chapter 3

1. CELL DIVISION

heredity and variation

1. 2. 3. 4.

The nucleus of a cell contains many small-thread like structures called chromosomes. Chromosomes are built from molecules called Deoxyribonucleic acids. (DNA) Each DNA molecules contains thousands of genes. Genes exist in pairs. One gene is inherited from the father and one from the mother.

CELL

NUCLEUS

CHROMOSOME

DNA

GENE

MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Mitosis occurs in all somatic cells, except in sex cells. It produces 2 daughter cells. Meiosis occurs in sex organs to produce gametes. One parent cell produces 4 daughter cells. The number of chromosomes is half of the number in parent cell. There are 2 stages in meiosis, called meiosis_I_ and meiosis II_.

THE STAGES IN MITOSIS

Parent cell The chromosomes shorten, fatten and become clearly visible Chromosome replication into thread like structures called chromatids.

Chromosomes align themselves at the equatorial plate

Sister chromatids separate and move

to the opposite poles Centromeres divide At the same time cell begins to divide

The new nuclear membrane is formed Two daughter cells are produced

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THE STAGES IN MEIOSIS

Parent cell Chromosomes in nucleus shorten and fatten

Replication and crossing over in chromatids occur

Chromosomes are arranged at equatorial plate

Chromatids separate and move to opposite poles

2 daughter cells formed

Chromosomes are arranged at the centre of the cell

Each daughter cell contains half the number of chromosomes of Cell begin to split SES 1511 Kelantan 2007 *The bolded and italic letter is the answer the parent cell

Chromatids separate

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Compare and Contrast between Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis 1 Cell division 2 Product Same Number of chromosomes Yes Genetically identical In somatic cells Place To produce new cells for growth Purpose and to replace damaged cells Difference between mitosis and meiosis

Meiosis 2 4 Half the number No In sex cells Gametes

The Importance of Mitosis and Meiosis MITOSIS 1.Mitosis form new cells for growth and to replace a damaged or died cells. 2.To ensure that the number of chromosomes in daughter cell is identical to that of the parent cell. MEIOSIS 1. To produce gametes with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cells. 2. It allows a species to maintain a constant number of chromosomes in the offspring.
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3. To form variation between species. 2. INHERITANCE 1. Inheritance is a process of passing genetic information of characteristics or traits from parents to offspring. 2. Genes are divided into 2, dominant and recessive. 3. Human beings have _46 chromosomes. This means that we have _23_ pairs of homologous chromosomes. 4. Combination of genes it possesses is called genotype. 5. The characteristics that can be observed or determined is called phenotype. 6. A dominant gene is a gene which can show the characteristics it controls when it pairs with a recessive gen. 7. The recessive gene only shows its characteristics when paired with another recessive gene. Characteristics Tongue rolling Ear-lobe Eye colour Skin pigment Dominant characteristic Ability to roll the tongue Presence of ear-lobe Brown eyes Normal skin pigment Recessive characteristic Inability to roll the tongue Absence of ear-lobe Blue eyes Absence of skin pigment(Albinism)

Mechanism of Inheritance of Traits Father Parents (Free ear lobe) EE Meiosis Gamet Mother (Attached ear lobe) ee

Fertilization Offspring

E e

E e
All free ear lobe

E e

E e

The schematic diagram shows the inheritance of ear lobe

Dominant genes are represented by capital letters whereas recessive genes are represented by small letters. E represents the genes for free ear lobe, which is the dominant gene. e represents the gene for attached ear lobe which is the recessive gene.

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Monohybrid cross Y for dominant traits ( yellow seeds) y for recessive traits (green seeds) Parents: Phenotype: Gametes: YY __Yellow__ Y Y X yy ___Green___ y y

Genotype: Phenotype:

___Yy___ ___Yy__ __yellow___ yellow

Yy yellow

____Yy___ yellow

________________________________________________________________________ F1 Generation: Phenotype: Gametes: Y Yy yellow seed y X Yy _yellow seed__ Y y

Genotype: Phenotype:

YY __yellow_

Yy ___yellow

Yy __yellow_

yy _green

Phenotype ratio: ____3 yellow_____:_____1 green_____

3.

SEX DETERMINATION AND THE OCCURANCE OF TWINS 1. Human has 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 pairs are autosomes and 1 pairs is sex chromosomes. 2. Type of the sex chromosomes are _X_ and _Y__. 3. Females have _XX_ sex chromosome, while male have _XY_ sex chromosomes. 4. Female has contains 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes XX(44 + XX) while male has 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 types of sex chromosomes X and Y(44 + XY) 5. The sex of a child is determined by the father according to the type of sperm.

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The schematic diagram below show how sex is determined. Parents: Meiosis Gametes: Fertilisation X Y X X Father XY Mother XX

Genotype:

XX

XY Boy 1XX 1 girl : :

XX Girl 1XY 1 boy

XY Boy

Phenotype: Girl Genotype ratio: Phenotype ratio:

TWINS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

There are two types of twins, identical and non-identical twins. Identical twins are formed from _1_ sperm and_1_ ovum, while non-identical twins are formed from _2_ sperms and _2_ ova. Identical twins have same genetic traits, sex_ and appearance_. Non-identical twins may have different_genetic traits and may have similar or different sex. In identical twins, if the two embryos do not completely separate, they are called _siamese_ twins. The differences between identical twins and non-identical twins. Characteristic Number of ovums involved Number of sperms involved Number of zygotes produce Number of placentas Sex of child (same / different) Genetic traits (same / different) Identical twins 1 1 1 1 Same same Non-identical twins 2 2 2 2 Same/different different

6.

The similarities between this two types of twins are born through pregnancy.

4. MUTATION 1.What is mutation? The spontaneous random change to the structute of genes or chromosomes of an organism. 2.There are two types of mutation, gene mutation and chromosomes mutation. 3.The change that occurs in chemical structure of a gene is gene mutation. 4.The change of gene sequence in a chromosome or the change in the number of chromosomes is chromosomes mutation. 5.The examples of gene mutation are albinism, colour blindness and haemophilia. 6.The examples of chromosome mutation are Downn syndrome, Klinefelters and Turners syndrome. 7.The Downs syndrome is caused by the presence of one extra chromosome at chromosome 21 in the somatic cells. 8.The characteristics of Klinefelters syndrome are narrow shoulders and small testes.
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9.The Turners syndrome is a women who lacks one X chromosome. 10. There are some factors that can increase the chance of mutation : High frequency 11.
radiowaves, toxic chemical and nuclear radiation. The advantages and disadvantages of mutation: Advantages Causes variations and organisms able to adapt to the environment More resistant to diseases, wheather and polluted environment 5. GENETIC RESEARCH 1. Genetic research have contributed to the field of _medicine_and agriculture_. 2. The example of contribution in each field: Medical To make human insulin for diabetics Sheep can produce milk which contains protein that can cure haemophilic Agriculture Species Tenera a new breed of oil palm fruits The sahiwal Friesian cows which produce more milk Disadvantages Causes infertility Causes physical, mental and foetus retardation

3. 4. i. ii.
iii. iv.

Selective breeding is very important. It is done on crops and livestock. The importance of selective breeding in plants and livestocks are: Resistant to diseases. Shorter growth period. Higher yield. Better quality. 6. VARIATION 1. Variation is the difference among individuals of the same group. group. There are two types of variation, continuous and discontinuous. The example of continuous variation are height, body weight, intelligence, skin colour, width of shoulder and length of sole. The examples of discontinuous variation are blood group, fingerprint, ability to roll the tongues, ear lobe, left-handedness and presence of dimples. The similarity of continuous and discontinuous variation is caused by crossing over in meiosis and mutation. The differences between the two types of variation: Continuous variation Small degree of variation Affected No Discontinuous variation Clear-cut differences Not affected Yes

2. The examples of variation in human are fingerprints, ability to roll a tongue, ear lobe and blood 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Type Has distinct characteristics Environmental factors Can be inherited

8. There are two factors that cause variation, genetic and environmental. 9. Mutation may also be another factor of variation and it will produce new variety.
10. Variation is very important for us. The example of the important of variation are:

i. Enable each individual to be different from others. ii. More resistant to changes in the surrounding.
iii. To form new breeds. 7. CODE OF ETHICS IN GENETIC RESEARCHES

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Misused of knowledge in genetics can cause various controversial issues concerning religion and humanity. Code of ethics in genetic researches is important to ensure that genetic researches benefit mankind. Example: Human cloning and the marketing of genetically modified products have become hot issues debated at present.If cloning is carried out on humans, serious problems would arise. Religious people consider humans produced by cloning as not having souls.

PAPER 1
1. Which of the following is the unit of inheritance found in chromosomes? A B Gene Sperm C D Gamete Nucleus

2. What is the function of cell division through meiosis? A B C D 3. Produces more siblings Replaces damaged tissues Increases the size of an organism Creates variation in a population of organisms

The diagram below shows four stages of mitosis in a plant cell.

Which of the following is the correct sequence of mitosis process? A B 4. P,R,Q,S R,P,S,Q C D Q,P,R,S S,P,R,Q

A goldfish has 100 chromosomes in each body cell. How many chromosomes are found in each male gamete? A B 25 50 C D 75 100

5. What is the number of chromosomes found in a female human skin cell? A B 22+ X 22+ Y C D 44 +XX 44+XY

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6. Which of the following processes in plants involves meiosis? A B Bud growth Root growth C D Repair of tissue Formation of pollen

7. Chromosomes duplicate during cell division. How many times does replication of chromosomes occur during mitosis and meiosis? A B C D 8. Mitosis once once twice twice Meiosis once twice once twice

What is the name of the thread-liked structure found within the nuclei of a cell? A B Gene Autosome C D Nucleus Chromosomes

9. The diagram below shows a process in the human body. Parent cell

Process Y Daughter cells What is the name of the process? A B Mitosis Fertilization C D Meiosis Cross-over

10. Where does mitosis take place? A B 11. Sperm Anther C D Ovary Somatic cells

The diagram below shows cell division in an animal cell.

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Which of the following statement is correct about the cell division? A Cell divides once only B Four identical cells are produced C Have the same kind of chromosomes D Similar number of chromosomes as parent cell 12. The diagram below shows four stages of meiosis.

Which of the following shows the correct sequence? A B 13. P,R,S,Q R,S,P,Q C D Q,S,P,R Q,R,P,S

Which of the following statements is true about mitosis? A B C D Occurs in ovary Produces gametes Produces two daughter nuclei Chromosomes number is halved

14.

What are dominant genes? A B C D Cannot reproduce themselves Fully express their characteristics Do not express their characteristics Multiply to produce more daughter cells

15.

When can the recessive genes be expressed fully? A B C D Dominant genes are absent Dominant genes are present Both dominant and recessive genes are absent Both dominant and recessive genes are present

16. The diagram shows the stages in human reproduction. Testes Stage X Ovaries What are stages X and Y? X A Mitosis B Meiosis SES 1511 Kelantan 2007 C Meiosis D Mitosis Y Mitosis Mitosis bolded and italic letter is the answer *The Meiosis Mitosis Ovum Sperm Zygote Stage Y Baby

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17.

Which of the following processes is involved in the formation of zygote? A B Mitosis Meiosis C D Mutation Fertilization

18. Which of the following is dominant trait in human? A B Curly hair Blue eyes C Left handed D Attached ear lobe

19. The gene for tall characteristics T of a pea tree is more dominant than t, which reveals the short characteristics. Which of the cross below will produce half of the filial which are tall? A TT and tt B Tt and Tt C D TT and Tt Tt and tt

20. Azman who has the ability to roll his tongue has gene Aa and marries Siti who has the same ability and has gene Aa too. What is the percentage of having children that are not able to roll t tongue? A B 100% 75% C D 50% 25%

21. The diagram shows sex determination in human Parent Gamete 44+XY P 22+Y x 44+XX 22+X 22+X

Offspring

44+XX

44+XY

44+XY

Which of the following chromosomes are found in gamete P and offspring Q ? A B C D 22 P 22+Y 22+X 22+Y 22+X Q 22+ X 44+XX 44+XX 44+XY

What is the chromosome in a normal human egg cell ?

*The bolded and italic letter is the answer

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A 22+ X B 23+XY

C 22+Y D 23+XX

23. The diagram shows a first generation of cross breeding of two flowers Parents red flower x white flower

First Generation

red flower

red flower

white flower

white flower

R represents the dominant genes for red flower r represent s the recessive genes for white flower What are the genes for the parents? A B C D Male RR RR Rr rr Female Rr rr rr Rr

24. Farid who is able to roll his tongue has the genotype Gg. He married Sara who is also able to roll her tongue and has the genotype Gg. What percentage of their children will be able to roll their tongues? A B 25% 50% C D 75% 100%

25. What determines the gender of a baby ? A B C D Chromosomes in the ovum Type of sex chromosomes in the sperm Number of chromosomes in the sperm Number of chromosomes in the ovum

26. Which of the following is the correct genotype? Male XX XY YY XX Female XY XX XX YY

A B C D

27. What is the percentage probability that a couple will have a baby girl? A 25% B 50% C 75% D 100%

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28. What is the chromosome number of a female foetus? A 22+X B 22+Y C 44+XX D 44+XY

29. How are identical twins formed? A B C D Two ova fertilized by two different sperms One ovum fertilized by two different sperms Two ova fertilized by one sperm before splitting into two One ovum fertilized by one sperm before splitting into two

30. Why can non-identical twins be of different sexes ? A B C D 31. They arise from the same zygote The same sperm fertilizes two different ova Two different sperms fertilize two different ova Two different sperms fertilize the same ovum

Which of the following describes Siamese twins? A B C D Born separately Have different genetic content Have underdeveloped body parts Identical twins do not separate completely

32.

Two children are identical twins. Which of the following characteristic is not common between them? A B Sex Height C D Blood group Ability to roll tongue

33.

What is the term used for the sudden and permanent changes in the DNA ? A B Mitosis Mutation C Variation D Crossing over

34. Which of the following can cause mutation? A B C D Changes in the shape Random physical changes Changes in the genes structure Random fusion of a sperm and an ovum

35.

The nucleus of a boys skin cell has 47 chromosomes. What is the name of the genetic disorder the boy is suffering from ? A Albinism C Sickle cell anemia
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Downs syndrome

Turners syndrome

36. What causes albinism? A B Virus infection Mutation of a gene C Hormone imbalance D Changes in chromosomes number

Which of the following pairs is correct? Mutation Downs syndrome Klinefelters syndrome Turners syndrome Albinism A B C D 38. What is the advantages of mutation? A B C D Form underdeveloped individuals Produce more varieties of new species Stop the process of growth in organisms Encourage the process of growth in organisms Characteristics 47 chromosomes in the nucleus XYY in the gene Lack of one Y chromosome in the gene Additional Y chromosomes in the gene

39. The information shows the characteristics of an individual.

Lacks pigmentation in the skin Has white skin, eye lashes and hair Skin is sensitive to sunlight

What is the name of genetic disorder the individual is suffering from? A B 40. Albinism Haemophilia C Colour blindness D Downs syndrome

Which of the following is a result of gene mutation? A Haemoplilia B Downs syndrome C Turners syndrome D Klinefelters syndrome

41. The diagram shows the cross between two different varieties of mango

Mango K -has thick flesh SES 1511 Kelantan 2007 - sweet -small fruit

Mango L -slightly thinner flesh *The bolded and italic letter is the answer -not so sweet -big fruit

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Mango M

What is the purpose of crossing Mango K with Mango L? A Plenty of fruits B Big and sweet fruits C Trees bear fruits faster D Big fruits with thick flesh

42. What is the term used for the selection of plants or animals of desirable traits?
A Gene screening B Artificial breeding C Natural selection D Selective breeding 43. What is the production of genetically identical individuals called? A B Cloning Breeding C D Back-crossing Hybridization

44. The diagram shows the breeding of two different types of oil palm

Oil Palm X
small fruit thin mesocarp thin endocarp

Oil Palm Y
bigger fruit thicker mesocarp thicker endocarp

Oil Palm Z
What is the result of breeding these oil palms ? A Plenty of oil palm B Sweeter oil palm C Oil palm Z produces plenty of palm oil D Oil palm Z becomes more resistant to disease

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45. Which of the following is an example of a continuous variation? A Fingerprint B Blood group C Height D Type of ear lobe

46.

Which of the following graphs correctly shows the distribution frequency of continuous variation? A B C D

47. Which of the following is the example of discontinuous variation? A B C D Height Skin colour Blood group Body weight

48.

What is the meaning of variation? A B C D Sudden change in hereditary material Sudden change in external appearance caused by the environment Different expression of similar characteristics among individuals of the same species Different expression of similar characteristics among individuals of the different species

49. Which of the following does not involve genetic engineering? A B C D Gene therapy for treating cancer The production of Tenera oil palm The production of insulin by bacteria The production of genetically modified food

50. What is the characteristics desired from the genetic research done on plants? A B C D Matures faster Produces less fruit Easy to get diseases Has short life span
*The bolded and italic letter is the answer

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PAPER 2 SECTION A
1. Pupils in a certain class had their weight measured. The data obtained is shown below: Weight of pupils ( kg ) 36 58 47 41 59 50 45 51 43 46 45 51 45 46 38 43 48 47 44 45 49 40 47 48 53 49 54 52 44 46

(a) Complete Table 1 using the given data. Weight of pupils (kg) Number of pupils 35-39 2 40-44 6 45-49 14 50-54 6 55-59 2

TABLE 1 (b) Using the data in table 1, draw a histogram below to show the distribution of the weight of pupils. Number of pupils
14

12

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35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

Weight (kg)

(c)

[2 Marks] What type of variation is shown by a pupils weight ? continuous variation [ 1 Mark] Other than weight, state two examples that show the same type of variation. height , skin colour [ 1 Mark] SECTION B

(d)

1.

Diagram 1 shows the process involved in the formation of twins Ovum sperm Process Q

Process R

Two zygote formed

DIAGRAM 1 (a) Name the process that takes place at Q Fertilization . [ 1 Mark] (b) Name the type of cell division that takes place at R Mitosis
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 [ 1 Mark] (c) State the type of twins formed in the figure shown above. Identical twins [ 1 Mark] (d) State two similarities found in the zygote formed after process R. same sex . same genetic materials . [ 1 Mark] (e) What type of twins that will be formed if process R is incomplete? . Siamese twins [ 1 Mark] (f) If the spermatozoa in the figure carries 22+Y chromosome, (i) what will be the sex of the zygotes? Both the zygotes will develop into males . [ 1 Mark] (ii) state the number and the type of sex chromosomes in both the zygotes 44+ XY . [ 1 Mark] 2. Diagram 3 shows the cross-breeding of pea plants. T represents the dominant genes while t represents the recessive gene. Parent Genotype Tall plant TT x Short plant tt

Gamete

Genotype Phenotype

Tt Tall

Tt Tall DIAGRAM 3

Tt Tall

Tt Tall

(a)

What is meant by gene?

*The bolded and italic letter is the answer

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A gene is a basic unit of inheritance in the chromosomes . [ 1 Mark] (b) The above pea plant have a pair of Tt genes which show the tall trait. Explain this. T is a dominant gene which can express their effects in homozygote (TT) or . heterozygote (Tt) form [ 1 Mark] (c) Complete the above figure by writing the possible genotypes of the parent, gamete and offspring [2 Marks] The bar chart below shows the result of a study in a group of students. Number of 2.
students

3.

80 60 40 20
Roll tongue

able

unable

(a) Calculate the percentage of students who are able to roll their tongues. 60 x 100 = 60% 100 . [ 1 Mark] (b) i) What are the characteristics shown by the graph above? The graph shows that there is a great difference between the number of . students who can roll their tongues and those who cannot . [ 1 Mark] ii) What is the type of variation in this situation? Discontinuous variation . [ 1 Mark] (c) i) Is the presence or absence of ear lobes the same type of variation as (b)ii? Yes . [ 1 Mark] ii) Give reasons for your answer in (c) i. The presence or absence of ear lobe is a discontinuous variation. It is because the student either have ear lobes or do not have ear lobes
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. . [1 Mark]

(a) What does cell division refers to? Cell division refers to the splitting of a cell into two new cells or . daughter cells . [ 1 Mark] (b) What is meiosis? Meiosis is a cell division process in which one parent cell is divided to . produce four daughter cells . [ 1 Mark] (c) Compare the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells and in the parent cell Each daughter cell have half the number of chromosomes of the parent cells [ 1 Mark] State two importance of meiosis in organisms i) ii) meiosis ensures that the number of chromosomes in the cell are preserved from one generation of organisms to another Meiosis produces daughter cells with different genetic contents . than that of the parent cell to create variations in organisms [2 Marks]

(d)

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5. (a) What is mutation? Mutation is sudden, relatively permanent and inheritable changes in the chemical structure or quantity of genetic material ( DNA) that bring about subsequent changes in the phenotype of organisms [ 1 Mark] (b) State two types of mutation and explain each of them Gene mutation- mutation that involve changes in the sequence of DNA 1. .. Chromosomes mutation- mutation that involve changes in the 2. chromosomal structure or the number of chromosomes ... [2 Marks]

(c) Give two examples of consequences of each mutation named in (b) Gene mutation - Down syndrome & Turners syndrome 1. Chromosomes mutation - Albinism, Colour blindness 2. [2 Marks] (d) i) What is Klinefelters syndrome? It is a gene mutation in human . [ 1 Mark] ii) What is the cause of Klinefelters syndrome? Having an additional X chromosomes in the ovum causes the male to have 44 + XXY in his genes . [ 1 Mark]

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SECTION C 1.

No two individuals are alike. Every person is unique in himself

(a) Examine the above statement, then suggest a suitable hypothesis for an investigation to determine the weight of forty students (boys and girls) who are all 18 years of age. [1 Mark] (b) Describe an experiment that could be carried in the classroom to verify your hypothesis. Your description should include the following: (i) Aim of the investigation [1 Mark] (ii) Identification of variables [3Marks] (iii) List of apparatus [1 Mark] (iv Tabulation of data [1 Mark] (v) Conclusion [1 Mark]

ANSWER (a) Hypothesis-Different individuals have different weights (b) (i) Aim- to investigate and determine the weight of a group of boys and girls (ii) Manipulated variables - Students of different size Responding variables - Weight of the students Constant variables - Type of weighing scale // Age of the students (iii) Apparatus : weighing scale (iv) Weight (kg) 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69

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No of students (v)) Conclusion- Students in a class exhibit continuous variation/ Different students have different weight

2. Study the statement below

The length of leaves is a type of continuous variation

(a) Suggest a suitable hypothesis to investigate this statement. (b) Design an experiment to test your hypothesis this statement (i) Aim of the experiment (ii) Identification of variables (iii) List of materials and apparatus (iv) Method (v) Recording and analyzing (vi) Conclusion [1 Mark] [1 Mark] [2 Marks] [1 Mark] [3 Marks] [1 Mark] [1 Mark]

ANSWER (a) Hypothesis: The length of leaves is different from one another (b) (i) Aim : To study the length of leaves from a tree (ii) Constant Variable : type of tree Manipulated Variable : various matured leaves Responding variable : length of the leaves (iii) Apparatus & materials & : meter rule and 50 leaves (iv) Method- Pluck 50 leaves from the same plant -Measure the length of the leaves with a meter rule -Record the data in a table ( v) Tabulation of data Length of leaves Number of leaves

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(iv) Conclusion: The length of leaves is a continuous variation because they have different values

3.

(a) State four differences between cell division through mitosis and meiosis. [4 Marks] (b) Skin Hair

Cell division
Red blood cell

Liver

The cell division that takes place in the body parts of a student is shown above. Explain how you would build a concept based on the information above. Your explanation should include the following. (i) Identify two common features (ii) Build an initial concept (iii) Give one example of body part that undergoes this cell division and one example of body part that does not undergo this cell division. Give reason for each example. (iv) Explain the actual concept [6 Marks] ANSWER a) Mitosis Two common characteristics Cell cell division occurs in somatic cell division happens once Meiosis Cell division happens twice

cell division produces two daughter cells Crossing over does not occur Crossing over occur cell division for growth
Two new cells are produced Four new cells are produced Initial concept The number of chromosomes in The number of chromosomes Cell division which occurs in somatic cells and produces two in progeny is similar to parent cell progeny is half of the parent cell daughter cells is mitosis b) Other example Heart because it is a somatic cell Non-example

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Testis / Ovary because it is a reproductive cell

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Actual concept Mitosis is cell division which occurs in somatic cells and produces two daughter cells

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