom is double bonded to the carbon at the end of the chain. In this case there are two less hydrogen atoms, so instead of three end hydrogens, there is the C=O and only one hydrogen. The simplest aldehyde is one that you have probably heard of, formaldehyde, CH2O. Its IUPAC name is methanal. Notice the -al ending as opposed to the -ol ending that alcohols have. Be careful about paying attention to the endings. They identify the class to which the compound belongs. These compounds show the generic formula, H-R=O. Ketones: A different class of organic compounds results if the C=O occurs somewhere along the chain other than on the end carbon. The simplest ketone has three carbons. Why not start with two carbons? It has the common name acetone, and is in most fingernail polishes and removers. It is sometimes called dimethyl ketone, but is more properly called propanone. Break apart the name to see how the name propanone gives a better picture of the compounds formula than does acetone.
First of all, the propan- indicates that the parent hydrocarbon is propane, and thus has three carbons. Second, the ending -one goes along with the ending of the name of the class of compounds to which it belongs, ketones.
How would you write the formula for butanone or hexanone? Would you need to include a number as part of the name? The generic formula for ketones is R-C=O(-R').
Organic Acids: The organic acids are also called carboxcylic acids. They have a more complex functional group, and if you look at it, you can see both the C=O of the aldehyde and the -OH of the alcohol. The organic, or carboxyl group, is -C=O(-OH), often written as COOH, or even CO2H. Organic acids may have more than one carboxyl group. The simplest organic acid is methanoic acid, CHOOH, or formic acid, methanoic acid to use the older name. Ants inject formic acid into their victim whem (formic acid) they bite them.
The next in line is, of course, ethanoic acid, CH3COOH. What is the common name of this acid? Notice the ending, -oic, to the IUPAC name, and -ic, to the common name. There are some very important organic acids, and one of the most important is ascorbic acid, better known as Vitamin C. Look up the formulas for ascorbic acid, as well citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids. The generic formula is R-(COOH)x
Why are these compounds acids? Well, they must be able to produce at least one hydrogen ion when they are put into solution, since that is the general definition for an acid. Which hydrogens, and how many hydrogen ions do they prooduce? Even though these organic acids may contain quite a few hydrogen atoms in the molecule, only select hydrogens are able to be "ionized" or turned into hydrogen ions. These "select" hydrogens are those in the carboxyl group (-COOH) The presence of one or more of these groups, therefore, causes the compound to belong to the organic acids.
Esters: These compounds have the generic formula, R-COO-R'. Notice that this formula is similar to that of the organic acid, but now the H of the -COOH has been replaced by a hydrocarbon group. The ending of the name of an ester is -ate, such as in ethyl ethannoate. Let's look at it's formula. The ethyl is the name of R' and the acetate represents R. Amines: The generic formula for amines is R-NH2, where one hydrogen has been replaced by an amino group (-NH2). The simplest amine is methyl amine, where the "R" group is methyl. This kind of amine is called a primary amine. There can also be secondary and tertiary amines, with the generic formulas R2-NH and R3-N, respectively with a second, and a third hydrogen replaced with an "R" group. The "R" groups can all be the same, or they can be different.
All Group 1 elements in the Periodic Table Group 17 are 1- (will end with -ide) are +1 in compounds. Group 16 are 2- (will end with -ide) All Group 2 elements in the Periodic Table are +2 in compounds. Group 15 are 3- (will end with -ide) Transition elements (have a few charges) Polyatomic Ions -just use its charge. (Generally will have a Roman Numeral to tell you ends with -ate or -ite, watch out for hydroxide what positive charge to use. OH- and cyanide CN-) silver is 1+, Zinc is 2+ and Aluminum is 3+ Polyatomic Ions -just use its charge.
3. Balance the total positive and negative charge on the cation and anion. You ask yourself do the total positive charge and total negative charge add up to zero. If the answer is no then we ask how many of each ion must we have in order to balance charge. We must have the same number of positive charges as we do of negative charges. Another way of saying that is that they must add up to zero. 4. Once you have determined the number of units of the cation and anion those become the subscripts which are placed right after the respective symbol.
4. Write the formula placing the subscripts right after the symbol they go
with.
Cu2O Notice that we don't bother to place a subscript 1 after the Oxide symbol. That is because a subscript one is understood to be so. If it was zero it wouldn't appear at all in the formula. Also note that all binary compounds end in "ide" Let's try another:
Calcium belongs from Group 2 which always has a +2 and Nitride will be a single Nitrogen with a -3 charge
3. Balance charge
Since Calcium is +2 and Nitride is -3 the only way to balance them is to have three Calcium's and two nitrides
4. Write the symbol beginning with the symbol that is first in the name and
The symbol for Iron is Fe and the symbol for Carbonate which is a polyatomic ion is CO3
2. Identify the valence or charge of each symbol and place it in parenthesis just above the symbol
The valence for Iron (III) is 3+ and the valence for Carbonate is 2-
3. Balance the total positive and negative charge on the cation and anion.
You ask yourself do the total positive charge and total negative charge add up to zero. If the answer is no then we ask how many of each ion must we have in order to balance charge. We must have the same number of positive charges as we do of negative charges. Another way of saying that is that they must add up to zero. Since an Iron (III) has a +3 charge and the Carbonate ion has a 2- then it would take two Fe3+ units to balance three CO32- units
4. Once you have determined the number of units of the cation and anion those become the subscripts which are placed right after the respective symbol.
Fe2(CO3)3
1.Magnesium Nitride 2.Iron (III) Oxide 3.Sodium Sulfate 4.Copper (II) Chloride 5.Barium Nitrate 6.Aluminum Hydroxide 7.Mercury (II) Phosphate 8.Aluminum Silicate 9. Copper (II) Bromide 10.Lead (II) Chlorite 11.Silver Cyanide 12.Ammonium Oxide 13.Aluminum Perchlorate 14.Tin (II) Chloride 15.Nickel (III) Acetate 16.Potassium Sulfide 17.Magnesium Bisulfate 18.Iron (II) Phosphate 19.Cobalt (II) Hydrogen Sulfate 20.Chromium (II) Bicarbonate 21.Sodium Hypochlorite 22.Barium Carbonate 23.Zinc (II) Permanganate
Formula AlPO4 KNO2 NaHCO3 CaCO3 Mg(OH)2 Na2CrO4 Ba(CN)2 K2SO4 Name aluminum phosphate potassium nitrite sodium hydrogen carbonate calcium carbonate magnesium hydroxide sodium chromate barium cyanide potassium sulfate
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
Mg3N2 Fe2O3 Na2SO4 CuCl2 Ba(NO3)2 Al(OH)3 Hg3(PO4)2 Al2(SiO3)3 CuBr2 Pb(ClO2)2 AgCN (NH4)2O Al(ClO4)3 SnCl2 Ni(C2H3O2)3 K 2S Mg(HSO4)2 Fe3(PO4)2 Co(HSO4)2 Cr (HCO3)2 NaClO BaCO3 Zn(MnO4)2
NaH2PO4 NH4NO3 Sn(NO3)2 FePO4 Cu2SO4 HgCO3 Pb(OH)4 Cu2Cr2O7 FeSO4 KClO3 SnSO4 Al(MnO4)3 Pb(NO3)2
sodium dihydrogen phosphate ammonium nitrate tin(II) nitrate iron(III) phosphate copper(I) sulfate mercury(II) carbonate lead(IV) hydroxide copper(I) dichromate iron(II) sulfate potassium chlorate tin(II) sulfate aluminum permanganate lead(II) nitrate copper(I) dihydrogen phosphate calcium hydrogen phosphate iron(III) hydrogen carbonate sodium carbonate manganese(II) sulfate iron (III) hydroxide copper (I) sulfate potassium permanganate sodium hydroxide iron (II) nitrate
Mg3(PO4)2 magnesium phosphate CuH2PO4 CaHPO4 Fe(HCO3)3 Na2CO3 MnSO4 Fe(OH)3 Cu2SO4 KMnO4 NaOH Fe(NO3)2
1.
Fe2(CO3)3
Try These Ionic Compounds Highlight to reveal the formula 1.Magnesium Nitride 2.Iron (III) Oxide 3.Sodium Sulfate 4.Copper (II) Chloride 5.Barium Nitrate 6.Aluminum Hydroxide 7.Mercury (II) Phosphate 8.Aluminum Silicate 9. Copper (II) Bromide 10.Lead (II) Chlorite 11.Silver Cyanide 12.Ammonium Oxide 13.Aluminum Perchlorate 14.Tin (II) Chloride 15.Nickel (III) Acetate 16.Potassium Sulfide 17.Magnesium Bisulfate 18.Iron (II) Phosphate 19.Cobalt (II) Hydrogen Sulfate 20.Chromium (II) Bicarbonate 21.Sodium Hypochlorite 22.Barium Carbonate 23.Zinc (II) Permanganate
Formula AlPO4 KNO2 NaHCO3 CaCO3 Mg(OH)2 Name aluminum phosphate potassium nitrite sodium hydrogen carbonate calcium carbonate magnesium hydroxide
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
Mg3N2 Fe2O3 Na2SO4 CuCl2 Ba(NO3)2 Al(OH)3 Hg3(PO4)2 Al2(SiO3)3 CuBr2 Pb(ClO2)2 AgCN (NH4)2O Al(ClO4)3 SnCl2 Ni(C2H3O2)3 K 2S Mg(HSO4)2 Fe3(PO4)2 Co(HSO4)2 Cr (HCO3)2 NaClO BaCO3 Zn(MnO4)2
Na2CrO4 Ba(CN)2 K2SO4 NaH2PO4 NH4NO3 Sn(NO3)2 FePO4 Cu2SO4 HgCO3 Pb(OH)4 Cu2Cr2O7 FeSO4 KClO3 SnSO4 Al(MnO4)3 Pb(NO3)2
sodium chromate barium cyanide potassium sulfate sodium dihydrogen phosphate ammonium nitrate tin(II) nitrate iron(III) phosphate copper(I) sulfate mercury(II) carbonate lead(IV) hydroxide copper(I) dichromate iron(II) sulfate potassium chlorate tin(II) sulfate aluminum permanganate lead(II) nitrate copper(I) dihydrogen phosphate calcium hydrogen phosphate iron(III) hydrogen carbonate sodium carbonate manganese(II) sulfate iron (III) hydroxide copper (I) sulfate potassium permanganate
Mg3(PO4)2 magnesium phosphate CuH2PO4 CaHPO4 Fe(HCO3)3 Na2CO3 MnSO4 Fe(OH)3 Cu2SO4 KMnO4
NaOH Fe(NO3)2
deca-
10
Chemical Formulas
by Ron Kurtus (revised 10 November 2004) A molecule or compound consists of at least two atoms that are chemically bonded. The chemical formula of a molecule or compound states how many atoms of each element are in one of its molecules. This formula is similar to an algebraic formula in its use of symbols. The description of a compound with numbers and symbols is called a chemical formula. Some formulae can be quite complex. Questions you may have include:
What are chemical compounds? What is the numbering system in a chemical formula? How do you designate complex compounds?
This lesson will answer those questions. Note: If you want to hear the text being read, click the Play button. It takes a few seconds for the sound to start. The voices are somewhat mechanical for computer use.
Time = 4 min. 48 sec. Right-click to download MP3 (Choose Save target or Save link)
Chemical compounds
A molecule is the chemical combination of two or more atoms. They can be of the same element, such as in the oxygen molecule (O2) or different as in the water molecule (H2O). A compound is a molecule that is made up of at least two different elements. The water molecule is a compound. When atoms of different elements combine to form a compound, the result is a new substance that has different properties than the original elements. A good example is when the poisonous green chlorine gas is combined with the explosive metal sodium to form the white salt crystals we use in our food. The study of Chemistry is mainly interested in the formation of chemical compounds, since there are so many possible combinations of elements.
Chemical formulas
Chemical formulas (or more correctly: formulae) are designations of molecules and compounds in shorthand notation, similar to that used in Algebra.
Designation of a molecule
The combination of two or more elements to form a molecule is designated by writing their abbreviations next to each other. For example carbon monoxide is written as CO. The order in which the elements are written is typically alphabetical, but there are a number of exceptions for historical reasons and to clarify the geometry of the molecule.
Number of molecules
To show the number of molecules, a full sized number is located in front of the molecule. For example 4 molecules of carbon dioxide is designated as: 4CO2 This means there are a total of 4 C atoms and 8 O atoms in the combination. A way to remember this--taken from Algebra--is to think of it as 4 x (CO2).
Complex formulas
Just as in Algebra, you can use parentheses to separate parts in a complex formula. One example is the formula for nitroglycerin, a highly explosive substance. C3H5(NO3)3 This formula shows that nitroglycerin consists of 3 atoms of C, 5 atoms of H and then 3 NO3 nitrate ions. If the parentheses were not used, you might have a formula like: C3H5N3O9 The number of atoms for each element would be correct, but it wouldn't help to describe the true structure of the nitroglycerin molecule. Remember that molecules are 3-dimensional collections of atoms. In more complex moleculesespecially in organic substancesthe configuration becomes important.
Summary
The number of atoms of each element in a chemical formula is designated by the small number behind each element symbol. If there is no number, it is assumed there is only one of that element. A large number in front of a compound designates how many units there are of that compound. Parentheses can be used to designate a special structure, where other molecules are attached to the larger, complex molecule.
How are the elements arranged? What do the rows and columns indicate? How do you use the table?
Arrangement of elements
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in rows according to atomic number and in columns according to the configuration of the outer orbit or shell.
Rows
If you go along the rows from left to right, the elements are numbered 1 - H, 2 - He, 3 - Li, 4 - Be, 5 - B, and so on. The atomic number is also the number of protons in the element's nucleus. The first row lists just H and He, since they only have one electron shell or orbit. The second row lists elements that have electrons in two shells. Lithium (Li) has one electron in shell 2, while Neon (Ne) has a full shell of 8 electrons. Elements in the third row not only have two electrons in the first shell and eight in the second shell, but they also have electrons in a third shell. Silicon (Si) has four electrons in its outer orbit or shell.
Columns
If you go down a column, each element has the same number of electrons in its outer orbit or shell. For example, H, Li, and Na each has one electron in the outer shell. On the other hand, O, S, and those elements below each has 6 electrons in the outer shell or 2 short of filling the outer shell with 8 electrons. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines the element's chemical properties. There is a maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell. Only 2 can be in the first shell, 8 in the second, 18 in the third, 32 in the fourth, and so on. (See The Atom in the Physical Science section for a detailed explanation of the orbits or shells.) After the half-way point, the columns indicate how many less than full are in the outer orbit or shell. The maximum electrons in the second orbit is 8. Thus Oxygen (O) has 2 electrons less than the maximum of 8 in its outer orbit.
H Li Na K Rb Cs
Be Mg Ca Sr Ba
Fr Ra
Periodic Table of the Elements Click on an Element to see details Solids Man-made Elements B Gases Liquids Al Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Unq Unp Unh Uns Uno Une Uun Uuu Uub Uut
C Si Ge Sn Er Pb Fm Uuq
N P As Sb Tm Bi Md Uup
Name gives the full name of the element Number is the atomic number (also the number of protons in the nucleus) Weight is the average atomic weight or mass, including isotopes Shells are the electron shells or orbits in order (i.e. 2, 8, 8, 3) Orbital is an indication of the orbital occupancy of the electrons (this is complex and not really covered or used in our material) Melting is the melting point of the material in degrees Celsius Boiling is the boiling point of the material in degrees Celsius
So, you can get quite a bit of information from this table.
Summary
You can use this Periodic Table to obtain considerable information about the elements and their relationship to each other, as well as possible chemical combinations.
CHEMICAL FORMULA After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Explain how chemical formulas can be used to describe elements and molecules. Identify the chemical formulas for several common substances.
What are chemical formulas and how are they used? In order to make it easier to describe elements and molecules, chemical formulas are used. For example, H represents one atom of hydrogen and "O" represents one atom of oxygen. If we want to represent two atoms of hydrogen, instead of writing H H, we write H2. The subscript "2" means that two atoms of the element hydrogen have joined together to form a molecule. A subscript is only used when more than one atom is being represented. The graphic below illustrates the formula for water using symbols.
Review: 1. Chemical formulas are used to describe the types of atoms and their numbers in an element or compound. 2. The atoms of each element are represented by one or two different letters. 3. When more than one atom of a specific element is found in a molecule, a subscript is used to indicate this in the chemical formula.
ATOMS AND ELEMENTS After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
All matter, such as solids, liquids and gases, is composed of atoms. Any material that is composed of only one type of atom is called a chemical element, a basic element, or just an element. An atom is the smallest particle of any element that still retains the characteristics of that element. A piece of an element that we are able to see or handle is made of many, many atoms and all atoms are the same...they all have the same number of protons. Protons and other subatomic particles will be discussed a little later. The atoms of different elements are different from each other because they have different numbers of protons. The graphic below illustrates this point by showing the atoms of two elements in the containers of oxygen and hydrogen.
----------The atoms in oxygen are identical to each other. The atoms in hydrogen are identical to each other. However, the atoms of oxygen are different from the atoms of hydrogen. Compounds, like water, are formed by combining the atoms of different elements together according to some chemical formula.
Review:
1. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that remain
identical to all other particles. 2. The atoms of one element are different from those of all other element. 3. Compounds are made when atoms of different elements are chemically combined together.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
List the three main subatomic particles of an atom. Discuss the positions of these particles within the atom and what electric charge they carry, if any.
What are atoms made of? Now that we have talked about how atoms are combined to make other substances, let's talk about the particles that make up the atom. Particles
that are smaller than the atom are called subatomic particles. The three main subatomic particles that form an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons. The center of the atom is called the nucleus. First, let's learn a bit about protons and neutrons, and then we will talk about electrons a little later. Protons and Neutrons Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of an atom. All protons are identical to each other, and all neutrons are identical to each other. Protons have a positive electrical charge, so they are often represented with the mark of a "+" sign. Neutrons have no electrical charge and are said to help hold the protons together (protons are positively charged particles and should repel each other). If all protons are identical and all neutrons are identical, then what makes the atoms of two different elements different from each other? For example, what makes a hydrogen atom different from a helium atom? The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus give the atoms their specific characteristics. In the graphic below you will notice that each of the three elements have different numbers of protons and neutrons. They would also like to have the same number of electrons as they have protons in order to stay electrically balanced.
Review:
atom. 2. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are the three main subatomic particles found in an atom. 3. Protons have a positive (+) charge. An easy way to remember this is to remember that both proton and positive start with the letter "P." 4. Neutrons have no electrical charge. An easy way to remember this is to remember that both neutron and no electrical charge start with the letter "N."
ISOTOPES After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
The other particle in the nucleus of an atom is the neutron. The neutron has no electrical charge and is said to be neutral. Like protons, all neutrons are identical. Do all atoms of an element have the same number of neutrons? The answer to this question is no. The number of protons in the nucleus of every atom of an element is always the same, but this is not the case with the number of neutrons. Atoms of the same element can have a different number of neutrons. Atoms want to have the same number of neutrons and protons but the number of neutrons can change.
Notice that the three hydrogen atoms have the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. These atoms are called isotopes, which are atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons.
Review: 1. Neutrons are all identical to each other, just as protons are. 2. Atoms of a particular element must have the same number of protons but can have different numbers of neutrons.
3. When an atom does not have the same number of protons and
ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBERS After reading this section you will be able to do the following:
Define and determine the atomic number of an atom. Define and determine the mass number of an atom.
What is an atom's atomic number? The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element's atomic number. In other words, each element has a unique number that identifies how many protons are in one atom of that element. For example, all hydrogen atoms, and only hydrogen atoms, contain one proton and have an atomic number of 1. All carbon atoms, and only carbon atoms, contain six protons and have an atomic number of 6. Oxygen atoms contain 8 protons and have an atomic number of 8. The atomic number of an element never changes, meaning that the number of protons in the nucleus of every atom in an element is always the same. What is an atom's mass number? All atoms have a mass number which is derived as follows.
Review:
1. An
element's or isotope's atomic number tells how many protons are in its atoms. 2. An element's or isotope's mass number tells how many protons and neutrons in its atoms.
Atoms | Electrons and energy | Chemical Bonding | Chemical reactions and molecules
Learning Objectives | Terms | Review Questions | Links
Charge
Location
atomic nucleus atomic nucleus electron orbital
Mass
1.6726 X 10 kg 1.6750 X 10-27 kg 9.1095 X 10-31 kg
-27
The atomic number is the number of protons an atom has. It is characteristic and unique for each element. The atomic mass (also referred to as the atomic weight) is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Atoms of an element that have differing numbers of neutrons (but a constant atomic number) are termed isotopes. Isotopes, shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, can be used to determine the diet of ancient peoples by determining proportions of isotopes in mummified or fossilized human tissues. Biochemical pathways can be deciphered by using isotopic tracers. The age of fossils and artifacts can be determined by using radioactive isotopes, either directly on the fossil (if it is young enough) or on the rocks that surround the fossil (for older fossils like dinosaurs). Isotopes are also the source of radiation used in medical diagnostic and treatment procedures. Figure 1. Note that each of these isotopes of hydrogen has only one proton. Isotopes differ from each other in the number of neutrons, not in the number of protons. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Some isotopes are radioisotopes, which spontaneously decay, releasing radioactivity. Other isotopes are stable. Examples of radioisotopes are Carbon14 (symbol 14C), and deuterium (also known as Hydrogen-2; 2H). Stable isotopes are 12C and 1H. Figure 2. Carbon has three isotopes, of which carbon-12 and carbon-14 are the most well known. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
The Periodic Table of the Elements, a version of which is shown in Figure 3, provides a great deal of information about various elements. An on-line Periodic Table is available by clicking here, Figure 3. The Periodic Table of the Elements. Each Roman numeraled column on the label (at least the ones ending in A) tells us how many electrons are in the outer shell of the atom. Each numbered row on the table tells us how many electron shells an atom has. Thus, Hydrogen, in column IA, row 1 has one electron in one shell. Phosphorous in column VA, row 3 has 5 electrons in its outer shell, and has three shells in total. Image from James K. Hardy's chemistry site at the University of Akron.
An orbital is also an area of space in which an electron will be found 90% of the time. Orbitals have a variety of shapes. Each orbital has a characteristic energy state and a characteristic shape. The s orbital is spherical. Since each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, atomic numbers above 2 must fill the other orbitals. The px, py, and pz orbitals are dumbbell shaped, along the x, y, and z axes respectively. These orbital shapes are shown in Figure 5. Energy levels (also referred to as electron shells) are located a certain "distance" from the nucleus. The major energy levels into which electrons fit, are (from the nucleus outward) K, L, M, and N. Sometimes these are numbered, with electron configurations being: 1s22s22p1, (where the first shell K is indicated with the number 1, the second shell L with the number 2, etc.). This nomenclature tells us that for the atom mentioned in this paragraph, the first energy level (shell) has two electrons in its s orbital (the only orbital it can have), and second energy level has a maximum of two electrons in its s orbital, plus one electron in its p orbital. Figure 5. Geometry of orbitals. S-orbitals are spherical, p-orbitals are shaped like a dumbbell or figure 8. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Ionic bonds are formed when atoms become ions by gaining or losing electrons. Chlorine is in a group of elements having seven electrons in their outer shells (see Figure 6). Members of this group tend to gain one electron, acquiring a charge of -1. Sodium is in another group with elements having one electron in their outer shells. Members of this group tend to lose that outer electron, acquiring a charge of +1. Oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, thus Cl- (the symbolic representation of the chloride ion) and Na+ (the
symbol for the sodium ion, using the Greek word natrium) form an ionic bond, becoming the molecule sodium chloride, shown in Figure 7. Ionic bonds generally form between elements in Group I (having one electron in their outer shell) and Group VIIa (having seven electrons in their outer shell). Such bonds are relatively weak, and tend to disassociate in water, producing solutions that have both Na and Cl ions. Figure 7. TOP: Formation of a crystal of sodium chloride. Each positively charged sodium ion is surropunded by six negatively charged chloride ions; likewise each negatively charged chloride ion is surrounded by six positively charged sodium ions. The overall effect is electrical neutrality. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission. BOTTOM: Table Salt Crystal (SEM x625). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Since electrons move very fast they can be shared, effectively filling or emptying the outer shells of the atoms involved in the bond. Such bonds are referred to as electron-sharing bonds. An analogy can be made to child custody: the children are like electrons, and tend to spend some time with one parent and the rest of their time with the other parent. In a covalent bond, the electron clouds surrounding the atomic nuclei overlap, as shown in Figure 8. Figure 8. Formation of a covalent bond between two Hydrogen atoims. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Carbon (C) is in Group IVa, meaning it has four electrons in its outer shell. Thus to become a "happy atom", Carbon can either gain or lose four electrons. By sharing the electrons with other atoms, Carbon can become a happy atom,. alternately filling and emptying its outer shell, as with the four hydrogens shown in Figure 9. Figure 9. Formation of covalent bonds in methane. Carbon needs to share four electrons, in effect it has four slots. Each hydrogen provides an electron to each of these slots. At the same time each hydrogen needs to fill one slot, which is done by sharing an electron with the carbon. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
The molecule methane (chemical formula CH4) has four covalent bonds, one between Carbon and each of the four Hydrogens. Carbon contributes an electron, and Hydrogen contributes an electron. The sharing of a single electron pair is termed a single bond. When two pairs of electrons are shared, a double bond results, as in carbon dioxide. Triple bonds are known, wherein three pairs (six electrons total) are shared as in acetylene gas or nitrogen gas. The types of covalent bonds are shown in Figure 10. Figure 10. Ways of representing covalent bonds. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Sometimes electrons tend to spend more time with one atom in the bond than with the other. In such cases a polar covalent bond develops. Water (H2O) is an example. Since the electrons spend so much time with the oxygen (oxygen having a greater electronegativity, or electron affinity) that end of the molecule acquires a slightly negative charge. Conversely, the loss of the electrons from the hydrogen end leaves a slightly positive charge. The water molecule is thus polar, having positive and negative sides. Hydrogen bonds, as shown in Figure 11, result from the weak electrical attraction between the positive end of one molecule and the negative end of another. Individually these bonds are very weak, although taken in a large enough quantity, the result is strong enough to hold molecules together or in a three-dimensional shape.
Figure 11. TOP: Formation of a hydrogen bond between the hydrogen side of one water molecule and the oxygen side of another water molecule. BOTTOM: The presence of polar areas in the amino acids that makeup a protein allows for hydrogen bonds to form, giving the molecule a three-dimensional shape that is often vital to that protein's proper functioning. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
number terms of the composition of a substance. For example, the sugar glucose has 6 Carbons, 12 hydrogens, and 6 oxygens per repeating structural unit. The formula is written C6H12O6. Figure 12. Determination of molecular weights by addition of the weights of the atoms that make up the molecule. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Chemical reactions occur in nature, and some also can be performed in a laboratory setting. One such reaction is diagrammed in Figure 13. Chemical equations are linear representations of how these reactions occur. Combination reactions occur when two separate reactants are bonded together, e.g. A + B -----> AB. Disassociation reactions occur when a compound is broken into two products, e.g. AB -----> A + B. Figure 13. Diagram of a chemical reaction: the combustion of propane with oxygen, resulting in carbon dioxide, water, and energy (as heat and light). This chemical reaction takes place in a camping stove as well as in certain welding torches. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Biological systems, while unique to each species, are based on the chemical bonding properties of carbon. Major organic chemicals (those associated with or formed by the actions of living things) usually include some ratios of the following elements: C, H, N, O, P, S.
All forms of matter are composed of one or more elements. Be able to list the major elements in living things. Describe how protons, electrons, and neutrons are arranged into atoms and ions. Define the terms atomic number and atomic mass and be able to describe their sugnificance. Atoms with the same atomic number but a different mass number are isotopes. List the isotopes of hydrogen and of carbon. Be able to describe radioisotopes and list three ways they are used in biology. The union between the electron structures of atoms is known as the chemical bond. Be able to list and describe the three types of chemical bonds found in living things. Be able to describe the distribution of electrons in the space around the nucleus of an atom. An atom tends to react with other atoms when its outermost shell is only partly filled with electrons. Be able to discuss why this happens. Be able to define the two types of ions and describe thow ionic bonds form between positive and negative ions. In a covalent bond, atoms share electrons. List several elements that tend to form covalent bonds. Distinguish between a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond and give an example of each. Define hydrogen bond and describe conditions under which hydrogen bonds form and cite one example. Explain what is meant by the polarity of the water molecule, and how the polarity of water molecules allows them to interact with one another.
molecules neutron
Chemicool A colorful and easy to use Periodic Table. More information about elements than most of us would want. WebElements Much more detailed Periodic Table. Even more information about those pesky elements! If this site is busy there are a series of mirror sites.
The Periodic Table This site, developed by the Fossil Company, provides a version of the Periodic Table where moving the mouse cursor over an element on the table brings up information about electron shells, mass, etc. A very nice site. James K. Hardy's Chemistry Site (U of Akron). Powerpoint slides (that run over the Web) and a series of animations...a must see! Diamond Images of diamond and graphite crystal structure.
Text 1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, by M.J. Farabee, all rights reserved. Use for educational purposes is encouraged. Back to Table of Contents | Continue with Chem-2
Email: mj.farabee@emcmail.maricopa.edu Last modified: Tuesday May 18 2010 The URL of this page is: www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookchem1.html