1.

2 Characteristics of wastewaters
Municipal wastewater is mainly comprised of water (99.9%) together with relatively small concentrations of suspended and dissolved organic and inorganic solids. Among the organic substances present in sewage are carbohydrates, lignin, fats, soaps, synthetic detergents, proteins and their decomposition products, as well as various natural and synthetic organic chemicals from the process industries. Table 1 shows the levels of the major constituents of strong, medium and weak domestic wastewaters. In arid and semi-arid countries, water use is often fairly low and sewage tends to be very strong, as indicated in Table 2 for Amman, Jordan, where water consumption is 90 l/d per person. Table 1: MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF TYPICAL DOMESTIC WASTEWATER Constituent Concentration, mg/l Strong Medium Weak Total solids 1200 700 350 1 Dissolved solids (TDS) 850 500 250 Suspended solids 350 200 100 Nitrogen (as N) 85 40 20 Phosphorus (as P) 20 10 6 1 Chloride 100 50 30 Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 200 100 50 Grease 150 100 50 2 BOD5 300 200 100 1 The amounts of TDS and chloride should be increased by the concentrations of these constituents in the carriage water.
2

BOD5 is the biochemical oxygen demand at 20C over 5 days and is a measure of the biodegradable organic matter in the wastewater. Source: UN Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (1985) Municipal wastewater also contains a variety of inorganic substances from domestic and industrial sources (see Table 3), including a number of potentially toxic elements such as arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, zinc, etc. Even if toxic materials are not present in concentrations likely to affect humans, they might well be at phytotoxic levels, which would limit their agricultural use. However, from the point of view of health, a very important consideration in agricultural use of wastewater, the contaminants of greatest concern are the pathogenic micro- and macro-organisms. Pathogenic viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminths may be present in raw municipal wastewater at the levels indicated in Table 4 and will survive in the environment for long periods, as summarized in Table 5. Pathogenic bacteria will be present in wastewater at much

lower levels than the coliform group of bacteria, which are much easier to identify and enumerate (as total coliforms/100ml). Escherichia coli are the most widely adopted indicator of faecal pollution and they can also be isolated and identified fairly simply, with their numbers usually being given in the form of faecal coliforms (FC)/100 ml of wastewater. Table 2: AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF WASTEWATER IN AMMAN, JORDAN Constituent Concentration mg/l Dissolved solids (TDS) 1170 Suspended solids 900 Nitrogen (as N) 150 Phosphorus (as P) 25 Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 850 Sulphate (as SO4) 90 BOD5 770 1 COD 1830 1 TOC 220 1 COD is chemical oxygen demand 2 TOC is total organic carbon Source: Al-Salem (1987) Table 3: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WASTEWATERS IN ALEXANDRIA AND GIZA, EGYPT Constituent EC pH SAR Na2+ Ca2+ Mg K+ ClSO42CO3 HCO3NH4+ NO3 P Alexandria Giza Unit Concentration Unit Concentration dS/m 3.10 dS/m 1.7 7.80 7.1 9.30 2.8 me/l 24.60 mg/l 205 me/I 1.50 mg/l 128 me/I 3.20 mg/l 96 me/I 1.80 mg/l 35 me/I 62.00 mg/l 320 me/I 35.00 mg/l 138 me/I 1.10 me/I 6.60 mg/l 2.50 mg/l 10.10 mg/l 8.50

Mn mg/l 0.20 mg/l Cu mg/l 1.10 mg/l Zn mg/l 0.80 mg/l Source: Abdel-Ghaffar et al. (1988)

0.7 0.4 1.4

Table 4: POSSIBLE LEVELS OF PATHOGENS IN WASTEWATER Type of pathogen Viruses: Bacteria: Possible concentration per litre in municipal wastewater1 5000 ? 7000 7000 1000

Enteroviruses2 Pathogenic E. coli3 Salmonella spp. Shigella spp. Vibrio cholerae

Protozoa: Helminths:

Entamoeba histolytica Ascaris Lumbricoides Hookworms4 Schistosoma mansoni Taenia saginata Trichuris trichiura

4500 600 32 1 10 120

Uncertain Based on 100 lpcd of municipal sewage and 90% inactivation of excreted pathogens 2 Includes polio-, echo- and coxsackieviruses 3 Includes enterotoxigenic, enteroinvasive and enteropathogenic E. coli 4 Anglostoma duedenale and Necator americanus
1

Source: Feachem et al. (1983) Table 5: SURVIVAL OF EXCRETED PATHOGENS (at 20-30C) Type of pathogen Survival times in days In faeces, nightsoil and In fresh water and sludge sewage <100 (<20) <120 (<50)

In the soil <100

On crops

Viruses Enteroviruses

<60

(<20) Bacteria Faecal Coliforms <90 (<50) Salmonella spp. <60 (<30) Shigella spp. <30 (<10) Vibrio cholerae <30 (<5) Protozoa <30 (<15) Entamoeba histolytica <30 (<15) cysts Helminths Many Ascaris lunbricoides Months eggs * Figures in brackets show the usual survival time. Source: Feachem et al. (1983) <60 (<30) <60 (<30) <30 (<10) <30 (<10) <30 (<15) <30 (<15) Many Months <70 (<20) <70 (<20) <20 (<10) <20 (<10) <20 (<10)

(<15)* <30 (<15) <30 (<15) <10 (<5) < 5 (<2) <10 (< 2) <10 (< 2)

Many <60 (<30) Months

http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0551E/t0551e03.htm#1.2%20characteristics%20of%20wastewaters

What is Wastewater?
Wastewater is sewage, stormwater, and water that has been used for various purposes around the community. Unless properly treated, wastewater can harm public health and the environment. Most communities generate wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources Residential wastewater Although the word sewage usually brings toilets to mind, it actually is used to describe all types of wastewater generated from every room in a house. In the U.S., sewage varies regionally and from home to home based on such factors as the number and type of water-using fixtures and appliances, the number of occupants, their ages, and even their habits, such as the types of foods they eat. However, when compared to the variety of wastewater flows generated by different nonresidential sources, household water shares many similar characteristics overall. Table 1 lists the composition of typical residential untreated wastewater. There are two types of domestic sewage: blackwater (wastewater from toilets) and graywater (wastewater from all sources except toilets). Blackwater and graywater have different characteristics, but both contain pollutants and disease-causing agents that require treatment. Some areas in the U.S., including Arizona (Direct Reuse of Reclaimed Water Rule, effective 01/16/01), permit the use of innovative systems that safely recycle household graywater for reuse in toilets or for irrigation to conserve water and reduce the flow to treatment systems. Nonresidential wastewater Nonresidential wastewater in small communities is generated by such diverse sources as offices, businesses, department stores, restaurants, schools, hospitals, farms, manufacturers, and other commercial, industrial, and institutional entities. Stormwater is a nonresidential source and

carries trash and other pollutants from streets, as well as pesticides and fertilizers from yards and fields. Because of the variety of nonresidential wastewater characteristics, communities need to assess each source individually or compare similar types of nonresidential sources to ensure that adequate treatment is provided. For example, public restrooms may generate wastewater with some characteristics similar to sewage, but usually at higher volumes and at different peak hours. The volume and pattern of wastewater flows from rental properties, hotels, and recreation areas often vary seasonally as well. Laundaries differ from many other nonresidential sources because they produce high volumes of wastewater containing lint fibers. Restaurants typically generate a lot of oil and grease. It may be necessary to provide pretreatment of oil and grease from restaurants or to collect it prior to treatment, for example, by adding grease traps to septic tanks. Wastewater from some nonresidential sources also may require additional treatment steps. For example, stormwater should be collected separately to prevent the flooding of treatment plants during wet weather. Trash and other large solids from storm sewers often are removed by screens. In addition, many industries produce wastewater high in chemical and biological pollutants that can overburden onsite and community systems. Dairy farms and breweries are good examples -communities may require these types of nonresidential sources to provide their own treatment or preliminary treatment to protect community systems and public health.

What is in Wastewater?
Wastewater is mostly water by weight. Other materials make up only a small portion of wastewater, but can be present in large enough quantities to endanger public health and the environment. Because practically anything that can be flushed down a toilet, drain, or sewer can be found in wastewater, even household sewage contains many potential pollutants. The wastewater components that most wastewater facilities are designed to remove are suspended solids, biodegradable organics, and pathogenic organisms. Inorganics Inorganic minerals, metals, and compounds, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc are common in wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources. They can originate from a variety of sources in the community including industrial and commercial sources, stormwater, and inflow and infiltration from cracked pipes and leaky manhole covers. Most inorganic substances are relatively stable and cannot be broken down easily by organisms in wastewater. Large amounts of many inorganic substances can contaminate soil and water. Some are toxic to animals and humans and may accumulate in the environment. For this reason, extra treatment steps are often required to remove inorganic materials from industrial wastewater sources. Heavy metals, for example, which are discharged with many types of industrial wastewaters, are

difficult to remove by conventional treatment methods. Although acute poisonings from heavy metals in drinking water are rare in the U.S., potential long-term health effects of ingesting small amounts of some inorganic substances over an extended period of time are possible. Inorganic ions in solution contribute to the conductivity (e.g., the ability to carry an electrical current) of the wastewater. The conductivity of domestic wastewater may be near that of the local water supply, although not necessarily. Backwash from water softeners contains high calcium chloride concentrations which will increase the conductivity. Nutrients Wastewater often contains large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in the form of nitrate and phosphate, respectively -- nutrients that promote plant growth. Organisms only require small amounts of nutrients in biological treatment, so there normally is an excess of available nutrients in treated wastewater. In severe cases, excess nitrogen and phosphorous can result in eutrophication, the nutrient enrichment of water bodies causing excessive growth of aquatic plants (algae, cyanobacteria, rooted aquatic vegetation, duckweed). The dissolved oxygen in the water body becomes depleted when the aquatic plants die, fall to the bottom, and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria. The oxygen depletion can reduce the populations of indigenous fish and other oxygen-consuming organisms. Nutrients from wastewater have also been linked to ocean "red tides" that poison fish and cause illness in humans. Nitrogen in drinking water may contribute to miscarriages and is the cause of a serious illness in infants called methemoglobinemia or "blue baby syndrome."

nitrogen Nitrogen forms that are important in wastewater include organic nitrogen, nitrate (NO3-), nitrite (NO2-), ammonia (NH4+), and nitrogen gas (N2). All of these forms are biochemically interconvertible. o organic nitrogen is nitrogen bound to carbon. It is the principle nitrogen constituent in feces. Organic nitrogen also includes urea (H2NCONH2) which is the principal compound in urine. Organic nitrogen is not readily available to plants; it needs bacterial conversion to nitrate before it is available for plants. o nitrate is the the most oxidized species of nitrogen. Nitrate is readily available to plants and is considered the limiting nutrient (the nutrient that keeps the biotic system in balance) for primary productivity in salt waters, an important consideration in the design of onsite systems along coastal areas. Because nitrate, in solution, is a negative ion, it will not bind to soil which is also negatively charged. Therefore, nitrate passes through soil to groundwater which is why regulatory agencies may be requiring some onsite systems to provide nitrogen reduction in the effluent. Nitrate is also the species of nitrogen for which a limit has been set for drinking water (10 mg/L) due to blue baby syndrome. o nitrite is not usually observed in water sources because it is readily converted to nitrate by bacterial processes; however, it is extremely toxic to most fish and other aquatic species. Also, nitrites are oxidized by chlorine and can, therefore, increase the chlorine dosage requirements and the cost of disinfection. + o ammonia exists in water as either the ammonium ion (NH4 ) or ammonia gas (NH3), depending on the pH of the water. At pH levels above 9.3, ammonia gas is the predominate form, and at pH levels below 9.3, the ammonium ion is the predominant

form. Ammonia is usually present in surface water and is due to the chemical oxidation of urea and anerobic processes. Ammonia, a positive ion, binds to soil which is negatively charged; therefore, ammonia is not readily leached from the soil. Plants can readily use the ammonia form of nitrogen.

phosphorus Phosphorus also exists in wastewater in many forms and includes soluable orthophosphate ion (PO4-3), organically-bound phosphate, and other phosphorus/oxygen forms. Most of the organically-bound phophate in wastewater is from excretia and food residue. Some cleaning agents still contain phosphate, although the practice of adding phosphate to cleaning agents has been vastly reduced since the 1980s. Phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient in freshwater surface waters and is the principal cause of eutrophication in surface water bodies. However, phosphate rapidly combines with other naturally-occuring chemicals, such as limestone, to form calcium phosphate. If a subsurface effluent distribution sytem is close to a sensitive water body, limestone added to the soil absorption system can stop the phosphate from migrating to the water body (Burks and Minnis, 1994).

Oil and grease Oil and grease is the term given to the combination of fats, oils, waxes, and other related constituents found in wastewater. Fatty organic materials from animals, vegetables, and petroleum are not quickly broken down by bacteria and can cause pollution in receiving environments. When large amounts of oils and greases are discharged to receiving waters from community systems, they increase BOD levels, and they may float to the surface and harden, causing aesthetically unpleasing conditions. They also can trap trash, plants, and other materials causing foul odors and attracting flies and mosquitoes and other disease vectors. In some cases, too much oil and grease causes septic conditions in ponds and lakes by preventing oxygen from the atmosphere from reaching the water. If the wastewater is warm and greasy, the grease cannot quickly separate from the water, so the grease flows through the septic tank and into the soil where it solidifies upon cooling. The grease can clog the gravel and soil pores ruining the drainage system. Excessive grease also adds to the septic tank scum layer, requiring more frequent tank pumping. Both possibilities can result in significant costs to homeowners and are the reasons why grease traps are manditory for restaurants and food service facilities. Petroleum-based waste oils used for motors and industry are considered hazardous waste and should be collected and disposed of separately from wastewater. Organic Matter Organic materials are found everywhere in the environment. They are composed of the carbonbased chemicals that are the building blocks of most living things. Organic materials in wastewater originate from plants, animals, or synthetic organic compounds, and enter wastewater in human wastes, paper products, detergents, cosmetics, foods, and from agricultural, commercial, and industrial sources. Organic compounds normally are some combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements. Many organics are proteins, carbohydrates, or fats and are biodegradable, which means they can be consumed and broken

down by organisms. However, even biodegradable materials can cause pollution. In fact, too much organic matter in wastewater can be devastating to receiving waters. Large amounts of biodegradable materials are dangerous to lakes, streams, and oceans because organisms use dissolved oxygen in the water to break down the wastes. This can reduce or deplete the supply of oxygen in the water needed by aquatic life, resulting in fish kills, odors, and overall degradation of water quality. The amount of oxygen organisms need to break down wastes in wastewater is referred to as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and is one of the measurements used to assess overall wastewater strength. Some organic compounds are more stable than others and cannot be quickly broken down by organisms, posing an additional challenge for treatment. This is true of many synthetic organic compounds developed for agriculture and industry. In addition, certain synthetic organics are highly toxic. Insesticides and herbicides are toxic to humans, fish, and aquatic plants and often are disposed of improperly in drains or carried in stormwater. In receiving waters, they kill or contaminate fish, making them unfit to eat. They also can damage processes in treatment plants. Benzene and toluene are two toxic organic compounds found in some solvents, pesticides, and other products. New synthetic organic compounds are being developed all the time, which can complicate treatment efforts. Pathogens Many disease-causing viruses, parasites, and bacteria also are present in wastewater and enter from almost anywhere in the community. These pathogens often originate from people and animals who are infected with or are carriers of a disease. For example, graywater and blackwater from typical homes contain enough pathogens to pose a risk to public health. Other likely sources in communities include hospitals, schools, farms, and food processing plants. Some illnesses from wastewater-related sources are relatively common. Gastroenteritis can result from a variety of pathogens in wastewater, and cases of illnesses caused by the parasitic protozoa Giardia lambia and Cryptosporidium are not unusual in the U.S. Other important wastewaterrelated diseases include hepatitis A, typhoid, polio, cholera, and dysentery. Outbreaks of these diseases can occur as a result of drinking water from wells polluted by wastewater, eating contaminated fish, or recreational activities in polluted waters. Some illnesses can be spread by animals and insects that come in contact with wastewater. Even municipal drinking water sources are not completely immune to health risks from wastewater pathogens. Drinking water treatment efforts can become over-whelmed when water resources are heavily polluted by wastewater. For this reason, wastewater treatment is as important to public health as drinking water treatment. For a detailed discussion of the health risks associated with wastewater, refer to the Summer 1996 issue (vol. 7, no. 3) of Pipeline, National Small Flows Clearinghouse, 800-624-8301, Item#SFPLNL06. Solids Solid materials in wastewater can consist of organic and/or inorganic materials and organisms. The solids must be significantly reduced by treatment or they can increase BOD levels when discharged to receiving waters and provide places for microorganisms to escape disinfection. They also can clog soil absorption fields in onsite systems. The amount of solids in the

wastewater affects the septic tank size and the frequency for pumping out the septic tank. Proper solids analysis is important for the control of biological and physical wastewater treatment processes and assess compliance with effluent quality limits. total solids The term applied to the residue left after evaporation; it includes the total suspended soilds and total dissolved solids. suspended solids The portion of wastewater that, when passed through a filter, remains on the filter. Materials that resist settling may remain suspended in wastewater. Suspended solids in wastewater must be treated, or they will clog soil absorption systems or reduce the effectiveness of disinfection systems. dissolved solids The portion of wastewater that, when passed through a filter, does not remain on the filter. Small particles of certain wastewater materials can dissolve like salt in water. Some dissolved materials are consumed by microorganisms in wastewater, but others, such as heavy metals, are difficult to remove by conventional treatment. Excessive amounts of dissolved solids in wastewater can have adverse effects on the environment. setteable solids Certain substances, such as sand, grit, and heavier organic and inorganic materials, settle out from the rest of the wastewater stream during the preliminary stages of treatment. On the bottom of settling tanks and ponds, organic material makes up a biologically active layer of sludge that aids in treatment. Knowing the amount of setteable solids in the wastewater provides information on how much sludge will be created in the septic tank. fixed solids The term applied for the residue (total, suspended, or dissolved) that is left after igniting a dried sample. The weight loss on ignition is called volatile solids. Each type of solids is processed differently, so it is essential to understand the distinction amongst the various types. Setteable and some suspended solids are usually removed by filtration or settling. Other suspended solids and dissolved solids are treated by biological processes or chemical precipitation. Some dissolved solids may pass through an onsite wastewater treatment system intact. Dissolved solids such as metals and chloride can only be removed by distillation or reverse osmosis.

Table 1. Composition of Typical Residential Untreated Wastewater.

Source: Burks, B.D. and M.M. Minnis. 1994. Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems. Madison, WI: Hogarth House, Ltd. Constituent Unit Range Typical

Total Solids

mg/L

3001200 250850 150550 100300 100400 30100 70300 50200 100400 100400 2001,000

700

Dissolved

mg/L

500

Fixed

mg/L

150

Volatile

mg/L

150

Suspended

mg/L

220

Fixed

mg/L

70

Volatile

mg/L

150

Setteable

mg/L

100

BOD5

mg/L

250

TOC

mg/L

250

COD

mg/L

500

Total Nitrogen Organic

mg/L

15-90

40

mg/L

5-40

25

Ammonia Nitrite Nitrate Total Phosphorous Organic Inorganic Chloride Sulfate

mg/L mg/L mg/L

10-50 0 0

25 0 0

mg/L

5-20

12

mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L

1-5 5-15 30-85 20-60 50200 50150 106108 100400

2 10 50 15

Alkalinity

mg/L

100

Grease

mg/L

100

Total Coliform

colonies/100 mL

107

VOCs

g/L

250

http://www.cefns.nau.edu/Projects/WDP/resources/Characteristics.htm#in

LABORATORY PROCEDURES FOR MICROORGANISMS Appendix

M/1998/3.00 Appendix 5.08

Home Description

PRESERVATION OF BACTERIA BY FREEZE-DRYING (1) INTRODUCTION In the freeze-drying process water is removed from the frozen sample. Bacteria are

Search suspended in a suitable protective medium, frozen and exposed to a vacuum. After Catalogues drying the bacteria are stored under vacuum in glass vials.

Browse In M/1998/3.00 Appendix 5.08.1 a flow chart of the freeze-drying procedure is shown. For catalogues recording each step of the preservation procedure and viability checks protocol form
M/1998/3.00 Appendix 5.08.2 has to be used.

Collections PROCEDURE Guidelines Search Web Site Contacts FAQ Site Map Mirrors
2. Suspending medium The suspension media used for freeze-drying are available in the collections. Routinely, 10% skim milk (Difco 0032-17) or 10% skim milk with 5% sodium glutamate may be used. 3. Preparation of cultures Cultures are grown aerobically or anaerobically in culture media as listed in the Catalogue of Strains or in the Accession Form and usually harvested during active growth. Sporeformers may require special harvesting times. Aerobic bacteria are grown on agar slants or plates or in liquid culture and are harvested by washing off with suspension medium or by 1. Preparation of vials Flat bottomed glass vials (43/44 x 11 mm or 43 x 10 mm) are washed with a detergent, then rinsed in tap water and finally in purified water (ion exchange). The vials are plugged (cotton wool plugs for dentists, 40 mm 1 2 in length; size no. 1 for 43 mm x 10 mm vials, size no. 2 for 44 mm x 11 mm vials) and are sterilized at 121C for 20 minutes together with a 3 sterilization control indicator (ATI Steam-Clox) . The sterile vials are stored at room temperature. Before use the vials are labelled with the 4 appropriate collection number and the month and year of preservation.
1 Dental rolls Art. No. 100001, Roeko, D-89122 Langenau 2 Celluron Zahnwatterollen, Paul Hartmann AG, D-89522 Heidenheim 3 Biologische Arbeitsgemeinschaft GmbH, D-35423 Lich 4 The number may be replaced by the strain designation

centrifugation. Anaerobic bacteria may be grown in screw-capped bottles, serum bottles or tubes (Balch type), Hungate tubes or Bellco Anaerobic Culture Tubes with butyl stoppers (18 x 124 for roll tubes, 25 x 142 for liquid cultures) under anaerobic conditions or on plates in special incubation bags with an oxygen binding system (Merck Anaerocult IS). Cultures are harvested under air by centrifugation in screw- capped tubes or by washing off plates with suspension medium. 4. Filling vials The harvested culture is mixed with suspension medium. The vials, as prepared above, are filled with 0.2 ml of cell suspension. Filling is carried out under aerobic conditions using a calibrated Pasteur pipette or an Eppendorf Multipette 4780 with 2.5 ml Combitip. An equal volume is used to inoculate a fresh culture tube for viability determination. 5. Freezing of suspensions and primary drying 5.1 About 30 min before use, close the air-admittance and condenser drain valve of the freeze-drying machine and turn on the refrigerator and the vacuum pump. Allow the condenser (cold trap) to cool down to -40C to -50C and allow the pump to warm up for about 30 min. 5.2 Freeze the vials at -20C for 30 min. 5.3 Transfer the vials to the drying chamber of the freeze-drying machine and apply vacuum. Continue primary freeze-drying overnight. The vacuum has dropped to 0.1 mbar or less. Note: Primary drying is not complete if not all ice has disappeared or if the vials removed from the chamber are still cold. This material will shrink soon after removal from the drying chamber and should be discarded. 5.4 Close the valve connection with the vacuum pump and allow air to enter slowly the drying chamber via the air admittance valve. With anaerobes, the system may be flooded with nitrogen gas. 5.5 Remove the vials from the drying chamber. 6. Secondary drying 6.1 The projecting parts of the cotton-wool plugs of the vials are cut off. The vials are placed in outer glass tubes containing silica. 6.2 To protect the cotton wool from heat during constriction, the vials are covered with glass wool slightly compressed to a layer 1-2 cm deep. The outer tubes are constricted just above the glass wool. 6.3 When cool the vials are attached to the manifold of the freeze-drying

machine for secondary drying at least for 2 hours or overnight. 6.4 At a vacuum of at least 0.1 mbar, the tubes are flame-sealed at the middle of the constriction. 6.5 The ampoules are stored at +8C or below in the dark. 7. Viability testing The viability or the colony forming units of the strain are tested before and after the preservation step and, depending from the strain, in certain intervals during the storage period. For documentation of viability form M/1998/3.00 Appendix 5.08.2 is used.

Guidelines prepared for CABRI by DSMZ, CBS and BCCM, 17 May 1998 Page layout by CERDIC Copyright CABRI, 1998

The CABRI Consortium 1999-2012. This work cannot be reproduced in whole or in part without the express written permission of the CABRI consortium. Site maintained by Paolo Romano. Last revised on January 2012.

http://www.cabri.org/guidelines/micro-organisms/M300Ap508.html

Aerobic organism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria can be identified by growing them in a liquid culture: 1: Obligate aerobic bacteria gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorb maximal amount of oxygen. 2: Obligate anaerobic bacteria gather at the bottom to avoid oxygen. 3: Facultative bacteria gather mostly at the top, since aerobic respiration is the most beneficial one; but as lack of oxygen does not hurt them, they can be found all along the test tube. 4: Microaerophiles gather at the upper part of the test tube but not at the top. They require oxygen but at a low concentration. 5: Aerotolerant bacteria are not affected at all by oxygen, and they are evenly spread along the test tube.

An aerobic organism or aerobe is an organism that can survive and grow in an oxygenated environment.[1] Facultative anaerobes grow and survive in an oxygenated environment and so do aerotolerant anaerobes.

Contents

1 Types 2 Glucose 3 Diversity 4 References 5 See also

Types

Obligate aerobes require oxygen for aerobic cellular respiration. In a process known as cellular respiration, these organisms use oxygen to oxidize substrates (for example sugars and fats) in order to obtain energy. Facultative anaerobes can use oxygen, but also have anaerobic methods of energy production. Microaerophiles are organisms that may use oxygen, but only at low concentrations. Aerotolerant organisms can survive in the presence of oxygen, but they are anaerobic because they do not use it as a terminal electron acceptor.

Glucose
A good example would be the oxidation of glucose (a monosaccharide) in aerobic respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 38 ADP + 38 phosphate 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP

Notice that oxygen is used during the oxidation of glucose and water is produced. This equation is a summary of what actually happens in three series of biochemical reactions: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Diversity
Almost all animals, most fungi, and several bacteria are obligate aerobes, which require oxygen. Most anaerobic organisms are bacteria.[clarification needed] Being an obligate aerobe, although advantageous from the energetical point of view, also means obligatory exposure to high levels of oxidative stress. Yeast is an example of a facultative anaerobe, which can develop in the presence of oxygen but does not require it. Individual human cells are also facultative anaerobes: they switch to lactic acid fermentation if oxygen is not available. However, for the whole organism this cannot be sustained for long, and humans are therefore obligate aerobes.

References
1. ^ "aerobe" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary

See also
Difference between Aerobic & Anaerobic Bacteria

Microbes, Their Metabolism and Relationship with Oxygen

Jul 15, 2009 Tami Port

2 Comments Join the Conversation

Clostridium botulinum and Obligate Anaerobe - Public Health Image Ligrary #1979 Oxygen is required for cells to break down organic molecules in the most energy-efficient way. How do microbes that live under conditions of low or no O2 metabolize food?

Although breathing is essential to life, the specific role that oxygen plays in maintaining life is not easily understood. Basically, in organisms that are able to use it, oxygen allows food molecules to be completely broken down, so that every possible bit of energy is extracted for use in running the cell; cells ranging from those that make up to human body to tiny single-celled bacteria.
Aerobes and Oxygen Detoxification

Organisms that are able to use O2 for metabolism are called aerobes. Oxygen can actually be rather toxic, and for a cell to be able to use molecular oxygen, it must be able to manufacture specific enzymes that detoxify oxygen waste products. Aerobes produce catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) for this purpose.
Metabolism of Anaerobic Microbes

There are many types of microbes (bacteria and fungi) that are able live in the absence of oxygen. These organisms either do not have the enzymes required to detoxify oxygen waste, or they are not able to make enough of these enzymes to be able to live at normal levels of atmospheric oxygen. These microbes are called anaerobes. They are still able to break down food molecules in the absence of O2, but cannot do so as efficiently as aerobes.

Read more at Suite101: Difference between Aerobic & Anaerobic Bacteria: Microbes, Their Metabolism and Relationship with Oxygen | Suite101.com http://suite101.com/article/difference-between-aerobic-anaerobic-bacteria-a132294#ixzz22BIEbEWM

----------------

Aerobic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, cultured on an agar plate for drug sensitivity test in an anaerobic environment. The toxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus causes the illness "staphylococcal intoxication". Symptoms of this intoxication include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Gram-Positive Bacterial Infections, Staphylococcal Infections Picture & text from CDC/PHIL. For more information see Staph Infection Pictures from CDC

What is freeze-dried bacteria?

Im trying to make yogurt and it asks for 2 tablespoons freeze-dried bacteria.

4 years ago Report Abuse

zircaliu...

Best Answer - Chosen by Asker

As you probably know, yogurt is made by the action of bacteria on milk. Freeze-drying is a convenient way to preserve bacteria for future use. When water and nutrients are added, the bacteria will start to grow (and turn your milk into yogurt). If you want to find them, you might want to look at your local health foods store.