Sei sulla pagina 1di 71

Naming simple compounds

Binary ionic compounds are composed of two elements.

The first element is a metal. The second element is a non metal. An "ide" suffix is used to indicate that compound has been formed between the elements.

Chemical Formula of Binary Ionic Compounds Chemical formula 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. NaCl Na2O FeS AlP CaI2 Mg3N2 BaI2 LiF K2S Metal element sodium Answer sodium Answer iron Answer aluminum Answer calcium Answer magnesium Answer barium Answer lithium Answer potassium Answer Non metal element chlorine Answer oxygen Answer sulfur Answer phosphorus Answer iodine Answer nitrogen Answer iodine Answer fluorine Answer sulfur Answer Chemical name sodium chloride Answer sodium oxide Answer iron sulfide Answer aluminum phosphide Answer calcium iodide Answer magnesium nitride Answer barium iodide Answer lithium fluoride Answer potassium sulfide Answer

10.

ZnBr2

zinc Answer

bromine Answer

zinc bromide Answer

Periodic table grid


Common chemical symbols of the first 20 elements. Test yourself Periodic Table of the First 20 Elements Group 1 1 H Hydrogen 3 Li Lithium 11 Na Sodium 19 K Potassiu m 4 Be Beryllium 12 Mg Magnesiu m 20 Ca Calcium Show all Chemical symbols | Hide all Chemical symbols 5 B Boron 13 Al Aluminu m 6 C Carbon 14 Si Silicon 7 N Nitrogen 15 P Phosphoru s 8 O Oxyge n 16 S Sulfur 9 F Fluorine 17 Cl Chlorin e Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18 2 He Helium 10 Ne Neon 18 Ar Argon

Periodic Table of the First 20 Elements Group 1 1 Hydrogen H 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18 2 Helium He 10

Lithium Li 11 Sodium Na 19 Potassiu m K

Beryllium Be 12 Magnesiu m Mg 20 Calcium Ca

Boron B 13 Aluminu m Al

Carbon C 14 Silicon Si

Nitrogen N 15 Phosphoru s P

Oxyge n O 16 Sulfur S

Fluorine F 17 Chlorin e Cl

Neon Ne 18 Argon Ar

Chemical formula basic


Complete the online chemical formula worksheet. Click on the link to show or hide each answer. Chemical Formula Table Number 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Chemical name sodium chloride potassium oxide Answer magnesium bromide Answer sodium fluoride aluminum iodide Answer calcium sulfide Answer lithium phosphide strontium chloride Answer Elements present sodium and chlorine Answer potassium and oxygen magnesium and bromine Answer sodium and fluorine Answer aluminum and iodine calcium and sulfur Answer lithium and phosphorus Answer strontium and chloride Chemical formula NaCl Answer K2O Answer MgBr2 NaF Answer AlI3 Answer CaS Li3P Answer SrCl3 Answer

9. 10.

barium nitride Answer aluminum oxide

barium and nitrogen Answer aluminum and oxygen Answer

Ba3N2 Al2O3 Answer

//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

Atoms What is an atom?


An atom is the smallest particle of an element that has the properties of that element.

The Periodic Table lists the all the known elements. Each element is made up of its own type of atoms. Atoms of elements vary in such properties as number of protons, Atomic weight and Atomic Radii or size There have been various models that have been proposed to describe the structure of the atom.

Billiard ball model - John Dalton Plum pudding model - J.J. Thomson Nuclear model - E. Rutherford Shell model of the atom - N. Bohr The quantum model of the atom - various scientists.

The atom consists of three subatomic particles. The proton, the neutron and the electron.

In a chemical reaction all the action takes place in the outer or valence shell of electrons.

What is a molecule?
A molecule is a group of atoms that joined together by one or more covalent bonds.

The above image represents a water molecule. The chemical formula for water is H2O. There are two hydrogen atoms thsat are joined to one oxygen atom.

Models of the atom


MODELS OF THE ATOM - SUMMARY
Scientists Model Description Evidence

The atom is the Law of Constant smallest particle of Proportions. (% mass an element. composition) The atom is a solid, Law of Multiple indestructible unit. Proportions. E.g. Two compounds of nitrogen Atoms of different oxide. The ratio of oxygen between both elements have different masses. compounds is 2:3.

J. Dalton

The Billiard Ball model (1808) The pudding is the Cathode rays (negative positive material of particles or electrons) an atom. Canal rays (positive The embedded particles with large raisins are masses) negative electrons.

J. J. Thomson

The Plum Pudding model (1903) The mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a small core called the nucleus. The scattering of alpha particles through thin gold foil.

A small percentage of particles were deflected at large Negative electrons angles, some even orbit the nucleus. returning. it is like a cannonball rebounding The atom is mostly off a piece of paper made up of empty space. (Ratio of nucleus diameter to outer electron orbit = 1 : 50,000) Ernest Rutherford The Nuclear model (1911) Protons & later neutrons are identified. Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in discrete energy levels or shells. Explains emission spectra (flame test) Explains patterns in the successive ionisation energies of an element.

Neils Bohr

The Shell model (1923) Electrons exist in orbitals. i.e. an area surrounding the nucleus that has a 90% probability of containing an electron. Orbitals differ in shape(s, p, d, & f orbitals) and size(dependent upon energy level). d-orbitals No orbital may contain more than two electrons. The electrons in an orbital spin in opposite directions. Better explains anomalies in successive ionisation energies and emission spectra. E.g. double yellow lines for sodium.

p-orbitals s-orbital

Various Scientists Heisenburg, Schrodinger, de Broglie, Pauli

The Quantum model (1935)

worksheets Naming simple compounds


Binary ionic compounds are composed of two elements.

The first element is a metal. The second element is a non metal. An "ide" suffix is used to indicate that compound has been formed between the elements.

Chemical Formula of Binary Ionic Compounds Chemical formula 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. NaCl Na2O FeS AlP CaI2 Mg3N2 BaI2 LiF K2S ZnBr2 Metal element sodium Answer sodium Answer iron Answer aluminum Answer calcium Answer magnesium Answer barium Answer lithium Answer potassium Answer zinc Answer Non metal element chlorine Answer oxygen Answer sulfur Answer phosphorus Answer iodine Answer nitrogen Answer iodine Answer fluorine Answer sulfur Answer bromine Answer Chemical name sodium chloride Answer sodium oxide Answer iron sulfide Answer aluminum phosphide Answer calcium iodide Answer magnesium nitride Answer barium iodide Answer lithium fluoride Answer potassium sulfide Answer zinc bromide Answer

Show all | Hide all

Tags: worksheets

Chemical names and suffixes


The chemical suffix or end part of a chemical name needs careful attention.

There is a big difference between the "ide", "ate" and "ite" suffixes.

1. As a general rule an "ide" suffix indicates an element. eg. sulfide S2-, nitride N3- and phosphide P3The exceptions are hydroxide OH- and cyanide CN-

2. "ates" and "ites" always contain oxygen. eg. nitrate NO3- and nitrite NO2-

3. "ates" always have a higher number of oxygen atoms the corresponding "ites". eg. sulfate SO42- and sulfite SO32-

Chemical Formula Table A 1. sodium sulfide sodium sulfate B potassium sulfide potassium sulfate potassium sulfite potassium nitride potassium nitrate C magnesium sulfide magnesium sulfate magnesium sulfite magnesium nitride magnesium nitrate D calcium sulfide calcium sulfate calcium sulfite calcium nitride calcium nitrate E aluminum sulfide aluminum sulfate aluminium sulfite aluminum nitride aluminum nitrate

2.

3.

sodium sulfite

4.

sodium nitride sodium nitrate

5. 6.

sodium nitrite

potassium nitrite potassium phosphide potassium phosphate

magnesium nitrite magnesium phosphide magnesium phosphate

calcium nitrite

aluminium nitrite aluminum phosphide aluminum phosphate

7.

sodium phosphide sodium phosphate

calcium phosphide calcium phosphate

8.

Show all chemical formulas | Hide all chemical formulas

Tags: worksheets

Nuclear energy
Teacher Introduction Read more Tags: energy, nuclear, worksheets

Nuclear Radiation
What to do? Design a PowerPoint presentation on Nuclear Radiation

With each slide

Read more Tags: nuclear, radiation, worksheets

Basic Chemistry Worksheets


Methods of Physical Separation

US Spelling - Vapor Distillation worksheet Read more Tags: worksheets

UK Spelling - Vapour

Balancing chemical equations worksheets Practice balancing chemical equations. Worksheets with answers
Practice balancing 100's of chemical equations from simple to advanced. Each chemical equation worksheet comes with answers and can be downloaded as a pdf file.

Chemistry worksheets for download


Identification of salts from a variety of acid reactions Read more Tags: balancing, worksheets

Chemistry worksheets PRINTABLE CHEMISTRY WORKSHEETS


A variety of chemistry worksheets suitable for middle school to high school students studying basic chemistry. The worksheets contain answers and are available as printable pdf files which can be freely downloaded. Teaching notes are also included highlighting common student errors. Some of web pages also contain additional information and further teaching instructions. The worksheets are grouped together into three main categories. Read more Tags: worksheets

Chemical formula worksheets


Chemical formula writing worksheet with over 200 compounds to solve involving binary and polyatomic ions. Answers included. More printable formula worksheets below

Read more Tags: worksheets

Interactive Chemical Formula Table


More chemical formulas. Open and click on a compound to finds its formula. See if you are correct. Read more Add new comment | Tags: worksheets

Chemical formula writing worksheet


Online worksheet with answers. Click on the compound link to show or hide each formula. Chemical Formula Table Na+ NaCl sodium chloride K+ KCl potassium chloride Mg2+ MgCl2 magnesium chloride Ca2+ CaCl2 calcium chloride Al3+ AlCl3 aluminum chloride ClO2NO3-

Na2O K2O MgO CaO Al2O3 sodium oxide potassium oxide magnesium oxide calcium oxide aluminum oxide NaNO3 sodium nitrate Na2SO4 sodium sulfate KNO3 potassium nitrate K2SO4 potassium sulfate Mg(NO3)2 magnesium nitrate MgSO4 magnesium sulfate Ca(NO3)2 calcium nitrate CaSO4 calcium sulfate Al(NO3)3 aluminum nitrate Al2(SO4)3 aluminum sulfate

SO42-

Na3PO4 sodium phosphate

K3PO4 potassium phosphate

Mg3(PO4)2 magnesium phosphate

Ca3(PO4)2 calcium phosphate

AlPO4 aluminum phosphate

PO43-

Show all formulas | Hide all formulas Read more to download a printable chemical formula worksheet with answers. Over 200 compounds to solve.

Formulas show chemistry at a standstill. Equations show chemistry in action. A. Equations show:
1. the reactants which enter into a reaction. 2. the products which are formed by the reaction. 3. the amounts of each substance used and each substance produced.

B. Two important principles to remember:


1. Every chemical compound has a formula which cannot be altered. 2. A chemical reaction must account for every atom that is used. This is an
application of the Law of Conservation of Matter which states that in a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

C. Some things to remember about writing equations:


1. The diatomic elements when they stand alone are always written H2, N2, O2,
F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

2. The sign, , means "yields" and shows the direction of the action. 3. A small delta, (), above the arrow shows that heat has been added. 4. A double arrow, , shows that the reaction is reversible and can go in both
directions.

5. Before beginning to balance an equation, check each formula to see that it is


correct. NEVER change a formula during the balancing of an equation. 6. Balancing is done by placing coefficients in front of the formulas to insure the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow. Practice Balancing Equations

7. Always consult the Activity Series of metals and nonmetals before


attempting to write equations for replacement reactions. 8. If a reactant or product is a solid, (s) is placed after the formula. 9. If a reactant or product is a gas, (g) is placed after it. 10. If a reactant or product is in water solution, (aq) is placed after it. 11. Some products are unstable and break down (decompose) as they are produced during the reaction. You need to be able to recognize these

products when they occur and write the decomposition products in their places.

Examples:
H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Carbonic acid, as in soft drinks, decomposes when it is formed. H2SO3(aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Sulfurous acid also decomposes as it is formed. NH4OH(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)

You can definitely smell the odor of ammonia gas because whenever "ammonium hydroxide" is formed it decomposes into ammonia and water.

D. Rules for writing equations.


1. Write down the formula(s) for any substance entering into the reaction. Place a plus (+) sign between the formulas as needed and put the yield arrow after the last one. 2. Examine the formulas carefully and decide which of the four types of equations applies to the reaction you are considering. On the basis of your decision, write down the correct formulas for all products formed, placing them to the right of the arrow. Back to the Top

II. Four basic types of chemical reactions: A. Synthesis (composition):


two or more elements or compounds may combine to form a more complex compound. Basic form: A + X AX

Examples of synthesis reactions: 1. Metal + oxygen metal oxide


EX. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) nonmetallic oxide

2. Nonmetal + oxygen
EX. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

3. Metal oxide + water


EX. MgO(s) + H2O(l)

metallic hydroxide Mg(OH)2(s) acid

4. Nonmetallic oxide + water


EX. CO2(g) + H2O(l)

; H2CO3(aq) salt 2NaCl (s)

5. Metal + nonmetal
EX. 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)

6. A few nonmetals combine with each other. EX. 2P(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2PCl3(g)

These two reactions must be remembered:

1. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) 2. NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)


Practice Predicting Products of Synthesis Reactions Back to the Top

B. Decomposition:
A single compound breaks down into its component parts or simpler compounds. Basic form: AX A + X

Examples of decomposition reactions: 1. Metallic carbonates, when heated, form metallic oxides and CO2(g).
EX. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2. Most metallic hydroxides, when heated, decompose into metallic oxides and water. EX. Ca(OH)2(s) CaO(s) + H2O(g)

3. Metallic chlorates, when heated, decompose into metallic chlorides and


oxygen. EX. 2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

4. Some acids, when heated, decompose into nonmetallic oxides and water.

EX. H2SO4

H2O(l) + SO3(g)

5. Some oxides, when heated, decompose. EX. 2HgO(s) 2Hg(l) + O2(g)

6. Some decomposition reactions are produced by electricity. EX. 2H2O(l) EX. 2NaCl(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

Practice Predicting Products of Decomposition Reactions Back to the Top

C. Replacement:
a more active element takes the place of another element in a compound and sets the less active one free. Basic form: A + BX AX + B or AX + Y AY + X

Examples of replacement reactions:


1. Replacement of a metal in a compound by a more active metal. EX. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

2. Replacement of hydrogen in water by an active metal. EX. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) EX. Mg(s) + H2O(g) 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)

3. Replacement of hydrogen in acids by active metals. EX. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

4. Replacement of nonmetals by more active nonmetals. EX. Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)

NOTE: Refer to the activity series for metals and nonmetals to predict products of replacement reactions. If the free element is above the element to be replaced in the compound, then the reaction will occurr. If it is below, then no reaction occurs. Practice Predicting Products of Replacement Reactions

Back to the Top

D. Ionic:
occurrs between ions in aqueous solution. A reaction will occurr when a pair of ions come together to produce at least one of the following: 1. a precipitate 2. a gas 3. water or some other non-ionized substance. Basic form: AX + BY AY + BX

Examples of ionic reactions:


1. Formation of precipitate. EX. NaCl (aq) + AgNO3(aq) EX. BaCl2(aq) + Na2 SO4(aq) 2. Formation of a gas. EX. HCl(aq) + FeS(s) FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s) 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO4(s)

3. Formation of water. (If the reaction is between an acid and a base it is called a neutralization reaction.) EX. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

4. Formation of a product which decomposes. EX. CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

NOTE: Use the solubility rules to decide whether a product of an ionic reaction is insoluble in water and will thus form a precipitate. If a compound is soluble in water then it should be shown as being in aqueous solution, or left as separate ions. It is, in fact, often more desirable to show only those ions that are actually taking part in the actual reaction. Equations of this type are called net ionic equations. Practice Predicting Products of Ionic Reactions Back to the Top

Combustion of Hydrocarbons:
Another important type of reaction, in addition to the four types above, is that of the combustion of a hydrocarbon. When a hydrocarbon is burned with sufficient oxygen

supply, the products are always carbon dioxide and water vapor. If the supply of oxygen is low or restricted, then carbon monoxide will be produced. This is why it is so dangerous to have an automobile engine running inside a closed garage or to use a charcoal grill indoors. NOTE: Complete combustion means the higher oxidation number is attained. Incomplete combustion means the lower oxidation number is attained. The phrase "To burn" means to add oxygen unless told otherwise. Hydrocarbon (CxHy) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g) EX. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) EX. 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)

Back to the Top

NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclature can be defined as the terminology of chemical compounds. It represents the basic "language of chemistry" and, just as the student who is studying French or Spanish must learn the terminology of those languages, so must the chemistry student learn the basic terminology of the discipline. Life certainly becomes a bit easier, and safer for everyone around, if chemistry students are able to read the formulas on the bottles of stock solutions correctly when they have only the names of these substances on their lab sheet or vice versa. Okay, so it's a given......one of the basic, most important tasks that a chemistry student needs to master early on is that of Naming Compounds and Writing Formulas. There are several things that a student can do to make these tasks less tedious.

1. Learn the correct symbols for the elements. (This is similar to reciting the alphabet...a, b, c..., as well as identifying the symbols we use for each letter.) 2. Learn the names and formulas of seven (7) acids and ammonia. The acids and their formulas, along with ammonia and its formula are: hydrochloric acid nitric acid acetic acid perchloric acid carbonic acid HCl HNO3 HC2H3O2 HClO4 H2CO3

sulfuric acid phosphoric acid ammonia

H2SO4 H3PO4 NH3

3. Learn the meaning of several important prefixes and suffixes as they

relate to the formulas of polyatomic ions, cation charges, and anions. Meaning denotes the most common number of oxygen atoms one less oxygen than in the "-ate" ion (1) one more oxygen than in the "-ate" ion, also (2) one more oxygen than the most common number one less oxygen than in the "-ite" ion ion contains only the atoms whose names are heard (1) ending for acid that contains the "-ate" form of the ion Example(s) sulfate, nitrate, chlorate sulfite, nitrite, chlorite (1) perchlorate, permanganate

Prefix/Sufix -ate -ite

per-

(2) peroxide
hypochlorite hydroxide, chloride, sulfide nitride

hypoide-

(1) sulfuric, nitric, chloric (2) ferric is iron in the 3+ state, cupric is copper in the 2+ state

-ic

(2) indicates the higher oxidation number of some cations (older method, but still used) (1) ending for acid that contains the "-ite" form of the ion (2) indicates the lower oxidation number of some cations (also older method, but still used) prefix and suffix used with acids whose anions contain no oxygen

(1) sulfurous, nitrous, chlorous (2) ferrous is iron in the 2+ state, cuprous is copper in the 1+ state

-ous

hydro- -ic

hydrochloric, hydrosulfuric

4. Notice that the acids suggested for memorization, other than hydrochloric, all
end in -ic, and thus contain the -ate form of the polyatomic ion. You can therefore, quickly identify these ions when you see them in the formula for some other compound or easily write the formula for a compound that contains one of these ions. You can then use the meanings for the other prefixes and suffixes to expand your repetoire of ions without having to memorize each of them separately.

5. Learn the names of the prefixes that are used to denote one (1)
through ten (10) atoms in a formula. 1 = mono6 = hexa2 = di7 = hepta3 = tri8 = octa4 = tetra9 = nona5 = penta10 = deca-

Applying These Rules


There are two kinds of compounds for which students in high school and general chemistry are usually expected to write formulas or to name. They are ionic compounds and binary covalent compounds. A third kind that are also helpful to learn are those of the coordination compounds, but they have their own set of rules for naming or writing and will not be covered here.

Writing Formulas
How to write formulas when given the names of compounds. This organizer shows the steps to follow when writing the formulas for both ionic compounds and binary covalent compounds.

Naming Compounds
How to name compounds from their formulas This organizer shows the steps to follow when naming both ionic compounds and binary covalent compounds.

Formulas show chemistry at a standstill. Equations show chemistry in action. A. Equations show:
1. the reactants which enter into a reaction. 2. the products which are formed by the reaction. 3. the amounts of each substance used and each substance produced.

B. Two important principles to remember:


1. Every chemical compound has a formula which cannot be altered. 2. A chemical reaction must account for every atom that is used. This is an
application of the Law of Conservation of Matter which states that in a chemical reaction atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

C. Some things to remember about writing equations:


1. The diatomic elements when they stand alone are always written H2, N2, O2,
F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

2. The sign, , means "yields" and shows the direction of the action. 3. A small delta, (), above the arrow shows that heat has been added. 4. A double arrow, , shows that the reaction is reversible and can go in both
directions.

5. Before beginning to balance an equation, check each formula to see that it is


correct. NEVER change a formula during the balancing of an equation. 6. Balancing is done by placing coefficients in front of the formulas to insure the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow. Practice Balancing Equations

7. Always consult the Activity Series of metals and nonmetals before


attempting to write equations for replacement reactions. 8. If a reactant or product is a solid, (s) is placed after the formula. 9. If a reactant or product is a gas, (g) is placed after it. 10. If a reactant or product is in water solution, (aq) is placed after it. 11. Some products are unstable and break down (decompose) as they are produced during the reaction. You need to be able to recognize these products when they occur and write the decomposition products in their places.

Examples:
H2CO3(aq) H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Carbonic acid, as in soft drinks, decomposes when it is formed. H2SO3(aq) H2O(l) + SO2(g)

Sulfurous acid also decomposes as it is formed. NH4OH(aq) NH3(g) + H2O(l)

You can definitely smell the odor of ammonia gas because whenever "ammonium hydroxide" is formed it decomposes into ammonia and water.

D. Rules for writing equations.


1. Write down the formula(s) for any substance entering into the reaction. Place a plus (+) sign between the formulas as needed and put the yield arrow after the last one. 2. Examine the formulas carefully and decide which of the four types of equations applies to the reaction you are considering. On the basis of your decision, write down the correct formulas for all products formed, placing them to the right of the arrow.

Back to the Top

II. Four basic types of chemical reactions: A. Synthesis (composition):


two or more elements or compounds may combine to form a more complex compound. Basic form: A + X AX

Examples of synthesis reactions: 1. Metal + oxygen metal oxide


EX. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) nonmetallic oxide

2. Nonmetal + oxygen
EX. C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

3. Metal oxide + water


EX. MgO(s) + H2O(l)

metallic hydroxide Mg(OH)2(s) acid

4. Nonmetallic oxide + water


EX. CO2(g) + H2O(l)

; H2CO3(aq) salt 2NaCl (s)

5. Metal + nonmetal
EX. 2 Na(s) + Cl2(g)

6. A few nonmetals combine with each other. EX. 2P(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2PCl3(g)

These two reactions must be remembered:

1. N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) 2. NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4OH(aq)


Practice Predicting Products of Synthesis Reactions Back to the Top

B. Decomposition:

A single compound breaks down into its component parts or simpler compounds. Basic form: AX A + X

Examples of decomposition reactions: 1. Metallic carbonates, when heated, form metallic oxides and CO2(g).
EX. CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2. Most metallic hydroxides, when heated, decompose into metallic oxides and water. EX. Ca(OH)2(s) CaO(s) + H2O(g)

3. Metallic chlorates, when heated, decompose into metallic chlorides and


oxygen. EX. 2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

4. Some acids, when heated, decompose into nonmetallic oxides and water. EX. H2SO4 H2O(l) + SO3(g)

5. Some oxides, when heated, decompose. EX. 2HgO(s) 2Hg(l) + O2(g)

6. Some decomposition reactions are produced by electricity. EX. 2H2O(l) EX. 2NaCl(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

Practice Predicting Products of Decomposition Reactions Back to the Top

C. Replacement:
a more active element takes the place of another element in a compound and sets the less active one free. Basic form: A + BX AX + B or AX + Y AY + X

Examples of replacement reactions:


1. Replacement of a metal in a compound by a more active metal.

EX. Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq)

FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

2. Replacement of hydrogen in water by an active metal. EX. 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) EX. Mg(s) + H2O(g) 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)

3. Replacement of hydrogen in acids by active metals. EX. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

4. Replacement of nonmetals by more active nonmetals. EX. Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(l)

NOTE: Refer to the activity series for metals and nonmetals to predict products of replacement reactions. If the free element is above the element to be replaced in the compound, then the reaction will occurr. If it is below, then no reaction occurs. Practice Predicting Products of Replacement Reactions Back to the Top

D. Ionic:
occurrs between ions in aqueous solution. A reaction will occurr when a pair of ions come together to produce at least one of the following: 1. a precipitate 2. a gas 3. water or some other non-ionized substance. Basic form: AX + BY AY + BX

Examples of ionic reactions:


1. Formation of precipitate. EX. NaCl (aq) + AgNO3(aq) EX. BaCl2(aq) + Na2 SO4(aq) 2. Formation of a gas. EX. HCl(aq) + FeS(s) FeCl2(aq) + H2S(g) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s) 2NaCl (aq) + BaSO4(s)

3. Formation of water. (If the reaction is between an acid and a base it is called a neutralization reaction.)

EX. HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)

NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

4. Formation of a product which decomposes. EX. CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

NOTE: Use the solubility rules to decide whether a product of an ionic reaction is insoluble in water and will thus form a precipitate. If a compound is soluble in water then it should be shown as being in aqueous solution, or left as separate ions. It is, in fact, often more desirable to show only those ions that are actually taking part in the actual reaction. Equations of this type are called net ionic equations. Practice Predicting Products of Ionic Reactions Back to the Top

Combustion of Hydrocarbons:
Another important type of reaction, in addition to the four types above, is that of the combustion of a hydrocarbon. When a hydrocarbon is burned with sufficient oxygen supply, the products are always carbon dioxide and water vapor. If the supply of oxygen is low or restricted, then carbon monoxide will be produced. This is why it is so dangerous to have an automobile engine running inside a closed garage or to use a charcoal grill indoors. NOTE: Complete combustion means the higher oxidation number is attained. Incomplete combustion means the lower oxidation number is attained. The phrase "To burn" means to add oxygen unless told otherwise. Hydrocarbon (CxHy) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g) EX. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) EX. 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)

A Brief Introduction to Organic Chemistry


Molecular graphics provided by: MDL and WebMolecules An organic compound is one that is composed of carbon and hydrogen. It may also contain atoms of other elements, such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine. Basic organic compunds contain only carbon and hydrogen, and they are called hydrocarbons. The name substituted hydrocarbon is used when other elements are also present. Carbon atoms have the unique property of being able to bond to each other and form long "chains" of carbons, or to form circular "rings" of carbons. That, and the fact that the

addition of one atom of a different element makes an entirely new compound is the reason that there are millions of organic compounds in the world. The simplest hydrocarbon is methane, which is made of one carbon atom surrounded by four hydrogen atoms. The work of Pauling showed that the four hydrogens are in a tetrahedral arrangement around the carbon.

Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Alkanes The next simplest hydrocarbons are those whose carbons are joined in line one to another. They are called aliphatic hydrocarbons. The first group is that of the alkanes, and the name of each of these compounds ends in "-ane". The alkanes have the generic formula of CnH2n+2. All of the carbons have single covalent bonds between them. They are also called saturated hydrocarbons, which means that all of the carbons have the maximum number of bonds (4). The first ten alkanes should be memorized, because their names are the basis for most of the naming of the rest of the organic compounds. Molecular Name Formula CH4 methane Structural Formula

C2H6

ethane

C3H8

propane

C4H10

butane

C5H12

pentane

C6H14

hexane

C7H16

heptane

C8H18

octane

C9H20

nonane

C10H22

decane

Alkenes The next group of hydrocarbons are called alkenes, and the difference between them and the alkanes is the presence of a double covalent bond in the carbon chain. They have the generic formula CnH2n and all of the names end in "-ene". They represent the simplest of the unsaturated hydrocarbons. All of the formulas for the alkanes shown above (starting with ethane) would be written with two less hydrogens and the name would end in -ene. For example, ethane would become ethene and its formula would be C2H4. Alkynes

The presence of a triple covalent bond in the carbon chain gives rise to the compounds called alkynes. They have the generic formula CnH2n-2. One of the best known examples is that of ethyne, which is often called acetylene, and has the formula C2H2. Cyclo-compounds Sometimes the chains can be circled (like the wagon train circling up for the night) and the end carbons join together. This brings about the loss of two hydrogen atoms. A common example is that of the six-carbon hexane forming the six-carbon cyclohexane which has the formula C6H12. Notice that there are two hydrogens less than in hexane. Notice, also, the use of the prefix "cyclo-" in front of the parent name, hexane. This gives a nice picture of a circle of six carbons joined together. There are two forms that the molecule can take. Pictured here is the "boat" form. The other form is the "chair" form where the molecule can be imagined as having the shape of a reclining chair. A sample of cyclohexane is composed of a 50-50 mixture of each form. Aromatics The other main group of hydrocarbons is that of the aromatic hydrocarbons. They contain six carbons arranged in a "ring" and contain three double covalent bonds between every other carbon-carbon pair. The basic aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene, C6H6. Notice that the molecule is planar, with all bond angles equal to 120 degrees. Two benzene rings can join together and form naphthalene, C10H8. Both of these compounds serve as the basis for thousands of other very important compounds.

Substituted Hydrocarbons
Atoms of other elements can be joined to the carbons in place of one or more hydrogens. Oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and the halogens are the most common atoms that replace hydrogens. The resulting compound is called a substituted hydrocarbon. Sometimes a combination of two of these other elements will be found in place of hydrogens. These other elements give rise to what are called functional groups. The presence of different functional groups causes the substituted hydrocarbon to be one of several classes of organic compounds.

Alcohols: Probably the most common of these functional groups is the "-OH" group, which is known as the hydroxyl group. It is NOT the hydroxide ion, OH1-, as it does not have a charge. The dash in front of the OH stands for a single covalent bond, which is what will be formed between the oxygen and a carbon atom. An aliphatic hydrocarbon that has one hydroxyl group attached to a carbon is called an alcohol. The symplest alcohol is methyl alcohol, or methanol. Notice that the one word name, methanol, ends in -ol and the root is methan-. You should be able to figure out that the formula would be that of methane, but with an -OH in place of one of the hydrogens. It doesn't matter where you put the hydroxyl group in methanol. The molecular formula is usually written as CH3OH, because it gives more of a picture of the actual structure than does CH4O. This way of writing the formula becomes more important as the number of carbons increases. Take the case of ethyl alcohol, or ethanol. The parent compound is ethane, so the formula is C2H6O, but C2H5OH gives specific information that the compound is an alcohol and not any other compound. Things become a bit more complex starting with the three carboned propane. The hydroxyl group can be attached to either end carbon (same compound in either case) or to the middle compound, which produces a slightly different compound. The first case represents the compound n-(for normal) propanol or 1-propanol. The use of the number tells to which postion the hydroxyl is attached. The second carbon placement of the hydroxyl group gives rise to the name 2-propanol, or, using an older system of naming compounds, isopropanol, or isopropyl alcohol. This is probably the type of rubbing alcohol in the medicine cabinet in your homes. The commercial isopropyl alcohol is usually a 70% solution in water. The molecular formula is C3H8O, with C3H7OH showing that the compound is an alcohol, and the even more specific formulas, CH3CH2CH2OH showing 1-propanol, and CH3CHOHCH3 showing 2-propanol. Isomers: Notice that in two examples described thus far there have been two different compounds for each of two molecular formulas. The ethanol and dimethyl ether were both C2H 6O and the two alcohols were each C3H8O. Both cases are examples of isomers. Let's look at the definition of an isomer: two or more different compounds, each with the same molecular formula. Notice the use of the prefix, "iso-". You have already seen on several occassions that this prefix means "same". At this point, you should stop and use the Merck Index, or CRC handbook, to look up these four compounds and compare them--the ethanol with dimethyl ether and the 1-propanol with the 2-propanol. Determine for yourself how the change in placement of a single atom of oxygen can drastically change the nature of the compound. Two different kinds of isomers are represented here:

functional isomer structural isomer

The hydroxyl group is written -OH, whereas the way to show that the oxygen is bonded inbetween two carbons is -O-. These represent two different finctional groups, thus two different classes of organic compounds are represented. The case of the two alcohols, however, is a result of a structural difference in the placement of the same functional group. Now, back to alcohols: You should now be able to turn the remaining seven alkanes into a normal alcohol (hydroxyl on the end carbon) and write their names correctly. Notice, as the chain gets longer (has more carbons) the number of possible sites for the hydroxyl to bond also increases, thus increasing the total number of possible alcohols. There are a few important alcohols that have more than one hydroxyl group. One of the most widely used this that of ethylene glycol, the main ingredient in automobile anitfreeze. Can you figure out the formula?

First, the "ethyl" means it contains two carbons, just like ethane. Second, the "ene" means that it is short two hydrogens, but instead of a double bond between the two carbons, two hydroxyl groups are present, one per carbon. Notice the "ol" ending. This tells you that it is an alcohol. The scientific name, or IUPAC name is 1,2-ethanediol.

Based on what you've learned so far, doesn't the name written this way give you a good picture of what the compound looks like? A second important alcohol with more than one hydroxyl group is glycerol, also called glycerine. Its a three carbon alcohol that contains three hydroxyl groups, one to each carbon. Its IUPAC name of 1,2,3-propanetriol should give you a better picture. It is used in soaps and lotions, and also to make nitroglycerine. The generic formula for an alcohol is shown by R-OH, where R stands for whatever the -OH is bonded.

Ethers: An ether results when there is an oxygen atom between two carbons in the chain. The simplest is dimethyl ether, which has the same molecular formula as ethanol. The way the formula is written to show the ether, rather than the alcohol, is CH3OCH3. There are two other ethers of interest, ethylmethyl ether and diethyl ether. You should be able to write the formulas for each of these. Ethers are represented as R-O-R', where R and R' can be the same or different hydrocarbon units.

Notice: when the parent hydrocarbon, such as methane or ethane has something else attached in place of one or more hydrogens, the ending is often changed from -ane to -yl.

Aldehydes: A new class of substituted hydrocarbons arises when an oxygen atom is double bonded to the carbon at the end of the chain. In this case there are two less hydrogen atoms, so instead of three end hydrogens, there is the C=O and only one hydrogen. The simplest aldehyde is one that you have probably heard of, formaldehyde, CH2O. Its IUPAC name is methanal. Notice the -al ending as opposed to the -ol ending that alcohols have. Be careful about paying attention to the endings. They identify the class to which the compound belongs. These compounds show the generic formula, H-R=O. Ketones: A different class of organic compounds results if the C=O occurs somewhere along the chain other than on the end carbon. The simplest ketone has three carbons. Why not start with two carbons? It has the common name acetone, and is in most fingernail polishes and removers. It is sometimes called dimethyl ketone, but is more properly called propanone. Break apart the name to see how the name propanone gives a better picture of the compounds formula than does acetone.

First of all, the propan- indicates that the parent hydrocarbon is propane, and thus has three carbons. Second, the ending -one goes along with the ending of the name of the class of compounds to which it belongs, ketones.

How would you write the formula for butanone or hexanone? Would you need to include a number as part of the name? The generic formula for ketones is R-C=O(-R').

Organic Acids: The organic acids are also called carboxcylic acids. They have a more complex functional group, and if you look at it, you can see both the C=O of the aldehyde and the -OH of the alcohol. The organic, or carboxyl group, is -C=O(-OH), often written as COOH, or even CO2H. Organic acids may have more than one carboxyl group. The simplest organic acid is methanoic acid, CHOOH, or formic acid, methanoic acid to use the older name. Ants inject formic acid into their victim whem (formic acid) they bite them.

The next in line is, of course, ethanoic acid, CH3COOH. What is the common name of this acid? Notice the ending, -oic, to the IUPAC name, and -ic, to the common name. There are some very important organic acids, and one of the most important is ascorbic acid, better known as Vitamin C. Look up the formulas for ascorbic acid, as well citric, tartaric, and oxalic acids. The generic formula is R-(COOH)x

ethanoic acid (acetic acid)

Why are these compounds acids? Well, they must be able to produce at least one hydrogen ion when they are put into solution, since that is the general definition for an acid. Which hydrogens, and how many hydrogen ions do they prooduce? Even though these organic acids may contain quite a few hydrogen atoms in the molecule, only select hydrogens are able to be "ionized" or turned into hydrogen ions. These "select" hydrogens are those in the carboxyl group (-COOH) The presence of one or more of these groups, therefore, causes the compound to belong to the organic acids.

Esters: These compounds have the generic formula, R-COO-R'. Notice that this formula is similar to that of the organic acid, but now the H of the -COOH has been replaced by a hydrocarbon group. The ending of the name of an ester is -ate, such as in ethyl ethannoate. Let's look at it's formula. The ethyl is the name of R' and the acetate represents R. Amines: The generic formula for amines is R-NH2, where one hydrogen has been replaced by an amino group (-NH2). The simplest amine is methyl amine, where the "R" group is methyl. This kind of amine is called a primary amine. There can also be secondary and tertiary amines, with the generic formulas R2-NH and R3-N, respectively with a second, and a third hydrogen replaced with an "R" group. The "R" groups can all be the same, or they can be different.

Chemical Formula Writing


The procedure that can be followed when confronted with the name of a compound and you wish to write its formula is as follows: 1. Identify the symbol of the cation (first part of the name) and the anion 2. Identify the valence or charge of each symbol and place it in parenthesis just above the symbol

Cations (Positive Ions)

Anions (Negative Ions)

All Group 1 elements in the Periodic Table Group 17 are 1- (will end with -ide) are +1 in compounds. Group 16 are 2- (will end with -ide) All Group 2 elements in the Periodic Table are +2 in compounds. Group 15 are 3- (will end with -ide) Transition elements (have a few charges) Polyatomic Ions -just use its charge. (Generally will have a Roman Numeral to tell you ends with -ate or -ite, watch out for hydroxide what positive charge to use. OH- and cyanide CN-) silver is 1+, Zinc is 2+ and Aluminum is 3+ Polyatomic Ions -just use its charge.

3. Balance the total positive and negative charge on the cation and anion. You ask yourself do the total positive charge and total negative charge add up to zero. If the answer is no then we ask how many of each ion must we have in order to balance charge. We must have the same number of positive charges as we do of negative charges. Another way of saying that is that they must add up to zero. 4. Once you have determined the number of units of the cation and anion those become the subscripts which are placed right after the respective symbol.

So for example what is the formula of Copper (I) Oxide?


1. Identify the symbols of the cation and anion Copper is Cu and Oxide is O 2. Identify the charge for each and place above the symbol in parenthesis For Copper I that would be 1+ and for Oxide that would be 23. Balance the positive and negative charges Since each Copper is 1+ and each Oxide is 2- then it will take two Cu+ to balance one oxide with a 2- so that 2(1+) + 1(2-) = 0. The numbers outside the parenthesis become the subscripts in the formula

4. Write the formula placing the subscripts right after the symbol they go

with.
Cu2O Notice that we don't bother to place a subscript 1 after the Oxide symbol. That is because a subscript one is understood to be so. If it was zero it wouldn't appear at all in the formula. Also note that all binary compounds end in "ide" Let's try another:

What is the formula of Calcium Nitride?


1. Identify the symbols of each part of the name Calcium symbol is Ca and Nitride symbol is N

2. Identify the charge for each

Calcium belongs from Group 2 which always has a +2 and Nitride will be a single Nitrogen with a -3 charge

3. Balance charge

Since Calcium is +2 and Nitride is -3 the only way to balance them is to have three Calcium's and two nitrides

4. Write the symbol beginning with the symbol that is first in the name and

include the subscript after each symbol Ca3N2

Formula writing with Polyatomic Ions


1. Identify the symbol of the cation (first part of the name) and the anion

The symbol for Iron is Fe and the symbol for Carbonate which is a polyatomic ion is CO3

2. Identify the valence or charge of each symbol and place it in parenthesis just above the symbol
The valence for Iron (III) is 3+ and the valence for Carbonate is 2-

3. Balance the total positive and negative charge on the cation and anion.
You ask yourself do the total positive charge and total negative charge add up to zero. If the answer is no then we ask how many of each ion must we have in order to balance charge. We must have the same number of positive charges as we do of negative charges. Another way of saying that is that they must add up to zero. Since an Iron (III) has a +3 charge and the Carbonate ion has a 2- then it would take two Fe3+ units to balance three CO32- units

4. Once you have determined the number of units of the cation and anion those become the subscripts which are placed right after the respective symbol.
Fe2(CO3)3

Try These Ionic Compounds Highlight to reveal the formula

1.Magnesium Nitride 2.Iron (III) Oxide 3.Sodium Sulfate 4.Copper (II) Chloride 5.Barium Nitrate 6.Aluminum Hydroxide 7.Mercury (II) Phosphate 8.Aluminum Silicate 9. Copper (II) Bromide 10.Lead (II) Chlorite 11.Silver Cyanide 12.Ammonium Oxide 13.Aluminum Perchlorate 14.Tin (II) Chloride 15.Nickel (III) Acetate 16.Potassium Sulfide 17.Magnesium Bisulfate 18.Iron (II) Phosphate 19.Cobalt (II) Hydrogen Sulfate 20.Chromium (II) Bicarbonate 21.Sodium Hypochlorite 22.Barium Carbonate 23.Zinc (II) Permanganate
Formula AlPO4 KNO2 NaHCO3 CaCO3 Mg(OH)2 Na2CrO4 Ba(CN)2 K2SO4 Name aluminum phosphate potassium nitrite sodium hydrogen carbonate calcium carbonate magnesium hydroxide sodium chromate barium cyanide potassium sulfate

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Mg3N2 Fe2O3 Na2SO4 CuCl2 Ba(NO3)2 Al(OH)3 Hg3(PO4)2 Al2(SiO3)3 CuBr2 Pb(ClO2)2 AgCN (NH4)2O Al(ClO4)3 SnCl2 Ni(C2H3O2)3 K 2S Mg(HSO4)2 Fe3(PO4)2 Co(HSO4)2 Cr (HCO3)2 NaClO BaCO3 Zn(MnO4)2

NaH2PO4 NH4NO3 Sn(NO3)2 FePO4 Cu2SO4 HgCO3 Pb(OH)4 Cu2Cr2O7 FeSO4 KClO3 SnSO4 Al(MnO4)3 Pb(NO3)2

sodium dihydrogen phosphate ammonium nitrate tin(II) nitrate iron(III) phosphate copper(I) sulfate mercury(II) carbonate lead(IV) hydroxide copper(I) dichromate iron(II) sulfate potassium chlorate tin(II) sulfate aluminum permanganate lead(II) nitrate copper(I) dihydrogen phosphate calcium hydrogen phosphate iron(III) hydrogen carbonate sodium carbonate manganese(II) sulfate iron (III) hydroxide copper (I) sulfate potassium permanganate sodium hydroxide iron (II) nitrate

Ni(C2H3O2)2 nickel(II) acetate

Cu(ClO3)2 copper(II) chlorate Hg2(ClO4)2 mercury(I) perchlorate

Mg3(PO4)2 magnesium phosphate CuH2PO4 CaHPO4 Fe(HCO3)3 Na2CO3 MnSO4 Fe(OH)3 Cu2SO4 KMnO4 NaOH Fe(NO3)2

Ca(ClO3)2 calcium chlorate

1.

Fe2(CO3)3

Try These Ionic Compounds Highlight to reveal the formula 1.Magnesium Nitride 2.Iron (III) Oxide 3.Sodium Sulfate 4.Copper (II) Chloride 5.Barium Nitrate 6.Aluminum Hydroxide 7.Mercury (II) Phosphate 8.Aluminum Silicate 9. Copper (II) Bromide 10.Lead (II) Chlorite 11.Silver Cyanide 12.Ammonium Oxide 13.Aluminum Perchlorate 14.Tin (II) Chloride 15.Nickel (III) Acetate 16.Potassium Sulfide 17.Magnesium Bisulfate 18.Iron (II) Phosphate 19.Cobalt (II) Hydrogen Sulfate 20.Chromium (II) Bicarbonate 21.Sodium Hypochlorite 22.Barium Carbonate 23.Zinc (II) Permanganate
Formula AlPO4 KNO2 NaHCO3 CaCO3 Mg(OH)2 Name aluminum phosphate potassium nitrite sodium hydrogen carbonate calcium carbonate magnesium hydroxide

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

Mg3N2 Fe2O3 Na2SO4 CuCl2 Ba(NO3)2 Al(OH)3 Hg3(PO4)2 Al2(SiO3)3 CuBr2 Pb(ClO2)2 AgCN (NH4)2O Al(ClO4)3 SnCl2 Ni(C2H3O2)3 K 2S Mg(HSO4)2 Fe3(PO4)2 Co(HSO4)2 Cr (HCO3)2 NaClO BaCO3 Zn(MnO4)2

Na2CrO4 Ba(CN)2 K2SO4 NaH2PO4 NH4NO3 Sn(NO3)2 FePO4 Cu2SO4 HgCO3 Pb(OH)4 Cu2Cr2O7 FeSO4 KClO3 SnSO4 Al(MnO4)3 Pb(NO3)2

sodium chromate barium cyanide potassium sulfate sodium dihydrogen phosphate ammonium nitrate tin(II) nitrate iron(III) phosphate copper(I) sulfate mercury(II) carbonate lead(IV) hydroxide copper(I) dichromate iron(II) sulfate potassium chlorate tin(II) sulfate aluminum permanganate lead(II) nitrate copper(I) dihydrogen phosphate calcium hydrogen phosphate iron(III) hydrogen carbonate sodium carbonate manganese(II) sulfate iron (III) hydroxide copper (I) sulfate potassium permanganate

Ni(C2H3O2)2 nickel(II) acetate

Cu(ClO3)2 copper(II) chlorate Hg2(ClO4)2 mercury(I) perchlorate

Mg3(PO4)2 magnesium phosphate CuH2PO4 CaHPO4 Fe(HCO3)3 Na2CO3 MnSO4 Fe(OH)3 Cu2SO4 KMnO4

Ca(ClO3)2 calcium chlorate

NaOH Fe(NO3)2

sodium hydroxide iron (II) nitrate

Naming Binary Covalent Compounds


Rules
1. The first element is named first, using the elements name. 2. Second element is named as an Anion (suffix "ide") 3. Prefixes are used to denote the number of atoms 4. "Mono" is not used to name the first element Note: when the addition of the Greek prefix places two vowels adjacent to one another, the "a" (or the "o") at the end of the Greek prefix is usually dropped; e.g., "nonaoxide" would be written as "nonoxide", and "monooxide" would be written as "monoxide". The "i" at the end of the prefixes "di-" and "tri-" are never dropped. Prefix monoditritetrapentahexaheptaoctanonanumber indicated 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

deca-

10

Chemical Formulas
by Ron Kurtus (revised 10 November 2004) A molecule or compound consists of at least two atoms that are chemically bonded. The chemical formula of a molecule or compound states how many atoms of each element are in one of its molecules. This formula is similar to an algebraic formula in its use of symbols. The description of a compound with numbers and symbols is called a chemical formula. Some formulae can be quite complex. Questions you may have include:

What are chemical compounds? What is the numbering system in a chemical formula? How do you designate complex compounds?

This lesson will answer those questions. Note: If you want to hear the text being read, click the Play button. It takes a few seconds for the sound to start. The voices are somewhat mechanical for computer use.

Time = 4 min. 48 sec. Right-click to download MP3 (Choose Save target or Save link)

Chemical compounds
A molecule is the chemical combination of two or more atoms. They can be of the same element, such as in the oxygen molecule (O2) or different as in the water molecule (H2O). A compound is a molecule that is made up of at least two different elements. The water molecule is a compound. When atoms of different elements combine to form a compound, the result is a new substance that has different properties than the original elements. A good example is when the poisonous green chlorine gas is combined with the explosive metal sodium to form the white salt crystals we use in our food. The study of Chemistry is mainly interested in the formation of chemical compounds, since there are so many possible combinations of elements.

Chemical formulas
Chemical formulas (or more correctly: formulae) are designations of molecules and compounds in shorthand notation, similar to that used in Algebra.

Shorthand for elements


Elements can be written as abbreviations or in a shorthand notation. For example, He denotes helium, Fe denotes iron, and Cl denotes chlorine. A chemical formula is writing the elements of a compound, using their abbreviations.

Designation of a molecule
The combination of two or more elements to form a molecule is designated by writing their abbreviations next to each other. For example carbon monoxide is written as CO. The order in which the elements are written is typically alphabetical, but there are a number of exceptions for historical reasons and to clarify the geometry of the molecule.

Number of atoms in a molecule


If there is more than one atom of a type in the molecule, the formula shows it by a small number after the symbol. For example, water is H2O, which means there are 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen in the molecule. Carbon dioxide is CO2, which means there is one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen in the molecule.

Number of molecules
To show the number of molecules, a full sized number is located in front of the molecule. For example 4 molecules of carbon dioxide is designated as: 4CO2 This means there are a total of 4 C atoms and 8 O atoms in the combination. A way to remember this--taken from Algebra--is to think of it as 4 x (CO2).

Complex formulas
Just as in Algebra, you can use parentheses to separate parts in a complex formula. One example is the formula for nitroglycerin, a highly explosive substance. C3H5(NO3)3 This formula shows that nitroglycerin consists of 3 atoms of C, 5 atoms of H and then 3 NO3 nitrate ions. If the parentheses were not used, you might have a formula like: C3H5N3O9 The number of atoms for each element would be correct, but it wouldn't help to describe the true structure of the nitroglycerin molecule. Remember that molecules are 3-dimensional collections of atoms. In more complex moleculesespecially in organic substancesthe configuration becomes important.

Summary
The number of atoms of each element in a chemical formula is designated by the small number behind each element symbol. If there is no number, it is assumed there is only one of that element. A large number in front of a compound designates how many units there are of that compound. Parentheses can be used to designate a special structure, where other molecules are attached to the larger, complex molecule.

Periodic Table of the Elements


by Ron Kurtus (16 April 2007) The periodic table is an arrangement of the chemical elements that is a powerful tool for studying those elements and how they combine. The elements are arranged in rows according to their atomic number and in columns according to their valence electrons or number of electrons in the outer shell. Elements in a given column have similar chemical characteristics. A detailed periodic table typically gives information on the name, symbol, atomic number, atomic weight, shell configuration and other material. Questions you may have include:

How are the elements arranged? What do the rows and columns indicate? How do you use the table?

This lesson will answer those questions.

Arrangement of elements
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in rows according to atomic number and in columns according to the configuration of the outer orbit or shell.

Partial periodic table


The chart below just shows the first 18 elements, so you can get an idea of how the periodic table arranges them. Since there are over 100 elements, the table is more complex than this. The elements are listed by their abbreviations. H = Hydrogen, He = Helium, and so on. -3 -2 -1 Outer +1 +2 +3 +4 (less (less (less Full Shell electron electrons electrons electrons than than than Shell full) full) full) Shells 1 2 3 1H 3 Li 11 Na 4 Be 12 Mg 5B 13 Al 6C 14 Si 7N 8O 15 P 16 S 2 He 9 F 10 Ne 17 18 Ar Cl

First three rows of Periodic Table

Rows and columns


By examining the rows and columns of the periodic table, you can see how useful it can be.

Rows
If you go along the rows from left to right, the elements are numbered 1 - H, 2 - He, 3 - Li, 4 - Be, 5 - B, and so on. The atomic number is also the number of protons in the element's nucleus. The first row lists just H and He, since they only have one electron shell or orbit. The second row lists elements that have electrons in two shells. Lithium (Li) has one electron in shell 2, while Neon (Ne) has a full shell of 8 electrons. Elements in the third row not only have two electrons in the first shell and eight in the second shell, but they also have electrons in a third shell. Silicon (Si) has four electrons in its outer orbit or shell.

Columns
If you go down a column, each element has the same number of electrons in its outer orbit or shell. For example, H, Li, and Na each has one electron in the outer shell. On the other hand, O, S, and those elements below each has 6 electrons in the outer shell or 2 short of filling the outer shell with 8 electrons. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines the element's chemical properties. There is a maximum number of electrons allowed in each shell. Only 2 can be in the first shell, 8 in the second, 18 in the third, 32 in the fourth, and so on. (See The Atom in the Physical Science section for a detailed explanation of the orbits or shells.) After the half-way point, the columns indicate how many less than full are in the outer orbit or shell. The maximum electrons in the second orbit is 8. Thus Oxygen (O) has 2 electrons less than the maximum of 8 in its outer orbit.

Interactive periodic table


A complete periodic table of the elements is illustrated below. This version of the table is interactive, allowing you to get more information on the various elements. Information on using it is listed below the table. (Note: To find the name of the element for a given symbol, see the lesson on Chemical Elements.)

H Li Na K Rb Cs

Be Mg Ca Sr Ba

Fr Ra

Periodic Table of the Elements Click on an Element to see details Solids Man-made Elements B Gases Liquids Al Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Unq Unp Unh Uns Uno Une Uun Uuu Uub Uut

C Si Ge Sn Er Pb Fm Uuq

N P As Sb Tm Bi Md Uup

He O F Ne S Cl Ar Se Br Kr Te I Xe Yb Lu Po At Rn No Lr Uuh Uus Uuo

JavaScript code originally written by Tim Helvey

Detailed information on Element


Name: Number: Weight: Shells: Orbital: Melting: Boiling:

Using the table


When you click on any underlined abbreviation for an element, detailed information is displayed in the lower table.

Name gives the full name of the element Number is the atomic number (also the number of protons in the nucleus) Weight is the average atomic weight or mass, including isotopes Shells are the electron shells or orbits in order (i.e. 2, 8, 8, 3) Orbital is an indication of the orbital occupancy of the electrons (this is complex and not really covered or used in our material) Melting is the melting point of the material in degrees Celsius Boiling is the boiling point of the material in degrees Celsius

So, you can get quite a bit of information from this table.

State at room temperature


The table also color-coded each element as to whether it is solid, liquid or gas at room temperature. Man-made elements are usually made in such small quantities and are so short-lived that it is difficult to tell what form they exist in. By their placement in the table, they are probably solids.

Summary
You can use this Periodic Table to obtain considerable information about the elements and their relationship to each other, as well as possible chemical combinations.

CHEMICAL FORMULA After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Explain how chemical formulas can be used to describe elements and molecules. Identify the chemical formulas for several common substances.

What are chemical formulas and how are they used? In order to make it easier to describe elements and molecules, chemical formulas are used. For example, H represents one atom of hydrogen and "O" represents one atom of oxygen. If we want to represent two atoms of hydrogen, instead of writing H H, we write H2. The subscript "2" means that two atoms of the element hydrogen have joined together to form a molecule. A subscript is only used when more than one atom is being represented. The graphic below illustrates the formula for water using symbols.

Some more common molecules and their chemical formula.

Carbon Dioxide > CO Ammonia > NH Sugar > C H O


6 12 3

Rubbing Alcohol > C H OH


3 7

Review: 1. Chemical formulas are used to describe the types of atoms and their numbers in an element or compound. 2. The atoms of each element are represented by one or two different letters. 3. When more than one atom of a specific element is found in a molecule, a subscript is used to indicate this in the chemical formula.

ATOMS AND ELEMENTS After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Define an atom. Define a Basic Element.

All matter, such as solids, liquids and gases, is composed of atoms. Any material that is composed of only one type of atom is called a chemical element, a basic element, or just an element. An atom is the smallest particle of any element that still retains the characteristics of that element. A piece of an element that we are able to see or handle is made of many, many atoms and all atoms are the same...they all have the same number of protons. Protons and other subatomic particles will be discussed a little later. The atoms of different elements are different from each other because they have different numbers of protons. The graphic below illustrates this point by showing the atoms of two elements in the containers of oxygen and hydrogen.

----------The atoms in oxygen are identical to each other. The atoms in hydrogen are identical to each other. However, the atoms of oxygen are different from the atoms of hydrogen. Compounds, like water, are formed by combining the atoms of different elements together according to some chemical formula.

Review:
1. An atom is the smallest particle of an element that remain

identical to all other particles. 2. The atoms of one element are different from those of all other element. 3. Compounds are made when atoms of different elements are chemically combined together.

SUBATOMIC PARTICLES After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

List the three main subatomic particles of an atom. Discuss the positions of these particles within the atom and what electric charge they carry, if any.

What are atoms made of? Now that we have talked about how atoms are combined to make other substances, let's talk about the particles that make up the atom. Particles

that are smaller than the atom are called subatomic particles. The three main subatomic particles that form an atom are protons, neutrons, and electrons. The center of the atom is called the nucleus. First, let's learn a bit about protons and neutrons, and then we will talk about electrons a little later. Protons and Neutrons Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of an atom. All protons are identical to each other, and all neutrons are identical to each other. Protons have a positive electrical charge, so they are often represented with the mark of a "+" sign. Neutrons have no electrical charge and are said to help hold the protons together (protons are positively charged particles and should repel each other). If all protons are identical and all neutrons are identical, then what makes the atoms of two different elements different from each other? For example, what makes a hydrogen atom different from a helium atom? The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus give the atoms their specific characteristics. In the graphic below you will notice that each of the three elements have different numbers of protons and neutrons. They would also like to have the same number of electrons as they have protons in order to stay electrically balanced.

Review:

1. Subatomic particles are particles that are smaller than the

atom. 2. Protons, neutrons, and electrons are the three main subatomic particles found in an atom. 3. Protons have a positive (+) charge. An easy way to remember this is to remember that both proton and positive start with the letter "P." 4. Neutrons have no electrical charge. An easy way to remember this is to remember that both neutron and no electrical charge start with the letter "N."

ISOTOPES After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Define an isotope and explain how it is different than an element.

The other particle in the nucleus of an atom is the neutron. The neutron has no electrical charge and is said to be neutral. Like protons, all neutrons are identical. Do all atoms of an element have the same number of neutrons? The answer to this question is no. The number of protons in the nucleus of every atom of an element is always the same, but this is not the case with the number of neutrons. Atoms of the same element can have a different number of neutrons. Atoms want to have the same number of neutrons and protons but the number of neutrons can change.

Notice that the three hydrogen atoms have the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons. These atoms are called isotopes, which are atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons.

Review: 1. Neutrons are all identical to each other, just as protons are. 2. Atoms of a particular element must have the same number of protons but can have different numbers of neutrons.
3. When an atom does not have the same number of protons and

neutrons, it is called an isotope.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBERS After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Define and determine the atomic number of an atom. Define and determine the mass number of an atom.

What is an atom's atomic number? The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element's atomic number. In other words, each element has a unique number that identifies how many protons are in one atom of that element. For example, all hydrogen atoms, and only hydrogen atoms, contain one proton and have an atomic number of 1. All carbon atoms, and only carbon atoms, contain six protons and have an atomic number of 6. Oxygen atoms contain 8 protons and have an atomic number of 8. The atomic number of an element never changes, meaning that the number of protons in the nucleus of every atom in an element is always the same. What is an atom's mass number? All atoms have a mass number which is derived as follows.

Review:
1. An

element's or isotope's atomic number tells how many protons are in its atoms. 2. An element's or isotope's mass number tells how many protons and neutrons in its atoms.

CHEMISTRY I: ATOMS AND MOLECULES


Table of Contents

Atoms | Electrons and energy | Chemical Bonding | Chemical reactions and molecules
Learning Objectives | Terms | Review Questions | Links

Atoms | Back to Top


Most of the Universe consists of matter and energy. Energy is the capacity to do work. Matter has mass and occupies space. All matter is composed of basic elements that cannot be broken down to substances with different chemical or physical properties. Elements are substances consisting of one type of atom, for example Carbon atoms make up diamond, and also graphite. Pure (24K) gold is composed of only one type of atom, gold atoms. Atoms are the smallest particle into which an element can be divided. The ancient Greek philosophers developed the concept of the atom, although they considered it the fundamental particle that could not be broken down. Since the work of Enrico Fermi and his colleagues, we now know that the atom is divisible, often releasing tremendous energies as in nuclear explosions or (in a controlled fashion in) thermonuclear power plants. Subatomic particles were discovered during the 1800s. For our purposes we will concentrate only on three of them, summarized in Table 1. The proton is located in the center (or nucleus) of an atom, each atom has at least one proton. Protons have a charge of +1, and a mass of approximately 1 atomic mass unit (amu). Elements differ from each other in the number of protons they have, e.g. Hydrogen has 1 proton; Helium has 2. The neutron also is located in the atomic nucleus (except in Hydrogen). The neutron has no charge, and a mass of slightly over 1 amu. Some scientists propose the neutron is made up of a proton and electron-like particle. The electron is a very small particle located outside the nucleus. Because they move at speeds near the speed of light the precise location of electrons is hard to pin down. Electrons occupy orbitals, or areas where they have a high statistical probability of occurring. The charge on an electron is -1. Its mass is negligible (approximately 1800 electrons are needed to equal the mass of one proton).

Table 1. Subatomic particles of use in biology. Name


Proton Neutron Electron +1 0 -1

Charge

Location
atomic nucleus atomic nucleus electron orbital

Mass
1.6726 X 10 kg 1.6750 X 10-27 kg 9.1095 X 10-31 kg
-27

The atomic number is the number of protons an atom has. It is characteristic and unique for each element. The atomic mass (also referred to as the atomic weight) is the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. Atoms of an element that have differing numbers of neutrons (but a constant atomic number) are termed isotopes. Isotopes, shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2, can be used to determine the diet of ancient peoples by determining proportions of isotopes in mummified or fossilized human tissues. Biochemical pathways can be deciphered by using isotopic tracers. The age of fossils and artifacts can be determined by using radioactive isotopes, either directly on the fossil (if it is young enough) or on the rocks that surround the fossil (for older fossils like dinosaurs). Isotopes are also the source of radiation used in medical diagnostic and treatment procedures. Figure 1. Note that each of these isotopes of hydrogen has only one proton. Isotopes differ from each other in the number of neutrons, not in the number of protons. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Some isotopes are radioisotopes, which spontaneously decay, releasing radioactivity. Other isotopes are stable. Examples of radioisotopes are Carbon14 (symbol 14C), and deuterium (also known as Hydrogen-2; 2H). Stable isotopes are 12C and 1H. Figure 2. Carbon has three isotopes, of which carbon-12 and carbon-14 are the most well known. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

The Periodic Table of the Elements, a version of which is shown in Figure 3, provides a great deal of information about various elements. An on-line Periodic Table is available by clicking here, Figure 3. The Periodic Table of the Elements. Each Roman numeraled column on the label (at least the ones ending in A) tells us how many electrons are in the outer shell of the atom. Each numbered row on the table tells us how many electron shells an atom has. Thus, Hydrogen, in column IA, row 1 has one electron in one shell. Phosphorous in column VA, row 3 has 5 electrons in its outer shell, and has three shells in total. Image from James K. Hardy's chemistry site at the University of Akron.

Electrons and energy | Back to Top


Electrons, because they move so fast (approximately at the speed of light), seem to straddle the fence separating energy from matter. Albert Einstein developed his famous E=mc2 equation relating matter and energy over a century ago. Because of his (and others) work, we think of electrons both as particles of matter (having mass is a property of matter) and as units (or quanta) of energy. When subjected to energy, electrons will acquire some of that energy, as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4. Excitation of an electron by energy, causing the electron to "jump" to another electron (energy) level known as the excited state. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

An orbital is also an area of space in which an electron will be found 90% of the time. Orbitals have a variety of shapes. Each orbital has a characteristic energy state and a characteristic shape. The s orbital is spherical. Since each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, atomic numbers above 2 must fill the other orbitals. The px, py, and pz orbitals are dumbbell shaped, along the x, y, and z axes respectively. These orbital shapes are shown in Figure 5. Energy levels (also referred to as electron shells) are located a certain "distance" from the nucleus. The major energy levels into which electrons fit, are (from the nucleus outward) K, L, M, and N. Sometimes these are numbered, with electron configurations being: 1s22s22p1, (where the first shell K is indicated with the number 1, the second shell L with the number 2, etc.). This nomenclature tells us that for the atom mentioned in this paragraph, the first energy level (shell) has two electrons in its s orbital (the only orbital it can have), and second energy level has a maximum of two electrons in its s orbital, plus one electron in its p orbital. Figure 5. Geometry of orbitals. S-orbitals are spherical, p-orbitals are shaped like a dumbbell or figure 8. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Chemical Bonding | Back to Top


During the nineteenth century, chemists arranged the then-known elements according to chemical bonding, recognizing that one group (the furthermost right column on the Periodic Table, referred to as the Inert Gases or Noble Gases) tended to occur in elemental form (in other words, not in a molecule with other elements). It was later determined that this group had outer electron shells containing two (as in the case of Helium) or eight (Neon, Xenon, Radon, Krypton, etc.) electrons. As a general rule, for the atoms we are likely to encounter in biological systems, atoms tend to gain or lose their outer electrons to achieve a Noble Gas outer electron shell configuration of two or eight electrons. The number of electrons that are gained or lost is characteristic for each element, and ultimately determines the number and types of chemical bonds atoms of that element can form. Atomic diagrams for several atoms are shown in Figure 6. Figure 6. Atomic diagrams illustrating the filling of the outer electron shells. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Ionic bonds are formed when atoms become ions by gaining or losing electrons. Chlorine is in a group of elements having seven electrons in their outer shells (see Figure 6). Members of this group tend to gain one electron, acquiring a charge of -1. Sodium is in another group with elements having one electron in their outer shells. Members of this group tend to lose that outer electron, acquiring a charge of +1. Oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other, thus Cl- (the symbolic representation of the chloride ion) and Na+ (the

symbol for the sodium ion, using the Greek word natrium) form an ionic bond, becoming the molecule sodium chloride, shown in Figure 7. Ionic bonds generally form between elements in Group I (having one electron in their outer shell) and Group VIIa (having seven electrons in their outer shell). Such bonds are relatively weak, and tend to disassociate in water, producing solutions that have both Na and Cl ions. Figure 7. TOP: Formation of a crystal of sodium chloride. Each positively charged sodium ion is surropunded by six negatively charged chloride ions; likewise each negatively charged chloride ion is surrounded by six positively charged sodium ions. The overall effect is electrical neutrality. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission. BOTTOM: Table Salt Crystal (SEM x625). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.

Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Since electrons move very fast they can be shared, effectively filling or emptying the outer shells of the atoms involved in the bond. Such bonds are referred to as electron-sharing bonds. An analogy can be made to child custody: the children are like electrons, and tend to spend some time with one parent and the rest of their time with the other parent. In a covalent bond, the electron clouds surrounding the atomic nuclei overlap, as shown in Figure 8. Figure 8. Formation of a covalent bond between two Hydrogen atoims. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Carbon (C) is in Group IVa, meaning it has four electrons in its outer shell. Thus to become a "happy atom", Carbon can either gain or lose four electrons. By sharing the electrons with other atoms, Carbon can become a happy atom,. alternately filling and emptying its outer shell, as with the four hydrogens shown in Figure 9. Figure 9. Formation of covalent bonds in methane. Carbon needs to share four electrons, in effect it has four slots. Each hydrogen provides an electron to each of these slots. At the same time each hydrogen needs to fill one slot, which is done by sharing an electron with the carbon. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

The molecule methane (chemical formula CH4) has four covalent bonds, one between Carbon and each of the four Hydrogens. Carbon contributes an electron, and Hydrogen contributes an electron. The sharing of a single electron pair is termed a single bond. When two pairs of electrons are shared, a double bond results, as in carbon dioxide. Triple bonds are known, wherein three pairs (six electrons total) are shared as in acetylene gas or nitrogen gas. The types of covalent bonds are shown in Figure 10. Figure 10. Ways of representing covalent bonds. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Sometimes electrons tend to spend more time with one atom in the bond than with the other. In such cases a polar covalent bond develops. Water (H2O) is an example. Since the electrons spend so much time with the oxygen (oxygen having a greater electronegativity, or electron affinity) that end of the molecule acquires a slightly negative charge. Conversely, the loss of the electrons from the hydrogen end leaves a slightly positive charge. The water molecule is thus polar, having positive and negative sides. Hydrogen bonds, as shown in Figure 11, result from the weak electrical attraction between the positive end of one molecule and the negative end of another. Individually these bonds are very weak, although taken in a large enough quantity, the result is strong enough to hold molecules together or in a three-dimensional shape.

Figure 11. TOP: Formation of a hydrogen bond between the hydrogen side of one water molecule and the oxygen side of another water molecule. BOTTOM: The presence of polar areas in the amino acids that makeup a protein allows for hydrogen bonds to form, giving the molecule a three-dimensional shape that is often vital to that protein's proper functioning. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Chemical reactions and molecules | Back to Top


Molecules are compounds in which the elements are in definite, fixed ratios, as seen in Figure 12. Those atoms are held together usually by one of the three types of chemical bonds discussed above. For example: water, glucose, ATP. Mixtures are compounds with variable formulas/ratios of their components. For example: soil. Molecular formulas are an expression in the simplest whole-

number terms of the composition of a substance. For example, the sugar glucose has 6 Carbons, 12 hydrogens, and 6 oxygens per repeating structural unit. The formula is written C6H12O6. Figure 12. Determination of molecular weights by addition of the weights of the atoms that make up the molecule. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Chemical reactions occur in nature, and some also can be performed in a laboratory setting. One such reaction is diagrammed in Figure 13. Chemical equations are linear representations of how these reactions occur. Combination reactions occur when two separate reactants are bonded together, e.g. A + B -----> AB. Disassociation reactions occur when a compound is broken into two products, e.g. AB -----> A + B. Figure 13. Diagram of a chemical reaction: the combustion of propane with oxygen, resulting in carbon dioxide, water, and energy (as heat and light). This chemical reaction takes place in a camping stove as well as in certain welding torches. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.

Biological systems, while unique to each species, are based on the chemical bonding properties of carbon. Major organic chemicals (those associated with or formed by the actions of living things) usually include some ratios of the following elements: C, H, N, O, P, S.

Learning Objectives | Back to Top


All forms of matter are composed of one or more elements. Be able to list the major elements in living things. Describe how protons, electrons, and neutrons are arranged into atoms and ions. Define the terms atomic number and atomic mass and be able to describe their sugnificance. Atoms with the same atomic number but a different mass number are isotopes. List the isotopes of hydrogen and of carbon. Be able to describe radioisotopes and list three ways they are used in biology. The union between the electron structures of atoms is known as the chemical bond. Be able to list and describe the three types of chemical bonds found in living things. Be able to describe the distribution of electrons in the space around the nucleus of an atom. An atom tends to react with other atoms when its outermost shell is only partly filled with electrons. Be able to discuss why this happens. Be able to define the two types of ions and describe thow ionic bonds form between positive and negative ions. In a covalent bond, atoms share electrons. List several elements that tend to form covalent bonds. Distinguish between a nonpolar covalent bond and a polar covalent bond and give an example of each. Define hydrogen bond and describe conditions under which hydrogen bonds form and cite one example. Explain what is meant by the polarity of the water molecule, and how the polarity of water molecules allows them to interact with one another.

Terms | Back to Top


atom energy matter radioactivity atomic mass glucose atomic number hydrogen bonds covalent bonds ions nucleus electron ionic bonds polar covalent bond elements isotopes proton

molecules neutron

Review Questions | Back to Top


1. Which of these is not a subatomic particle? a) proton; b) ion; c) neutron; d) electron 2. The outermost electron shell of every Noble Gas element (except Helium) has ___ electrons. a) 1; b) 2; c) 4; d) 6; e) 8 3. An organic molecule is likely to contain all of these elements except ___. a) C; b) H; c) O; d) Ne; e) N 4. The chemical bond between water molecules is a ___ bond. a) ionic; b) polar covalent; c) nonpolar covalent; d) hydrogen 5. A solution with a pH of 7 has ___ times more H ions than a solutrion of pH 9. a) 2; b) 100; c) 1000; d) 9; e) 90 6. The type of chemical bond formed when electrons are shared between atoms is a ___ bond. a) ionic; b) covalent; c) hydrogen 7. The type of chemical bond formed when oppositely charged particles are attrached to each other is a ___ bond. a) ionic; b) covalent; c) hydrogen 8. Electrons occupy volumes of space known as ___. a) nuclei; b) periods; c) wavelengths; d) orbitals 9. Carbon has an atomic number of 6. This means it has ___. a) six protons; b) six neutrons; c) six protons plus six neutrons; d) six neuitrons and six electrons 10. Each of the isotopes of hydrogen has ___ proton(s). a) 3; b) 1; c) 2; d) 92; e) 1/2 11. A molecule is ___. a) a mixture of various components that can vary; b) a combination of many atoms that will have different ratios; c) a combination of one or more atoms that will have a fixed ratio of its components; d) more important in a chemistry class than in a biology class

Links | Back to Top


Chemicool A colorful and easy to use Periodic Table. More information about elements than most of us would want. WebElements Much more detailed Periodic Table. Even more information about those pesky elements! If this site is busy there are a series of mirror sites.

The Periodic Table This site, developed by the Fossil Company, provides a version of the Periodic Table where moving the mouse cursor over an element on the table brings up information about electron shells, mass, etc. A very nice site. James K. Hardy's Chemistry Site (U of Akron). Powerpoint slides (that run over the Web) and a series of animations...a must see! Diamond Images of diamond and graphite crystal structure.

Text 1992, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, by M.J. Farabee, all rights reserved. Use for educational purposes is encouraged. Back to Table of Contents | Continue with Chem-2

Email: mj.farabee@emcmail.maricopa.edu Last modified: Tuesday May 18 2010 The URL of this page is: www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookchem1.html

Potrebbero piacerti anche