Basic Stuffs for Radio Communication Engineers

Functions (Plot following functions!)

1-dimensional functions

f ( x) = 10 , f ( x) = x 2 , x 2 + 3, 2 x + 5 , f (t ) = 30 cos(2 t ) f (t ) = 30 cos(120 t ) ,
f (t ) = 30 cos(120 t + ) , f (t ) = 30 cos(120 t + ) , 3

Ex ( z ) = 10e j z , Ex ( z ) = 10e 2-dimensional functions

i ( z + ) 2

, Ex ( z ) = 10e j 2 z Ex ( z ) = 10e

j z 2

f ( x, y ) = 5 , f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 , f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 + 5 , f ( x, y ) = x + 2 y , v( z , t ) = 5cos(10 t z ) 3-dimesional functions f ( x, y , z ) = 3 , f ( x , y , z ) = 3 x , f ( x , y , z ) = 3 y , f ( x , y , z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , f ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 , f ( , , z ) = 2 cos

Derivatives

-ordinary() df ( x) f ( x + x) f ( x) f ( x + x) f ( x) = lim (x small) x 0 x x dx -partial()

f ( x, y ) f ( x + x, y ) f ( x, y ) = lim x 0 x x f ( x, y ) f ( x, y + y ) f ( x, y ) = lim y 0 y y df of the following functions using the dx definitions mentioned above. What is the meaning of them? Prob) Obtain the ordinary derivatives

f ( x) = 10 , f ( x) = x 2 , x 2 + 3, 2 x + 5 , f ( x) = 5 x 4 + 3x3 2 x 2 2 x + 5 , f (t ) = 30 cos(2 t ) f (t ) = 30 cos(120 t ) , f (t ) = 30 cos(120 t + ) , f (t ) = 30 cos(120 t + ) , 3

f (t ) = 30sin(120 t ) , f (t ) = 30sin(120 t + ) , f (t ) = 30sin(120 t + ) , 3 3 x 2 + 2 x +1 f ( x) = e Prob) Obtain the partial derivatives of the functions V ( x) = x 2 (V) V ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 (V) V ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 (V) ( x, y, z ) = 1 + 2 x + 3 y + 4 z + 2 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 4 z 2 + 2 xy + 3 yz + 4 zx(V ) with units. What is the meaning of them 2 2 2 2 2 2 , , , , , , , , x y z x 2 y 2 z 2 xy yz zx
Integration

f ( x)dx (area),

f ( x, y )dxdy (volume)

Prob) Plot the integrand, obtain the values of the integrations, and express their meanings.

(2 x + 3)dx ,
sin 2 d ,

(4 x 2 )dx ,

( x 1)( x 3)dx ,

10sin d

10sin d ,

1 2

sin 2 d ,

1 2

cos 2 d ,

2 3

( x 2 + y 2 )dxdy

Dot() and cross product() of vectors

Dot product

Ai B = AB cos( ) (scalar)

A
B cos

A cos

Ai B = ( A cos ) B = A( B cos ) When = 0 , Ai B = AB . When = 90 , Ai B = 0 . When = 180 , Ai B = AB .

A = a1 ax + a2 a y + a3 az , B = b1 ax + b2 a y + b3 az Unit vector a = A A B B = , b= = | A| A |B| B

Ai B = AB cos( ) = (a1 ax + a2 a y + a3 az )i(b1 ax + b2 a y + b3 ) = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 (scalar)

Ai A =| A || A | cos(0) =| A |2 = A2 , Ai( A) =| A || A | cos(180) =| A |2 (1) = A2

Aib = Ai1cos( ) = A cos( ) (projection of A on B or projection of A on b )

b
Aib

= Aib = A 1 cos = A cos

B ia = Bi1cos( ) = B cos( ) (projection of B on A or projection of A on b )

Aiax = a1 , Aia y = a2 , Aiaz = a3

Ex) A = ax + 2a y 3az , B = ax + a y , b = (ax + a y ) / 2 projection of A on B = Aib = (ax + 2a y 3az )i

projection of A on ax = Aiax = 1 projection of A on a y = Aia y = 2 projection of A on az = Aiaz = 3
ax iax = ax = 1 , a y ia y = 1 , az iaz = 1
2

ax + a y 2

3 3 2 = 2 2

ax i a y = 0 , a y i az = 0 , az i ax = 0

Cross Product
A B = an AB sin( ) ( an is the unit vector following the right hand rule.)

A B = an AB sin

an

If A = a1 ax + a2 a y + a3 az and B = b1 ax + b2 a y + b3 az , A B = (a1 ax + a2 a y + a3 az ) (b1 ax + b2 a y + b3 az ) = ax (a2b3 a3b2 ) + a y (a3b1 a1b3 ) + az (a1b2 a2b1 )

ax = a1 b1 ay a2 b2 az a3 b3

an =

A B | A B |

ax a y = 1 , a y az = 1 , az ax = 1
ax ax = 0 , a y a y = 0 , az az = 0

Prob) Given that A = ax 2a y + 3az and B = ax a y , obtain the followings and discuss the meaning of them with a simple sketch.. a , a ia , b , bib , Ai B , B i A , A B , B A , Ai A , Ai( A) , Aia , Aib , Bib ( projection of A on B ), Bia ( projection of B on A ), a n , Angle between A and B

Field()

Scalar field() : gives a number for each point in space

Prob) Draw the following scalar fields. h ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 , T ( x , y , z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 , T ( , , z ) = 10

, V (r ) =

10 r

Vector field() : gives a vector for each point in space

A( x, y, z ) = Ax ( x, y, z )ax + Ay ( x, y, z )a y + Az ( x, y, z )az Prob) Draw the following vector fields.
A( x, y, z ) = 3ax , A( x, y, z ) = xax , A( x, y, z ) = 2 xa y , A( x, y, z ) = 3 xaz ,

F ( x, y ) = xax + ya y , G ( x, y ) =

yax + xa y
2 2

x +y 10 10 10 10 H ( , , z ) = a , E (r , , ) = ar , E (r , , ) = a , H (r , , ) = a r r r

, A( x, y, z ) = 3 xyzax + 2 x 2 ya y z 2 az ,

Vector calculus
(differential displacement)

dl = dxax + dya y + dzaz , dl = d a + d a + dzaz , dl = drar + rd a + r sin d a (m)

(differential surface vector)

ds = dydzax , dzdxa y , dxdyaz ,

ds = ( d )dza , dzd a , ( d )d az ,
ds = (rd )(r sin d )ar , (r sin d )(dr )a , dr (rd )a
(differential volume)

dv = dxdydz , d ( d )dz ( = d d dz ), dr (rd )(r sin d ) ( = r 2 sin drd d )

Need to understand a surface S),

Aidl (circulation around l ),

l

Aids (net outward flux of A from

v dv (volume integral of the scalar field v over the volume V)

Ex) A magnetic flux density is given by 2 2 2 B ( x, y, z ) = 2( x + y )ax + 3( x + y )a y + 3 xyaz (Wb / m ) . Determine the total magnetic
z

2m 2m
x

flux flowing out of the rectangular surface.

Sol) B ( x, y , z = 0) = 2( x + y ) ax + 3( x + y ) a y + 3 xyaz (Wb / m ) , ds = dxdyaz ,
2 2 2

x2 y 2 = B( x, y, z = 0)ids = 3 xdx ydy =3 = 12(Wb) 0 0 S 2 0 2 0 Prob) When the surface is given by y=0( 0 x 2 , 0 z 2 ), determine the total magnetic flux(Wb) flowing out of the surface in y direction.
2 2

Gradient() : The gradient of a scalar field gives a vector field. Gradient f = f ( x, y, z ) = f f f ax + a y + az (vector field) x y z

- f ( x ) =

df ax dx f ( x) = x 2 f = 2 xax (What does this mean?) f f ax + a y x y

- f ( x , y ) =

f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 f = 2 xax + 2 ya y (What does this mean?) - f ( x , y , z ) = f f f ax + a y + az x y z

V ( x, y, z ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 (Volts ) V ( x, y, z ) = 2 xax + 2 ya y + 2 zaz (V / m) (What does this mean?) V (r ) = 10 10 (V ) V (r ) = 2 ar (V / m) (What does this mean?) r r

Divergence() Electric flux density() D ( x, y, z ) = Dx ( x, y, z )ax + Dy ( x, y, z )a y + Dz ( x, y, z )az ( Coul / m2 ) (Vector field) Divergence D = lim

Dids (Coul )

v(m3 ) = ( ax + a y + az )i( Dx ax + Dy a y + Dz az ) = i D(Coul / m3 ) (Scalar x y z

v 0

Dx Dy Dz + + x y z

field)

Curl()
H ( x, y, z ) = H x ( x, y, z )ax + H y ( x, y, z )a y + H z ( x, y, z )az (A/m)

Curl H = an lim

H idl ( A)

s (m 2 ) = ( ax + a y + az ) ( H x ax + H y a y + H z az ) = H ( A / m 2 ) (Vector field) x y z
s 0

= ax (

H H H z H x H z H y ) + ay ( x ) + az ( y ) y z z x x y

Ex) A( x, y, z ) = ax + 2a y
i A = 0(/ m3 ) A = 0(/ m 2 )
A( x, y, z ) = 2 xax

i A = 2(/ m3 ) A = 0(/ m 2 )

A( x, y, z ) = 10 x 2 ax

i A = 20 x(/ m3 ) A = 0(/ m 2 )

A( x, y, z ) = 3 xa y
i A = 0(/ m3 )
A = 3az (/ m 2 )

Ex) Given that V ( x, y, z ) = 2 xyz + ( x3 + y 2 + z ) + 5 (V), D( x, y, z ) = 2 xyzax + 3( x + y )a y + 4 zaz (Coul/ m 2 ), and H ( x, y, z ) = xyzax + 3( x + y )a y + 5az (A/m), obtain the followings and say what are their meanings. V |x =1, y =0, z =0 , i D |x =0, y =1, z =0 , H |x =0, y =0, z =1 Solution ) V ( x, y, z ) = (2 yz + 3 x 2 )ax + (2 xz + 2 y )a y + (2 xy + 1)az (V / m)
V ( x, y, z ) |x =1, y =0, z =0 = 3ax + az (gives a voltage change of 10 V per unit length (m) in the
direction of 3ax + az )

i D( x, y, z ) = 2 yz + 3 + 4(Coul / m3 ) i D( x, y, z ) |x =0, y =1, z =0 = 7(Coul / m3 ) (gives a divergence of 7 Couls per unit volume ( m3 ))
H y H x H H z H y H z ) + ay ( x ) + az ( ) = a y ( xy ) + az (3 xz )( A / m 2 ) y z z x x y 2 2 H ( x, y, z ) |x = 0, y = 0, z =1 = 3az ( A / m ) (gives a circulation of 3A per unit area ( m ) with a H ( x, y , z ) = a x (
reference direction az )

Prob) Given that V ( x, y, z ) = x 2 y + xyz (Volts) , D ( x, y, z ) = 2 xyzax + 3cos( x + y )a y + 4e2 z az (Coul/ m 2 ) and H ( x, y, z ) = 2 xyzax + 3cos( x + y )a y + 4e2 z az (A/m), obtain the followings and get the meaning of them.
V , i D , H

Prob) Determine the divergence and curl of the following vector fields.

P ( x, y, z ) = x 2 yzax + xzaz

Q( , , z ) = sin a + 2 za + z cos az

Complex numbers() j 2 = 1

z = a + jb = re j = r | z |= Magnitude( z ) = r = a 2 + b 2 , Phase( z ) = = Angle(a, b) z = re j = (r cos ) + j (r sin ) = r (cos + j sin ) z * = a jb = re j = r ( ) , ( z * )* = z Re( z ) = Re( z * ) = a , Im( z ) = b , Im( z * ) = b z1 = a1 + jb1 , z2 = a2 + jb2 z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2 ) + j (b1 + b2 ) z1 z2 = (a1 a2 ) + j (b1 b2 ) z1 = r1e j1 , z2 = r2 e j2 z1 z2 = r1e j1 r2e j2 = r1r2e j (1 +2 )
z1n = (r1e j1 ) n = r1n e jn1

z1 r1e j1 r1 j (1 2 ) = = e z2 r2 e j2 r2

z3 = z1 z 2

r1r2
1 + 2

r2

z2

2 r1

z1

z3 z3 = z2 = z2 z1 z1 z3 = z1 z2

zz * = re j re j = r 2 =| z |2 =| z * |2

z z * = j 2b

r
r

z = a + jb

z + z * = 2a

z * = a jb

zz * =| z |2 = r 2

z1 z2* = r1e j1 r2 e j2 = r1r2 e j (1 2 ) = r1r2 [cos(1 2 ) + j sin(1 2 )] Ex) z1 = 5 + j 5 3 = 10e 3 , z2 = 1 + j 3 = 2e

j

| z1 |= 10 , Phase( z1 ) = z1* = 5 j 5 3 = 10e

j

3
3

, z2* = 1 j 3 = 2e

Re( z1 ) = Re( z1* ) = 5 , Im( z1 ) = 5 3 , Im( z1* ) = 5 3 z1 z2 = 10e 3 2e

2
j j

= 20e
2
j

= j 20 , z2 z2 * =| z2 |2 = 102
5 1
j

z1 = (10e ) = 10 e
3 2
j

2 3

, z = (10e ) = 10 e
3 5 5
j

5 3

z1 z2* = 10e 3 2e
j

= 20e

j z1 10e 3 5 5 = = 5e 6 = 3+ j j z2 2 2 2e 6
1 1 j 2 j i j 5 + j 5 3 = 10e 3 = 10 2 e 2 3 = 10e 6 1

j = e , 1 = e
2

j=e

3 2

=e

Prob) Calculate the followings j (3 j 4)* z1 = (1 + j 6)(2 + j ) 2

z2 =

1+ j 4 j8
2 3

1+ j z3 = j 2 j z4 = 630 + j 5 3 + e j 45 Ans) z1 = 0.1644 9.46 , z2 = 0.397654.2 z3 = 0.24 + j 0.32 , z4 = 2.903 + j8.707

Instantaneous and phasor forms, power (Low-frequency circuit)

v(t ) = Vm cos( wt + V ) (instantaneous form) V = Vm e jV (phasor form)

v(t ) = Vm cos(t + V )

Im
V = Vm e jV

Vm

3 2

V
Re

v(t ) = Vm cos(t + 0)

Im
V = Vm e j 0

3 2

Re

v(t ) = Vm cos(t + ) 2

Im

Vm V = Vm e

3 2

Re

v(t ) = Vm cos(t + ) = Vm cos(t )

Im

3 2

V = Vm e j = Vm

Re

v(t ) = Vm cos(t +

3 ) = Vm cos(t ) 2 2

V = Vm e

3 2

= Vm e

How to recover the instantaneous form v(t ) from the phasor form V : v(t ) = Re(Ve jwt )

Im
Ve jt (t = 3 ) 2
Ve jt (t = 0)

Re
Ve jt (t = )

Ve jt (t =

V = Vm e jV v(t ) = Re(Ve jt ) = Vm cos(t + V )

i (t ) = I m cos( wt + I ) I = I m e jI i (t ) = Re( Ie jwt )

i(t)
Circuit size L<<

+ v(t) R,L,C

Source generated instantaneous power p(t)=v(t)i(t)(W)

Instantaneous power p(t ) = v(t )i(t ) = Vm I m cos( wt + V ) cos( wt + I )(W ) (function of time) 1 T 1 T Average power P = p(t )dt = Vm I m cos( wt + V ) cos( wt + I )dt 0 T T 0 V I T1 1 1 = m m [ cos(2wt + V + I ) + cos(V I )] dt = Vm I m cos(V I ) = Re(VI * ) 0 2 T 2 2 2 (T = ) w 1 1 1 Complex power S = VI * = Vm e jV I m e jI = Vm I m e j (V I ) 2 2 2 1 1 = Vm I m cos(V I ) + j Vm I m sin(V I ) = P + jQ 2 2 [P: Real power(), Q: Reactive power()] 1 1 P = Re( S ) = Vm I m cos(V I ) , Q = Im( S ) = Vm I m sin(V I ) 2 2 Impedance Z = V Vm e jV Vm j (V I ) = = e = R + jX I I m e jI Im (R: Resistance, X: Reactance)

Admittance Y =

1 = G + jB (G: conductance, B: susceptance) Z 1 1 1 1 1 S = VI * = ZII * = | I |2 ( R + jX ) = | I |2 R + j | I |2 X = P + jQ 2 2 2 2 2 1 * 1 1 1 1 S = VI = V (YV )* = | V |2 (G jB) = | V |2 G j | V |2 B = P + jQ 2 2 2 2 2

Prob) A voltage source v(t ) = 100 cos(10t + )(V ) is connected with a load and the 2 current flowing through the load is 1) i (t ) = 5cos( wt + )( A) , 2) i (t ) = 5cos( wt )( A) , 2 3) i (t ) = 5cos( wt + )( A) , 4) i (t ) = 5cos( wt + )( A) , 5) i (t ) = 5cos( wt )( A) . For each 6 2 case, obtain the complex power S, average real power() P, average reactive power () Q, and load impedance Z(Mark the impedance Z on the complex plane and discuss whether it is passive or active(resonant, inductive, capacitive).

Prob) Given that V = 100 + j100 (V) and I = 20 2 (A), obtain v(t ) , i (t ) , p(t ) , real 1 T average power P from the definition P = p(t )dt , complex power S, average real T 0 power P from Re(S), reactive power Q from Im(S), and the impedance Z (Mark the impedance Z on the complex plane and discuss whether it is passive or active(resonant, inductive, capacitive). Prob) Given that V = 100(1 j ) (V) and I = 20 2 (A), obtain v(t ) , i (t ) , p(t ) , real 1 T average power P from the definition P = p(t )dt , complex power S, average real T 0 power P from Re(S), reactive power Q from Im(S), and the impedance Z (Mark the impedance Z on the complex plane and discuss whether it is passive or active(resonant, inductive, capacitive). Prob) Given that V = 100(1 j ) (V) and I = 20(1 j ) (A), obtain v(t ) , i (t ) , p(t ) , real 1 T average power P from the definition P = p(t )dt , complex power S, average real T 0 power P from Re(S), reactive power Q from Im(S), and the impedance Z (Mark the impedance Z on the complex plane and discuss whether it is passive or active(resonant, inductive, capacitive).

Instantaneous and phasor forms, power (High-frequency or microwave circuit)

Consider the forward traveling voltage and current waves: v( z, t ) = Vm cos( wt z + V ) V ( z ) = Vm e j ( z +V ) = V + e j z i ( z, t ) = I m cos( wt z + I ) I = I m e j ( z +I ) = I + e j z 1 1 1 Complex power S = V ( z ) I * ( z ) = Vm e j ( z +V ) I m e j ( z +I ) = Vm I m e j (V I ) 2 2 2 1 1 = Vm I m cos(V I ) + j Vm I m sin(V I ) = P + jQ 2 2 [P: Real power(), Q: Reactive power()] 1 1 P = Re( S ) = Vm I m cos(V I ) , Q = Im( S ) = Vm I m sin(V I ) 2 2
Instantaneous and phasor forms, power (High-frequency or microwave fields)

The phasor E (r ) = Ex ( r )ax + E y ( r )a y + Ez (r )az is enough to specify the time-harmonic fields. E (r , t ) = Re[ E (r )e jwt ] = ax Re Ex (r )e j t + a y Re E y (r )e j t + az Re Ez (r )e j t E (r , t ) :Instantaneous form, E (r ) : phasor form Representation of vector fields in instantaneous forms (No j !!!) E (r , t ) = E ( x, y, z, t ) = Ex ( x, y, z, t )ax + E y ( x, y, z , t )a y + Ez ( x, y, z, t )az : Rectangular E (r , t ) = E ( , , z, t ) = E ( , , z, t )a + E ( , , z , t )a + Ez ( , , z , t )az : Cylindrical E (r , t ) = E (r , , , t ) = Er (r , , , t )ar + E (r , , , t )a + E (r , , , t )a : Spherical Ex ( x, y, z , t ) , E y ( x, y, z, t ) , Ez ( x, y, z, t ) , etc are all real scalar fields. Representation of fields in phasor forms (No t !!!) E (r ) = E ( x, y, z ) = Ex ( x, y, z )ax + E y ( x, y, z )a y + Ez ( x, y, z )az : Rectangular E (r ) = E ( , , z ) = E ( , , z )a + E ( , , z )a + Ez ( , , z )az : Cylindrical E (r ) = E (r , , ) = Er (r , , )ar + E (r , , )a + E (r , , )a : Spherical Ex ( x, y, z ) , E y ( x, y, z ) , Ez ( x, y, z ) , etc are all complex scalar fields. . Ex) E ( x, y, z ) = 10(ax + j 2a y )e j z E ( x, y, z , t ) = ax Re(10e j z e jwt ) + a y Re( j 2e j z e jwt ) = ax Re[10e j ( wt z ) ] + a y Re[2e j ( wt z + 2) ]
= ax cos( wt z ) + a y cos( wt z + 2)

Er (r , , ) = j10

e j r e j r jwt Er (r , , , t ) = Re[ Er (r , , )e jwt ] = Re[ j10 e ] r r 10 10 = Re[e j 2 e j r e jwt ] = cos( wt z 2) r r

H ( , , z , t ) = 20 cos( wt z + 3)a H ( , , z ) = 20e j ( z + 3) a = 20e j ( z 3) a Prob) Instantaneous form Phasor form A( x, t ) = 10 cos(108 t 10 x + 60) P ( x, t ) = 2sin(10t + x )a y 4 A( z , t ) = 5sin( wt 2 z )ax
B ( y, t ) = 15e 2 y cos( wt y )az

C ( x, t ) = 5cos wta y 8sin( wt x)az

D( , z, t ) =

10

cos(109 t 3z )a

Phasor form Instantaneous form 2 j x 20 B= ax + 10e 3 a y j

Q( x, y ) = e jx (ax az ) sin y

V ( z ) = 10e j z A( x) = 5 je 20 az (3 + j 4) xa y B ( z ) = 10e kz az + j 5e j ( kz + 4) a y C ( x) = 2 j 3 sin x + e3 x j 4 x e j

Conversion of equations in instantaneous forms to phasor forms

vR (t )

vL (t )

vC (t )

v(t )
i (t )
- vR (t ) = Ri (t ) Re(VR e j t ) = R Re( Ie j t )

Re (VR RI ) e j t = 0 VR = RI - vL (t ) = d (t ) di (t ) =L dt dt d Re( Ie j t ) = L Re d ( Ie j t ) = Re j LIe j t j t Re(VL e ) = L ( ) dt dt

Re (VL j LI ) e j t = 0 VL = j LI - i (t ) =

Re ( I j CVC ) e j t = 0 I = j CVC

dv (t ) dq(t ) =C C dt dt d Re(VC e j t ) = C Re d (V e jt ) = Re j CV e j t j t Re( Ie ) = C ( ) C dt C dt

v(t ) = vR (t ) + vL (t ) + vC (t ) V = VR + VL + VC = RI + j LI + 1 1 I = R + j L + I j C j C

Poynting vector (or power density vector field) In instantaneous time forms P (r , t ) = E (r , t ) H (r , t )(W / m 2 ) The time average power density vector field is given by 1 T P (r ) = E (r , t ) H (r , t )dt (W / m 2 ) T 0 * 1 = Re[ E (r ) H (r )](W / m 2 ) 2 Complex Poynting vector filed (or complex power density vector field) * 1 S (r ) = E (r ) H (r ) = P + jQ(W / m 2 ) 2 * * 1 1 P (r ) = Re[ S (r )] = Re[ E (r ) H (r )] , Q(r ) = Im[ S (r )] = Im[ E (r ) H (r )] 2 2
Vector space and function space

A linear combination of vectors a1 , a2 , a3 means c1 a1 + c2 a2 + c3 a3 . - linearly dependent basis vector set : (ax + a y , 2(ax + a y ), az ) : not complete in 3D space (Completeness means that any arbitrary vector can be represented.) - linearly independent basis vector set : complete in 3D space (ax + a y , ax 3a y , ax + 2a y + 3az ) : not orthogonal, not normalized (ax + a y , ax a y , 2az ) , (ax , 2a y ,3az ) : Orthogonal, but not normalized, still not convenient (ax , a y , az ) : Orthogonal and normalized (orthonormal), very convenient - Dot product of A and B Ai B = AB cos

- Othogonality() means ax ia y = 0 a y iaz = 0

a z i ax = 0

- Normalization means
ax i ax = ax = 1 ax = 1 a y ia y = a y = 1 a y = 1 az i az = az = 1 az = 1
2 2 2

A linear combination of linearly independent basis vectors can represent any vector in space. If we use orthonormal basis vectors, it is also very convenient. A = c1 ax + c2 a y + c3 az

c3 = A a z
A
c2 = A a y

c1 = A a x

x
Aiax = c1 (projection of A on ax )

Aia y = c2 (projection of A on a y ),
Aiaz = c3 (projection of A on az )

The function space is similar to the vector space. The function f (t ) can be represented by a linear combination of its basis functions.

f = c11 + c22 + c33 + c44 + ... = cnn

n =1

Especially, the periodic function f (t ) with a period T can be represented by a linear combination of cos and sin harmonics. - Orthogonal basis function set: (1, cos 0t , cos 20t , cos 30t ,....) : not complete, can only represent even functions

(1,sin 0t ,sin 2 0t ,sin 3 0t ,....) : not complete, can only represent odd function (1, cos 0t , cos 20t , cos 30t ,...,sin 0t ,sin 20t ,sin 30t ,...) : complete(can represent
any functions), but not normalized 2 where the fundamental radian frequency is given by 0 = (rad / s ) T The dot product of f (t ) and g (t ) :
f (t )i g (t ) =< f (t ), g (t ) >= f (t ) g (t )dt
0 T

large positive value

f ,g similar f ,g 0 orthogonal f ,g large negative value different

f ig < 0

f ig = 0

f ig > 0

A B < 0 Different

A B = 0

A B > 0 Similar

Orthogonal

f (t )

Ai B > 0
f (t )
T t

Ai B = 0
B
T t

g (t )
T t

g (t )
T t

f (t ) g (t )
+ +
T
T 0

f (t ) g (t )
+
t

T
T 0

f i g =< f , g >= f (t ) g (t ) dt > 0

Similar vectors and similar functions

f ig =< f , g >= f (t)g(t)dt = 0

Orthogonal vectors and functions

A
f (t )

Ai B < 0
B

g (t )

f (t ) g (t )

f ig =< f , g >= f (t)g(t)dt < 0

0

- Orthonormal basis function set: 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 , cos 0t , cos 2 0t , cos 3 0t ,..., sin 0t , sin 2 0t , sin 3 0t T T T T T T T - Orthogonality means 1 2 cos 0t = i T T
T 1 2 2 , cos 0t = cos 0tdt = 0 0 T T T

2 2 cos 0t i cos 2 0t = T T 2 2 cos 0t i sin 0t = T T 2 2 sin 0t i sin 2 0t = T T

2 2 2 T cos 0t , cos 2 0t = cos 0t cos 2 0tdt = 0 T T T 0 2 2 2 T cos 0t , sin 0t = cos 0t sin 0tdt = 0 T T T 0 2 2 2 T sin 0t , sin 2 0t = sin 0t sin 2 0tdt = 0 T T T 0

i i
- Normalization means
1 1 i = T T 1 1 , T T = 1 T
2

1 dt = 1 T
2

2 2 cos 0t i cos 0t = T T
=

2 2 cos 0t , cos 0t = T T

2 cos 0t T

2 T 2 T 1 + cos 2 0t cos 2 0tdt = dt = 1 T 0 T 0 2

2

2 2 cos 2 0t i cos 2 0t = T T
=

2 2 cos 2 0t , cos 2 0t = T T

2 cos 2 0t T

2 T 2 T 1 + cos 4 0t 2 dt = 1 0 cos 20tdt = T 0 T 2

2

2 2 sin 0t i sin 0t = T T
=

2 2 sin 0t , sin 0t = T T

2 sin 0t T

2 T 2 T 1 cos 2 0t 2 dt = 1 0 cos 0tdt = T 0 T 2

1 = 1, T

2 cos n 0t = 1 , T

2 sin n 0t = 1 T

In summary, the orthonormal basis functions have the property that

i (t )i j (t ) =< i (t ), j (t ) >= i (t ) j (t )dt = 0 for i j

0

= 1 for i = j

A linear combination of linearly independent basis functions can represent any periodic functions. . If we use orthonormal basis functions, it is very convenient.

f (t ) = a0

1 2 2 2 2 cos 0t + a2 cos 20t + ... + b1 sin 0t + b2 sin 2 0t + ... + a1 T T T T T

b2
b1
2 sin 2 0t T

f (t )
1 T

2 sin 0t T

a0

2 cos 0t T

a1
f (t )i f (t )i 1 1 = a0 ( projection of f (t ) on ) T T 2 2 cos 0t = a1 ( projection of f (t ) on cos 0t ) T T

f (t )i

2 2 cos 2 0t = a2 ( projection of f (t ) on cos 2 0t ) T T

i i
f (t )i f (t )i 2 2 sin 0t = b1 ( projection of f (t ) on sin 0t ) T T 2 2 sin 2 0t = b2 ( projection of f (t ) on sin 2 0t ) T T

i i
In summary, f (t ) = a0
1 2 2 cos n 0t + bn sin n 0t + an T n =1 T T n =1 (called as Fourier series)

where
a0 = f (t )i an = f (t )i bn = f (t )i 1 1 ( projection of f (t ) on ) T T 2 2 cos n 0t ( projection of f (t ) on cos n0t ) T T

2 2 sin n 0t ( projection of f (t ) on sin n0t ) T T ( an , bn : all real number)

Instead of sinusoidal basis functions which consist of cos and sin , we may use the exponential orthonormal basis function set 1 j 20t 1 j0t 1 j 0t 1 j0t 1 j 20t (..., , , ,...) . e e e , e , e T T T T T The complex functions 1 (t ) and 2 (t ) are orthogonal if

1 (t )2* (t )dt = 0 .
1 j0t e and T
*

For example,

1 j0t e are orthogonal since T

1 j0t 1 j0t 1 T 1 T e e dt = e j 20t dt = (cos 2 0t j sin 2 0t )dt = 0 T T T 0 T 0

The exponential orthonormal basis function set given above is the normalized one since

1 jn0t e T =

1 jn0t 1 jn0t e dt Te T 1 jn0t e = 1. T

1 T j 0t e dt = 1 T 0

Now, we can conveniently represent any periodic function with

f (t ) = ... + c2 1 j 20t 1 j0t 1 j 0t 1 j0t 1 j 2 0 t e + c1 e + c0 e + c1 e + c2 e + ... T T T T T

The price we have to pay for using just one kind of basis functions is that the radian frequencies must be extended to negative ones to form complex conjugate pairs for the representation of a real function f (t ) . Note that the pair, for example, c2
1 j 20t 1 j 20t e and c2 e must be a complex T T conjugate pair. c2 = (c2 )* to represent a real function. 1 j 2 0 t e operations on both sides of the equation. T

To determine c2 , we do i
f (t )i

1 j 20t 1 j 2 0 t 1 j 2 0 t e = ...0 + c2 e i e + 0... = c2 T T T

T 1 jn0t 1 jn0t 1 e =< f (t ), e >= f (t ) e jn0t dt 0 T T T

cn = f (t )i

Transmission line theory (for high frequency circuit) Terminated transmission line (lossless line)
I ( z = l ) = I (l ) = V + jl V jl e e Z0 Z0
I (0) = I = I + I = V+ V Z0 Z0

Z0 =

V+ I+

+
V ( z = l ) = V (l ) = V e
+ jl

2f 2 = = = (rad / m) v f

+V e

jl

ZL

V (0) = V = V + + V

l
z =l
Z=0

In phasor forms, V(z) and I(z) are given by

V ( z ) = V + e j z + V e j z , V ( z = l ) = V (l ) = V + e j l + V e j l

l1
V + e jl1
V+ V

l2

V + e jl2

V e jl1
V = V + e jl1 + V e jl1
I ( z) =

V e jl 2
V = V + e jl2 + V e jl2

V = V + +V

V + j z V j z V + j l V j l e e , I ( z = l ) = I (l ) = e e Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0 V+ V V = (2) Z0 Z0 Z L

At z = 0 , V ( z = 0) = V = V + + V (1) ,

I ( z = 0) = I = I + + I =

V + : known, V , V : unknown
Using equations (1) and (2), we obtain

V =

Z L Z0 + 2Z L V+ V ,V= Z L + Z0 Z L + Z0

Prob) When V + =10 and Z 0 = 50 , obtain V (l ) and I (l ) , and plot | V (l ) | , phase[V (l )] , | I (l ) | , phase[ I (l )] as a function of l in case of Z L = 50 , Z L = (open), and Z L = 0 (short). The reflection coefficient at the load(z=0)is defined as V Z L Z 0 Z L Z0 ( Z L ;open ) = 1 V + Z L + Z0 1 Z L =3 Z 0 2 Z L = Z 0 ( matched ) 0 1 Z L = Z0 1 3 2 Z L = Z0 ( Z L 0) 1 (0) = and transmission coefficient at the load(z=0) is defined as

T (0) =

2Z L V Z L Z 0 ( Z L ;open ) = = 1 + (0) 2 V Z L + Z0 3 Z L =3 Z 0 2 Z L = Z0 ( matched ) 1 1 Z L = Z0 1 3 2 Z L = Z 0 ( Z L 0; short ) 0

V ( z = l ) = V (l ) = V + e j l + V e j l
( z = l ) = (l ) =
3 l = , , ,... 2 2 l = ,2 ,3 ,...

V e j l = (0)e j 2 l + j l V e

(0)

j
( l = ) (0)
(l )

(l ) = (0)e j 2 l
( l = / 4)
(l )

-1

( l = 3 / 4)

( l = / 2)

-j

V ( z = l ) = V (l ) = V + e j l + V e j l = V + e j l + V + (0)e j l

= V +e j l [1 + (0)e j 2 l ] = V +e j l [1 + (l )]
V + j l V j l V + j l V + (0) j l = I ( z = l ) = I (l ) = e e e e Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
V + j l V + j l j 2l e [1 (0)e e [1 (l )] = ]= Z0 Z0

Input power

* + 1 1 + V + V + + * Pin = Re V ( I ) = Re V (W ) = 2 2 Z 0 2Z0 2

Reflected power Pref = V

2

2Z 0

V+ 2Z 0

(W )

Power consumed in the load * + 1 1 + V V * PL = Re VI = Re (V + V ) 2 2 Z0 Z0 2 2 + V 1 V V (V + )* (V )*V + = Re + Z0 Z0 2 Z0 + * * + (Note that V (V ) (V ) V is purely imaginary.)

V+
2

2Z0

2Z 0

V+

2Z 0

V+ 2Z 0

= Pin Pref

Power conservation law: Pin Pref = PL or Pin = Pref + PL

Absolute value of voltage along the line:

V (l ) = V + 1 + (0)e j 2 l = V + 1 + (l )

j
(0)
(l )

1 + (l )

-1

(l )

(l )

-j

max V + (1 + (l ) )

min V + (1 (l ) )

Voltage standing wave ratio + Vmax V (1 + (l ) ) 1 + (l ) VSWR= = = Vmin V + (1 (l ) ) 1 (l )

(l ) can be obtained from the measured VSWR using

(l ) =

VSWR 1 . VSWR + 1

Input impedance V (l ) V + e j l [1 + (l )] 1 + (l ) = + = Z0 Z in ( z = l ) = Z in (l ) = 1 (l ) I (l ) V j l e [1 (l )] Z0 Z + jZ 0 tan( l ) l 0, ,2 ,3 ,..... = Z0 L Z L Z 0 + jZ L tan( l ) Z 02 (Load impedance is inverted: short open, open short) ZL
l
2 Z L Z 0 ( Z L ;open ) jZ 0 cot( l )

Z L = Z0 ( matched ) Z 0

Z L Z 0 ( Z L 0; short ) jZ 0 tan( l )

V (l ) V + e j l [1 + (l )] 1 + (l ) = + = Z0 I (l ) V j l 1 (l ) e [1 (l )] Z0 Normalized input impedance Z (l ) 1 + (l ) zin (l ) = in = Z0 1 (l ) Z (l ) z (l ) 1 (l ) = in = in Z0 zin (l ) + 1 Z in ( z = l ) = Z in (l ) =

Want ( l ) Smith chart : zin (l ) = r + jx (l ) Want zin ( l )

zin = j = e j 90

x=1
z in = 1 + j 0.45e j 63 .5

r=0
zin = 0(short = 1 )

r=1 x=0
z in = 1 = 0 (matching )
z in = 1 j 0.45e j 63.5

zin = (open =1 )

x=-1
zin = j = e j 90

Smith chart (Complex plane mapped to zin = r + jx ) Prob) When Z 0 = 50() , obtain (0) , (l = ) , (l = ) , (l = ) , (l = ) , zin (0) 8 4 2 ) , zin (l = ) , and zin (l = ) in case of Z L = (open), Z L = 150() , 8 4 2 Z L = 50() , Z L = 50 / 3() , and Z L = 0 (short) by calculation and using the Smith chart. zin (l = ) , zin (l = Prob) When V + = 20(V ) and Z 0 = 50() , obtain (0) , V , V = V + + V , VSWR, Pin , Pref , and PL , in case of Z L = (open), Z L = 150() , Z L = 50() , Z L = 50 / 3() , and Z L = 0 (short).