Snc4M Grade 12 Science: Guide

SNC4M Grade 12 Science
University/College Preparation
Guide
(Including Interactive CD)
Science Teachers Association of Ontario

Promoting Excellence in Science Education Through Leadership & Service
Acknowledgements Authors: Christine Holmes

Project Manager Please direct information or inquiries to: Manager, STAO Science Store, Box 191, Maitland, Ontario K0E 1P0 Fax: 1 (613) 348-1006
Arlene Higgins-Wright Clayton Ellis Reviewers: Maureen Callan

Shawna Hall Jim Agban
October, 2002 - STAO Care has been taken to trace ownership of copyright material contained in this document. The author will be pleased to receive any information that will enable him to rectify any errors or omissions in subsequent editions. The material in this document is copyright but permission is given to teachers to copy or reproduce student worksheets found in this guide for use within their own school. Printed October, 2002
Disclaimer
The enclosed information is to be considered as suggestions and recommendations only, and is neither to be considered as legal requirements nor as the policy of the Science Teachers' Association of Ontario. The conclusions, findings and opinions expressed herein are those of the individual contributors and not of the Science Teachers' Association of Ontario. Neither the Science Teachers' Association nor the individual contributors may make any guarantee, warranty or representation as to the correctness or sufficiency of any of the information herein. It can neither be assured that all necessary warnings and precautionary measures are contained herein, nor that additional information or measures may not be required due to particular exceptional circumstances, or because of local present, new or modified legislation in any region where the enclosed information is followed. Neither the Science Teachers' Association of Ontario nor the individual contributors on behalf of themselves, their agents, subcommittees or anyone acting on their behalf assume any responsibility for any of the material published herein, and both the Science Teachers' Association of Ontario and the contributors disclaim any liability in negligence or otherwise for any injury, loss or damage of whatever nature resulting from the use of any of the material herein.
INTRODUCTION
To assist teaching SNC4M, a table has been set up for each Unit with the following headings:
TOPICS /KEY IDEAS SUGGESTED WEBSITES: The teacher may decide to use these sites as background reading, print resources or have students actually visit the sites. Lesson Plans, Worksheets, Teacher Background, Ideas, etc. Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas Expectations
!" The course was divided into strands and we divided each strand into topics or key ideas (as shown in the first column). !" !" The next column suggests web sites for teachers that correspond to the topics and may also correspond to the lesson plans or ideas. Lesson plans, worksheets and background information can be found in the next column. To ease with the location of these resources a hyperlink has been created so that you can easily move from the table to the resource and back to the table again. Although there are plenty of resources here, the entire course has not been covered, so it is important that the teacher be aware of the expectations. The idea of the next column is to provide teachers with suggestions to which achievement categories could be covered for that topic and also provide them with ideas of how they may assess the expectations that correspond to the topic.
!"
!" The final column provides the coded expectations as set out by the ministry, that correspond to either the topic or, if provided, the lesson plan.
It is important to note the Contemporary Issues Strand of the course has not been given a section in the table. Instead it has been woven into the other strands, as the expectations could easily be met and related to the other strands. Culminating Task ideas for each strand are located on a separate document. Remember the tasks should be assigned at the beginning of the strand. This page also contains ideas for the final summative task, which should be assigned at the beginning of the course. Unfortunately the start and initial organization of the table came before the SNC4M COURSE PROFILE was released, so the organization is quite different. Fortunately, there are several websites, lesson ideas and plans that can be used even if you are using the PROFILE as your main reference (see http://www.curriculum.org/occ/profiles/12/pdf/ SNC4MP.pdf). Finally, it is important that each teacher realize this is not meant to be a complete package. There is room for change, elimination and additions. Feel free to use this material as you deem appropriate for your class. Assessment ideas have also been kept to a minimum as the focus was on resources
SNC4M Grade 12 Science Guide UNIT
1
FRAMING SNC4M
TO INTRODUCTION TO CULMINATING TASK IDEAS
TABLE SNC4M SCIENCE University/College

FRAMING SNC4M
TOPICS/KEY IDEAS 1.1 Nature of Scientific Knowledge Pure and Applied Science
SUGGESTED WEBSITES: The teacher may decide to use these sites as background reading, print resources or have students actually visit the sites. Information about Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/elsi/gmfood.html http://www.geocities.com/Athens/1527/text.html http://www.globalissues.org/EnvIssues/GEFood.asp http://www.keepnatural.org/risksbenefits.html http://www.biotechnology.gov.au/Community_Issues/ Fact_Sheets/Rural_implications/Potential_risks_and_ benefits/potential_risks_and_benefits.asp Catholic Perspective on GMOs: http://www.ncrlc.com/promise_threat.html http://www.biotech-info.net/church_view.html Information about Scientific Revolution & The Enlightenment: http://www.clscc.cc.tn.us/Courses/ngreenwood/scienti fic_revolution_and_the_en.htm Information about the Nature of Science: http://www.project2061.org/tools/sfaaol/chap1.htm
Lesson Plans, Worksheets, Teacher Background, Ideas, etc.

Introduction Select a topic for discussion such as GMOs Do a brief overview of the topic and use the Worksheet to aid you with your lesson. This may be a handout or overhead for students to copy. The suggested websites may provide the teacher with an appropriate background to lead class discussion before and/or after doing the activity. Four Corners (activity) Students will be asked to share their opinions about the topic of choice through this activity. The teacher may decide whether it should be based on fact, and if so, have students research their topics first. The following Worksheet will aid with this lesson. Discussion Use the ideas derived from the preceding activities to generate a discussion about the nature and purpose of science, key aspects of deriving scientific knowledge and the practice of science. The following Worksheet may be used as an overhead, a worksheet or simply questions used to spark discussion. The teacher and/or the students can visit the suggested website for background information. The teacher may wish to generate a note derived from the website. Discussion Students are asked to anlayse the historical and contemporary relationship between scientific theory and scientific application (references can be made to x-rays, nuclear radiation, MRIs, etc.) It is researched based, so access to the library or the internet would be useful in answering questions on the following Worksheet.
Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas
Expectations
SS1.01 SS1.04 SS1.02 SS1.03
Authors: Christine Holmes, Arlene Higgins-Wright and Clayton Ellis
ORGANIC PRODUCTS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

TOPICS/KEY IDEAS 2.1 Review covalent bonding with special emphasis on the unique bonding of the carbon atom 2.2 Compare and contrast organic compounds with inorganic compounds
SUGGESTED WEBSITES: The teacher may decide to use these sites as background reading, print resources or have students actually visit the sites.
http://www2.nl.edu/jste/bonds.htm http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/cov_IonicBs.html http://www.webelements.com/webelements/scholar/elements /carbon/key.html

Diagnostic: Ask questions to see what students know or remember about covalent bonding and the carbon atom. Class discussion: The following Note may be used as the teacher deems appropriate (ie. all, parts or simply for background information). The following molecular construct activity/worksheet provides the teacher with information that can be used as lecture, note or handout work. Students can investigate the difference of organic and inorganic compounds on the internet or the teacher can provide the necessary information. It is also suggested the teacher use molecular model kits to construct carbon centered. The following activity also invites students to build molecules using marshmallows. You may want to stress the differences in connecting ability. Teacher led activity (concept map) to show the origins of alkanes, separations and uses: The website: http://chemcases.com/fuels/ has a concept map that could be used by teachers to explain the separation of gasoline. It also contains links to fully explain each concept on the concept map. Teacher demonstrates fractional distillation with an explanation while the distillation is in progress. See Fractional Distillation web site for demo instructions and be sure to use the following safety sheet before proceeding. If enough equipment is available students may perform the experiment. Fractional Distillation Report Handout Fractional Distillation Report: Ideas for Evaluation In Expert teams, students are asked to identify some common household products including composition, uses, alternatives, etc. The information can be shared with members of their Home team. Jigsaw Worksheet Student response to household product use, which can be shared in a class discussion. Worksheet
Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas Knowledge: Quiz: molecular versus ionic bonding
Expectations
you may cover by focusing on the key ideas
OP1.02
http://www.kcpc.usyd.edu.au/discovery/nomencl ature/nomenclature_functional.html http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/G G/chemBonds1.html http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/chem Bonds2.html
Knowledge: Assign a mark for models and Lewis Diagrams
OP1.02
2.3 Fractional Distillation
Separation of Crude Oil: http://www.howstuffworks.com/oil-refining2.htm Refining Crude Oil: http://s2c.esc11.net/nctcog/NCTCOG/dalton/lesson1.htm http://eyrie.shef.ac.uk/will/eee/cpe630/comfun9.html Gasoline FAQ: http://www.bkarting.com/tech-docs/gas-faq.htm http://chemcases.com/fuels/ Explanation of Fractional Distillation: http://www.howstuffworks.com/oil-refining4.htm Demonstration: Fractional Distillation of Cherry Coke: http://www.tamucc.edu/~outreach/AppliedConnections/HS Science/chemistry/distilln.htm
Inquiry and Communication: evaluate written lab report
OP2.03 OP1.05
2.4 Organic Household Products
Alternatives to household products: http://eartheasy.com/live_nontoxic_solutions.htm Basic information about indoor air pollution from household products: http://www.lungusa.org/air/household_products.html
Making Connections:
OP3.03 OP3.01 SS3.01
2.5 Common Household Products
http://medinfo.wustl.edu/~ysp/MSN/experiments/archive/85 4443814.Ch.html
The following handout/note may be used as a Brief History of Soap and an explanation as to how it works. The following activity may be done before or after your explanation of soap. Making Soap Experiment
Inquiry and Knowledge: Evaluate the conclusion questions of the making soap experiment
OP1.03 OP2.01
2.6 Explanation of soaps and detergents
Water hardness: http://learnweb.harvard.edu/ent/gallery/pop4/pop4_lesson8. cfm Difference between soaps and detergents: http://crystal.biol.csufresno.edu:8080/projects97/72.html http://www.fabrics.net/deterg.asp http://www.citycollegiate.com/industry2.htm
Demonstrate the differences between soaps and detergents in hard and soft water. The following Worksheet will allow students to demonstrate understanding. Lets Talk Science may do a sudsing experiment with the class
Knowledge:
OP1.03
2.7 Emulsions: include mixtures, emulsions, gels, colloids, suspensions and focus on household products 2.8 The Pharmaceutical Industry: A Case Study
Making mayonnaise/difference between solutions and emulsions: http://www.iit.edu/~smile/ch9509.html http://unr.edu/homepage/crowther/opchem/oobleck.html
Lab Investigation: Students to design their own lab investigation to inquire about emulsions, mixtures, emulsions and suspensions (eg., adding soap to oil and water, latex versus oil base paint, etc.).
Inquiry, Making Connections, Knowledge and Communication: Students are to be given the expectations (which may be reworded) before designing experiment assessed according to expectations. Knowledge, Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections: evaluate student responses to case study
OP2.02 OP1.04 OP3.01 OP1.03
Questions designed for teaching with any movie: http://www.teachwithmovies.org/standard-questions.htm Lorenzos Oil Teaching (film guide): http://www.teachwithmovies.org/guides/lorenzos-oil.html http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1994/ad reno.html http://www.myelin.org/newscientist.html *You will have to verify with your School Board that it is acceptable to show this movie.
Students are asked to analyze the issues and concepts related to the scientific process and the pharmaceutical industry using the movie Lorenzos Oil as a case study: Worksheet See the websites for additional activities and resources to form discussion
OP1.08 OP3.03 SS1.01 SS2.01 SS3.01
2.9 Organic Products: Successes & Disasters
2.10 Everyday Pharmaceuticals
2.11 Making Aspirin 2.12 Sunscreen: UV Radiation, effect on people, roles
A perspective on FAQ regarding pesticides: http://www.cropro.org/english/resourcecentre/ pest-faqs.html Intro to pesticides, risks and benefits, types http://www.ces.uga.edu/pubcd/B1121.htm http://onlineethics.org/moral/carson/pesticides. html Pesticide alternatives: http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/epb/factsheets/pesticide s/altern.html http://www.cbc.ca/consumers/indepth/lawn/la wn_alt.html#recipes Information on thalidomide: http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1997/697_thal. html http://www.ucsf.edu/synapse/archives/oct16.97/ wu.html http://www.thalidomide.ca/english/reports.htm l This article looks at the value of vaccination and using vaccines that have not been tested on humans: http://www.cnn.com/2002/HEALTH/06/10/ethi cs.matters/index.html This article looks at the ethics of and perspectives on the dispensation of pharmaceuticals: (scenarios): http://www.nmpharmacy.com/body_rights.htm A lesson plan about the making of aspirin that includes teacher notes, student handout and diagram: http://www.medicines-inside.com/ep_lesn.html
Evaluating Sunscreen: http://www.jhu.edu/~newslett/04-13-00/Science/2.html
Teacher leads a discussion about the success of the sample products (eg. polio vaccine). May start with questions such as: What is polio? What is a polio vaccine? Why is the polio vaccine important? Etc. Students are asked research on some disasters including pharmaceuticals, pesticides and detergents. Focus should be on the uses, characteristic properties, function, risks and benefits. Before the research project, it will be important to describe the properties and uses of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. See corresponding web sites for background information. Students are asked to analyze the social implications of the use of these products. Research Worksheet Class discussion to analyze the social implications of researched products. *Note: Expectations OP2.04 and 0P3.02 will only be met if research choices are limited to Agriculture (fertilizers and pesticides).
Knowledge, Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections: Collect and mark answers to research questions or ask students to create a mind map from the research they have done.
OP1.08 OP2.04 OP3.01 OP3.02 OP1.06
Use two scenarios to identify the types of pharmaceutical products used on a daily basis (ASA, Tylenol, antacids, etc.) their function, safety concerns, etc. and to analyse the social implications of dispensing over-the-counter medications: Worksheets Lab: Making ASA can be found at the corresponding web site.
Knowledge: Evaluate a flow chart that has been made from the information collected on the worksheet. Inquiry: lab report
OP1.08
OP2.05
More on skin cancer: http://fyi.cnn.com/2002/fyi/lesson.plans/05/20/s un.exposure/ and http://fyi.cnn.com/2002/fyi/news/05/20/sun.expo sure/index.html
Evaluate sunscreen using UV meter if one is available Start discussion with some of the following questions: Do you wear sunscreen? Do you spend a lot of time in the summer sun? What is skin cancer? Are you at risk of getting skin cancer? Etc. Worksheet and Assignment to make a Public Service Announcement Rubric in progress A dermatologist would be a great guest speaker
Knowledge and Making Connections: Public Service Announcement: see corresponding rubric in progress.
OP1.07 OP3.03
PATHOGENS AND DISEASE

TOPICS/KEY IDEAS 3.1 Introduction to Pathogens

Make a new word list with definitions, and complete a pathogen activity using the internet: WebQuest Worksheet. The following Worksheet may be used as a note or background information. Survey Worksheet
Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas Making Connections and Knowledge: Concept map and/or Outbreak presentation
Expectations
http://www.lbl.gov/ehs/biosafety/BBP_Training/ html/bbp.htm http://warwick.nn.k12.va.us/Departments/scienc e/lawrence/pathogen%20webquest.htm
PD1.01 PD1.02 PD3.01
3.2 Pathogens around the home 3.3 Epidemiology

http://www.cdc.gov/excite/intro.htm www.britannica.com
Optional activity to promote personal interest
Teacher defines epidemiology using all or parts of the Note. CDC Activity Link: Make a conclusion reached by epidemiological study
Knowledge and Making Connections: Assess assigned questions in Activity #1.
3.4 Nonmedicinal disease prevention: hygiene, food processing, aseptic techniques, etc. 3.5 Pasteurizing Milk
Introduce scientific method Bacteria culture and asceptic technique worksheet Infectious Disease Investigation and the Scientific Method Worksheet
Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections: Assess observations and conclusions in lab report.
PD1.01 PD1.03 PD1.05 PD1.06 PD3.01 PD3.04 PD2.01 PD2.04 PD3.04 SS1.01 SS2.01 SS2.02 PD1.01 PD2.05 PD3.01 PD3.03
Pateurization and Milk Investigation Worksheet *Note: Unfortunately Canadian data could not be found, so American data has been used
Knowledge: end of assignment questions Inquiry and Making Connections: Conclusions and Observations to Milk Investigation
3.6 Control and Elimination: antiviral, antibiotics, vaccines, etc.
http://debate.uvm.edu/ http://www.debate-central.org/
The following How to Destroy Bacteria Note can be used as teacher background, for students, and/or used in part for a note for students. The following two tables give teacher background on methods of destroying bacteria: They can be shown on the overhead or given as a handout: table 1, table 2 Pose the question, Is it healthy to use antibacterial for everything? (eg. Soap) After a class discussion; the following activity can be done as library research, internet research or incorporated into a debate. The answer sheet is also provided. Personal Hygiene Right Angle Organizer: The following note can be broken up into a note for the teacher as well as a student activity that can be placed on the board or overhead Immune Response to a particular pathogen Worksheet/Assignment
Knowledge and Making Connections: Concept Map
PD1.01 PD1.05 PD1.06 CI1.04 CI3.03
3.7 Transmission of PathogensSexually Transmitted Disease 3.8 Immune System and its Response
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pphb-dgspsp/stdmts/stddata1201/index.html.
Transmission of Pathogens: Who Am I, activity Worksheet for the teacher; including pathogen cards and activity instructions. STD Graphing exercise *Note: The graphing activity is optional and therefore need not be considered by Catholic Schools Immune response to a particular pathogen concept map activity. Use this sheet as an overhead, copy, reference, etc. Note and questions
Knowledge, Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections: Students quiz each other
PD1.03 PD2.02 PD3.02
Knowledge, Inquiry and Communication: Concept Map
PD1.04 PD2.03 PD2.04
3.9 Water borne disease, air borne, and food borne
Students become familiar with a variety of pathogens and the diseases that they cause. They then explore how they are transmitted as well as how to prevent transmission. The following worksheets have previously been used in this document but may also be used here. Worksheet 1, Worksheet 2
Knowledge and Making Connections:
PD1.03 PD3.01
3.10 Role of Public Health Department 3.11 Overuse of Antibiotics
www.google.com http://www.city.toronto.on.ca/health/ http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/sphs/ http://www.region.peel.on.ca/health/ http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/index.html Video clips and lesson plans:
Explore Municipal Websites/Offices and Health Canada to discover how they are protecting the citizens. Worksheet
Making Connections: Multimedia presentation
PD3.01
Students are asked to look at the issues surrounding the use of antibiotics, the social implications and possible l i h f ll i kh f ih
Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections:
PD3.01
Antibiotics
3.12 Social Implications of Disease Control
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/web_video/ antibiotics.htm Tutorial that provides information about antibiotics (origin, function, resistance): http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/Antibiotics _Attack/frameset.html Web-based articles about the misuse and overuse of antibiotics: http://www.nclnet.org/Resisttext.html http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/ong-cn.htm http://www.mplan.com/pdf/AhWinter2001/w2 001antibiotics%20.pdf http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1998/698_bug s.html Examples of antibiotic alternatives: http://www.reikinurse.com/healing/naturalabx. html http://www.garynull.com/Documents/Continuu m/AntibioticAlternatives.htm Information about the history of disease: http://www.mic.ki.se/HistDis.html http://library.thinkquest.org/11170/ http://www.africana.com/Utilities/Content.htm l?&../cgibin/banner.pl?banner=Blackworld&../Articles/tt _345.htm http://www.nmnh.si.edu/anthro/outreach/anth note/fall96/anthback.htm http://www.thebody.com/bp/jan01/bp_disease.h tml http://www.time.com/time/2001/aidsinafrica/ http://www.villagevoice.com/specials/africa/ 50 facts on global health: http://www.who.int/whr/1998/factse.htm Statistics on the number of unimmunized infants worldwide: http://www.who.int/whr/1998/fig20e.jpg Information about the eradication of disease: http://www.who.int/aboutwho/en/disease_er.ht m
alternatives. The following Worksheets are for use with the video clips found at the corresponding web site. Four Corners (activity): Students are asked to share their opinions about the use of antibiotics: Student opinion should be based on knowledge they have gained from previous lessons: Worksheet. Teacher may select one or more statements that students can respond to.
PD3.02 SS2.02 SS3.02
Students are asked to analyse demographic, population and societal changes resulting from use of antibiotics and vaccines (eg. Polio, smallpox, penicillin) as well as consider the implications of these technological applications. Worksheet
Knowledge and Making Connections:
PD1.05 PD3.01 PD3.05 SS3.03
Social Implications of
Infant mortality statistics in the 20th century
Implications of Disease Control (continued)
America.: http://www.pbs.org/fmc/timeline/dmortality.ht m Article looks at the vaccination controversy http://www.life.ca/nl/49/vaccines.html Information about biological warfare/weapons: http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/sbtwc/other/diseas e.htm http://libsh.lsumc.edu/fammed/grounds/biowar.html Teaching tools designed for Outbreak: http://www.teachwithmovies.org/guides/outbre ak.html Catholic Teaching/The Dignity of Human Life: http://faithformation.charlottediocese.org/cst/sh aring.pdf
3.13 Eastern & Western Approaches to Medicine
Comparisons between Eastern and Western practices: http://www.acupuncture.com/Acup/Compariso n.htm http://acupuncture.com/Acup/Duty.htm Scientific theories about acupuncture: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/263387.stm http://www.healthy.net/asp/templates/article.as p?PageType=Article&ID=428
Students are asked to do research using the internet and/or interview process to report on the difference in cultural attitudes of eastern and western medical practices. Students are asked to analyze the social implications of these cultural differences in terms of health of communities, adoption of cultural practices, costs involved in medical practices. Research Worksheet which can be used with the accompanying web sites Social implications Worksheet
Knowledge and Making Connections: Venn Diagram
PD1.05 PD3.01 PD3.05 SIS3.03
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
TOPICS/KEY IDEAS 4.1 Nature of electromagnetic radiation and transmission

Teacher prepared definition worksheet. Teacher may supply the answers to the student worksheet or allow students to use the internet/library to fill in the table. Electromagnetic Worksheet for teacher Electromagnetic Worksheet for student
Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas Knowledge:
Expectations
4.2 Communication Technology
Overview of electromagnetic radiation: http://radar.metr.ou.edu/OK1/meteorology/Radi ation.html http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know _l1/emspectrum.html www.howstuffworks.com Application of radio waves: http://www.qrg.ils.nwu.edu/projects/vss/docs/ Communications/2-more-about-radiowaves.html This site explains how different technologies function:
http://www.howstuffworks.com
CS1.01 CS1.05 CS1.06
Information about satellites: http://collections.ic.gc.ca/satellites/english/. This site provides a brief overview of several historical inventions as well as links to other sites: This site gives the role of technology as it relates to history and human development as well as a link to a timeline of major inventions since the beginning of history:
http://knowledgecontext.org/introduction/ framework.htm
Research project: Students are asked to select one of the following technologies to conduct a research project: semiconductors in computers, radio, television, telephone, radar, satellites, fibre optics, converters, cell phones, GPS, CD, etc. Students are required to conduct a lesson that outlines the origins, development, usage, scientific principles and social impact associated with it. Worksheet Research Rubric (in progress) Students can develop a communication technology timeline using the internet on the corresponding sites. Teacher can prepare a quiz based on the presentations
Knowledge and Making Connections: use rubric to assess research
CS1.03 CS1.08 CS2.01 CS2.03 CS3.01 CS3.02 SS1.05 SS3.01
4.3 Electrical Safety
4.4 Electrical Safety Devices in the Home: grounding, fusing, GFI, insulation, etc.
Electricity lesson plans http://www.energy.com.au/ea/earetail.nsf/Conte nt/LessonPlans_EnergyKidz safety tips http://www.usda.gov/rus/educate/el_safe.htm http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d000701d000800/d000791/d000791.html Electrical Safety at Home: http://www.cdc.gov/nasd/docs/d000801d000900/d000822/d000822.html www.howstuffworks.com
See Live Safe/Work Smart Binder which provides Electrical Safety Lessons or use the following web sites The Live Safe/Work Smart binder should be located in the office of each school and also in some Science Departments
Inquiry:
CS2.02
The following Worksheet can be used as an introduction to electrical safety devices in the home, however it will be necessary to focus on safe and accurate use of electrical equipment.
Inquiry and Communication:
CS2.02
4.5 Sound Devices
4.6 Impact of New Communication Technology: Present and Future
Making speakers: http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/lessons/indiv/regan/p iepanlab.html http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/lessons/indiv/regan/s peakerlab.html Modulated Laser: http://cse.ssl.berkeley.edu/lessons/indiv/regan/la serlab.html These sites provides sample lesson plan for discussing the role of technology: http://knowledgecontext.org/curriculum/hando uts/how_do_we_change_it.htm http://knowledgecontext.org/curriculum/hando uts/what_are_its_costs_benefits.htm
Using one of the web sites provided, students can create a sound device, or even use lasers to create sound. See websites for making speakers
Knowledge and Inquiry: Evaluate final product and written lab report.
CS1.09 CS1.08 CS2.04
Students are asked to share their opinions about the impact of new communication technologies on their personal lives as well as think about broader social implications of new communication technology. Place Mat (activity) Worksheet Worksheet2 Worksheet3
Making Connections:
CS3.01 CS3.02 CS3.03 SS3.01
ENERGY ALTERNATIVES AND GLOBAL IMPACT

TOPICS/KEY IDEAS 5.1 Prior knowledge 5.2 Nuclear Technology

Teacher creates a mind map with students to assess prior knowledge
Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas
Expectations
EA1.01
This activity does not directly link to expectations but can spark interest.
http://www.ncf.ca/~cz725/cnf_sectionA.htm
Use the worksheet to stress important facts about nuclear technology. This note does not have to be copied by the students but can be placed on the overhead to spark interest in nuclear energy. The following Note introducing nuclear chain reactions can be used in part or in whole as an overhead before moving on to nuclear chain reactions which can be demonstrated at the corresponding website.
5.3 Nuclear Chain Reactions
On-line nuclear chain reaction demonstration: http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/~mmp/applist/ch ain/chain.htm Definitions: http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki/nuclear+chain +reaction http://www.npp.hu/mukodes/lancreakcio-e.htm http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/u235chn.html#c4 http://www.pu.org/main/facts/energy.html Crosswords: http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/games/crosswor d_puzzles/index.html
Knowledge: Quiz
EA1.06 EA1.05
Crossword
Knowledge:
EA1.01
5.4 CANDU reactor
History: http://www.cnssnc.ca/branches/manitoba/history.html Information: http://www.ncf.ca/~cz725/ http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~cz725/cnf_sectionA .htm http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~cz725/cnf_sectionB. htm Lesson Plans: http://europa.eu.int/comm/europeaid/projects/t dp/en/document/alldoc/energy/energy_e/nuclr_ m.htm
The following CANDU worksheet can be used with the corresponding website listed under Information: If the website is not available to your students, it will be necessary for the teacher to make print copies as this information is very difficult to obtain otherwise.
Knowledge and Making Connections: Worksheet
EA1.05 SS3.04
5.5 Compare/ Contrast fission and fusion
http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapte r13.html http://www.physics.ohiostate.edu/~milanovi/nuclear_Teacher.html
Use the internet to compare/contrast some or all of the following topics: net energy production, initiation process, control technologies, military uses, sun, waste production, cost. Background Information : Worksheet/Note Assignment to Compare and Contrast Fission and Fusion.
Knowledge: Assignment
EA1.06 EA1.05
5.6 Renewable vs. Nonrenewable Resources
Overview of CBC News in Review coverage of energy crisis (check availability in your schools library): http://cbc.ca/newsinreview/April%202000/Oil/i ndex.html Article about solar energy costs: http://ca.news.yahoo.com/020717/5/nob7.html
Students are asked to conduct a cost/benefit analysis on the different types of renewable and non-renewable resources (including cost, pollution, efficiency, wind, solar, geothermal, tidal and suitability in Canada) and evaluate the social and environmental implications of using these resources. Cost/Benefit Analysis: Worksheet Follow up Discussion: Worksheet
Knowledge and Making Connections: Cost/Benefit Analysis
EA1.01 EA1.02 EA3.03 EA3.04 SS3.01
5.7 Emerging Alternative Technologies (electric cars, hydrogen fuel cells, etc.)
http://www.riverdeep.net/current/2000/01/front .240100.energy1.jhtml Several examples of emerging alternative technologies: http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/newsletters/agtech/ 0111.pdf http://www.eren.doe.gov/
Emerging Energy Alternatives Worksheet for Research Project.
Knowledge, Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections: Research Project
EA1.03 EA2.02 EA3.02
5.8 Sustainability of Alternative Energy Sources
http://www.sll.fi/energia/ecolabelling.html http://www.nea.fr/html/pub/newsletter/2001/m easuring19-1.pdf http://www.utoronto.ca/env/papers/askewd/sec 2.htm Possible strand culminating activity; http://www.clarkson.edu/sustain/newsletter/en ergy.html http://www.energy.ru/eng/articles/ised.htm http://www.worldenergy.org/wecgeis/publications/reports/etwan/policy_actions/ chap_5_action5.asp http://www.heliointernational.org/anglais/observatory/annexesD. html Google search: sustainability of energy
Essay Instructions Rubric in progress
Making Connections and Communication: Essay
EA3.05
5.9 Compare consumption of energy per capita:
http://www.ecoworld.com/Articles/May23_BT U_GNP.cfm http://www.ecoworld.com/Articles/May23_BT U_GNP.cfm#Table2 http://www.environmentalindicators.com/htdo cs/indicators/8ener.htm http://royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mpidwirn/energyus e/energyconspercap.html http://www.globalcentres.org/cgcp/english/htm l_documents/publications/gcc/eng/chap3-2.html North America versus the world: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/northamerica/eng econ.htm
Teacher directed lesson on energy consumption per capita with some focus on North America versus the rest of the world. One purpose of this Worksheet may be to put it on the overhead and use it as a source of class discussion.
Knowledge and Making Connections: Quiz
EA3.03 EA1.02
5.10 Promotion of Energy Reduction
Based on patterns, identify strategies to promote energy reduction per capita (eg. Mass transit, building design, etc.) *sorry no resources found To follow lesson on energy consumption per capita: Activity on the promotion of energy reduction
Inquiry and Communication: Poster or pamphlet
EA2.01
5.11 Greenhouse Gases/Acid Rain
Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections:
EA2.03 EA 3.03 SS2.02
5.12 Atmospheric pollution vs. nuclear waste (Storage/Transpor tation) 5.13 Environmental Impact of Energy Alternatives
http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~sfl/gwuns.htm
Students set up a table comparing atmospheric pollution with nuclear waste. Worksheet
Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections: Worksheet
EA2.03 EA3.04 SS2.02 EA1.02 EA3.01
5.14 Design, build, test
Site offers some Canadian facts and statistics regarding energy consumption: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/env/canada.html Site offers global insight on environmental issues: http://www.oneworld.org/guides/energy/index. html Article looks at the discrepancies between corporate endeavours and environmental impact: http://www.oneworld.net/cgibin/index.cgi?root=129&url=http://www.corpwa tch.org/campaigns/PCD.jsp?articleid=1048 A book with experiments/research projects about alternative energy and specifically: How to build a solar cooker: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/gen/fy01/30926.pdf
Four Corners (activity) Students are asked to share their opinions in response to a statement about energy alternatives Mind Map & Carousel (activity) In preparation for their unit culminating task, students are asked to brainstorm any factors that must be taken into account when contemplating the use of energy alternatives. (The map will provide them with a basis upon which to conduct research). Worksheet
Making Connections: Concept Map
Build a solar cooker using the corresponding web site.
Inquiry and Communication: Evaluate Final Product and written lab report.
EA2.05
TO INTRODUCTION TO CULMINATING TASK IDEAS
Framing the coursepage 1
1.
What is a genetically modified organism? (GMO)
2.
Identify the different perspectives on the use of GMOs. PRO (Benefits) CON (Risks)
2.
To what extent does the government have an equal responsibility for ensuring the profitability of companies AND the safety of citizens?
3.
What criteria should scientists use to determine the feasibility of a project launch?
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Framing the Coursepage 2
1. Label four corners of a room using the following titles: STRONGLY AGREE, AGREE, STRONGLY DISAGREE, DISAGREE. 2. Begin with a statement, issue or a question. 3. Give students time to think and encourage them to make up their own minds regarding the corner that select. 4. Without any discussion students move to the corner that best captures their perspective, view or response. 5. Students pair with another to share their reason(s) for making that particular decision. Ensure students remain in groups of two or three. Each should be prepared to share either response if called upon. 6. The teacher then randomly calls on pairs of students from each corner to identify why they made the decision.
!" The use of genetically modified organisms should be banned. !" Biochip implantation should be mandatory for all criminals. !" The Human Genome Project is a dangerous endeavour. !" All inorganic pesticide use should be banned. !" Parents should be forced to have their children vaccinated. !" Every country in the world should be banned from using fossil fuels to generate electrical energy. !" All released criminals should be tracked using the Global Positioning System.
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1.
What is science, in your opinion?
2.
What characteristics are believed to be shared by all scientific endeavours?
3.
What are the key devices of scientific reasoning? (eg. principles, laws, theories, facts, observations, concepts, inferences, causality)
4.
How do we know if a scientific statement is true? Explain
5.
Many people think that scientific truth is firm, constant and immutable. Others claim, however, that truth in science is relative and changeable. Which of these ideas is more true? Explain.
6.
How has our Western understanding of science been shaped? (eg. Scientific Revolution, The Enlightment)
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In 1970 Peter Drucker stated that it was technology that built the future home, took out the marriage license, and a hurried a rather reluctant science through the ceremony. And it is technology that gives the union of the two its character; it is a coupling of science to technology, rather that a coupling of science and technology. He maintains that historically, the progress of society ie. the change in the human condition, is thanks to technology NOT science.
(Peter F. Drucker, Technology, Management, and Society, New York: Harper & Row, 1970.)
1.
To justify his claim, use an example where a useful technology existed long before the complex scientific theory which explained it was known.
2.
Given the complexity of scientific & technological applications, does his argument have any merit today?
3.
Using examples, debunk his claim.
4. 5.
Describe the present-day relationship that exists between science and technology in our society. Is there a distinction between the Technological Revolution and the Scientific Revolution? Explain.
6.
Which of these revolutions best characterizes the state of contemporary society? Explain.
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2
ORGANIC PRODUCTS IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Bonding Compounds are held together by various forces between atoms. The periodic table has a great deal of information. You may remember that periods are representative of the elements when arranged in the order of their atomic numbers show a periodic variation of atomic structure and of most of their properties. families represent the columns of elements that share certain characteristics. As you look at the families, you should notice that all the elements within that family have a particular valence (the degree of combining power of an element as shown by the number of atomic weights of a univalent element). This valence will determine how the element will react. Remember that the elements are attempting to achieve a stable configuration, which means they will either lose or gain electrons to obtain a full valence shell. A better definition of compounds arises as you understand these forces. Combinations of different elements held together by chemical bonds are known as compounds. Depending on the type of chemical bond you have, this will indicate a great deal about the type of reactions that may be possible as well as determine many of the characteristics of the compound. Intramolecular Bonding Ionic Bond. These are formed when an atom gains an electron (cation) or loses an electron (anion). These ions now have a charge and will be attracted to other ions with opposite charges. A typical example is sodium chloride (NaCl). $ The Na has an extra electron that it needs to lose before it has reached a stable state. The Chlorine atom is short an electron that it requires to achieve a stable configuration. The Na will lose an electron, therefore there will be more protons than electrons and $ the Na will have a positive charge. The Cl will gain an electron, therefore there will be more negatively charged electrons than positively charged protons and the atom will be negatively charged. The electron from the Na does not just disappear, so the logical place for it to go $ would be to the orbital of the Cl. The two ions are now held together due to the force of attraction between the anion $ and cation When drawing Lewis diagrams for ionic compounds, the convention is to use + and $ to indicate the relative charge of the ion. http://www2.nl.edu/jste/bonds.htm $ Covalent Bond These are formed when two or more atoms share valence electrons in order to achieve their stable configuration. A typical example is water. The Hydrogen atom needs as extra electron in order to be complete. The Oxygen $ atom needs two electrons to be complete. Two hydrogen atoms will share their electrons with the Oxygen atom, thereby $ creating H2O molecules. 1
It is possible to share more than a pair of electrons. If there are two pairs of electrons shared this is known as a double covalent bond. Three pairs of electrons make up a triple covalent bond. QUESTION: Which of the following diatomic atoms are held together by a double covalent bond? 1. H2, 2. O2, 3. N2 QUESTION: Which of the following diatomic atoms are held together by a triple covalent bond? 1. H2, 2. O2, 3. N2 http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/cov_IonicBs.html Molecular Structure and Polarity The polar covalent bonds give certain properties to molecules. An entire molecule can be polar or non polar depending on the presence of polar covalent bonds and the shape of the molecule. If a molecule is symmetrical, it will be non-polar regardless of the presence of polar covalent bonds. Significance of the Carbon Atom The Carbon atom is the central atom of organic compounds. There must be certain reasons why all life on this planet is based on this molecule as opposed to Silicon or Calcium. The carbon atom has the following configuration: 6 protons, 6 neutrons, 6 electrons. There are two electrons in the inner shell, and four electrons in the outer shell. These valence electrons are available for bonding, almost always covalent bonding. One of the simplest arrangements for this is the sharing of electrons with four hydrogen atoms. CH4 can be represented by several types of diagrams.
A Lewis dot diagram would be a more effective diagram to use to illustrate the shape of this molecule. Since the electrons are all of like charges, they tend to repel one another. This means they seek a distance that is as far apart from one another as possible. The resulting shape is a tetrahedron. With the proper experimental techniques this tetrahedral shape has been shown to exist. Even though the C H bonds are slightly polar, the symmetry of the molecule causes this to be nonpolar.
H . . H. . C . . H . . H
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Inorganic vs Organic Chemistry You have studied many inorganic concepts in both your Grade 9 and Grade 10 chemistry sections. Chemistry is central to understanding of many sciences. As you tackle this subject, you will continue to see various types of molecules. Many of these biological molecules will contain Carbon atoms. Molecules which contain Carbon are termed organic compounds. However, there are a few exceptions to this rule. QUESTION: Which of the following compounds are Organic compounds? Methane $ Water $ Hydrochloric Acid $ Gold $ QUESTION: Which of the following compounds are organic compounds? 4. Carbon Dioxide 5. Oxygen 6. Hydrogen Gas Actually the CO2 is one of the exceptions. Even though it contains the element Carbon, it is not considered an organic compound. Find another example of a molecule that contains Carbon, but is not an organic compound. In addition to Carbon, organic compounds also often contain nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, phosphorous and sulfur.
The properties of organic are also quite different from their organic counterparts. The following table will illustrate some of those key differences. However, some of the cells are not complete. In some cases you are to choose the correct answer from a list, in other cases you must write the correct answer in the appropriate location. Answers for this exercise can be found in textbook resources that will be provided by your teacher.
differences between organic and inorganic compounds
inorganic
organic
elements present
all
always: (1 choice) usually:(1 choice) often (1 choice) sometimes: (4 choices: 3 are elements and one is a family of elements)
melting points
usually under 300!C, usually over 700!C
usually under 300!C, usually over 700!C
boiling points
high; low
high; low
solubility: in water in organic solvents
yes; no yes; no
yes; no yes; no
flammability
yes; no
yes; no
differences between organic and inorganic compounds
electrical conductivity (in solution or molten)
yes; no
yes; no
reaction rates
fast; slow
fast; slow
side reactions
common; usually not
common; usually not
yield of desired product
high; moderate to low
high; moderate to low
type of bonding
covalent, ionic
covalent, ionic
answers to differences between organic and inorganic compounds
inorganic
organic
elements present
all
always: carbon usually: hydrogen often oxygen sometimes: (nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous, halogens)
melting points
usually over 700!C
usually under 300!C
boiling points
high
low
solubility: in water in organic solvents
yes no
no yes
flammability
no
yes
electrical conductivity (in solution or molten)
yes
no
answers to differences between organic and inorganic compounds
reaction rates
fast
slow
side reactions
usually not
common
yield of desired product
high
moderate to low
type of bonding
ionic
covalent
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Making Marshmallow Models of Molecules Name: ____________________________

Materials Needed
"# "# "# "#
Coloured mini-marshmallows (to represent atoms) Toothpicks (to represent covalent bonds) Your periodic table (to check the number of valence electrons for atoms) Some paper (to draw the Lewis structures and determine bonding before you make the models)
Fill in the Blanks and Review
1.
Ionic bonds are formed between a ________________________ and a ______________________________. They involve the transfer of one or more electrons from the ________________________________ to the ___________________________________. Name the following ionic compounds. a. NaCl b. CuCO3 c. K2SO4 d. Pb(C2O4)2 e. NH4NO3 ________________________ bonds are formed between two ______________________. A bond is formed when each atom donates an electron to the bond and then the two electrons are ________________ between the atoms. Name the following molecular compounds. a. CO b. H2O c. CF4 d. PCl5 e. NO3 Seven elements exist as diatomic molecules in air. This means that they are molecules made up of two atoms of the same element. They are H2, ______, ________, _________, _________ , _______ and __________.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Complete the following table. 9
Name of Compound Water
Formula of Molecule
Elements Present
How Many Atoms of Each?
How Many Atoms in Total?
CO2 propane glucose C3H8 C6H22O6
The Activity In groups of 2 or 3, consider the following molecular compounds. A. water B. CO2 C. Nitrogen, N2 D. CO E. SO3 F. Ammonia, NH3 G. Hydrogen, H2 H. SiF4 I. Methane, CH4 J. PCl3 K. Oxygen, O2 1. 2. Draw the Lewis structure of each element in each compound and then the Lewis structure of the compounds. Create a model of the molecule using the coloured mini-marshmallows as atoms and toothpicks for single covalent bonds. If the atoms have extra valence electrons left over, somehow show them on the marshmallow. * Create some sort of legend for colours of marshmallows and the atoms that they represent. 3. Hand the models and Lewis structures in to be marked. Make sure that your work is organized before it is submitted.
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10
ADDITIONAL SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
1. 2. 3.
Put on safety goggles before beginning the lab and do not remove them until the lab is completely done and cleaned up. If the teacher is doing the distillation as a demonstration, the students still must wear safety goggles. Do not place hot glassware in cold water.
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11
Fractional Distillation Report

Instructions: The following demonstration will involve the fractional distillation of ______________________________. Your teacher will give a detailed explanation about the procedure used, observations and conclusions. It will be your responsibility to take notes and ultimately submit a report that will include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. materials used a labeled diagram of the apparatus the procedure including how the materials were used, how the equipment was used, etc. the starting product(s) the final product(s) observations during the experiment conclusion including an explanation of how the final product was achieved
To help simplify and organize your report, you may set it up as you would a typical lab report. That is: Title, Problem/Purpose, Materials, Procedure, Diagrams, Observations, Conclusion.
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Fractional Distillation Report: Ideas for evaluation
Knowledge and Understanding OP1.05
Criterion Knowledge of Facts and Terms
Communication Clarity of OP2.03 ideas and content Diagram of distillation apparatus
Level 4 demonstrates thorough understanding of concepts, principles, and theories main idea is completely clear Diagram is clearly labeled and easy to understand
Level 3 demonstrates considerable understanding of concepts, principles, and theories main idea is reasonably clear Good diagram with several labels
Level 2 demonstrates some understanding of concepts, principles , and theories main idea is recognizable
Level 1 demonstrates limited understanding of concepts main idea is generally unclear Diagram is unclear. Missing labels.
Excellent use of appropriate vocabulary including correct scientific terminology Conventions excellent command of spelling, punctuation of grammar Use of language no spelling or grammar mistakes
Good use of appropriate vocabulary including correct scientific terms good commands of spelling, punctuation, and grammar no more than 1 -2 mistakes in spelling, punctuation, or grammar
Diagram is recognizable but many aspects of diagram are not understandable without the diagrams fair command weak of appropriate command of vocabulary appropriate vocabulary
fair command of spelling punctuation and grammar 3-5 spelling, grammar or punctuation mistakes
weak command of spelling, punctuation, and grammar -more than a total of 6 spelling grammar or punctuation mistakes
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13
Ailment
Products
Function
Safety Concerns
Alternative Remedies
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14
Instructions 1. 2. Select a sample product. (eg. cometics, pesticide, herbicide, pain medication, antacid) Research information about the product and do the following:
____ Describe the use and production of the product over time (OP3.03) ____ Analyse the costs and benefits of the use of the product and assess its global impact on the environment (OP3.01) ____ Explain how this product is perceived by various interest groups in the community (SS3.01) Answer the following questions: 1. Technological Determinism is the idea that technology can fundamentally change the attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviours of individuals. How does each product demonstrate technological determinism? 2. Read the following statements:
The government should provide tax credits for individual who use environmentally friendly (less harmful) alternatives to traditional household products.
All (harmful) environmentally destructive products should be banned. Do you agree or disagree? Explain your opinion.
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15
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SOAP Pliny, a Roman who lived in the first century after Christ, gives the credit for inventing soap to the Gauls. The Gauls were a people who lived in what is now known as France. They used soap to make their hair shine. Soap was certainly made by housewives in early America. They saved fat and ashes from their wood fires. When they needed soap they poured water through the ashes to dissolve the alkali in the ashes, mixed the homemade lye with fat, heated the mixture until it was thick and aged it. The thick mixture was soft soap. If they wanted hard soap they added salt. Boiled the mixture longer, and then aged it. Natural perfumes and oils were used to colour and scent the soap. Herbs and spices such as cloves, lavender, rosemary, and lemon balm were used to perfume the soap. Vegetables such as carrots, spinach, beet tops, and beet roots were used to colour it yellow-orange, green and pink. HOW SOAP DOES ITS JOB Ordinary soap (an emulsifying agent) is a product of the saponification of fats with sodium hydroxide or lye. The lye hydrolyses the fat into glycerol and sodium salts of the attached fatty acids. These salts are composed of long hydrocarbon chains which contain a water soluble carboxylate group at one end. Soap molecules clean because the salt end of the molecule is ionic (polar) and the other end is a non-polar hydrocarbon. The hydrocarbon part dissolves at the surface of particles of grease and remains outside the organic particle and forms a layer of ionic material around it. The ionic layers are attracted to the water molecules. This keeps the organic materials and dirt suspended in the wash water in small droplets. When you wash, rubbing is important because it exposes fresh layers of grease and dirt to the soap molecules. The hydrocarbon ends dissolve in the grease and the ionic groups stay outside in contact with the water. The layers cannot stick together again and then they are readily rinsed away with water.
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16
Making Soap Equipment: 1. Lard or some sort of fat 2. 6 M Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) 3. NaCl (table salt) 4. Ethanol (alcohol) 5. 250mL glass beaker 6. stirring rod 7. Hot Plate 8. water 9. soap mold (optional but more fun) 10. ring support 11. wire gauze Safety: Gloves, labcoat and safety goggles should be worn when handling the NaOH. The NaOH should be used in a well ventilated area (preferably under a fume hood). DO NOT BREATHE THE FUMES OF NaOH. If it comes in contact with the skin, rinse with cool, running water for a few minutes and report it to your teacher immediately. 6 M Sodium hydroxide solution would cause blindness if it splashes in the eyes. Wash immediately with water for 15 minutes at least. Seek medical help. To avoid that, KEEP THE CHEMICAL SPLASH GOGGLES ON UNTIL ALL THE STUDENTS HAVE FINISHED THEIR EXPERIMENT. Procedure: 1. Place 10g of lard in the 250 mL beaker 2. Slowly and carefully add 15mL of sodium hydroxide to the beaker. (The teacher may do this part to reduce any safety concerns) 3. Add 50mL of ethyl alcohol 4. Gently heat the mixture using a ring support as support and wire gauze as the base, on a hot plate, over low heat and stirring often. It will take 20 to 30 minutes before the base has completely reacted with the lard. 5. After all of the base has reacted, add 20mL of water and stir 6. Let the mixture cool. 7. Add 12g of NaCl to 50mL of water. Pour the cooled mixture of base and lard into the NaCl mixture (not the other way around) 8. Let this new mixture cool completely. 9. The solid cake that forms is soap whats left, is glycerol Conclusion: 1. Explain how each of the chemicals used in this experiment are necessary to the usefulness of soap. 2. Using the molecular model kits, construct a soap molecule. When you are done, sketch it, and label the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts.
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SOAPS VERSUS DETERGENTS Student Review Now that you have some knowledge on soaps and detergents, complete the following table which summarizes the differences.
Soaps
Soap is manufactured from natural resources (fats and oils)
Detergents
Detergents have been used only in the last century Hard water does not affect the cleaning action of detergents
Calcium and magnesium slats of soaps are insoluble in water
Answer Key:
Soaps
The history of soap goes back to the days of the Roman Empire Soap is manufactured from natural resources (fats and oils) In hard water, soap produces scum which can affect its cleaning action Calcium and magnesium slats of soaps are insoluble in water
Detergents
Detergents have been used only in the last century Detergents are synthetic materials, many manufactured from petrochemicals Hard water does not affect the cleaning action of detergents Calcium and magnesium salts of detergents are soluble in water
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18
This film is based on a true story which took place from l984 to l987. The sobering news that their five-year old son Lorenzo has a rare terminal disease marks the beginning of an extraordinary mission for Augusto and Michalla Odone. Despite the prognosis of death in two years because no treatment was known, the Odones set out to save their child, colliding with doctors, scientists, and support groups who are reluctant to encourage the couple in their quest for a cure The film shows how individuals can make a difference and by using models and the scientific method the Odones discover by trial and error a treatment for ALD. -- Linda Gostinger
1.
Explain how Lorenzo's oil works
2.
Demonstrate how Lorenzo's parents used the scientific method to solve their problem.
3.
Do you consider Augusto Odone to be a scientist? Explain.
4a.
What, it any special characteristics did the Odone family possess which permitted them to find a way to stop the deterioration of their son's health?
b.
To what degree do professional scientists share these same attributes? Do these attributes ensure the quality of their work?
19
5a.
The movie triggered protests from scientists who claimed it was anti-science and misleading. Why might they have this opinion?
b.
In your opinion, are they justified? Explain.
6.
How many resources should society devote to finding cures for low incidence diseases such as ALD?
7a.
Read the statements below: Science cannot be hurried.
Embryonic stem cells should be used for research .
Cloning embryos in order to make transplant tissue should be considered a viable alternative to pharmaceutical therapies.
b.
Select one and develop an argument either for or against it.
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Over the course of history, there have been many products introduced on the market that have had enormous transformative effects on society. At times these effects are positive, however there are occasions where a products impact is deleterious. Instructions Your task is to research product that was introduced to the market and had disastrous consequences. 1. Select one of the products listed within a particular category. "# Pharmaceutical Products (Redux, Fen Phen, thalidomide) "# Agricultural Products (Fertilizers, Pesticides herbicides, insecticides) "# Household Products (Phosphate detergents) 2. Research information about the product and do the following:
____What is it? ____How does it work? ____What are its characteristic properties? ____Why was its use considered to be disaster? Explain. ____What are the alternatives, if any? What role does it play? What are the associated costs and benefits? How, if at all, has the disaster been rectified? 21
David Suzuki says that we continue to cling to certain sacred truths that blind us to many problems and often cause the ones that we do recognize. The sacred truths are as follows: 1. We equate progress with growth 2. We have come to believe in the ability of science to provide us with the knowledge to understand and manage our natural resources. 3. We believe that we can manage the effects of new technologies by doing proper cost/benefit analysis to maximize the benefits while minimizing costs. 4. We believe we can minimize environmental damage from activity by carrying out environmental assessments. 5. We believe that in a democracy, we elect people to political office to represent and lead us into the future.
David Suzuki, Playing Russian Roulette with World Environment The Globe and Mail (April 23, 1988) D1-D2.
1a.
In these cases of disaster, provide evidence to substantiate Suzukis claim.
b.
What other attitudes and values that we hold have possibly played a role in these problems?
2.
Who is responsible for ensuring the safety of products?
3.
What responsibility should be taken when products on the market are found to pose threats to the health of humans and the environment?
4.
Should there be longer testing periods required so that proper testing can occur?
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22
Scenario A BRRRRRRRING! There goes the sound of your alarm clock. But its Saturday morning-this cant be. In no time at all, you remember that you were too tired to make sure that it was off when you got home from your annual family picnic last night. The day greets you with an all too familiar pounding in your head courtesy your screaming younger cousins. Now that you are somewhat awake, there seems to a burning sensation in your chest oh no!revenge of the jalapenos!! The churning in the pit of your belly is a testament to all of yesterdays food, fun and frolicking and a signal that the runs might be in your near future! To top it all off, your eyes are burning and your nose starts to run. In all the excitement of hanging with your relatives in the park, you always seem to forget for one afternoon that youve got allergies. No point trying to sleep now. So out of the bed you crawl and make your into the bathroom. Todays shaping up to be a great one good thing its the weekend! Two full days to recoup.
1.
Given all four of your ailments in the above box: a) identify your ailments b) identify the products you could use to get you back to normal c) describe how they work d) list any safety concerns e) list natural alternatives to these products (eg. herbs etc.) In your opinion, do you suppose, many North Americans do not use natural remedies to cure their ailments?
2.
3.
Are substances that have been clinically proven more effective than natural substances which do not come with a traditional Western scientific seal of approval? Justify with examples.
23
Scenario B One month later, on a school field trip, your teacher decides to make a slight detour to collect some tiny plant specimens in a local meadow. Enlisting the help of everyone he can, you all start digging, picking and bagging. AAAAAAAACCCCHHOOOOOOOO! All of a sudden one of your classmates starts to sneeze uncontrollably. Her eyes become so full of liquid that their light brown colour seems indistinguishable. Someone searches her bag for some allergy medication, but comes up empty. The teacher has some allergy medication on the bus, but does not give it to the girl because the school policy prevents the dispensation of drugs to students. Using the bus drivers cell phone, a classmate phones the girls parents for some direction. The father, concerned for his daughter, says she should be given the medication. The mother, also concerned for her daughter, says she should not. 1. With whom do you agree, the school policy, the mother or the father? Explain.
2.
What, do you suppose, are the reasons why each stakeholders carries his/her specific opinion?
3.
Would giving the student a natural remedy (eg. spices) be a better alternative?
4.
Should schools refuse to dispense medication to students? Justify.
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How would you answer the following question? What protection do you normally use against the summer sun? Your answer may seem simple, but what if you were to learn the latest statistics on Canadian skin cancer? In Canada, the number of diagnosed cases of melanoma skin cancer is on the rise from 40 000 new cases a year in 1989 to 72 000 predicted new cases in 2002. Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer and is now responsible for the deaths of thousands of Canadians. There is no way around it the sun is responsible. Even worse, the more you are exposed to the sun, the more at risk you are of getting skin cancer. Do you enjoy getting a dark tan each summer? If you are one of the many young Canadians that view tanning as a great past time there are a few things you need to know. The darker your tan, the more damage you have done to your skin and yes, this increases your risk of skin cancer. The effects of sun tanning are cumulative. That is, the more time you spend unprotected in the sun, getting a tan, the more at risk you are. The sun exposure you get now, is the sun exposure that may cause skin cancer in ten to twenty years. The most common type of cancer for 25 to 29 year olds is malignant melanoma. Although the numbers show that over 7 000 people will get melanoma this year, we should not ignore the fact that over 750 000 people will be diagnosed with different forms of skin cancer this year. Although other forms of skin cancer are not as deadly as melanoma they are cancer, they are dangerous and they cannot be ignored. Your best protection against the harmful UV rays of the sun are to wear sunscreen, wear wide-brim hats and avoid the midday sun. Assignment: 1. Using the internet, magazines or skin cancer pamphlets, research skin cancer and include the following information: "# Causes "# Prevention "# Stages and types of skin cancer "# Levels of sunscreen "# UVA and UVB rays
2. Create a public service announcement that will aggressively stress the prevention of skin cancer. Your 3-5 minute video will be directed at a high school audience. The most successful pubic service announcements will use visual aids that will grasp student attention while informing them of the dangers of the sun. References: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/feature/summer/air_sun/sunsafety.html, http://www.ctfphc.org/References/Ch70bib.htm , http://cbc.ca/stories/2002/05/31/Consumers/skincancer_020531
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Knowledge and Understanding
Criterion Knowledge of Facts and Terms
Level 4 Thorough understanding of types of skin cancer, prevention, UV rays and sunscreen All points of content are present
Level 3 Good understanding of types of skin cancer, prevention, UV rays and sunscreen At least 75% of required content is present
Level 2 Understanding of most skin cancer concepts presented At least 50% of required content is present
Level 1 Limited understanding of the skin cancer concepts presented or not enough skin cancer concepts covered At least 25% of required content is present Very few visual aids to contribute to the understanding of concepts, ideas and relationships
Communication
Appropriate visual aids are used to communicate the understanding of concepts, ideas and relationships Use of language Excellent use of appropriate vocabulary including correct scientific terminology All subject material was relevant to classmates
Most visual aids are appropriate and contribute to the understanding of concepts, ideas and relationships Good use of appropriate vocabulary including correct scientific terms Most subject material was relevant to classmates
Some visual aids are used to contribute to the understanding of concepts, ideas and relationships
fair command of appropriate vocabulary
weak command of appropriate vocabulary
Making Connections
Some subject material was relevant to classmates
Very little evidence of a relationship between your subject material and your classmates
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3
PATHOGENS AND DISEASE
Pathogen Pathogen is the name given to such things as viruses and bacteria that cause disease. Some of these are found in food and must be rendered harmless before the food is safe to eat. Most pathogens have Latin names; while they might to hard to pronounce the effects they have are easy to understand. ! ! Cyclospora cayetanensis is a little-known organism that causes gastrointestinal upsets." E.Coli was made infamous in Canada by the deaths of seven people and the illness of 2,300 others in Walkerton, Ontario in May 2000. That particular strain has the science fiction-like name of 0157:H7 and wasn't discovered until 1982. It lives in the intestines of cattle, sheep, pigs, and poultry. In Walkerton, 0157:H7 got into the water system through animal feces contaminating a well. It can infect humans through improperly cooked and handled meat. Symptoms go from a mild flu-like ailment all the way up to kidney failure and death. " Norwalk virus is usually passed by kitchen workers on to others through food. It causes the usual unpleasant stomach upset and usually lasts only a couple of days. " Salmonella is found in poultry, eggs, and fruits and vegetables that have been in soil with animal waste. One of the most frequent causes of what's called "food poisoning," causing mild diarrhea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, fever, and severe dehydration. " Taxoplasma is a parasite that can affect humans through infected eggs. It brings with it a slight fever, enlarged lymph nodes, and flu-like symptoms. People with weak immune systems may develop pneumonia. " Trichinella spiralis is a worm that causes trichinosis, and is transferred to humans in infected pork. Sufferers start out with abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and watery stools. Then, the face very often becomes puffy and swollen, especially around the eyes, and headache and even delirium occur. Five percent of those infected die. Survivors may take six months to recover and be left with permanent heart or eye damage." Trypanosoma are organisms that are known to cause several diseases in humans including African sleeping sickness and Chagas disease."
Pathogens often come in the form of one of the following microorganisms. Using the Internet or a textbook provided by your teacher, find out the definitions for each of the following organisms and the virus. Pathogen Virus Bacteria Definition
Fungus / Mould Algae Protist
Once you have a basic definition, determine what each of the scenarios above is caused by and fill in the correct answer in the following table. Scenario # Microorganism involved
If you have access to the Internet, the following reference link will increase your comprehension about pathogens:
http://www.lbl.gov/ehs/biosafety/BBP_Training/html/bbp.htm
In order to get a full understanding of pathogens and the diseases they may cause you should also be familiar with the following terms. In the spirit of this activity, you will be provided with resources to aid you in defining the terms. Word micro-organism Definition
parasite
disease
epidemiology
pathogenesis
vector
Once you have learned what each of the words represents, create a concept map that links the concepts together.
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Pathogen WebQuest To become a little more familiar with pathogens and how they might affect you, you will embark on a little webquest. Follow the instructions at the following website: http://warwick.nn.k12.va.us/Departments/science/lawrence/pathogen%20webquest.htm Just in case the website is not working or you choose to use the library, a copy of the activity is included here:
OUTBREAK!
A WEB QUEST OF PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS
We will be spending 2 class periods in the computer lab for this assignment. You will work in groups of 4, but on separate computers. What you don't finish in these 2 periods you will complete on your own, as a group. INTRODUCTION While studying biology, often we run across situations that seem to be impossible to handle. Communities of people have to handle much greater disasters daily. How would you react to a serious threat to your community? During this web quest, you and your fellow classmates will come together to handle the dissemination of information to your community. It seems a potentially dangerous pathogen has been detected at a nearby hospital. The concerned population is demanding the elected officials give a report regarding the virus and the actions being taken to prevent its spread. Armed with computers, the world wide web, and a group of community experts, you have to give the public what they demand. TASK In groups of four, you will help to plan a press conference regarding the outbreak. The instructor will assign a pathogen for you to work with. Each of the four members will be given a role to play. Your perspective should be represented in a group presentation. The "press conference" will last from 3-5 minutes and your group will then answer any follow-up questions the community might have. The goal here is to not only gain information on a particular pathogen and work as a team, but to also have some fun with the activity.
BACKGROUND Before you begin researching your individual roles, you need to answer some general questions regarding pathogens. Use the links to find the answers. I have divided the questions into viruses, bacteria, and protists. Only answer the questions that pertain to your pathogen.
Viruses Useful websites: Microbiology World Health Organization Introduction to Virology Medicine and Health Search Access Excellence 1. Is a virus alive? Explain why or why not. 2. What does incubation mean? 3. How is your virus transmitted? 4. What does WHO stand for? Bacteria Useful websites: World Health Organization Microbiology Medicine and Health Search 1. How are bacterial cells different from our cells? How are they similar? 2. How is your bacterium transmitted? 3. Is your bacterium gram positive or gram negative? 4. What does WHO stand for? Protists Useful Websites: Malaria sites Sleeping Sickness sites Microbe World World Health Organization Microbiology 1. Describe the structure of your protist. 2. How is your protist transmitted?
3. In what part(s) of the world is your protist most likely to be found? 4. What does WHO stand for?
INDIVIDUAL ROLES There are four roles to be considered while doing this activity. Each group member will assume one role and gather information to help you develop a plan of action should the pathogen enter your community. Use the description of your role below and the websites that follow. The plan you have will be synthesized with the rest of your group's to develop a press conference. Depending on your role, you may also want to use the websites above. Reporter - your responsibility is to sell newspapers; getting a story is critical. You will be looking for current news articles on your pathogen.
NBC News ABC News What's News Index

Scientist - your role involves the scientific method; experimentation is vital. You will be looking for current studies performed on your pathogens. You will also look for information on the life cycle of the organism, whether or not it has 1, 2 or more hosts. Finally, for a viral infection you will indicate if it is a lytic or lysogenic cycle.
What's News Index World Health Organization Center for Disease Control Introduction to Virology Brown University TB/HIV Research Lab Access Excellence
Physician - your priority is the safety of individual patients and educating them on the pathogen. You will be looking for the specifics on your pathogen (i.e., how it causes disease, patient symptoms, treatment, etc.)
Malaria sites Sleeping Sickness sites World Health Organization Center for Disease Control Introduction to Virology
City Councillor - your priority is maintaining the population for re-elections. You will be looking for current legislation concerning containment and how outbreaks are dealt with in general. Consult your local board of health to determine if there is any information about the pathogen.
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Pathogen Legislation Center for Disease Control Viral Disease Control World Health Organization
GROUP SYNTHESIS Now you're prepared to face the task at hand. You must, with the help of your group members, develop a press conference that will outline a plan of action for the community. It should include a description of the pathogen for the public, along with some preventative measures. The press conference should also give a containment plan for the pathogen if an outbreak occurs. Make sure that each of the members speak, and that, as a panel, you are prepared to field any follow-up questions that the community wants answers to. Following the press conference, each member will turn in a (minimum) one page summary of their internet findings. CONCLUSION Making an informed decision is necessary for public figures. Sometimes the disasters we face have no absolute answer. Through the study of your pathogen, you now have some idea of the pressures placed on the people we consider experts. You can't always give all the information you have to the people. This is where officials pick and choose the truth that will be revealed to their constituents. Your new found knowledge of how your pathogen works can be a huge asset to you as a citizen, parent, spouse, community leader, or even microbiologist.
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Pathogens Around the Home. There are many pathogens that can be found in a typical house. By practising proper cleanliness techniques, you can minimize the number of pathogens that may spread around your home. Below is a survey that you can use to ascertain the relative risk of pathogens in particular locations in your home. Feel free to use the following list to help you with your search around the home. Room Possible source of pathogen possible pathogen What could you do to prevent the pathogenic transmission
Kitchen (food prep)
Bathroom (toilet)
Garage (easy access for outside pests)
Bedroom (bedding)
Great Room / Living Room (assume that there is carpet)
Pets
Backyard (possible exposure to wild animals)
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Epidemiology Epidemiology is the branch of medical science that studies the distribution of disease in human populations and the factors determining that distribution, chiefly by the use of statistics. Unlike other medical disciplines, epidemiology concerns itself with groups of people rather than individual patients and is frequently retrospective, or historical, in nature. It developed out of the search for causes of human disease in the 19th century, and one of its chief functions remains the identification of populations at high risk for a given disease, so that the cause may be identified and preventive measures implemented. Epidemiologic studies may be classified as descriptive or analytic. In descriptive epidemiology, demographic surveys are used to determine the nature of the population affected by the disorder in question, noting factors such as age, sex, ethnic group, and occupation among those afflicted. Other descriptive studies may follow the occurrence of a disease over several years to determine changes or variations in incidence or mortality; geographic variations may also be noted. Descriptive studies also help to identify new disease syndromes or suggest previously unrecognized associations between risk factors and disease. Analytic studies are conducted to test the conclusions drawn from descriptive surveys or laboratory observations. These studies divide a sample population into two or more groups, selected on the basis of a suspected causal factor (for example, cigarette smoking) and then monitor differences in incidence, mortality, or other variables. One form of analytic study is the prospective-cohort study, in which members of a population are followed over time to observe differences in disease incidence. In addition to providing clues to the causes of various diseases, epidemiologic studies are used to plan new health services, determining the incidence of various illnesses in the population to be served, and to evaluate the overall health status of a given population. In most countries of the world, public-health authorities regularly gather epidemiologic data on specific diseases and mortality rates in their populaces. "epidemiology" Encyclopdia Britannica <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=33362> [Accessed August 5, 2002].
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Epidemiology Activity There are actually two assignments bundled in this Activity. Activity 1 can be completed by all the students. Activity 2 relies on some math background. You may wish to reserve it for a class that seems to be comfortable with challenges, statistics and number manipulation. This activity can take place either before or after the CDC activity. If you do have the students complete the CDC activity, it is unlikely that you will want them to complete this as well. The CDC activity is extremely comprehensive and covers every detail of a epidemiology case step by step.
Tracking the Source of Disease:
Kochs Postulates, Causality, and Contemporary Epidemiology
Kochs Postulates In the late 1800s, the German physician Robert Koch conducted experiments on the cause of anthrax, a disease of cattle, sheep, and humans. His experiments demonstrated that this disease was caused by a bacterium, Bacillus anthracis, and also established the experimental requirements for determining whether a particular pathogen is the cause of a particular disease. These requirements, known as Kochs postulates, are as follows: !" The same pathogen must be present in every case of the disease. !" The pathogen must be isolated from the diseased host and grown in pure culture. !" The pathogen from the pure culture must cause the disease when it is inoculated into a healthy, susceptible laboratory animal. !" The pathogen must be isolated from the inoculated animal and must be shown to be the original organism.
from Tortora et al., 1998
While Kochs postulates have provided a solid framework for infectious disease research for more than a century, they are not universally applicable. Classes of pathogens such as viruses and prions had not even been discovered in the late 1800s when Koch was formulating his ideas. Many of these more newly discovered pathogens as well as many bacterial pathogens are not culturable outside of a host organism. Furthermore, ethical considerations prevent researchers from fulfilling the third postulate in serious diseases affecting only human hosts. Additional complications arise from situations in which the same organism causes different diseases under different circumstances or diseases that may be caused by a community of microorganisms rather than a single pathogen. Hence, exceptions to Kochs postulates must often be made. This is not to say that there should not be strict requirements for demonstrating that a pathogen is the cause of a disease. Causality If one must make exceptions to Kochs Postulates, what type of evidence would one need to show that a pathogen is the cause of a disease? Remember that simply because the presence of a potential pathogen is strongly associated with a disease, that doesnt mean it is the cause of the disease. It may in fact be present more frequently in individuals with the disease because the disease causes changes in the relationship between the host and the potential pathogen which are favourable to the potential pathogen (a weakened immune system, for example). It may also be possible that the factor, which is causing the disease, also causes an increase in the presence of the potential pathogen.
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Assignment 1: Take a few minutes to work with a partner and write down how you would test whether the following pathogens are the cause of the disease described. NOTE: These are hypothetical scenarios involving made-up pathogens and diseases, although they may resemble known diseases. Case One: Chronic pre-weekend febrile fatigue syndrome An unusually large number of employees at a sporting goods manufacturing company have started calling in sick on Fridays. While originally attributed to low employee morale, the similarity of symptoms has captured attention by public health authorities. The vast majority of these employees report fever, aches, extreme fatigue, and headache. An inspection of the ventilation systems reveals that the employees who have called in sick most often are in the older part of the building with an outdated airconditioning system. A colleague of yours suspects that the mysterious outbreak of illness is being caused by a previously assumed nonpathogenic bacterium common in cooling systems Frigidus slimeii. You are unable to culture F. slimeii from samples taken from the sick employees noses and throats, although it is present in the buildings old cooling system. What would you do to establish whether F. slimeii is the cause of this disease? Case Two: Progressive degenerative neurological disease A strange increase in cases of fatal degenerative neurological disease has occurred in a pattern familiar to public health officials. Although not a perfect correlation, cases appear to be more prevalent among injection drug users and people with multiple sex partners. A colleague suggests to you that this pattern resembles that of a virus transmitted by exchange of body fluids. Nevertheless, attempts to isolate a virus from these patients have proved fruitless. How would you go about finding the potential pathogen and establishing whether it is the cause of the disease? Case Three: Severe pustulous feline-scratch infection Recently, there has been an upsurge in pus secreting infections of wounds resulting from pet cats. The infections have been extremely difficult to treat, and several have necessitated amputation. In an effort to culture and identify the bacterium causing these infections, you run into complications. The pus-filled wounds are full of bacteria of many different kinds. You are having extreme difficulty isolating a single type of bacterium associated with all cases of the disease. How would you proceed? What if you find a whole suite of bacteria associated with the infections; how would you establish that they as a community are the cause of the disease? Write answers on a separate sheet of paper. 1. Considering these scenarios, were there any techniques common to all three? 2. In each case, what facts did you find it important to establish to test whether the pathogen(s) was the cause of the disease? 3. What role, if any, did the timing of events play in establishing whether a pathogen was the cause of the disease? 4. In each case, how could you determine whether a pattern of association between the presence of the pathogen in victims and presence of the disease was strong enough to say that the pathogen caused the disease? 5 Develop a list of at least three criteria that you could use in a variety of situations to show whether a pathogen is the cause of a disease.
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Contemporary Epidemiology The strategies used by contemporary epidemiologists to uncover the causes of disease fall into several categories of experimental design. NOTE: The following descriptions are excerpted and/or adapted from Epidemiology in Medicine by Hennekens and Buring, 1987. Analytical Studies: Analytical studies are explicitly designed to test hypotheses about whether the risk of disease differs for individuals either exposed or not exposed to a particular factor. There are two primary types of analytical study design. 1. Case Control Studies a case group or series of patients who have a disease and a control group without the disease are selected and researchers compare the proportion of each group with exposure to the factor in question 2. Cohort Studies subjects are classified on the basis of the presence or absence of exposure to a particular factor and followed for a specific period of time to determine the development of disease in each group Assignment 2: Examine the simulated data provided. How might you analyze this data to determine whether Coxsackievirus B is a causal factor in the development of Type I diabetes? 1. Decide whether or not you will include all individuals observed or exclude some. If you decide to exclude some individuals, what is your rationale? Cross out the rows containing individuals you choose to exclude. 2. A common tool for analyzing data from case-control and cohort studies is the two by two table comparing exposure and presence of the disease. Using the blank two by two table as a guide, construct a similar table for the IDDM/Coxsackievirus B study and fill in the appropriate count values. 3. For two by two tables with count data, one usually calculates an odds ratio (OR) OR = (ad) #"(bc) The odds ratio is the ratio of odds of exposure among cases to the odds of exposure among controls. For example, an odds ratio of 3.4 would indicate that those individuals with exposure to the factor in this study were 3.4 times more likely to get the disease than individuals without exposure.
Calculate the odds ratio for your data.
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4.
In order to calculate statistical significance of the difference in odds between cases and controls, epidemiologists typically use the Chi-square test. Using the following instructions, calculate a Chi-square for your data, and determine whether the pattern observed is statistically significant.
The Chi-square tests for differences between observed and expected values for frequencies, so first we must calculate the expected values for each frequency in the two by two table. Expected values are calculated from row, column, and overall totals of the values in the table. The expected values represent what the values would be if the distribution were random. For each cell in the table, the expected value is calculated by the formula (Column total x Row total) / Total For instance, the expected value for the cell with the observed value 45, would be (50 x 58) / 100 = 29 The Chi-square statistic itself, denoted by the symbol $2 is described by the following formula:
"
For the data above, the Chi-square statistic is,
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Calculate the Chi-square statistic for your data:
Now that you have calculated the Chi-square statistic, you still haven't answered the question about how probable it is that the pattern we are observing could have occurred by chance alone. In order to answer that question, we will need four things: 1. Our Chi-square value calculated from the table 2. The degrees of freedom for our experiment 3. A probability level 4. A statistical table Degrees of freedom correspond roughly to the sample size or number of replicates for the experiment. In general, the greater the degrees of freedom, the more likely we will be able to show that the pattern observed is not likely to be due to chance alone. For a Chi-square test, the degrees of freedom or "df" are calculated as follows: Chi-square: df = (number of rows - 1)(number of columns - 1) NOTE: In some tables, the symbol for df may also be represented by the Greek letter %. The probability level describes the probability that the pattern we observe could have occurred by chance alone. The probability level can be set at whatever value one wants, but the most widely accepted value is 0.05. A statistical analysis that meets a probability level of 0.05 demonstrates that there is only a 0.05 or 1/20 chance that the observed pattern is due to chance alone. The probability level is often referred to as the p-value or &"- value. Once one has calculated the value of the Chi-square statistic and the degrees of freedom, and decided the probability level, it is time to refer to a statistical table. Use the table to find the value of the statistic for the df (%) and probability level (p or &) that you have calculated. If the value of the Chi-square statistic from the table is less than the Chi-square value you calculated, then your results are said to be statistically significant.
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Using the part of the table for Chi-square values above, which only describes values for 1 degree of freedom, determine whether the pattern observed in your data is statistically significant. Chi-square (from table) = Chi-square(calculated) = Significant? yes/no
5.) What conclusions can you make based on your data and statistical analyses? How well do these data meet the criteria for establishing causality previously discussed?
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Expectations
SAFETY CONCERNS When one is working in a microbiological laboratory there are special rules that must be in strict observance. Working in any laboratory setting stipulates a certain conduct of behaviour and where behavioural practices can affect the out come of experiments and even one's own safety and the safety of peers.
SPECIAL RULES FOR A MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY

!" Leave all coats, books and bags that are not directly involved with the lab at the back or side of the room to avoid contamination. !" Students with long hair should tie this back to avoid contaminating the work area !" coats are strongly recommended Lab !" Always wash hands with soap and water before leaving the lab. !" not put pencils, pens etc in your mouth and avoid touching you eyes after handling samples Do !" NOT REMOVE CULTURES FROM THE LAB!!!! (Your instructor will show where used DO lab apparatus may be placed. !" TREAT ALL CULTURES AS POTENTIAL PATHOGENS!!!! If a spill occurs, flood the area with the disinfectant provided and call the instructor. !" AT THE END OF YOUR PROCEDURE WIPE ALL SURFACES WITH THE DISINFECTANT PROVIDED.
Before leaving the lab, ensure that all equipment is in the proper location and ensure that water taps and gas valves are turned off.
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PRE-LAB TALK AND INTRODUCTION TO THE ASEPTIC METHOD (LESSON SEQUENCE) 1. 2. 3. 4. Have students brainstorm what rules should be observed in a laboratory (this should be a review, since it should have been covered in the Grade 9 or Grade 10 Science curricula. Review general Lab Safety rules that will be observed during their lab on aseptic techniques. Discuss the special rules that are mandatory when conducting and executing a microbiology laboratory. Demonstrate the procedure outlined below on how to sterilize an inoculation loop and transfer a sample of bacterial culture with this loop to an agar plate. PROCEDURE 4.1 Secure the Bunsen burner to a utility stand, then light it and adjust the flame. 4.2 Take the inoculation loop and place it in the blue portion of the flame.Heat the loop until it is red hot. When it reaches this state, withdraw the red-hot loop from the flame. 4.3 Do not place the now sterilized inoculation loop on any other surface as this will cause it to become contaminated. If the loop touches the bench, repeat steps 1&2 4.4 Uncap the vial and use the loop to collect a sample of the contents (i.e. skim the surface of the "culture"). This sample is called the inoculum. 4.5 Recap the vial and gently separate the petri dish lids. 4.6 Take the loop with the inoculum and gently streak the agar, taking care not to puncture the surface of the agar plate (refer to Figures below).
AGAR MEDIA
Fig 1. Not a good streak as it is too thick
Fig 2.
A GOOD THIN STREAK
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PART A 1. Students will follow and review briefly the safety rules for a microbiology lab. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Students will retrieve one agar plate (care being taken not to open them so as to expose the agar to the environment and hence collect other air-borne bacterial spores). The agar plate will be "sectioned" into fifths with the wax pencil. Using separate plastic disposable cups, students will be asked to provide an oral rinse sample using the bottled water provided. They will collect this sample in a sample cup provided. Students will execute the sterilization process of the inoculation loop according to the protocol that was demonstrated by the teacher (from the PRELAB talk). The sterilized inoculation loop will be used to transfer a sample of the oral rinse sample onto the five sections of the agar plates. Gently separate the petri dish lids and use the loop with the inoculum to gently streak the agar in the five sections, taking care not to puncture the surface of the agar plate. After the agar plate has been streaked, close the lid. (from the supply) soaked in four different antibacterial solutions, one on each of four sections (that is, four sections should have one disc soaked in a different antibacterial solution). As a control, place a disc soaked in distilled water on the fifth section). 11. Use masking tape to secure the lids of the Petri dishes, invert and place in an area that is at one of the desired temperatures (X'C) . 12. Repeat steps 7-11, four times and place each agar dish in the other locations at the desired temperatures. 13. Label the "prepared" Petri dish with your initials and the date. 14. Monitor (observe) bacterial growth on the agar plates over a 3-4 day period or according to the teacher's instructions. NOTES: After 24-48 hours growth of the oral bacteria may occur. An example of this growth is provided below. CAUTION: DO NOT OPEN THE PETRI DISH WHEN THERE IS BACTERIAL GROWTH, AS THERE ARE BACTERIAL SPORES. VIEW THE GROWTH THROUGH THE COVER.
Agar plate with different bacterial colonies (represented by different shapes)growing on the surface of the agar.
10. Open the lid gently and have an appointed student, lab technician, the teacher or instructor place four discs
AGAR MEDIUM
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During this activity you will conduct an independent investigation in infectious disease. You will use the scientific method to carry out your investigation. Scientific Method Scientific method is the method scientists use to answer questions. The scientific method follows the steps listed below.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Choose a question. Design a hypothesis (a possible answer) to the question. Make testable predictions based on the hypothesis. Design experiments to answer the question and see whether the predictions are met. Perform experiments and collect data. Analyze data including graphs and tables if necessary. Determine whether your results support or falsify your hypothesis. Additional conclusions. Present your investigation to the class.
Although the scientific method is written as a series of distinct steps above, it is actually a process where all steps influence each other. For example, the question one chooses is influenced by what materials are available and what experiments can be performed. Thus, it is often impossible to do steps 1 and 4 separately from one another. Similarly, once an experiment is performed, it may become obvious immediately that the experimental design is flawed, which will necessitate redesign of steps 1 4 without completion of steps 6-8. Read through steps 1 4 before beginning. Step 1 - Choose a question - Working as a group, brainstorm questions you would like to answer. You can either propose your own questions, or use any of the questions provided below. How do the number and variety of bacteria compare between
!" !" !" !" !" !" Different areas of skin (lips, extremities, belly button)? The mouths of smokers vs non-smokers? The armpits of men vs women? A dishrag versus a dish sponge? A carpet versus tile or hardwood floor? different plant soils? !" areas of the bathroom / kitchen / bedroom?
How resistant are bacteria from your body to antibiotics, antiseptics or spices? Which household locations contain a larger number or variety of bacteria: Door knobs, toilet seat, table top, water faucet, etc? How do the number and variety of bacteria compare between !" Washed and unwashed hands? !" Hands washed with regular vs anti-bacterial soaps? !" Hands washed with soap vs cleaned with rubbing alcohol? After you have a list of questions you have brainstormed - choose one of your questions to answer during this investigation. When choosing which question you will answer, keep the following in mind !" Is the question one that can be answered using the scientific method? !" In order for you to use scientific method to answer a question, there must be a way to make predictions. For example, questions that are opinions or preferences can no be answered using the scientific method. !" Is there a way to measure whether or not your predictions are met?
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!" Is this a question that you do not yet know the answer to and which would tell you something interesting or useful? !" Can the question be answered using the materials available in the classroom? Your teacher will give you a list of supplies and materials you can use. !" Does your teacher feel this question is appropriate and safe to answer in the classroom?
Write your question in the space below
Step 2 Hypothesis Formation Design a hypothesis related to your question. Remember that a hypothesis is a possible answer to the question. A hypothesis is also often described as an educated guess. A guess, because you do not know in advance whether your hypothesis will be correct or not, and educated because you base it on the knowledge you already have. For example if the chosen question is - How does the number of bacteria compare between washed and unwashed hands? A reasonable hypothesis based on existing knowledge could be There will be more bacteria on unwashed hands than on washed hands. You can also design a series of hypotheses (different possible answers) for the question. This technique is often used because one way of adding support to a hypothesis is to falsify other possible hypotheses (answers). For example, for the above question, you could have two different hypotheses A There will be more bacteria on unwashed hands than on washed hands. B There will be fewer bacteria on unwashed hands than on washed hands. Write your hypothesis (or hypotheses) below.
Step 3 - Make predictions based on your hypothesis. Predictions are experimental outcomes that will be true if your hypothesis is correct. You may want to consider experimental design when making your predictions (see step 4 below).
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Predictions can easily be written as if then statements. For example for hypothesis A above, a possible prediction would be If there are more bacteria on unwashed hands than washed hands then more colonies will grow on a plate swabbed from unwashed hands than on a plate swabbed from washed hands. It is good to have more than one prediction based on more than one experimental design. The more different ways you can support (or falsify) a hypothesis, the better. Write your prediction(s) below.
Step 4 - Design an experiment to answer your question. You might want to consider the following when designing your experiments. !" What types of cultures will you take? !" Who and/or where will you take them from? !" How many places and/or individuals will you test? For example for the hypothesis we have been working with we might decide to have five people wash their right hand but not the left hand. We could then swab the palms of each hand. We could then streak the swabs onto a plate. Or, we could have 5 people was their left thumb but not the right thumb. We could then have each person touch their thumbs onto a plate. !" What type of media will you use? If you wanted to look at most bacteria you could use LB plates. If you wanted to distinguish between coliforms and non coliforms you could use EMB plates. !" How will you measure the variety of bacteria? !" Colony morphology? !" Gram staining? !" How will you measure the number of bacteria? !" Counting colonies of each different type? !" How will you ensure an equal sample size in all samples? !" What controls will you include? For the above example, we might want to use an uninoculated swab to streak a plate to be sure the swabs and plates are not contaminated. If you are using a differential medium or stain, include a known positive reaction and a known negative reaction to be sure the medium or stain is working as expected. Note that as you design your experiment, you may find that you can not answer the questions you originally set out to answer. If this is the case, you can modify your question, hypothesis, and predictions, or choose a new question. It does not indicate a failure to have to choose a new question. Rather, it is a success and the sign of a great scientist to recognize that the question was inappropriate and redesign it.
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On a separate piece of paper write out an experimental design Step 5 Perform experiments and collect data When collecting data, it is not necessary to write it in the format you will hand in. You will reorganize and rewrite your data in a neat format to hand in. For now, however, it is important to keep you results well labeled and dated. For example, patent lawyers often check scientists notebooks when trying to decide who should get patent rights on a given result. Be sure to note the results from each experiment that you performed. Be sure the results are clearly labelled and dated so that later you will know what the results refer to. Be sure to include the results of controls. Note all your results on a separate piece of paper, including results of any controls. Step 6 - Analyze data A good first step to analyzing your data is to organize all the results you have noted while performing your experiments. Tables and graphs can be a good way of summarizing your data. For example for the experiment proposed above you could summarize your results in a table something like this. Colonies from unwashed thumb Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Person 4 Person 5 20 15 2 35 19 Colonies from washed thumb 17 20 0 19 20
After organizing your data, you will want to perform some calculations or graphs to see if your data support or falsify your hypothesis. It might be useful to add a column showing the change in number of colonies following thumb washing. It could also be useful to calculate an average. Colonies from unwashed thumb Person 1 Person 2 Person 3 Person 4 Person 5 Average 20 15 2 35 19 18.2 Colonies from washed thumb 17 20 0 19 20 15.2 Change in number of colonies after thumb washing -3 +5 -2 -16 +1
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Statistics In a real scientific setting, in order to determine whether your data support or falsify your hypothesis, you would need to perform a statistical analysis to determine whether the difference between your results above was significant. Summarize your results on a separate piece of paper, including any tables, graphs, or calculations you feel are appropriate. Step 7 Decide whether your results support or falsify your hypothesis. Results of an experiment never prove a hypothesis. Hypotheses can never be proven. Instead, experiments support hypotheses. The more supporting evidence is obtained, the more the hypothesis is supported. This is because no matter how much the data support the hypothesis, there are still other possible explanations that we have not yet tested. Hypotheses can however be falsified. Results can definitely show that a hypothesis is false. Note that it is not considered bad or a failure to prove a hypothesis false. By proving a hypothesis false, you eliminate one possible answer to your question. Further you add to support to other competing hypotheses. Scientists add support to their hypotheses by proving competing hypotheses (other answers to the same question) false. Often the results of an experiment neither support nor falsify a hypothesis. There are many ways in which this happens. !" Controls show that one or more of the reagents were not working. !" Controls show that the experiment was not designed to answer the intended question. !" "Results show that the experiment was not designed to answer the intended question. When the results of an experiment neither support nor falsify a hypothesis it is necessary to repeat the experiment (if there is a problem with the reagents), redesign the experiment (if it is not answering the intended question), or sometimes even to rethink the question and hypothesis. As was the case with falsifying hypotheses, this is not bad science or a failure. Rather it is good science to recognize the problems with experiments and questions and to repeat and redesign them as necessary. Below write a brief paragraph summarizing how your results support or falsify your hypothesis. You should also include how you would repeat or redesign your experiment to answer the intended question. Or if necessary, write a new question and hypothesis.
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Step 8 Additional conclusions Your first major conclusion was whether your results supported or falsified your hypothesis, or if neither, what you needed to change in your experiments. Some additional things to consider when reporting your conclusions: !" How do your results fit with what is already known about this question? If your results are contradictory to what is already known, comment on what might explain !" What experiments could you perform to help clear up or explain any unexpected results? !" What new questions did the results bring up? !" What would you do next if you were to continue this work?
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PASTEURIZATION: An American Look Milk is an excellent medium for bacterial growth. It contains carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins, and water. Under the proper conditions, milk can serve as a bacterial carrier. Even when drawn from the udder of a healthy cow, milk contains many microbes. Before milk reaches the consumer, it is further contaminated by a number of other sources. Unless the milk is promptly cooled to 10C, the bacteria it contains will multiply rapidly and make it turn sour. Milk is most commonly contaminated by: #" Diseased cows. Milk drawn from an infected udder contains pathogenic microbes. #" Unclean milking areas. The sanitary conditions of the milking area influence the microbial flora of the air. If the area is dusty or dirty, there is a strong possibility that the milk will become contaminated. #" Improper or poor storage of milk in storage tanks or milk cans. #" Dairy workers with infected or unwashed hands. #" Unsanitary milking equipment. Milk cans, milking machines, storage tanks, and other equipment will contaminate milk if not properly cleaned and sanitized.
DISEASE There are three cattle diseases which can be transmitted to people through contaminated milk: brucellosis, Q fever, and bovine tuberculosis. Subsequent contamination may occur during the milking or storage process. Milk can then be a carrier of such diseases as botulism, diphtheria, bacillary dysentery, septic sore throat, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, and undulant fever. In the North America today there is little danger of epidemics of such diseases. Boards of health have set up strict local and state controls over the production and pasteurization of milk. The milk producer must now meet a number of rigid standards in order to protect the consumer. These standards include: Examination of cows by inspectors at periodic intervals Regular inspection of barns and equipment Health examinations of workers Pasteurization Proper cooling of milk before and after pasteurization Maximum bacterial counts permitted in milk, which is to be sold Dating of milk containers also helps protect the consumer. PASTEURIZATION Pasteurization was named after Louis Pasteur, the founder of modern bacteriology. It is a process, which destroys pathogenic or harmful bacteria. Milk boiled for twenty minutes effectively kills all bacteria. However, this affects the vitamin and fat content of the milk, not to mention its taste. Pasteurization kills about ninety percent of the bacteria found in milk, while getting rid of all the pathoGenic bacteria. Thus pasteurization has been judged more desirable than boiling. We have all heard of pasteurization, but how does it actually work? There are in fact two methods of pasteurizing milk. One method is to draw milk from the cow and immediately
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chill it to a temperature below 10C. Later, when the milk reaches the pasteurization plant, it is heated to 63C for thirty minutes. Finally, it is rapidly cooled back down to 10C. This process is known as the low-temperature holding (LTH) method. The second method is called the high-temperature short-time (HTST), or flash, method. Milk is made to flow in a thin film over electrically heated metal plates. It is heated to 71C for twenty to thirty seconds, then rapidly cooled. BACTERIAL COUNTS To further protect the consumer, government and private health technicians often conduct bacterial counts on milk. Taking a sample of milk and diluting it with sterile water make bacterial counts. Next a pour plate is made, using a suitable medium and agar. The plate is incubated, and the bacteria multiply rapidly. From each bacterium present in the original milk sample, a colony will develop. The colonies are counted and an estimate is made of the number of bacteria. To make the counting easier, the Petri dish is divided into squares, or a magnifying device called a Petri dish counter is used. Counting the colonies on the plate is known as the plate count, as seen in the following diagram.
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State sanitary codes have established specific minimum requirements for different grades of milk. Their criteria are based upon conditions at the various dairy farms and plants, and on the results of chemical and bacteriological tests on the milk. Grade A pasteurized milk is drawn from disease-free cows. It has a maximum bacterial count of 200,000 per milliliter after milking and handling. Following pasteurization and at time of delivery the bacterial count must not exceed 30,000 per milliliter. Certified milk is produced according to the strictest standards of the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions. These standards are so exacting that even raw milk can be delivered directly to the consumer. The bacterial count of this milk is no more than 10,000 per milliliter; it is the purest milk available.
Website investigation. Visit either the Municipal board of Health website of the Health Canada Board website and Investigate local board of health regulations concerning the protection of milk.
Procedure
1. Keep the milk in the refrigerator until ready to use. If not homogenized, mix thoroughly. 2. Sterilize the Petri dish, cover, and pipette. Sterilize the agar. 3. Pour the melted agar into the sterile Petri dish. 4. Using the sterile pipette, place one milliliter (1 ml) of milk in the dish of melted agar. 5. Place the cover on the dish and carefully shake the contents. 6. With a pencil, divide the cover of the Petri dish in halves, quarters, and eighths as shown.
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1. Incubate for four or five days at room temperature. 2. Using a magnifying glass, count the number of bacterial colonies in one section (one eighth) of the dish. Multiply the number by eight to get the number of bacteria per milliliter of milk.
Observations and Conclusions

1. How many bacteria did you find in 1 mL of milk?
2. Explain why the above number is only an estimate. 3. Is your count within the number allowed in your province for that particular grade of milk?
4. Why are there so many bacteria in the milk even though it is certified or pasteurized?
5. Why is the plate count too slow a method to prevent a quantity of contaminated milk from getting on the market?
6. How is the bacterial count useful in checking disease spread by pathogenic bacteria in milk?
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REVIEW QUESTIONS Provide complete answers to each of the following. 1. What is meant by a bacterial count?
2. List four ways in which bacteria may contaminate milk.
3. Name six diseases which may be transmitted by contaminated milk.
4. Explain why milk should be refrigerated when not in use.
5. What parts do boards of health play in the control of milk?
6. What measures are taken to prevent disease being spread by bacteria in milk?
7. What is pasteurization?
8. Describe the two pasteurization methods.
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9.
Does pasteurization kill all of the bacteria in milk?
10. Why is it necessary to take frequent bacterial counts of milk samples?
11. Describe the technique used to make a bacterial count.
12. Why do we count the colonies to get the number of bacteria?
13. Name and describe the differences between Grade A milk and certified milk.
14. What are the maximum bacterial counts allowed for the grades of milk in your state?
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Control and Elimination The control of pathogens is where a great bulk of medical research funds are being spent. Two major categories of bacterial destruction are physical agents and chemical agents. Physical Agent Note: The lethal temperature varies in microorganisms. The time required to kill depends on the number of organisms, species, nature of the product being heated, pH, and temperature. Whenever heat is used to control microbial growth inevitably both time and temperature are considered. Sterilization (boiling, autoclaving, hot air oven) kills all microorganisms with heat; commonly employed in canning, bottling, and other sterile packaging procedures. Pasteurization is the use of mild heat to reduce the number of microorganisms in a product or food. In the case of pasteurization of milk the time and temperature depend on killing potential pathogens that are transmitted in milk, i.e., staphylococci, streptococci, Brucella abortus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. For pasteurzation of milk: batch method: 63C for 30 minutes; flash method: 71 C for 15 seconds. Low temperature (refrigeration and freezing): Most organisms grow very little or not at all at 0C. Store perishable foods at low temperatures to slow rate of growth and consequent spoilage (e.g. milk). Low temperatures are not bactericidal. Psychrotrophs, rather than true psychrophiles, are the usual cause of food spoilage in refrigerated foods. Lysteria moncytogenes is of great concern in refrigerated foods and has been the topic of recent news articles and FDA action. Drying (removal of H2O): Most microorganisms cannot grow at reduced water activity (Aw < 0.90). Often used to preserve foods (e.g. fruits, grains, etc.). Methods involve removal of water from product by heat, evaporation, freeze-drying, addition of salt or sugar. Irradiation (microwave, UV, x-ray): destroys microorganisms as described under sterilization. Many spoilage organisms are easily killed by irradiation. In some parts of Europe, fruits and vegetables are irradiated to increase their shelf life up to 500 percent. The practice has not been accepted in the U.S. Although the FDA has approved its use for meat. Public attitudes are starting to change with the recent food borne outbreaks and positive articles about irradiation from reputable sources.
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Chemical Agent Antimicrobial agents are chemicals that kill or inhibit the growth microorganisms. Antimicrobial agents include chemical preservatives and antiseptics, as well as drugs used in the treatment of infectious diseases of plants and animals. Antimicrobial agents may be of natural or synthetic origin, and they may have a static or cidal effect on microorganisms. Types of antimicrobial agents Antiseptics: microbicidal agents harmless enough to be applied to the skin and mucous membrane; should not be taken internally. Examples: mercurials, silver nitrate, iodine solution, alcohols, detergents. Disinfectants: Agents that kill microorganisms, but not necessarily their spores,not safe for application to living tissues; they are used on inanimate objects such as tables, floors, utensils, etc. Examples: chlorine, hypochlorites, chlorine compounds, lye, copper sulphate, quaternary ammonium compounds. Note: disinfectants and antiseptics are distinguished on the basis of whether they are safe for application to mucous membranes. Often, safety depends on the concentration of the compound. For example, sodium hypochlorite (chlorine), as added to water is safe for drinking, but "chlorox" , an excellent disinfectant, is hardly safe to drink.
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Antibiotics Chemotherapeutic agents: antimicrobial agents of synthetic origin useful in the treatment of microbial or viral disease. Examples: sulfonilamides, isoniazid, ethambutol, AZT, chloramphenicol. Note that the microbiologist's definition of a chemotherapeutic agent requires that the agent be used for antimicrobial purposes and so excludes synthetic agents used for therapy against diseases that are not of microbial origin. Antibiotics: antimicrobial agents produced by microorganisms that kill or inhibit other microorganisms. This is the microbiologist's definition. A more broadened definition of an antibiotic includes any chemical of natural origin (from any type of cell) which has the effect to kill or inhibit the growth of other types cells. Since most clinically-useful antibiotics are produced by microorganisms and are used to kill or inhibit infectious Bacteria, we will follow the classic definition. Antibiotics are low molecular-weight (non-protein) molecules produced as secondary metabolites, mainly by microorganisms that live in the soil. Among the molds, the notable antibiotic producers are Penicillium and Cephalosporium , which are the main source of the penicillin and its relatives. In the Bacteria, the Actinomycetes, notably Streptomyces species, produce a variety of types of antibiotics including streptomycin, erythromycin, and the tetracyclines. Endospore-forming Bacillus species produce polypeptide antibiotics such as polymyxin and bacitracin.
Concept Map Activity. Using the Antibiotic Table, add the antibiotic that will destroy anyone of the pathogens in your concept map.
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Antibiotic Table Chemical class Examples Biological source Spectrum (effective against) Mode of action Inhibits steps in cell wall (peptidoglycan) synthesis and murein assembly Inhibits steps in cell wall (peptidoglycan) synthesis and murein assembly Suicide inhibitor of betalactamases Inhibits steps in cell wall (peptidoglycan) synthesis and murein assembly Inhibits steps in cell wall (peptidoglycan) synthesis and murein assembly Inhibit translation (protein synthesis) Inhibit translation (protein synthesis) Inhibits steps in murein (peptidoglycan) biosynthesis and assembly
Beta-lactams (penicillins and cephalosporins)
Penicillin G, Cephalothin
Penicillium notatum and Cephalosporium species
Gram-positive bacteria
Semisynthetic penicillin
Ampicillin, Amoxycillin
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
Clavulanic Acid
Clavamox is clavulanic acid plus amoxycillin
Streptomyces clavuligerus
Monobactams
Aztreonam
Chromobacter violaceum
Carboxypenems
Imipenem
Streptomyces cattleya
Aminoglycosides
Streptomycin
Streptomyces griseus
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria esp. Pseudomonas Gram-positive bacteria, esp. Staphylococcus aureus
Gentamicin
Micromonospora species
Glycopeptides
Vancomycin
Streptomyces orientales
Lincomycins
Clindamycin
Streptomyces lincolnensis
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Inhibits translation
esp. anaerobic Bacteroides Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria not enterics, Neisseria,Legionella, Mycoplasma Gram-negative bacteria
(protein synthesis) Inhibits translation (protein synthesis) Damages cytoplasmic membranes Inhibits steps in murein (peptidoglycan) biosynthesis and assembly Inactivate membranes containing sterols Inactivate membranes containing sterols Inhibits transcription (eubacterial RNA polymerase) Inhibit translation (protein synthesis) Inhibit translation (protein synthesis) Inhibits translation (protein synthesis)
Macrolides
Erythromycin
Streptomyces erythreus
Polypeptides
Polymyxin
Bacillus polymyxa
Bacitracin
Bacillus subtilis
Gram-positive bacteria
Polyenes
Amphotericin
Streptomyces nodosus
Fungi
Nystatin
Streptomyces noursei Fungi (Candida) Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, Mycobacterium tuberculosis Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, Rickettsias Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, Rickettsias Ehrlichia, Borellia Streptomyces venezuelae Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
Rifamycins
Rifampicin
Streptomyces mediterranei
Tetracyclines
Tetracycline
Streptomycesspecies
Semisynthetic tetracycline
Doxycycline
Chloramphenicol
Chloramphenicol
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CHEMICAL METHODS OF DESTRUCTION OF BACTERIA CHEMICAL USES Phenol (carbolic acid) Lysol Disinfects instruments, utensils, clothing, linen, sinks, toilets, excreta, floors; protective handwash for health care personnel Disinfects excreta, sinks, toilets, utensils; effective as d general disinfectant
COMMON RECOMMENDED STRENGTH 5% standard disinfectant
2%-5%
Bichloride of mercury
Disinfects instruments, glassware, rubber articles; used in antiseptic ointments Formaldehyde (For- Disinfects excreta, linen, dishes, malin) instruments, rubber gloves; tissue preservation and fumigation Chlorine Disinfects water supply, sewage, pools, bedpans, toilets, floors Alcohol: ethyl or Preparation of skin prior to an injection isopropyl or operation (scrubbing up); disinfects thermometers Hydrogen peroxide Cleanses skin wounds, irrigates wounds; mouthwash, gargle Iodine Treats parasitic skin diseases, disinfects water, air (iodine vapours), food, utensils Mercurochrome Wounds, abrasions, cuts Metaphen Skin Argyrol (silver corn- Infection of mucous membranes of pound) eye, nose, throat, bladder (mild antiseptic) Hexylresorcinol Wounds, mouthwash, gargle
.1% (1 to 1000) 1.5%10% Varies with amount of organic matter present 70% 3%20% 2% 1%-2.5% 2%5%
10%-25%
33 1/3%
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PHYSICAL AGENTS FOR Destruction OF MICROORGANISMS

METHOD DRY HEAT: Hot-air oven APPLICATION LIMITATIONS Destroys materials which cannot tolerate high temperatures for prolonged periods of time The size of the incinerator must be adequate enough to incinerate the largest load quickly and completely. There is air pollution.
Sterilizing materials damaged by or impermeable to moisture, like glass, metal, oils, sharp instruments
Incineration
Destruction and disposal of contaminated objects that cannot be reused
FILTRATION Fibreglass (HEPA) filters Membrane filters MOIST HEAT: Autoclave
Disinfection of air within an Expensive enclosure, such as in a cubicle or room; Sterilization of heat-sensitive biological fluids Biological fluids must be relatively free of suspended particles.
Sterilization of instruments, linens, liquids and other media, treatment trays and utensils
Ineffective against heat-sensitive materials and against microorganisms in materials impervious to steam
Boiling water or free-flowing Sanitizes bedding, clothing and Cannot assure complete sterilization after one steam dishes, and destroys nonspore- exposure forming pathogens PHYSICAL CLEANING: Ultrasonic waves Effective in decontaminating delicate cleaning instruments Washing Hands, skin, objects Reduces but does not kill all microorganisms RADIATION: Ionizing radiations Sterilization of heat-sensitive medical equipment and other surgical materials Expensive and requires special facilities for use This procedure is not effective alone, but is an adjunct to enhance the effectiveness of other methods.
Ultraviolet light
Must penetrate to be effective (does not pass Disinfect surfaces and to control through transparent glass or opaque objects; airborne infection irritate eyes and skin; low penetration)
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MicroBan Toys Activity On a daily basis, we are exposed to viruses and bacteria. Although your mother always said that the best way to prevent disease was to wash your hands with soap and water, some manufacturers would like you to believe that they have something better than just plain soap. Recently, a number of antibacterial agents have been added to a variety of products, including soap, toys, and toothpaste. Do these antigerm chemicals really work? Or are these agents possibly leading to the evolution of even more harmful species of bacteria? This CNN clip discusses the introduction of Microban, an antibacterial agent, into Hasbro's Playskool plastic toy line. The antibacterial agents are incorporated into the plastic itself. Many parents seem to think that buying "germ toys" is a good idea, even if the toys are slightly more expensive. Infectious disease experts and pediatricians don't necessarily agree. Viruses, which are not killed by "germ toys," are far more likely to cause disease than bacteria, and bacteria are not communicable through contact with toys (except in rare circumstances). The teacher will need to download the following link, and show the class so a discussion can ensue and the following questions can be answered. Resource Link: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/web_video/toys.ram Q1: What are the differences between viruses and bacteria? Q2: How do antibiotics work? Q3: In the clip Dr. Fisher states that exposure to bacteria "is not the worst thing in the world for a normal healthy kid." What do you think she means by this statement? Stretching Your Knowledge: Debate Q1: You are a journalist researching antibacterial toys. Since opinions differ, you must research both sides. What are some of the general public's concerns about antibacterial toys? What are scientists' concerns? Why might there be a discrepancy? How do advertisements affect public opinion? Instead of the student answering these questions, you may wish to have the students engage in a class debate.
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Answers and Tips Teaching Tips and Discussion Points !" The widespread use of antibiotics has become a concern to physicians, scientists, and health agencies. Facilitate a discussion of the differences between viruses and bacteria, the ways antibiotics work to prevent the growth of bacteria, and the proper and improper use of antibiotics. !" The scientists and experts interviewed disagree with Hasbro's contention that the "Germ Toys" really are effective in preventing infection, and that exposure to bacteria is harmful to children. Yet, the parents seem to agree with Hasbro. This difference of opinion could lead to a discussion about the need to help the public make intelligent choices based on facts. !" Spark a discussion of the differences between an antibiotic and an antibacterial agent. Antibacterial agents include disinfectants and antiseptics, compounds that kill or inhibit bacteria. Antibiotics work by disrupting certain bacterial metabolic processes. They are not effective against viral agents. Q1: What are the differences between viruses and bacteria? A1: Viruses are essentially hereditary material (nucleic acids) enclosed in a protective protein coat; need to grow inside of cells to copy themselves. Bacteria, on the other hand, are living single cell organisms classified as eubacteria or archaebacteria. Q2: How do antibiotics work? A2: Antibiotics may work to interrupt a metabolic pathway in bacteria or to prevent bacteria from making their cell wall. Enzymes or protein-making machinery are usually inhibited and, thus, the pathway cannot go to completion. These antibacterial chemicals do not work against viruses because they do not share the same proteins that the antibiotics act against. Q3: In the clip Dr. Fisher states that exposure to bacteria "is not the worst thing in the world for a normal healthy kid." What do you think she means by this statement? A3: Most bacteria, even those capable of causing disease, live in a human host without causing any disease. However, bacteria can take advantage of their host and undergo a population surge if the host's resistance is reduced through poor nutrition, fatigue, or other infections. We are exposed to a number of pathogens on a regular basis that cause us no harm if we are in good health. In addition, prior exposure to pathogens can help build up a person's immunity. Stretching Your Knowledge Q1: You are a journalist researching antibacterial toys. Since opinions differ, you must research both sides. What are some of the general public's concerns about antibacterial toys? What are scientists' concerns? Why might there be a discrepancy? How do advertisements affect public opinion? A1: Answers will vary. A discrepancy might exist between scientific and public opinion because the general public might not be fully informed about the nature of bacteria or aware of how science works (e.g., the scientific method, analysis of all data, substantiating claims). Links that may help with a debate: Discussion of current Microban Technology: http://www.microban.com Hasbro's website, which discusses the introduction of "Germ toys": http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/ news2/hasbro.antibacterial.html Evidence that germ fighting chemicals could create harmful bacteria: http://europe.cnn.com/HEALTH/9808/05/ antibacterial.warning/index.html
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Personal Hygiene Microorganisms can be transmitted by direct contact with a person, direct contact with a carrier, or by indirect contact with a patient through air, fomites, food, or hands. Taking chemicals to prevent and inhibit bacterial growth is not the only way to protect one self from harmful pathogens. One of the most effective techniques is the keeping good personal hygiene and practising asepsis. This not only protects your own health but lessens the spread of pathogens to others as well. Clothes, hair, and skin should be kept clean and in good condition. Healthcare workers, people preparing food, day care workers, geriaritric workers should all be very careful about their personal hygiene. Personal hygiene care includes: !" Daily showers with a mild deodorant soap !" Frequent shampooing of hair !" The use of a nongreasy lubricant or moisturizing cream or lotion to pre vent excessive drying !" Fingernails kept short and clean !" Simple hairstyle, so frequent touching or fixing with the hands is avoided !" Long or unruly hair kept up in a hairnet !" Proper and thorough hand washing always before and after patient con tact In respiratory infections, it is not possible to destroy all the organisms while they are still in the nose and throat; these are bound to reach the air. As we have learned, covering the mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing can help prevent the spread of organisms. Other measures which decrease the number of microorganisms in the air are the following: !" Limit the number of persons in a room. !" Remove bacteria from the floor and furniture by damp dusting. Floors can also be swept with oil-treated sawdust. !" Handle linens in a manner that will prevent raising dust. !" Introduce fresh air and sunlight whenever possible. !" Use individual cubicles or rooms with windows. !" Remove bacteria from the air by filtration, ultraviolet light, and germicidal vapours. Masks which cover both the nose and mouth are of some value in preventing the transfer of bacteria. After use, masks should be disposed of promptly. Fomites (singular: fomes) are substances other than food that absorb and transmit infectious material. Examples of fomites are linens, clothing, dishes, bedpans, basins, thermometers, and other equipment and personal articles. The health care professional has the major responsibility for preventing infection by fomites. Prevention may be accomplished by properly disinfecting all fomites, and by bagging and discarding disposable items. It is also important to use individual equipment for each patient; use disposable equipment when indicated. Place soiled linens and clothing in bags to be sent to the laundry. Infection may be traced to food consumption. Methods of preventing the spread of infection through food are simple and effective. Preventive methods involve proper disposal of uneaten foods and the use of high-quality and un spoiled food. Proper cooking and storage of foods, sanitary methods of preparing foods, and frequent health examinations for food handlers are also important. The kitchen area and utensils must be kept clean.
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Right Angle Organizer

The following is called a Right-Angle Organizer. It is designed to help you explore any thoughts you may regarding ideas discussed in class. That is, how may these ideas be applied to other phenomena that you may have observed in everyday life?
2 1
Section 1: Section 2: Section 3: Section 4:
Write down one of the factors that define good personal hygiene. How does this promote good personal hygiene? Why would you not want to do the opposite? Choose any key point from Section 2, and write it here/ Write a few words on how this relates to you personally.
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Immune response to a particular pathogen. Modify the concept map created in the last activity to reflect how the body may react to a particular pathogen that was explored in the Who Am I activity. On this concept map, make the following additions: !" How does the pathogen enter the body? !" Which organ cells are affected.? !" Are memory cells made in response to an invasion by that particular pathogen? !" Show how the immune response works for that particular pathogen. !" Which one of the following can be used to destroy the pathogen: antiseptic, disinfectant, antibiotic, antiviral? !" If you answered an antibiotic, which one would be used to fight the pathogen Create concept map additions for the following: Influenza, AIDS and one other disorder. You will need to work in a group and successfully research the answers to the preceding questions before attempting to create the concept map.
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Transmission of Pathogens Divide the classroom into sections, so that there is a section for each of the following types of pathogens: 1. insect-borne; 2. air borne; 3. water-borne; 4. sexually transmitted; 5. food-borne. Provide each of the students with a pathogen card. This card will have information about the disease caused by the pathogen. The students will then need to vote on what mode of transmission the pathogen utilizes: insect-borne; air borne; water-borne; sexually transmitted; food-borne. Once a vote has been taken, the student with that card must go to the section of the room that has been reserved for their type of pathogens.
Pathogen Cards
Malaria: Malaria is a serious, sometimes fatal, disease caused by a parasite. There are four kinds of malaria that can infect humans. Humans get malaria from the bite of a malariainfected mosquito. When a mosquito bites an infected person, it ingests microscopic malaria parasites found in the persons blood. Symptoms of malaria include fever and flu-like illness, including shaking chills, headache, muscle aches, and tiredness. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may also occur. Malaria may cause anemia and jaundice (yellow coloring of the skin and eyes) because of the loss of red blood cells. Infection with one type of malaria, P. falciparum, if not promptly treated, may cause kidney failure, seizures, mental confusion, coma, and death. Encephalitis: Aseptic meningitis or encephalitis. Many cases have only fever with headache. Can progress to focal paralysis, intractable seizures, coma and death. Chiefly mosquito-borne. West Nile (WN) virus has emerged in recent years in temperate regions of Europe and North America, presenting a threat to public, equine, and animal health. The most serious manifestation of WN virus infection is fatal encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) in humans and horses, as well as mortality in certain domestic and wild birds.
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Influenza: Influenza (the flu) is a contagious disease that is caused by the influenza virus. It attacks the respiratory tract in humans (nose, throat, and lungs). The flu is different from a cold. The flu usually comes on suddenly and may include these symptoms: Fever Headache Tiredness (can be extreme) Dry cough Sore throat Nasal congestion Body aches These symptoms are usually referred to as "flu-like symptoms." Influenza types A or B viruses cause epidemics of disease almost every winter. In the United States, these winter influenza epidemics can cause illness in 10% to 20% of people and are associated with an average of 20,000 deaths and 114,000 hospitalizations per year. Getting a flu shot can prevent illness from types A and B influenza. Influenza type C infections cause a mild respiratory illness and are not thought to cause epidemics. The flu shot does not protect against type C influenza. Tuberculosis TB, or tuberculosis, is a disease caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria can attack any part of your body, but they usually attack the lungs. TB disease was once the leading cause of death in the Canada. TB is spread through the air from one person to another. The bacteria are put into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs or sneezes. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become infected. People who are infected with latent TB do not feel sick, do not have any symptoms, and cannot spread TB. But they may develop TB disease at some time in the future. People with TB disease can be treated and cured if they seek medical help. Even better, people who have latent TB infection but are not yet sick can take medicine so that they will never develop TB disease. Symptoms of TB depend on where in the body the TB bacteria are growing. TB bacteria usually grow in the lungs. TB in the lungs may cause $ a bad cough that lasts longer than 2 weeks $ pain in the chest 3. coughing up blood or sputum (phlegm from deep inside the lungs) Other symptoms of TB disease are 5. weakness or fatigue 6. weight loss 7. no appetite 8. chills 9. fever 10. sweating at night
45
Cholera Cholera is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The infection is often mild or without symptoms, but sometimes it can be severe. Approximately one in 20 infected persons has severe disease characterized by profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps. In these persons, rapid loss of body fluids leads to dehydration and shock. Without treatment, death can occur within hours. A person most often gets cholera by drinking water and occasionally by eating food contaminated with the cholera bacterium. In an epidemic, the source of the contamination is usually the faeces of an infected person. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking water. The cholera bacterium may also live in the environment in brackish rivers and coastal waters. The disease is not likely to spread directly from one person to another; therefore, casual contact with an infected person is not a risk for becoming ill. AIDS AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is caused by infection with a virus called human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This virus is passed from one person to another through blood-to-blood and sexual contact. In addition, infected pregnant women can pass HIV to their babies during pregnancy or delivery, as well as through breast feeding. People with HIV have what is called HIV infection. Most of these people will develop AIDS as a result of their HIV infection. Syphilis is a complex sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It has often been called "the great imitator" because so many of the signs and symptoms are indistinguishable from those of other diseases. Usually marked by the appearance of a single sore (called a chancre), but there may be multiple sores. The chancre is usually firm, round, small, and painless. The second stage starts when one or more areas of the skin break into a rash that usually does not itch. Rashes can appear as the chancre is fading or can be delayed for weeks. Without treatment, the infected person still has syphilis even though there are no signs or symptoms. It remains in the body, and it may begin to damage the internal organs, including the brain, nerves, eyes, heart, blood vessels, liver, bones, and joints. Mad Cow Disease Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a progressive neurological disorder of cattle that results from infection by an unconventional transmissible agent. The BSE epidemic in the United Kingdom peaked in January 1993 at almost 1,000 new cases per week. The outbreak may have resulted from the feeding of scrapie-containing sheep meat-and-bone meal to cattle. There is strong evidence and general agreement that the outbreak was amplified by feeding rendered bovine meat-and-bone meal to young calves. In the United Kingdom, this current risk appears to be extremely small, perhaps about 1 case per 10 billion servings.
46
Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis (TRICK-a-NELL-o-sis), is caused by eating raw or undercooked pork and wild game products infected with the larvae of a species of worm called Trichinella. Infection occurs worldwide, but is most common in areas where raw or undercooked pork, such as ham or sausage, is eaten. Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, fever, and abdominal discomfort are the first symptoms of trichinosis. Headaches, fevers, chills, cough, eye swelling, aching joints and muscle pains, itchy skin, diarrhea, or constipation follow the first symptoms. If the infection is heavy, patients may experience difficulty coordinating movements, and have heart and breathing problems. In severe cases, death can occur. Botulism Botulism is a rare but serious paralytic illness caused by a nerve toxin that is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Foodborne botulism can be especially dangerous because many people can be poisoned by eating a contaminated food. The classic symptoms of botulism include double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness.
Once the students are in their relative corners, they will use the cards to create Who Am I cards. They will make cards that give the following information point by point: 1. Transmission mode 2. List of symptoms 3. What organism actually acts as the vector 4. One interesting fact Once they have completed their Who Am I cards, they partner up (or groups of 3 to 4), and quiz each other.
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STD graphing exercise Note: Catholic schools may wish to do a statistical analysis on AIDS so that resources can be used based on the Catholic school teaching. Create a bar chart that illustrates the number of people with a particular STD. You will need access to the Health Canada website to get current numbers. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pphb-dgspsp/std-mts/stddata1201/index.html. Students should take the total numbers for each year and graph the results. To make the activity more interactive, you can have each student graph different information. !" by age !" by sex !" males only !" females only !" totals !" by province Once you have created your graph, share it with the rest of the class. Try to reason any trends you may see in the graphs. Do this reasoning for at least 3 different graphs.
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Immune response Create a concept from the following points that illustrate the immune response. !" The immune response begins when a white blood cell called a macrophage encounters a virus and consumes it. Meanwhile, other viruses look for nearby cells to infect. !" Next, the macrophage digests the virus and displays pieces of the virus called antigens on its surface. Nearby cells have now become infected by the attacking viruses. !" Unique among the many different helper T cells (another class of white blood cells) in the body, one particular helper T cell now recognizes the antigen displayed and binds to the macrophage. !" This union stimulates the production of chemical substances -- such as interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) by the macrophage, and interleukin-2 (IL-2) and gamma interferon (IFN-y) by the T cell -- that allow intercellular communication. !" As part of the continuing process, IL-2 instructs other helper T's and a different class of T cells, the killer T's, to multiply. The proliferating helper T's in turn release substances that cause B cells to multiply and produce antibodies. !" The killer T cells now begin shooting holes in host cells that have been infected by viruses. !" The antibodies released by the B cells bind to antigens on the surfaces of free-floating viruses. Besides making it easier for macrophages to destroy viruses, this binding signals blood components called complement to puncture holes in the viruses. !" Finally, as the infection is brought under control, the activated T and B cells are turned off by suppressor T cells. However, a few "memory cells" remain behind to respond quickly if the same virus attacks again. You can use the concept map template if you are at loss as to where to begin. The template is missing the location for the memory cells. If you use the template, be sure to add this to the concept map.
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Immune Note and Questions.

Sometimes pathogens and foreign materials succeed in penetrating a persons first line of defense, the unbroken skin. The bodys ability to resist these invaders and the diseases they cause is called immunity. Individuals differ in their ability to resist infection. In addition, an individuals resistance varies at different times. There are two general types of immunity: natural and acquired. Natural immunity is the immunity with which we are born. It is inherited and is permanent. This inborn immunity consists of anatomical barriers such as the unbroken skin, and cellular secretions such as mucus and tears. Blood phagocytes and local inflammation are also part of ones natural immunity. When the body encounters an invader, it tries to kill the invader by creating a specific substance to combat it. The body also tries to make itself permanently resistant to these intruders. Acquired immunity is the reaction that occurs as a result of exposure to these invaders. This is the immunity developed during an individuals lifetime. It may be passive or active. Passive acquired immunity is borrowed immunity. It is acquired artificially by injecting antibodies from the blood of other individuals or animals into a per sons body in order to protect him or her from a specific disease. The immunity produced is immediate in its effect. However, it lasts only from three to five weeks. After this period the antibodies will be killed by the individuals own reticuloendothelial system. Because it is immediate, passive immunity is used in the treatment of virulent diseases. This is particularly true in treating diphtheria, measles, tetanus, and infectious hepatitis, where there is hardly any time for the infected person to develop a strong active immunity. A baby has temporary passive immunity from the mothers antibodies. These antibodies pass through the placenta to enter the babys blood. In addition, the mothers milk, colostrum, also offers the baby some passive immunity. Thus a newborn infant may be protected against poliomyelitis, measles, and mumps. It should be noted that this passive immunity against poliomyelitis only lasts for about six weeks after birth. For measles and mumps it may last for nearly a year. Then the child must develop his or her own active immunity. Active acquired immunity is preferable to passive immunity, because it lasts longer. There are two types of active acquired immunity: natural acquired immunity and artificial acquired immunity. Here is how these two types of immunity are acquired: !" Natural acquired immunity is the result of having had and recovered from the disease. For example, a child who has had measles and has recovered will not ordinarily get it again, because the childs body has manufactured antibodies. This form of immunity is also acquired by having a series of unnoticed or mild infections. For example, a person who has had a mild form of a disease one or more times and has fought it off, sometimes unnoticed, is later immune to the disease. !" Artificial acquired immunity comes from being inoculated with a suit able vaccine, antigen, or toxoid. For example, a child vaccinated for smallpox has been given a very mild form of the disease; the childs body will thus be stimulated to manufacture its own antibodies. Immunization is the process of increasing an individuals resistance to a par ticular infection by artificial means. An antigen is a substance which is injected in order to stimulate production of antibodies. For example, toxins produced by bacteria, dead or weakened bacteria, viruses and foreign proteins are examplesof antigens. Toxin stimulates the body to produce antibodies, while the antitoxin weakens or neutralizes the effect of the toxin. A toxoid is a substance in which the toxin has been weakened by the addition of chemicals or heat, but not weakened enough to decrease the production of antibodies. Toxoids are used to protect individuals against diseases caused by toxins or toxin-producing bacteria, like diphtheria and tetanus. 50
An immunoglobulin is a protein that functions specifically as an antibody. There are five classes of immunoglobulins: immunoglobulin G (IgG), and the others, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE.
AUTOIMMUNITY
____________________________________
Autoimmunity is when an individuals immune system goes awry. It forms antibodies to its own tissues, which destroy these tissues. This is also known as an autoimmune disorder. A well-known example of this disorder is rheumatic fever. A person may get a streptococcal infection, as in a strep throat, which slightly alters heart tissue. Later streptococcal infections can cause further heart damage. This is because the antibodies formed against the streptococci will also attack the altered heart tissue. This type of heart damage is known as rheumatic heart disease. Other autoimmune disorders include thyroiditis, a severe inflammation of the thyroid gland, and most likely rheumatoid arthritis, an inflammatory joint disease.
HYPERSENSITIVITY _________________________________________
Hypersensitivity occurs when the bodys immune system fails to protect itself against foreign material. Instead, the antibodies formed irritate certain body cells. A hypersensitive or allergic individual is generally more sensitive to certain allergens than most people. An allergen is an antigen that causes allergic responses. Examples of allergens include grass, ragweed pollen, ingested food, penicillin and other antibiotics, and bee and wasp stings. Such allergens stimulate antibody formation, some of which are known as the IgE antibodies. Antibodies are found in individuals who are allergic, drug sensitive, or hypersensitive. The antibodies bind to certain cells in the body, causing a characteristic allergic reaction. In asthma, the IgE antibodies bind to the bronchi and bronchioles; in have ever they bind to the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and eyes, causing runny nose and itchy eyes. In hives and rashes they bind to the skin cells. An even more severe and sometimes fatal allergic reaction is called anaphylaxis or anaphylactic shock. It is the result of an antigenantibody reaction that stimulates a massive secretion of histamine. Anaphylaxis can be caused by in sect stings and injected drugs like penicillin. A person suffering from anaphylaxis experiences breathing problems, headache, facial swelling, falling blood pressure, stomach cramps, and vomiting. The antidote is an injection of either adrenaline or antihistamine. If proper care is not given right away, death may occur in minutes.
51
Health care professionals should always ask patients whether they are sensitive to any allergens or drugs. This precaution is necessary in order to prevent negative and sometimes fatal allergic responses to injected drugs. People with such hypersensitivities should wear a Med-Alert tag about the neck or wrist. This will alert health professionals in the event of an emergency. Such tags have saved the lives of patients rendered unconscious or otherwise unable to communicate. General Questions: Provide complete answers to each of the following. 1. What is immunity?
2.
What is natural immunity?
3. Name four sources of natural immunity.
4. What is acquired immunity?
5. Identify the two types of acquired immunity.
6. How is an individuals health related to immunity?
7. How is active acquired immunity obtained?
8. How long does active acquired immunity last? 9. How is passive acquired immunity attained?
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53
10. How does an infant obtain passive acquired immunity?
11. How long does passive acquired immunity last?
12. What is the main difference between active and passive immunity?
13. When is passive immunization used?
14. What is an antigen?
15. What are antibodies?
16. What is hypersensitivity?
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17. What are the common forms of hypersensitivity in humans?
18. What is anaphylaxis?
19. What are the symptoms of anaphylaxis?
20. How can anaphylaxis be effectively treated?
21. To what diseases may humans become immune?
22. What is an allergy?
23. Give two common examples of allergies.
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Immune response to a particular pathogen. Modify the concept map created in the last activity to reflect how the body may react to a particular pathogen that was explored in the Who Am I activity. On this concept map, make the following additions: !" !" !" !" !" !" How does the pathogen enter the body? Which organ cells are affected.? Are memory cells made in response to an invasion by that particular pathogen? Show how the immune response works for that particular pathogen. Which one of the following can be used to destroy the pathogen: antiseptic, disinfectant, antibiotic, antiviral? If you answered an antibiotic, which one would be used to fight the pathogen
Create concept map additions for the following: Influenza, AIDS and one other disorder. You will need to work in a group and successfully research the answers to the preceding questions before attempting to create the concept map.
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Transmission of Pathogens Divide the classroom into sections, so that there is a section for each of the following types of pathogens: 1. insect-borne; air borne; 2. 3. water-borne; sexually transmitted; 4. 5. food-borne. Provide each of the students with a pathogen card. This card will have information about the disease caused by the pathogen. The students will then need to vote on what mode of transmission the pathogen utilizes: insect-borne; air borne; waterborne; sexually transmitted; food-borne. Once a vote has been taken, the student with that card must go to the section of the room that has been reserved for their type of pathogens.
Pathogen Cards
Malaria: Malaria is a serious, sometimes fatal, disease caused by a parasite. There are four kinds of malaria that can infect humans. Humans get malaria from the bite of a malariainfected mosquito. When a mosquito bites an infected person, it ingests microscopic malaria parasites found in the persons blood. Symptoms of malaria include fever and flu-like illness, including shaking chills, headache, muscle aches, and tiredness. Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may also occur. Malaria may cause anemia and jaundice (yellow coloring of the skin and eyes) because of the loss of red blood cells. Infection with one type of malaria, P. falciparum, if not promptly treated, may cause kidney failure, seizures, mental confusion, coma, and death. Encephalitis: Aseptic meningitis or encephalitis. Many cases have only fever with headache. Can progress to focal paralysis, intractable seizures, coma and death. Chiefly mosquito-borne. West Nile (WN) virus has emerged in recent years in temperate regions of Europe and North America, presenting a threat to public, equine, and animal health. The most serious manifestation of WN virus infection is fatal encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) in humans and horses, as well as mortality in certain domestic and wild birds.
57
Influenza: Influenza (the flu) is a contagious disease that is caused by the influenza virus. It attacks the respiratory tract in humans (nose, throat, and lungs). The flu is different from a cold. The flu usually comes on suddenly and may include these symptoms: Fever Headache Tiredness (can be extreme) Dry cough Sore throat Nasal congestion Body aches These symptoms are usually referred to as "flu-like symptoms." Influenza types A or B viruses cause epidemics of disease almost every winter. In the United States, these winter influenza epidemics can cause illness in 10% to 20% of people and are associated with an average of 20,000 deaths and 114,000 hospitalizations per year. Getting a flu shot can prevent illness from types A and B influenza. Influenza type C infections cause a mild respiratory illness and are not thought to cause epidemics. The flu shot does not protect against type C influenza. Tuberculosis TB, or tuberculosis, is a disease caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria can attack any part of your body, but they usually attack the lungs. TB disease was once the leading cause of death in the Canada. TB is spread through the air from one person to another. The bacteria are put into the air when a person with TB disease of the lungs or throat coughs or sneezes. People nearby may breathe in these bacteria and become infected. People who are infected with latent TB do not feel sick, do not have any symptoms, and cannot spread TB. But they may develop TB disease at some time in the future. People with TB disease can be treated and cured if they seek medical help. Even better, people who have latent TB infection but are not yet sick can take medicine so that they will never develop TB disease. Symptoms of TB depend on where in the body the TB bacteria are growing. TB bacteria usually grow in the lungs. TB in the lungs may cause a bad cough that lasts longer than 2 weeks !" pain in the chest !" coughing up blood or sputum (phlegm from deep inside the lungs) !" Other symptoms of TB disease are weakness or fatigue !" weight loss !" no appetite !" chills !" fever !" sweating at night !"
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Cholera Cholera is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. The infection is often mild or without symptoms, but sometimes it can be severe. Approximately one in 20 infected persons has severe disease characterized by profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps. In these persons, rapid loss of body fluids leads to dehydration and shock. Without treatment, death can occur within hours. A person most often gets cholera by drinking water and occasionally by eating food contaminated with the cholera bacterium. In an epidemic, the source of the contamination is usually the faeces of an infected person. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of sewage and drinking water. The cholera bacterium may also live in the environment in brackish rivers and coastal waters. The disease is not likely to spread directly from one person to another; therefore, casual contact with an infected person is not a risk for becoming ill. AIDS AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. AIDS is caused by infection with a virus called human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). This virus is passed from one person to another through blood-to-blood and sexual contact. In addition, infected pregnant women can pass HIV to their babies during pregnancy or delivery, as well as through breast feeding. People with HIV have what is called HIV infection. Most of these people will develop AIDS as a result of their HIV infection. Syphilis is a complex sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It has often been called "the great imitator" because so many of the signs and symptoms are indistinguishable from those of other diseases. Usually marked by the appearance of a single sore (called a chancre), but there may be multiple sores. The chancre is usually firm, round, small, and painless. The second stage starts when one or more areas of the skin break into a rash that usually does not itch. Rashes can appear as the chancre is fading or can be delayed for weeks. Without treatment, the infected person still has syphilis even though there are no signs or symptoms. It remains in the body, and it may begin to damage the internal organs, including the brain, nerves, eyes, heart, blood vessels, liver, bones, and joints. Mad Cow Disease Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a progressive neurological disorder of cattle that results from infection by an unconventional transmissible agent. The BSE epidemic in the United Kingdom peaked in January 1993 at almost 1,000 new cases per week. The outbreak may have resulted from the feeding of scrapie-containing sheep meat-and-bone meal to cattle. There is strong evidence and general agreement that the outbreak was amplified by feeding rendered bovine meat-and-bone meal to young calves. In the United Kingdom, this current risk appears to be extremely small, perhaps about 1 case per 10 billion servings.
59
Trichinosis, also called trichinellosis (TRICK-a-NELL-o-sis), is caused by eating raw or undercooked pork and wild game products infected with the larvae of a species of worm called Trichinella. Infection occurs worldwide, but is most common in areas where raw or undercooked pork, such as ham or sausage, is eaten. Nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, fever, and abdominal discomfort are the first symptoms of trichinosis. Headaches, fevers, chills, cough, eye swelling, aching joints and muscle pains, itchy skin, diarrhea, or constipation follow the first symptoms. If the infection is heavy, patients may experience difficulty coordinating movements, and have heart and breathing problems. In severe cases, death can occur. Botulism Botulism is a rare but serious paralytic illness caused by a nerve toxin that is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Foodborne botulism can be especially dangerous because many people can be poisoned by eating a contaminated food. The classic symptoms of botulism include double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness.
Once the students are in their relative corners, they will use the cards to create Who Am I cards. They will make cards that give the following information point by point: 1. 2. 3. 4. Transmission mode List of symptoms What organism actually acts as the vector One interesting fact
Once they have completed their Who Am I cards, they partner up (or groups of 3 to 4), and quiz each other.
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Role of the Public Health Department

Multimedia Presentation
Answer the following questions in a form of a Multimedia presentation. Try to keep one thought per page. Also keep the amount of text that you put on a slide to a minimum. Go to your citys public health department website. This can easily be found by using a Internet Search Engine such as www.google.com. Type in your city name, followed by public health department. If internet access is a problem, visiting a local health department may be an option. You may also use the library. In addition to this go to the following public health department website: Toronto: http://www.city.toronto.on.ca/health/ !" Hamilton: http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/sphs/ !" Peel: http://www.region.peel.on.ca/health/ !" Do you see a common disorder, outbreak or health concern on each of these webpages? YOU SHOULD. What is it? What preventive measures are the municipalities taking to protect their citizens? For cities situated on Lakes and with large amounts of beach where citizens may swim, it is especially important to know the pollution count of the water. Both Toronto and Hamilton have water testing information on their sites. What percentage of the beaches in Toronto are open? In Hamilton? Can you find any data for Northern Lakes? What is considered the maximum amount of E. coli that can be in the water before causing the closing of a beach? At what point are the counts elevated. Food safety in restaurants is a prime concern of the Health department. What do they do, to make sure that the restaurants comply with the health code? At the Health Canada Website, the government issues warnings. Describe three recent warnings. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/index.html . Look under warnings. Is there any information about the common warning found on the other public helath departments on the Health Canada site? Elaborate.
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Answer the following questions: 1. A double-edged sword of good and evil has hung over human technology from the beginning. -- Issac Asimov, Science Writer Describe the connection between this statement and the use of antibiotics.
2. How do antibiotics cause bacteria to evolve?
3. Which groups are most at risk of developing bacterial infections?
4. If the problem of antibiotic resistant bacteria continues to worsen, describe the implications for society. (environment, health, economics, warfare etc)
5. Scientific and technological advances are the only possible solutions to world problems -- Issac Asimov, Science Writer Describe the connection between this statement and the use of antibiotics.
6. Describe the alternatives to antibiotics.
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Four Corners (sample statements)

!" Doctors should be sued if they prescribe antibiotics to patients with viral infections. !" Antibiotic resistant bacteria are not the result of antibiotic overuse. !" Genetically engineered organisms should be created in order to combat these antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria. !" Doctors should prescribe natural antibiotic alternatives to patients who do not exhibit signs of serious bacterial infection. .
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Answer the following questions: 1. Read the following statement
Antibiotics and vaccines are last centurys greatest inventions.

Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
2.
Technological Determinism is the idea that technology can fundamentally change the attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviours of individuals. Describe the extent to which disease control methods demonstrate technological determinism.
3.
Analyse the data provided to determine the extent to which the use of disease control technologies have improved infant survival rates in different communities around the world.
4.
What other scientific and/or technological advances may have contributed to the change in survival rates over time?
5.
Describe the impact that ineffective disease control can have both locally and globally.
6a.
Describe the means used by agencies and governments to control the spread of disease locally and globally.
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b.
Describe the costs and benefits associated with these techniques.
c.
Read the following statement:
Parents should be forced to vaccinate their children?

Do you agree or disagree? Explain
7.
To what extent do societal needs or demands influence scientific and technological endeavours? Justify.
8a.
There a places in the world where certain diseases are at epidemic proportions. To what extent might the AIDS epidemic in Africa influence the scientific and technological endeavours to find a cure for AIDS in other parts of the world. Explain
b.
What impact might the AIDS epidemic have on a global scale?
c.
Read the following statement:
The United Nations should ensure that every country has equitable accessibility to effective disease control methods.
Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
*Note: Catholic Teachers should refer to the corresponding websites about Catholic teaching and the dignity of human life
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Every culture in the world has it specific approach to the prevention and treatment of illness. For centuries, there has often been a distinction between Eastern and Western cultures. Over the course of time, as information continues to be shared among people around the world, different methods/approaches are adopted and adapted to suit the needs of a given society. Your task is to locate the similarities and distinctions between Eastern and Western approaches to medicine. (You may use print and/or electronic and/or human resources) 1. Use a Venn Diagram to compare and contrast these approaches to health and medicine. How might the mores, values, attitudes, beliefs of these cultures account for the differences in approach?
2.
3.
Has the biophysical verification of the acupuncture meridian system lead to shifts in response to health related illnesses?
4.
Should Canadians be encouraged to rely on Eastern practices some of which have not been verified by traditional Western science? Explain
5.
Should alternative medical procedures be fully covered OHIP?
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Snc4M Grade 12 Science: Guide

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SNC4M Grade 12 Science

Science Teachers Association of Ontario

Acknowledgements Authors: Christine Holmes

Arlene Higgins-Wright Clayton Ellis Reviewers: Maureen Callan

SNC4M Grade 12 Science Guide UNIT

TO INTRODUCTION TO CULMINATING TASK IDEAS

TABLE SNC4M SCIENCE University/College

Lesson Plans, Worksheets, Teacher Background, Ideas, etc.

Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas

SS1.01 SS1.04 SS1.02 SS1.03

Authors: Christine Holmes, Arlene Higgins-Wright and Clayton Ellis

ORGANIC PRODUCTS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Lesson Plans, Worksheets, Teacher Background, Ideas, etc.

http://www.kcpc.usyd.edu.au/discovery/nomencl ature/nomenclature_functional.html http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/G G/chemBonds1.html http://www.accessexcellence.org/AB/GG/chem Bonds2.html

Knowledge: Assign a mark for models and Lewis Diagrams

2.3 Fractional Distillation

Inquiry and Communication: evaluate written lab report

2.4 Organic Household Products

OP3.03 OP3.01 SS3.01

2.5 Common Household Products

2.6 Explanation of soaps and detergents

Making mayonnaise/difference between solutions and emulsions: http://www.iit.edu/~smile/ch9509.html http://unr.edu/homepage/crowther/opchem/oobleck.html

OP2.02 OP1.04 OP3.01 OP1.03

OP1.08 OP3.03 SS1.01 SS2.01 SS3.01

2.9 Organic Products: Successes & Disasters

2.10 Everyday Pharmaceuticals

2.11 Making Aspirin 2.12 Sunscreen: UV Radiation, effect on people, roles

OP1.08 OP2.04 OP3.01 OP3.02 OP1.06

More on skin cancer: http://fyi.cnn.com/2002/fyi/lesson.plans/05/20/s un.exposure/ and http://fyi.cnn.com/2002/fyi/news/05/20/sun.expo sure/index.html

PATHOGENS AND DISEASE

Lesson Plans, Worksheets, Teacher Background, Ideas, etc.

http://www.lbl.gov/ehs/biosafety/BBP_Training/ html/bbp.htm http://warwick.nn.k12.va.us/Departments/scienc e/lawrence/pathogen%20webquest.htm

PD1.01 PD1.02 PD3.01

3.2 Pathogens around the home 3.3 Epidemiology

Optional activity to promote personal interest

Knowledge and Making Connections: Assess assigned questions in Activity #1.

3.6 Control and Elimination: antiviral, antibiotics, vaccines, etc.

Knowledge and Making Connections: Concept Map

PD1.01 PD1.05 PD1.06 CI1.04 CI3.03

PD1.03 PD2.02 PD3.02

Knowledge, Inquiry and Communication: Concept Map

PD1.04 PD2.03 PD2.04

3.9 Water borne disease, air borne, and food borne

Knowledge and Making Connections:

3.10 Role of Public Health Department 3.11 Overuse of Antibiotics

Making Connections: Multimedia presentation

Inquiry, Communication and Making Connections:

3.12 Social Implications of Disease Control

PD3.02 SS2.02 SS3.02

Knowledge and Making Connections:

PD1.05 PD3.01 PD3.05 SS3.03

Infant mortality statistics in the 20th century

Implications of Disease Control (continued)

3.13 Eastern & Western Approaches to Medicine

Knowledge and Making Connections: Venn Diagram

PD1.05 PD3.01 PD3.05 SIS3.03

Lesson Plans, Worksheets, Teacher Background, Ideas, etc.

Achievement Categories and Assessment Ideas Knowledge:

4.2 Communication Technology

CS1.01 CS1.05 CS1.06

Knowledge and Making Connections: use rubric to assess research

CS1.03 CS1.08 CS2.01 CS2.03 CS3.01 CS3.02 SS1.05 SS3.01