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195-sEE sEE, T.J.: H A V ET H E O R 0 F G R A V I T A T I 0 N _ D e s p i t e h i g h Y __ r e c o m m en d a ti ob y T e sl a a n d by psychic E. Cayce n ,,[.l av eT h e o r y o f t h e A e t h e r " h a s b b e n ^ l u i t ec o m p l e t e land other s, the y s c i e n t i s t s . T h en o t e da s t r o n o m e ra p t . r . i . J . s . . i g n o r e d b y m o s t a i l c g m a g n e t i c a n de l e c t r o s t a t i c f i e l d s a s t o n g i i u d i n a t e x p l a i n e d r a v i t i o n a l , or;ffi;;;;ion waves in t h e E t h e r , o f a p p r o x i m a t e lty e s a m e a g n i t u d e s h m a t h e d i s t a n c e so v e r w h i c h they operate- Light, heat-and adio ar6 oeiciibed r b / a v e s i n t h e E t h e r .- . l ' l h e n h e l o n g i t u d i n u i - i t n " r a s t r a n s v e r s eo r s h e a r t waveshat radiate from t m a s s e s r e co u p l e d ., a between .th e y p ro ducea r elative Ether vacuum them, and are.pushed.toletner. an associated he E i w p r e v e n t s t r a n s m i : : i 9 l o f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o rtc e .r v a c u u ms p r o d u c e d h i c h T h i s o p e n st h e w a y t o a n t i - g r a v i t y l e v i t a t i o n . . . f t r e t h e o r i e so f c h . B r u s h , prof N i p h e r( v ' i . ) a l l f i n d u n i f i c a t i o nh e r e i n . . . I n c l u d e s D ; . N i e p e r , b i - -l-i-o g r a p h y , r e v i e w , b J' -v S e e i n t r o d u c l n sh i s i d e a s . . . : o p p . : :::-:_:::l:l::_:r

s il ls c9 d is eb y i n c r e a s i n g - d r a gJ h . i p p u r e n t - r i ao fsa n a i c . i e r a t i n g b o d y t ! a u e sd r e s i s t a n cr r o r i n . u i s c o u E t h e r . I f a b o d y b s ts rotated at a certain speed,

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HE Einstein theorl'of relativtt" s''on tnal'fall. and wp ma]'ls1'o 1r' lrlol for gne15p; exyrlanation regarding the m1'sterious tnovr,melits of thr. ur,ivt,rsr,. Professor Einstrin himsr.lf has just admitted it. If results olilair'.rj rp, {,rjtlt' y, ir1'Prof. Da;,'t,rn C. .\lrllr.r at -\tount r.On1:rmed, ht' ty \\'ilson Olrservaturl'arp . :a)'s, it mearu. that the rrlatilit).th,:r) F , i , r r ' sn o t h o l d . F o r P r o f e s s tr l l i l l e r ' s r L * u l t s i n d i , . r t e d the earth's motion thr,rugh the t.ther. '1 lccording to the rei:rtivit;' the,,11., it ,Y should never l,e lrossible for an1' ,)r:e on "' crrth to detert this motion If all thinss I ir the nhole unirerse-pl:rntts. sturs..rnd moring at the s:rmerate and in nF*thpr-are rhe same direction, the rr:ults of t11;eyiments on ernh B'ould Le eractll'the same as if all u'ere standinq stjll. But if the elrth end other bodies sere *),,\rnR thr,,ugh stJtir,r.tn, ethpr. ,)r at r -f

New Theory Suggests ls : Universe Shrinking

Is Tltt uoRlj, kcoming I maller plsc tc llle ln ? To accounl tor receDt drscoveries at Mt $'rtron Obrenatory 1o California, Dr. E Sambursly, pbysrcist at Hebres l-rniversitl. Jerugalem, proposes th( Btartlrnt theorl that the uniler6e and erert'thlDt t! it le rlon.l1. sbri.DklDg, lr.rcludrng even our f undar)eDtal ttaDdards ot lenFth and eDert)'. Just tbe opposite vie\r' s'as be)d a fes' years !go. \t'ben astronomers oboen'ed I puzzliDt reddisi, tiDgc iD ligbt from distaDt oebule. thel' tDterpreted tbe pbenomeDoDer evideDce tbat the8e celestial bodies s'ere rushing a\r.a]' from us aDd outs'ard lntc, space as fast as 25.0Oi)Eils a recoDd-LD otber s'ords, that tbe Iniverge u'as expandint at xplosive rpeed. Tbe result s'ould be to lDr.rea-se tbe epparent n'ave len31b of lrlrht from tbe rtreatiDg DebulE. lhiftirogtbeir color toq'ard the red eDd of tbe sl,ectrum or raiDbo\r' of bues by u'brich scieDtifc observers classif]' light ral.s. Mor rceDtl]. it ba-cbeen discovered that tbe "ted 8bift" ectuall)- observed throuSib t.be big }tt Vl'rlson telescope does Dot quite corresponC s'itb tie amount called for bl sucb I tbeor]'. A6tronomers bsTe been castiDg ebout for a Dew oDe, sbrcb Dr. Samburskl' uou' 6 u p p 1 i e s .A " r e d s h i f t ' c o u l d a l 8 o b e produced, be points out. lf vrytbiDt bt'A'eeDus aDd the nebule u'as graduall)' gettiDt amaller. SubstitutiDg matbematrcal factors based upon bis Bhrrnking-univerB blpothesis tD tbe same calrulatrons used to test tbe expandrDt-uliverse idea, be obtai,os 69ures tbat appear to cbeck g-rtb tbe obsen'ed facts. As llsrtlrDg to pb]'sicists as tle Ei!EteiE tbeories of relativit)', tbe nes' conceptioE i.urplies tbat tbelr basic ulits are colrts.Dtll' drminisbiag iD lize lDstead of remailiDt coDstaDt. One of tbe lbriDklDg qu8.Dtitres is tbe leugtb of tbe radius of aD clectroD. rroallest parUcle of loatter. ADotber ls "H." a unlt of eDergf' upoD q'bieb EeasureEeDts of pboto-electric cells, amoDg otber tbiDgs, are based. Tbe ebrinkiag value of "H" also provide6 Dr. Sambursky s'ltb a neq matbematical exp)aDatioo for tbe familiar but little-u-Dderstood pbeDotr|cDoD of g?avit]'. S'hile tbe cheDges il tbe "meaauring tods" of pb]'stcs are too rmsll to haTe a direct beari-Dg oD aDyoDe'3 deily lUe, Dr. Samburak)' uraiDtaias tbat tbey are Deverlbeless apprciable cDougb to bc detected [n tbe course of time. To prove or dGprove his tbeory, be proposes Eeasurilt tbe preseDt value of tbe s'ave lenglb of a ra]' of ligbt aDd repeatiDg tbe te6t 350 yeara from Doq'. Red hgbt from a cbemical cleEneDt called c8dmium, s'hich caD b tDeBFured in tbe laborator!' \r'ttb tTeat eccuracj', n'ould be suitable. At tbe eDd of tbree aDd E balf ceDturies,lf tbe new tbeory 16 correct, tbe B'ave leDgtb of tb red cadmjum ligbt Ehould be found t o b a v e d e c r e a s e dn l e D g t h b 1 ' a p p r o x i i matel)' one tweDt!'-fir'e-thousandth of aD lDcn

1\'ill Einstein Theorl' Fall?

different ratps. then thprr. should be a drifting of rhe e t h e r i n t h r i r p a t h st h a t c o u i d b e o h s r r v e df r o m e a r t h . P r o f e s s r ' rJ l i l l e r f i r s t m a d e ,. nls expcrtrrrents from an under_ ground chamber.just as prr> f e q o r l \ l i c h e l s o na n d p r o f e s s o r G a l e o f t h e L ' n i r . p r s i t l . oC h i f c a g o h a v c .h e e n d o i n g i n t e s t s oI the Ernsteintheor5.. Like them, he eould detect no motion - ei.idence uhstantis a t i n g t h e E i n s t e i nt h e r , n . . - T h e i r r e s u i t s .h o r e r . e i . p o s _ s i l , l - r ' r n i t n , l , e e r l ; l a i n e db ) . " e t h e r t l r a g" T h a t is, i; some r.a)- hear1. bodies, such as the earth, drag along a certaln anlount of ether in t h e i r m c , t i o r . l.e a r . l n g h e m o r e t otstantetner unaffected To test this, Profess,rr _\liiier repeated hrs cxperiment at l l o u n t \ \ - i i s u n .n . h i c h i s a l , r , ; t a miie hrgh And here he o b t a i n e dt h e s u r l , r i s i n g e s u l t s r that ma]'contradietthe relativity theory He founrj a marked effect that seemed to t"n' .l ,i,rd. "ith _

' .

Tiniest Partble Mar Be Fslvron

Df,i'i T'

i ARE l-he electron end its eonsort, tle protoD, aA J I efter dl, tle ultimatr lriniest units of matter? U frt, then rhet fu f[q-;mll651

lritish Phvsicist, necentJl' dearr..d hir belief thet even thesr .Lfinrtesimal eleetrifed partiiDto ttill E o rr" dirisible Eropler pie<=s to be rcvealed 5r iurther rtudl'. Present tbe:in.holds thet eve4'rtom of tprtter is <'omPosed of one ot tore Protons, uouDd Thieh rr.ol$e one or more electrons. ite etom itsf,lf is ro rnrall rcven 66ures in lbt it t^8ke-s lpctions to mersure it. Tbe dtrtron is 1800 tioes rt rmall - tD atolD, rnd the protoD rytu tinier. )'et even thesr, Thompson ' rre iusu.fircient to crphin dl of i*tr.r., 'lr rtom 6 beba\]of. . t .tn ans*cr mel be found in tlre re. trkeble tleorl' just rdlanc.ed b1' Crpt. ' , i. l. L See t . S. lt., utbematicisn and Dorner. From studjes of gperitation,

noted ""nTH?,,

t-het tbe rmdlest ttring is coDcludes infinit.sinal pertjcle of etber called paretheron. So frne rrc these et^ber esthat t.beyfreell'penetntc tbe eart-h. "U rtoms of co--on ges rucb ls ,dro3en, nitrogen or oxJ'8eD imagined bc
aizeof lemons, or8,n8esor gnpefruit," erphiql: " llren on this.sme rce.tet-bg tron is li.ke l oolrsf, grein of srnd, rnd et-heronis,li\e e frne prrticle of emoLe
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L. s{:l;c-ely rldt.aihi-r [o Y ll:!s is tne for:::n)a ior g:zr-r oot to t}le re-.rders f-bt fi t l t l ' , D , I . r i i: j e J . r o a n d s : ] : ; l : r ; l /i ol Prrcncrl Er:c;r<rcs ll t f o r c $ \ \ ' h i . h i o i l o r c t _ b eI : ; o i ^ - - - - - t / tbut altboucb ge hHre hud Il:e lrri rsr. :,;uh;es. -;-j/}.?trO=+-=rcrny notrble iresdsei on _ \ow 11 ls r-e:y ier-r\-:),le rncgnetlsm rhce tbe f rst gieat thxt the clrlef fr.ri*.: 1:;:.:i:;e /t r+-oiir ;rubllsbed la tie year. yilrI 1!\'e.!ji-r aS tlte SrjD::ip li[$ by Dr. Gllteri ol Coi(:, of tbe dlsrr,nce. Frorn t\is fat: cirester, pb;'s)c)nn to Queen n we l'f3ore that Ll n.arrs h,e tire Elizaber\ h all tbese ter cause ol the force-s, tie q-ar.t= m()denf, rrerCss not e slagle have to har-e arnplltr:ds rzrr_, erpianatlon wortb_r of tbe lng bversely a_s tbe crist:lc,e,nar.ne has bten ofTered on the as sho*'r ln eqlation ) :rl4vq_ cntLee r.tf rlalrletlsm I The reTo deduce the law oi tire eult le a gr t Ded lor s. l'nve anrplitur)e (1) i_n t,-jdiworking theory ol mag'r:etlsrl me,nsional sp!rce rr-e prr<>rd whlcb e'lll elable us to se as foliol's: lfbe d j-splac,t:rr:... wbet ls golog on ln Ll-re field of a-ny prrrtlcle ol a rr,:cii::r about I rna8are!. due to n'ave rDouon- oi &' Tbe Lbeory trereln eet lorth Fiven \!'ilve leDg-ih, Is Lvlr;,=wss deYeloped by tbe wrlter d e n t 0 l t b e p e r i r d i c t 1 r - r e; z l d 6eld of fore ud h 1918, a!d nrst Jrnbllsbed ln a itr cff<t uynr, ard the. rrrction bctv*n I - L Ttrc mtgrctic siDce the osdlletory oibii-s oi ' It ehd DureB;rdjaant lo lL Decrrasd aftret;on in the irft hud maret, work entlUed ELettrodyttmic Lhe pertir'lcs are dusc.-il<c l: end increr*d.ttrrlion in 1Le richt hand one Waae-Theorg of Phytlctl ({lr)el tirnes,uDCer cun._!u(,3sF'orcet, Yol. I, 170 paceg BosLon- London ant) li-3l-rL Ac-cordingi5, rrlr-r may not ,'low oi the rrxres, these ortrlts rr.ill t,e. aDd Parls, 1917; but bas re<.ently bee.n e:these sbort rFavej c\orresi'ond to parts of p r o l ) o f t l o n a l t o t h e d i s p l a c e t n e n L so r o u r e : . telded ln a series ol paprs on ihe .h*al, hontologous llnes pert.slnlng to tte;r:il-, -. tire longer rvaves of rnagnetism and of :ra-1 tbe ques--ilon rrhicir , q , -*:i-, gravitation?-Sgc!

- -.-::l' ha3 &t leD[ii-bled to tbe very reDrarkable - t-l;1nerr ti:eory oi the ether, rrlti s-!rp)e a.ud I'.-'.,,, dlrect erpia-oation ol roa!:De'Jsn aDd ele(.. trodynamiq sctlsa - In the accoinpanflng oullinrd flgtre 1 we have the bod_r of a simirle bar rragnel,

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:':-'' wayes supposed to rec-ede aeal from the planeroap.d. lD ti equatorial It rrill ' - be remer:bered tbat alrborgb tle Freat to

:_-:".:,-1-:^";.^::-.i:-*^:;:i*':_:.:::'^::are vas ab{e to stresses iiort,l-h-qt T.t*io at sork b tbe elher about I mep.et, bI whiei tbe liles of forc.e tend to sborteD

roatbereafjcal pbysldg. J. CierL \farwell

/v T1e orlrerma.Tet on an cnlarged acrlc,r ro tt,r rigut ;ii.;-;;", inustririrr

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,4 . a ,4 Lr / #.fD_, -' .','::,:--:t.:-, / ,4 _vey'e1""iia-...t;;;;-ffd*"-.-,., . ,4 /,. ./ / '-=---lA-.=fA tj ,,-'.:{:",..- ' ' ,t'p: .:;-.;ii';i.;"i^r.""iti-"ttbasbeen A /;1 A h 'i l;;1,=.::--uowa . ti,oiau ro-att;;.*d";"t --. -:::-..,-" - -'r [9 t',9 , tW tp fY/ p*uUar.tnffumc-e or 7uc:o1 : i-a'._:lr-.' .+:j : '' .. : /L'ri .tl, .. /{ -rrl' A, i,l

i! : ,; tHii"" ?f"'":tffJ: lng - appeaans rh1- *ffiffiiLl$ -*,a .Jougl:t tbe lnrerne': .-t-:. AttroTLornitche. Nochrichti, _Ju l"t oi waves oi ihrj --- gonal Jouroal oi a-stmDomJi at Klei, whtc| _ ,jr" ;; f*rg."e_ -ii ts,Dow t-q lts hqpd-redth y*.r Bnd 21!*.h ---;(cL Adror.. i.-""Jf1.[n-ga Itochr., --::r I:hq>ra ol the Ett,afo.'5[.{p.-{lfry, -volume- As t-be |tet 193C) t}.at Li.te ama ter:i extensite work oi .i--l--t" foliorrs tbe iaw bere it;i"d"^Jta;;;o li;Ny-mathe'.. '.!?{.matica].c.baracter,.F.e'rreobugedto.le_:-_indietg] -_^.:';:';'-j*",,-t,,.,1',=-_..,'-t b e - . d r s c u r s t - o Dt o . T e r t :gl::s3tcl ',4 -..-'-!A--= dmp)e ootllnes rrhicb rrlu coD--i::,y'i:'. '::'j:-.",.-:--+;, H'J'J[;.'lffi,Ttf: j_il,- z i . . ' / , / i-i:*, . -,_.

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lijes oi ihe moving plrlictes be r, and m; t-beii. rnass; then their LiDetic ereryies ; rrill be represenied by 1p mr.. ln the, sptrerical erpaesioi oi tbe elbci rinies r there wit] be no loss o{ ener;r tn iree .-

otlicpathsoi tbeparricres. rbe. eloc r,et

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fac.esof thiclressCr,tjreoer_; :iequal, so s tlar q'ee : tp e i - ea;eequa! o t L a t e . e h a 'ha'e: r ,.

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t"F^i:l the smplitudes I'a-rd.-

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: . +L 6 + al l ^ l - - X- ^

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a s s h o r v n i D t h e a c c o r n n a n s r , n s - 6 r n ; _- c _ l: To understand the nrechanism oi rrra3:-

r.]_..: ilr"" ;;;";';;;e.tbeorr, lt G proved-tu rr-or]:s on p)r3'sics lrom tlte iarger n:agtrei, as sborvn in ttre tn wht.b tlt -,+9, tle eDergi of tie xs\-es u t,rot,rr- dtagram' and let the srualier ura'net (ll) -;i"...- atom5 are supposed to be vibratiog uod,,'!at grvur+o}']p,o.slt:,polqt Tlit corn:J$rrC-r u ) n 8 l t o t n c $uare o J t n c a l n p [ . L r u d c , . a l J r . J ,r.- I n C e s s a n t l y s e n d i n g o U t \r2r^s rhrnnsh ,l,s- ttional to the E q u 4 f e ol thc anpritu'dc,'.and !I5"o! -qenitin-nnr w a \ - e t - h r o u g h t h e . _ In('Rsanilv t o t h e r - s r ' s eo f s t r r a e t i o n . n':r\ts
s n r r n n n 6un . . ' r uu! i r! rpf hp. . :' ' . ..: tlus tbe for(ilqt aiaar be<vc:es sjniplr: t)'re srnall mn':net (B) Tbe rotate in from {he orrrx>

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eL.rnIt thus i:i,li..qrS $s lf \\'c l;l,r g 111 l;,.st dist,rc;irl the c:iusc of ir:,---)ciisrn, rriri i:nf'lit o: cl?cir(,.'l'nr ',jc ri ii|l i.rC 'il,1i1-r'f\irl'- iliatit,n. rr .11,'..i,1:,,1Di ,:t l-':,1i, ;:r ,\n (,,'.;!itr, t ,.,.1) in.1 ){:ii,.,n, Il ..ir,n, lrl.j. Ethtr I. i i : : l r t o D i , l l e 1 i - t , : 1 1 , , { , J -{ ) i tlri.()\('S !iritt Far!tj:rv s Iirrts of ii,rr-'g 16 S)i(iri{:L them-

! "rirt::ir': oi x):i::netii:-tlonin ti.:e r"iere-Tlre'r,r-r (A- N, i: is::!:'rn tr;t\els S-/S1,('li0 1r_ p. .1i) tb..t tlie llgll ':tss fn-<e. th::n soun{ rv}rich it frorl ,l;r1rs tbe: tie eetber is fSS-321-{Lj{O tlmes rno:-e ela.sUc than air Thls I "lropo-fi(o to tts.dezslf-v. : :nLrer ls Do:Tnous, and as the . -1r:s tiey-C ln f:-ee Ennce $-lth tl)e '-L,i.ty of llgbt, e.nd rccunrulate ,,.:r' bI n)*e sJlterllosltioD, ln prG , .r:.])n to tie nr^s, or tbe numlrcr.shlch tbe FaYes J'rG : r:Jn)s 16a ,'*-e IPJcei$e Ltrst tbe tcilon

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crr5 be rc)t8tedl3st, l'et lefi free to rlore l o n g i t r t d i n t r ' l l yl l ( , n t l , e s p l n d l e ,t h e y u ' i l l I flli ciu\id uf clr,se t(rgether 8s tlre pre-ssrtre !s l'ss hei\\'een tbern tban outsideIf one crtn lnrag:lnethe.splndle to be fle\,

l.\l'i'ilJ t'jc .; . r, ,';t !n l' qr,,lsiit!^L" .. l - " ; i , . 5 , 1 , r , ' i - : r ; 1 1fg il:l l :o ri r:;..'-tl.--i,rr, -,:.,j' lltir {ri it,;(-- .,l",itt il ,r..'-iriit 1S aB ,: r.! a_ . -. :inrj .-' .i it .,f i.. ;: \or_ i'.)'i, r,rd 1i,lls 1)'e I'i,rs of i,,i|e it.=Ldto 1 . , , , i , , , , t 1 , , , , ' , . i . r l ! r : { ,r s 1 l l - , . r ' l . r : r ' s j : i l ) c i i . - - 'Ihc . iir,'r)L ilnes of friice ln the frirm of :.: l -'- = ( it clc.s :jurrar'!tod s wlfe lir'urlDg a cur, rr:nt, rihlch Lreens that wise tbe r o L a - '-' - ' ; - _ -:: .flat plttrres ilr,ns are ln pnsslDg tbe -s-ire, : : i l;e r-ris oi Lhe 1)rlrugh Thls ari t i , ' , . r , , { . n i i s s } i ( , \ r ' Dl n 5 - ; ; r e 2 . A n d h S : - ' . iltt. t;r:,1trt't lrl'q q , ls r,,:t \\:.:v'{ firt ln -..tlie t.iurioil:.rl ar;'1tx to _ 1'l:,:a, ilt .llrht a-rlS, \\'e S(aJ \\'i-]_y a TDrtg-. -,i tlre Irlu[ilreiiC Detlc Dd.le Fets lL\{'Lf at rlght BDgles to_:. T.:,..!,
: a o r d : \

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.,.. . the arls ol the wire treartng the-r-:-._i; 'rcurent, es _flrst noliced b5, Oersted. :-.-,,^. :
Il 1b_tv..,--* we eramlne flgnre 2 we notlce 1_1...1 ::l

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--edlstal(-lfhisi:lses,tlterefore,

-pa{ectenrnnrtlo-n {.f, ci rnasrrts ririch "i,L:-:*:opponrscnt

ln tlte ar:C, u-hich is eshlblied :{':d c::se ca f}re iighl ln the se:ne Ti tbls scnnd case tie -".:=un,1i'-< {rt'm {B) rointe ln t}re Game \iner sucit \ieres lDter:: f-{)-l-..rate, aCth tlle soperlosed rote-

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tbat the roiitlons h the way'-1 .-",'_ ubore are optnsite to tlre ones be'1-;1-.''. A q-lrel two current!'::i,..-.. Iow. Ilelce, ,'\ \*l/ llnw ln tbe seme directlon tie c.ol-:{.. *.; iaJrsc oi tbe ether rr&ses bctweel l\,.:--i tlre rllrcs cluses t}e wlres to at--_' :.1i.-.; ' -. _ -' rvhlcb eoaforma- to -obserra-*.- :::itrael -flow ,.tj tion- .. Tl-beD the' eurrente ln ..";'.',-l ripprcslte dlrection tbe rot.atlons ot .,;;:.1.1.' :,:: : ' tbe weves lletrreen the *'lres are tn'l t b e r s m e d i r e c t l o n , a D d*t"u"" n - . r , - - byttrel

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..,/ _'. :::"=..:l "-put"-i. tlqelt, ro tnai 1-11 ' "?"r.r, ,--i:-, tbe ether erpa-nds
of electrodl3amlc actlonIt onl5r re:naLDs to edd agrrre 3, to lllus1;,ete the nave feid ol ttre earth'E lt sboutd be noted, aE magnellsm. rsaves receding fmm the earth de '-:'j,; -i .. . ).-..--

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pr.o-iu,

rhe ci}rer ravcr already illostnrcd and dcgribcd

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. - r e5 e t o i E a s f a d d s 1 6 1 l s r m 1 ' l l f o d e s i lre r{lra- -<ea: ard tbe re-<ult ls i-nof t-lte gber,'Irhlch r thns -rez..ed::lr:iioa tbe :+dsto e-rp;nd thi.: nrediom be:r-ea .a.obodies. Th:-: espan-<ive te:denc5-of e,nd :ag}er tbas g:isss rlse to repl].iar:e 'o1sneF lend to push one aEotiter irareaskopleer-olanadon F{r- fbn-<se :IplalsioD rhei: llke po)c are presented-rr-e hare a slmp)e ejrplala3,c':ordingir, -:r oi aitraction ald repoislot, tnth ':drl ia-as trcen able to detlse no otrased oD -=tforeAD e:rrlanation h.q-qso rra- rchich ls sinrn'ie 8Dd dlred

.:'..at re-Tr.'ini in the samedrrection, lble and the encsbroughtoppos;te eacb of

'-3ct to corametd lt ttl3t Fe ntas pr(! ';.ulfe lt tbr trl]e c:au-se the pbenomof
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oiirer Fhlie rotatiDg, lt 1'lll be 6een that -: p a r"r.?,ioJ"#*Xn#Tr:t,,f"iXTg','i't]: t h r ' -alle) plenes-the other l3?F2330 - --q-lth thetr planes lyhg the ends riould exhlblt an appaiDt atbeing arralged -.'1'1_ tractloD for each other, and, if free to hayrhaza-rd, e-ld Jrmduclng tle eentral ssqould close up, thus maliing a approac\ . I .1.,.r1 tion of g:-ayitetlon-' with tbe sectlons of tie disks-Tomer rlng, -\Ilttl, tbe rotstions of thelr rx'eves dl-:,--::: Il the asis of the disks v-ere slrr-inkablq recie,j so as 1o hermonlze mutuallt, the-ir.--": i-he shole tblng wouiti clntract to e min!c o r n f } 8 - s sn e e d i e l i e s l n t h e h o l l o w o f t b e : i : : : , : . llnrn 6iz tbat would be determlned by .recetiing egrth wases end thus polDtlDg-:-j.i_.of the rotarj tle repidliX moveileDt, ln steJldllt to the Pcle, gnides the martner _;:.:,]_ s-hlcl ce-s Dot only rx.ould lt be plain safels oyer the track)ess sea. .Thls glve-s -;1".: rhy t-be nag lorm \|trs malDtelDed, but a rert dlrect and slrcp)e erplanatton of ::.-::; *-by.tbe dlenieter ol the ring es e \rhoie the eertb'e magDedc fleld- Tbe s'Bye field ::!j. shonld shrinkSo long as lt ls roieted it alroEt tile globe t8 so rerJi beautlfol to be,ri..j;.would leep IIp a stress ID the a-ir about ho)d tbat we @nnot but regret tt was notl'j-.-::
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1l. So far a.s tbe experinental er-ldenee mRoe ho\c!'to Ds long ago.., But wbo.l:;=3]'-.. goes,It sppears that a rortex ring ln tbe .\rlll show lt to us?:..,.-:.-.: . j.. i.-:.:-.::.-.:!-l,r:.
, ._ ,'.., ..-.'.-..:: -r:-.-.j.: _-l - . : . _ _ .- - : : - . -.r ^ * _i.r-_ -:.,.: . -:_ : --_-* -,. , . . - _ , . , : :. : :

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TIELE-T-aP" ls tie Da$e i (A) ls the old s\Tltch; (B) ts the 1u."- :-'-;--, courtersDnk boles at tbe eads fbe derlee iI-RIPr.rq ! gisa tn a Ee\i el<a-lcal appliance- is soid. completely wtred, wlth eigbt feet isa (( elctrlcal rrhe.:ofnished; (C) ls the porceialn-c9rer. : wtred" eicbt ; 1e a=an::lsc.ure: : cclalms ttistt * ts-lth t s o l s i l h c . silh r e d c o r ocoro,i ; ; p l ; ; ; ; ; 'plug,-8-Dd - .. =i r::1gc.ure ]alms la i r r t t.b1s ol o v e c.overed , a ; ; a motor , .-' ',, (*n :*-lrc bis orra --=rier e-n-r t'."c-bolder e sepamble aitachmeDt ptog iltc-U- nts ,_ .. :_-j:-< \ .: ,,:r=ar1r in a ieTI. mbor"r It coosl-<-"s a.nf lerp s.rcLet or consealcac.e outleL / ^ \ t - -,.,. 1:lloc* oi stro:i, blacl trrepx'oi conr-...' Tols T\:iplex Tcble-Tap ls bache| r,1ti / f\ '--stjnD, zad cer:-ies tbrse bseied r+ grro balze ald nay also be used as a l ( O \ i outle'r. on tea n'egons, side-boards Ircrtsble !d serrlng tables; or on tbe work belch, e-round the ear. or Fhererer a crrnrenleat tee-slot electrieal ({}!DectloD mlght be reo-ulred-

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(A ). -{f.:I) an old dlsearded srrircl I liernole the shuft ond tire conlsct -\Yir-h slring. srrong scj-ssors cut two stril)s of thin slret l)rass nnd bend these rrlth pliers e-s sborrn. Insort the*e curled sprin;s l,etn(r) the port-e)ain tr:rS nnd bress c'oniacL &nd

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New Theory of the Aether.

(li'irst I'apcr.)

Ily T. /. /. See.

'l'he I. l l c d i u n r o f t h e A e t h c r i s n e c e s s a r v f o r I i s n o i n t r i n s i c d i f f i c u l t y i n e i t h e r v i e r v ,b u t a t p r e s e n r c o n v c r - i n q l ' h l s i c a l A c t i o n : t c r o s sS p i t c e . no method is knorvn by rvhich rve nlay hope to dis'Ihe A supcrfinc nrcrlinr-r.r r v h o l es u b j e c to f t h e e t h e r associatcd n'ith the. stars and rvith c r i n r i n a t c b e t l ' e c n t h e r n . t h e l i s l r t o f r l a r ' , k n o r v n a s t h e A e t h e r ( . / i e i q ) , h a s b c c n i s i n t h a t s t a t c o f u n c e r t a i n t ya n d a p p a r e n tc o n f u s i o n , r v h i c h u n i v c r s a l l vr e c o g n j z c r s i n c c t ' h c t i r n e o f l l o n t r t . ( l l i a d ,X V . z o , i n o t h c r b r a n c h c s o f s c i e n c eh a s t r s u a l l yp r e c e d e d s o n ) eg r e a t l and \\'1.:65). I . r u r i n g t h e l a s t t h r e e c e n t u r i e st h e g r c a t c s t a d v a n c e i r r k n o r v l c c l g c < . S u c l r e n a t t i t u r l ca s t h c a b o v e ,b y p h y s i c i s t s f r e c o g n i z e d nattrral philosophcrs and rnathenraticians, fronr /|ut,,q.htn.c, o a u t h o r i t a t i v r :c o r . r n e r : t i o n ss c o n f u s i n g e n o u g h ; b u t a n e v e n i, ,\i'u,/otr, tnrl J,.tr/o' to ,4fa:cu,r//, Lord litluin and l,oitrarl, h a l c r c q n r r j c r lt l r i s e c t l r e r i : rrl r c r l i r r ma s a n e c c s s e r lc o n r l i t i o n nrore lrcu'ildcring rloctrinc has been put forth by Einsttitt, , f o r t h c a c t i o r r o f - l l h l s i c a l f o r c c s a c r o s s s p a c e . I n h i s l l r i - a n r l r l u i t c u i c i c l l . : r r l o p t c c li n F ) n g l a n d , t h o u g h i t g e n e r a l l y 'l-hc c a n i t ; r c C i l c s t c 4 . - 5 . r , r S 9 ( t , ? ' i s s n ' r z z cr .l/r r c s s c s h c ( c n c r i r l i s r e j c c t c c l i n A r r r c r i r : a . c n g l i s h o b s e r v e r so f t h e t o t a l rx t + s o ) a r e r : l i p s c o f t r l a y 2 9 , t 9 r g , f o u n d s o m e e v i d e n c e so f a opinion thus: dellcction of the liqht of stars by the field of the srrn, but > ' T , c s l r t i o r i e sl c s l l l u s r r l c c n t e sd c J a t l 1 r h 1 ' s i r l urco n n c r . r t 1' n l i e u c l e c r o i r e r l u c l c s a t t r a c t i o n sc l c s < : o r 1 t s . , i l , , . t , n.c p c u v c n t i t u ' a s' l bh c o ro r n c a n s c o n c l u s i v e , a n d t h e r v e a k n e s so f t h e , ' y o f l i e l a t i v i t ) ' r ' a s i n t p r e s s i v e l yp o i n t e d o u t b y (luc l)ar l'intcnuctliaircl'un ntilicrr, rvholc se transnrettrc clrstancc i t ( r, , s a n s d o t r t e I ' i t h e r . I I a i s o r r n c c o n n a i t r i c n c n c o r c s u r c c r n o r l c I ) r . S i 1 1 , r r - s l t t z( ) l r s e r v a t o r y N o v e n r b e r r g r 9 , p . 3 g 6 - 7 ) , r v h o d e t r a n s r l i s s i o n . I l l r a r a i t p r o b a l r l er l u c l c n r 0 r l c n r i l i c u s c r t shon'ctl lhrt liitts/ritt's tlrcorl' rvill not account for the red e v c h i c u l c i c l c s a r : t i o n sc l c c t r i r l u c s o u c l c c t r o n t : t g n r . t i ( l u c.s f f i n c n r c n t o l n r o v i n g p c r i h c l i a , a n d r v o u l d e v e n p c r m i t a p l a n e t or conrct to l)rove in a. straight line, under the gravitativg N o t u ' i t h s t a r - r r l i ntg e v c r y s c c r r r ef o L r n d a t i o n o r a v a l i c l h f ar:tion of tlrt sun. In vicrv of these facts I)r. ,Si/ltt's/ein iustlv t h e o r v o f . t h c a c t h c r c r c c t c < ll r y t h e l a l r o r s o f t h c n r o s t c n . r i n e r . r t g c o r ) r c t c r sa n r l n a t u r n l p h i l o s o l t h c r s s i n c e t h c a g c o 1 ', \ i . t t , / o t t , savs tlr:rt thc Iiins/rin thcorl' stands or falls lry t\e Et,irshrrl t n c l . \ i /J ' n l t s l ) c (t r a l o l r s c r r ' : r t i o n sw h i c h a r c a m p l e , y e t d o , a s t r a n g et c n r l c n r ; r ' h a sa r i s e n ' w i t l t i r r c c c n t I ' c a r s , t 0 r : r l r : r n r I t r r t c l t t l - r r t r r r c t i t tn r r . tl d o n i n g t h e a c t h c r a s l l n r u l t e ( c s s i r r ) ,h v I o t h c s i s . \ \ ' h c t h c r I n a n i n t c r l i c n ' a t C h i c a g o ,D e c . r 9 , r g r g , p r o f e s s o r t h i s r e a r : t i o n a r l - t c n r l e n r : f i s l > a s c c u p o n a c l c r l u a t cg r a s l ) o f l ,4. '1. l/ir/rr/.ron, rhc crrinent authority on Iight, openly rejects t h e q c o r n c t r i c a lr n r l P h y s i c a l < : o n s i r l c r a t i o nis v o l v c < ln r a f i r g n Jiin,r/rin s thcory', lrccausc it does arvay rvith the idea of light doulrterl lrv thc nrorc expcricnccrl n:rtrtral philosophcrs of t r a r ' 6 l j r r gb r . n t c a n s o f v i l > r a t i o n si n t h e a e t h e r n ' h i c h i s s u p t o d a l ' . . \ t a n y r : r t c \ \ ' e l e a v c t h i s t o t h c j u d c e n r e n to f t h o s c lroscclto fil) all spacc. >Jiinslritt tlrinks thcre is no such thins i n v c s t i g a t o r sr v h o f o l l o l ' t h c a r g u n r c n t h c r e c l e v c l o p c c l . :rs rctlrcr<,, rcnritrlicd tl/icht/-eon. >He cloes rrot attenrnt to I n t h c i r t r c a t i s c o n l \ l a g n c t i s m a n d I i l c c t r i c i t l ' , L o n c l o n , a ( ' c o u n tl b r t i r c t r a n s n l i s s i o n o f l i g h t , b u t h o l c l st h a t t h e a e t l r e r r9t z, ljroolts rutcl/1,_t'.ro, r'ho l'crc inspircrl lry thc clcr:tronir: s h o u l c l l r c t l r r o r v n o v c r i r o a r d < . ( t h e o r i c s c n r i r n a t i n g1 ' r o n r l a r n l r r i d g c , c x p r c s s t h en r s c l r . c s h u s : t I n v i c s ' o f t l r c r : o n l i r s i o no f t h o u g h t i n t r o d u c e d b y r I r r 1 l 1 i cl r o o k , r i c h n r . c i n r p J i c i t i va s s u r . n c t h c . e x i s t c n r : c thc clcctronists, on the onc hand, and lry the cl Einsttiti pure , o f a n r e d i u n r ,r v h i c l r i s t h c s c a t o l - t h c p l i c n o r . n e nc l c n o t c c l n r a t h c n t a t i r : i u n so l t t h e o t h c r , - l r o t h e x t r e l n e s l e a d i n g t o a , b y t h e t e n r s e l c c t r i c a n d n r : r q n c t i c l i n c s o f f o r c e . I t n r : r 1 ' , i r l c r r sn o t : r y r p r o y r r i a t o t h c ' f a c t s , r v h i c h l : ) r . L t ' h t u , r l / , i s i o r y c H h o s ' e v e r ,l r c n r c n t i o n c c l h a t t t t h c l ) r c s c n tl t ) o l n c l t t t h c v a r i o u s o f t h c I n r l u c t i v cS c i c n < : c s , 3 4 7 , I . 8 r , s h o q , e dr v a s t h e c a r r s c t rt r l u c s t i o r . r a s s o t : i l t c r l s , i t h t h c c t l r c r g i l c r i s c t o l t r o l r l c n r so l o l ' t l r c l t L i l r r r o 1 t i r c p l r l ' s i c z r ls c i c n c c s a l - n o n g h e g r e e k s - s : t c r e a t c o m l ) l c x i t l ' a n c l c l i f l i c u l t y . ' l ' h c c x p c r i n r e n t a 'k n o r v l e c i s r , . i t s c c n t sh i g l r l r . i n r p o r t u n t t o e n t e r u l ) o n r n a c c o r l n t o f c e r t a i n l a c r l u i r e c lr l L r r i n g t h c l a s t t \ \ ' e n t ] ' 1 ' c a r s ,t a k c n i r t r o n j r r n r . l i o r r u n p r r l r i i s h c r lr c s c a r r : h c so n t h c a c t h e r m a d e b y t h e p r e s e n t r v i t h r c c c n t l l ' a c q u i r e d k n o s ' l e d g e r c c a r d i n g t h e , e l c c : t r o n ' u ' r i t c r c l L t r i n st h e p a s t s i x 1 ' c r r s , o n r i t t i n q s o f a r a s p o s s i b ) e a n d t h c c o n s t i t u t i o n o f n r a t t c r , I e a c l st o n p p a r e n t ) y i r r e c o n - t h e r c s u l t sa l r e n d v a v l i l a i r l e i n v o l u m e I o f t h e E l e c t r o d y n a m i c c i l a b l cr c s u l t s , n c l t h e r c a l n a t r l r e o f t h c e t h c r - i f i t \ \ r a y c - ' l ' h c o r ] ' o f I ' h 1 , s i c a I . o r c e s , J : | o s t o n L o n d o n a n d P a r i s , a l , e x i s t sa t a l l i r l t h e o l d s e n s eo f t h e u ' o r c l - n u r s t b e r e g a r d e d r c ) r 7 . a s a b s o l u t e l l ' u i k n o r r ' n . I i o r i n s t a n c c ,i f t h c e t h e r i s i n .And first lve shall shorv that the aether is necessarl, cornpressil;lc, as it is usualll' assunreclto bc, .rveare driver), f o r h o l d i n g t h e p l a r r e t s i n t h e i r o r b i t s , f r o m t h e e s t a b l i s h e d b . v o n e l i n e o f a r g u n t e n t ) t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t l r n t i t i s z o o o l a l ' o f t h e r : c n t r i l L t g a lf o r c c . T h i s c e n t r i f u g a l m o t i o n n u s t million times dcnser1) than lead and I)ossesses nonrous be countcractcd, otherl'ise a planet can not be rnade to e e n e r s v o f i n t c r n a l n t o t i o n . O n t h c o t h e r h a n d , i f i t i s c o n r - c u n ' e t h e p a t h a t e v e r 1 . r o i n ta n d t h u s r e v o l l e i n a K e p l e r i a h y p r e s s i b l e ,i t n r a l ' b e n t u c h r a r c r t i t a n t h e r a r e s t g a s . ' l ' h e r e ellipse il'ith tlrc sun in the focus.
tl; ,, '1*r" n , t , , p " , " c o r t c l u s i v c ' c r i t c r i o r v i l l b c g i v c n f o r r c j c c t i n g t h i s c l r i r n o f a l a r g c r l c n s i t yf o r t h e a c t h e r .

5r

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It is rvell known .that the centrifugal force is given (t) by the expression, f : r,r2lQ
is rvhere z,,r the revolving lnass,'z is the instantaneoltsvelocity, a n d g t h e r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r eo f t h e o r b i t . A s t h c p l e n e t a r y orbits and the orbit o[ the uroon are not far ll'orn circular, we may with sufficient approximation calculate the ccntrifugal force for circular orbits.. In the case of the earth's attraction for the moon, it snffices to take the earth's rveight in Irletric r/8r.a5, and the distance of the t o n s , t h e m o o n ' s m a s s: moon 6o terrestrial radii, so that the rveight at the earth's 'I'hen, rs surface is to be reduced by the divisor 36oo. gravity balances this centrifugal force, rve have for the rttraction of the earth on tlic lnoon : ( 5 . g 5 6 2 9 x r o : 1 ) / ( 8 r . 4x 3 6 o o ) 2 5 1: x 2 0 . 3 1 3 7 r o 1 5 m e t r i ct o r ) s . \2) This enormous tension rvould retluire for its suJ)l)ortthe full Lrreakingstrength of a rveightlesssolid circr.tlarcoluntn of steel 645 kms in dianteter, *'lten the stetl has tlrc tcnsile 6.4 strength of over 3o Iretric tons to the stluare incli : c s ( 1 . n r s , a n d s u c h a s n t a l l b i r r o f s t e e l r v o L r l dt h t l s a l r o u t l i l t 'l'he t en s i l e s t r en g t h a m o d e r n b a t t l e s h i p o f t h e l a r g e s t t 1 ' 1 ..r e t h e a b o v e s i n g l e c o l t t m t r , 6 4 5 k r u s i n c l i a t t r e t e r ,r v o t t l c l of b e e r l u i v a l e n t t o a b o u t 5 o o o o o o o o o o o o c o l t t t t t t r so f s u c l t rveightless steel, each of one s(ltl.Ire lbot cross sectioll, 9 z: c s(1. ms, or about otre sttch colutnn to each rtrt:e I6;4 1[ ._ z 5 6 s q . f e e t o f a h e m i s p i r c r i c n lc r o s s s e c t i o n o l - t l r c c a r t h . ttrotiotr. So much for the stressesrvhich control tlte tnoc>tr's l l u t t h e g r a v i t l t i o n a l a t t r a c t i o n o f t l r e s t l n r . l l ) o nt l ) c earth is very much ntore porverfttl tharr that ol- tlle rI)ooll. 'l'he attraction of the sun lll)or1 thc crtrtlr is ot' cortrse ctlt't:LI to that of the earth upnn the srtrt,s'hicll is errsilv sten to l)e : S s r t S " l G s + + S ) ' x 5 . 9 5 6 : 9 :x r o : 1 -f : (S) 3 . 6 o 5 7z x r o l b n t e t r i c t o n s s r v h e r e t h e n u t n b e r 3 3 2 7 5 o r e J ) r c s e u t t h e s u t r ' st t t e s s ,i n r t l r i t s o f t h e e a r t h ' s m a s s , a n d 2 3 4 4 5 i s t h e s L r u ' st t t e a r tt l i s t a n c e , in units of the earths radius. 'l'iris attraction of the sun oll the elrtlr is etltlivalcnt t o t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f r o o o o o o o o o o o o r v e i g l l t l c s sc i r cular pillars of steel, Iike that discussed above, l-,tttcach 'l'his is having a diameter of 3o feet, aUout 9 n)etrcs. erluivalent to the tensile strength of a forcst ol' rreightle'ss t s t e e l p i l l a r s , e a c h r r i n c h e s o r z 8 c t n s i t r t l i a t r t ee r , o n . l e r c h s q u a r e f o o t o f a h e t n i s p h e r i c ac r o s s s e c t i o t ro ( ' t h c c a r t h ; so that the surlace of the globe rvould lre alttrost covercd s'ith these cables of steel. S u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e e n o r t u o t t s g r ' : t v i t . r t i v cr o r v c r lof the heavenly bodies rvere Iirst bronglrt to trry uttctttion by Professor joscp/t liicllin, of the Universitl' oi' Xlissouri, i a b o u t 3 3 y e a r s a g o , a n d h a v e n e v e r b c e l i o v e r i r - r o k e dn r t t y s u b s e q u e n ts t u d i e s o f t h e c a u s e o f g r l r v i t a t i o n . N o r v r v i t h ,these concrete figures before us, we see that tlle cltlse assigned for gravitation must be adetl.rate to stlslxir) tltese tremendous forces, miracul.ously pulling like stupcnrlottscables of steel, irnagined as rveightlessas spider rvebs, 1'et stretched to the utmost limits of .their tensile strength across the celestial spaces, for holding the planets in their orbits. Accordingly Einstciris proposal to do awlr)' rvith the aether is chiefly remarkable for the lack of understanding of

the plrysical universe u'hich it displays. Str fsaac t\ieu'ton hirnself denounced those *'bo believed action cotlld occur a c r o s s e n r p t y s p r c e ; r s n o t h a v i n g a c o n l l ) e t e n tl l c u l t l ' o f thinking in lrhilosophical uratters. In his Ietter to llet//t1', t 6 g z - 3 , l " eb r . z 5 , h c s a 1 ':s > ' I ' i i a t g r a v i t v s h r . , r . r lb e i n n a t e , i n l t c r e n t a n d e s s e n t i a l d to nratter,so that one bodl'l)lx)'act ul)on allother llt a d i s t a n c e t b r o u g h a v a c u t l n t ,u ' i t h o t r tt h e r t t e d i a t i o no f a n y t h i n g else, by and through rvirich their action and fbrce trtay be conveyed froni one to anotlter, is to rlre so grett an absurciitl', that I believe no rrralrrvho has in pitilosophical matters a c o n r p e t e n t f a c r . r l t yo f ' t h i n k i n g , c e n e v e r l a l l i n t o i t . ( i r a l i t y l l i l . r s tb e c a u s e d b i ' a t l e g e t r t t t c t i l l . qc o t t s t i l n t l l ' a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n l a r v s ; b u t r v l t e t h e rt h i s a g c r t t b e u t e t e r i a lo r i n t t r t a t e r i a l , I h a v e l e f t t o t h e c o n s i c l e r r t i o r to f ' n r 1 ' r e a d e r s < ' .
In a parauraph cited 'oelow, tl[ttr/uurit tel\s tts that ,t\rt:tulottheld gravitation to be dttc to itttpLtlses of the aetirer, but coulrl not tnake ottt cxact'l1' ltrJti' thci' lrose; and this l)rrssa{c slrorvs tltat ,t\ieulott did not rt.qard t}tis urediuni as ordinary nratcrial. a) It is shorvn belorr' thlt the clasticitl' of the aether i s 6 t i g 1 ; zl 6 o o o o o t i t r t c s g r c a t e r t h a n t l r l t t o l o t t r u i r i n 1 , r c l ' l r o r t i o n t o i t s d c n s i l y : i t h a s t l t e r e t b r e er ) o r n ) o u s p o l e r b f contractior.r, if any llattlral I)rocess be at rvork to catlse it to collllrsc. b) lt is shorvn in the l!lectrodl'natrtic \\/ave-'l'heorv of that behveeIl any t\\'o sources, as the I)lry's..l,'orc. |, r9|7, s r u r : r r r , l t ' : r r t l r , t l r t t v l r v e s s o i l l t r ' r l ) L l l c trt t e , * i t l r r o t e t i o n s iri oppositr rlirer:titttts, as to clccreltse tllc strcss ltnd cltlse r ' o l l a p s c o t ' t l r c r n c c l i r t t t t b c t r v e en t l r c s r t t r l t n r i t l t c e a r t h ; a n d tlris the rclbrc clcvclolrs arl cl)orlrtutls tr Ir:iult, u itlt Ittaxirnum strcss ir) tlrc right litte lrct*'eetr tlrc l;oclics, rvhile beyorld tlreru tlrcrc is corrcspotiding irtt:rcast ol'strcss and thus atr cxterrral l)rcssure llso overcottring thc cllct:ts of the centrilirgal {brce, and cornlrciling the planct to lirllorr' the Keplcrian ellilrse abotrt tlte stttr in tlre lbctrs. c ) I t i s s h o r r n i r t s e c t i c n 7 1 . r c l t - r * 't ,h a t t h c p o t e n t i a l ac(rutrtulated stress, i s s i r n p l i ' a n e x p r c s s i o nf b r t l r e t o t t l due to tlre s'avcs I}om ali thc indivitlual atours of a body, cach rvrve follorving the lau' of arnplittrde,

,J :
/

klr
' r l i

(+)

fbr<:e, as itt grui'itrrtic.rrt, and giving an elernctrt r.r1- /c-lr-. J Accordingly we sce t\1ft Lullu,t's definition ot' the potential, r 7 8 2 , l r o i n t s c l i r e c t l yt o t l l e \ \ ' a v c - t h c o r l ' : t.

(s)

i t i s n a t r . r r a lt o h o l c l t h r r t g r e v i t e t i o r t i s d) a a wrvc phenomcnon in the aether, and to clisrniss ll other hypotlresesrs not lirllrlling conditiorts csselltial to a true 'I'his u'lve-thcory of grrtvitrtion rvill give.a physical cartse. n e r v g r o u r t d fo r t h e c l c l l e c t i o no f t h e l i r l h t o l s t l r s * ' h e n t h e paths of tlteir rat's l)ass through the eravitational field of t h e s u n , a s i n d i c a t c d i n t h e e c l i p s C o f X l a y u 9 , a r t c lr e p o r t e d at the meetings of the Iioyal Societyand lioyal Astronontical S o c i e t y ,N o v . 6 , r g r g . e) It will be shorvn belorv that both the density and rigidity of the aether increases as we go otttrvard f ronr the sun, according to tlle lrws

t.'l(,r r =: J')'J'\,r/ -r')rr-(,r,--r'')''i-('' 'I'herclore

. '')'))ti.id.r',1: (o)

53
/ ) ! ' ^ ' n ' - , " ^ '

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- half of it being oi875, as against zooo" in o u r a t m o s p h e r e ,o r a b o \ r t z 3 o o t i m e s s m a l l e r . . A c c o r d i n g l l ' t h e l e l o c i t l o f t h e r v a v e sr c m a i n s a p p r o x i m a t c l y j ) S i n c e , a c c o r d i n g t o t l ' r e r e p o r t o f t h e o b s e r v e r so f \ c o n s t a n t , ( F , l c c t r o r l v n n n r i c\ ' r v c - ' I ' h c o r t ' o f l ' l r y s i o a l T i o r c c s t l r c e c l i p s c o f ' t r { a 12 g , 1 g r g , t h i s I n i n u t e d e f l e c t i o nd i s a p p e a r s , ' I . r 4 - r 5 7 , r o r 7) l'hen tlrc slrn rnovcs out of the path of the light from,the (s) I': cr (nlD): ct,.jlrlt'r). stars l1,ine bchind it, such a tenrporary effect cannot properly Ilut experiencenlonc r:an dctcrnrine rvhethcr this condition l)c attril)Lrtcd o )x lvarp ofspace<, but only to the refractive t h o l d s u i t h g c o n c t r i r : a lr i q o r , o r s ' h c t h c ra l o n g t h e a c t u a lp a t l r , action of thc sun's envelope. \\hen .t\rtutloz observed the c o n t a i n i n q r l i l i i r s c c : o r o n a ln l a t t c r , t h c s t a t i o n a r l ' c o n c l i t i o n , r c f r a c t i o n o f l i g h t b y a p r i - s mh e h a d n o t h o u g h t o f a t t r i b u t i n g ( q ) t h c e f f c c t t o ) a \ 1 ' a r po f s p a c e < ; a n d o n e c a n n o t b u t r e f l e c t ,).f r: " a hon' fortunate it is that the physicaltheory of astrononrical r h a l n o t l c a c it o a s n r a l ld c f l e c t i o n f t h e o r i q i n r l p a t h o f l i e h t . o re fraction was perfected by Aiezalon,Lay'lare and Besscl before i) Such :rn increase of density in the aether, as \ve s u c l i < : o n l r r s i n g t e r m s a s ) ) f o u r t h d i m e n s i o n- t i m e - s p a c e re cerle fronr thc sun \\'as sttspectecl tt.1, -\-tu,lott in I i 2 r, m a n i f o l c l s , ,r v c r e i n t r o d n c e d i n t o s c i e n c e . ( 3 " i c d i t i o n o f ( ) 1 r t i c sl , . 3 r 5 ) . I t i s o 1 -a u t h c n t i r r e c o r d t h a t ; i k) lt cannot be held tha.t Dinsiein's theory enlightens 1\-ttllott belicyccl gravitation arises fronr the iurpulses of a r u s o n t h c n r o t i o n o f r n e r c u r y ' sp e r i h e l i o n , b e c a n s e a t l e a s t s u b t i l c a c t h c r c a l n r c c l i u n r ,b u t h e > r v a s n o t a b l e , f r o r - n c x h a l f a d o z c n c x p ) a n a t i o n ss o m e o f t h e m a p p r o v e d b y h l r u t o n , , p c r i n - r c n a n r l o l r s c r r ' ; r t i o n o g i v c a s a t i s f a c t o r l ' a c c o u n to f t t, Ila//, i\-ru,rr,tn/'ancl Srr/i.qcr,are alread]' knov'n; and another t h i s n r c r l i u m ,r t n r l t h c l l i u l l ( ' r o f i t s o P c r a t i o n ,i n p r o r l r t c i n q - s i r n p l c n c , i n v o l v i n g n o r n y s t i c i s r na n d n o r a s h a s s r r m p t i o n s , o t h c r : h i c f y r h c n o r n c n ao f n a t u r c < ( , ( ' l h t r l a t t r i n , . r \ c c o L t n t o f brrt follo*'ing fronr definitely cstablisbedphysical larvs, uill ' \ ' en , l o t i s l ) h i l o s o p h i r ' ; r lI ) i s c o v c r i c s , L o n d o n , I 7 4 8 , p . r r r ) , o l r e l r r o r r g l r t u t i n t l r c l ) r c s e n ti n v c s t i g a t i o n . and thus hc lclt tirc ploblcnr of thc t:euse of gravitation to [uture invcstisators. 2 . N c u . L a r v o f t h e I ) en s i t y a n d R i g i d i t y o f 't'hc o l r s c r v c <r l e { l c c t i o n o f t h e r a 1 ' so f s t a r s p a s s i n g t h e i \ c t h c r . l e) 'l'o rlcducc the larv of the wave amplitude (a) in trin e a r t h e s u n , a n r o u l r t i n g t o a l r o u t r 1 75 , n r a , v b e n r o s t n a 'Ihe displacement t n r a l l r c x p ) a i n c r li r v t h c a c t i o n o f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a a n d n r a g - clinrensionrl sl)acc, \\'e procee(l as follorvs. . l - l l c l d s , u n d c r t h e i n f l u c n c e o f c o r o n a l l n a t t c r , o f a n r ' p a r t i r : ) co f a n c d i u n t d u e t o w a v e m o t i o n , o f a g i l e n netic s-:rve varr-ing as the inverse forrrth porvcr of distancc, ancl thc rvavc Ienqtlr, is indcpcndcnt of the periodic time, and since arrangenrcnt f thc clcnsitl'arrd ritidit.v of thc acther,ncer thc oscillatorl' orlrits ol-the particles are described in equai o t h e s t r n . A n a r c o f r " a t t h e s r t n ' sn r c n n r l i s t a n c ec o r r c s p o n c l s t i n r c s , r n r l c r c o n t i n u o u s f l o r v o f t h e l ' a v e s , t h e s e o r b i t s r v i l l o t o a n a b s o l u t cs J ) a c e f 7 z < ,k r n s , r 1 7q t o r z 6 g k r n s . I n t h c l , c P r o I o rt i o n a l t o t h c d i s P l a c e m e n t s r o t h e r h o m o l o g o u s o p r e s e n c eo f t h c s u n ' s s t r o n g g r n v i t a t i o n a l a n c l m a g n c t i c f r c l r l s , l i n c s l r c r t a i n i n s t o t h c p c r i o d i c p a t h s o f t h e p a r t i c l e s . L e t b a n d - t h e n r a g n e t i z c ( lf a i n t c o r o n a l m a t t c r p c r v a d i n g t h a t s ' a v e - t h c l c l o c i t i c s o f - t h c n r o v i n gp a r t i c ) e s e u , a n d z r t h e i r m a s s ; agitated rcqion, it is probable that a ccntral rcfrnction or thcn thcir kincti<: cncrsies rvill be representedby rf2nu2. d e f l c c t i o n o f - t h e l i e h t , o f t h i s r l a q n i t n r l e , s o n r c w h a ta n l l o s o u s I n t h e s p h c r i c n l c x p a n s i o n o f t h e a e t h e r l ' a v e s , t h e r e s ' i l l a t o ' i r n t n r s J - n r n r c t r i r :Z rl t n a n - c f f c < : t ,n r a y b c a n t i c i l r a t e c l . ' l ' h e l r c n o l o s s o f c n c r t f i n f r c e s p a c e ; h e n c e o n t w o s u c c e s s i v e d r o t n t i o n o f t h c l > c a n r o f p o l a r i z c d l i t h t l 1 1 ' n r e s n e t i s n ri,n s p h c r c s r r r l ; r c c so f t h i < : k n c s s r - , t h c e n e r g i e s a r e e q u a l , s o v 1 , - a r o d o - r 'e r p c r i m c r r t o f r 8 4 5 , n ' o u l d l e a d u s t o c x l ) c c t s o l r e t h a t s c l r l r c : s action in the sun's coronal u'uvc-ficld. 4;rt'2'1I'n 112: 47rt''2'rf2nu'2 'lines h ) ' \ s | , , i t t s l u z ' s p r e c l i c t c dd i s p ) a c e n r c n to f t h e s l ) c c t r a l tori'arcls the recl could not lre confirnred by /:.t,rt'shttl an(l Sl7o/t,1, rvho hacl ample telescopic porver to nrakc this shift-cffcct at lcast -5o tin)es the prolrable error of thcjr r n c a s u r e s ,i t c a n n ; t l r c p r c s u r r c c l t h a t t h c d c f l c r : t i o no f s t u r l i g h t p a s s i n g n c n r t l r c s u r . ri s t c o n f i n n a t i o n o l - a p u r c l y 'l'hc n r a t h c n r r t i c i r lt h c o r l ' . o <'lcllcction f tlrc light nrustrathcr e x p l a i n c c l r 1 ' , U " l r h v s i c a l p r o p c r t i c s o l - t h c i r c t h c r ,i n t e r be sperseri *'ith faint coronlIl n)attcr, r'arving as thc in\'crsc fourth porler of thc distlncc, in the region of intcnsex'avcagitation aborrt thc sun. i) At the joint nreeting of the Royal Socicty and Roynl Astronomical Socictl', Nor'. 6, r g r 9, no one attcrxl)tc(i to ans\\'er the rveightl objcctions brought forrvarcl by 1)r. Si11,rr.r/rr)r, n'ho had nracle a careful study of -L,insltitis theorl', a n c l t h u s p o i n t e d o u t t h e b i z a r r c c o n c l u s i o n sd r a r v n b 1 ' s o m c p u r c m a t h e n r a t i c i a n sr v h o a r c l ) r o n c t o f o r g e t t h a t t h e c . l e tlection of sterlieht near the sun is as purell'a ph1'sical prol)lem xs the refraction of light in the carth'sattnosphcre. Norv the srln's deflcction of lisht is similar to refraction, Lntt
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n,hich is the lal, of the potential. first used by Laplace in 'l'hus t 782. it af pears that if there be aether waves propagated outr'iarcll)'liorr any nrolecuie of matter, the amplitude, o r m a x i m u r n c l i s p l r c e n r e n to f t h c o s c i l l a t i n gp a r t i c l e so f t h e aether, rviil r'ary invcrsely as the radirts of the spherical a u'ave-surl ce.

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A p a r t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t s o m e r v h a tl i k e t h i s i s g i v e n i n s t u l ) e n d o u s l o r c e s r e , l u i r e d f o r l t o t d i , t g t h e p l a n e t s a n d s t a r s certain treatises on pbysics, such as Wii//ne/s !)xperimental i n t h e i r o r b i t s . Physik, I.784, and tlfitchit'sElementsof Wave Xlotion, p. r r, 7) But this rvill be possible onlf if the aether is but no importance is attached to the result, as in tn,v }llectro- a r r a n g e d a c c o r d i r - r gt o t h e I a r v o f d en s i t y 6 : )' r-; rvhich r9r7. d y n a m i c W a v e - T h e o r yo f l ' h y s i c a l F o r c e s , I . r 4 - I 5 i , r i n t u r n r v i l l f o l l o r v i f e l e c t r o d y ' n a m i c i ' a v c sr e c e d e l - r o u t t h e So accurately is this true, that rvhen I brought this sinrple srrn, having arnplitudes ,l : i l ' , v . l J o r t l i c a u r l . r l i t u d e sn I , lr , l : e f o r e t h e A c a - c r c a s i n g t o w a r d s t h e s u n ' s c e n t r e i n s u r c s a t l c c r e a s e l ' t l e n s i t y f o r n r u l a f o r t h e r v a v ea m l t l i t u d e , . / : o d e m y o f S c i e n c e so f . S t . L o u i s , i n a p L r b l i ca d d r e s s , S e p t . z r , o f t h e a e t h e a b o L r tt l t a t c e n t r e , o r r ' i n g t o t h e i n c r c a s i t . t gr ' a v e \ r r q r 7, great surprise at the simplicity of the lbrrtrttll rvrrs agitation near the sltn's slrrface. n b e x p r e s s e d y s u c h e x p e r i e n c e di n v e s t i g a t o r s s P r o l c s s o r. 1 i / 1 . fi) Norv ull tlrcsc ttrtttttui arnurgor)lcrlts, l;rvoriLlrle to 'l'irLrs it is trtcussur)'t() t\tipher, and Presider* L. A. /:u.ghr. thc rvave-tlreory, *'ould r)ot c\ist, turlcss tltet thcory relrredevelop the subject a Iittle n-rore fully in the present I)t[)er, s e n t e d a i a * ' o l - n a t t l r e . all iacts r-,f llecause trot onll-arc s i n c e n o a d e q u a t e d i s c u s s i o no f t h e p r o b l e n a p p c a r s t o b e t h c a c t h c r h a r r n o n i z r c l , l r u t a l s o a l l t h e l o r c e s l r r o t t g l t t u t r t l e r available in existing rvorks on physical scictrce. the prin<:iples oi the <:onscn'ttion ot-crter{y, lnd o1'Ieast l , e t u s n o r v c o n s i d e r t h e a r r a n g e r n c n to f t h c < l c n s i t y : L c t i o n . ' l ' h u s n i r t u r e n o t o n l y a c t s s i n r i r l l ' , b u t a l s o l r l t h e of the aether about the sun. n r o s t r . l n i l o r n r l ) r o ( i e s s e st l t r o L t e i r o u t a l l s y r l c e . l t i s n o t t h e r e ' o r ) S u p p o s ew e c o n s i d e r c a r e f u l l y t h e a r u p l i t L r c l c f ' t h e l b r c a t l u r i s s i l . , l ct o h o l d a n v t h e o r y o l ' t l r e a c t l t e r o t h e r t h a r r r v a v e s f r o n r t h e s u n i n a n y s o l i r r s l t e c t r l l l i n c , s t r r : hu s t i r a t t l r a t i c i s a n i n l r n i t e a e o l o t r o l r i c e l r L s t i cs o l i t l , u ' i t h t h e t l e n s i t v 1 oi- sodiunr,-1). It is evidcnt that ii'*'e rlisregur',all other ernrngrr-l aIrout tlte ]rcevenll' ltotlics to itrcrcrtsc dircctlt' l itlr rlcliations, and fix attention ulron this sotliuru liglrt llone, thc rlistarrce. ,\nrl tlte rr'avc utuplitutles vrLrfittg itrverselv as t h c n a s t h e r v a v e a u r p l i t u d e v i l r i c s i n v e r s t ' 1 1 ' l st l r e < j i s t u n < : e t l r e r r r i l i t r s , , I : / : l r , sr.ll)l)ortsthis tirtorl', lry georlctrical : l i o m t h e s u n ' s c e n t r c , t h i s u n r p l i t u t l c o l - o t t r v i l r l r L t i t > nt so n - t : o n s i t i t r a t i o r r s , r i ' i r i c l r e x c i r . t t l e t v c r v o t l t c r t i r e o r l ' o f t h e Ii s s t i t u t i n g s o c l i u r r " r g h t r v i l l l . r e: r c 1 t i r n e g r er r t e r u t t h e s u n ' s r r r e c i i u n rl i r r t l r e i r t t e r l r r e t u t i o n o f t h e l o r c e s o p e r e t i r r g t l l r o r . r g h o s u r f a c e t h t n a t t l t e s L t r f i r c e f t h e c r r t h - s i n r : e t h c e e r t l r ' s o u t t h c p h 1 ' s i < : e lu n i V e r s t . u r e a n d i s t a n c ei s z r g s o l a r r a c i i i . 9 ) l n t h e t o u r s e o 1 -t l r e a r t i c l r r \ ( ' t l l e r ( l ' ) n c v c l o p c d i a z ) S i m i l a r r e a s o n i n gr v i l l l r o l c l l b r t i r e l r L v c so f - l r g l r t l i r i t e t t r i i c : r t , 9 t h . e d . , r 3 7 i ) , ' l 1 t t . t z z , z 1tl a l r : L t l + t t s t l t c ' c l c n s i t . v r o f t h e s p e c t r u l no f s u c l l e l e t l e n t s a s s t r t . r n t i L t t ti t ,t r i u t t t , l ; o r o t t , r . o 7 X r o l s , t l r t r s i r n l r l y ' i t r uI t o r u o g t n c i t l ' , l n c l s l t c a k s ts o c a l c i u m , h y d r o g e n , c a r b o n , i r o n , n i c k c l , c o i r L l t , ( r ( ) J ) lr),e t i 'lhtts o l ' t l r i s r u c r l i u r r rr . s ) i r v a s t l r o r n o g r n t o r t s r ' \ l ) i l n s e o f i s o t r o p r i c t o a l l t h e l i g l r t r v l L v e s l - r L l lc l e r n c r r l s : o n l - o r r u tanium, etc. llllltttr. ( : /rlr. to tlre larv: A liLrt it is olrvious on rcllcction tlrlrt tlris utedirttn canl)ot r 3 ) e t t t i i e s e c h e m i c a l e l e n r e u t sa l s o r r L t i i i L tle c r t t w u v c s l r c l r o r n o g c r r e c - r rL s t b r i n t l r a t c r L s ct l r e r c r i < - r u l t lb e I i o s t r c s s c s r ); w h i c h l o l l o r v t h e s a u t el a r v o f a m p l i t L r d c . , ' \ n t l l i r r l r o t i t i i g l r t lirr gencrrrtinr{ tltc iirrccs rvhich gttvern tite in tlrc nrcdiurn and heat the irbove larv holds rigorotrsiytrue. ll-tlrere lre t r n u t u a l i r r t c r u c t i o r r o l ' [ r o t l i e s t l t r o u g ] t < , r us p a c c . ' I ' h e t n t t t t t a l any other type of rvitvesin tlte aethcr, tltc salne Iarv l'ill ructiorts llett,cctr l-rodies is an oIrscrvctl luct. ln tttrttiolt the hold lor thcse undulltions also. lrodies are cveryrvhere ii.runtl to <lescribe t:llilrscs, parabolas + ) N o r v n r l g n e t i s m a n d g r a v i t r t i o n l r a r , cl r r : e nr c l e r r c d o r h y ' l r e r b o l a s r l - i o u t o n e a n o t h e r . N o t h i n g b r t t f r . r r t : c s ,d u e t o t o c l e c t r o d y n r r u i c r v u v e s ,i n t h c u t t t l r o r ' s r v o l k o r t p h l . s i r ; l L I t r n s i o n i r c t * ' c e n t h c l r o r l i e s . l t r t t l i n r : r e : r s eo f ' l r r c s s t t r e b e y o n d r l b r c c s , r g r 7 . l t ' t h e s e r v a v e se x i s t , t h r y r L ) s o v i l l l i r l l o r vt l r c : / t l r ; a r t d ,t l r a t t h c y r l o c r i s t i s s ) t o r i ' nl r y a t l r c r u , c r - r u l t l l r o s s i b l l ' p r o t l u c e t h i s r c r u l r k a b l e p o s ' e r f o r sarre larv .l i holtling the 1r)arrctsn tlreir r-rririts. t v u r i c t y o I l r l r c n o t r t c t t r v l r i l t l L d r r r io l t i r o t l r c r i r r [ ,t l , r e u t i o r t . t e, t 'l'irus r o) l i r r c es i r n p l l ' t ' e v e s , e n t l r v u v e s l e a d t o f o r c e s , I . ' o r e x a m p l e , t h e e l e c t r o c l y n a r n i z r c t i o n o f u c u r r en t o t e l e c c r t r i c i t y i s d u e t o r v a v e s : t h u s l r i s e e l e c t r i c a l l b r c e s : a l s o u i a g - r v h en t h e u ) u t u r l l ) ' i n t L ' r l ) c n L ' t r u t i n . g v r r r s l r e s o d i r c c t e d a s to undo one anothcr, and cause tltc colirLlrse of the'ntediurn netic forces,gravitational forces, etc. in the riglit Iine l-retl,cetr the lrodies. .\s tire grSr'itational , 5) Gravitation adniits of no other explenrLtionrvhile on this explanation rve have ln iniurediutc insiglrt into the forccs are of enornrous'intensitl', it lbllorr's thlt the elastic , s { l u c t u a t i o n s f t h e m o o n ' s n r e r n m o t i o r . t r v l t i r : l t o l o r t g y r r o v c d p o r i , c r o l - t l r e a c t l r e r ] r r r s t o b c t r c n r e n c l o L r s i,n o r t l c r t o g e n e r a t e o u t t e r l y b e r v i l d e r i n g t o a s t r o n o n r e r s ., \ n c l t h c r c i l i u s t b e n o t t l r e l b r c e s a c t u a l l v o b s e r v e d . s r r ) '\ccorclingll', tlrc cxistcnce oi li-rrce irnplics stresses only a cause of gravitation, but a siniplc one, hurrnonizing r v i t h e l e c t r o c l y n a m i ca c t i o n , i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o l e l c c t r i c a l i n t h e a c t h e r : t h e s t r e s s e s i r n l r l y r v a v e s : t l r c u ' l L v c s i n t l t l i ' 'fhe r e l e c t r o c l y n a n r i ci:r i v s - 1 1 1 g 9 r yl l e t c r o g e n c o u s t l e n s i t y i t r t h e n r e d i u n r , $ h i c h t r l t i : t v a r l ' r i i t h f o r c e s ,n a g n e t i c f o r c e s ,e t c . v t'. c a l o n e f u l { i l l s t h i s n e c e s s a r ya n d s u l ' l i c i e n t o u d i t i o n , l o r t h e t l r c r a d i r . r s l ' r o r r t l L n l ' r n a s s l t c c o r c l i n g t o t h c l r L r v 6 : 'I'here is no othe r vicrv of thc aether l irich clttr ire hclcl. follorving special reason. O ) 1 -n e a e t h e r i s s h o w n t o h a v e i i n c l a s t i c p o r v c r I ' I o n r o g e n e i t y o f d e n s i t y r v o u l d i n r p l i ' n o s t r e s s c s; n o s t r e s s c s 689 3zr 6oo ooo iimes greater than that of our air in pro' would imply no tbrces ; no forces rvould irnply' an ittert p o r t i o n t o i t s d e n s i t y . H e n c e i t r v i l l h a v e l ) r a c t i c u l i yu n l i m i t c d t u n i v e r s e ; r v h i c i r i s c o n t r a r y t o o b s e r v a t i < - r t re n d t h t r s r v h o l l y pr,I1"f_."9".ryTnd thus be able to .qencrate the i n a d m i s s i b I e .
t) Lrnder <late of Nov. r6, IE99, l,ord r{L/uin stys: ,\Vc have strong rerisorr to Lelitve that In the Baltimore Lectures, r9o+, p.265, 'l'his interstellar spaccn. crror is vcr;' rvidr:sprcad, antl ils pcrtistence ship*recks the density of ether is constant throughout intcrplanetar;'antl research ! ' ohvsical

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r 2) The aether is therefore arranged irlroLrt the sun rr'ith Accordingll', this observational fact requires us to hold 't'r', s'hit:ir results frorn t h a t - I l i n < : r c a s e sn a b o n t t h e tlre dcnsity folloivinq the lau', o : i same ratio as 2. so that our '['hc h n'ave-agitations avinq an-rplitLrcles,: Ilr. A e n er g v o 1 - l a r v o f / ' l ' o r t h e h e a v e n l y s p a c c s b e c o m e s , the forccs generatcd by these rvaves is I)rpportional to the Ir: C1/(1/rlrr) (r7l , s r l u a r eo f t h e a r r r p l i t u c i e a n r i t h c r e f o r e u ' e h a v c f o r t h e f o r c e, jr r'. 'l'hus botl"rthe elasticity and rigidity and thcrefbrc J; : /t2lr2 .f: t r 5 . , of thc acthcr increase directly as the radius from the sun, u ' h i c h e x p l a i n s a l l t h c o l r s c n ' c d c f f e c t s o f g r r v i t a t i o n , r n : r g - o r o t h e r h c r r v c n l yl r o d i e s . 'l'hc netisnr,etc. reason for this remarkable law is this: namely, r i ) N o \ v q u i t c a s i c l ef r o n r t h e s i m p l i c i t y a n c l c o n t i n L r i t l ' t h e v i s c o s i t J ' o f a g a s d e p e n d s u p o n t h e f r i c t i o n o [ t h e m o l e o f t h e p r o c c s s o f r c r t s o n i u g h c r c o u t l i n c c l , i t r c r n a i n s a f t r c t culbs projct:tccl frorr one layer of gas into the adjacent layer, t h a t t h e s ' a v e - t h c o r vi s a d e r l u a t et o e x p l a i r r a l i t h e o b s c r v e < l a n d v i c c l c r s a . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e a e t h e r t h e v i s c o s i t y 'l'he s i n r p l el a s ' o f d e n s i t l ' o f t h e b e c o n r c s r i c i d i t . v . r \ n d r v i t h t h e i n c r c a s e o f t b e d e n s i t y o f p h e n o m e n ao f r r t r r r e . a e t h e r h e r e i n r a q i n c d n r : r r -t h c r c f o r e l r c a d r l i t t c c l t o r c a l l v t h e a e t h e r p a r t i c l e st h e r e s h o u l d b e m o r e m o l e c u l e sp r o j e c t e d p e r v a c l et h e n n i l c r s c . S o f a r f r o m b c i n g h o n r o e c n e o u s , h e i n t o t h e a ( l j a c c n t l a v e r s m n t u . l l y , b y t h e o r d i n a r y k i n e t i c t acther is rcallv vcrl' hetcrogcneous. Incleed, it is a gas, exchange, in strict proportion to the density. Thus the b e h a v i n g a s a n c l a s t i c s o l i d - a n i n f i n i t c a e o l o t r o p i cc l a s t i c r i s i c l i t . vo f t h c a c t h c r i n c r e a s e sd i r e c t l l ' a s t h e d e n s i t y , a s i n ' s o l i d - l j r l f r l l i n qt h c l : t r v o f < l c n s i t 1 d,: t ,r ' , a n d o f n ' a v c t h c a l r o v c [ o n n u l a . a n r l r l i t u r i c ,. | : I , . , ' , a n c l t h r : r c f o r ef i c l c l i n l f ' o r c c sl b l l o n ' i n g It rrrrv lre notcd tbat by the fornrula of Nrulon, an 'r-J, a s r 1 ' , l L t i r c cll> y ) ' r u ' l o t t i n r 7 z r , f r > r i n c r c n s c o l ' t h e r l c n s i t l . b y t h e f ^ c t o r 2 r g , r v i t h o u t c h a n g e tht: las, -[ : /l) e x p l a i n i n g t l r c t ' u u s co l - u n i v c r s n lg r a v i t a t i o n . in /i-, l'oulrl lcad to a rcduced velocity of only about 1/15,h , \ t t h c c a r t l r t h c < i c n s i t l o f t h c a c t i t c r i s z r g t i r n e s o f t h c o r i g i n a l . N o s u c h e n o r n t o u sd i f f e r e n c e , i n t h e v e l o c i t y r v h l t i t i s a t t h c s u n s s u r f : r c c , b c r : a u s c t h c c a r t h ' s n r c a r r o f l i g h t : r s c l c t e r n r i n c db y o b s c r v a t i o n s f o J u p i t e r ' ss a t e l l i t e s , d i s t e n c c i s z r r ; t i r r r c st h c s o l a r r a t l i u s . P , t t . \ i ' r r ' / o t i sf o r n r u l a : u r c l t h : r t l o u l t r l b v t c r r e s t r i a l e x l ) e r i m c n t s ,i s a d n t i s s i b l e ; a n d for tlrc vtlo, itr', I'- c't (t;lt)) ( r 6 ) thus the :rlrovc larv of rigidity of the'aetheris approximately w o L r ' l dq i v c a c l r : r n s c o f v c l o c i t y i f t h c c l c n s i t r , a l o n e i n c r e a s e d , v c r i f i c c l l r l t h c c o m y r a r i s o no f c e l c s t i a l a n c l t e r r e s t r i a l o b s e r virtions. I']ut a rnore exact test of the value of I/, liotl) rvhile thc cltstir:itr- 1'. renraincd constant. N o r v t h c v c l o r : i t 1 ' o t - l i g h t a t : r o s s t h e p l a n c t a r y s l t a c c s c c l i p s c o l r s r : r l a t i o n so f J u p i t e r ' s s a t e l l i t e s , t a k e n a s d i r e c t l y n ' a s o r i q i n a l l ) . [ o u n t ] | t . t , / r ' i i n t r r , r ( r 7 - 5 , f r o r l t l r c c c l i p s c s o l ' a s p o s s i l r l c : r c r o s st h e d i a n r c t e r o f t h e e a r t h ' s o r b i t , f o r c o m lrarisorr rvitlr t'lrc cxpcrinrental valuc found by Micfulson, is i J u p i t e r ' s s a t c )l i t c s , : rn r l s u b s c rl u e n t l r ' < - - o nrfn r c d l r v t h e c l a b o r a t e l r i q h ) yr l c ' i r r l ' l c . rcscarchcs ctl'/)rlrutt/,t'r, ol) thc r)rotions of titcse satcilitcs 'l'. 'l'hcorirlue 'l'hc (cf. C. d. r 783, ancl ..\stror.ronrie ct I)rati(lue, liclation betn'een the NIean Molecular 3. r 8 r 4 ) . 1 ) 1 .< l i s c u s s i n q a t h o u s a n < l e c l i y r s c s o f t l i c r ' t s a t c l l i t e Veloci[1' of a (]as and that of'a \\Iave transmitted in D r l o t n l , r r f i r c c l t i r c c o n s t a n t o I a l r c r r a t i o n a , l z o ! 2 . 55 , u ' h i l c such a Xlccliunt. 'l'he ,l/ti/tt/son s lclor:itv oi Iight, ncar ioo ooo knrs., and the I ' h i l o s o y r h i c ar \ l a q a z i n e f o r J u n e a n d S e p t e m b e r , l s o l a r p a n t l l n r S 1 ' S ot n a k c s t h c a l r c r r a t i o n a b o u t z o 1 48 . r , S 7 , c o n t a i n s t \ \ ' o i n r p o r t a n ta r t i c l e s o n t h e t h e o r y o f g a s e s 7 'l'hus 'J'oltrr /- is alrout thc sanrc for the acthcr a<;rossthe lr1. I)r. S. 1't'tslott, and also notes on the conclusions o d i a r r r c t c o 1 ' t h c c : r r t i r ' s r l r i t , a n r l f b r t h c a c t h c r o f t h c t c r r c s - tlrcn rcachcrl lrl' thc r:clcbratcd l)rofessor r J. Clcrfr i.faxuc//, t r i a l a t r l o s p h c r c , i n s h i < : h t h c v c l o c i t v h a s b c c n i n v e s t i g : r t c c l n'ith *'honr /)rts/ott *'ns in corresltondence, In the first of nte)1.s' by Corntr, ,tl[ichtlsott,:\'ctt,conI anci othcrs. exlrerinre these lralrcrs p. 452, \ r g, Pt'rslott reaches the follorving re, n r a r k a l r l e c o n c l u s i o n : ) ' l ' h a t t h e v e l o c i t y o f p r o p a g a t i o no f a rvavc (suchas a \\'rve of sound) in a gas is solely determined i r 1 ' , a n d l t r o p o r t i o n a lt o , t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e m o l e c u l e so f t h e f s a s ; t h a t t h i s v c l o < : i t 1 ' op r o p a e a t i o no f t h e r v a v ei s n o t a f f e c t e d l r y c l c n s i t y ,I ) r c s s u r c , r l r 1 't h e s p e c i f i cg r a v i t y o f a g a s , o r b y o an)'thinc clsc exccptinq thc le)ocity of iis molecules<. lrr tht' scconcl l)ostscrilrt, p. 4 5 3, J'reslott states,lfartue//'s c o n c l u s i o r .a s { b l l o r v s : r >l)rolissor C/rr/: tl{aru,r( to whom this paper was comm u n i c a t e c lr n c l u , h o h a s t a k e n a k i n d l y i n t e r e s ti n t h e s u b j e c t , , has l'orkcd out l)]athetnatically the velocity for a ryave or i r r p u l s e p r o l ) a s a t e c lb y a s y s t e r n o f p a r t i c l e s m o v i n g a m o n g each other accorcling to the conditions of equilibrium inv e s t i q a t c c li n t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t b i s p a p c r - t h e d i a m e t e r o f t l. r, e 1 n*: .r .r .t \i c.l .c. s .l r .e. isn. r. " r ,s' s u. r. l e d s o s n r : r l l a s t o b e n e s l i s i b l e . " ' j " ' ' . . c o m p a r c d u ' i t h t h c i r m e a n d i s t a n c e , a n d t h e p a r t i c l e sb e i n g f u r t h e r a s s u n r e d p h e r i c a l ,s o t h a t t h e r e i s n o m o v e m e n t o f s Iiig. I. I)iagranr shorving graphically thc decreasc of the r o t a t i o n c l e v e l o p e da t t h e e n c o u n t e r s( r r ' h i c h r v o u l d i n v o l v e density of the acther tos'arrls the sun, owing to jncrease in l'ave amplitrrtle. loss ot Ycl()crt\'l((. , the a-<ympto',;c

59

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6o

>Under these premises, the velocity of the rvave s'as f o u n d t o b e 1 fs y ' 5 ( o r o . 7 a 5 ) i n t o t h e m e a n v e l o c i i y o l ' t h c particles. In most gases the velocity of sound is sliglrtly iess than this, This is referable to the movemer)ts of rotarion developed at the encounters of the ntolecules (shicli culc u l a b l y w o u l d d e l a y t h e r v a v et o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t ) . I n v a p o u r of mercury, according to the deterr-ninationsof Ktttdl and H/arburg, the velocity of sound is exactly r/., l'5 into thc molecular velocity<,. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e a n n o u n c e m e n t s ,t h e c o r l r u s c l e so f the aether, viewed as a monatomic gas, should have I mean molecular velocity of 3l t/5' I/ : t. j+ trt, rvherc [,' : 3 X ror0cms, the velocity of light. A conclusion o1-such great irnportance, rvhich received the alrproval of the luminous mind o{ Maxwell, is entitled to profbr-rnd attention. 'l'hus I have had it before me for sonre hve years, but onlv
l] NI",,,rr,,ol.'.,11,, ()l''r111g11

u n d e r t o o k t h e r n a t h e m a t i c a lv e r i h c a t i o n a n d p h y s i c a l t e s t o f this ?rtslon- -iJfarutcll theoreru tluite recently; and, as niy results differ slightly from those csl Prtslou a.nd 'l,[aru,e//, I tvill give the process of test and verihcation ernplol'ec1. In order to conflrnr this theory I have compared tlre observed veiocity of sonnd for the four leading guses rvhich are best deternrined,rvith their rnean molecuiar velocitirs, a n d f i n d t h e f b l l o * ' i n g i n d i c a t i o n s o f e x p er i r n e n t , u , i t h o u t regard to the Prtstott-,lftt.tu't1/ tlreorl'. ln the experimental s d a t a t h e r e r e r n a i r . ra l i t t l e u n c e r t a i n t y . F o r t h e o l c l e r v a i u e s of z' arrd /2 the table I'ields for the correctcd ratio a mean o f r . 6 4 , r v h i c h i s o . o 7 a b o v e t h e t h c o r e t i t : e v a l u eo l r . 5 7 . l 'I'he nerver clata,preferred by Jtatts, l)1'nunrical'l'heory of ( i a s e s , z " ' r e d i t i o n t c l r 6 , 1 t .9 - 1 3 r , g i v e a r t r e a nv a l u e o i r . 5 7 , t l t o u g h t h e d i s c o r d a n c eb e t * e e n t h e r e s u l t s l b r t h c i n c i i v i d u a l g a s e s i s s o n r e u ' h a ti n c r c a s c d .
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It thus appears from the nrost relial.rle data ar.aillblc that the ratio should be larger than .trfa:tu,t,/1 inciir:atcd b1' about r 7 0/6. Ilis proccssesof calculation :lre not knot,rr, itur a theoretical ground for'the above result ruay bc dcduced a s f o l l o w s . C o n s i d e r t h e p a r t i c l e s o f a r n o t r a t o r n i cJ a s t o [ move rvith the velocity ii, as in the rel-erence circlc, in sinrplc harmonic rnotion, while the rvave advancesacross the di'I'hen an)eter of the qircle with the velocity Z. it is evident that the tlvo nrotions are in the ratio ol- 7r to 2, rvlrich gives t . 5 7 o 7 g 6 3 , i n e x a c t a g r e e m e n t r v i t h t h e a b o v e v a l r r ea s c o r rected for a monatomic gas. 'l'his theoretical and practical conclusion is t:onllrured also by tlre profound researchesof zliry on'I'ides :rncl \\'rves, Encyclopedia Metropolitana, r845. .In Plute I, trq.27, rve find a very exact reltresentationof the nrotions oIthc elenents which go to make up the forrn of I \r.avein s,ater. As the rvave irdvances these eiements describe sntelI circlcs al-rout a meali position, rvhile the. forrvard and buckrvlrti nrotion incident to the passing of the tvave is over two dianretcrs of t h e e l e n r e n t a r y i r c i e s , g i v i n g t h e o b v i o u s r ' , t t i oz r c f. 1 : c ,.5?, as before. It was from the study of :/z)-r,'sreseurt:hcs that I becanre doubtful of the numerical o..u.".y ol .l/attt,e//'s result, and was led to subject the thcory to l prlctical ls well as a theoretical test. If therefore light be observed to have a velocity of 3ooooo kms per second, the pnrticles of'the aether rvill havc an average molecrilar velocity ol 47tz3g knrs pcr sccond. 'I'his is a very important result, and it con{lrms thc general theory outlined by Preston and'lfarue//, though the details of their processes are altered.

s 4 . I ' l x a r : tC a l c u l a t i < - r n h o r v s t l r r : c l a s t i c l ) o \ \ ' e r o l ' t h e a e t h c r t o l r c 6 5 9 3 : r 6 o o o o o t i t n c s g r ( , a t e rt h a n t i r i r to f o u r a i r i n p r c i p o r t i o n t o i t s t l c n s i t l ' : ' l ' h u s i t c a n t r o t b e d i s r u l l t c d 1 . , 1l 'n \ ' l i n o * r r I - o r c e , a n c l onll the quick action of dynarlitr u'ill generate u'avesin it. 'l'lre <<, ln thc >lilcctrorll'namic \\Iavc orl' c.rl' l'h1's.lic.rrc. l, r g r 7, tlre u ritcr has re'lcrredthc chici' ibrccs of nature to *'ave lction, ancl rrplained the rnocle of *'uve action lor g r a v i t a t i o n , n r a g n e t i s n r ,e l e c t r o d y n a r r r i rn c t i o n , e t c . r \ s t h e : a c t h c l r v a s t a k c n t o b e t ' o r l t u s t : u l a r ,i c t k n o s ' n . t o b e h a t ' e l i k e a n e l a s t i cs o l i d , o r v i n g t o t l r c e n o r n r o u sv c l o c i t l ' o t ' t h e p a r t i c l e s , t h e e l a s t i c i t y r v a s r e c o g n i z . e dt o l r e a c l c t l u a t e t o t ) 1 , l r o c l u c eh c p o s t u l a t c d d y , n r r n t i c r rc l - l c e t s ,l r u t i t i s h i g h l y c l e s i r a b l et o h a v e t h i s r v o r k i n s h y p o t h c s i s l ' o r s o i n i P o r t n n t a constlnt vcrificd by exact cilcr.rlation. l n t l r c y r a s s a g cb o v ec i t c r i l l o t r i t h e ( ) 1 r t i c sr, j 2 l , p . i 2 S , a j \ ; t i l t 1 ( ) )g a v c t l r e l r r s t o u t l i n e s o 1 - a c o r r c c t t h e o r y o f t h e / clasticity ol' the actiter. It u'as subsctlucntiy rediscussed l.ry Sir Johtt .11trsr/tt'{ in t}re rvell kno* n arldrcss on lig}rt, ( 1 , ' a n r i l i a rl , c c t L r r c s o n S c i e n t i t l c S u b j c ' c t s , L o n d o n , r 8 6 7 , p . z 8 z ) ; ) ' c t o w i n g t o t h e i n t p o r t a n c e o 1 -a n u r r c l c r s t a u d i n g o 1 ' t h e c l a s t i c i t y o l t h c n r c d i u r . nb r t h e I . ) l e c t r o d \ \ I a i , e - 1 ' h e o r y l . 'l'he of l'hys. liorc., I have leexanrined the rvhole sulrject. resnlts establish beyond doubt tlrc almost infinite I)rescnt p o r v e r o f e x y r a n s i o na n d c o n t r a c t i o n a l s , u v so p e r a t i n g i r i t h e a e t h e r l b r g e n e r a t i n g t l i e s t u p e n d o u sp h y , s i c a l o r c e s o b s e r v e d throughout natrlre. It is therefore certain that rvave action in such an elastic rnedium,is adetluate to account lbr . all the varied

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operationsoi,i. physical universe. llo..o'r,er, since Iight, r : / { ( g h o l n ) ' n .( r - r a r ) } : ) heat, chemical affinitl', etc., have long been referred to such / [ ( e . 8 o s x o . 76 x r 3 . 5 / o . o o 2 9 3 )( r . a o 5 ) r - + a r ) ] r ( 9 l ' a v e s i n t h e a e t h e r , t h e m o r e g e n e r a l e i e c t r o d y n a m i ct v a v e a (rS) 3 3 r . 8 r nJ / ( r - + o . o o 3 6 6 5 t )t . t ' C . theon'thtrs gi.'cs contplete continuity to our theories of p h y s i c s , t h e r c l ; i ' c o n l i r n r i n s t h c c o r r c i n t i o n o f a l l n a t u r a l T h i s s h o r v st h a t t h e v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t i s g o 4 z 6 8 t i m e s s w i f t e r f o r c e s , a n d g i v i n g n e n ' p h 1 ' s i c a lc r o u n d - s f o r t h e d o c t r i n c o f t h a n s o r . r n d . S q u a r i n g t h i s n n r n b e r , a n d d i v i d i n g t h e r e s u l t by r.666fr.ao5 : r.r86z4 ,rve get the immense number t h e c o n s e r v a t i o no f c n e r s \ ' . 6 8 9 3 z r 6 o o o o o ; r v h i c h s h o r v sh o r v r n u c h t h e e l a s t i c i t y o f t h e 'freatise In the closine paragrapli to his cclebrated o n a c t h c r , r e g a r c i e da s a n l o n a t o m i c g a s , e x c e e d st h a t o f t h e a i r Electricit,v ancl trlacnctisrr, r E 7 3, ilfa.xn,rl/ justly says that i n p r o p o r t i o nt o i t s d e n s i t y l ) . I n t h e O p t i c s ,3 . d e d i t i o n , 7 z r , r > r v h e n e v e re n c r g v i s t r a n s r n i t t c c lf r o n r o n c b o d y t o a n o t h e r A r t u , l o t tm a k e s t h i s n u m b e r 4 9 o o o o o o o o o o , w h i c h i n t i m e , t h e r c r n u s t l ; c a m e d i u n r o r -s u l t s t a n r : e n n , h i c h t h e 1 t . 3 2 6 , i rs 7 r pcr ccnt corrcct. energ)' exists aftcr it lcar.csonc lrocll' ancl lreforcit reaches I n r , i e r v o f t h i s e x c e s s i v ee l a s t i c i t y o f t h e a e t h e r , i n 'I'his thc other<. (,-rzzz.rs also ltoints to \yave action, such as l)rol)ortlon to lts vcry small density, comparedtO that Of air, rvas consirlcrins in r S3.5, and of u.h.ich II:rIrr gate tl"rc . r \ ' c c a n u n r l c r s t a n c lt h c a l m o s t i n c o n c e i v a b l ev e l o c i t y o f l i g h t . f i r n d a r r e n t a l l a r v i n r 8 4 6 , ' \ r t t t , l o r z ' sa r v o f r 6 E 6 b c i n e a l It is also ncccssarlr to bear in rnind this enoimous elasticity\ s p e c i a l c a s c c o r r e s J ) o r r c l i ntg c i r c u l a r o r b i t s . o in orcier to unr'lcrstancl rvhy the acther' is practically in.oml I n t h e l ' r i n c i p i : r , L i b . z , I ) r o p . 4 S , S j r / - r a a t 1 \ r r u , l o t t p r e s s i l r J c .\ \ - h c n a r v a v c l r c g i r . r s t o b e g e n e r a t e d ,t h e d i s t u r d e d u c e s t h e f o r m u i a f o r t h c v c l o c . i t v o f r v a v e s o r n u l s c s l r a n c e i s p r o p a g a t c da \ \ , a y s o r a p i d l y t h a t t h e r v a v ea m p l i t u d e propaeated in an clastic mcrliurl, siu.h of sorrnrl necessarilvis srnall conrpared to the n'ave length. In the "r.,,.al'cs irL^ ^i. l: : ( t/(LlD) c a l c u l a t i o n s o f s c c t i g n - 5 * ' c h a v c t a k e n t h e r v a v el e n g t h a s r o r . 2 . l t i n r c s i t s n r r r p ) i t r r d cw l t i c l t ' t , l f a x u r l l , L o r d l { e l u i n l ' n d , This is nos' urittcn L a t ' n o t ' c o n s i d c r a s a f c l r a s i si n a l l n u n r e r i c a ld e t e r r n i n a t i o n s . -r a z)] : 7r v ' t ( / : g no l n ) . ( r 'l'hc i n c q r n p r c s s i b i l i t yo f t l . r e a e t h e r i s d u e t o t h e v e r y ) ('8) 3 3r . 7 6r n l / ( i + - o . o o i 6 6 ./5 lrigh mcart vciocitl' of thc aetlrer.corpus'cles,47 r239 knrs per lvhere I is the tentperature; rr is a cocfficicnt, o.oo-166-5; second, ancl thcir c n o r r n o u s l yl o n g f r e e p a t h , 5 7 2 9 5 g k n r s : . g : a c c e l e r a t i o no f g r a l i t t ' , g 8 r c p t i / t - n o r t l a l I a r o n r c t r i c : * ' h i c h n i a k c s t h r : m c r l i r r n rb c h a v e a s a n e l a s t i c s o l i d f o r r l u i c k p r e s s u r e ,7 6 c n r ; ( i : r r . 6 , c l c n s i t l ' o f X l c r c u r 1 , ;. l ) : t h c : r c t i n g f o r c c s , l r u t e n a l r l c s t ) r c c o r p u s c l e st o n r o v e o u t o f t h e densitv of air, o.oo r 29-r; ancl /.' : r.4o.5o (cf. Iltii//nl.s r v a y o f t h c s w i f t c s t 'l ) l a n c t s r v i t h a r o o o o - f o l d e r e a t e r s l J c e d . I l x p e r i m e n t a l I ' h l s i k , 3 . 5 . 5 ) i s t h e r a t i o o l ' r h e s l ) c c i f i ch c a t ( ) r v i n q t o i t s c n o r r n o r r s l a s t i c i t y , r c the aetherinstantlyarijusts o f a i r u n d e r c o n s t l n t l ) r c s s r t r ct o t h a t u n r l c r c o n s t n n t v o i r r r l e , i t s e l f t o a . n \ - s t i r t c o f s t c a c l y t ) t o t i o n , anr.lthus this medium introrlttccrl b.t, l,ay'lat lbr hannonizing t\i.tr,/otis thcorctic:rl o f f c r s n o r c s i s t u r r c cn ' l t a t c v e r t o u n i l b r m r : e l e s t i a lm o t i o n s . 'l'lris f o r m u l a s ' i t h t h c o l r s c r v c c lv c l o c i t v o f s o u n i l i n a i r . . <:ir<:un.rst:rncc explains a gravc diffrculty rvhich fully I n n r a n j ' i n v c s t i s a t i o r - r st i s p o s s i b l c t o c l c t c n n i n et h e has l.,ccn fclt lrom tlre age of t\rcrulon,ancl hitherto i altpcarecl v e l o c i t v r v i t h r v h i c h \ \ ' a v c s : l r c p r o p a g a t c r l , r u t i t i s n o t a l u , a y s u t t e r l ] ' l r c r v i l r l e r i n gt o n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h c r s . l In. connection p o s s i b l e t o d c t c r n t i n c i n r l e p c n c l e n t l r t h r : r : l a s t i c i t yo r r l c n s i t l . u ' i t h s u c h c r t r a o r r l i r r : r 1 1 'h y s i c a l c o n c l i t i o n si r r p the medium, of tlre rncdium - \\'c can onlr- fincl thc- ratio tif D. 'l'his is i t n r a y l r e r r s c f r r l t o r c c a l l a n a c c o u n t o f t h c i n t e r i o r colrp a r t l v t r t r e o l - i h c a c t l r c r , l o r 1 1 ; 1 1 1 1 1 1r1r i , l i t r a n s r - n i tls q h t s t . i t r r t i o n [ ' t l r c s u n g i v c n b y l , r o f c s s o rt \ V u , c o t t l t r lcc i o in the I.]nw a v c s o r e l c < : t r o c l y ' n a n trir, r c s t r i t l r t h e s p c c r lo f 3 o o o o o k n r s c l c l o l r c < l i a: \ r r c r i c a n : r ,r q o 4 : * p e r s c c o n d , b u t q i v c s n o l ) r o c c s so f ' f i r i r r g t l r e . e l a s t i c i t t o f , ) ' \ ' c t x n o t h c r r : n k n o 3 ' t rf a c : t o r i s t h e t c n ) l ) c r a t u r eo f t h e t h i s n t e r l i u r n c x c c p t b r . a n i n c l e p c n c l c n t< : a l c u l a t i o no f t h e i n t c r i o r , . . . i t r n a y l j c i o o o o o o d e g r e e s . A s , t h e h i g h es t t d e n s i t y , s ' l t i t : l t , l t o r v c v c r , l l : l ) ' l r c r l a t l c l r t ' t I c y t r o c c s sf i r s t t c n r l ) c r r t u r c l ; h i r : h i t i s p o s s i b l c t o p r o d u c e a r t i f i c i a l l y p r o t used lry 7,ord /t'r/t,itt in r354, (llaltinrorc Lcctures, r9o4, balrlv cloe not anlount to r o ooo clcgrees,t s i i s i m p o s s i b l et o p . z 6 r - z ( t 3 ) , a n d a l i c r l ' a r d s a r i o p t e d b y l l [ a , t t l r / / , S c i c n t i f i c sav l'hat cllcr:t such a tcl)tl)eratrlrervould havc npon lnatter. &, P a p c r s ,2 . 7 6 i . 'l'htts t' r v c h a v c t r r o o p p o s i n g c a l l s c s ,t h c o n c a n i n c o n c c i v a b l e Ir. r, In section 5l l i r . r c il , y t h c l ) r o c c s sh e r e c l c - r ' l c q r c c o f h c a t , s u r : h t h a t 1 1 ' c r cn l a t t c r c x p o s e c lt o i t o n t h e r f, s c r i b c d , t h a t a t t h cr c lro ln-'* ' c s r s s u r f t r r : ct h c d c n s i t r . o f t h e a c t l t c r s u r f a c c o f t h c e a r t h , i t u ' o u l d c x p l o d e r v i t h a p o w e r t o w h i c h ' i5 p : z X r o-1" anrl tlrc rigiditr- r Soo. Lisinir these con- nothing rvitjrin our cxpcricnce can be compared, and a stants in .\-rttlotis forrlula, 1\'eltay I'erify the obscrt'ed vclOcity l ) r c s s u r et h o u s a n d s o I t i n r c s a n ) ' \ \ ' e c a n p r o d u c e , t e n d . i n gt o r:oncicnse nclsolirlil-v lris intcnselyheatcd matter. One thins of wave propaeation: a t y: 1t\nlD): r,.{r 8 o o / ( zx r o - 1 t ) ) : 1 o o o o o o o o o o c m s u'lrich l'c cen sey s'ith conficlelce as to the effect of'thesc c a u s e s i s t l r a t n o c l i e r n i c a l c o r n b i n a t i o n sc a n t a k e u l a c e i n : : J X r o1", tlre lelocit]' of light. n r a t t c r s o c i r c : u n r s t a n c e d'.l ' h e c l i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e n l i q u i Q a n r l 'l'o conrpare a l , c r f c c t n r o n a t o m i cc r s l i k c t l r c n c t h c r g a s c o u s n r a t t c r i s l o s t u n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s . \ \ / h e t h e i the with cliatomic gases like the :rir, s'e use thc formula lbr the central I ) o r t i o n sa r e c o m p r e s s e di n t o a s o l i d , o r r e m a i n l i q u i d , velocitl' of sounrl: it is impossilrlcto say..<
I

'.) In.his thoughtftrl li'amiliar Lecturcs on c e n i S u b j e c t s , r 8 6 7 , p . z 8 z , S i r / o / t n / / c r . r c h c /g i v e s t h i s 6 g u r e a s r r 4 8 o o o o o o o o o ; b u t h e o m i t s a l t o g c t h e r t h c r a t i o r . 6 6 ' ' h i c h a p p l.i Ss i t o t t l l c a c t h e r a s a m o n a t o r n i og a s . ' f l r i s c o r r e c t i o n i s v e r i f t e i c he both by theory and b1, o b s e r v a t i o no n s u c h m o n a t o r n i c g r s e s a s r f c r c u r y v a p o r , I I e l i u m , A r g o n , I i r y p t o n , N c o r i , ' x e n o n .

AJ V .

504+

'l:n In the writer's Ilesearches on the Pht'sical Constitution and Rigidity of the Heavenly I3odies, r9o4-5, he reached 'lcos0d6: : o.63662 the conclusion that the conlined solar ntiltter must necessarily o b e g a s e o u s ,t h o u g h a c q u i r i n g t h e p r o p e r t y o f a h i g h l y r i g i c l Accordingly rve tlrris arrive lt the follol,ing solid under the enormons pressure ancl Iiigh tentl)erilture to 'fable of Constants of the Aether: rvhich the matter is subjected. In fhct it rvas found by calr. Constant of solar radiation, found by Rigtlttu, from ob. culation that the layers of the sun's globe have an average rigidity of over zooo times that of steel, (r\N 4 r o-1, c,1Lias e r v a t i o n s ,1 l 3.gti ca. tton zz, p. S8+), rvhile the average rigiditl. of the nraiter, Assumed rrtio of anrpiitude to wave length .111, : a c c u m u l a t e d r v i t h i n c r e a s i n g d e n s i t , vi n t h e i n t e r i o r l a 1 , e r s , t f rot., z, rvhich is nearly the same as rvns used bi, may be 6ooo times that of Nickel steel (r\N + r o.+, c(prat l . f o : t u , c 1s/ o t [ u t t l p : , : rf t6.rr5. tion 38, p.392). ".;rlrot.2:] : ,). l( ) n e r g v y t c r c r r b i c c c n t i n r e t r e a t t h e s s l 1 1 ' s 1 1 1 l l s g 5 Such a globe rnust be vies'ed as ilurstins internril;, a / . , \ ' , , / - . \, - . 1 . . + r . +( .5 g s . 5r f o . u . J o u 2 / , t! \ . t l ) - : r v i t h p e n t u p e x y i l o s i v ee n e r g y , y e t k e p t i n e c l u i i i l r r i u r nb y ( l r c a t c s t t l n . q c n t i e l s t r e s sp e r s ( 1 . r n a t t h e s u n ' s the accurnulating pressure of the surroundintl lat,crs: the 4. c suriuce : c o n f i n e d n t a t t e r i s , g a s e o u s ,y e t r i g i d t o t h e h i g l t e , s c l c v r e e , g ftl.lf): ttt.rT ri (lynes. t and in such confinement lt)ust havc the l)rol)crt),ol'a solitl ) . Coclllcicnt o1'rigitiitl, of' tlie aether: of enormous rigidity. At t|e S11's SitrflcC: 0 I.: : rSoo, Now the rigidity of the actlrer is variairlc with thr: at thc cartlr's srrrlace zt9 g l/): :j(_):+2oo. r a d i u s v e c t o r d l ' a w n t o t h e s u r r ' s c L - l ) t r e ,l t u t g c n e r l L l l l .l c s s 6 I ) e n s i t y o l - t l r c u c t i r e r l r t t l ) e s u t i ' s s u r i : r c e4 : a1ls-1.. t h a n t h a t o f s o l i d s s u c h a s g l a s s , r v h i c h i s a l . r o u tr o t l . \ , t t l)ensitl'rrt'thc ucther at tlrc earth's suriucc d: 7 r v i t h s u c h h i g h e l a s t i c i t y , d u e t o t h e en o n n o L r s u r o l c c u l l r ztc)tt : , + : j S Xr o - 1 " . veiocity 47rz39 knts, rvc see that it cunnot bc rent or cracked, as Lord lieluin on(je sussested, (lropulrLr Lr.cturr.s D. trlcarr velocitl' ol- tire ltctilcror), ii : -l7 r ? -i goo ooo cnls. a n d A d d r e s s e s , I . 3 3 6 ) , b y a n y l o r c c s a t u , o r k i n l l i r t L l r.e ( J . r \ l o l c c r r l a r .r v c i { l r t o l - t l r c l c t l r c r o r r , ( / 1 : r) 'I'he only artiticial forces yet forrnd capalrle ol- setting u1r : 15.50Xro-rr. r v a v e s i n t i r e a e t h e r r v e r e t h e e x t r e r n c l y , l u i t : ke r l r l o s i o n so l ' c r o. '\veratlc Icngth ol- nreen lie e patlr, ut the sun,s surlace , dynamite used by l,iofessor .,!;1'a2;is ,\:iro/ttt. ol St. Louis. li. :
/ Sj z 959 krus.

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5. Table oI the I'hysical Constrrrtsoi'thL. Nurnbcr of corlruscular collisions r : J)e sc( ond, at the Aether. s t u i s s t t r l l c e, ( ' : o.3u:.16. 1 ' h e g e n e r a l n r c t h o d e n r p l o y e c l l i r r c l c t c r . r n i n i r r gl r e t l { l L c l i u s o l ' r L c t . } r e c < ; r ' y ; t r s c l:c 3 . - i 4 6 ) < r o - r r , o r r physical constantsof the aether is based on tlre /4 o o,5 l l r r o r ; c s so r o f t h e r u d i r - r s o l ' u I I v r l r o g e u r n o l c t . u l e. c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r n e c h a n i c a l v a l u e o f ' a c L r l r i c r i l c c . r ls u n l i g h t n 'l'lrc d e v i s e d b y L o r d K t / t , i n , r 8 5 4 , a n d l r r s t P u L l i s ) r e . li r r i h c rltlirrs o1' u nrole ule ol- I lvrlrogcn is taken as c l ' r a n s a c t i o r . r s f t h e I { o y a l S o c i e t y o l . I , ) c l i r r l l r r g h ,( r . 1 .r i l e o r.3.1Xro t, anri tire clcnsity 1 , , , , 1 .l n c o n r l , i u t i n g . , c h a n i c a l l i n c r g i e s o f t h c S o l e r S 1 ' s t e n r <r, 8 5 . 1 , a n r i l : j l l t i r r r o r c t h e n r o l r . c u l e rr v r i g l r t o l ' t l r e "lre ul , r r c d , -iit r g : r b o v e , l e d i s t re on 'l'his I - e c t u r e s.,r g o 4 , I ) . z 6 r z 6 5 ) . r n e t l r o t l , u s r L r l o l r t eu n t l r t ' g : t r t l t h e s r . r - t : a L l c t l ) l c c : t r i < : r r l r L s s l' r c i l L u s el , r o l e s s o r S i r ci ,l, :n sornervhatintproved by tlfa;rut/1, r E 7 5, in the r\rtir.lc r\e ther, J . j . 7 ' l o r t s a z , ( l ' ) l e c t r i c i r l r L n r i , \ l a g n c t i s n r , - 1 , 1 ,c l . , r c 9o9, I i n c y . l l r i t . g t " e d . S o n r e l i r r t h e r i r n l r r o v c n r e n t sh a v c l r c c n 1 r . 5 : r ) , n t t l ( ; r t t t t , / l r z(..,\ l o l c c r r l r L,rl r r : s i c . r 9 r + ) l s, I).7o),-"nJ i n t r o d . c e d b y t h e p r e s e . t i v r i t e r , c s 1 , c . : i r r l liv r t l r ' s t , c r o r ) s t r r r r t s t h r r x . t l ) o r i t i e s ,u t i r r r i tt l i a t t l r i s , 1 . ) l e c t r i c r 'L lL s s 'r c s i c l c si ' o r r o f t h e k i n e t i c t h e o r y o f t h e a e t h e r , r v h i c h u c r e n e v c r c a l c u l a t e t l t i t e u c t l i e r e u lr r r c c l i u r r t s c l l , u ' l t i t . I r\ \ ' c a r e i n v r s t i g l t i n g . ' l . i r i s ir 'I'hese by A'tluiu or llfasut//. are due entireiy to thc reccnt s u l ) j e c t l ' i l i b e l t r o l ' e l i l l l v d i s c L r s s e tiin u l i r t u r c l n p c r . i n v e s t i g a t i o n s ,a n d a r e h e r e o u t l i n e c l l b r t h e i r r s t t i r n e . lt nray bc notit:cd tlrrt tlre urther gus, is cntlol.crl rvith \ V e a d o p t i h e c o n s t a n t o f s o l a r r a d i a t i o r rr e c e n t l l . l b u n C e u o r n r o u s l y h i g h r r r o l e c u l u r v c l o t . i t i c s l r n t i c r t : c s s i v e l r . ' long b y - R i g ' e l o un a n r e l y , r . g B c a . , r 9 r 9 . ( S u l r p ) e n r c r rN o . I t o m n g e o f - r u c l n l i e c , t l)iLtit,so tlrat tlre lri!-hlv tiastic aetlrc.r t h e ' I ' r e a t i s e s o n t h e a t n r o s p h e r e s l - t i t c s t r n a t r r l t l r c c a r t h . i s v e r 1 , c i i l l c r i : r r tl i o n r r h r o r d i n : r r v t c r r c s t r i u ig r r s c s . . l ' h i s o is F o u r f u n d a m e n t a l f o r m u l a s l b r d i s c u s s i n s t h e o l . r s e r v a t i o n s l b r c i b l l ' b r o u s h t o L l t i n t l ) e l b J l o s . i n gt e l r l c ; 1 , c tt h e s i r u i l a r i t v rnade rvith various tyltt-.s of pyrhcliorrrctr:r I,'. .1.t.Bi.gclttu.,, r v i t l rt h e o t h c r g l s c s i s a i s o ' o t a b l e , c ' e . r b r s r r t . l r s, ,,n cxtrer,r" c a s e r r s t h c . c t l r e r . l t i s t l r i s e . ( ) r l ) l o . sr r c r r D ' r o l e c u l a r John Wiley & Sons Inc., Neu,York, r9r9, I). -+). A c e r t a i n t a c t o r i n t h e k i n e t i c t h e o r y o l - t h c e n c r g l . v e l o c i t ) ' a n d t h c l o n g l i c e p a t h l . l r i t ; l r( . i r u s r s ] ) e r l c t h c r t o r of the aether tvaves conritrg lrom the surt l'us telicn l,y Lor:cl ' i l r r u t e u s u n e l u s t i r s o l r d l i r r r l l i i t l l v a t ' t i r q i i ; r r . c s , r u t c r r s i l y : l as betrveen1/, anci r, (ilalti,r,ore Lcctrrrrs, g i v es r v a l ' t o s l o l ' n t o t i o r ) s . l t i s u o r t l r v o i n r . r t i c c h r L tt l r c t {e(in i,..6.;, \ 5), and by .Lfaruell ur t/r. Working out rhc lrroblcni p a r t i c l c so f ' t h e a e t l r e rr r o ' L ' o u r o i t l r c * : r l r c n t h o r . r s u nt cu r e s il sorrervhat nrore fully than Lord ,|icluitt has dr_rne, tltus takins m o r e r a l t i c i l yt l r l n t l i c s r v i l i e s tp l a n r t s r c v o l v e i n t h e i r o r b i t s . 'l'he i l c c o u n t o f t h e i n c l i n a t i o n so f a l l t h e * ' a v e e l e . r t . r r t sr r i 1,lrrrc, c o n s t l n t s l b r t h e t l b l e s a s s r r r r l r l e rL e l o l . r v e r e l c i r c u l a r l y a n d e l l i p t i c a l l y p o l a r i z e d l i g h t , I f l n d t h a r t h i s c l r a r v no r i g i r i l l l v i i o r r ; ( ) . l i . t l f r , y t r ' s Iiinctic'l'lrcorl. ol' Oases, lactor lor the total energy should be a Iittle grcater than b u t i n t h e l l n e l r e r . i s i o n I have adoptcd tltc mean of the one hal(, namely: v a l u e s c i t e d b y J t a u s , I i i n e t i c ' I ' h e o r y o l ' ( i a s e s , z ' , de d . r 9 r 6 .

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As l'as first clcar'ly' shos'n br. ,)lo,t utr//, r'iscosity is i t s l o n s f r c c p a t h , a n d s n r a l l r l a s s , w i t h a r a d i u s o f o n l y o n e d u e t o t h c r n o l c c r r l a r r e s i s t a n c ec l c v e l o I c c l s ' h c n o n c j a t , e r f o u r - t h o u s a n d t h f t h a t o f a F l y d r o g e n n r o i e c u l e . A s f a r b a c k o o f g a s s l i d c s o v c r : r n o t h c r . I n t h c r : a s c o f s u c i r a s u l r c r f i n e a s r 3 4 - 5 , S / o / r r sr e c , o t l n i z e c l' l ' r a n s .C a m b . I r h i l . S o c . , 8 . 2 g 7 ) , ( g a s a s t h c e e t h c r t h e v i s c o s i t l ' 1 > a s s e s t o r i g i c l i t \ . t h e p r o - t h a t t h e a c t h r : r i s s i n r i l a r t o u ' c l l k n o r v r .s o l i c l s ,b u t h a s t h e i r in ; r c e s s e s o r c s t a l r l i s h i n e t h i s t r a n s i t i o r ro f r . i s c o s i t f i n t o r i c i d i t y y r h l s i r : a 1p r o p c r t i c s i n a n a c c c n t u a t e d d e g r e e . T h t r s i c e , f i s c x l r l r i n c r l i n / ) o t t i r / / ' s I , r i n c i p l c s o f I ' h v s i r : s ,3 . , 1c c l . , r S 9 . 5 , t r c a t : l c , p i t c l r , b c c s r v n x ,n r o l a s s e s u l l e d f o r c a n d y , a n d p other p . 2 2 7 , a n t l t h c t l r c o r c t i c a l b a s i s o f ' t l f a . t u , r / /s t l r c o r l ' o f s r r l r s t r n c c sa r c l l u i d f o r s l o r r ' 1 1 ' t c t i n g f o r c s s , a l l o r v i n g hard 'l'heorv v i s c o s i t r -i s n o t a l r l l i t r p r o v c c l b . t , / r o n . r , I ) v n a n r i r : a l l r o d i c s p r c s s t ' r li n t o t h c m t o p a s s t h r o r : g hw i t h o u t a n y f r a c t u r e , o f ( i a s c . s ,z " ' l e r l . , l g r ( r . l r y a { c n t l c l i c l r l i n g o r l l o * ' o f t h e s u b s t a n c e ;b u t y e t w h e n r \ s t h e a c t h c r i s a q a s n r a c l e u l ) o l c o r l ) u s c l e s4 o o o s t r u c k v i o l c n t l r l o l ' s t h c s c i r o d i c s v i b r a t e l i k e e l a s t i c s o l i d s , timcs srtrrrllrr in diantcter than a hydrogcn nrolccule, ancl and nra! lrr: l'r:rt:turc<ikc glass or other lrrittle substances. ll r h a v i n s o n ) v r . 5 . .(5 m i l l i o n t h s o f a m i l l i o n t h o f t h c r n a s s o [ I t t h r r s : r l ) l ) c a r st h : r t a s o l i < l i s o n e r v h i c h d o e s n o t t h c h t ' r l r o g c n n t o ) e c r r 1 e u . c r c a d i l l ' s c c t r l h l ' t l r i s s u p c r f i n ' c l i c l r l r c ; r t l i l l t o t l r e l b r < : c sa p p i i e d t o , it, and the registan.ce rrediurn pcrvadcs all gross bodics. Ilut as the acthcr is thc to r:hanqr:of shairc x'ith tirne nreasures the rigidity. All u l t i n r a t c n r c r l i u n to 1 ' t h c u t r i v c r s c ,a n t l i s n o t u n c l c r l a i dl r 1 , l r o < l i c s ,h o r v c v c r , i c l d t o f o r c e s i n s o n r e degree. Norv in the f a n l t h i n g f i n e r , l ' c a l s o p c r r : c i v ct h a t e n c r g t ' c a r r i e < l i n s r t r : l . r c a s c o f t l r c : L c t b c rt h e c o r p u s c l c s h a v e t h e e n o r n r o u sv e l o c i t y a n r e d i u r n ( ' : r l r n o t l r c < i i s s i y r t t c c ll,r c < ; a u s c h e r c i s n o f i r r c r - o f t k 4 7 r z 1 c . y i l o n r c t r c s l ) e r s e c o n c l ,a s a l r e a d l , p o i n t c ( l o r l t : m e r l i u r n t o r v h i c h \ \ - l v c e n c r g y r n i q h t b c g i v c n u p . ' l ' h r r si t a n t l j n < : o n r p r r i s o ns ' i t h s u c h t r e n r e n d o u s s p e e c l ,a l l e a r t h l y f o l l o n ' s t h t l L a r n o / s n r q l l n r c r ) t ( i n t h c a r t i r : l c A c t h c r , I , ) n r : 1 . r . .v c l o r : i t i c s e r c t r i v i a l . l , , r ' c n t h c vcl6cities of our srviftest I : i r i t . l r t " c d . , r g I r ) , t o t h c c f 1 - c cttl i a t t r c t h c r i s l o t n t o l c c u l : r r . p l a n c t s , l i k c l l c r r : r r r r . a n c l \ / c n n s , arc cxceeded r o ooo-folcl i s t r o t w e l l l b u n c l c r l . ' l ' l t c r c i s n o i a l i < l o l r j c r : t i o nt o a c o r l ) u s - l r v t l r c c \ t r c n r c s s i l t n c - s so l - t h c aetherons. In addition to ctrlar acthcr, sut'h as u.as conr-cilccl irt' .,\7rr,/a)1, 21, antl t)rcir rrrlrid nrotion, tlrer- hevc the Ii i n r m c n s e l l ,I o n g f r e e p a t h alrlrrovcclby /-rrs/ott untl ,11'o.rt't//,r ,S 7. 'l'irc kincti<: tlrcorl. o f 7 7 -5 iooo knrs, ncarlv onc ancl a half times the nroon's o f t h i s s u p e r f i n c g a s i s h e r c s ' o r l < c c lo u t i n s o u r c s , h a t r e a t c r cli stan<: g c. 'l'ltc detail, and \\'e scc that rluite uncxpr.ctcdly it afforcls the ctrorrrorlsvclocit)' ol'the aetherol and the sreat m o s t s u b , s t : u t t i ap h v s i r : a lq r o u n d c r . c r d c v c l o p e c lf o r t h e n r o s t l c n g t h o 1 -t l r c m e a n f r c e l P a t h n r a k c st h e a e t h e r u n i q \ e ^ ^ o n g f u n c l a n r e n t a lo f a l l p l r l ' s i t : a l c l o r : t r i n c s ,r r : r m c l r ' ,t h c c o n s c r - a l l p h t ' s i r : ; r ll r o r l i c s . l , ' o r r a p i c l l y r c t i n g f o r c c s i t v i b r a t e sa n c l lation of cncrg]'. t r a n s r n i t ss ; r v c s u i t l r a v c l o c i t y o f l o o o o o k n t s p e r s e c o n d , S o r - n c \ I h : rn t o r c d c t a i l c c l e r p l a n a t i o n o f t h e l ) r o c c s s c s a n c l i s c a p ; r l r l c o l - c . x c r t i n g t h c r . r . r o sttr e m e n d o u s t stresses, o f c a l c r r l a t i o nu s c d t o d e r i v e t h c h i g l i m o l c c u l a r l e l o c i t l ' o f s u c h : r s r r u r c r l u i r c d f i r r l r o l d i n g t h e p l a n e t s in their orbits; t h e a e t h e r o r - r r e g i v e n i r r s e c t i o n 6 b c l o s ' . ' A t p r c s e n t r v c b u t f o r s l o n ' l v e < : t i n ql i r r c c s a f i c i r l s l ' i t h o u t r e s i s t a n c e ,l t e c a u s e n e e d o n l l ' p o i n t o u t t h e o b v i o u s a d v a n t a s c so f h a v i n g l ; e f o r e i t s o * ' n n r o l c r : u l l r r n r o t i o n s a r e s o r a p i c l . ' l h e particles, o u r n l i n d s d e f i n i t e n r r m e r i c a lr c s u l t s w h i c h s l r o r vr v h a t r ) r a n l t c r t r a v c l l i r r qi r j t i r s u r : h c x t r c r ) l cv e l o c i t y , g e t o u t of the way of all of gas thc acthcr is. n t o r ' i n s l r o r l i c s- - a l r s o l L r t c l l ' r v i t h oh itn d r a n c e ,l , h e n t h ' cb o d i e s u 6 . ' l ' h e e x c e s s i v e l yh i g h r n o l c c u l a r y c l o c i t l , o f ntolc uniforrnl.v; anci offcr ltut slieht rcsistance for chaneing t h e a e t h e r o n , i t s l o n g f r e e p a t h , a n t l s r n a l l m a s s , v e l o c i t ) ' o l ' t u o v c r n e n t d u c t o a c c e l e r a t i o no r r e t a r d a t i o n . s ' i t h r a d i u s o n l y o n e f o n r - t h o n s a n c l t ho f t h a t o f a It is rccognizccl that the viscositv of gases, as deterH y d r o g e n m o l c c u l e , e n s u r e s l - r o t h g r e a t e l a s t i c i t i , rninerl l)y tlre diffusion exl)crintents of Loschmirlt,O. E. tlftyr, and great power of penetration to the acther. .4Iaxruc1/an(l othcrs, depends on the molecular friction of 'l'he e x t r a o r d i n a r y e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e a e t h e . ra r e thc r.novins rrolecules projected from one layer of gas into d u e m a i n l y t o t l . r e e x c e s s i v e l y i g h v e l o c i t y o f t h e a e t h e r o n , anothcr acljacent laver, rvhen ttvo layers are slid relatively h

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l f t h e n r o l e c u l eo f I - I y d r o g e n b e t i t l i e n t o h a v e a r a d i u s of r.34X ro-s, that of the aetheronlreconres - . 3 . 3 . 1 6 X o 1 i . ,n e a r l y . ( r + ) r r.j-1Xro--,/-1ooo r 'llo the larv: t ^"./..., I forrr a convenient picture of the snrellsize of the r 4 l ! ' \20./ ri'here z i s t h e v i s c o s i t yo f t h e g a s , a n c l z t t h e r n c r L n e l o c i t y a e t h e r o n c o r n l r a r e dt o t h e I I v c j r o g e nn r o l e r - t l e ,* ' e r n a v r e c a l l c v o t . t h e urolecule in cms y.ier concl, ancl g thc irbsol,tite nsitl'. t h e t r i i l i n g h c i g h t o i ' u n r o u n t r i n a u r r l e h i g h c o n r p a r e dt o se cle ad I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t i c e t h a t j n t i t e c a s e o f t h e a c t h e r , t h e i r . r . r r n c ' nrs e i u s o l ' t h c e l L r t l r . I l ' o t h er r n o l e c u l c sL r el a r g e r ' o v i s c o s i t yp a s s e s n t o r i g i d i t y , b y a p r o c e s s o f r c l s o n i n s l i r l l y t h a n l l l ' c i r o q e n , u s i s g en c r l l l y ' s L r p l r o s etc l b e t r u e , t l i c ' n t h e i e x l r l a i n e d i n D a t r t / / ' s P r i n c i p l e s o f P h 1 ' s i c s ,- i , , 1er l . , r S g 5 , a e t h e r o n r i ' i l l b e a s n l r l l g l o l r e o f ' t l t e s i z c o i l n r o c l e r a t e p . 2 2 7 . I n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e n t e a n l i e e p a t i r o f t h c t L c t ] r c r o n , n t o u n t a i n l t e t k I o o o o 1 c e th i g h ; s o t h a t t h e v a r i o n sn t o l e c u l e s V l w e u s e t h e r i g i d i t y o f t h e a e t h e ra t t h e s o l a r s u r l a c c , r 8 o o , * ' i l l r e s e r n l i l e e n u s : i r r r .tih c c r r t h , [ . i r u n u s t r d N e p t u n e ,- fu y r i t e r u l - r e c a u sb o t h t h e c l e n s i t y a n d r i g i d i t y o f ' t h e a e t h e . r , a r y r v i t h a n d S al 't o r n . e r ' Ilx ul)on l rnore iirnriliar evervrlav iruagc of this t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e s u n , a s a J r e a d l 'c x p l a i n e c li n s c c t i o r rz . ryorlrl structrlre, \\'e nrLy inlgine u lror illlecl rvith laree T h u s f o r t h e a e t h e r o nt h e m e a n f r e e p a t h i s 1 : , 5 7 : 9 . 5 9 k n r s . o r x l ) g c s ,a n d t h e l r n c s t t l u s t , l i k e t h a t o f ' l i r n e , o r s r u o k e It is a funciantental octrine in tlte kineti(j thcor), of d l i o r r r u c i g a r , I r el t et l - e t i n g t h c r e l r L t i r , c l l\,. u s t s l ) i t c s b et r i ee r r e g a s e st h a t a l l g a s e sh a v e a n e q u a l n u n t b e r . o l - r o l c c u l e si n u n i t n t h e o n L n g e s ,u l r i < : l r l r o * ' c v e r s l r o L r l r l o t l r e i n c o n t l r c t , l r u t n v o l u n r e ,u n d e r l i k e c o n d i t i o n so f t e n r p e r a t u r c n c l; r r c s s u r c ;b u t a in rirliid urotion. Il norv t]rCt:igar sntokc,or the I)lrrticlds i t i s n o t y e t p o s s i b l et o d e c i d e o n t h c a b s o l u t e u l u c o l t l r i s v o l - l i r r r ct i u : t , l r e i r n l s i n t r i t o h a r . es t u l t e n r l o uv c l o c i t v , l l t . i n g s nutritrer, ifferentestirnates eing indicutctl Iir. r'uriorrs rrrirrunt d b c h i t l r e a n r l t l i i t l r t ' rl i rl r i r r t . o r r t : cbrl e s p e t l , a n d t h u s n r o v i n g r li e authorities: N tgX rotr (,lht'u,t1/), ,\'-- rooo X rors r v i t h t h c u t n ) o s t l l c t t l o n r i n t h e o l ) e t s l ) l r cs b c t r i ' e e nt h e l e (CrooLes),|1 : [se6 X r or" (Keh,iz). o r a n q e s ,a s r r ' e l l a s o u t s i t l e o l - t h e n r , l e s h a l l h a v e I v e r v About all we call say is tltLt the ntrrrtlrcol'rrtolccules g o o d i r n a g c r o l ' t h e i ; c l r a r , i oo 1 - t l t e e t h e r i n r e s l ) e c t o n ) t t t e r . r r i n a c u b i c c e n t i n t e t r eo f g a s a t t h e o r d i n a r y t e m l ) e r t t r l r ea n ( l 'l'he aethcr not or)i\'pr:tretrates all trntter li.cclv, but pressureprobably is not srnalier than thtLtassignecllt5,,l/1t:t:tt,L//, c v c l r t \ \ ' a v c s i n i t p u s s t h r o u r 1 h a l l p h r . s i c a l l r o r l i es , n i t h o n l r . i/r g X r o l s , t i r e l a t e s td c t e r r n i n a t i o n e i n g : 7 X r o r " ( c f . b the hindrance inciclcnt to rrliaction unri tlispr:rsion such ls A'orulher, Itlolecular Physics, Phila., r g r4, I). :l). 'l'ite we sce in lisht. reliaction is clLretO thc ut)e(lual reUsing the ralue for the aether, sistancc ofl?red Lv l)ratter to the ativance ol'the l,ave liont, z": o 4 7I 2 - 1 9 o o D i encl tlrc dispersion t() ulte(luxl rcsistaut:e to r uricrus u.ar.e and for Flydrogen, zr,.: r85g 11 len{ths. Shortcr \\'lrvcs er}(:ollnter rclativcl\. l)t()rc rcsistartt:e, r v e h a { e l r y t h e p r i n c i p l e h r s t c n u n c i a t e d b \ , l L t , t t t , t / / ( S r : i c n t . l r c t : l L u s ct h c i r o s r : i l l a t i o n s a r c r n o r e r e l t i t l , ; r n c l t h u s t h e a e t h e r P a p . 2 . 3 6 5 ) , t h a t ) o n t h e a v e r a q ee v e r y n r o l e c r l l e r e a t o r y i c l t l s u n t l a c i l l r t s i t s c l l ' l c s s c u s i l y t o t l r e r e s i s t i n g n r o l e c u l e s q s n t a l l w i l l h a v e t h e s a l r e e n e r g y o f m o t i o n < , ,t h e c t l u a t i o n : i r r t i t e p a t h o f t l t e * ' u v e s , * ' l t e n t h e \ \ ' a v e s i l r e s h o r t , a l t d 'l"Dt1?'12.: rf tlre clranges, dtte to tlicir adi,ant:e, extrcrlcly raPid. 2u2z'r2 \ 2 r) rvhich gives geouretrit:al errcl phl,.sical signit'icance 7.'l'hc : t , t r: r t 1( r 8 5 9 ' ) ) : / ( a 7r e 3 g o o o ) ? r 5 . 5 6 . : 3 :x r o 1 J \ 2 2 ) o l t l i c p o t e n t i a l . '.1'hus ln the trlernoircs of' rlrc l,aris .\cadcnrl' ol- Sciences l-dr i t f o l l o r v st h a t a n a e t h e r o nh a s a n r a s so f r 5 . 5 6 n r i l l i o n t l r s 'I'his r 7S z, 1r. r r i, Luy'/ort. introdut:cs thc use ol- tlie analy,tical o f a n r i l l i o n t h o f t h e n r a s so f a H y d r o g e n r n o l e t : u l c . is i e t l u i v a l e n t t o 2 . 7 3 8 t 1 Xr o - s o f a n e l e c t r o r ) , o r a b o r r t o n e c . x p r e s s i o n s i n c e k n o r v n a s t h e I ) o t c n t i l L l , l i . r . r n t h e d e s i g n a t i o n l l r s t t r s ed i r r r 8 z E b y t h c I , ) n u l i s h n r a t l r c n r a t i c i t t r - r ( i r o r , g . t ,( i r t c n thirty-six millionth of an electron. (Iissey on the application of nrathenratical ana)ysis to the l f w e t a k e t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e a e t h e r o n a s e r l r u r lt ( ) t h r t theories o1- elcctricitir alld ll)ilgnetisrn, Nottinshanr, r8zg). o f t h e H y d r o g e n m o l c . c u l e ,r v e f i n c l b y c a l c u l e t i o n t h a t t h e ' . 1 ' h e potentiul is dcllned thus: r a d i u s o f t h e a e t h e r o n i s e t r r . r i v a l e ntto

p a s t e a c h o t h e r . I n t h i s r v a y , t l ' r e e x l t e r i m e n t so n d i t f l s i o r r h a v e g i v e r - rn s . t h e t , i s c o s i t l ' o f a i r a n d o t h e r g a s e s . 'l'he m e a n f r e e p a t h , l o r e x a n t p l e , f o l l o r r . s, l u i t r l ( c u -

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or one four-thousand-and-hlih of the radius c_rl- l.l ydrogrn a n r o l e c u l e . 1 ' h i s e x l r l a i n sr v h y t h e a e t h e r s o r c u c l i i l ' l ) e n c t r a t c s all bodies, even the rnost solid. lt nrakes the sizc of an aetheron to a molecule of Hydrogen rs a globe trvo nrilcs in diameter is to the earth. Iletrveen utilssesas large as our t e r r e s t r i a lg l o b e o r l a r g e r , g l o b e s t r v o m i l e s i n d i a n t e e r r v o u l d t f r e e l y p e n e t r a t e i n g r e a t n u m b e r s , e v e n i 1 -t h e l a r g c r g l o b e s tvere in contact, which of course is not the case rvith any solid or liquid, and still less is this rnre of a gas, in rvliich t h e m o l e c u l e s a r e s e p a r a t e d b i ' d i s t a n c c sr c ) a t i v c l 1i.r n u r e n s e in conrparison rvith the diameters ol the nrolecules.
')

cxprcssion lras cornc into the niost e\tellsivc use in all t h c p h y s i c a ls c i e n c c s , n d b c e n o l ' r l i e h i g h c s ts c r v i c e i l l t l i e a n r a t h c r n u t i c e lt h e o r y o l ' q r i r v i t a t i o n a l r L t t r r c t i . ) n ,n t r g n c t i s r r r , e l e c t r o d ) , n r " l u tac t i o n , a n d l l s o i n t h e o r l ' o l ' s t a t i c c l e c t r i c i t v . ic D u t i t i s v e r l ' r e n t a r k e b l e t h a t r . l l )t o r h e p r e s e n tt i n r e a n e x p r e s s i o n o f s L r c hu n i v e r s a l u s e h l s r l o t b e e n g i v e n a c l e r r s e o n t e t r i c e l o r l . r i r v s i c a il n t e r p r e t e t i o n . ' t ' h e d i i t i c u l r y d o u i r t l e s s a r o s e o r i g i n l l l y ' f i o r n b e l i c f s l i k c t h a t e x p r e s s e rb y l , [ . a y ' l u t t ,i n t h e o l r c n i n g l t l r a { r a p } r o l - t } r e t \ l c t : . c t i l . I , I j g g , t h a t t h e ) n i l t u r e o f ' l o r c e i s n o r v a n d a l * ' i L ! ' s , i 1 lL _ ,u n k n o r v n < . u e

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/ou.Ie's value of tnolecular velocity of Ilydrogen, rvhich nrakes the aetheron perhaps a little too Iargc.

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since th.c elenrent of nrass dn - 6 dx d1,dz can be made so snrall rrs to al)l)lv to every.sinele particle or atorn. A t l r r s t s i g h t t h e m e r e f a c t t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l I , ' ' a st h u s d c f i n e c if o l l o l ' s t h e l a s ' o f * ' a v c a n r p l i t u d e i n t r i d i r u e n s i o n a l s p a c c s t r i k i n q l ) ' s u g ( c s t s t h a t t h e r v a v c - t h e o r yr e p r e s e n t s l i e t 'l'o orrjcr ol- ltxture. fincl out by exact calculation rvhat is to lic bcvonrl tltc rcach o1-thc inr.cstigator. t h c p r o l r a l r i l i t v o l ' s u r : h i L c o i n c i c l e n c eo c c u r r i n g b y m e r e t:hancc, \\'c rnrL\' ltro<:ccd as follorvs. -'\licr thc rlcvelopttrctit ttI Jiorodo-r's Ilxlteri'rental Rc'l'aking searclres in I.,lc<:tricitr',arrd l/a.r z,r/1's nrathcnratical intcrthe expressionsfor tn'o independent curlcs, t h c a n r p l i t r t r l ca n r l t h c p o t e n t i a l , r v e h a v c : pretirtion of thcsc rcsults, r'erl difl'crcnt r.icws cantc to l)c entertilincd lrr-gcontctcrs ancl naturnl pltilosophct.s. \'ct it /! : | : /:1.t, J': -1.: ,411.t \zl) l'as onlt' thc rlcveloPntents ltrought out ;n tltc ;I,llcctrocl. I t w i l l l ) c n o t i r : c c it h a t t h c y l r c l o n g t o t h e s a n r eg e o n r e t r i c a l \\'ave-'l'heorJ' ol'I'lrr-s. Iiorc.,<, l,]ricir sccnrcd to justil'r, rlclinitc s p c c i c s - l i o t h l r c i n g r c r : t a n g u l a r 1 ' p c r b o l a s c f c r r e c lt o t h c i r h r e x l ) C C t a t i o l r so 1 - f o r n t i n q r : l C a r q c o n r c t r i c i l l a n r l l r l r | s i r : a l c o n irs),lnl)totcs rrtrl .can lre ntarlc iclenticalthroughout, from ceptions o1-thc nrcclrenisrtrinr.olvcrl in tltc ar:tion ol'thr: .1': o to ,r : o<-, l)]' introclucing a srrmrtration ), srrcl-r n r r q n c t i r : a n r l t h c p l r r n c t e r r - l b r c c s a c r o - s ss l t a c c . I i . c c c n t l t . t l r r t ) 1 ' : .l/. these conr:clrtiorts hnvc lrccn lcrilrcri :rnd cxtcnrlcrl, ancl r \ r : r ' o r r i i n g l yi t a l t p e a r s t h a t b y t h e m c r e v a r i a t i o n o f t h c r c l o r e s ' c s l l r l l 1 t r . r cl t t c n t l t t t o q i v c : r q c o n r c t r . i c l i a n r l a p r r : l l t ) c t r . rt h c r r r r l c s a r e n l r r l c t o c o i n c i d c r i g o r o l s l l ' , lroint 'l'hcrcforc p h l s i c a i i n t c r ' p r c t ; r t i o n o f - t h c p o t c n t i a l r i . l r i < : ls o l o n q p r o v c < l l r v p o i n t , f r o n r . r : . : o r to .{': co. the chances bcs'iltlcrinq to tlrc phvsir:al ntatlrcnratir;ian. a g r t i t t s t s t t r : h a r i q o r o l s c o i n c i d c n c c a c c i c l c n t a l l l .o c c u r r i n q I n t h e > I , . l c < ' t r o r j . ' a v c - ' l ' h t : o r v o f I , l r r . s .I ; ' o r c . ( 1 ,r g l 7 , \\ t h r o u g l r o r r t i n l l n i t c s l ) : r c c ,. x : o t o . r . : o o , b e < : o m e si n ln the state of clarkness, relatile to the invisible aethereal nrediirrn, eristirrq at the closc of the r 8rl, ccnturl', F.ay'larc doul-rtlcss r:onsirlcreci it sufllr;icnt to cleal u'ith expressions u'hich eivc the forces acting on the I)lancts, rlithout incluiring i n t o t h c g c o n r e r r i r ; a l l t r t u r c a n ( l p h l s i c a l n t e c h l n i s r - r . rn v o i i , e r j i in the (encratjon ol- thcsc lbrccs, l'jrich s'crc thcn l;eiicvccl p. r j.1, it is pointcrl out tl):rt if-sar.cs irc tlrc lrasisol- lrin.sical ar:tionacross spar:c,thcn tlrc antltlitutlc ol'strch l'uvcs u'hcn p r o p a c a t c c l s l t h c r i r ' : r I I ya r r c ll r . i t l r o r r tr c s i s t u r r c e i n t r i r l i r n c n s i o n a l , slrace, *'ilJ lrr:(ilt'rr lrv tlrt' crqurtion:
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I n a n a c l r l r c s tso t h c r \ c . : r t l e r n l l ' S r : i c n r : co f S t . L o r r i s , o s S c p t . z r , r g l 7 , I q r r v c t l r i s s i n t p ) c { b r r l r r l e: r r t r lp o i r r t r . ro u t i i t s t { c < l n r c t r i c ailr n r l I r l r l s i r : : r l s i { n i f i c a n c c . I ' r o l i ' s s o r s / . / ' . . .\-i1hrr, /',. ,!. litt,g'/tt' :rnrl otlrcr plrt.sir:istsl.crc prcsr:nt rrrrl s h o r r ' c dq r c a t i n t c r c s t i r r t l r c r c s u l t s : r r r n o u r . t c c rfir o n r s . l r i r : l r , i t r v o r r l da l ) l ) c a rt l r r t t l r i s i l s . h : r r l l a r . g c l l ' o r c n t i r c l l c s c a p t : r l t h e n o t i c e o 1 -c a r l i c r i n v e s t i g e t r t r s . Nol'by r : o r r l x r r i n st h i s c x p r c s s i o n( 2 6 ) l ' i t h t h l t i n ( z 5 ) a b o v e , s ' e n o t i c c t i r a t t h c l , a v e : r n r p l i t u r l cr : r st h c s : r m c l 'as fortn tlre potcntill dcllncd br Lof /tttr in r 7S2. 'l'hcr ( l u c s t i o nt l r u s a r i s c s : C a n t h c c o i r r c i t l c n t . ti n f o r n r l r c r l r r c t o c h a n r : e ,o r i s t l r c l f t r t c n t i a il n l h c t a n a n e l r . t i r . lc lr l r r c s s i o l t r l b r t h c t o t a l a c t h t ' r s t r c s s c l r r c t o t l l c s u l ) c r l r o s i t i o ro l u . l v c s r f r o n r a i l t h c a t o n t s ,c a c h o l - t h c u ' l v c s l r c . i n r o { - t h e : r v c r e { c t r l a v e a n r l t l i t u c i c ,a p p r o y r r i r t e t o t h e c ; o o r c l i n a t c sn t h e l r c l r l i of forcc alrout an:rttrer:tingntassi 'l'o cct at thc truth in this interestins inrlrrir]',l e notice that i,a1lnrr's forrlula ol' l 78 2 i n t c c r a t c s t h c n t : r s s o l - c t ' c r r ' p a r t i c l c o l ' t h c a t t r a c t i t . r ( b o d v , d i v i c l e d b f i t s r l i s t a n < : cl,' h i r : h c o r r c s p o n d s t o i [ s u l r n r a t j o n o f t h e c f l ' e c t sc l u c t o t h e s u p c r p o s c dn ' a . r . e r l p ) i t u r l c s a and thrrs increascs directl_v as thc rr.t:tss, cach sct of \\.irvcs superposed front the atouts in anv clcntcr.rt c d:r dt,clsf r, b e i n g .i n d e p e n d c n t o f a l l t h e r c s t , b u t t h e t r i p l e , i n t e s r a l i n c l u d i n g t h e a c c L r n t u l a t eu ' a v e a c t i o n o { ' t h e r v h o l e n t a s s : d !' : )/'t' : ( .( .t r .

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It sr'crls tircrclorc ccrtain anrl incontestiblehat thc t s ' I o t c r r t i l l r ( ' l ) r c s L l r lt t : o r t r c t r i c a l l la n < l p h y s i c a l l y t h c . t o t a l ; r c r : l r n r u l : r l c r r ts s r l r r c t o t l t c s ' h o l c r n a s st t n d c r t h c a v c r a g c stl N ' : r Va r r r l r l i t r r ro c t l r c l l t . l r : r l r o r rt tl r ca t t r r r r : t i nb o r l yi n r l U e s t i o n . c ll l g I t i s t o l r c n o t i c c r l u l s o t h a t p h v s i c a i l yo u r c l c f i n i t j o n o f t h c p o t c n t i a l r : r > n i j r r nts i s r . o n < : l u s i o n .I r - r f r e e s l ) u c e t h c r c h i s n o c a u s c t o : r l t c r t l r r - .s p h c r i c a l c l i s t r i b u t i o n o f i h e . , u l v c s , a s t i r c r -c ' r p a n c il i t l t i n c r c a s c o l ' z - . l J u t i n o r n g a r t h e s h a c l o r v s i\ o l - t l r c c r r t h , l s s h o r l n i r r t l r c > > I i l c c t r o r\ . I a l c - ' l ' h e o r ) , o f ' I ' h l s . l r o l r . . r , , : r r : i r c : u l a rr c f r : r r ; t i o n o f t h e s r t n ' s r v a v e s u . i l l 'l'hc ncr:css:rrilr ccur. o srrn's potcntial r.arics,cven at ir ( o n s t l n t r l t s t : r n r : r 'n c a r t h c s l r e c l o * 'o f t h e c a r t h ; a n d o r r , i n g , t o t h i s r c l i ' l c t i o n , l l u < : t r r e t i o n s ' t l t e n r o o n ' sn t o t i o n s h o u l c i o[ a r i s c n c : r r t h c t i n r c o l ' l u n r r c c l i J r s e sa s f u l l y e x p l a i n e c il n , 'l'his tlris rvork of' r g r 7. circular refraction of the electroc l r - n a n r i r\:\ ' l v c s i n l ) a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e e a r t ' h ' s r a s s c h a n q e s n t l r c l , o t c r r t i : r l r t o t a l a c c r r r n r r l a t c rtlr c s s u e t o t h e i n t c g r e t i o n o s d o f t h c r i ' r r v c s t r o r . r .a l l t h e a t o n r s , u n d e r t h e a v e r a g " , u r r " r a n r p J i t u d cr r n d c l i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e r v a v e s i n t h e s p a c e n c a r thc shaclou of thc clrrth: and thereforealso the sun'sforces ectinq orr llrc rrroon. I ) a r t i a l l l ' r c l c a s e c lf r o n t t h e s u n ' s c o n t r o l , b y t h e i n t e r position cll- thc i)odv of tlie earth, rvith its refractions of the s u r . r ' ss ' a l c - f i e l d , t h e m o o n t e n d s t o f l y t h e i a n g e n t w h i l e traversin( the rcqion of the shadorv cone, and thus arise t h e l l u c t u r t i o n s o f t h e m o o n ' s n r e a n m o t i o n , c o n n e c t e dw i t h Ittnar cclipscs,l'hich lone perplexed Lay'larc,I{ansen, Aiett,contb, ,I{i//, Jirou'n ancl other astronorrers.

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o u t l i n e o f t h e > E l e c t r o d . \ V n v e - ' l ' l r e o r yo f l ' l r y s . I i o r c . < t h e fol.lorvir-rg figure was used to illustrate the p r o p a g a t i o no f w i r e ' less rvaves around the earth.

l.'ig. z.

lllustration of the refraction o{ tltc rvirclcss wrve ai)out llle earth, antl of light in a prisru, orving Lo slo\\(r I'r('l,xgiiti(,rr of rvaves in dense IItasses.

It is a sufficientexplanation of this lrgurc to say that it corresponds exactly rvith the l)ropagation ol- liglrt tlrrough a glass prism, as shoivn in the figure of the pristtl above. 'I'he rvireless waves travel lastcr ir-rair than throLtglt thc solitl earth. The enortnous elasticity ol the actltcr, rrs st't l-ortlr a i n s e c t i o n 4 , I ) r e v e n t sb o c l i l y r u p t u r c o f t h e t t t e t i i L r t r l ; t r c l t t h i s s e c u r e s c o n t i n u i t y o f t l r e r v a v e l r o n t , i l v l - r c r r r l i n gl r c s u r f a c eb a c k r v a r dn e a r t h e g l o b e , t o c o r r e s p o n d t o t l l c s l o \ \ ' c r 'l'he r e t a r d a t i o no l ' t l t e r v a v c s p r o p a g a t i o ni n t h a t d e n s e t n a s s . front prol)agated straight through thc earth caltses tltc rvrLvc to be bent and held brtck near tlte curvccl srtrl-accof thc earth, and thus the wireiess wave is rclilctecl around the earth by the much grerter rcsistarlcc t:ll(l()ul)tere(iin that solid nruss. 'I'he correct tlreory of' the lrentling o{' tltc * ircles:j wrtvc a b o n t t h e g l o b e i s t h u s t h e s a r l t ea s t l l i l t o i ' : L r r t v o l - l i s l r t 'l'lrc slrced b y a p r i s m , a s s h o w n i n t h e a c c o t t t p a r lifn u l r t L r r c . i n t h e a i r i s 4 , b u t i n t h e g l a s s o n l y . ; , i L I t t lt l t t t s t l r t r c i s a bending of the rvave front throush thc angle l/ rvhen the light enters the glass, and also ri'ltt^rrit lcrLvcstlte glrtss, as long recognized by physical investisators. 1'he explanation ol: the reliactiorr o1'light itr rt lrristtr on is directly con6rued by Iioucttu/t's celebrrrtetlc-x1.ict'itttcttt t t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t i n . a i r a n d i n r v a t e r , ( . \ r r r r r t l c sl c ; l C h i m . e t d e P h y s . S e r . 3 , t . 4 r , r i i 5 a ) , r v h i t : l r r t s r t l t v i r l 'is e e r t r e c o g n i z e d a s , a c r u c i a l t e s t o f t h e r v a v et h c o r y o t ' I i g l r t , a n c l which firially led to the total rejectiorl of tlrc entission theorl'' 'lhe s i r n p l i c i t y o f t h e a b o v e e x p l a n a t i o no f t h e p r o p a gation of rvirelessrvavesabout the globe is thus rctnarkalrle. trtade Ilut it is also con6rmed experimentally Lry ol-rservatiorls by officers of the Arnericatr Navy, upon rvirelcss \vrlvcssellt from N{are Island to San Diego, Crlilornia, artcl rcceii'ed by submarines lying on the bed of the sea, through a depth of. sorne 30 metres of sea water. In some experiDlellts rvith the receiving apparatus underground the sarneeffect rvasobserved.

I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e e a r t h a l s o c o r l d u c t s t h e signals, so that w i r e l e s s a l ) l ) a r a t u sI u a l ' l l e i n s t a l l c d a n d u s e d in cleep nrines, rvhich woulcl enornrotlsllr increase the 1lo*'er o l - s i g n l l l i n g i n case of accidents interrnpting comrnunication by the shafts and tunnels. . l l t i s 1 > r o b a b l e ,t o r v e v c r ,t h a t t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y i n t h e stnlcture and condttcting porver of tlre earth's strxtr \\'ould s o u r e r v h a th a n d i c a p s u c h u n c l e r g r o u n d s i u n r l l i n g , y e t n o t o l ) r e v e n t t h e s u c c e s s f utl1 e v e l o p t t t e n tf t h e n ) c t h o do f s i g n a l l i n g t h r o r r g ht h e e a r t h t o t h e l i n l i t e d d e p t h s a t r v h i c h n i n e r s w o r k . 'fhe h p r o b l e r u o f c , r l . , l a i n i t rtg e p r o p a e a t i o no f r v i r e l e s s w a v e s a b o u t t h e e a r t l t h a s h i t h e r t o c h a l l t : n g c c lt h e i n g e n u i t i ' . o f t h e l b r e m o s t n ) a t h e r ) l r l t i c i a n sI t h t s i r e e r t L r n s u c c e s s f u l l y . a t t a c k c d b y P r o f c s s o r1 1 . , 1 1 - l [ r r l o t a l t l l l ' r c , ' . I i o y . S o c . r g o 3 'I'rrrts. rg to), Lord 1(tt;'lcig/t and Prof'. II. 'Poitrurc arrd l'hil. ( l ' r o c . I t o y . S o c . r 9 o 3 ) . S c e a l s o ' l b i t m r l ' s L e c t r t r e so f r 9 o 8 ( l , e l , r . r m i e r e i l e c t r i t l L r c ,r ' o 1 . . + , z " ' i s e r i e s , N o v . z t i , I ) e c . 5 , l r 2 , r 9 , r g o 8 , c s p c < : i a l l v r . . 3 2 3 ) . l ' r o f c s s o r. 1 . ' S o n n e r f t / l 1 ( A n n . d e r I ' h y s . , r ' o l . 2 5 , I , . 4 , 6 5 , r g o o ) i r a s s h o r v t rt h a t a surlhce n'ar-c shottld exist; and I'rolcssor J. II/. ;\tic/tolsott ( i n t h c P h i l . I l a g . , t r [ r r r t h , r \ 1 , r i l ,t r l l y , r 9 r o ) h l s c l e a l t u ' i t h c e r t a i n l ) r o b l e n i s o f t h e e x p o r ) e l l t i e lf a c t o r o l - t h e r v a v e ' l t l t s p l i t u c l e , b u t n o n c o f t h c s c c t r t i n c n tm a t l t c t r t a t i c i a n r t r r i v c t l a t the an)' satist'acrtor)' or)' o1' rvrlve.llrolrlrgatiort about the glol-rc.
\Vlvc I n h i s s ' e l l k n o t v t r r v o r l i o n t i r e l ' r i r r c i l . r l e so f I ' l l e c t r i c 'l'cle 'l'e lcgrapiry ancl lthorrl', l.ontiotr, .3"r eclition, r 9 r 6, '/. , 1 . 1 ' ' / t t t t i t t gg i v e s a l i r i l e n t l r ( l ( l L I r r t t c 3:6-ti5 r, l'roicssor 1r. t l i l - t r t : u l t y t x p e r i e n t : c c l l i v t h e s c l t u d o t l t er r r u L t l r c r r r a t i r : i a t r s .l r r t l r i s r e v i s t t l c r i i t i o n o l - r 9 I 6 , f i / t u t i t t . g givcs tire lirllos'in.q: ,,(lertt'ntl ccrtt:lttsiotrs as to tl)e ntode o o l ' p r o l r r g l t i o r r c . r 1l - t t g c l c t : t r i c s ' a v c 1 r o t t t i d t l t r : e e r t l t < . ir.ocoul)t o1' thc ,suurrning up tlre t c.,nr:lttsiclts o lur rcachcd by radios tclctraphists \\'c nlit)' sr1' thrrt tlrr: clject protlttt:ctl b1' a radiot c l e g l i L p l r i c t r u n s l ) t i t t c r i t t l t I j r ea t t l i s t l t l l t ' e , s l l y 2 o o o r l r 6 o o o nriles over the srtrllLceo1- tlie clrrtlr, is'lt cotrtltlex one in

rvhir:h sclcral dillbrcnt ectiotrs l)la1'

>'['hcre is, lrrst, u lrrolrtglttion tllrottg]) thc ltcthcr ol : r t r u c s l ) i . r c ec l e c t r o t t u t g t t t t i t : * ' i L v c u h i t : h i s c i i l i i a c t e t l v o r t n d 'l'he extcnt to lrliit:lt tlris contril,rtttesto tllc \\'holc tlrc rrLrtlt. ellcct is, pcrhaps, greater tltatr n'as lbrntcrly stll.rposed, brtt is 1,et lrn rtntlctertrtiued tlttltntitl'. Sotrte ntatlietrlaticians are norv inclinccl to attribute to it tlre nrajor portiorl of the transtnission by daY<. >>'l'hcnin the rtcxt lrlat:t: thcre is ttntlottbtcclll' lL t:orrtrilrrttion nlrl(le to tlrc cflct:t b1'u'evcs rvhicit ltavc sulierctl a r c l r r c t i c u t e t l t r i t ' a L c n t t o a r e l l c c t i o n l r f i r - r n i z c dr t i r a t h i g h 'to thc tlecrelse in altiturlcs, atid a very sntall cillct tilte e s c c t r t l r t l r t ta r c l ; r ' . r el l ' a < : t i v c i r r d c x o l ' r t i r e s u ' e >'l'hesc curtscs tetrtl to trtltlic tite rlrl'lbllt-rs'rotrnd the

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curyirture o1-tlrc earth lLrtdso rtssistrts it rverc clilltactiorl. It is to this variable ton1,, , cliar.rtion thet \\'e ll)Llstirttributc i t h e d i u n r e l a n c l e n n t t a l v r t r i a t i t i n sr l s i g r l a ls t r c n g t l t , a l t d a l s o r tl)e greate signallint distance lry night as u cll ils the irrt: g u l a r i t i e s a t t e n ( i i n gt i r e t r a t r s i t i o r lt i l l l e s o l ' s t i t l r i s t : l l i ( l s u l l s e t ( ( . , > ' I ' h e n n a d c l i t i o nw e l l ) a v i r t r l L t i r ct o l r ' { l r a l l } ' ( l o n ' l i t r i b u t i o n i s n i a c l e b y a s u r i a c er v a v e o f t h c t 1 ' p ci n v e s t i g l r t e c l by Sonutufe@ rvhich is ecluivalent to an elcctric \\'ave l)ropagated through or along the earth<<.

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>It has bcen delinitely n.ou.O that we can receive \\/hen the aetheron is so smail, and moving so rapidly, s i g n a l s l r o r - n s t a t i o n s h u n c l r e c l so f m i l e s a u ' a y r v i t h o u t a n v t h e s e n e r a t i o n a n d p r o p a g a t i o n o f w a v e s i n t h e a e t h e r i s 'l'hc h i q h r c c c i l i n g a c r i n l , l , u t n r c r c l ) 'l r 1 ' c o n n c c t i n g n e t c r n t i n a l i n t c l l i g i l > l c . o r c f r a c t i v e d i s p c r s i o n , b y t h e r e s i s t a n c et.o o f t h e r e . c i v i n q c i r c r r i t t o c a r t h , a n d t h c o t h e r t e r m i n a l t o the rvavcs from thc much larger molecules of ordinary ntatter; l anv largc rvell-insulatecnrass of nrctal, u'hcther inside or is easily understood; and thns refractive dispersion implies outside bf a housc (loes not rnatter((. in cornrnon nratter, coarser granules than those of the medium I f I n r r d c r s t a n r lt h e r l i f f i c u l t i c s s o I u c i d l y o u t l i n c c l l r y itself, but yet l)oints to the moving aetheronsas easily deranged I;hnin.g, thcl'rvill bc foun<i to l'rave proceedcd from thc b y t h e r e s i s t a n c co f t h e w a v e s d i s p e r s e d . i n a d e r l u a t et h c o r l o f t h c a c t h c r h c r e t o f o r c i n u s e , t h c d i s It \\'ill be shon'n hereafter that resisiance soon changes c u s s i o n b c i n g b a s c d u J r o n d i l - f r a c t i o na r o u n c l t h e c a r t h , i n - thc forrn of thc rvave, arrd causes it to break up into two s t e a d o f u p o n r c l i a c t i o n a n c l c l i s p c r s i o n r v i t h i n t h e c l e n s c r r l i s t i n c l p ; r r t s , t h e l a r g e r h a v i n g i n c r e a s e d a m p l i t u d e ,. a n d nra,ssof thc carth, and tlrus e bencling of thc rvnve {-ront. s h o r t e r l c n t t h , h c n c e e n c o u n t e r i n g m o r e r e s i s t a n c et h a n t h e 'l'his r v i l i s u l f i c i c n t l 1 ' j u s t i f yt h i s r l u o t a t i o n , s i n c c i t i s c s s c n t i r l o r i g i n a l u ' e v c . T t i s c e r t a i n t h c r e l o r e t h a t w e n o t o n l y h a v e t h a t t h e d i f l l c u l t i c s h c r c t o l b r e e n c o u n t c r c d s i r o u l c ll r e a u t h o - r c t a r r l a t i o n i n t h e p r o p a r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e e . a r t h , b u t a l s o 'l'hc ritativcll' clcsr:ribcd. r e a d e r c a n t h c n j u c l g c : r s t o r v h c t h c r d i s p c r s i o n o f t h c f r a s n r e n t a r yw a v c s , a n d a b s o r p t i o no f s o m e a s i m p l e r i i n r l n r o r e p r a c t i r : a b l e .o l u t i o n o f t h i s p r o b l e n r h a s o f t h c i r c r l c r s y a s h e a t . s becn obtaincd. o 9. ()utlincs ol the \\rave-'l.heory f NIagnetism, A s t o t h c f e e b l c n c s so f r v i r c l c s s t r a n s n t i s s i o nl t y c l a y , rr'ithcrp):rnation of thc nechanism of Attraction I l r a v c r c a c h e t l t h e s c t t l e d c o r t v i r : t i o r rt h a t i t r c s u l t s f r o u r lnr'l l{cptrlsion. the magnetic l'ave ficlrl of the sun. \\:hen this storm of l i o r t h c s a k c o l - c o m p ) c t c n e s st h e p r e s e n ti n v c s t i g a t i o n rvavcsfrils our air by day, thc rvirclcss s':rvcs havc great - j u s t : r s : r n y s ) ' s t c l no f r e s L l l a r r c t l u i r c s a l r r i c l - n o t i c c o f t h c c a u s c o f a t t r a c t i o n a n d r e p u l s i o n dif6cult,vin eetting throuqlr, in ntirgr.rcts, ancl in clectroclynarnic action, as first outlined water \\'evcsin a lakc, usccl for signallirrt1 cross it, s'oulcl 'ir-r a t h c i o l . r , I i l c c t r o c l .\ V a v e - ' l ' h e o r y o f [ , h y s . F o r c . , r g r 7 . , b e a l m o s t l o s t i r r c l i s t i n c t n c s so r v i n q t o t l t c s u r f a c c < : h u r n i l . r g ..\ccorrlirr{ly rr.c lrcgin rvith magnetisrn, which the celetrrated 'l'he o f t h e l a k c r t n c l e rt h c v i o l e n c c o f a * i n r i s t o r m . transI,lnclislr yrlrr-sicistLlfa.tu'r11had bccn !o long eng:igeclupon, m i s s i o n i s r n o r c < l i f f i c u l tu ' i t h t h c r l i s t a n c c ,a n r l , a l i c r a r : e r t a i n l ; u ( h a d l l i l c r l t o s o l v c a t t h c t i m c o f h i s d c r t h 4 0 ) ' e a r sa g o . d i s t a n c e ,e n t i r c l r ' f a i l s . , \ t n i q h t t h e s u n ' s n r r q n c t i c r v a v c l l c l d 'l'hc :rr;conrpany'ing lieure fronr tlrc rvork of r 9 r 7 rvill i s l a r g c ) y a l r s t : n t n n c lt h r r su ' i r c l c s s r a n s n t i s s i o ns n r u c h l t c t t c r . , t i illustrntc to tlrc c1'c tlrc csscntial character of a magnct, as I t o n l y r c r r r i t i n st o a r l r l t h a J t i t c c e l c b r a t c d a r g u l l c t ) t c o n c c i v c r l i n t h c s t l c - t h c o r y o f p h l . s i c a l f o r c e s . A l a r g e o f C a u c h . r ,t o t i r c c l l c c t t h a t r c f r - a c t i v cr l i s l , c r s i o n o f l i q h t n r a g n c t . . / i s c r l r i l r i t c r l i n t h c s a n r c f i c l c l s ' i t h t r v o s r n t l l c r n c r ; c s s : r r i l iv r r p l i c sl 1 1 n r r r t r l ;s t r u c t l l t c i n t l r c t r : u l s l ) i l r c n t t t t : t g t t c t s ,/ i . l n t l t t : l r r s t < : a s c t p l i k c r rr t 1 t 6 l c sa r c l l r c s c n t e c l ,a ' c l n r a t t e r ,i s e r l u a l l v v a l i r l l b r s l t o u ' i n gt l r a t t h c a c t h c r e l l n r c < j i u r r r * ' c h a v c n r t r t u a l a t t r u c t i o n . I n t h e s c c o n c l c a s c t h c uoles i t - . c l f i s c o r p r r s r : u l a r . I n l r i s I ' o p u l l r L c r : t u r c se n c l r \ t l t i r c s s c s p r c s c r . r t c c l : r r cl i k c , * i t h t h e l , e l l k n o u , n r e s r r l t of nrirtual I. r go, Lorcl Jt'r/t,itthas nrorlilrerl C'aurh.y's thcory of reliactilc r c p u l s i o r - r .l r l u t h o u . c l o c s t h i s a t t r a c t i o n a n d r e p u l s i o n c o n t e d i s p e r s i o ni n l r i s u s u a l l u r : i c r n u n n c r . l t i s l r c l i c v c dt h u t t h c i L l r o u t ? \ \ r h a t n r c r : i r a n i s r .ir r i n v o l v e d , a n c l i n , r v h a t n r c d i r r n r l s c o n s i c l c r a t i o n s c l c l r r c c i n t h i s i r : r p c rr v i l l r c r r r l c rt h e a r g u r n c r . r t s t l o c s i t r r ' o r ki ( ) l r v i o u s l y t h e u r c r l i u r n i s t b c : t e t h e r , a cl because of botlr Cour/t..t'nt't<\ ./t-tlt,itt sonrcnlrlt nrorc definitc an(l I n c l c c t r i c c u r r c l ) t p r o c l r r r ; c s r n a g n e f f r o n t a l t i e c e o f s t e e l a interestin . s r i ' o u n r l i n u s o l c n o i r i , l n r l b c c a r r s ca l s o t h e l e c t r o d l ' n x 6 . i 6 ; ar;tion of a currcnt travcls rvith the velor:itr,of lisht, as I'as first inferred by lfa.r u,c//, and afte rrvards proved by expcrinrcnt. ,\) In thc cuse of attraction, it \r,ill be secn that the l'aves lrom the smali n ) 0 q l l c t/ ? l r r v c t l l c c l e t r ) e n t o f t l r c r r c t l t c r s rotrtins in the oppositc direction to thc rotations in tlrc nrorc firlly outlined rvaves 'l'he 1l'orn tlre nta{ltet ,/. plane rvaves l-ron zl arc to lrc imagined, for the sakc of sinrplicitl', in tlre central plane, or c(luator, ancl trar.elling arvay rvith thc velocity of lieht, - for the reasonjust assigncd in elcctrodl'11x6ic action, by s'hich magnets arc produced.
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and reltrrlsion.

As shos'n graphically by the curve traced just above the heavy rvaves in the fiqure, the amplitude of these receding rvaves decreases according to the larv:

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76

attack l n l , s t e r yo l g r a Y i t a t i o n ,a l l d c o u l d n o t t u a k e a ul)on this nrost dif-il(rult prol..rlent. and as the force due to lvave uction is shorvn, iu rvorks on I n l a c t n o c o n s i d e r a b l ep r o g r c s s a s t o t h e c a u s eo f physics, to be proportional to the square of the nnrplitude, g r a v i t l t i o n h a s b e c n n r a d c b y o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r ss i n c e t h e rve have for the force : \3ol -f : lrrlr, tinre ol t\teu,lott. As thc subject ot- gravitation is inrmense, t ancl lLll \ \ ' e n l r l s t n o t e n t e r u p o n i t h c r c , e x c e p tt o s a . v h a t t h e e v i d e n c e rvhich is the fornr of larv for gravitatiotr, uregnetistrr, t c s i l n i l a r f o r c e s o f n a t u r e o b e y i n g t h e I a r v o f t h c i n v e r s cs , l u i r r c s . i s r n o s t c : o n c l u s i v eh e t i t i s a r v a v e - p h e n o l l l e n o n ,l o s e l y a l i i e d t o t h a t o f ' r n a q n e t i s r u ,l l r t d i i - l e r i n g f i - o n r m a g n e t i s r n r v h i c h Norv let the rvaves frour tnagnet 1i interpettctrete tlle a , I r r s a l r a r a l l e ' i r r a n g e n r e n t o f t l l e a t o n r s a n r l r v h u t - 1 i ) - rc a l l s r v a v e sf r o m r n a g n e t , 4 . l t r v i l l b e s e e n t h u t u t c i ' e t y ' 1 , o i n t ('l're"tiie or.rXI..,gnetis,l,r 87 o, p. r o) e cluality ol- 1,..,,r:ers of space the rotations of the elemcnts of tire t\r'o sc'ts oi- * ' i r i l e g r a v i t a t i o n i s e t : e n t r a lu c t i o n o n l l ' , o u ' i n g tt'o polcs waves are exactly opposite: thc result is thet thc rotLltions t o t h e h u p h u z r r r l a r r a n g c n r c n to l - t l r e 1 > l l i n e o l ' t h e a t o r u s . s f r o m n t a g n e t . l Ju n d o a s f a r a s p o s s i b l et h e o l r l r o s i t t ' f o t u t i u U s It is *'cll krtorvn tlrat lLlroltt rSzz.lttt!itr llrst nrlile f r o m m a g n e t z / . , \ c c o r d i n g l y t h e s t r e s s c si n t h e n r c t l i u m d u c e l c c t r o - n r l g r . r e t s( ) u t o l - c o r r r n o n s t t : e l , l J v n r e u n s o l ' : L n c l c c t r i c to rotations of ..the aether, in the lrelcl bctleen .-1lncl /i, 'l'he s av irr which the u ire c L l r r e l l t s e n t t h l o u g h a s o l en o i c i . is and also beyond .1 a,nd /,i, are rcdttcctl : the rrteiliLrru tbtts is rr'ouncl aborrt tltc bar i,reing rnugnctizerl sr.r{qrsts, urttl, irt everyrvhere less agitated than before, and si)rinks, so as tc) ll<:t, proves that thc s'ire irclrring thc t:urrcnt has a u'ave-lield collapse or contract betrveen r'l and Ji. IiLrt u r:ollrrpsc of 'l'here i s l i r o r > 1 - t h u tt h c u a v e s l L r e l l u t i n t l r c p l a n e s lrirout it. t the eether is erluivalentto lr ccrntrrr ir,n, rutrl tlrus tlie tu o t h r o L r g h t l r c a r i s . o l ' t l i r l i r c : t l r i s r : o n c ep t i o n h u r l r r . n i z e s a l l b o c l i e s a t t r a c t a s i f h e l d t o g e t l r e r l - , 1 'l s t r c t tl t e c i r r r u s sr ) l ' the knol'n lrlrenonrcnu ol rnugnctisur, rn rc'lrLtionto clectro'I'his o is a sinrple and tlirtt:t erlr)lttrrtiotr l' india rubber. tivnrrrnic lir:tiort, rirtd lLlso ]raltnonizes ,1ttfi't't's thc<;r1 o1'eleattraction. Nothing is postulated e\ccl)t \\'avcs like tlrosc n)clrtl.tr)'clcctrit: cLlrrrnts airout tlrc utOurs$'ith the $'lLVe-tlteorv knorvn to exist in light and heat, but here seen to lie erof rnagnctistn alror,c sct lirrtlr. t a c t l y p a r a l l e l a n d s o n . r e u ' h ad i t f e r e n t l y d i r e c t c d l l ' o r r r t l r o s c 'l'he rvevc-tlteori.ol rraglctisrn crplains rrll thc pheof light and heat, rvhich usullly h:rvc thcir planes tiltcrl in lr()nlrnu of terrestrial rrugrrt'tisrrr, rn rclation to the lrcrioclir: haphazard fashion. i r r l l t r c n i s o l ' t l r c s u n a n r i r r r o c i r r ,s r r th l r s r r i : r g n r t i r :s t o r n r , { , e 'l'he It) c a t r s e o 1 ' r e p u l s i o n i s s i n r i l e r t o t l r i L to l a t l e r r r t l r t l r r r e n t s , t ) r c l t t r o r r L , l n t i t l r r s e r r r i - < l i t r r n lu l i l g r ) ( t i c t i ( i c l t r a c t i o n , b u t i n t h i s c a s e t h e p o l e s p r e s e r t t e ca r c l i k c ; e n r l r i e p c r r t i i r r { o n t h c n r o o n , o l ' r i l r i t : h n < . ro t l ) c r e \ l ) l u r ) u t i o r ) i s if rve examine the above diagral)r, \\'e tiiscover tlmt *ircn k n o w r r . I i o r t l r r r l e l i t ' r t d c n c eo l - r n i r g n c t i c s l o r n l s o n s u n s l ) o t s f n the 'rvavesrom nragnet /i, z"d cirsr, inturl)e rtnrlc tlrt' l ltlts ( ( ) l s u l t u l ) r l ) r r l r 1 ' t l r c u r . r t i r o r ,i n t l r e l l L r l l c t i n S o t i f t e r \ s t r . frorn magnet 21 rhe rotations irt cvcr)' 1-ioint * i1l i-,r c'on- d c l i r a r r c c , N o v t r t t l . r r r , r 9 t S . , 'l'he 'l'lrcre t t t c t i i u r r tt l r t r c l b r c t b r m a b l e a n d i n t h e s a u t et l i r e c t i o n . h l s b c c n s u t : h a l r es i l t l c r i r r g c o n l i t s i o n o l t l r o l t g i t t . . a t e v e r y p o i n t i s m o r e a g i t a t e dt h a n b c l b r c . ' l ' h e e r r l r l i t L r d c s connected rr'ith the rvhole sLrirjct:tol-phvsical action across of the disturbed waves are thereby incrcased, :rntl hcnce sl)uce that it is nccessrri'to bear in rninrl t:leeriy the futr' t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e o l ' s t r e s s ; a n d u n r l e r t l r e c l r L s t i c i t yo l ' c l r u r c n t u l p r i n c i l r l c s o f t t a t u r a l y r h i l o s o l r l r r ' . l, n t h c s t l l k t i o l ' t r t h e a e t h e r t h e r e s u l t i s a n e x y r a n s i o no 1 ' t l r e n r e c l i u r r ,r i ' l r i c : h n r t i c l e o n a t t n r r : t i o n , ( S t : i en t i l r c l ' i L 1 r c r s r ' o l . 2 . 4 3 7 , ), ,lfo.ttt't/[ gives a rnutual repulsion of the trvo boclic". points out tlrrt in thc Opticai ()Lrcries.includcri in the thircl ' 'I'his , c i s a s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o n c r f r e p L r J s i o na n r l i t h a t l e t l i t i o r r o i - t l r e ( ) 1 - l t i s , r j 2 t , . \ i t t ' l o t t s h o l s t l t a t i l - t l r c p r c s s u r e p ll never been rvorked out prior to the researchcs r.r)rlishcrr1' ol' tlrc eetherrai uretiiunl is less in thc neiglrliorhood ol'ciense r t h e r v r i t e r i n r g r 7 . M a t u , t / / r v a st u r u l r l t t r t t ' r t n t ' c i t ' o l ' i u t t ' b o t i j r s t l r a n : r t g r c r t t < l i s t : t r t c e s ' r ' o t r rt l t e t r t t l t : n s c l r c l t l i c ss ' i l l l mechanisrn for the explanation ol- attractioll atrrl rcpulsion I-re drun,n to*'ards elLr:lr otlrrr, unrl il tirc clinrirrution o1of magnets, though he found tltat Irtathenratit:alstressesol I)rcssure is invcrsely us tltc tiistlncc frorn thc tlense bocii', a c e r t a i n t y p e , y i e l d i n g t e n s i o n a l o n g t h c I i n e s o f l b r r : ca r t c l t h c l a r v r v i l l l r c t l r a t o f ' g r a v i t a t i o n . tllu:ru,tl/ considcrs tlrlt p r e s s u r e a t r i g h t a n g l e s t h e r e t o , t h u s c l y n l r n i < : a l l 1 ' c t l t r i v a l e n tt \ t c t t , l o t i s c o n c e l > t i o n r e s t s l a r g c l v o r l t l r c i c l c a o 1 - h 1 ' r l r o s t a t i r : to those outlined above, rvoulcl account for tlre lrhenornenrt l ) r e s s u r e ,r s i n i n c o n r l r r e s s i l r l t ' l i r l u i c i s .l i u t n c h r r v e s h o * ' n t h u t of magnetism. l'lr, rvith lort:cs J : A2lr", tlre rrrrrlrlitudc oi- tlte \\'avrs) - I : It is true thtt tl.Luut// believed thrLt tlrcrc are fotations l i r l l l l l s t i r e c o n c l i t i o n u ' l r i c h r \ z r z , / r r z h c l c l t o b r r s s e n t i a l . around the -Fbrarlay lines of lbrce, as Lorcl l{e/t,1n lrrd also Io. lntegration of the (leneral I)ii1'crential rendered probable as early as r 8 5 6 ; lrut neither /t1lut:u nor l , ) , l u a t i o n s o f r L n I , l l a s t i c S o l i t l r r ' h i c h a y r y r l i e t o t h e s , , Maxutell had seen that this rvould arise lionr the tytre of A e t h e r , . r v l r e n t h i s \ l e d i r r u r i s v i e r v e r i a s l n I n t - i n i t c r v u v e s h e r e o u t l i n e d , t h o u g h . F u r a , l a l t sc \ l , c r i n ) r ' n t , , r ' i . S a , r \ e o I o t r o p i c ' l i I a s t i c S o I i c l p r o l ) a g r t i n g 1 \ / r v c s . 5 on the rotation of the plane of a beanr of' polarizcrl liulrt, As is usual in the theor),o1-rn elastic solid, iet rir rvhen passed along the line of lorce, throush rr dense denote a tinction ol' the bulk nrodulus /r, and o1'tlre rigiclity zr, s h o u l d h a v e s u g g c s t e c lt h e medium such as lead glass, such thut 4 l'41f ..1 \3IJ correct theory of the nragnetic waves to Kc/uitr rrttl ,lfo,vu,L//, 'I'helr : r / : ; r z , l n c l t h i s b u l k t n o d u l u s t n er t s u r c s t l t e i l t* as it did to me in rqr6. A s i ' l f a r u e l l r v a s u n a b l e t o u n l o c k t h c s e c r e t o { ' t r a g - e l a s t i c f b r c e c a l l e d o L r tb y , o r t h e e l a s t i c r e s i s t u n c c a { u i n s t , >cornpressibilitl'< n e t i s m , r v i t h b o t h a t t r a c t i o na n d r e p u l s i o n , i t w i l l n o t g r e a t l y c h a n g e o f v o l u n r c . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e is r.neasrrred by ,f L: rf{rt=tf ..,,,). surprise us to learn that he \vas utterly bervilderecl by the \32)

It

,,f "'a

l;.

7i

5c.++

76

experienced by x particle, so that rvhen undisturbed the coordinates T,et a, p,, y be the component clisplacenrents 'l'hen a strain of arry magnitttde is specifiedby six elelnents: a r e . 1 . , J , , : , r n d r . h e n c l i s t u r b e d . . u - + _ a ,' - t B , z + - 7 , . 1

, ( ? ,-,, \ . n - \ 3 . a ' ' / :_ \ a . .*+ -)t. * / e d/\*'\_ ../)a r \ '

-\a, \? . C /.t : 1 ?/,, , \ j op* ', \), * ( a ,, ) \ , \e. ( '.: / P , , \ ' , ( f o \ ' * / a , ' * , \ ' |
(a., / \?: / \?: )

- ) * . ,* ' " + , *\(4?rB- ,))?? p 2 _C\r?*,'r \ a :_ ? " a tl a . ,a ,

(1 , : - ? - a /,' _ u -:" a .,* ', ))* ? ,dae'* (a ,t*',)) :,r ' * a l. - \ ? \ / ? u* ' ) ? ?,, ' * A BA P* , ) * \. l 2.,r 2 , .' ',: / o 'o 1 3 . '\ ? , \a. (.lr)

u,,

:\ll particles in tn unstraincd statc, rvhich lie on a spherical sLtrface: r.,::;c,?-c11e-+(r, n i l l , i n a s t r a i n c c l s t a t c , l i c o n a n e l l i p s o i c l a ls u r f a c c : - r 1 2. / Er-+litl2-+C,i.-+za ri1-+z/(..-r- ztlrl , ' , \ c c o r d i n g l l ' , i f t h c c x t c r n a l f o r c c s a t . / ' ( . r : , r: ) a l o n g t h e a x c s o f : t : , , t ': , l r e , \ b internal strcsscs c:

(:+) (gS) \', Z, per unit of mass, and the

cr, * * o', : (:| ('fl,' 1f;' 1f;') r1r,c,: * i,f * i,1') c,r,d:
*:;)d,cr-r,cr: * cr:: (tl,'* "j;,' "1;')o'd.r (i,:l* i,,u
(s6)

cr' ,'., : (':: ('ll,'* 'lli'.-'ll"') <!r,r,:; - l;l - li) crsdz

'l-hen

t h c c r l r r i l i l r r i u r no f r l l t l r c l b r c e s , i n t c r n a l a n c l c x t c r n a l , l c a t l s t o t h c f o l l o r v i n g e r l u a t i o n :

: i5 u , l*,' ) , ! * ? . r ) , r r c : . ,oc r : r ', ( ' l l . * 1 l ; *'' l l ; ' * u r ) , , . 1 1:1 '(6 1' , --' o *on)n"r"r: (:: *'1,1'*,ll qv)clud.1'crz: ('11.'*'T.,,lt*'T;'' =:(:1 * * o. rr'r1z: ('l;'*'ll;,'* df'* ur)n,1r1,1r5 l;) -' 1,1 or)rr,

(:z)

a r c t h c g c l c r l r ) c ( l u l t i o l r s o f c , ; u i l i l r r i u n r o f r t n c l a s t i r ; - . o l i c l ,* ' h e n s u b j e c t c t l t o s t r a i n b y a n y s y s t e r n o f forr:es, i n t e r n a l a n d e x t c r n a l . - /t-+rf3n, as in (3r), rve find the well F o r n n i s o t r o y r i cs o l i d , t h e c r l u r t i o n s b e c o n r e m u c h s i n r p l i f i e r l . U s i n q z r ttnrl Tai/,'lreatise on Natttral Philosophy, g pcr unit volunte, (<'.f.7'hom.rott k n o s ' n forrrrrrlac for a1 clrstic solitl, of cicnsitv edition r S:i.;, \ (,ns)

'l'5esc

6 }': * *Z':)-p 6 - ,i, "-'{; i) * ,,(3':T'', (i: *

*'uii). sr: o - ou, *u,!, ?r,;) (?l:nuu,', (1,, * * "

(:8)

*Z':,)* oz: ,,1,(;:. *'r:)*,,(7':,,*uuj,!,, o. Zu,

(.rq)
t I. Idcrrtity of the I)ilatation

\ \ ' h e n a n c l a s t i c s u b s t a n c e i s s t r a i n e d , a s i n t h e p r o - r , - l ' , , r c s l t e c t i v e l t ' ,a n d a c l d t h e results, rve shali get the. pagation of rvavcs, its diffcrcnt elcrlents rtndcrso changcs cqurtion lor an Isotropic Solid: (+") ( n + n ) y i r ) - r ( a , t A x - + d Y fc 1 1 , - t d Z f ): q . dz both of fornr irnrl of lolrrrlc. Let

1\:

-+0 ?af 7a: pl\ -+?yl0;

denote the anrortntof dilatation in volltntc erperiencctl b1' a an elenrent of the sLtlrstance nd prtt ( +o ) dr/drr-r-dr/dr,2-r-d!/d:2 !: :

,1:

p 0af 0x_+a l1y_r07, z lE

rvith the I'otcntial V lor an Infi nite Elastic Solid: Confi rnration of thc \Vave-'l'heory by Lord Krluix's Laplacian operation : then rr'e shall bc able to reduce I n t e g r a l s o f r 8 4 8 . for the t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s( 3 8 ) t o t h e v c r l ' s i m p l e f o r n r : It is renrarkable that nnder certain conditions, to be o n ' r l d f r l . r - + nf : r v - f o - \ ' : nrore full.v discussed hereafter, tlre equation.s of an infinite 'fhis n'dt\fd1'-+-ny'B-fgY:o . ( + t ) elastic soiicl admit of a very simple interpretation. . . , t t ' r k \ fd z - + r uV : Y * o Z : 6 arl)ounts to aclnritting the iclcntity of the dilatation d rvith i s o t r o p i c , t h e d e n s i t y m a l ' b e the potential I/, in the case of an infinite elastic solid. Nou' s'hen the solid is years o n r i t t e d i n t h e s e f o r t u t t l a e , o r t a k e n a s r t n i t y . r \ c c o r d i n g l y Indecd it rvas upon this tacit assumption, sevent)' two that Lord /t'thin obtained his celebrated integrals for if rve dift'erentiate these sttccessivc eqrtations u'ith respect to aso,

lc-

-r

r'- i',

i:a;,

'

, tt,t':r,.'.- ,

,.-:'l'' :

;:

'$
5044
6

!i.t:i

. ' ; ' " , 1 r ' ', .

i"' r . :;' n:-j. jj .

79

8o
(So)

F= j;tE

:1i an infinite elastic solid (ci. Carnbridgeanri Dublin Mathe- i f a X l a x - + a V l d . y - + d Z f d z - 1 r (g ( t t t - + t t ): m a t i c a lJ o u r n a l , r 8 4 8 ) . o r t h e d e n s i t yi s c l c l l n e d y t h e e x l r r e s s i o n : b

, .l .;,', ': .l

.:,
I.

. :..

i' i.'.:j,r
. ': .il:'.'

It may be noted that the densiryof an isotropicsolid, g : 'f lqrtQt-+-t)).(a,ta;u-+O -+aZlaz) (s,) vial . which does not vary rvith the coordinates (r,)',t), is expressed 'lhis by the ratio, specifiesthe clensit),rhroughour sl)ace of the inilnite x-rdyf d1,-+-c)Zldr) \ 4 : i / i s o t r o p i c s o l i d , t h a t o f t h e l l n i t e s o l i d b o d 1 , i n ( a r ) b e i n g . Q : [br-rn) Vra]/(aX/A u n i t y p e r r - r u i to 1 ' v o l u n r e . I3ut by Poissoris equation rve have 'I'o rcach 7,ortl t{t/uitt s result r))ost directl},, *'e let -1? p2 V-+-4n p : y') (f qr 6 \44/ denote the resultant of the forces, .\, Y, Z, tt an1, |oint - ( t l + n ) ( 0 2r f 0 r 2 - r 7 ' ) V f ? y 2 - + - 0/tp t ) ) . or (+S) S l , ( ; r . r - t - _ y , : + , : ? ) l r c . t r nt h e o r i g i n , \r, l', t), at tlte clistance r : By comparing (+:) and (a5), rve flnd that if a mirss rvhether discontinuous and vanishins in lll lioints outside of density, s o n r e l l n i t e < ; l o s c c is u r f a c e , o r c o n t i l r L t o r r sl n r l v i L n i s l r i n g a r a l l ' d I' -+- d'l \ rt ' c I l l 4 7 t \ ttt -r t)1. (o^' * g: ( + 6 ) i n l i n i t e l y c l i s t a n t p o i n t s u i t h s u f l l c i c n t c o r ) \ ' c'rI gi r let n l r t o r r r r r k e ,, \d.r ' t , . 1 .)d-], 1lr- converge to o as z incrcirscs tu c\J. tite con. be distributed throughout sl)ace, we nray conclucle tliat its vergency of .Yr-, )'r, Zr to zcro, rvlrcn r.is inllnitc, cic:rrly potential at lr,y, z) rvill be identical rvith thc clilatationo1. nrekes l.': 6 l 6 ; p l l l i n i i n i t e l y ' .t i i s t r u t l ) o i n t s . , \ c c o r d i n g l v , i1-5 be any ciosed surt'ace roLrnrl the orisin ol coordinates, the elastic solid substance:

6 :0alDr-+Apl?1,-+-0ylD:

(+z)

For if we divide (+") by (tt+t), and subrract fiorn it the first of (++), rve get: Vz d -+.(d.Y/dr-r- d F/tl r,-+ dZ I J:) f (u -r,t) *
- r , $ / ! r , / !

cveryu'lrcrc inlrnitely ciistant liorrr it, the lirnction (d * f -) i.; z t : r ' < tl - < t ra l l p o i n t s o l ' i t , : r n r l s a t i s l i r s t h c c r l r i r L t i o n y : ( j /') 'l'here o lbr all yroints rvitlrin it. lbre d : I/ througbout the inllnite isotrouic solitl.

- V-- ,Y , , t ( Q : -4

( + s ) p o i n t ( : r , - . 1 , , : a,n r l b y )

which gives

V , ( d _ _/ ) :

(.1l e

Noiv let -Y', I'', Z' dcnote the vulucs of _\, li Z ^t.;rt)y a t r i p l e i n t c g r a t i o nt h r o u g h o u t a l l s p a c e , rve shall have fbr the potentill l.' or dilatation d:

(n-r")1. 'lf,on !

-",),1.dr.,1t1,,15..(s,) dy,f -+42,ltts,)l v'l(s_.-,u,)r-+-(,r,-;,,),*(, J'iu-r"/,r..,* ,4r

(s:)

For the elcnrent of th" nlurrl:'--; tf l.yir(ut-rtt)J.(cl-v,/dr,-+ y,f 41t-+r1y,16r,1 d and the mutual distances ot' the elcrner)ts of l))ass lrlling thc elcnrent ol- s1r:rceclr cl_;, is d:

dition of convergence, according to rvlrich rvhen r, is infinite,

*r'- *aT,,,.
J
_tu

: j _ v 7 r l ( . r . r , ) t + ( 1 , - - 1 t ) r - + --(2 - ) , ) . ( t y , t 2 , s r ",

(SS)

_Gr

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'l'lris to rvhich the components (P, Q, 1l) belong - r:orresyrondins t h e p o t e n t i a l / , ' . s i r , e s a s e o n r e t r i c a la n d p h v s i c a l s i g t o a h o m o g e n e o u se l a s t i c s o l i d , o r a r n a s s o f i n t : o n r p r e s s i l r l c n i l l c a n c e t o t l r c l i o t c n t i a l , l h i c h h i t h e r t o h a s l r e e n e n t i r e l v l i r l u i d h e l d i n a r i g i d v e s s e l , u ' i t h t h e c i e n s i t l ' s o r l i s t r i l > u t e d l a c k i n g , a r - r r ll o n g p r o v e c l i r e r l ' i l t l c r i n g t o t h c c e o n t e t e r a n r l 'lire s e c o n d e ( p r r t i o n o f ' ( 6 7) i s t h e n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r . as to be in equilibriunr. satisfied by this condition, ancl l'c hlvc, z. If this \\'ere not tnre, the generale(lurtior)s for an : (z ' ) i n t i n i t e e l a s t i c s o l i d c o u l r i n o t l r a v e L e c n i n t e g r r i t e c i l r y L o r r i O,f/dc-t ct Yf d1-+dZf d: : f I/''. . \ c c o r d i n g l y b y ( + r ) * ' e h a v e t h c o r i g i n l l e q r i r i t i o n o l - a r - r | t ' r / u i u t t s o u t l i n e r l r b o v e ( c l ' . C r i n r l - r r i t j g ce n c l I ) u L l i n f l a t i t e uirrtit'al -Jonrnal, r S4E). l.iut as this cr'lcbratcd .geonrcter ef. e l a s t i cs o l i d : (u-+n) V, d-+V, ll,': (Z,) o l-ected sr.tch art intcgration for thc gctrcral erlurrtions o1-arr - Il','\ttt+-tt). rvhich is satislled by the assunrptir..rn d intlnite isotropir; clastic solid, rvitirout givine a 1ih1'sicli intcr'fhe Aether as an lnfinite Iilastic Solicl. trrtion to tlre solutiort liruncl, *'c scc that Lortl KL/t'iti s
l)re

Hence if this anall'sis applies to thc tct)rcr, as un nrtthcnraticul gc'nius iruilclcrl lrrtter than lrc kntrv, ancl nrrturtl i n t r n i t e e l a s t i c s o l i d , t h e d e n s i i l ' o l ' t h e n r e d i u r r rn r u s t l r e p h i l o s o l i l i c r s u r c n o \ \ ' e n : L l r l c i l l o r t l t e l r r s t t i r r r t . t ( ) i n t c r l i r u t t a r r a n g e d s o a s t o g i v e a p o t e n t i a l r L u g r n e n t i n g l r o u t c a c : l r l r l r y s i t : a l l 1 'r r n e o l t l r t , s r r l r l i r r r c s r e s u l t s i n t l r r l h o l c r u r r g c u n r a s so f m a t t e r e m b e d d e d i n i t , a s s l r o r v n i n n r ) l ) v n a n r i c l L l o l - u r a t h e n r a t i c u l s c i e n r . . . 'l'his 'fheory l a t t c r c o n d i t i o r " ro l of Globular Clusters, rg r z. :\i'tt,/ort srrrnrisrti thet i1-the clcnsity o1'tire actiter varierl tlre potential is described analytically as lbllon's: t l i r e t : t l 1 ' a s t l r c r i i s t u n t : eI l - o r n t l r e t : c n t r c , i t u o u l d l t r c s s t o l l r r t l s 'rl't o t l . rt'] t ' t l : tlrc cerrtrc so ils to tlcvclr>p tlie lort:e of tnLvitutiort. ,lla.t tt t// t' I' t' : l 1 * u : l t i . l ) I I - . , , . -,: ' ) r , l r o l d s t h a t , \ - tt r t l o ) / r ' o n c c i v c r l t l r i s l c t i o r r a s l r n u l o . g o u s t r - r , I l(.u- r'):-+(-,1,-.r')i-+( J J J ./ '.1'heorr', t i r l t t l r c l r o t e n t i l l ) r 1 ' t l r o s t u t i cl ) r e s s u r c , l r t t t r v e -I u r v c s h o s ' n t l l l r t t h c r c a t : t i o r r o l a n d t h e i n f e r e n c e ,l i o n r I ) 1 ' n a r n i c a l l ' , / r -p r o t l u c c s t l r i s a r r e n g c n r c n t i s g r e a t e r t o \ \ ' a r d st h e c e n t r e s o f n ) r r t t c r l, l n r l s o l i v i o t r sl r l rv s i c a l t h e l r r v c s r i ' i t i r a r r r p l i t r r d e s- - l ger)eritt( iul rllu( t sirnillrr to lt)erc i l l u s t r a t i o ni n t b e a c c u t n u l a t e d r r a n g c n r e t ro l t l l o l i u l r L tr' l u s t c r s , o l - t l e r r s i t l ' a n t l r i ' o r r l r l u t l r y r l r o s t u t i < :l ) r e s s u r c ( c l - . l l ) l e c t r o t l . \ \ ' a v c - ' l ' l r c o r l ' o l l ' l i l s . i , ' o r c . , i r v i t h t h e s t a r l i g h t i n c r e a s i n g i n l - r r i g i r t r r e sts l l i t u t t r r i n s u r r;r 7). p e r f e c t b l a z e n e a r t h e c e n t r e , i n s ! r c hs p l c n r l i t lg l o l r r r i a rr : l u s t c r s l . r - ; . 1 , 'I'ucani ancl o Centauri. as 47 \\tlry tltc liorr:t's lretrvt:cn thc Sun lntl l)lunrts 'lhis i n c r e a s e i n l ) o t e t i a l t o r i ' u r r l s h c < : e t r t ' s o r : t ; r r g r i c t l( ) l r e r u t c i r r l t i g l r t L i n c s : \ \ ' c i c r s t r a s s i l n ' l ' l r e o r y o l ' n n t b y m i r t t e r c a n o n l y ' b e a t t r i b u t e d t o c c n t r i l ) L , t i Lsl t r e s s c si n t h e l i c s u l t i n g L c r r s t r \ c t i o n . t h e a e t h e r : t h e n i e d i u m i s t h u s { l l i c r i r i i t h r rr i v c s r ec c t i i n g c ) I r n u g i n c \ \ ' : . r v r sI ) r o l ) u g u t e r l l i o r u t l r e s u n l n c l e a r t l r f i o n r t h e s e r n a s s e s , n d t h e d e n s i t f i n t h c a g i t a t e t l r u r t l i u r r r : r s s l r o r r ' n i n t l i c r t c t : o r r r p r r n v i n r lr i i a g r r r n r : l u r r l l e t t l t c v c l o t : i t i c s a i s i n v e r s e l y a s t h c r v a v ea u r p l i t u d c o r t i i r c c t l y r s t ) r c n r c i i L r s o l ' t l r e n r u t u u ) l y ' i n t t r p c n e t r l L t i r r g N a v c s l , o r u t h c c e n t r e s . \ ( c f . I i t e c t r o d . \ / a v e - ' f h e o r y o I ' h 1 ' sl.i o r t : . L r : 1 . + ,r 5 7 - 3 , r 9 r 7 ) . : r r i r l - 1 i l r c l ' t a n d / r . \ f Since the tlilatation

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WAVE - THEORY!
OF OF DISCOVERY THECAUSE GRAVITATIOIVI
OF NATURE I '{A G N E T I SM ,EL E C T R OD Y N A MIC S'AND OTHER FORCES O BE Y I N G T H E GE OME T R IC A L L AW OF THE INVERSE SQUARES: PHYSICAL ANALYSIS. W I T H C O M P L E T E MA T H E MA T ICAL ANd on Based f of Wa F o u ri e r's ve -Tbeor em I 802,J lsi, p- FeF= t, { 5

T. J. J. SEii

In spite of high recommendafions by Nikola Tesla (who rejecteci and by the psychic Idgar Cayce anC others' th"oty of Relativity) Einsteintl of the Aether" developed in the 1920's by noLed astronomer the "l,lave-Theory Capt. T.J.J. See has been completely ignored by modern physicists. nAgnetic 3ntl electrostatic In suuurary, See explained gravitior8l, or compression rves Ln the aether, of approxinately fields as longltudinal the same mgnitude 3s the disEances over which they opeate. Light, heat and radio are describecl as tnsverse or shear lraves in the aether. Wnen aether laves radiating frorn masses couple, the,w produce the longitudinal a rel-ative aether \racuum between them, and the bodies are pushed together (not pu11ed) by external aether pressure. The apparent increase of rlass of an-acceLerating body is causecl by incredsing drag resistSnce from the viscous aether. If a body is rotdted at a certain speed, an associated aether vacuum force. This is produced which prevents tr?nsmission of the gvitatiorr3l as demonstr?ted by John Searl, leviCation op.t" the uay to anti-gravlty The theories and experiments by Charles Brush, T.T. Brown, and laithlAite. in T.J.J. Dr. Hans l{ieper, Prof. Nipher and others al-so find unification t s ti^hve Theory of the Aether. I See written by ].likola Tesl? and publ-ished in Telegreph & In 3n drticle TeLephone Age (Oct. L6, 1922), the Sreat inventor dcscribed his }lagnifl'ing See's theory and a"d Earth resonance. Tesla rencioned pt. Tra;-*itt". expressed his agreement with it: the "Tne larv of motion c3n be expressed by stating that the !,ves on equal areas, but it must surface sweep in eqral intervadls over terrestrial be understood that the current penetraEes deep into the Earth and the effects produceci on Lhe receivers are the same as if the whole flow was confinerl to the garthrs axis joining the tramsmitter and the Sntipode. The nean surface --- 57"i.greater than that speed is thus about 47Lr2OOkilometers per seconC --- which should prolagate r+ith the velocity oi the so-called Hertz raves of light if they exist. The same constant rrds founci by the noted American for the investigptions, astronomer Capt. T.J.J. See in his retheretical raetheronst.!' desiSnates as srAllest f,rticLes of the ether which he fittingly I'liave-Theor]': T.J.J. See publishec'l a 13-volurne set of bootr:stitled Discovery of the Cause of Molecul3r Forces (1'lagnetisrn, Electrodyr8mics, anci t Other Forces of lture 0beying the Geometrical lav: of inverse Sqr:ares...) v&ich is exceedingly re today. lie E1-so pubLished 3 ser-j'-esof eight papers in the journal- tAitronornische l.lachrichtenr which are nore accessable. These today frcrn Rex iiesedrch. irave been retrieved by and al:e available

OF THt iIFIx SEErs W',\tr-TTEORY Fapers il1-8 frorn Astronomische ]bchrichten, First Faper (A.N. l;5044, Vo1. 211): circa 1920.

rNewlheory of the Aetherf

The Medlurn of the Aether ls necessary for conveying Physlcal Actlon o a c r o s s S 1 a c e . . . N e t r u ' I ; 1 wf t h e D e n s i t y & R i g i C i t y o f t h e A e t h e r . . . R e l a t i o n llean llolecular Veloclty of a Gas & that of a lve Transrnitted in between of lhyslcal Constants euch a 1ledium...Elastic Power of the Aether...Table of the ?ropagStion of the Aetherion...Explanation Aether...Ihe of the of the lbve Thsory for lgnetism' iiireless 1&rres Bround the Earth...Oltline & Repulsion...The Aether as an Infinite I'eolotropic Elastic Solid Attractlon of lEve Theory b,. Lord Kelvinrs Integr?ls propagatlng Faves...Confirsation and Physical Conditions which the Forces generted tf 1AAg...Geotrptric
rnuSt SStis$I.. . o. a... a.. ...c a.. a...... ... c.. ...... . o... c...... c........... ..

Second hper

(A.N. #5048, Vo1. 211):

Action propagated with the Velocity of Llght...ElectroGavitational l^lave-Theory of Physical Forces explains }lotion of Perihellon of dynarnlc of the Cause of the of Newtonl2n law...O.rtline Mlrcury...I'lodification Action is propag3ted of Ehe }loonf s MeSn Motion...Gr?vitaiional Fluctr-ations by due to ives in the Aethef,...Gornetrical Conditions fulfilled by Stresses K1-retic lheory of the Aether occords with the 0...fhe tin Velocity-Potendal based on the Views of NewEon& Ih>n^rell...New Theory of SteLlar Aberation OLiver Lodgefs Experto the moving Earth.".Sir Motion of Light relativeiy

:::::.:::.:::::::::.:::.:l:::::::.::.:::.i:illl:.:.:l:::::i::
Third Paper (A.N. ii5079, Vol. 2L2) z Two Recertrable lheorems crn the Physicel ConstituEion of the Aether... Georetric & Physlcal. Outline of the RelStionship between Light, I2gnetism and the Electrodyraur-ic Action of a Current...Plane ives oi }lagnets & the Iarv of Amplitude.".High Velocity of the Electron unier Cfarge explained Identit,v of the Velocity by AcceLe.tion due to Aether i^laves...-Aetherial I'lass".... &'Electrical t{aves with ttat of Light...Aetherions oi El""ttlc Problers of the Universe.....e' Ki-rretic l,ve Theory of Aether ?nd the Tlrger
a a a a a a a a e a a a a a e e 0 c e a a a e a a a a a ' o " " " " t e t t o " o " " t " " " t t ' e c " t ' c e " ' e " "

Fourth

Paper (A.N. il5048, vo1.

2L3) z

Isotropic Aether & Iedial llotion...lExrve11rs !1ectro}4?gre Eic Theory of Ordinary of Light is incoruplete...Geometrical Reasons why the Vibations Objections to Fresnelrs Theory of Light are dlinLy Tr?nsverse...FundamenEal D>:plan2tion of the Line3r PoTatLntion of Reflected Light...Undulatory in Polarized l,ight...lie-u- I^lave-Ttreory of Light Phenmrenon of Interference accounts for all known Optical Phenouen2...llave-Theory of Gravity & Geoetrical T h e o r y o f C o n f o c a lC o n i c s . .. . . . . . . . e . e o. . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fifrh Faper (A.N. #5130, Vol. 214):

Ortlines of lve-Action fbeory of l{olecular Forces..,The Rainbow in f.ight of the i,rre-Tlreory...New theory of Surface Tension & of Capillarity & Bubbles... based on lEve-Action...Ne\,r Theory of Lightning...Droplets tn Relation to Planckrs Qrantrn theory...PostscriPt. Caplllarity...Ilxve-Theory

Sixth

Paper (i..N. /i51.40, tJo1. 217) z

l,tave-Theory of Chenrical, E>:pl.osive' & Vital Forces. . . Developsent of -rbve-Theory-...Geonetric Basis liest in Cneroical Reactions as a Proof of the of rhe Atosric Arrangernent ln Ehe l{ave-Theory & the Source of Power tr: lllgh !.xplosives...Radidctlvity & Orgainc Growth...Direct Evidence of lve Theory... Conclusion...hrt Two: Discovery of the Cause of Universal Gravitition... Iiigorous Georetrlc Analysis confirms Tension in the:'ether between 2 Stars... The Guse of unlversal Gravitation...SuuurSry of Chief P.esulcs of the New Theory of the Aether...The Tensisn of the Aethgr: l.lave-Tneory & the Newtonian

"' ::::.::.:::1.:::::.:::::::.::.:::.:::::.::.::.:::::.lllll
Seventh Paper (A.N., Vol. 217, Oct. 22, L922)z Discovery of the Cause of }Egnetism & of a Rernrkable Connection Gene1 iorrrulae for the between lEgnetism & UniversaL Graviation...Neu Ponderomotive Force in the IEgnetic Field...Verification Intensity of Che of Biotts law: an Experirpntum Crucis as to the lbture of l4agnetlsm... of the Supposed llotion of the }bgnetic Poles in the Earth... Investigation Iheory of Earthrs lhgnetic }Ioroent...Gaussr General Theory of Earrhts lhgnetisrn Systems... ...Th !Iutu31 PotentL?l Energy anfl the }luttal Action of Two lhgretic of the Gravitatlen...ExplzrBtion Velocity of the Propagdtion of Universal

::::::i:.:::.::::::.T::::.::.::::.:.T:::llT:::::::l:
Eighth Paper (A.N. , YoL. 226, Feb 27, 1926) : ---Part One: A Supplerent of the Discovery of the Guse of Gravitation of the Physical Analysis of the Progress of the Problen...An Investigation use underl.ying the Forces of I'lature which fol-lors the Iarn' of Inverse SquS::es.." Fart Tvo: Gecnretrical & Pnysical Explaretion of the Iaw of Inverse Sgr6res... Qbser.vatioral- proof of the Existence of Electrodyrraic lhves from the Sun, t Moon & Planets...Geornetrical & Physlcal Signif icance of laplace s Potenti2l h.rnction V: lagrangets Force ?unction U, for Newtonf s law of Mutr,l AttG,ction... of Tension betraeen?nd Pressr:re behind Expl2ined by liave-Action...l^lave-Effect of Ibve-Theory of Uni.versal Gffivit2tion 2 Centres of Disturbance...Confirn6tion by Definite labor?tory Experiments.",Part Three: Velocity Potential of 0 r.rith the Solution of the Fourier-Polsson Potential for l,hves in the Aeiher. .. of the & ?hysic31 Grounds for I'.tsve-Theory reprsentation Some Geonetriel lnteglaI arising in the of an Infinite True Order of Nature...lnvestiption l,]ave-ltreory of the Aetter as applieci to the Stars... liumerical E>anp1e of a n A n a l - o g o u sl i e t h o d o f f n t e t r a t i o n b y S u c c e s s i v e A p p r o : ; i : t i o n S . . . . . c . . . . . . . . of the ljor ParL Four: T.heorems of laplace & Poisscrn on the Iilariability & l'lesn l{otion of the Planeis generali"zed for all the Higher Powers Axes Titeories...Concluding Criticism of Certain TditiorEl of the !hsses...Brief lheOry........... o... ........ '. .. ........... o........ c.... . N o t eO nt h e L u n a f

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ASTRONOMISCHE NACHRICHTEN:
Nr. 5048.
New Theory of the Aether. Bv T. /. /. See. 8.
(Second Paoer.)

From the celebrated letter of Gaussto ll/cbo., Irlarch tg, r 8 4 5 , ( G a u s s ,W e r k e 5 . 6 2 s ) w e l e a r n t h a i a s e a r l 1 ,a s r g 3 5 In the first paper on the Neri,Theory o f t h e A e t h e r , Gauss looked upon phl.sical action across space as conver.ed .\\ 5oa4, n'e have shos.n that the e x i s t e n c eo f t h i s n r e d i u m t n ' m e , a n d ' * ' a s t r ) . i n g t o f o r m u l a t e a larv of this action, r s a n e c e s s a r yc o n d i t i o n f o r c o n v e y i n g physicalaction fronr i t . a - s i d et e m p o r a r i l y , a n d o n ) 1 . r e c u r r e d to it when l:,t,nr,. one bodl' to another across tbe celeitial i p " . a . , a n c l h a v e l l r c b t r h a d f o r m u l a t e d h i s f u n d a m e n t a le l e c t r o d l . n a m i c a l la*., siven the elements of k i n e t i c t h e o r l , o i t h e a e t h e r - g a s p L r b l i s h e id r 8 4 6 : n irs the subtile .r'ehicleof t h e energy. tltaru,c// hacl a verr. clear - (rndfr2) -ft f lr conception of this nredium ll) (arlalz-+-(zr,tc2,1 . (,) d2r,11721 'I-he 4T years ago, rrhen h" f",;;;; first term of this forroula is hbu,lon,s lau, .l.reari.e t ' , u t ,i n . t h c c l o s i n e p l r a g r a p h o f t h e c c , l e t r a t c d of gravitation, on r686, s.hilst the other terms take account of the effects l , l e c t r r c i t r . a n d\ J a e n e r i s m ,E 7 r , r , o l . l l , p . 4 o 3 , l r of t h a t r r r . h e n e r . e ri n d u c t i o n / energ]'is tran,smitted in the relative motion of the trvo bodies f r o n r o n e b o d l . t o a n o ! h e r i n t i n r e t h e r e 'l'he z z ra n d r t , . minor terms thus give the energv effects n r u s t b e a r r e d i u n r o r s u b s t a r ) c ei n n h i c h of the velocitl. the ene.gy:";ir;; l and a c c e l e r a t i o n o r c h a n g e o f v e i o " c i t v ,u n d e r a f t e r i t I e a r . e so n c b o d y a n d b e f o r e i t s . a r . ea c t l o n , reaches thc"ott,er*. i in the direction of the radius r.ector, as re(luired by the \o better dcscription can be given of the aether, as i author's I.,lectrocir-na c \\'ar.e-Theorr. rr th,e veh.ic)eo[.cncrg1., rhan that ju!t o f I , h 1 , sh o r c . , . q u o t e d . A n r ] s i n c e l l :o .t_ r t r o r t . v r ." . ,l[a.ru'r// sar.s that the energy must exist in the rncrlirrnr, I n r h e n . o r kh e r ec i t e d ( p . r + 3 _ r 4 9 ) j l f t e r i t h a s l c f t o n e b o d v , b u t . - t e f o r ei t h a s h a v ec a l c u l a t e d r e a c h e <t h c o l i : c r , t h e e h e c r s o f l l ? i o . s l i a * . u p o n t h e p r o g i e s s i v em o r , e m e n t owing to thc propagation in time, lr.e see of t h a t t h i s e n e r g \ . t h e . p e r r h _ e ) i a ,e r i p r a n e t a , p a n d p e r i a s t r a "o f t h e b e s t k n o q . n o b v i o u s i l ' r . l t u s tb e c o n r . c l . e ctl h r o r . : q ht h e a g e n c r . o f u . n r . e s i r o dj e s o f t h e s o l a r s y s t e m a n d o f t h e s i d e r e a lu n i r . e r s e . . i . h e t r a l e l l i n g r . i t h t h e v e l o c i t vo f l i g h t , a , ; u s t s r a d i a n rh e a t f r o n r t r b l r l a r e d d a ' i s t h e p r o g r e s s i o n of the orbital periheii:i in the sun and clcctrodr.nantic ction lravel a rr.ith the santc ve. a Julian century, owing to the propagation of gravitatro;-1 l o c i t i ' , 3 o o o o o k m s J i e rs e c o n d . u ith rhe velocity of light. P r o g r e s s i o n o f P e r i h e l i a i n a ulian Century, I4/cbrr's a l'. .J L I ) l a nc t s d=, I Satellites da Comets da i Ilinarl' Srars ) [ e r c u1 1 ' 6at l l u n i t e rV : r415rr Encke e.-J.1u)) oi6zrgg tVenus oiooo66go I Cassiopeiae 'l'empelo z z.qt2S r R r ' - . e I I 'l'he o.r r 46 r p l)ersei !larth r.:964 32.9r.927 i II r . r 4 3 4 5 o Ilrorsen o . 22 l o i z l . t o , r eE r i d a n i \[ars o.ooojr64r3 'l'enrpel-L. o..l(ora III o . 7r 5 , q .4 l S w i f t o . r z o g E E rz -{urigae 65.7o.r5 l upiter o.o2ro4 i\' o . 4o . 5 E o \\'innecke o. r 4,o.3 6 6 rr Canis nraj. S a tu r n o . o o 6 9r 8 5 o.oo4611 \'I o . o 6 8 6 3 5 I ) e V i c o - l l . S r v i f t o . o 7E E ; 8 a Geminorum o.ooo-5ror.3 Uranus 'l'em1rel1 o.oooEo3 g 5 \'lI o . o 64 6 5 8 o.o6i6r6 a C a n i sm i n . o.oo6(ro 3 \eptune r o.oooz6lq YIII o.o3.168 r Finlay o . r r S 3 3z o.oo.ioE8o.i 1 Virginis ] I \ o . o . 3 4z 8 l I )'Arre-st S a t e l it e s I o . o 8 g 6z z a Centauri o.oorE;7; 'l'he i ^ B i e l a( l ) ] [ o o n ( F i a r r h ) o . o o-6 1 7 o . r2 5 7 o S a t u r n: \ l i m a s 7o O p h i u c h i o . o cr o 6 . 3 o 1 r.2401 r \\'oli Phobos (.\lars) o.o759.39 d Equulci o.oz65r E n c e l a d u s . 96 6 : g 4 ' ' : - 1 ) J r ] o 'l'ethls I)eimos )) Hoirnes o,o6zi7j o.orrog8 ] 8 -5 Pegasi o . c 4 1 2 i2 g o.78o66 lJrooks .{ rie} (t-ranus) o.o63389 o.r8439 I Dione o.6oE r I Faye Unr briel )) o.r3235 o . o 6 6 3 7i Rhea i o.43644 'l'itania 'lit"n )) Tuttle o . o 5r o 7 6 o.o8o5o4 ] o.r88423 Oberon )) o . o o 77 o 3 4 o.o6o3.jg H r . p e r i o no . t 5 7 8 4 2 O l l r e r s I Halley o . ot z 6 3 7 Iapetus o . to z 3 76 N e u ' t o n ,r 6 8 o o . o r z r r g 4 Phoebe o.or875r r84r I o.2rg474 r88zII o.ro81733 T h i s t a b l e s h o n . st h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e e f f e c t s perihelion, which Leuerrierin rg5g found to have a pp6gps..,r. of Alu'/on's lan., rvith 6xed periheiia, and of II,,tltrr,s funda- l a r g e r t h a n k n o r v n g r a v i t a t i o n a l t h e o r , vr v s u l d e x p l a i n . ' m e n t a l e l e c t r o d r . n a n t i lc s , ,r v i t h p r o g r e s s i n g a p e r i h e l i a ,i s a i r v a y s s m a l l l ' h e c h i e f i n t e r e s tc e n t e r sa r o u n d t h e r n o t i o n o f r l e r c u r r , , s forrnd b1' A'tu,cotnlt in r 88 l is about 43' per century, the
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above effect of Wcber'slaw removes r415 of the total arnount 1), leaving outstanding about 2815 instead of the 43'assunred 'l'he outstanding 2815 can in Einstein's Theory of Relativity. be explained by the transformation and absorption of wave energy from the atoms on the opposite side of the sun, yielding a law of attraction of the very form approved by Ncuton in the Principia, 1687: oooooo ' lo{{; ("\ f T2 / ,: 2Y21' the rriotion of l\'Iercury'sperihelion This explanation of is more fully discussed belorv. Such a result was long ago anticipated by Neutton, and in r8g4 carefully examined and proposed by fIall, and subsequently used by Newcotnb and Srcli,qcr. It therefore has the sanction of the nrost eminent astronomers, and as it rests upon a knorvn physical cause, it involves no vague and chimerical reasoning such as underlies Einstein's nystical Theory of Relativity. Towards the end of this paper, rve develop a new 'r'ieu' of the experiments of Miehelson and ,4for/r-r, r887, and of Sir Oliucr Lodgc, 18g r-97, rvhich results from the kinetic theory of the aether, originally outlined by /\'trutor, r7zr, approved by ,lfaru,cl/ and S. Tolucr ?restott, r 8 7 7, and recently deveioped by the present rvriter, as shorvn in the first paller. This new vierv of the chief physical experirnents on rvhich the theory of relativity so largely rests may well. clairn the attention of natural philosophers. As bearins on thc srn)e r t l u e s t i o n w e t r e a t c a r e f u l l y o f t h e o L r t s t a n d i n gn o t i o n s o f t h e perihelion of }lercury and of the lunar perigee; and shorv that neither phenonrenalends the slightest support to nonNewtonian mechanics. In fact, although the theory of relativity has occupied much space in scientific litera.ture, and nrany treatises,ruenroirs, and other papers have appeared on the subject, it ir impossible for a careful observer to escape the conviction thqt the rvhole developnrent heretotore brought out is false and nrisleading, - a veritable foundation laid on tpricksand - and that some day philosollhers rvill rvonder that such an improvised absurdity ever became current among men. Among the niost pernicious of these ternl)orary doctrines is FitzGerald's h1'pothesis, which under the kinetic theory of the aether is rvholiy untenable. A considerable nurnber of persons are much impressed with the adnrissibility of any doctrine rvhich beconres current arnong contempor:rries, yet the study of the history of science shows that. truth is neither dependent upon popularity, nor discovered by rnajorities, but by the ferv individuals who think carefully and frequently in complete isolation, and rvho thus attain sLrperior vision into the deeper mysteries of nature. In promulgating his new System of the World, r 543, Copernicusdescribes his reasoning in daring to depart frorn the opinion of the majority: >Though I know<, he says, >that the thoughts of a philosopher do not depend on the judgnrent of the many, his study being to seek out truth in all things as far as that is permitted by God to human reason: yet when I considered<,

he adds, >horv absurd my doctrine would appear, I long hesitated whether I should publish my book; or rvhether it were not better to follow the example of the Pythagoreans and others, rvho delivered their doctrines only by tradition and to friends<. 'f 2. h e E , ff e c t o f R e s i s t a n c e i s t o b r e a k u p L o n g \ V a v e si n t o S h o r t e r O n e s a n d a c t u a l l y t o i n c r e a s e t h e A m p l i t u d e o f t h e P r i n c i p . a lC o m p o n e n t , a s n o t i c e d in Ilreakers at the Sea Shore. 'I'ides In his celebrated x'ork on and Waves, Encyclopedia }letropolitana, r8.15, Sir Gcorge zlrz;, obtained one o f t h e n r o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e n d u s e f u lt h e o r i e s o f r v a v em o t i o n a ever developed. .7ir1,'s theorl' has the advantage of being i n t en s e l l ' p r a c t i c a l ,b e c a u s e t a p p l i e st o w a v e m o t i o n i n a c a n a l , i u ' a t e rb e i n g t h e c h i e f l i q u i d f o u n d u p o n t h e e a r t h , a n d n e a r l y incompressible. The forrnula for the periodic time of the

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I t n r a l ' b e s h o r v na n a l y t i c a l l y t h a t u h e n t h c r r a v c l e n g t h i s s h o r t e n e t l , a s b y r e s i s t a n c et o t h e n r o v c , u t e nrt; i r l r e t l u i d , the exponential expression ,4"1 I inc."rses, anci thus thc '|his 2 i am1;litudencreases ). change has bcen nruch cliscusseci i n v a r i o u s t r e a t i s e sa n d m e m o i r s , a n d * ' e s h a l l n o t a t t e n r p t to add to it here, except in the piractical application of the r e s u l t t o y r h v s i c a lp r o b l e m s . Nos' ,-lrrr' finds (art. 2or-2ro) the follorving theoretical curves for the breaking up of rvater rvavesin rivers, considered as straightcanals, rvith sniooth banks. ,\ftcr explaining his a n a l y s i s o f t h t . s e t h e o r e t i c a l r v a v e si n u ' u t c r , , 4 z r - ri'n t c r p r c t s t h e r e s u l t sa s f o i l o * s : , (zo r ). 'l'o reprcsent to ti)e e!'e tirc lbrnt ol' rhe wave produccd lrl the conrbinalionoi the tt'o tcrnrs, \\'e hale con'l'ire s t r u c t e dt h e c u r v e i ' n 6 e u r e g . h o r i z o n r a ll i n e r e p r e s e n t s the level Iine of the ntean height of 1\'ater:the elelation or depression of the curvc rcl)resents (on an enorrnousll' e x a g g e r a t e d c a l e ) t h e e l e v a t i o n o r d e p r e s s i o n: r b o v e t h e n r e a n s 'l'lre h e i g h t , g i v e n b y ' t h e e x p r e s s i o na b o v e . value of r' is s u l t p o s e dt o i n c r e a s e f r o n r t h e l e f t t o t h c r i g h t : o n w h i c h srrpposition the tluantity rilut-tttx', represer)ting the yrhaseof the wave, dinrinishes frorn the left to the ri{}rt (nut being c o n s t a n t )< . ,(zoz.) 'l'o exhibit to the ey.ethc ll* of rhe ascent a n d d e s c c n t o f t h e s u r l a c e o f t h e r v a t e r e t r i i fl t r c n t p o i n t s o f t h e c a n a l , t h e f i g u r e sr o , r r , r z , a n d r . l a r r : c o n s t r u c t e d . 'l'he first of these is intended for the lroinr rvhercthe canal conrmunicatcs vith the sea: the others lbr lrointssuccessively r 'l'he nrore ancl niore distant lioru the sea. horizontal li,ne is rrsed as a measure of time, or rather of phase znut-tttx': in rvhich, for each station, r'is constant: the blevation or depression o[ the corresponding point of the cun'e represents the corresponding elevation or depression of the rvater above its mean height, as given by the expression above.< a rAn inspection of these diagrams will suggest th6 follorving remarks:

r) In the Monthly Notices for April, r9I7, p, 5o4, I)r. Si/bcrs/eit treats at sorne length of the Einstein calculations, based on Gerbet's formula (Zeitschr. Math. Phys. 43.93-ro4, I 8 9 8 ) i n w h i c h f o r t h e N e r v t o n i a n p o t e n t i a l t . l I fr i s p u t ' l I l r ( r - r l c . d i / d l ) ? , and concludes: "As far as I can understand from /elfrcy's investigation, (lUN 77.lrz-lI8), it would rather alleviate the astronomer's difficulties if the sun by itselfgave only a part_of these 43 seconds'c Accordingly tbis is all the more reason for adopting Ll/eler's law, though I reached it frorn a different point of vierr. 2) This increase of amplitude wiil proue of higb importance in the nJw theory of rnolecuiar forces, to be dealt rvith in a future paper.

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o, 6rst station, the sea; ms: form of title-rvave in a shallorv river, to secoutl approximalion, 8:r : third station. secorid Station, z.f : secontl, station rt mouth of rivcr, tI : tidal curves for diffcrent s t a t i o n s o n t h e r i v e r . t o : 6 r s t fourth station. third, l3 : I2 : Theoretical forrn of tidc-rvave in a shallow river to third approximation rsith large tide' The same s'ith small tide.

Again, in our electric stcives and heaters, tbe electric ,(zoS.) \\rhcn the \l'ave leaves the open sea, its front i n l e n g t h , a n d s i m i l a r i n current, rnade up of ver,v long s'aves, first develops heat, so slope and its rear slope are equal then'a red heat, forrn. llut as it advances in the canal, its front siope becomes that the rcsisting rvire acqrrires a dLrll elorv, l o n g a n d g e n t l e . ancl finally becotnes incandescent, rrith light of shorter and s h o r t a n d s t e e J ) ,a n ( l i t s r e a r s l o p e b e c o n r e s action contintles' The In advancing still further, this rerrarkable change takes place shorter s'ave length the longer the 'in the rerr slope: it is not so stcep in the rnicldlc as in the transition here sketched is therefore knonn to be a reality of electric energy into h u p 'p e r a r { d t h e l o r v c r p a r t s : a t l c n e t h i t l r c c o t t r c s o r i z o n t a l i n c l c a l i n g u ' i t h t h e t r a n s f o r n r a t i o n the in every part d n r i d d l e : a n d , f i n a l l y , s l o p e st h c o p p o s i t c t l r r " f o r n r i n ( h c a t a n d l i g h t , u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o t r s e r v e t l a i l y ,.i of the rvor'ld. in fact two \\,ilvcs (figrrre q). o ' 'l'hc , \ t t h c s t a t i o n n c a r t h e s c a ( s c e f r g r r r er o ) , analogics here cited are so olrviottsand familiar "(:o+.) r v a t e r i s c c l t r a lt o t h c t o u s i n t h e c h a n g e s n o t i c e d r v h e n * ' : r v e s p a s s i n t o b r e a k e r s t h e t i m e o c c r t l r i c c lb y t h e r i s e o f t h e t i m e o c c u p i e d b y t h e d e s c e n t : a t a s t a t i o n m o r e r e m o v e d a t t h e s e a s h o r c , t h a t i t s e e m s i n r p o s s i b l et o d e n y t h e v a l i d i t l ' f r o m t h e s e a ( f i e u . e r r ) t h e r i s e o c c u p i e s a s h o r t e r t i m e t h a n of the conclusion above drarvn fronr every day experience, t h e d e s c e n t : t h e r i s e i s s t e a d y a n d r a p i d t h r o t t g h o t t t , b u t t h e and fortified by the proforrnd researcheson tides and rvaves descent begins ral)id, then becomes more gcntle, then beconres p r o d u c e d b y o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t n l r t h e m a t i c i a n sa n d n a t u r a l r a p i d a g a i n : a t i t a t i o n s s t i l l f a r t h e r f r o m t h c s e a ( 6 g t r r c sI 2 p h i l o s o p h e r s o f t h e P a s t a g e . a n d r 3 ) t h e c l c s c c n t ,a f t c r h a v i n g b e g u n r a p i d , i s a b s o l r ' r t e l r ' To those *'ho hcsitate at the contrast between Nater chccked, or is evcn changcd for a rise, to which another aether, rve point olrt that it is true that rvater is healy ' r a p i d c l e s c e n t s u c c e e s : i r r t h i s c a s e t h e r e r v i l l l l e a t t h a t and d a n d i n e r t , a n d s l u g e i s h i n i t s m o v e m e n t s , r v h e r e a st h e a e t h c r station trvo rrnerlualtides correspondingto onc tide at the is excessively vxlg, rvith density at the earth's mean distance mouth of the canal.<< p and having an enormouse'lastic ower, equal to 4t8xro-l', This numerical and practical discussionby ,4rlr', s'ith 6893zr 6ooooo times greater than that of our air in pro' c u r v e s f o r i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s i s m o r e s a t i s f a c t o r vt h a n l)ortion to its densin'. Thus the light and electric rvaves in a n v p u r e l y t h c o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e e f f e c t s o f r c s i s t a n c e , the aether travel gozooo times faster than sound rvaves in a l l r v e n e e d t o d o i s t o p o i n t o u t , t h a t , j r r s t a s the air, and al;otrt 2 ooooo tirnes faster than sound in \\'ater " n i ' i h uwal'es in canals degenerate and break trp into partial . lvater a t 3 o o C . , w h i c h t r a v e l s 4 ' 5 4 t i m e s f a s t e rt h a n i n a i r , o r v i n g waves, tlnder the action of a variable resistance, depending t o t h e h i g h i n c o n r p r e s s i b i l i t yo f t h e \ a t e r . on the depth of the water, and its distance up the river from There is thus much difference betrveen the speed of the sea: so also in the aether, the long lvaves encounter waves in the aether and in Nater, even if the dense water, resistancervhich progressively is more and more disintegrating like the rarc aether, be highly incompressible. But notwith' on their ' existence, kinetic stability, and continuity. Acstanding this difference, due chiefly to the extreme rarity of cordingly we may be sure that long waves in the aether the aether, rvater being in comparison with aether zz8xro13 will undergo corresponding changes by disintegration into tinres denser, there is a substantial physical basis for com' shorter rvaves, and that the chief component rvill have inparison of the actions in the two media. creased amplitude. Our reasoning therefore is not speculatil'e or hypotheThere are various physical illustrations of this effect it rests upon facts definitely rvhich may be cited, as when the sun's radiation impinges tical, but purely practical, since so mtlch determinei by experience, and verified by careful observations on the earth, and the longer invisible infra-red rays, the physical universe' studied by Langtey, pass into heat waves of shorter wave length. of recognized phenomena of
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3. Explanation of the outstanding I\lotion . of the Perihelion of I\Iercurl,, tro."J on rt EIectro. d y n a r n i c \ V a v e - ' fh e o r y o f p t y . i " o l f or..r" . A s i d e f r o r n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o no f t h e anrount of the out. standing nrotion of trIercury's perihelion, tr1,trurarirr, ,t59, anclb' tucottt r g g r, dull' noied belou.,',rle r, .i te,r, r"iro*i'"g .-l'e r e s e a r . c h ea s o f f e r i n g v a r i o u se x p l a n a t i o n s q_ " of the phenontenon : r . U n t e r s u c h u n s e n. i i b e r d i e 1 3 e r v e g u n g des.I)laneten -\lerkLrr,and other notices of researches by"Dr. ]. lirtust/tin,gtr, .{,Nlo9.3z. z. Ulrer die \ervegung.clcsXlerkurperihels, lty /,. FIar:tt., .-\N I27.fi r, rSg r. IIoi:tr-tntes,lgo,".',ha'aff"crs .f unerluul ll)on)el)ts f inertia of the sun airoui o liolar and equatonalaxes, r u n r l o l ' t l r e - r r r a t t e ri n t h e c o r o n r , ,r,rcl nAalf,"r" hy,potheses n :L,ilrrirsil,i.. ,l.hcorv :. -.\ SLrgsestion. in N o n ' t h e l u n a r t h e o r i s t sw e r e u n a b l e ol. \lcrcLrrr,, by, ,1. IIol/, _the t o t r n d t h c l r c r i o - -\J l-l.t.r, r S9+. I{a// adopts tl,a ,,ugg._.,io ctt,\.tu,lott dicities required to explain the r.t tit.tt l u n a r f i u c t u , r r r o n sr,r n t i l I t h e i a l is not exactly thai of the in"rler,,e d i s c o v e r e dt h e o b s t r u c t r n g c a u s e a t s ( l L r r . r c s ,n c i p u t s a \r.ork,neer the shario*.of - un'f the earth, to nrodifj' thc suns rtt o00000lt;, f {ra'it;tti'e actior.r n the .roor. o (fl If +. Hvporhesis that grirvitation torvards thc I e x ; r l a n a t i o n o i t h e t l u c t u a t i o n so f sun is not tire nroon be le\actiy .this conceded, a sinrilar cause rvill have l s t h e i n r . e r s cs ( l u J r c o f t h e d i s t a n c e ,A s t r o n o n r i c a l to be adnritted to act 1 Corrs,trtnts, r r S, br., S. ,\,.rz,,z,rz on the planet Iiercurl', nhich renclers p. , , S,l i.'-' tYttucotttbarlopts ou,s;un gravitationtlll, i I f u / / ' s h y p o t h e s i s ,u . i r h v c r r , . l i g l , r u n s y ' m r n e t r i c ao r . l o p s i d e d , a s i f l ,,,u,1'iilr:ation: a snutll liart of the ntatter ', o n t h e o p p o s i t es i d e o f t h e s u n \ v e r e ) rernoveo,o. ;n"ti..ii".,, f 0"""'r l'';i , f : r y 2 1 '7 ) (6) o".ing jo the. interposiri.n ol' ,i," ,unir--1,,r-gc,ol,c i' tlre I l l r c r < l i e e r t r J r i r . i s c h ( ini c r i e r i i r S. gl ei ticr.l.heoric dcr path of gravitational actior.r. In o t l r e r r " o r j r , o , r . , , . , g o r c - I ' . i c l ' u . g u t r qe r I ) l a n c t e n X l e r k u r , t , . u u r , cl t I..r.l"L,,r,l l.rrs. VJS t r a c t i o n , l i s l l e r s i o .^ l r s . r y r t i o tlra r g e t , , ' r a s s e so l . ) : l t t e rt . r e r t . r s e - 1 1 . : : - 1 - : - l o , l t y l f . , \ t r / i . g r r . a sligirt s<.reening lic.r. e I)rr: Zorliuk:rilicht c l i c c n t p i r i s c h c r(ri l i c d c r i n dt_r ut l l c r i r g u n { d c r i n n e r e n _ r a ud r c . n . l)l c S i t r - l l . l r . r i . K g l . . . \ k a t l .t i . \ \ ' i s s .z r . . \ l i i n c h c n , r jt. 36.5qS-a::, irv .r,.,,,,ro S t t / i , i , t r a s s u n t e st l r c n r a t t c r o f - t h c z o t j r l r : r i ll t g i r t t o l . i e d i s t r i b u t e di n t i v o . e l l i p s o i d s , l ) a o u r t : ro n . . ' " " , f e n i n n e r one, s ' h i c h r v i l l e f t - e c tN c r c u r r . , , . I r c r i l r c l i r . r na s o b s e r r . e d ,u , i t h o u t , d i s t t r r b i n gt h e o t h c r l r l u n r r s . H e g e t s , r - ' r . ] . " I r " . f a . , ta g r e e n ) e n t rvitlr obscrvations, liillv as good us that supltlted lty Etusteit,s t h e o r y , r v i t h o u t t h e v ,,gueness of relativitl,. ,S.rrlz,qz,r_,s chiclresults lre, .\'tturottb
l'-ig.:. thc alrs.rrrti.n anrr crrcurar rcr.rrctron .f :orrrt. t)art of rirc rnarrcr in thc sidc of rlrc sun : l pl l, r :o : l i: t: e,tf o. r ne r c u r y , . a s o , l .s r : II i f r ) a r t so f t h c S u n , s r r r , , s s l r a , rl r c r . n lllustr.ting

In order to bring out the practical bearing o[ the rvave. theo.ry upon the motion of the perihelion tf .Nle."ury, orr,l t h e l u n a r f l u c t u a t i o n s ,d i s c u s s e db e l o r v , . * " nori." that as long ago as r9or, Professor planc/t of Berrin supposed that in alr matter there .n'ere a great number of ,reionators< of every possible period (Ann.-d. l,hysik, .l.hus 4.5;6, , q;, f. rnatter would receive and emit_vibrations o i o f f i o r r i f r l e p e r i o c l s ,a s p o s t u l a t e di n t h e E l e c t r . \ \ r a v e _ . l . h e o r y o f l , ' h y s .l l o r i . t . g 5 _ E g , r g r 7 . ' I ' h e I u n a r f l u c t u a t i o n so c c u r r v h e r e t h e s u n , sg . i " i t " _ tional waves have to traverse rhe solid nrass ol- the earth, and thus the action on the moon is .i".r""r"a near the tinre of Iunar eclilises;and the rnoon partiafiy-."f""r",i fronr the sun's control, thus tends to lly thl t a n g e n t . - , I . h i s g . i v e sr i s e to distrrrbarrcesin the .rean nrotion which tvu,co,r/ decrrred t,n" nrost enignratical phe'o',.;;;; l;;"r.,rrctl u1. rire ::.,1:, c e l e s t l : r ln l o t i o n s .

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I1 i, r",i i:illil"".l i[ -]:-i:$::, :;:ii,'Iigr''l r.,1,. i,:: #'1"

-1 . -f o.3g uz -_l_ r) o.{ o. r r ,\ttltgtr's thcorv applies erlualiy rvcll to \rrrrrrs, tlc I,,art6 and \lars.

Alercury therefore is less 6. ,\ .\lenroir o u t s t r r n d i l t { r r r . i o t u a i r eo f t h e attracted than rl the strict s ,?r ^rh. larv,of inverse s(luarcsestablished professor li il.. h,),t,,t .{,)rer. b y , \ \ - , n t : , ) ,h e l d , a n d t h u s ] ::i::jlr, l,].,,,jnn'l .bi' Journ. of rve have the feebler la*, of to... > c t e r ) c c , 2 9 , r n l . h i c h v a r i o u sh 1 . 1 r o r h e s e s , i including tf,e effectS b.lo,", o f t h c r r r a g n c r i c l e l d so f r h e "*1,i"in"J' r : ; u , ,, ; 1 ; r ; " r , a r e e x a m i n e d i f : , i l u ' f / 2 . 0 0 0 0 { ) 0 1:0 r , ;( u t t / f 1 2 ) . ( r / r o . o o o o o o r o . r , ; y "rr,h, ( + ) a n c i r e j c c e d . S e e a l s o -R e p o r r rvhence arises the hith o f B r i t i s hl r . o " i o t i o n f o r r g r 4, f o r l ) r o l - . i t . o t t , t i sA d d r e s s t o / Sa.rion a,"U.1;,r_32r. 'l.lreory . F)ittsle in's Generai i of Reiatiuity, r g r 6, in geonletersand asrronorri.r. since f.euerriet. r y h i c h r h i s : r u t i r o r u s e s -t h e v a l u e 6 , : l:^ll9:.1",* d r s c o v e r e dloe d i f f e r e n c en r g s o . . *'0r,, and deduces th "".. i the terrrr ot- GcrlttLs forntula: 'fhis e x p l a n a t i o n . i s ,r , e r y r t r . u c hs i n r p l c r than any here. 7,: (ttf ,) (t _ rf c. drlatl_t tofore offered, and as it harntonizes (z) tbe ntotion of }lercury required to l"leadcled to the larv with the nrotion of the ntoon, of gravitation to rnakethis under rvell established l l h l , s i c l l dilf'erencel_retrvcen l a r v s ,r v i t h o u ti n t r o d u c i n g a n ) , v a g u e theory and obseruat"i,o., air"1rp.r..g .tsyusing a n d c h i m e r r c a lh y p o t h e s e s , t h e . v a l u e ",i.ar.l" -+4j" per : deo. it l'ould seem difficult to ,leny century) it. a verj, p h y s i c a l t r u t h . exacr agreernent ""J based on this difference, insteai "...ntirl of if,"

-r,,,, c'r1, rih i s. er pe i: :; "", s', ;:J:::l,1li;l,lr::;T:3}.:i.Y

s#-ra*mbw.rrl@,!ril*pr,-

r.i-

r45

so4b

r46

difference z8!44, rvhich results from U/ehu's latr, Einsltitt adds to the improbrbility of his theory. It has long bt'en remarked that among the outstanding motions of the solar system recognized b)' astronomers during the past sixty years, and of rvhich geomcters hale sought a n valid exyrlanation, otre is nrore jttstll' celebrated than the excessi\'; progression of the perihelion of Nlerctlrl', announced , b 1 ' L r u r r r i r r t o t h e l ) a r i s A c a d e m y o f S c i e t r c e sS e p t ' r z , r 8 5 9 , (CIt 49..37q1. of atrtrottncenrcnt an orrtitanding motion of 3E" ,Lti,rrrir',r-'s i n l l c r t ' r t r 1 " sp e r i h el i o n s e e m e d t o f i r ' r da l n r o s ti u r pcr centur\' observation t'ba mediate cottfirtnntion in I)r. /.r-sca u / t's srrpposed l o f a n i n t r a - n r c r c t t r i r tp l a n e t t l a r n c d \ r u l c a n ; a n d t h i s a n o t l r a l y t h c r e fo r c * a s t t t a < l e t h c b a s i s l b r t h e p r o v i s i o n l l e l e n l e n t s

sect, IX, Prop. XLV, Prop. XXXI, cor. I), but coisidered the observed approximate fixity of the planetary perihelia a strong proot of the accuracy of the law of the inverse squares. His final view evidently is expressedin the General Scholium to the l'rincipia, 17r3, where he says that in recedingfrorn the s u n g r a v i t a t i o n , d e c r e a s e sa c c t t r a t e l y i n t h e d u p i i c a t e p r o Saturn, as l)ortion of the distances as far as the orb of e v i d e n t l l ' a p p e a r s f r o m t h e q u i e s c e n c eo f t h e a p h e l i a o f t h e o planets; na1',and even to the remotest.aphelia f the comets, if these nphclia also are qttiescent'. In the llc;canique Cdleste, t799, I-aplarr likervise conclrrcled that the larv of gravitation holds accttrately for the s n t e l l i t e sa s w e l l a s f o r t h e p l a n e t s , ( i - i v ' t t , c h ' I , S 6 ) . l n Lir'. XVI, chap. IV, hos'ever, Laplace investigated more fully the effect on certain terms of the moon's tnotion oI some assigned to the nc\r lllanet' btlt ' , l a t e r o b s e r v a t i o n l rrlc s c a r c h c s d u r i n g a s s u m e d c h e n g e s i n t h e N e r v t o n i a n I a l v o f a t t r a c t i o n , I1-on thc one lrand i t i s e v i d e r r t .t h a t h e d i d n o t c o n s i d e r i t m a n l t o t r l s o l a r e c l i l l s e s ,h a v e s h o u ' t r n o s i g n s o f a n i n t r a - f r o n r h i s r c t . u r r k s there is a deperture fronr the strict latv of the n r c r t : u r i a lp l l n e t , i t r n a l ' l r e n o t i t ' c r i ,o n t h c o t h c r , t h a t t h e p r o l r i r l r l c t h a t analvsjs of the lllanctary l n l ' c r s c s (I t t a r e s . [uilcst cor-rllrl]tatirrn rtl I-rt'rrritls 'l'hLrs, researches on the up to the time of f'tt'rrrirls rnotions, IS5g, has lrcen obtained by later investigators, o f r u r o t i o no f I l e r c u r y , r 8 5 9 , t h e r e \ \ ' e r c n o l ' e l l e s t a b l i s h e t l cslrecially itry,\i'trtotttl,, rvho usecl all the observations the Neu'tonian lau' u'hich rniqht lre rnade the transit of llcrcrtrl' frotn r 677 to t 88 r, and deduced arl deviations from inquin', so ils to serveas a crttcial outstxndinq tnotiotr in ercess of that found by I'eurrricr, t h c b a s i s o f o b s e r v a t i o n a l ' t \ t u c r ' t e s t o f t h e a c c t t r a c Yo f t h a t l a r v . n a m e l y a l - t o u t- 1 3 ' I ) e r c e n t u r y . ( . \ s t r o n . I ' a p . o { - t l t c In his paper of r8g4, horvever, Professor Asa2h lfall F ) p h c m . ,I . r 6 7 - + f J + , r 8 8 t ' ) ilr tirt- s r g a c i o t t s l y r c m a r k s : spoke conscrlltitclv Accordinglv, I'mtrritr is not a rigorous larv "lf the Nervtonian larv of attraction o r i g i n a l a n n o u l t c c n l e n t o f l i i s d i s c o v e r ] ' , r ih e n h e s a i d: conditions, n ' l ' h c n c c c s s i t t ' o { - a n i r x : r e a s ei n t h c s e c u l a r l l l o t i o n ( ) i n a t u r e ,o r i f i t i s r n o d i 6 e d s l ' i g h t l yr t n d e r c c r t a i n l a c k o f r i g o r r v o u l d b e c o n l c a p l ) a r c n tf t r s t a t n o n q o f t h e p e r i h e l i o n o f N l e r c u r t r e s u l t s e x c l u s i v c l ; - l -' r 'o n r t h c l r r o b a b l l ' t h i s l hc t h e s r v i f t l y n r o v i n q b o c l i e s o f o u r s o l l r s v s t e t n ,s t t c i r a s o t t r cr' transits of the I)lanet over the disc of the srtn ( r r r o o na n d t h c p l r t n c t \ l c r c t t r v t ( ' \ l I 4 ' 1 9 ) ' t h e s c o b s e r v a t i o n si s b e l ' o n d d o t l i ) t ' actitude of 'lhe O u r t n o o n i n c l e e d< l o e sn o t l n o v e s o s i v i f t l v , b u t o w i n g a n o r n a l o r t sm o t i o n o f J l e r c t r r r ' s l l e r i h c l i o n t h u s hrts lreen *'itlclr- cli-'' t o i t s q r e a t p r o x i n r i t y t o t h e e a r t h a n d t h e e c l i p s e r e c o r d s estalr'lishedb7' Lturrrirr and Aln'conl', 1 ' e a r s ,t h e n l o t i o n i s v e r y a c c r . t s s c di n n a t r t r r t l p h i l o s o P h v , r t n t l i n l . t tt t : o t u l ) i r r c dt V i t h r . \ t e n ( i i n q o v e r n c a r l l ' - l o o o r ' u r : r t c l yk n o s , n , - b o t h l r v o b s c r v a t i o n a n c l b y t h e o r e t i c a l tl'rc tlIir/te/son' )Iot'/11' cxpcritrlent of r SS7, for lrtving titc - so that the snrallest isturllances d f o u n d a t i o no f a ' l ' h c o r 1 ' o f I L e l l t i v i t r ' ,o n l r h i c h a l r e a d l ' r r r e n v r c s e a r c ha n r l c a l c r r l a t i o n , to observation(cf. Electr. \Vave-'l'heory b t r e a t i s e s h a Y e a l t P e a r c d ,r v i t h o u t , h o r V e v e r ,t h t t s c o n s t i t t t t i l r q r u r a v e c o n r es c n s i l r l e i I g r T ) , r v h i c h d o n b t l e s ss t h e c h i e f t.IIi, a s i m p l e a n d c o n s i s t c n t p h l s i c a l d o c t r i n e r v h i c h < : o r r l n l a n c l so t ' P h i ' s . I i o r b . , l'rof. Ifu/1 htd ln vietv. lroirrt ' l ' h a t univcrsal assent. 'l'here L n , r t ' r ' t t r ' s r e s e a r c h e so n t h e r u o t i o n o f l l e r c u r y , a r e , I t h i n k , g r a v e r e a s o n sf o r d o u b t i n s t h e r v h o l e g r o u n d sn ' h i c h l ' i 1 l r 3 5 g , s e t i n t r t o t i o n s e v e r a l n e r v l i n e s o f i n r l u i r y o f g r e a t o , 1 ' h e o r y o f R e l a t i v i t - v a s n o \ \ ' d e v e l o p - e d ,n 'of lson- '4for/t-r t h e o r c t i c a l i n r p o r t t n c e i s s h o r v n b v t n ' o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s d e the tlf iche lrc n.'o.e ftrlly outlined in treating rvithin the next fifteen years experirnent. Il'or the present it luust sttfirce to allrrde to the v c l o p e c l r. Tlr.e reseercbes of 7'isstrotttl on the lnotion of a theorl' resultinq ftorn I'tutrrio''s tliscolerl' of rrn.satisfactory l p e r i h e l i o n , a n d t h c q r o \ \ ' t h n l i r n e t u n d e r I I i l ' r r ' s e l e c t r o d . v n a n r i ca r v , c o m m u n i c a t e d t o u an outstancling rotion in trlercttrr"s r372, by the eminent , p h i l o s o p h y o f i r r i o c t r i n c s h i c h n t a n l ' r e g i r r d r t s i h e l , * r i s A c a d e n r yo f S c i e n c e sS e p t .r o , in natural rr'ho had inslrired these investigations' geometer |icrlrand, both vague antl chinrerical. 'l'lre problem proposed in r87 3l>v liertranrl to the z. Irr r8g'1, l'rof . Asafh I{a|/ of \\'ashinston outlincd a curve n e u , r ' i e r v o f t h e a n o u l r l o u s m o t i o t r o f \ l e r c t r r l ' ' s p e r i h c l i o n l ' a r i s . \ c l c i e m l ' o f S c i e n c e s ,( C n 8 4 ) , t o l i n d t h e c l o s e d the forces have the fornr of an ( e l I + . + q ) , b a s c d o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t f o r s o n r e r t n k n o * ' n describecl by a planet rvhen - () ('r',,r of trvo independent variables ) reason the Nes'tonian lalv of the itlverse s(ltlarcs nriqht not rrnknos'n function R .r and -t', and the differential equations of notion are correct. lre strictly - R'ri, (s) R':'1, nt'd2yfd,t2 Already in r 686, rvhilepreparing the l'rincipia, (l'ilr' I, rn.d2rfdt2: : stlch a possiblc sect. IX), Sir Isaac iYtu'lott had consiclered find the function r? whatever be the it being required to modification of the larv of attraction; and elen inclr'rdedsome initial values of the coordinates ;rg,1's, and of the cornponents corrputations, in rvhich he assumes that the central force o f t h e v e l o c i t y departs a little [rorn the inverse s(luare of thc distances' (s) d,t),. rn' : (dr/dr)o t'o' : (d1'f Arculon found that the perihelia lYould move forrvard that this function The soltrtionof this problelx shorved rurrder such a modification of the lal' of attraction (Lib f,

li-

:; :, rt 1,'1 "i1

r47

5048

r 48

always takds the form ,? : ntf, where rz is the mass of the planet, and r the radius vector. It was Bertraal's theoretical improvement in the treat_ -"nl Neuton's problem of a moving perihelion which led 9{ b Ifalls hypothesis of rg94, for explaining the excess in the the perihelion of trtercuiy. Since llal/s hypo.mo.tion.of thesis has been. further developed by the rvriter,s recent researches in the Electr. Wave-Theory o[ phys. Forc., it is necessary to treat of the-sesqccessivesteps for attaining an Electrodynamic Theory of the motion of [iercury,s periheiion. (r). Bertrand's solution of ,Ncuton,s problem of finding the central force for a moving perihelion. As proposed to the Academy of Sciences, in ,573, Rtrtrantl,s problem reads uWe consider a planet attracted by the sun under a force of rvhich the intensity depencls only on the distance. lVe suppose knorvn this one fait: that the planet describes a closed curve, whate,r,erbe the magnitude and direction of its velocity. lVe have to find the lari of attraction from this single daturn. < Bertratd remarks that as the force is central, the motion t1ke1 gla.ce in a plane through the centre of the sun, and law of equal areas in equal times holds true. If {cllr's the force have the form rt - v1f (ro) it is found that there result just trvo formulae : R2 : ,t1rz Rr:nr, (r r ) (rr)

(cRzz):

or a progression of the apsis line at each revolution of ro,4g,, which is so large a quantity as to be totally inconsistent with observation. Without further examination of the effects of changing the exponent in Neaton,s larv (cf. principia, Lib. I, l'rop. XLV), rve recognize that the change in .-been the .;p;;.;; must be extremely small. This case has considered by Prof. Asap/t l{all, who has applied the hypothesis to the motions of the planets and of our moon. (r) .Uall's hypothesis of rg94,. that the law of attrac_ . tion nray be f : nnlf r2l', rvhere y : o.oooooo16. In A. J. No. 3 l g, June 3, r 894, prof . Asap/r l/a// renrarks that on alrplf ing liertrand's formula to the case o[ Ivlercury _ wiLh '\2u.'conD'svalue of the outstancling motion of the perihelion, or 43' per century - he tlndi that the perihelion r y o l t l d m o v e a s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n si n d i < : l t e b y taking
,1: z.oooooor6

('6)

i t ' ,l;'. : . r

And these are the onl), two laws of attraction which pernrit a planet to describe a closed curve, rvhatever be the initial d a t a ( t h e v e l o c i t y b e i n g n e v e r t h e l e s sb e l o w a certain limit). And if we suppose the attraction zero at an infinite distance, there remains only one-formula (r r), or the law of Ncutton, which could thus be deduced from the sole fact of obser_ vation: that any pranet rvhatever describes a closed curve, our being able to knorv the narure of this curve Itjh.l, |cf.?isscrand,sI\ldcaniqueCeleste,I.48,r889). Resuming Areuttotis problem of a nroving p e r i h e l i o n , Bertrand derives a perfectiy general formula for the arc @ swept over by.the praretary radius 'ector betweenthe minimum value (rr) and the maximunr value (r2)

et :

I r t - t f 2 a @ - t ) ( n - + z ) [ ( r 2 - d l V r - r - 2 , ) ] r - r -. . . ] . ( r ; ) He remarks that when /2_lr tends towardszero, we have in the linrit the f'heorem of Neulon, 16g6: Lim@:nl1/(n-+3)
which applies to an orbit almost circular described by a planet under the influence of a central force proportionai to a power o[ tbe distance. If for the nrotion of a planet around the sun, we take with Neuton, n z -2, R - rtfrz, the relation (io) gl*, @,: o.r. rvhich is rigorous. Thus it only remains to find wnat wlll happen when we modify slightly the exponent._ z in the Newtonian law of gravitaiion. Iq for example, we supposedn: -z.oor, it follows , that we should have: lim @ : nl V(t-o.oor) : n (r-r1/ro.oor-+. . .)
: 1g6o 5t 24,

[ol V(n+ l]x

the diff'erenceof the exponent from thc lav of ^\-cu,/oz being l, : o.oooooot6. 'l'he change in the law of attractionrerluired for producing. this progression of the line of apsides is therefore very minute. If rve use LVclcr,slarv, as in the author,s Elect. \\'ave-'l'heory of Irhys. Forc. and Areu,coutl's virlue of the o'ts t a n d i n g m o t i o n o f N { e r c u r y ' sp e r i h e l i o n ( r \ s t r . p a p . of the A m e r . E p h e r n . L 4 Z t ) : n a m e l r , , 6 t ; ;- . + : 1 9 5 , *,e shallobtain a n o u t s t a n d i n g n t o t i o r . ro f z g l - 1 . 1 -, l r e r < . c n t L r r r* . h i c h i s t o b e accounred lbr L,y rnodiflcation of the e\l)onent in the. law of attraction ( 3) L a r v o t - a r r r a . c t i o ni n d i c a t e d i r y t h e outstanding nloliol. of trIercrrry's erihelion. As the ,r,ction p o f I \ l e r c u r ys perihelion ofl'ers the principal clir.frcurt' in 'iodern celcstial mechanics,rve take the law of attraction to have the fornr: - un'f rz), _+zg!44 f [d-]ru : (rz) a n d d e t e r n t i n eu b y t h e c o n c l i t i o n t h a t t h e out!,tan(ling enc tennial nlotion of the lrcrilrelion shall be _r_ gl44. z l i t h e p e r i l r c l i o ns l i i t i s z g 1 4 4 i n r o o ) , e a r s ,r t x . i l l s h i f t oi-2844 in one year; and as there o." .1.r5:r revolutions o.f this planet in a \.ear, the shift rvill be o1o6ti.1956 in a s i n g l e r e v o l r r t i o r r ,a n d t h e r e f o r e , o ! o 3 q z q 7 g in a half re1'OrUuOnl .\lercrrrv. o lly Iilr/rond's formula (r.j) abovc, *.e noticb that rvhen t h e o r b i t i s c o n s i d e r a b l ye c c e n t r i c ,a s i n t h e c a s eo f t h e p l a n e t I\{ercury, the rerrn depending on _rr)l(rr_f r. ji,,':';; [(re becomes sensilile. In fact O ln this-io.,,,ulr' .le1,ends n the o products of trvo series as follorvs:

( ' + ) O:

.
ir...,:

n l t , ( n - r3 ) x -1,/(r, -rr,)lrr- . . . lr,n,',lrJn; ) _ n l | ( r - r ) . 1)Qt'+,2)JV.,' ) : . .'li r +'/..,r(-l-+,

:

O:

;,.cr-f { n l r - t f " u - r r fo v z - f. . ) l r - t f o v e 2 - + i l r r r r r r l ( ' 8) tr {,,*tl*:rrlpy/j.-5f ,,t,.2e!-t-Lif 1,,2vr/-r...} n lt -+u(tfr-rt/ert)-f. . . l ('

Accordingly, our equation of condition is:

s)

'.!ti I .'.:_*"-i .-r;.'

.: is?

O:

n l r + u ( L f 2 - r r f r c 2 ) - . . .| +
lgeo o, oiog4z47g: 64goooio 34247g.

('")
from

As the coefficientof the term involvino z i n t h e case o f M e r c r r r y .e . c o r n e r l z + r l e c r ) : o . 5 o r r g ; ; we b (s find

f2o/ oy catculxtlon that

('s)

/:

o.oooooor045g77

(,r)

r49

5048
and become:

r50
(rS) (r6)

And the modified Newtonian law becomes: nnf72'00000010{6' /' Appiying this larv of attraction (zz) to the eight prin. cipal planets of the solar system we have the follorvine iable o f c e n t e n n i a l p r o g r e s s i o n sf o r t h e i r p e r i h e l i a : [.)a]no tr{ercury z8! 4q oi 57 7 449 Jupiter Venus rr.r34r Saturn o.zJ25jo7 The E,arth 6.8496 Uranus o . o Sr 5 z S S Nlars Neptune o.o4r56gr 3.64r8 The progression of the perihelia here calculated from the modified Nervtonian law are not contradicted bv anv knorvn phenomena. 'l'he exact position of the perihel-ionof Vcnus is not rvcll defrned by observations, oiving to the great circularity of the orbit; and some slight uniertaintl, also attaches to the position of the perihelia of the earth and \lars. 9! It will be scen that the chanse m a d e i n t h e N e r v t o n i a n ,,2 I a r v i s e x c e e d i n g l ym i n u t e . F o r t h e c h a n g e i n t h e e x p o n e n t the ratio is tf2v: t o 4 6 f z o o o o o o o o o o: tltgr2c 4Sg (rS) a little less than one nineteen-millionth of the rvhole. Such an infinitesinral alteration in the resulting attractive force rvould give no sensible cffect in a sin(lc ievolution, but as tlre change dd accunrrrlatesvith the lapse of tinte, it finally r b e c o n r e sv e r y s e n s i b l c , a n d u . e a r e o b l i g e d t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e s e c r r l a rp r o g r c s s i o no f t l r e p e r i h e l i o n . 'fhis cumulalive effect is very similar to the alteration 'in the moon's m e a n l o n g i t u d e r v h i c h r e s u l t sf r o m t h e s e c u l a r accelerationof the moon's mean motion, first explained by Lallace in r787, under forcesrvhich are insensible for shoit i n t c r v a l s , l ; u t b y c o n t i n u i n g f o r l o n g a g e s i n t h e s a n t ed i r e c _ tion, finally l;ecome scnsible and have to be calculated in the formation of tables of the moon designed for use over many centuries. 'lhe NIodification of the Nervtonian Larv 4. indicated by the outstanding I)ifference betrr.een t h e o b s e r v e d a n d c a l c u l a t e d I V I o t i o n so f t h e L u n a r Perigee. Just as the morion of lVlercury's perihelion is the chief means for throrving light on the form of the la*, of attraction for fhe planets of the solar system, so also the motion of the lunar perigee affords the best criterion for the form of the law of attractionoperatingon the rnotion of the satellites. As the subject has been but little discussed heretofore, rve shall briefly outline the results of astronomical research on this interesting problenr. In the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 74.3g6, 19r4, Prof. E. Il/. IJrown gives the annual motion of the lunar perigee depending on the ellipticity of the earth as follows:' -r6i4r, for an oblateness (0al0t), of r : 296.3. G+) H e a d d s t h a t f o r a n o b l a t e n e s so [ r : 2 g 7 , t h e v a l u e t v o u l d be reduced by the factor

Gl"gt-o.oor734)tftlzs6.3-o.oor734)

(0al1t),: -r6138. -+- 3z . 6i

From these data it follorvs tbat the annual motion of the lunar ferigee for an oblatenessof r: zgg.3 rvould be

(0al?t), :

Gt)

The above values by Broun, as thus reduced to an o b l a t e n e s so f r : 2 9 8 . 3 , a r e . c o n f i r m e d b y t h e p a r t o f t h e motion of the lunar perigee depending on the illipticity of the earth's 6gure calculated b1' Dr. IIi//, in his supplement to Dtlaunay's Theory of the l\{oon's trlotion, Astron. p"p. g.::1, namelY: (AatfDt)" -+ 6i82. (rg) This value, horvever, refers to lf ills oblateness of r : 2 8 7 . 7 r , a n d n l u s t b e r e d u c e d t o c o r r e s p o n dt o t h e o b _ l a t e n e s so f r : 2 g 8 . 3 ; r v h i c h l e a d s t o a r e s u l t d i f f e r i n go n l y olo r frorn that found lty Brou,n and cited abot,e. Ifi//;s value for this reduced ellipticity of the earth therefore is:

(?al1t), -

-+613 . 3

(rs)

Hence rve conclude that this value of the annual perturbation of the lunar perigee depending on the etiipticity of the figure of the earth is very accurarely known.- .fhl difference in these two authorities would be only o!orz4 per annum, or tizq in a century, which is belorv the limit o f d e t e r r n i n a t i o ni n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f s c i e n c e . P r o f. E . l l : . R r o u , n a l s o g i v e s d a t a t o s h o r v ( I I N 7 5 . S , +), t h a t w h e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s e c u l a ra c c e l e r a t i o no f t h e p e r i g e e is dctermined rvith the highestaccuracy,it is l6'p". i"ntr.y s r n a l l e r t h t n t h e o b s e r v e c lc e n t e n n i a l m o t i o n o f i h e p e r i g e e . 'fhis i s f o r a n e l l i p t i c i t r o f t h e e a r r ho f r : 2 9 7 . n y c l a n g i n g the ellipticity to r : zg'q Brou,n reduces this value from-r6-' t o 3 ' ; a n d b y t a k i n g a n e ) l i p t i c i t yo f r : 2 g 1 . 7 , t h e o u r s t a n d i n g difference entirely vanishes. S u c h a l a r g e v a l u e o f t h e o b l a t e n e s s ,h o r v e v e r ,s e e m s t o b e q u i t e i n a d m i s s i b l e ; a n d t h u s o n c a l c u l a t i n gt h e e x c e s s i n t h e a c t u a l n o t i o n o f t h e p e r i g e eo r . e rt h e t h e o r e t i c a ln r o t i o n , f ' o r a n o b l a t e n e s so f r : 2 g 8 . 3 , I 6 n d i t t o b e z r l g , o r s a y zz' per century. If *'e admit this ellipticity of the earth1), - r v h i c h i s d e c i s i v e l yi n d i c a t e d b y t h e four best methods -, narnely: r ) Pendultrm observations of gravity, as discussed by Ifcbtcrt and the U. S. Coast Survey, z ) G e o d e t i c m e a s u r e m e n t so f a r c s o n t h e e i i r t h ' s s u r f a c e . 3) The lunar inequalitf in Iatitude, a) The fluid-theory of the earth, isostasy and Laplacc's lzw of density; then it rvill follorv incontestibly that the moon has an ontstanding motion of its perigee of about zz, per century, almost exactly one balf the outstanding motion observed in the perihelion of Mercury. To form a better idea ofthe accuracy heretofore attained_ in these calculations, of the centennial motions of the ludir perigee, we recall the results of lfanscn and Broun: Observed CalculatedDiff. O-C Authority : r 4 6 4 g 56 o' r 4 6 4 -+- r 6,'"":6;,07;^;;;"r' ldd I dtloo 3 4o 4' 5 lddldrloo: r464352o' r46435o4' -r 16'Brouni MN 75'
I9I5.

t) In the w r i t e r ' s ' D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o b l a t e n e s so f _ t h e _ t e r r e s t r i a ls p h e r o i d o , b e g u n i n r 9 o 4 , b u t n o t y e t p u b l i s h e d , this question h a s b e e n c a r e f u l l y e x a m i n e d , and the value t : 298.3 shosn to be the most probable of the -various values heretofore iroposed.'

,:'

I5I

5048

r52

of As above pointed out, the dil1'erence r6o per century be assigned to these extretrte values, \\'e can only take the here.indicated by .Brouuis calculation of the theoretical motion sirnple mean of the two outstanding motions of the perigee, -r-89,. ( so ) of the perigee becomes zz" rvhen the ellipticity of the earth and thus we have: l(Aal0t),10,, is reduced to r : 298.3. It is to be observed also that in our researches on It is also to be noticed that the observed centennial t h e o u t s t a n d i n g m o t i o n s o f A l e r c u r y ' s p e r i h e l i o n , r v e f o u n d motion of the lunar perigee used by l{ansttt is 4o' larger the exponent of Ateutton'slarv should be nodiied tiorn z to than that used by Bt'ott'tt. It rvould seell) thzrt very little | , 0.0000ooro46. z - f 1 , ,r v h e r e, / : 'l'o doubt could attach to the increased accrtracl'ol Jirorun's calculate the resulting outstanding nrotion for the observed motion, though on'ing to the llttctrrations in the l u n a r p e r i g e e w e n o t i c e , i n t h e l l r s t p l a c e , t h a t t h e e f f e c t o [ mean longitude the value r 4,64352o' for the observed centhe tirne of 1>ropagation of gravitation by ll/rlto's lau', as tennial motion of the perigee may yet admit of sotne inr- sho*n in the table of section I irbove, is almost insensible, prove '['hrts provement, if an1' of the observational etluations shor-rld rve nced consider only oioo637 per cellttlr)'. dru : to be vitiated by this troublesonre cause. tire etjcct of the exltonential chanqe lbr a bodl' having a Indeed, it is a little difficrrlt to ttnderstand rvhy so nrern rroliolt 3.2t9763 tilnes greater than tltat of l\lercrtry. considerablea difference as 4o" I)er centurv shoultl exist in And since the unexplained motion of \lcrcurl''s perihelion the observed centenniai motion of the perigee used bv t*o i s 2 8 1 - 1 4 ,\ \ ' e g e t f o r t h e c o r r e s l t o n d i n gn r o t i o n o l - t h e l t t n a r such lery modern authorities as Hatstn and Drou'rt. Iior I)Crlgee a t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e p e r i g e ei s g i v e n r v i t h c o n s i d e r a b ) e c c u r a c l ' -r9r157. (Ct -C) (.;,) -+zEl-+.+X 3 . 2 1 9 7 6 3: , u f r o m t h e e c l i p s e r e c o r d s o f t h e G r e e k s , a n d t h e c a l c t l l a t i o n s l Q a l 1 'tl)' h)i s , , : c a l c u l r r t e dr e l L t e i s s o v e r y n e a r t h e m e a n o l - t h e and J'tolttt{t'; and as about zz6 revoltttions of l{ifiarclus 'r,t ancl Jirou,tt as to al)Pear \\'orth)' of the perigee u'ould occur in zooo 1'ears,the motion of valrrcs lbund b\, 11n,, of -+-t () - C : 56' the perigee ought to be quite accurately lixed by the eclipse rttention. ll for exantltle, ,Uottsttis I'altte 'fhe +-9r"' rvhiie Jlrttu'tis rvcre 65" too large, leaving ()- C above clifferencc of records of the Greek astronon)ers. ( zz"-+65"- -+87", s r n a l l ,r ' i e l d i r l q ) - C 4 o " p e r c e n t u r y , i n c r e a s i n g a s t h e s ( l u a r e o f t h c t i n r e , i n \ \ ' c r er r s r u t t c i it o o , l u i t e r c c o n c i l e d . ' \ n d s i n c e f { a n s ,n z o c e n t n r i e s w o u l d a c c u l r u l a t e t o I 6 o o o " , n e a r i i ' t b u r a n d t l r e t \ y o r u l u es s o u l c i L , e r i a h a l f d e g r e e s ,o r a b o u t n i n e t i n t e s t h e c l i r r r l c t c ro f t h c r l t o o n . e . n t l. l i tt t t ' t t c l i s a g r c c l s t o t b c v r r l u eo f t l i e o b s e v e d c e n t e n n i a l 'I'he o t ' r o o " b e t ue e n t h e a b o v e c a l c u l a t e c l r r ) o t i o n o l - t i r e l r c r r g c e t o t h e a s t o n i s h i n g e x t e n t ( ) l - 4 o " , t h e difference i c e n t e n n i a l n r o t i o n s o i t h e p e r i g e e i s I e s s s t r i k i n g t h a n i t l r o - r s i L , i , i ov - s u c h u n k t t o * ' n e r r o r s i n t h e i r s c v c r a lr e s t t l t s s l t oiherrvise would apirear, but such difl-erences lvarn tls not n o t t o i r c r r h o l l 1 ' e x c l u d e d . t . \ c c o r t l i n g l y , f o r s o n r e h i t h c r t o t l n s t l s l ) t (r , i r e i r 5 ( ) l l , to overrate the accuracy attained. I t s e e m s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e e c l i p s e r e c o r d s o i t h e I l a n s t i s y a l u e o f t h e o b s d r v c d c c n t u t r r t i r t lt r t o t i o n o l - t h e ' G r e e k s w o u l d l e a v e t h e p o s i t i o n o f . t h e l l e r i g c e o l ) ' n t o s o p e r i g c e n r a y b e s u b s t a n t i a l l l 'c o r r e c t , l ) i ! i t t c l \ ' : - t _r . 1 6 . 1 3 5 6 o " . o n r r r c hu n c e r t a i n t y . B e s i d e s ,i n t h e m o d e r n o b s e r v a t i o n s f t h e \32) l ( ? a l 1 t ) , ) , , ,. ,: nroon since r75o, s,hich are clttiteacctlrate, all uncertall)t)' I n t h i s c : L s c ,i t r v o u l r l s u f t l c e t o a s s t l l t ) ea n e r r o r o f r 8 n of even zo' ytcr ccntury, or an accul'nulated diffcrence of I ) e r c e n t r r r y i n J i r t , u ' t ts r : a l c u l a t e d t n o t i o n o f t h e p e r i g e e . 57i8, in the interval of r7o I'ears,ought not to exist' Still tlnlbrtunatel\' l'rof. .8rou.'//even proposed to adopt an r n o r e i n t o l e r a b l e i s t h e d i f l - e r e n c eo f r r 5 1 6 , b a s e d o n t h e o olrlaterress t' the elr-th o[ t : 2g3.7, as if to avoit] a ttrodidill-erence of 4o' I)er centur)'l l\vt IIanstl/ was tlna\\'are of l l c a t i o n o f t h c l i > r m o f t h e N e r v t o n i a n l a r vl ) ; a n < l l r e n c e i t t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e t n o o n ' s n t e a n l o n g i t u d e; a n d a s t l ) e s c e m s n o t r v h o l l v i n r p r o b a b l et h a t a n e r r o r o l l S " l , t r ( ' c l t t t l r y fluctuations allect the node as rvell as the longitude, it nlal' ' i n t t h e c a l c u l a t e dc e n t e n n i a l r t o t i o n o 1 - t i r cl r c r t g e et t r r t ' h l v e also have vitiated sensibly his calculation of tire observed 'bccn t introducctl, tltrough sotne stcp i,esctl upc-rli he tar:it centenniitl nrotion of the perigee. i r s s u l r l ) t i o n o I t h e s t r i c t r i g o r o 1 -t h c \ c $ t o n i r t t t l r t $ . It is rvorthy ol' notice that flansttis otltstanding ditlclU n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,s i t t c e l { a u s t t i s v a l L r eo l ' t h e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e o b s e r t ' e da n d c a ' l c u l a t e dc e n t e n n i a l m o t i o n outstanding residual in the centennill trtotion of the perigee - + .I 5 6 ' ; r v h i l eJ ) r o p t t ' s v a l n r e s o f t b e l u n a r p e r i g e ei s O - C : -+ z z' . 'l'he ntean of these a p p a r e n t i y $ a s o b t a i n e c l r v i t h o u t p r e j t r d i c e ,i t . s h o u l d n o t l ) e rrake this difference O - C rejected, rill Brort,tis values are ilrclependently tested , and -t8g'. trvo valuesis O-C lbund to be not onll' the ntore accurate, but also rvholly . Now, in delault of definite knorvledge it is not quite due to assrttned ;igor in the frce liom possible 1>re'judice safe to assume tbat lfansuis values are s'holly wrong, and larv, or other s)'sten)atic cause rvhip{r might thLrs Nervtonian Broutn's entirely right, notrvithstanding the preerninence of une\l)ectedly creeli in. the latter's exhaustive researches in the lunar theory. Iloth U n d e r t h e l ) r e s e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,i t f o l l o r v st h a t i f t h e investigators rnay be somervhat in error, for one reason or 'fhus, the perigee r apparently the o L r t s t a n d i n g e s i c l u a l i n t h e c e n t e n n i a l t r o t i o n o f another, or for several reasorlscombined. : ' * 9 r 1 5 7 t h e e x p o n e n to f t h e l a u ' o f a t t r a c -t- t be l()alAt),)oo safest thing is to assume that the truth lies betrveen 56o, rvould be the saure as that for the planet as found by lfansctt, and -rzz", r'hich restllts frour Brou,tt's tion for the moon (:l) ,'2.oo000or0tn we do not know rvhat weights should Nlercury, narnely, -f : iltrn,f calculations. And as
t) In his atldressto the Ilritish Association in Australia, r9r4, p. 3 t 6 , . / i t t ' t r u re s t i n ) a t c st h a t t h e e x l ) o n e n t i n t l t e N e w l o n i a n l a l v d o e s not cliffer fiom z by a fraction greater than r : +oooooooo : o.ooooooooz5; but the present discussion shows that this pretliction probably overrates the accuracy rve are justifred in clairning, from to to 42 tilnes.

': be J"o".i,oit,ntn'i:#; l,g.:.. that the change inrrde exponent for the law of attraction nray sho.ld be combinations of those already.present in the moon,s I be the same for tlre moon and for l\'[ercury.. Rut if futur; -orior. The sixty to seventy years fluctuation stands out in I researches sho'ld develop smaller a conclusion,ft wotrldappear to. r!t1.1n'"rtigation low new periodicities can

i l u l a l t h o t r e ht h e r e c a n b e n o a s s u r a n c e h a t t h i s m o c l i t i of the exponcnt for the earth rvould be the same us for. f,,.:,1:" I the I the sun carth lreing so different in density, ,ir", ^nJ physical con-stittrtionfrom the sun - yet at prescni appaiently i \ r ' e a r e n o t j t r s t i f i e d i n ' u s i n g t h i s s n r a l l e r ' t ' a l u c ,b e c a u r " ; " I ] the existing state of our knowledge therc nrc no definitc I grounds to authorize it. I Accordingly for the sake of simplicity and uniforrr"rit' the value of z appliecl to the rrorion oi the pcrihelion of N l e r c u r yi s p r e f e r a b l c a l s o f o r t h c m o t i o n o f t n e t u n " r r r . ; i ; . ; :

I r r r s 'e q u aaito n l r fr c o nn otli t ln n _ , cqu t ru o co di o o : u t I i h o . . ^ o.o.n ' sn r n + i o-n , i - _erl-a:t^ _ n . ^ 1 """in."irl-1"'|'f,:ttJ.;; L the nr^ , m o t ; n i n r - r i o t o t h ^ e ,cr l: i p s ep e r i o d i c i t i e s . e - vlt-+1frt'-t- ' , I _o,, . o o 8.z z 8 3 f f "): nlr* 648ooo) (:+) N o t r v i t h s t a n d i n h i s ' c o n f i d e n c e f p r o f e s s oB r o u n , r tg o | . therefore ivcs z.: o.oooooooz5jg6. g r e s u l t i n g r o m h i s g r e a te x p e r i e n cie t h e l u n a r t h e o r y , I r v a s f n I
fortunate enough t di..ot.. such long periori inequalities in the moon's. motion, bearing the clo"sest analogy to the to-t.":.acting in the great iner"luality of Jupiter and ,Saturn, of .which the physical cause was discotered by f.a.placcin I 7 8 5 , - a t t e r E u l e r a n d ' L a g a n g : h a d s e a r c h e 4i n v a i n f o r the und.erlying the-celebrated goo-r'ear inecluality ,mlstery o[ t]resegreat planets. Without attempting to give a detailed accountof these in the lunar theory, we.s.hall endeavorto outline :.:.::.1:. b r i c f l v t h e l e a d i n g p o i n t s , b e c a u s et h i s a d v a n c e o f r g r T b e a r s

cent'ry,j o' e*ptnnalion tt" oo-yi".1.,;';?;l;;.";:'ff.:Ttffj of j obse,,;eo nuctuation .o,ii not be basedon rhe theoryof :ir,;,1":::fi":::f:::::rj.':,=:_,._:1,,,-rl l:the ".,,ouni of this secularprogression the perigee in half a lunation. g."uitutionar of disturbancero.p"rai"g 'l'he,

of the fluctu"tiono. lsho*s in the exponent of the modifiedlarv of Atettloyur"- this citation it is-evident thatBottlingez not only lhe.va]ue zz' per century leads to a value about one-fourth f ttro,i . . o t"a not convinced roun of the reality of the fluctuations B found for the planet N{ercrtry,as may be secn from the I j c.p."oirg on the interpositionof our globe in tbe path of fo)lowingconsiderations' the sun's gravitative action, but also that Brouz felt that I The moonmakes r336.85r26 revolutiotr..il,"

difference theotrse..d ;hl ;;;p""i,-rr."li,r""r""'oi.Li'i; in #;'::;i#t;:r:Tl .,1.hI in n'e;e',t ir'. 'oJn', motion anyprobabre or ;lo,;:'::':':*f*":ll]"':j:::: seerns be the -ini,r,i,-'rr]"; I g9.io9 the moon,,p..ioi.."'in'J"";'"i:L:;W:"".1; coni.":':1.I:1^t-:T:., ^s 22' per century, rvhich to il"uii"r-of I now. admissible; thel there would be a smaller'alue of
z this: there is no trace

,lfarruell's theory of t:^tl: u;l':"":,9:::ll:lYl:"-ln:l.,otPhysical F.o1ces, circular rerracrion theeyeof a fish(a";;;i,k;"J"riuur;" in ] 'ol'-r, rsr7, it.issho'nthattheprevio'sly rrne.il,tainecr-r1i;: .t.'ili-.'ll",iiff;'r:"".;::tt:? I xi;;;.1;*"^i"".'.'*ij, ;i;; motion,disco.verecl

ofthe ;;'ir:';:Jl;"i':it:,-i;Tlil':;,;u:;",;i'ii:1J"r:[I:""" ,n",.;"?1.,'ii;:t^i::,1i.,,," Fructuati'..,.'"rIt is shorr'n fronr an extension ol

*tl" "::l : y:: ity t\trucortb B.auitationalwaves o.iu.. rvhen the path of these u,avesis I t::l{ r_.-"i.,, (r8,67-r9o9), is

::^:':::

the eye of concentric shells are each of rr cault ll:::-:l]| oI d i s p e r s i o n , a n d p e r h a p s a b s o r l ; t i o n o f t .duc u n ' s g r a ' ,i t a t i o n a l I I u n i f o . r n c l e n s i t y ,b u t r v i t h t h e he s densitv increasing from layer 'l'hc 'fhus the,solid slobe of the carth. to la.ver towards the centre. a c i r c u l a r r e IfI r a L I t iI o n otf : 4U cU T O : : : s:u l t , s a ps l: itglh t, t l cn u e n s e r e : : i : ^ : l g d t c r * e i n t h e s u n ' se r a ' i t a t i ' e a r : t i o nu l r o n t h e s u n ' s g r a v i t a t i o n a lu ' a v e s ' r * i l l ' o i . " . ; , p . " p " g o t , o n t t r . n u g t the moon rvhen near t!"th"ao*.of our globe in space, br- the globe of the earth, and also of the moon,ssravitationnl
! r v r r r r r r c s u r r s L U I r t t ( r r ' a n o I n t h e t e n o cc n c 'l ' t o - -)' tfll]i' nd i rn e end nc) o ccntric

to.the rcrrfction, i.,

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Bottlingtr deduced some evidence of an t8-yei, pe.ioa, utit result is a rveakening of the sun,s gravitative action in the case of the longer clisturbances 6r.ioo6'years,.ancl | on ( t h e m o o n ; a n d , w h e n o u r s a t e l l i t ei s t h u s p a r t i a l l y r e l e a s e d \ I 2 7 7 ' 5 9y e a r s r e s p e c t irv e llh e y) nrotion at the rneeting of the British Association tr,.bances in the moon's mean longitude depen6ing on the I ".g. ._11-'i.-0,?I Eottttqer."-F6.r principareclipsecycles, incessantty repeated in | . .'I'he this is verydoubtfirl.It ii-cliificult the theorytt tr'" .,,oon',;",i;;-;r;';; I f"ll;;?ii: I ."rp..t to the So.os"o. eclipse cycle.

made bv Dr' ^&-. "Boltlinger, a crowned ?. in p.i'-e Inaugural tr,ot the .r,,tri"it*'fi;;,;;;"r'';;,n" ;;:,;"'t'#',n"J'll,",i I Gravitations-land.noon its li:'::,.j":'"T,^i: i::,:,:l:":.1:r^:j_y:')*,^,1!ll" l,..n9t t'hesamervhenthe earrhinterposes tl::l-: (Freiburg desl\{ondes, i.R., r9,z). I sorirr - mass their path of action. in To,9]1n|vesuns 'r'rr"

T h e a c c o m pn n n iv i g o he ccom any n n t h e t a n s e n t ( , h a s c e r t a i nl o n g p e r i o dd i s t u r b a n c ei s t r o d u c e c l f i g u r e ( r r g . n t i o ) i r r , ' . i r * r . .t h e r e f r a c t i o n f t h e s u n , s a v e s r o w into its meanrnotion. ] :'' ' ^ ^ ^ ^ , - - . L - ^ . - - r -. r - - i o"';t;*,t:*:":i attempt to find such disturbances the rnotion j in ,l]]: ;i:$;. refractionor the gravitationar of the ntoon depencling-.othe r8-year n i P e r i o d , h a d b e e n I r u ^ u e s n p r s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e g l o b e o f t h e e a r t h ,i t f o l l o . w s

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r. The Saros, rnade up ol zz3 synodic lnonths 6 5 8 5 . 3 2 d a y s , d i s c o v e r e db y t h e C h a l d e a n sa n d u s e d a t B a b y l o n f o r p r e d i c t i n g . t h e r e t u r n o f e c l i p s e s ,i n c o n junction with the eclipse year of 346.62 days. 'fhe z. e c l i p s ey e a r o f 3 4 6 . 6 2 d a y s , t h e a v e r a g e time of the sun in passing around the heavens from the moon's node and returning to the same node asain as it retrogracles under'the sr.rn'sdisturbing action in r8.6 years. Nineteen of these ecliltse years nruke 6585.78 days, almost exactly equal to the cycle of the Saros given above, rvhich is 6585.32 dai's. . The difference in these two periods is only o..16 o f a d a y , a n c l t i r e r e f o r ea f t e r r 8 J u l i a n y e t r s r o . 3 : t i a l ' s ( o ' . 1 4 6 e s s t h a n r g e c l i p s e y e a r s ) t h e S a r o s o f e c l i J r ss l e is very nearly repeated, except that the lot:ation on the terrestrialglobe is o{32: Zh4o"'48' lirrthcr west ilr longitude. 'lhe n o c l i < - - a lr d r a c o n i t i c n r o n t h r n a d e u 1 r o :. z o t ' z T l z r z z z : a n d t h u s 2 . 1 x z 7 ' )z r 2 z 2 : 6 5 8 5 { 3 5 7 . 'I'his again is of alniost the same length as the zzl synodic nonths and 19 eclipse years defined in paraI''ig. 3 l i c i r r i c i i , , : r o l t l r c s u n ' s g r a v i t a t i o n a l s : r v e - s i n l t a s s i n g t h r o u g h graphsrand2 above. the cartlr's tnrss, by rvhich tirr: rrrt,on is s)iglrtly releasetl froln 'lhe A n o m a l i s t i cm o n t h m a d e u p o f z 7 ' 1 5 a 6 o ; t h c s L r r r ' ' c ( ) r r t r ( ) lr ) e a r t h e t i r n e o f I t r n a r e c l i l r s e s . 4. 5 a r r dt h u s z 3 g x z 7 9 5 5 4 6 o : 6 5 8 5 { 5 4 9 . Accordinqll', lterzzi a m o n t h s t h e m o o n n o t o n l y r e t u r n s v e r y c l o s e l . vt o i t s o r i . r 4 i n a i position in resltect to the sun and node, but also in respect t o t h e l i n e o f a p s i d e so f t h e n r o o n ' so r b i t ; s o t h a t t h e l ) e r t u r bations near perigee, during the interval of the ditference in t h e s e t w o c y c l e s ,6 5 8 5 9 5 a 9 - 6 5 8 5 9 3 2 : 6 d 2 2 g: 5hzg't'8 are so small as to modify but very slightly the return of rl)e cycle of eclipses composing the Saros. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e s e l o u r f u n d a m e n t a ll u n a r c y c l e s r e c u r in the follorving periods: :6585932 r . ' T h e g n 1 e 5 : z z 3 s y n o d i cn r o n t h s :6585.78 z . l 9 e c l i p s ey e a r s o [ r z 6 ' 1 6 z e a c h 3. 242 nodical or draconitic nlonths of :6585.357 2 7 l 2 r z z ze a c h 6585.5+q 4 . 2 3 9 a n o m a l i s t i cm o n t h s o f 2 7 1 5 5 4 6 os a 6 t r : N o w . t h e $ 3 1 e 5: 6585932: r8 Julian years ro.8z days, or r8.ozg3 sidereal years of 36592563582 (Ilansttt). l'-ig.+. lllusrration the progress tlre moon'sperigee of of And accordintg to Neison the period of the circulation of the i n r e s 1 . g so t h e n o d e ,i n t h e 6 r . 7 - y c alrl u c t u a t i o n . t1 Iunar perigeeis 8.855 years. In the ro'l'edition of his Outlines of Astronomy, r869, p. 472, Sir JoIn l{crsc/trl uses thc' (r) I)eternrination f the period of tlre 6o-year tiuco period 3z3z{SZS:+::8.85o3r J u l i a n y e a r s ,r v h i c hi s o n l l ' t r r r t i o n . slightly different from the value cited above. It rs very easily shorvn that orving to the relative Accordingly, the forrvard nlotion of the perigee rvill n r r r g r . r i t u t i co f t h e s e d i r e c t a n d r e t r o g r a d e r e v o l u t i o n s ,t h e s . c a r r y i t t w i c e a r o u n d t h e h e a v e n s i n 1 7 . 7 r y e a r s , r v h i l e t h e a n g u l l r c o n j L r n c t i o n s ' r i l lt e n d t o r e c u r i n t h e r e g i o n s o f 36oo, 'fhus n o d e r e v o l v e si n t h e r e t r o g r a d e d i r e c t i o n i n r 8 . 6 y e a r s . z 4 o o , r : o o , I i k e t h e a c t u r l c o n j u n c t i o n so f t h e p l a n e t sJ u p i t e r if rve cail Q the yearly motion of the node, and a' the cor- and Srtunr in the theory of the celebrated goo-year ineresponding nrotion of the perigee, rve have r l t r a l i t v r v l r i c l rr v a s f i r s t t h c o r e t i c a l l y e x p l a i n e d b y L a p l a c e i n - 1 9 ? 3 5 4 8 4n 36o"f18.6 / ^ - \ the year r785. Here, too, as in the theory of Jupiter and \J5i -14o?655o : 61: Saturn, the conjunction lines move foru'ard. 'l'he amount of . 36o"/8.3SS. From the above data, it follorvs tliat the node rvill retro- t h c d i s p l a c e u r e n its 3 6 ? r 8 3 i n r 8 . 6 y e a r s ; a n d i n 3 . 3 r 6 4 8 g r a d e t h r o u g h 3 6 o " i n r 8 . 6 y e a r s , b u t i n t l r e s a m e t i n i e t h e s t r c h l r e r i o d s , 3 . 3 r 6 4 8 X r 8 . 6 ) ' e a r 5: 6t.7oo6-years, the l u n a r p e r i g e e r v i l l p r o g r e s st h r o u g h a n a n g l e o f 7 5 6 ? r 8 r : a n g u l a r c o n j r : n c t i o nr v h i c h s t a r t e d o u t a t t h e a n g l e 3 6 o ' r v i l l 7 2 o " 1 - 3 6 ? r 8 3 ; s o t h a t a f t e r a n i n t e r v a l o f r 8 . 6 y e a r s t h e r e v o l v e f o r r v a r dt h r o u g h r z o " , a n d t h e c y c l e o f a n g u l a r c o n perigee is displaced forrvard by 3 6?r 8 3 ir.r respect to the j u n c t i o n s a t a l l t h r e e p o i n t s r v i l l b e g i n o v e r a g a i n , e x a c t l y restored node. as in the great inequality of Jupiter and Saturn. This leads

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at once to the second long inequality in the moon's mean motion; rvhich,'without suspecting the czmse,Areuconb estimated at >6o years, more or less<,. His judgment of the period was surprisingly accurate; and as he concluded that the boefficient might be about 3lo, .here .again his value could be adonted. (r) Determination of the period of the great fluctuation .

the perigee goes through symnietricalphasesin respect to the earth'soririt in r 8 y e a r s ,a s s h o w nby the abovediagram.

"tl;t?ti.tt"Xti of the greatflrctuation in

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motion, of rvhich Aretaconb estirnated the period irt about 2 7 S y e a r s , t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d i s s o u r e r v h as i u r i l a r t to that just cited, but also somervhat diff'erent. It is ph1,sically obvious that the modification of the sur.r'sgravitation in passing through the body of the earth u,ill depend on the relative shifting of the line of angular conjunctions node-perigee. ' Now it is easily found by calculation that the angles of the node-perigeeare in angular conjunction, on lin. r r ? 6 7 o i n a d v a n c e o f t h e o r i g i n a l c o n j u n c t i o n , a f t"e r a n interval of t7.9g7 r years. For in this tirne the perigeeprogressesover an arc of 4n-t-r r?67o, and the node retrogrades over an arc of zr(.-| r?67o, and meet exactly at the conjunction line specified. The problem thus arises to find the interval in which this secular displacement of the angular conjunction line rvill c o m p l e t et h e c y c l e i n t h e m o o n ' s m o t i o n d u e t o t h e r e d u c t i o n . o f g r a v i t a t i o n n e a r t h e s h a d o r vo f t h e e a r t h . I f i e a c h p e r i o d o f r 7 . g g 7 r y e a r s , t h e n o d e r e t r o g r a d e st h r o u g h t h e a n s l e : ; r in respect to the shiftins nrean position of the perigee, and i n t h e s a m e i n t e r v a l t h e p e r i g e ep r o g r e s s e s h r o u g h t h e d o u b l e t of this angle, 4n, in respect to the retrogradingmean node; so that on the average their opposite motions amount to 6it in r7.g97r years. As the physical effect of the reduction of gravity near the shadow of the earth is the sanre rvhethei the shifting conjunction line node-perigee refer to ascending or descending node, we perceive that this advancingconjunctionline nccd o n l y s r v e e po v e r t h e a n g l e i r t o g i v e t h e r e q u i r e d i n t e n , a l for completing the c1'cle due to the changes of gravitrtion near the shadow of the earth. Nory r8o"/ r r?67o : r5.422, ancl therefore in an interval of r5.4zzX t7.g97r years : 2 77 . 5 9 o ] ' e a r s , t h c c y c l e o f t h e c h a n g e s o f g r a v i t a t i o n n e a r t h e s h a d o r vo f t h c e a r t h .w i l l b e c o m p l e t e . 'l'his. is the'period of the great fluctuation in the moon's mean longitude rvhich Arcu.,conb.estimated 27 S years, fronr ^t , t h e m o d e r n . o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d u s e d i n c a l c u l a t i n gt h e s e c u l a r acceleration frorn the eclipse recorclsextending over z6oo years since the era of the Rabylonians. T h e d i a g r a m i n F i g . 5 p l e s e n t s t o t h e e 1 ' ea c o n t i n u o u s r c p r e s e n t a t i o no f t h c c h a n q c s i n n o d e ( o u t s i d e c i r c l e ) a n t l p e r i g e e( i n s i d ec i r c l e ) d u r i n g r 8 y e a r s . A t t h e e n d o f r 8 y e a r s they both are in conjnnction at r, near the original line.of conjunction, 36oo, but r f 67o firrther forrvard. In each of these periods of r8 years the nodes turn to every part of the heavens, so tliat eclipses occur all around the earth's orbit, rvith the earth and moon at ali possible clistanceslronr the sun. In this interval the lunar perigee re.r'olvestrvice, a n d t h e n o d e o n c e ; s o t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f t h e p r o g r e s s i o no f

I-ig. !.

Illustration of rhe progrcss of l>oth no,lc and perigce for protlucing the ntoon's great lluctuation in 277.59 ye&rs.

diagram also illustrates the secular progress of t h e l i n e n o d e - p e r i g e e ,t h e r e s t o r a t i o n t o p a r a l l e l i s m i n t h i s c o n j u n c t i o nl i n e , a d v a n c i n g b y r r ? 6 7 o e v e r y r 7 . 9 9 7 r y e a r s , and requiring 2j j.Sgo years for completing the firll c1.cle of a semi-circumference. \Ve may express this result also by obfrving that physically the decrease of gravitation near the shadow'of the earth rvill take place with erlual effectwhether the eclipse l>e ncar the ascending or the descending node; and this clecrcase will always correspondingly affect the moon's mean 'l'herefore, longitucle. the r8-1.earmovement of node-perigee c o n j u n c t i o ni n e o v e r t h e a r c s r , 2 , 3 . . . 2 , w h e r en : l r5.422 at 18o", rvill comprise all possible combinations of the conj u n c t i o n l i n e n o d e - p e r i g e ef o r m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s u n ' sg r a v i t y on the moon when near the shadow of the earth. (3) Determination of the r8-year period of the Saros c1'cle. The Saros c1'cle is so well knorvn that we need scarcely add that a minor disturbance in the moon's mean longitude rvill recur in this period of 6585.32days: r8.oz93 years. I n t h i s p e r i o c l t h e s y n . r m e t r i c ae c l i p s e c y c l e o f z z 3 l u n a t i o n s l is complcte and the eclipses begin to repeat themselves, rvith the moon very near the same relative position with respect to the sun and node, and also with respect to the line of apsides or perigee. This Saros cycle of the Chaldeans gives rise to a minor disturbance in the moon's mean longitude, u ' i t h p e r i o d o f r 8 . o z g 3 y e a r s , a n d a c o e f f i c i e n to f a b o u t r i o . It is the smallest ol the moon's sensible fluctuations. vet indicated by the researches of ,Yeu,contband Boltlingcr, ind, illustrated graphically by the accompanying Fig. 6 (p. tSS).

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l - i g . 6 . G r a p h i c a l i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h c t h r e e c h i e f f l u c t u a t i o n si n t h e m o o n ' s m e a n m o t i o n . T h e s r n a l l d o t s r e p r e s e n tt h e o b s e r v e d , t h e s m a l l c i r c l e s t h e c a l c u l a t e d ,p l a c e s o f t h e m o o n .

In the case o( LaVlarr's dis,' Za. Saturn,for illusirating ofrhe coyery the conjunction lines ofthe flare's,Jiscovery cause of the great inequality' revolve forward, whereas J)laDets in the case of the lunar fluctuations, it is the angular rroveIrler)t of the conjunction lines norle-perigee rvhich has t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . O n t h i s r e l a t i v e a n g u l a r n r o v e m e n td e p e n d f t h e s n r a l i u n c o n ) l ) e n s a t e do r c e s f o r t h e r e l e a s eo f t h e m o o n lrorn the sun's qravitationai control when near the shado*' o l ' t h e e a l t h , * ' h e n c e a r i s e s t h e l o n g p e r i o d i n e r l u a l i t i e si n t h e r n o o n ' sm e a n l o n g i t u d e . I arrived at the cause of the lunar lluctuations frorrr t h e s t u d y o f t h e c l o s e a n a l o g l ' * ' i t h t l r e g r c a t i n e r l u a l i t yo f J u p i t e r a n d S a t u r n , w h i c h I h a d s u s l r e c t c d ,a n d c a l l e d t o the attention of l'rof. E. W. Broun, in rgr.1, aftcr readinq his addres" to the Ilritish Association in .\ustralia. lt a1r.jJrouttt nor Ilottlitt,gcr had becn encourased lrears tlrat neither b1' results of the researchesthey had rrade ; yet Botlltn.gcr's i n v e s t i s a t i o no f r g l z p r o v e d l ' e r y s u g g e s t i v et o m e , a n d the lnalrrgy with lay'lacc's discovery of r 785 rvas so close that it hnally enabled the cause of the lunar fluctuations to be rnadc out. lrr thc Ol-lservatoryfor -\lay, r g r 8, IIr. Ifarold.Jtif rt-ts has a revierv of rny rcst'lrchcs on the lunar fluctuations. After recounting thc nrethodenrployed,and adrnitting the f o r c e o l t h e r e s u l t sb r o u g h t t o l i g h t , h e f i n a l l y h o l d s ( p . z r 9 ) i t h a t t h e a n s u l a r p r o g r e s s i o n sn t h b t w o l l u c t u a t i o n s ,n a n r e l v a , t h a t i r r 6 r . 7 o o 6 1 ' e a r s n d 2 7 7 . S g y e r r s r e s l ) e c t i v e l ys h o u l d stand in tlre ratio of exactly g: z, and thus that my constants are Dot tluite exact. If the shorter period of 6 t.7 oo6 l ears be exact, Jclfret'J' argument rvould make t h e l o n g e r p e r i o d 2 7 7 . 6 5 2 y e a r s ,i u s t e a d o f 2 7 7 . 5 9 y e a r s found by' nre. 'l'his diffcrence is very trifling, and of no practical irnportance, but the 'relation g : 2 n)llv eventually be of v a l u e t o t h e f u t u r e i n r ' g s t i g a t o r so l - t h e s e m o v e m e n t sw h e n t h e c o u r s e o f c e n t u r i e s s h a l l n r a k e k n o r v n t h e c o n s t a n t so f t h e l u n a r n r o v e m e n t r v i t h i n c r e a s i n gp r e c i s i o n . A t p r e s e n t I think the final value of these'periods can scarcely be a t t a i n e d , b e t : a u s ee a c h f l u c t u a t i o n i n v o l v e s v e r y s l i g h t l y t h e period of the other; so that rve scarcely knorv which period may be chosen, or horv the two nray be adjusted and com' pensated to the exact ratio of 9-: z. o In closingthis brief discussicjn f the luner liuctuations, pronounced the most eniginatical phenomenon rvhich l/r'zzrrarll' presented by the celestial motionsr it is scarcely necessaly to add tbat the result attained is a very notable triumph for the wave-theory. \\/e have seen that the nrotion of the perihelion of Mercury admits of a half a dozen different explanations,

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5048

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It can be shown that the action of waves, flat in.planes n o r m a l t o t h e l i n e s o f f o r c e u ' i l l e r p l a i n t h e m e c h a n i c a ld i f ficulties here noted by )[aru'c//. For in his.rvork on tr{atter, Aether and lllotion, Boston, r 3g4, Prof. A. E. Dolltrar describes . 6. Gravitational Action is propagated by an experiment of the follou'ing kincl : Stresses due to Waves in the Aethei, ltttt,,L|atutell:s >If a dozen disks five or six inches in diarneter are conception that. the Stress is bascd on pressure in set loosely an inch apart upon a spindle a foot long, so that the Direction of the I-ine of Force and on irnerlual T e n s i o n i n a l l t t i r c c t i o n s e t r i g h t r n g l c s t h e r c r . , they may lre rotntcd fast, yet left free to move longitudinally t u p o n t h e s p i n c l l c ,t h e y r v i l l a l l c r o w d u p c l o s e t o g e t h e r , a s is irot admissible. the pressurcis less betn'eenthem than outside. Ii' one can F r o m t h e e l e c t r o c l .r v a v e - t h e o r y f g r a v i t a t i o n , o u t l i n e d o inragine the spindle to be flexiblc ancl the ends brought in the rvriter's rvork of r 9 r 7, it follorvs that gravitation is opposite each other rr'hile rotatine, it $'ill be sccn that ihe p r o p a g a t e d b y s t r e s s e si n t h e a e r h e r d u e t o t h e i n t e r p e n e ends rvould exhibit an apparent attraction for each other, tration of rvaves, ancl the action across space therefore tiavels and if free to approach, rvould close up, thus rnaking a s'ith the velocity of Iight. This nrode of action'is already vortex ring rvith the sections of disks. If .the aris of the outlined also in the first l)aper on the nerv theory of the disks rvere shrinkable, the rvhole thing nould contract to a aether, AN 5o44. Forty-scven years aso in the celcl>rated r u r i n i m u ms i z e t h a t r v o r r l d b e d e t e r r n i n e d b y t h c r a p i d i t y o f 'l r e a t i s eo n E l e c t r l c i t y a n d t r I a s n e t i s m ,r 8 7 3 , r , o l . r , C h a p . V , the rotary movement, in rvhich case not onl1, *.ould it be $\ ro3-r r6, 4l[attt,e// qave a remarkabie- theorenr for the plain rvhl' the ring forrn rvas maintained, br.rt rvhy the dias t r e s s e sb e t h e e n t r v o e l e c t r i c a l l l ' c h a r g e d n t a t e r i a l s , v s t c r n s , nrcter of the ring as a rvholc should shrink. So long as it a s p r o d u c i b l e b y a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s o v e r c l o s e c ls u r f a c c s rotatcd it rvould keep up a stressin the air about it. So far about these systetns. a s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e g o e s , i t a p p e a r sJ h a t a v o r t e x . He takes two electrical systems, namely, _6,, u.ith ring in the air exhibits the phenomenon in question.( volume density Qr, of the element rvhose coordinates are The behavior of the flexible spindle in this experirnent a r , ) , r , z r ; a n d s i n r i l a r l y f o r t h e o t h e r s y s t e m ,I j z , i, Q t , . 1 o , . l , r o . is analogous to that of the lines of force, rvhich Farada.r, Then the .T-component of the force acting on the elenrent of long ago observed had a notable tendencyto shorten theniE1, owing to the repulsion of the element of ,8,, uill be: 'fhe selves. gaseous ntediurn of the air between the disks is dX : Qr gz (rr - rr)lrt.dr1 d1,L dz1 dr,, d1,2dz2 thinned out, by the effect of the centrifugal force, just as the (r1-r)2-r(:'t-1')2-+(21,z aether itself is near a magnet, owing to the rotations 1) of z)2 the rvave elements about the lines o[ force. Hence the lines , : SSS: [ lbrd.t'd,r,1 dz1dr2 dz2 dy2 ",)lr3.syst of force tend to shorten themselves, as Farada] observed in T h i s i s a s i n t h e t h e o r y o f a c t i o n a t a d i s t a n c e , a n d his experiments rvith magnets and electric currents. the integrats will not be altered by extending the lintits In view of this experiment it is not remarkable therefrom -oo to -Foo. fore that the lapse of time has confirmed Masutll,s stresses

in addition to the mystical one offered by Einstein, which is devoid of physical basis; and finally the natural and simple explanation based on the wave-theory, and outlined above in section 3. On the other hand, the lunar fluctuations, rvhich are vastly more complicated than the motion of X{ercurv's oeri'no,nely, helion, admit of but a single known explanation, t h a t d i s c o v e r e d b y t h e p r e s e n tr v r i t e r i n r g r 6 . I t i s t h e r e f o r e rvith some reason that the rnost experienced physical mathematician at Cambridge lvrote me, Jan. 28, tgr7.. >I wish the perihelion of Nlercnry could be resolved similarly (to the nervrvork on the lunar fluctuations). Otherwise rve have an unlimited number of ingenious kinds of r e l a t i v i t y o n o r l r h a n d s ; r v h i c h w i t l b e r e n r i r r k a b l ef o r s e l f contradiction of the principle that evcrything is relative<. , It is just such confusion as this that I have labored to get rid of, and norv lny theory of the motiorr of J.lecurv's r p c r i h e l i o n i s f o u n d t o c o n f o r m t o t h c s . r r i , - t l r c n r i . ,r n d t o correspond to the ideas of Nctulon, r636, that the lan. of gravitation in certain cases differs a little frorn the exact larv o f t h e i n v e r s e s q u a r e s- t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g e x p l a i n e d b y the wave-theorfi and the nature of the acther.

Maxwell then proceeds to remark (S ,"S) that if the action o[ E2 on Z1 is effected,' not by direct action at a distance, but by means of a distribution of stress in a medium extending con'tinuonsly from E2 to Et, it is manifest that if rve knerv the stress at every point of any closed surface s rvhich completely separates.E1 frorn 82, \,tE shall be able to determine comp)eteiy the mechanical action bf E2 on f,1. r\ccordingly, he concludes that if it is possi-bleto account for the action of E2 on Et Ity means of a distribution of stress in the intervening medium, it mnst be possible to express this action in the form of surface integrali extending over the surface s, which completely separates one system from the other. tlfarrut1/ then develops the solution at some length, a.nd after olrtaining the.rerluired mathematical expressiJns, ( \ \ r o 5 - r r o ) , r e r n l r k s( \ r r r ) : > I h a v e n o t b e e n a b l e t o make the next step, namely to account by mechanical considerations for these stresses in the dielectric. I therefore l e n v e t h e t l r c o r y 'a t t h i s p o i n t .(

'i"""
I al..

( ro )

t) wi hold the lincs of forcc to be filaments of the aethereal vorticcs, due to rotations of the wave elements, as the rvaves recede from a magnet' lf dn be thcelementof aetherealmass inrotation, and thel'axiscoincide rvith theaxis of themagnet, the angular momenturn of an element in. the plane of the masretic equator rvill be: A:2dn(y.drf dt-t.<11,/d/). This -o-"ntuof masses of aether xdrz, about the 'axis of the line of force, tends to beat baik the ae.ther in the equatoiial plane, and carrses it to press in on the two ends, parallel to the :-axis' FIence we see the inevitable tendency of the lines of forie to shorten thcmselves. Cf. ,ltaiu,elt, on physical Lines of !.orce, rg6z, Scientific Papers, Vol. r, p. 5o8.

'

- , i.lf : -, r
. , I

163

.5048

164
.

l.,: lr
{

t? the conrat for electrical action, yet slrorvn on the other hand that the t i o n a l s t r e s si n t e n s i t i e s any point P and finds are invalid, because p o n e n t st o b e : stresses conceived by him for gravitation (:z) f 1!: -Pf 8ny R : R2l8ny c: R28ny in this latter case he conceived the pressure to be in the direction of the lines of force. is rvhere -1? the resultant force intensity, ancl 7 the gravitation ' Marutell's conclusion as to gravitation is aunounced in constant. These expressions show that the three principal 'I'he .4 the article Attraction (Scientific papers, vol. z, p' 489): u'l'o stressesare equal. cor.rrponent along the line of force, (gravitation) by nreans of stress in account for such a force is, by llfarutrl/'s hypothesis, a pressure, and the other two an intervening rnedium, on the plan adopted for electric and c o n p o n e n t s a r e t e n s i o n s . magnetic forces, we must assume a stress of an opposite kind Apparently Prol. '4linc/titt never seriousll' suspected the from that already mentioned. We must suppose that there fallacy underlf ing itrfarwell's assurnption, that pressure in the is a pressure in the direction of the lines of force, combined medium along the raditts vector of a planet could make its with a tension in all directions at right angles to the lines orbit curle about the sttn, rvhere in fact a tension, corresof force. Such a state of stress would, no doubt, account ponding to the full lrreaking strength of sttrpendous cables for the observed effects of gravitation' trVehave not, however, of steel, is lequired to be exerted for holding a planet in its been able hitherto to imagine any physical cause foi such elliptical path. 'Lhe natnre of the curvature of the elliptic a state of stress.<< orbit rvas established by Kefler from the observations of It seems remarkable that ll[aru'tll hinlself should not T1cho, t6o9, and first explainedby Neulon from the larv of I have seen the error underlying this reasoning. When we g r a v i t a t i o n , 6 8 7 . whirl a stone by a string, it is the tension of the cord rvhich After a very lcarned discussion, Prof . tllinchin only holds the stone in its circular path, thus overcorning the r e a c h e s t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t s i n c e o n t r i a l , t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l centrifugal force. If the string breaks, the stone goes llying c o n d i t i o n s s p e c i f i e c lb 1 ' t h e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s . a r e n o t f u l f i l l e d , -- ,either sravitation is not propagated by the I\'laxwellian away, along the tangent to the instantaneous path at the lnoment when the tension of the string is released. s t r e s s ,o r t h e a e t h e r i s n o t o f t h e n a t u r e o f a s o l i d b o d y . < 'l'his is a good historical example of a falsepremise, Innumerable examples of this central tension or pulling, necessaryto overcome centrifugal force, should have occurred on rvhich r-nuch ingenious ntathentatical ettbrt lvas spent, - to tr:faxwell, as perfectly analogous to the forces qhich hold without detectingthe physical error underli'ing the hypothesis. the planets in their orbits. It will forcibly remind natural . philosophers of Einrtein's bizarre proposal to do away with the aether, rvithout subyears after the death of Maxutll (t8lS) It was sevdn substance in the planetary sl)aces before the mathematical test required to overthrorv the validity stituting any medium or rvhich nright L'xert contractile power for holding the planets of his gravitational stresses rvas given by Prof. George M. and stars in their orllits. Minchin in his.Treatise on Statics, Oxford, r886, Vol. lI, I t i s s c a r c e l y n e c e s s a r yt o a d d t h a t i f t h e s i g n s o f pp. 448-455 . Minchin calculates the I\laxrvellian gravitatllatu't//'s stressesgiven above be changed, so t a s t o g i v e a c o r n J ) o n e no f t e n s i o n i n t h e l i n e o f f o r c e , a n d t s ' o e < 1 u a lp r e s s u r e s a t r i g h t a n g l e s t h e r e t o ,t h u s :

A :

-+R2l8nr tl : -R2l8nr C: -R2l8rry

(:s)

\,

>{ 7 : . / ' , 't

./

'?r\

u \

gravitational phenomena rvould be explained. In the Electrod. wavc-theory of Phys. l i o r c e s ,r g I 7 , p p . r 3 r - r 3 3 , r v i l l b e f o u n d a n explanation of why the aether tends to contract between any two bodies, as the sun 'fhis nray be rnacie a little more and earth. obvious by the foliowing diagram, in which each body is shorvn surrounded by a wave' field, the aether near either body being so agitated by the n'aves from its own atoms as to be of less density towards either centre than in the renloter spaces betlveen tlie masses. We are to conceive the'rvavesfrom either centre, by interpenetrating rvith those from the other centre, undoing the rvave stress, depending on the other mass, and thus causing a constant tendency of the aether to collapse, which results in-pulling with maximum tension along the right line connecting the two bodies.

F i g . 8 . I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f s t r e s s b e t w e e n t h e s u n a n d . e a r t h , o w i n g to the interpenetration of the rvaves, rotating in opposite directions, from these two independentwave'fields, thus causing a tendency to collapse, in the mediunt beiween the two bodies, which furnishes the tensibn required to hold the planets in their orbits.

r65

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166

This gives us a very simple and direct grasp of the mechanism underlying the planetdry forces, rvhich is not very different from those operative in electricity and maenetism, e x c e p t f o r t h e e s s e n t i a l l yh a p h a z a r d a r r a n g e m e n to f t h e p l a n e s -of the atoms in the heavenly bodies. These bodiesare only slightly magnetic, - this porver depending on the lining up of a srnall fraction of their atoms, in planes rvhich are rnutually parallel, as in common n)agnets; rvhile the great nlass of the 'fhe atoms are tilted haphazard. resultingaction )iields the central force called gravity, instead of the duality of pos'ers r87o, p. ro) for the noted by Air1, (Treatise on 1\1[agnetism, magnetic attraction directed tolvards trvo poles. 'l'heorem, J. Sextuple Integration, und er./?ourir/s ' f o r s o l v i n g f ' o i s s o t t ' s) a r t i a l I ) i f f e r c n t i a l I ' , r l r r n t i o n l y A z r D l D t 2 : a 2 2 ( / )f o r t h e v e l o c i t y - p o t e n t i a l , i n a n r e d i u r n l i k e t h e a e t h e r ,c a p a b l e o f f r e e l y p r o p a g a t i n q u a v e s . We consider the partial differential erluation for the v c l o c i t y - p o t e n t i a l@ i n r r a v e l n o t i o n :

O,Alef : a21'21P (D : !2 (r, y, z, t) dd-r: DA l1x' dn -tA @fAt. dt -r dQt :dz f1z

(:s)

drD 5.;;* an exact differential, to rvhich Poisson (Traite'de N { d c a n i q u e ,r 8 3 3 , T o n r e I I , p . 6 9 7 ) a n d C a u c h l th a v e g i v e n so mnch attention, in the period immediatelyprecedingand f o l l o r v i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f F o u r i c r ' s a n a l y s i s ,( r 8 o 7 - r 8 z r ) . 'fhis method finally appeared in the celebrated Thiorie Analytiqtte de la Chaleur, 18zr. Ilesides the above referenceto I'oisson'sMechanics, rve cite the important memoirs indicated belorv 1). Poissonusually treats his differential equation in the form: A2OfAf .-a2 (0rOf0rz.+-02etf?1,2-+7zqlDrr): o . Thus @ is any solution of the equation(39), which involves t h r e e v a r i a b l e c o o r d i n a t e s ,r , ! , a , a n d t h e t i r n e , / . Ry a rvell knorvn form of -liourier'stheorem we have:
-f@ -+6

(.r.) 32 : ,l"n:J

-',r y'(-'). (I).dI _q dt . (+o) .f ,{e

and -r-oo: '(at| z)t,.

And as this will apply to the several variables, we Jetby three successiveintegrations between the limits -oo (rf sn,):::::S !)(*,!,",r) : @: cAy'(-').e(E,rt,(,r).a{ drldldtdlt,dv. A:(-r))"-r(r7-,r,)r,-+(6-

If now rve substitutethe derivatives of this result in (39), obseruing by the form of A, in (ar), ttrat we have

upon actualderivation:

- r,.ty'(,-t)(_).2_lJ- 1,2) pzf7s2-rA2fq,2_r12f1z2\c.tt/e)

q

Qr)

rve have for the solution of the original erluation involvinq the four variables: ? 2 e t f D t t _ o z ( ? 2 r D , t e _ + 6 z r 1 ? 1 , t _ r ? 2 e t f D : 2:) ,': t (): !)(.',.t,,r,4: (linritsof integration -&and

(rltrrl,l,f (+s) o , f , f , f! - + o o ) . ' l ' h i s e q u a t i o n r v i l l b e s a t i s f i e d , f - Q ( 8 ,q , e , t ) i s d e t e r m i n e d s o a s t o s a t i s f y t h e e q u a r i o n : i a r l l ( L r l , E , t ) f D t " - + a 2 ( i . ? - + 1 r : - + r ,J -)l ( f , t l , , t ) : o . e (++)

r . r r ' , - r ' ) . l e t , ' 0 f + a 2 ( ) . 2 - + 1 t , 2 - t - , , ' ) ) - ( 2 eL 4 . d t r d l d 6 d t d 1 t , d u : q,( ,

We therefore integrate this diffcrential equation, and in place of arbitrary constants, rve introduce arbitrary functions U/r and r/1 of 1,r1,(. Accordingly our solutions yield the follorving particular integrals: ll(.",r/,6,r) : rBhty'(-r) 24(.t,27,6) 9(,t1,(, l) : c-rihtl/(*'),/,,(..,?,() 3:().2-t-1t]-ryz)'\h. (ls)

If norvlve substitnte the first of thcse in (ar), and include the integration factou fSnB in the arbitrary function, rve have (lirnits of integration ---oo and -roo) :

ot :

g2 !, r, 4 : (r,

B/,t) t)trrr(t, . dI dr d( d/.dp dr . t/(Z,0 : I SS: S c(.,1*

(+o)

T h i s i s a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e g r a l o f e q u a t i o n ( a r ) , a n d t h e s e c o n d v a l u e i n ( 4 5 ) w o u l d l e a d t o an identical result, 'I'hus as may be proved b1' actual substitution. it onll' renrains to cornplete the solution from such particular solutions. 0 2 f 0 t 2 - + - A 2 i ? r , 2 + - 0 2 f 0 : 2 :z l Let t:'s\ .. so as to reduce the given equation to the s1'mbolical f o r m : O-IZlD(D-r))czrt'() 'I'hen rD-c-0.AX|A|:Ayfqt rvhere 0/0, : D. the transformation: will give: lvhich is of the same form as the eouation for d) in

'

(qz) (qs) (+e)

x-lzID(D(qs).

r ) l 7 2 tx ' t

(s " )

t) t. Fourier'. Ocuvres d,e Forrier, T o m e s I e t I I , p u b l i 6 c s s u o s l e s a u s p i c e sd u t r l i n i s t t r e d e l ' I n s t r u c t i o n P u b l i q u e p a r l e s s o i n s d e Coslou J)oiltott:, I'aris. I,388. |'oisson'. a) )I6moirc sur Ia-Thiorie des Ondes, Dic. 18, r8r5; I\{im. de l'Acad., T. I. b ) N l i n r o i r e s u r l ' l n t i ' g r a t i o n d e q u e l r l u e si q u a t i o n s l i n 6 a i r e s a u x d i f f d r e n c e sp a r t i e l l e s , e t p a r t i c u l i E r e m e n d e l ' 6 q u a t i o n t g d n d r a l ed u n o u v c m e n t d e s f l u i d c s i l a s t i q u c s . J u i l l . r 9 , 1 8 r 9 , l l 6 m . d e l ' A c a d . , T . I I I . 'I. c ) M 6 m o i r c s u r l e . N l o u v c r n e n td e I ) e u x I r l u i r l c s l i l a s t i q u e . sS u p e r p o s d s . I I a r s 2 4 , 1 8 2 3 , N I 6 m . d e l ' A c a d . , X. 't. d ) l l i ' m o i r e s u r l ' I i q u i l i b r c e t l c t r { o u v e r n e n t l e s C o r p i I i l a s t i . j u e i . A v r i l r 4 , r 8 2 8 , N i d r n .r l e l ' A c a d . , VIII. e ) M 6 r n o i r e s u r l ' l . i q u i l i b r cd e s F l u i d e s . N o v . 2 4 , r 8 2 8 , l t 6 r n . d c l ' A c a d . , T . l X . f ) M 6 m o i r e s u r l a . P r o p a g a t i o n t l u M o u v e u r c n t d a n s l e s M i l i e u x E , l a s t i q u e s .O c t . I r , r 8 3 o , M 6 m . d e I ' A c a d . , T . N . g ) l l 6 r n o i r c s u r I ' E q u i f i b i e c t l e I ' I o r r v e m c n td c s . C o r p s C r y s t a l ) i s [ ' s . O c t . 2 8 , r 8 3 9 , M 6 m . d e I ' A c a d . , T . X V I I I . -r. ( ) a u r h l , : a ) 1 ' h 6 o r i e d e I a I ) r o p a g a t i o n d c s ( ) n d e s I l a s t r r f l c c d ' r r n I " l u i r l I ' e s i r n t d ' u n e I ' r o f o n c l e u r I n d 6 f i n i e , r 8 I 5 . b ) S u r I ' I n t 6 g r a t i o n d ' L , q u a t i o n sL i n i r i r c s . E x c r c i s e s d ' i \ n a l y s e e t d e I ' h y s i q u e N { a t h 6 r n a t i q u eT . I , p . 5 : . , c l S r r r l a T r a n s f o r m a t i o n e t l a I i d d r r c t i o n d e s I n t 6 g r a l e sG 6 n d r a l e s t l ' u n S y s t d r n ed ' E q u a t i o n sL i n 6 a i r e s a u x d i f f 6 r e n c e s p a r t i e l l e s ,i l r i , l . p . r 7 8 .

:lH

t67

5048

r68

in It thus follows that 2gadmits of expression the form (46), and therefore by merely changing the arbitrary function, rve have (limits of integration -oo and -roo) :

x:

: !),(r,!,2,t)

zrir(8,q,6).aal apr::S:IS c(A-rBrt)y'(-'). dldl.dy,dv .

(s')

To get the contplete integral from these independent particular integrals (a6) and (5r), we add the trvo solutions -(cf. Eatlcndorlf's edition of lliemann's Partielle Differentialgleichungen, r882, p. roo), rnultiplied by- arbitrary constants, -oo t and -roo) :' which may be included under the sextuple integral signs (limits of integration (Dt: 11(D-+'crX

ff j
d

''r{

' i *

(sr) r) , -/ \ \ J,
I:@ \-f

(n t t)y' t)- 4rt (8,q,C)oFazd( dr dy,du . "f"fjfjj,('<-+ . df + a p : : : : ! ! , r t * n t , ' ) l ( - , ) u \ ( ,r t , 5 ) . 0 a zd t d pd z .

Accordingly, at the time /, there ue ) 1 a

l'f jji

These sextuple integrals admit o[ reduction to double integrals leading to a fornr of solution originally obtained by Poisson; bt Cauc/ty has made this reduction by means o f a t r i g o n o m e t r i c a lt r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e o n l y e s s e n t i a l p r e caution t6 be taken is to avoid proeesses Lry' u'hich the functions to be integrated become in6nite rvithin the linrits. The above equation belongs to the general fornr

of

these concentric rvave surfaces, all moving rvith the velocity a, lbich is the velocity of light. But the time / also flows on,
r':rc

I
d
f {
!

and if tliere be r intervals, the surnmatio

6z qf0t2 -

,4 (D

(s ) +

=-l

where zI is a function of the derivatives rvith respect to the ' : 6 / : @ coordinates APr, AlAl , AlAz. Iior all such equations the S S ' ' - Y l method, above outlined furnishes directly a solution exltressed .41 .1J 1:t i:t by sextuple integrals, rvhich are reducible to the Poissott' 'double integrals, if zl is hotnogeneous ancl of the r v h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a l l t h e p o i n t s i n a n i n i n i t e p l a n e . Cauclty second degiee, as in the case of a sphere surface, rvith radir'rs lnragine another system.of coordinates (Ir, 1r, (1), with increasing uniforrnly rvith the time: i t s o r i g i n a t t l r e c e n t r e o f g r a v i t y o f n 1 ( - E , 1 , , r l h , e r , , /)1 t o r v h i c h ,
' / / l l *

yield for the double integretion of intervals and waves:

i:

i,r

1r

r 2 - l - 1 ; 21 r Z

6 27 2

\)),/

the

where r is the parameter representing the velocity of light. As was long ago pointed out by liouricr, Poisson and Cauchl, integrals of this type are peculiarly appropriate for the expression of those disturbancesinvolving the transurission of energy in a metliurn, as in the steady florv of waves, rvhether 'fhese rvave o f s o u n d , l i g h t , h e a t o r e l e c t r o d y n a m i ca c t i o n . disturbances are propagated througir the medium in question with a finite velocity, and unless the waves are regularly renerved the original disturbance leaves no trace behind rvhen it has passed by; so that the upkeep of the energy florv involves periodic renerval of disturbances for nraintaining the steady florv of waves. In his Thiorie Analytique de la Chaleur, 18z r, Fouricr.continually eurphasizesthe incessant nloven)ent .of heat. s S o l u t i o n o f . P o i s s o n 'e q u a t i o n f o r t h e v e l o c i t y potential.@ in wave rnotion from n bodies. , .Let there be a bodies emitting wayes: r,tr1rvith coor' dinates t r, ),r, a1, {) surrounded at the instant { by an infinite series of wave surfaces, which for sinrplicity we may suppose to be-spherical: , s t12-1y121-212-c12 tr2 : tzzttz2+'sz2-cz2 trz - o .'
*12 -+-1t2 l'212 c12trz o .

nroving \\'aves are referred bodies lre have: For tiie Ilodies. u 1 ( . t y , 1 ' 1 ,z t , t t ) n2 \r2, )'2, z2, tt) i l tj ( r 3 , ) \ , 4 , / r )

at z times, so that

for the rz

l.or the Waves enrirted. n 1 ( { 1 , i , t 1 t , i ,E n t , t i ) . u , ( ; 6 ; - { 1 ; , t l r z i - r i r , i ,en r - E t , i , l i ) z r , ( f 1 , r - F l , i , r , l , i t , 1 , i ,i / , i - i t , i , / i ) n,,('{1,,;- EIti, tirri-rjLi, Etrri-Eni, ti) .

(S0)

n , , ( r r r , 1 , r rz u , l 1 ) ,

Then, Iiom the prcceding investigation it rvill follorv equation 02tpfDsz: a2VerD for that the solutior.rol I'oissort's t h e v e l o c i t y - p o t e n t i a l@ a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n o f e n e r g y o [ w a v e rnotion, in the caseof z bodies rvill be similar to that already found for a single \\'ave centre, except that as th.e waves from the seveml botiies are everyrvhere superposed, the velocityp o t e n t i a l s Q ) t , q ) 2 , @ , r " ' ( D n f r o r n t h e s e v e r a lc e n t r e s m u s t b e (D, added togethr to get the tothl effect, @r -F @o-+ (D:t-r "'* : @, when the rvaves from the z bodies nrutually interpenetrate, giving nraximunr tension in the right lines which conneft t h e b o d i e s i n p a i r s , a n d m a x i r n u m p r e s s u r ei n t h e p r o l o n g a t i o n of these lines beyond the masses. A c c o r d i n g l y , i f r v e i n r r o d u c e t h e t a m p l i t u d eo f t h e w a v e s fronr each mass, ,4ri : ktif V(!1;2-+qrf -t*i2) and retain the amplitude e(.A-r-Bht)V(-r) for deteriorating wave changes, under resistance, we shall find for the general solution the expression (all integrations between the limits -oo and -roo) :

'

@:

y'(- r)' r/' (5u, B"h"t') ' -r(e dp, dln (r7r,i ,1ni)2 4i- gn,)t)' qil, en)dF' dr/.di,,dr',, sG!,,+ @,,(*,\: S: S! SSu^t t y'l(|,,,,- 6r, 2-+ ) 'r(1,,+ti,,/t,,t,)y'(-')'?n(rt', --0Pt::::[[ qn,Eu\:dfudrlrcl('d/''dt,'rlv,,' n,tlr'[(Eui-Fr,i)t-r (rt\,i-r]r,i)'-+(fr,,i-Cr,,)'J
-

-r -+-+ (u @r, Qnr) tD2,Qnr) qtu,(.,as) . .' (D,,, u)

(sz)

. '.i.!.. .'.-r , .i, j.i"; i '.

:'.r :.. i,:

,.
.

i: :-i: ...' ", '.

,.l ' ' I"'

l'r,:,
' " , j ! ' j : 1 , : I ' ' i 1 - : ' \ , ! .

j.,
f

'.ir:1 .. ' :. l :li *:.*,..:. . '

'! r

q:i ixj-* , 1.;

- . :

h \ r

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il :' i I .-i 1-J ;tr

Q'.1 ^i,

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-fli't

't-r

Y'J't., } :

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'-.' -lrl' . ' - !'i?{}''li\r ' / a -';-

l'

'f his solution ol Poissotz'serluation. for the velocityp o t e n t i a l d ) i s r v e l l c a l c u l a t e c lt o s h o r v t h e c o r n p l e x i t yo f t h e p r o l t l e m o f e x p l a i n i n g t h e f b r c e s r v h i c h g o r , e r nt h c o p e r a t i o n s 'I'he o f t h e p h 1 ' s i c a lu n i v c r s e . v e l o c i t y - p o t e n t i a li s e s s e n t i a ) l y n f u n c t i o n o f t h e e l a s t i c i t f i n a g a s , c o n d c r r s a t i o ra l t c r n a t i n g r r v i t h r a r c f a c t i o n , b 1 ' r v h i c h s ' a v e n ) o t i o n o n , . c q r . n e r a t c c li - s n - r a i n t a i n e d t a l l J r o i n t so f s p a c e , a n c l a t v e l o r : i t i c s u i t a b l e a s to the elasticityand densitl' of the mediunr at these points. 'l'hus rvherever 1\'avcs l)enetrate the vclocity - potcntial mrrst also exist.

sometimes at rates depending on the vave conductivity alorrg certair-raxes, but always at a rate defined by the time l. I f t h e n . r e d i u mb e g a s e o u s ,a s i n t h e k i n e t i c t h e o r l . o f t h e a e t h e r , d ) m n s t b e t h e v e l o c i t y - p o t e n t i a1 ) . A c c o r d i n g l v , l rve outline the eqrrations f such a metlirrnr: o qt -+? dq) - AO fAr. dr -+-0 f3r,. (l-t' @f er. (tz : udrl_udy-rudz : ArDfty |711f8s 1 : tt, : arDlDz " rvhere er,u, u are the component velocities. 'l'he , general e(luation of equilibriunr i s :

(ss)

A n d ' w e s e e n o t o n l y t h a t t h e d o n t a i n p c n e t r a t e c lb y yrlt,-+Zrlz t h e r v a v e s i n c l u c l e - "a l l s p a c e , f r o m m i n u s i n l i n i t y t o p l u s dI/: Xdrt \59) i n f i n i t y , i n a s c x t u p l c -i n t e g r a t i o n , r v h i c h c o r r e s l ) o n d s t o a n rvhence ,y : 0 ttf0r y: AI/n), Z : ? Vl?z .. i n t e g r a t i o nc o r r n e c t i n g e v e r y p o i r r t o f s p a c e s ' i t h e r . c r yo t h e r N o r vp r r t, [ t r / e t d f : ? ; a n d w e h a v e t h e w e l l k n o r v n lroirlt; but also that it must lre continuous,that is, repeated rclations: r' lbr every pair of points tn'o and ts'o. = 'l'hc ( r,'o) t7,13.r ?/,i?.' : (t l9)A1tp1' ?1,,1?.y | , \ s ' a v c s, l i o n r t h e i n d i v i d u a l a t o l u s x r e i n f i n i t c l v \oo' ( r , t , ) ? p l 7 t: ? l l ? s r r rr r c c o r n p l e x s t i l l , : r n d i r r f a c t c a r r n o t l r c e i v ( , n t . r r . t . 1 rl t v r - Jr : Arpi?1-+' : r n i n t e q r a l l i k e t h e f o r e e o i r r g ,i n f i n i t e l y e x t c n d c r l . ' l ' h i s i n -+(?epzy). I.' (0, ) l r l ( A q t i 0 r ) ,* ( ? O t l ? ) t hnite integral corrld be s'ritten ont anall,tically,I.ct its r:on' ; \ n d t h e e r l L r a t i oo f c o n t i n u i t y : n tenrplation rvould aid,us Lrut little in graspinrrthc'infinitell. ?Q t a-D x(9 D I 0x) -rD 01\q rolQi -+0 ze.a p z): o . (o, p 0 ot ot l0 l? I ) C o t D p l e xp h e n o m e n a o f n a t u r e . For an incompressible fluid the second expression in In practice it sufhces to rementlrel.thet lioln every (62) r'anishes: l r o d y a n i n l i n i t e l y c o r n p l c x s y s t el r o f ' r l u v e s g o e s f o r t h , t o l 0 2 t D f 0 r 7 - + 0 2 r D l D S , 2 - + - 0 ! r D l ? 56 .: 2 (O:l) i n t e r p e n c t r a t ea n d c o r n b i n c s ' i t h t h e i i k e i n 6 n i t c l y ,c o n r p l e x 'l'he I l u t t h c a e t h e r i s n o t i n c o m p r e s s i l r l e , n c l t h i s e r l u a t i o nt h e r e a wave systemsgoing forth frortr all othcr bodies. snrnI n a t i o n o f a l l t h e s e d i s t u r b a n < : e ss a n i n G n i t e i n t e s r a l o f t h e f b r e c l o e s n o t a l t p l v t o a n ) ' g a s c o l . l s r l l e d i r r n t . i c f f q r t s o f s r n a l l c o n r r n o t i o n s ,t h e f i n a l r e s u l t o i u . l r i , . l ri s t i r c I n q c n c r r l t l r e e x a c t f o r n r o f t h e * . a v e s u r f a c ec a n n o t s ] ' s t e l n o f - f o r c e s o l ) e r a t i n . gt h r o L r g h o u tt h e p h y s i c l l u n i v c r s e . . l r c t j c ' f i n c ' t io n i n g t o c h : r n s c s j n t h e c i t n s i t y a n d e l a s t i c i t y , o t - t h c l r o t l i c sl ) ( ' n c r r a t c d 1 ' t h e a d v a n c eo [ t h e w a v e f r o n t . b I n t h e I ' r i n c i p i a( 1 , ; b I. I I , 1 , r o p s . V l - V I I I r r n r I , r o J r . _ \ _ \ t \ ' ) l l l - t h c r r r c c l i u r nl r e s r . n r n t e t r i c l l i n r e s p e c t t o t h r e e . a x e s a t Sir Isoac "t\/tu,lottpoints out hou' the gravitativi' lort e rlrrc to o n e b o c l i ' r ' l t : t yp c n e t r a t e i n t o t h e r e g i o l t s o t : c : u l r i t ' rll) 1 ' a n \ - r i g h t a n g l c s , a s i n t h e c a s e o f c e r t a i n c r y s t a l s ,. t h e n t h e r v a v e o t h c r b o d l ' o r s \ - s t c n t ,j u s t a s i f t h e o t h e r l r o r l v o r s \ . s t c n l surftrcc, fronr a disturbance at the centre of snch a ntass, r l i d r r o t e x i s t ; s o t h a t e t c h l t o c l y o r s y s t e r r ) c t s i r t r l e l r c r r t i e n t l r -r r ' i l l p a s s l i o n r t h e . s p h e l i c a l t o r m : a of the others, )'ct thc finll efltct is a conrlrinrtion oi thc r 2 - + 1 , 2 - + " t - 6 21 2 : (61) s e l ) a r a t e t f e c t s . ( i r a v i t a t i o n , t i t e r e f o r e , i s . a n i n t c r p e n c t r i l t i n g a n c l t a k c t h e f o r m o f a n e l l i y r s o i d o I t"h r c e e u n e r p t a la x e s : - just such an inlltrcnce as s orrld arise lrour rr.ar.es l)ower p t 2 f r r 2 - + 1 ' 2 ft - + 5 2 i r ' t - c 2 / t : o (OS) p r o p a g : r t e df r o r n t h e s e v e r a lc e n t r e s ,a n d e x t e n d i n g t h r o u g h o u r ri hcrc the axes .r, p, 7 rlenotc the conductivitiesalone the a l l p a r t s o f t h e s 1 ' s t e r no f t h c s ' o r l d . a x e s o f t h e e l l i p s o i c l ,a n d r t : r , a t a n y s t a g eo t t h e p r d l r c s s 8 . ( ] e o m e t r i c a l C o n d i t i o n s f u l i i I l c c l b v t h e l,itli the ivavc snrface in the forrn of the ellipsoid: '\'eloci p t 1 ' - o t e n t i a l 4 t ,. e x p r e s s io n s f o r t l r e r no l e c r rl n r : r ' )tft J t - - Y z ' P z a - zYf2 : 1 . l (66) l e l o c i t t ' a n d c o n d e n s a t i o na t a n y d i s t a n c c I ' r o n t follorvs therefore that the problem of wave n)otion It t h e s o u r c e . o f d i s t u r b a n c e , r v i t h a n i n d i < : a t i o n o f involves the solution of ?oissotis equation: t h e e n e r g y d u e t o t h e r v a v e so f v a r i o u s l c r r g t h s ?zrDl0t2: a. (32rItl0r2-+02af11t2+-A2(DfAz2) (ol) , olrscrlcd in nature. rvhere a is the velocity of the u'ave l)rol)agation (cf. poisson, 'l'he solution of the problem of vibrating corcls runs T r a i t i d e N l i c a n i r l u c ,r 8 3 3 , t o m e I I , p . 6 6 3 - 7 z o ; o r L o r d back to Danitl lJu'noulli and J)'zlkntbrrl, btt the methocl 'l'heory' Ilal'|tt.gh's of Sourrd, vol. II, chapter XIII). of analysis n'as generalized b1' Lagrongc, and lroisson ltas Let u, ttl et, be the domponent lelocities parallel .to g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d t h e t h e o r y l o r a p J r l i c a t i o nt o a l l c l a s s e s f o 'I'he the axes Or, O1,, Oz of an element of mass dn, at the inwaves. energy in the rvave function depends on three stant /, so thftt, coordinates, r, ),, z, and. the time l, because rvhen a distur. t t P P : ludt s-2,:.ludt. . r ' - . r '-' bance.originates in a medium it spreads in all directions, (69) Jzdl t,-1
') If for any part o f a n e l a s t i c f l u i d r n a s s ( l < l t : i l d f - r t d ) r * 1 t f l s - o b e a p e r f c c t d i . f f e r e n t i a la t o n e m o m e n t , i t w i l l r e m a i n so - o. This is the i4rotational l o r a l l s u b s e q r r e n ti m c , W h e n i l t i s s i n g l e v a l u c d , t h e i n t c g r a l r o u n r l a n y c l o s e d c i r c r r i t v a n i s h e s , condition o f h y t l r o d y n a m i c s . I I e n c e , w i t h c o n d e n s a t i o n s n , l r a r e f a c t i o n sa l t e r n a t i n g , a n d o f e q u a l i n t e n s i t y , i n ." uu *u e m o t i o n , t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n a lf a : a JaO i s m c t l r y t h e P ) a n e r v a v e 4 t : . 4 s 6 l 2 r - f ) . ' ( r - a t ) ) , r v h i c h i s t y p i c a l o f t h e v e l o c i t y - p o t e n t i a li n g e n e r a l .
l2

.i

r 7|

5048

r72

If we neglect the squares of the velocities 0tDf0r, lrDffu, A@fAz, nd put u: o, t(: o , t O f i l l b e c o n r ea a function of a and I onlv: ' A 2 @ 1 0- 2 a z A 2 e f A t 2 t te9/ : I (r, t) : A coslznf)'' (r - a t)l r). Q

de r< : rvhich aflbrds an unexDected verification of the writer's formula for the arnplitudes of the aether waves, A : Afr, also derived from the kinetic theory, but by a different I)rocess. It thus appears lhat Poisson had such a result for the waves of sound 87 years ago, and its neglect for nearly a century is remarkable. The solution obviously is an undulation o[ flat rvavelets As Lord Ral,leigh points out in his Theory of Sound, parallel to the axis of r, traveling with velocitl' a. z"dedition, r896, vol. II, p. r6: the rate at which energy is Let ( be the velocity in the direction of the radius transmitted across unit area of a. plane parallel to the front vector, so that the'resultant of a progressive wave may be regarded as the mechanical 'I'his y'(u2-ruz-ru.,2) is the basis (: ( ro ) n e a s u r e o f t h e i n t e n s i t y o [ t h e r a d i a t i o n . o f L o r d l i t l u i n ' s c e l e b r a t e dp a p e r o f r 8 5 4 , > O n t h e p o s s i b l e then since for spherical disturbances density of the luminiferous mediurn, and on the rrechanical tdr*ydt'-+zdz r-dr. a2+-y2-tz2 : 72 v a l u e o f a c u b i c m i l e o f s u n l i g h t < ,( ' f r a n t . R o y . S o c . ,! ) d i n b n r g h , u-(rfr u':(zfr r 8 5 4), rvhich n'e have used, in our frrst Iraper on the neu' ":E)'lr udr*udy-tw11":(dr weget r E:eQtAr \ 7 2 ) t h c o r y o f t h e a et h e r , f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d e n s i t y o 1 - t h i s n e d i u n i . 'fhe energytransmitted,in the direction of the three coordinate 0al0x : 0t0f 0r.rf r 0otl?1: AafAr.1,f r ( zs J axes, {/.)being taken successively as a function of r (and l), : 0 u t l 0 z0 r n f ? r . 4 r . e 1,(and l), z (and r) only, is given by the approxinrute (luetions: I)ifferentiatinga second tinre, we have : Dz@lAt2 42.DtrDl0r2 DzAl?tz : 122.7zrDlD:'/o \ 2 ' |.doj A2 I A - 02Qt 0r2 . xr f 12-+ 0tD 3r' (t2 -+-zz)rtl Q 12 I f f e)e,3/ : oz.?zr1if\z2 . 7'2Qtf01,2 7z1tf0r2.1,2f (Zq) r2-+0rDf7r.(22-+-a2)f r:t a r c c x l r r e s s e di n ( Z S ) a l r o v e . wlrich

( z) '

: 0zOtf?22 0ztDf0r2. r2-+0rpf07. (rz-+1,2)f . z'!f r:t I n c a s c t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a lw a v e t r a n s t n i s s i o n c c u r sr v i t h i r r o By means of these values, ftoissorisecluation, a nrassofdensity Q, 'lre have ltoisson's erluation for the potential: -r02Af 012 -rD2rD,t1z2) 6z9f7yz: a2 (A2@fArz Azrf Ar2-+-42 0y2 (s') Vf -+02l40zt -r +n I : o ( Z S ) instead of the ecluationof l-aplace: U b e c o r n e s . ? z Q t f 1 t z : a 2 ( 0 2 @ 1 0 r 2 - r z f r . ?? r t) . -+02vf 322- 6 . ?2lf ax2-+-a2 0y2 (s , ) lf , This is the sameas 012: a2 (32rrDfDr2) Qzr.11tf ( to ) . . \ n dt h u s r v i t h i na n e l a s t i c o l i dt h e e q u a t i o n E o ) u o u l d ( s

beconre : the complete integral of which is 1ztpf01t : 42. (?'rttiArz -rA2@fAl2 +A2 @10", -t-crt Q) (S:) rrD - f (r -r a t) -+-F (r - a t) \77) rvhich is of the forrn adopted by Ricnann, for the induction where ,/ and '-ta are trvo arbitrary functions. of electric currents, in the menroir presentcd to the l{oyal 1 3 y e x t e n d i n g h i s a n a l y s i s( ' f r a i t e d e M i c a n i q u e , r 8 1 . 3 , . S o c i e t y o f G c l t t i n g e n i n r 8 5 8 , b u t s u b s e r l u c n t l yr v i t h d r a r v n , '?oisson vol. ll, p. 7o6) shows that since | :D@10r, rve have and alter the death of the author, published in l,oggendorff's '(at- r\-+ r E : ,lr.f lr2.f (at- r) ( 2 8 ) Annalen r31.237-263, r867. 'l'his s - y fr 2 7 . f ' ( a t - r ) . investigation of Jlitttatt was examined,by Clausius Accordingly, Poissonconcludes that at a great distance ( P o g g e n d o r f f ' s n n a l e n I l g . 6 r z ) r v h o d o u b t s t h e v a l i d i t y o f A frorn the centre of this disturbance we may neglect the t h e n r a t h e r n u t i c a lp r o c e s s e s f o r t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f e l e c t r i c second terrns o[ the values of i, rvhich are divided by r!, induction, chiefly on the ground that the hyfothesis thrt in comparison rvith the first, rvhich are divided by r. 'l'hus for p o t e n t i a l i s l ) r o p a g a t e d l i k e l i g h t , d o e s n o t l e a d e i t h e r ' t o t h c t h e w h o l e d u r a t i o n o f t h e n r o v e m e n tw e s e t f o r t h e c o n d e n . larv of ll/t\tr or to the other laws of electrodynamics. sation or dilatation s s : Ela , In our llle ctrod. Wave-1'heory of l)hys. Forc., horvever, t79l R y e q u a t i o n ( 7 8 ) , t h e r e f o r e , r h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e n r o l e - i t i s n o t h c l c l t h a t p o t e n t i a l i s p r o p a g a t e dl i k e l i g h t ; o n t h e is cules in. a gaseous niediunr decreases inversely as r-, ]ust as c o n t r a r y t l r a t t h e p o t e n t i a l i s a f u n c t i o r t V : / ( r , 1 , , 2 , g ) , i n t h e a r n p l i t u d e s o f t h e w a v e s p o s t u l a t e d i n t h e k i n e t i c fixed in sl)ace, yet depends on the total accumulated stress 'I'he theory of the aether. c o n d e n s a t i o no r d i l a t a t i o n s v a r i e s d u e t o i y a v e a u r p l i t u d e so f a l l t h e n t a t t e r i n v g l v e d . H e n c e t h i s h as the velocity in the direction.of the radius vector, rvhich criticisnr is not valid against the u,ave-theory ere dealt s'ith. it$elf varies inversely as r; and also inversely as a, the velocity trloreover, we use.Itoissoris equation for the pttential, of wave propagation. Accordingly, for a highly elastic nre- 1 2 V - t 4 n g : o , o n i y w i t h i n s o i i d m a s s e s ,L - a p l a c t ' s q u a t i o n e 'fhus dium, s is srnall, and decreasesvery raytidly; which confirms Y ! V : o applying to all free space. we adopt a our vierv .that the amplitudes of the aether waves are very t r a n s i t i o n b e t r v e e n t h e s e t w o e q u a t i o n s l t t h e b o u n d a r y o f minute, and decreaseinversely as,z in receding frorn the sun. any nrass of matter, as long recognized by geometers and tn finishing this paper, Febr. r 9, r92o, I arn surprised natural philosophers. 'fhe to notice Poisson's sagacious remark (p. Zo6) : )La vitesse phy'sical meaning of the transition is tfie sharp propre des rnoldcules d'air ddcroitra alors en raison inverse difference in velocity of propagation for all aether waves at t) I.or<I llayleigh, Theory of Sound, vol. II, p. r5-16,2nd eriition, r896.

r73

5048

r74

the boundary of a nrass of rnatter; and moreover the decrease in total accumulated stress due to. the aether rvaves frorn all the atoms, as the moving point p(*,t,t) entersthe body of density g, and leaves behind a part of the mass, -- the aether rvafes coming from the atoms of this shell from all directions j u s t b a l a n c i n g r i n a h o m o g e n e o u ss p h e r e . B u t w h a t e v e r t h e larv. of density or form of the body, there is a change in the sum of the second differentials of the potential at the boundary of the body, from Laflace's to ?oisson's equation:

Now, according to the researches of prof. planck on thermodynamic radiation, the energy .8 of rvave length I is given by the rather complex expression

: E1d,). @lnrlllpnlRrx- r).annrl.-n a1

(s+)

which admits of integration within certain limits. In this formula, u? and T are the gas-constant and absolute.temperature, p - ftV, V being the velocity of light, a n d Z i s P l a n c h ' sn e w c o n s t a n t ,h : 6 . 5 5 x r o . 2 7e r g s s i c s so that if the wave frequency be'v, 7: Vly and

&:

tIRTI:

tylRT.

(sS)

And Planch's fundamental equation for the quantum of energy of l, frequency is

t-/ty.

By the use of Planck's formula therefore

..

( ao)

'

E;d,I:

snRTiL-4lfl\t- r)1al.

(sz)

'fhis

integration, to take account of the various wave lengths, c o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t , b u t t h e s u b j e c ti s i n t o o p r i m i t i v e a c o n dition to be undertaken at present. Definite Criterion for deciding between 9.A the Great and Small Densities c!aimed for theAether.
Fig. 9. . . Curvc of the potential function Z, shorving asymptotic decrease with the distancc, antl tendency to an asymptotic incrcase tos.artls centre; but owing to finite dimensions of mass, a gratlual decline to zero. its thc the the

. This difference betrveen Laflacc's equation of the po. tential for free space, and Poisson's corresponding equation for space filled with nratter of density Q, owing to the intervention of boundary conditions, is distinctly favorable to the wave-theory of physical forces. lVe therefore presented the treatment of the rvave e(luation of ?oisson 02O1A7z a2V2q) for free space, by the general rnethod of integration based oa' -Fourier's theorern. ' This solution will hold for rvaves of any, initial rvave Iength, propagatedwith the velocity of light, from n bodics, i n a l l p a r t s o f s p a c e ,a n d e v e r y r v h e r e r u t u a l l yi n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g n so as to gelterate maximum tension in the right lines conn e c t i n g t h e z b o d i e s i n p a i r s , i n a c c o r d a n c ew i t h t h e o b s e r v e d phenomena of universal gravitation. If the solution will hold for separate bodies, fronr which spherical waves are emitted, it obviously rvill hold also for separatevibrating particles,rvithin a single body; but here the mathematical difficulty is increased, by virtue of the unequal conductivity rvhich hetirogeneous solid boclics offer to wave propagation; so that the expression of the effects of the rvaves liom the atoms rvould be infinitelv comolex. Yet the above equation (SZ) gives the approximate representation of the propagation of wave energy frorn atoms, w h i c h m a y b e u s e f u l i n c e r t a i n p r o b l e m s o f m o l e c u l a rp h y s i c s . T h e s o l u t i o n i n ( SZ) a l r e a d y i n v o l v e s a n i n f i n i t e l y . complex integration, repeated a-times for the a bodies of the t u n i v e r s e . T o i n c l u d e t h e i n i t i a l w a v e s o f a l l p o s s i b l el e n g t h s , rve should have to integrate this complex expression for Q) oo, involving'all possible between the limits J": o, ]. : periodicities, the number of which is: n llrl)"li=:.

In Section I of the first paper on the new- theory of the aether, we have cited the claint put forward by certain e l e c t r o n i s t s ,t h a t , o n t h e h y p o t h e s i so f i n c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y ,t h e aether has a density zooo rrillion tinres that of lead. In his Aether of Space,r9o9, p.9r-ro5, S i r O l i u c rL o d g c 6 n d s from electrical theorl' that the density of the aetheris ro1J, a million million times that of s'ater. I t i s o n l y f a i r r o p o i n t o u t t h a t a s t h e a e t E - etrr a n s m i t s w a v e s , a s i n l i g h t , h e a t , m a g n e t i s r n ,e l e c t r o d y n a n r i ca c t i o n , and radio telegraphy, of the most varied length, and of various amplitndes, it is not conceivable that it should be i n c o m p r e s s i b l e ,s o t h a t t h e d i l a t a t i o n i s z e r o i n t h e e q u a t i o n :

6-

, . . ' i

7ufls+Apl1t-rAylAz :

(s ) s

6 by erluation (63). Iror this rvould make the wave velocity infinite, rvhich is contrary to observation. Accordingly, rvhilst t h e a e t h e r i s h i g h l y i n c o m p r e s s i b l e ,o w i n g t o t h e e n o r m o u s v e l o c i t y o f t h e a e t h e r o n s ,a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g k i n e t i c e l a s t i c i t y , this rnedium certainly is not incompressible. I n t h e a r t i c l e A e t h e r , E n c y c l o p e d i al l r i t a n n i c a , r r , h e d . , rgr r, Prof. Str Josrft Lantor is more poised and cautious than the u'riters previously cited, but his fuith in the older theories is so shaken, that he intimates that the ratio of the amplitude of the \\'aves to the wave length, taken by Maxtatll and Jitluin at about ro-2, may be enornrously overestimated. Larnor adds: )It is not impossible that the coefficient of rrltimate inertia of the aethir r'sgreater than the coefficient of i n e r t i a ( o f a d i f f e r e n t k i n d ) o f a n y e x i s t i n g s u b s r a n c e < ;w h i c h shows his tendency to an abandonment of the older theory, under the teachings of the electron theorists. I t t h u s a p p e a r st h a t t h e e x c e s s i r . e l s m a l l d e n s i t y , f o u n d y by Keluit and Maxruell, namely, about ro-18, or my o$'n valne at the earth's mean distance 438X ro-18, is opposed by the modern teaching in favor of an enormous density, about ro12, as stated by Sir Oliutr Lod.gc. T'he difference

w l r e r e r r , F , f , ^ t e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s ,a n d 02Qtf 0tz : a'z(02@lAf -+0)Qtf ?1'2-r?2Qtf0zt)

- " t . ]

r75

io+s

r76

'$

Norv jf an1' good ground can be adduced for decreasing t h e r a t i o o f t h e a m p l i t u d e t o t h e w a v e - l e n g t h ,l . a m w i l l i n g the aimost unlinrited factor: ' F: 1630, with the value of Keluin and Ma.ttae//; ,^ , t o c o n s i d e r s u c h a m o d i f i c a t i o n i n t h e b e l i e f o f t h e m o s t ' ( 8 s ) enrinent physicists, - such as -Ktluin, Maxwell, Lartnor : o.oo23 x to3o, with Srr's .,alue. but it should be pointed out that to make the reconciliatiorr ' Accordingly, progress is nearly irrpossible rvith this irre- o f t h e e x t r e n e v a l u e s c o n r p l e t e , t h e r a t i o o f t h e a n t p l i t u d e concilable difference of opinion among the learned. JJroo/ts to the wave length rvill have to be lowered by the enormous and Poyser,as representativesof the opinion of the electronists' factor (s') state: >There is no intrinsic difficulty in either vierv, but at that Af ). now taken at ro-), rvould becone p r e s e n t ( r g r z ) n o m e t h o d i s k n o r v n b y w h i c h r v e r n a y h o p e so to discriminate betrveen,thetr.<< (ss). A'f7: ro-32. 'fhe present rvriter has therelore labored to develop a 'lhe d i f f i c u l t y o f t h i s e - \ t r e n r es t e p i s s o g r e a t t h a t I criterion for the rejection of one of these competing valttes, i c l i s u r i s st a s t l t l i t e i n a d m i s s i b l e . U n t i l n e r v e v i t l e n c c , r e s t i n g rvhich would leaveithe other in possessionof the fieid. llesidcs g r o r r n r l l ) r o r e s e c u r e t b a n t t r e r e { t s s u n r l ) t i o n i,s a v a i l a b l e velocity of tvlve prope' o n the above criticisrn, that the hr-r'ite i t r n u s t l r e h e l d t h a t S i r O / i u t r L o d . g t ' sr t t c n ) p t t o r c l ) l ) ' t o gation excludes the irlcompressibility of the ilredirtur, I .hrve t h i s c r i t i c i s r r rc o n r p l e t e l y b r e a k s d o r v n . I " o r e v e n i f r v e t o o k g i v e n i n t h e O b s e r v a t o r y , N o v . r 9 r 8 , p . 4 r I - . + t z , n b r i e1 ' . 1 1 intolerabletlisrgrcerttent o ro ", Or 1ll/.: lo -l /,: d i s c u s s i o no f t h e c o n s e r l t t e n c e f t h e \g-{ I in the values of the aether density. - n ' h i c h a r c v a l u e r o o o o r r o o o o t i m e s m o r e e x t r e u r et h a n s A s i n r p l e c a l c u l a t i o n h a s e n a b l e d n r e t o e x c l u d e L a d g t ' s alr1re rl alecl to the tsperir-rtce jurlgenrents of I'ord tYtluin, ifatd e n s i t y a s r v h o l l y i n a d r u i s s i b l e ,b e c a u s ei f t r u e t h e e n e r g l ' o f tt'r// lutd Ldr)r0t', - tlre retluirccl factor u'ould scarcely be the waves from the sun falling ul)ort a single stluare centi- r c t l u c e d i n a s c n s i l , , l er i t g r e e ; a n d p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e t t c e i n metre of the earth's surface u'otrld [-re able to vaporize the 1 i h 1 ' s i c as c i c r t c c c e r t a i n l v r i o r t l d t t o t j u s t i f y u s i n e x c e e d i n q l ' e n t i r e t e r r e s t r i a lg l o b e i n l e s s t h a n o n e t . n i n u t co f t i r n c , r v h e n t h c l i n r i t o l - r o ' ; . we use Bigelou's value of the constilnt of solar racliution, antl '\s a lrnal argunicnt against the elec:trical theory, -Kcluin and ilfat rutl/'s <lensitl'. 'l'he assigning the aetber a density ot zooo nrillion tiurcs tbat of m a s so f t h e e a r t h i s 5 9 5 6 2 g z o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ( n i r m c l y ' :l I . 3 5 z X z o o o o o o o o o: 23Zo4ooooooooo t r n e t i i c t o n s . . l f q , e t a k e t h e a v e r a g es p e c i f i c h e a t o 1 - h e q l o l r e l e l d a t o . z , a n d t h e v a p o r i z i n g p o i n t o f i t s a v e r u g e n r a t t c r a t tinrcs that <;l-* nter !), rve rnal' recall the fanriliar cxpcrier-rcc Liere the s*'itrturers itrrrtterseti i u 3 o o o " C . , t h e t o t a l a m o u n t o f h e a t r e t l u i r e d t o r c ( l u c e i t t o o I l l r u i r n s u ' i n r t n i r . tig u , a t e r . - the intelior being assutned to be rvithout heat an inert lirluid of about the sanredensity'as his bodl'; vapour in rvould be Y e t t o n r o v e l b o r t t a s t r o n g e \ c r t i o D i s r e r l u i r e do f t h e r n o s t r o 2 1( o . z x r o o o ) x r o o o o o o c a l o r i e s , p o s , e r l i r l n r u s c l e s ,c o n i p l c t e l l ' u n d c r t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e s i l l . II S.g56zgzX - 6X g.g56zgzyy62e: (So) nearly. If the Iitprid hed the rlensitl of quicksilver, the su'iur3.6Xro30, .Now lligclow's value ol' the solar constant is 3.gti cal. n r c r u ' o u l d s c a r c e l l - s i r r k d o u n t o h i s b o o t - t o p s , a n d h i s too ieeble to displace such att p e r i u i n u t e , o r o . o 6 6 r c a l . l r e r s e c o n d ; a n d , a s ' Z a r l 3 r ' sv i l l u e nrusclcs rvould bc alt<.rgctlrer t h e a e t h e r i s a b o u t r o ' l u t l r a t a b o v e c i t e d inert ancl heavy litluid, if he rr'ere retluired to nrove throtrgh of the density of from Keluin and Marutcll, and o.ooz3 x ro3o tinres nry o\in i t : 1 ' s 1h e c o u l r i * i r l k o v e r s u c h a l n a g r n a , b y g r e a t e f l o r t , value, we have for the effect of such an increase in density a n a l o g o u s t o t h a t r e q t l i r e d w h e n r v e r v a l k i n v e r y f i e l d i n g the raising of the solar radiation by the factor ro30: volcanic ashis. If : o.o663;1 1630: S.f 1 X r o?s,Iieluin and Masuell , , Norv the density of mercury (r3.6) is a little greater \9I/ v o r - F f- ( o . o 6 6 3 X o . o o z 3 ) x r o 3 0 , w i t h S ' r r ' s a l u e . a that of lead (I r.352), but the mometrt rle consirier n than

presents enormous namel)' I hn contrast, betweenthe tn'o results

t r

^ - J v

The first of these values rvould vaporize the earth in 54 seconds of time, the second in o,z77 of a day. But in nature this vaporization does not occur, and thus rve conclude that the density of the aether stands at a value near that fixed by lieluin and lfaxu'cll many years ago, but s)ightll' improved in the rvriter's nerv theory of the aether.

t a e t h e r z o o o o o o o o o t i n r e s d e n s e r t h a n l e a t l , * e y r e r c e i v eh e d c u l m i n a t i o n o l ' a b s u r d i t y! E v e n i f i t p e n e t r a t e a l l b o d i e s q u i t e p e r f e c t l y , a n d g a v e e t p r a l I ) r e s s u r eo n a l l s i d e s , s l i l l s o m e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e p a r t i c l e s* ' o u l d b e r e r l u i r e d r v h e n we llrove about in it, as in the case of \\'ater displaced b1' a srvimtrter. Obviously no Iiving ph1'sical lrod1' rvould be In the Observatory, for Dec., 19r8, p. 446, Sir Oliuer c a p a b l e o f d i s p l a c i n g s u c h a d e n s e n r e d i u n t ; a n d w e s e e Lodgc has atteinpted to reply to my criticism by pointing that cven the strongeststars, planets and conrets rvould be out that the energy of the solar radiation depends on the dispersed to atolDs under the changing resistance such a arnplitude of the rvave, conrpared to the wave length, rvhich rnediun rvould interpose to their variously accelerated nrowith.IQluin and Marueli I took at ro-2, a value pronounced 'I'he electrical theorl' assigning the aether a density )a very tions. (in the article Aether, p. by Sir Joscfh Iarnor "gr) safe limit<. Lodge also adds: >many facts have suggested 2 2 7 o 4 o o o o o o o o o g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f r v a t e r i s t h e r e f o r e that the amplitude of the most briltiant light is exceedingly the best possible illustration of a physical lLeductio ad Absrhall compared with its wave length<. surdum, and we knorv that either some prernise .o'r 'some'

r77

504E

r78
' t "

link in the chain of reasoning eventually rvill not bear in1 vestigation ). B In the article Aether, !)nc1'clopedia ritannica,r tth ed', 'rgr r, Prof. Sir Joseph Larmor concludes that u'e lnust treat t h e a e t h e r a s a p l e n u m . U n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c eo f e l e c t r i c a lt h e o r y , he even speaks as i[ the aetherwere trot molecular' In discussing the transparencl' of the celestial spaces, - to rvhich much attention rr'as given b7' C/tcscut and Olbtrs, I'/. Ilrrsr/ttl and trV:Slruue - (cf. Etudcs d'Astron. stell., St. Petersbotrrg, r8+Z) -- Larnor first recalls the rvell known transparency of space shorvn by astronot-tticalresearch, and then adds: ' ) I f t h e a e t h e r w e r e i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e do f d i s c r e t e n l o l e cules, on the model of nraterial bodies, such transparency rvonld not be conceivable. \\re mttst l;e content to treat the a e t h e r a s a p l e n u m , r v h i c h p l a c e si t i n a c l a s s b y i t s e l f ; a n d rvc thus recognizc that it ntay behale very differentll' fronl - a m a t t e r , t h o u g h i n s o m e I r i t n n e r c o n s i s t e n tw i t h i t s c l f , r c m a r k r v h i c h i s f u n d a r n e n t a li n t h e m o d e r n t h e o r l ' . < 'fhe f i r s t l ) a r t o f t h i s r e a s o n i n ga p p a r e n t l f i m p l i c l t h a t the aether is not molecular, at least ))on the model of nia'fhis 'in part, llecattse o one n may be correct terial boclies<. rvoulcl supl;ose the aether to be made up of conrplex molecules, underlaid by a finer nreditlm, sttch as the aethelis to the more complex nraises of conrmon mattcr. On the other hand there is not the srnallest objcction to an aethereal nredium made up of spherical lterfectly clastic rnonatomic e l e n ) e n t s ,s o c a l l e d a e t h e r o n s ,h a v i n q a t l i a t l l e t e r o f t : - 1 o o 5 t h m o f a h y d r r - r g e n o l e c u l e , a n d a t n a s so f r 5 . 5 6 n r i l l i o n t h s o f a n r i l l i o n t h o f s u c h a m o l e c r t l e ,s t t c h a s u ' e s h o s ' d o r e a l l l e x i s t . As no finer medirtnr rvould trndcrll' strch a tnonrttottric aether, it corr'ld not dissipate the energy of s'ave nlotion, >on the model of material bodies<, an.d thtts it rvould fulfrll 'l'his would give such an Lartnor's condition of a plenum. excessively fine I-uonatomic molecular structtlre that the meav d i u m w o u l d p e n e t r a t e a l l m a t e r i a l b o d i e s , b u t r v i n e si n s u c h ' solid or an aether rvould be very noticeably retarcled e l i q u i d b o d i e s , a n d m u c h l e s s s o i n g a s c s , i n a r : c o r c l a n cr v i t h al experience. 'p h y s i c'l'hat the aether rntlst necesszlrilybe nlolecttlar follorvs at once frorn our every day experience rvith srtch granular bodies as fine gravel, grains of corn, sand, shot or nlttstard, seed. If rve fill a glass vessel u'ith srtch coarse graurrlar masses, and insert the fingers or any solid body, such as a rod, into the granttles, rve perceive that they are thrtlst aside to make way for the hand or solid rod. If rve 6ll the vessel w i t h r v a t e r , o i l , a l c o b o l , e t h e r , o r a n y s i m i l a r l i < 1 u i d ,o u r 'fhe liquid is e x p e r i e n c e i n s u < : hd i s p l a c e m e n t i s t h e s a r r e ' visibly thruSt aside and this holds even rvhen the molecular structure is relatively so fine that a drop of water might be m a s n i f i e d t o t h e d i r n e n s i o n so f t h e e a r t h w i t h o u t e x h i b i t i n g

t h e m o l e c u l e so f larger size than footballs, - as shown on by Lord Keluin in his rvell known resarches the size of atoms.
Ilut it rvill be said that the aether penetrates all bodies, and thus we cannot sensibly displace it, as we can water, oil, alcohol or ether. We repll' that it is perfectly true that the aether penetrates freely all bodies, even the dense and highly elastic or rigid masses of the earth, sun and stars, almost as if their molecular structure were absent: yet rve learn from the phenomena of refraction and diffraction in our laboratories, that light waves in the aether are very perceptibly retarded in their notions through transparent b o d i e s ; a n d i n o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c e l e s t i a lp h e n o m e n a , r v e find from the investigation of the rnotion of the rnoon that the sun's gravitational rvaves, though of such length as to l)ass through the earth, are yet sensibly refracted, lnd llerhaps dispersedor partialli'absorbed at the time of total eclipses of the moon, - rvhence arises the fluctuations of the moon's r r e a n r n o t i o n e s t a b l i s h e db y t \ l u , t o n b i n r g o 9 , a n d e x p l a i n e d b1'thc present rvriter in rgr6, (cf. Electrod. \Vale-Theory of l'hys. Iiorces, r'ol. r ). Iirom these considerations it appears that rve have both terrestrial and celestial evidence that the aether is molecular, but of such excessivell' fine grained structure that no. finer mediurn whatever underlies it: thus it penetratesall b o d i e s f r e e l y , u n d e r a n e l a s t i c p o w e r , o r e x p a n s i v et e n d e n c y , 6 8 g 3 z r 6 o o o o o t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n o u r a t m o s p h e r ee x h i b i t s in proportion to its density, as more lully shorvn in the hr-st pll)cr, scct..1. 'l'he K i n e t i c ' l ' h e o 1 1 ' o f t i - t "A e t h e r a c c o r d s Io. 1 V i e r v s o f ' \ ' e r u t o n , 7 z t , a n d o f M a x u t e l l ,t 8 7 7 rvith the i l l u m i n a t e t h e a b o v e d i s c t t s s i o nr v e In ordcr to further may recall the earlier though little knorvn views of Alcutton artcl .lfosu,cl/, on th'e physical constitution of the aether. -lrerLtiss ( )ptics, 6n a) \tier,'s of Sir fsaac Nttoton, 3''l ed', 1 7 2 t , p . 3 2 5e t s e q . 2 ) ,Ou. zo. l)oth not this Aethereallledium in passing oLrt of \\/ater, Crystal, and other colllpact and dense Bodies, i n t o e r n l ) t y S p a c e s ,g r o r v d e n s e r a n d d e n s e r b y d e g r e e s , a n d b,v that rneans refract the Ra1's of Light not in a point,' but by bending them gradually in curve lines? And doth not the gradual condensation of this i\ledium extend to some distance from the Ilodies, and thereby cartse the Inflexions of the I{ays of Light, which pass by.the edges of dense llodies, at some distance from the Jlodiesi< >Qu. zr. Is not this l\{edium nuch rarer rvithin the . d e n s eB o d i e s o f t h e S t t n , S t a r s ,P l a n e t s a n d C o m e t s , t h a n i n the empty celestial Spacesbetween them ? .A.ndin passing from thern to great distances, doth it not grorv denser and denser

r ) I n t h e O p t i c s , r 7 z r , p p . 3 4 2 - 3 , N e r u t o n c l i s c u s s e sh e v e r y p r o b l e m h e r e t r e a t e d o f i n t h e f o l l o r v i n g t n a n n e r : ' T h e r e s i s t a n c eo f t if the heavenswere as dense as water' water arise; principally on,I oln,osi'enii."fi from the vis incrtiae of iis matter; and by consequence' m u c h l e s s r e s i s t a n c et h a n q u i c k - s i l v e r ; i r v o u l d n o t h a v e i n u c h l e s s r e s i s t a n - c eh u r r " o t " . ; i f a s d e n s e a s q u i c k . s i l v e r , t h e y r v o u l d n o t h - a l e they u n " ' , u m , I e t t h e r n a t t e r b e n e v e r s o s u b t i l e a n d f l u i d , t h e y l v o u l d h a v e -a g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e of matter without if ibsolutely 4ense, or full "qy times the length of its diametcr, and a than quick-silver. l\ solid globe in such a medium rvould lose above half its motion in moving three nrotions of the (such as ,n" pl."",.1. rvouk] bc retarrled sooner. Antl therefore to make way for the regular and lasting -fiJ fi"["'""i "i steamsor effluvia'.arising frorn a n d c o r n e t s , i t ' s n e c e s s a r yt o e m p t y t h e h e a v c n s o f a l l m a t t e r , e x c e p t p e r h a p s s o l n e v e r y t h i n v a p o u r s , ;lanets r a i e a e t h e r e a l m e d i u m a s u ' e d e s c r i b e da b o v e ' A d e n s e f l u i t l t h e a t m o s p h e r e so f t h e e a r t h , p l a n e t s a n d ' c o m e t s , a n < l f r o m s u c h a n "*"""dingly being better explain'd wit.boutit'n c a n b e o f n o u s e f o r e x p l a i n i n g t h e p h a e n o m e n ao f n a t u r e ; t h e m o t i o n s o f t h " ep l a n e t s a n d c o m e t s ,) a t l l n g t h , - L " c " u i e t h i s e d i t i o n i s v e r y i n a c c e s s i b l et o t h e m o d c r n r e a d e r . euoted

r79

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perpetually, and thereby cause -the gravity of those great times less than that of \\rater. And so small a resistance Bodieb toward one another, and of their parts towards the rvould scarce make any sensible alteration in the Motions Bodies; every Body. endeavouring to go from the denser of the Planets in ten thousand years.( parts of the Medium torvards the rarer ? For if this Nledium In Ncuton's views above quoted, Qu. zo, dating frorir .be rarer within the Sun's Body than at its surface, and rarer t7zr, it will be noticed that he not only held the aether there than at the hundredth part of an inch frorn its tsody to be a superfine gas, of enormous elasticity, but also caland rarer there than at the fiftieth part of an inch frorn its c u l a t e d t h i s e l a s t i cp o w e r t b b e 6 : 4 g o o o o o o o o o o times Body, and rarer there than at the Orb of Saturn; I see no greater than that of air in proportion to its density. I3y the 'why reason the increase of density should stop anywhere, most careful calculations that can be made today, we find and not rather be continued through all distances lrom the t h i s r e l a t i v ee l a s t i cp o w e r t o l t e d ' : 6 8 g 3 z r 6ooooo; whicb Sun to Saturn, and beyond. And thougb this Increase of shgws that the value found by Ncuton two.centuries ago was density may at great distances be exceeding slow, yet if the .7r percent correct, - a wonderfuliy accurate resrrlt, even flor elastick force of tbis medium be exceeding great,' it may so incomparable a geometer a.s Ateuttonl suffice to impel Bodies from the denser parts of the l\Iedium H i s r e m a r k s i n Q u . z z h a v e b e e n m i s c o n s t r u c t e db y S i r towards tbe rarer, with all that power which rve call Gravity. And that the elastick force of this Medium is exceeding great, O l i u t r L o d g e ( I n t r o d u c t i o n t o h i s > A e t h e r o f S p a c e < , , S o S ) , may be gathered from the swiftness of its Vibrations. Sounds in an effort to make it appear that Ncuton held the aether move about r r4o English feet in a Second \linute of 'Iinre, to have a large density, but the context shos,s the misconand in seven or eight lr{inutes o['Iime they move about one structign involved in this claim. \Yhen tVu,toz sa1,s thaL hundred English lvliles. Light moves from the Sun to us in there is >less resistance (to the planets) in the aethereal about seven or eight Minutes of Time, which distance is medium than in any fluid rvhich fills all space adequately a b o u t T o o o o o o o E n g l i s h M i l e s , s u p p o s i n g t h e h o r i z o n t a l witbout leaving any pores, and by conse(luenceis rnuch denser t h a n q u i c k - s i l v e ro r g o l d i < , h e m g a n s t h a t t h q a e t h e r i s v e r y Parallax of the Sun to be about r z'. And the Vibrations or Pulses of this Medium that they may cause the alternate fine grained, more so than any material fluid like quick-silver Fits of easy Transmission and easy Reflexion, nust be srvifter or gold, rvhich has pores. He thus held the aerher to be than Light, and by consequence above Tooooo tinres s*.ifter s o f i n e g r a i n e d t h a t i t c o u l d t r u l y a c t a s a p l e n u m , y e t a s than Sounds. And therefore the elastick force of this N,Iedium, s i g n e d t h i s n r e d i u m e x c e s s i v e l ys r n a l l d e n s i t 1 , . > N I a y n o t i t s in proportion to its density, must be above Tooooo tilnes r e s i s t a n c eb e s o s r n a l l a s t o b e i n c o n s i d e r a b l e F o r i n s r a n c e : i Z o o o o o ( t h a t i s a b o v e 4 g o o o o o o o o o o ) t i n r e s g r e a t e r t h a n I f t h i s a e t h e r( f o r s o I w i l l c a l l i t ) s h o u l d b e s r r p p o s e d o o o o o T the elastic force o[ the Air in proportion to its density. t i n r e s m o r e e l a s t i c t h a n o u r a i r , a n d a b o v e T o o o o o t i n r e s nrore rare( rvhich shows clearly that Nctuton's value of' For the Velocities of the Pulses of elastic Mediums are in a sub.duplicate Ratio of the Elasticities and the Rarities of t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e a e t h e r i s : r f o . o o r 2 9 3X r o - 5 : the Mediums taken together.c d o.oooooooor84g (SS), 7 rAs Attraction is stronger in small Magnets than in that of water: r, or d: r/7ooooo, that of 2i1 : 1. great ones in proportion to their bulk, and Gravity is greater b) Viervs of tl[atucll, t877. in the surlaces o[ small Planets than in those of g.eit one, 'in proportion to In the articie Aether, [)ncyclopedia Rritannica, gri'ed., their bulk, and small Ilodies are agitated much more by electric attraction than great ones; so the p . 5 7 z , t 8 7 8 , M a r u r l / s p e a k s a s f o l l o s ' s r e g a r d i n g t h e n . r o l e smallness of the Rays of Light may contribute very nruch cular constitution of the aether: >tr1r., T'o/t,tr prcston (phil. S. to the power of the Agent by which rhey are refracted. N l a g . , S e p t . a n d N o v . , r 8 7 7 ) h a s s u p p o s e d r h a t t h e a e t h e r i s like a gas tvhose molecules very rarely interfere with each And so if any one should suppose that Aether (like our Air) may cont{iin Particles which endeavour to recede frorn one other, so that their mean path is far greater than any plaanother (for I do not know what this Aether is) and that netary distances. He has not investigated the properties of its Particles are exceedingly smaller than those of Air, or such a mediunr with any degree of cornpleteness, l-lut it is even than those of Light: f'he exceeding srnallness of its easy to see that we nright lorm a theory in rvhich the nroleParticles may contribute to tbe greatness of the force by c u l e s n e v e r i n t e r f e r e w i t h e a c h o t h e r ' s n r o t i o n o f t r a n s l a t i o n , which those Particles nray recede from one another, and b u t t r a v e l i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s r v i t h t h e v e l o c i t y o f l i g ! t ; a n d thereby make that Medium exceedingly more rare and elastick i f w e f u r t h e r s u p p o s e t h a t v i b r a t i n g b o d i e s b a v e t h e p o w e r . than Air, and by consequenceexceedingly less able to resist o f i n r p r e s s i n g o n t h e s e m o l e c u l e ss o m e v e c t o r p r o p e r t y ( s u c h the motions of Projectiles, and exceedingly more able to press a s r o t a t i o n a b o u t a n a x i s ) r v h i c h d o e s n o t i n t e r f e r e r v i t h t h e i r nrotion of translation, and rvhich is then carried along by upon gross Bodies, by endeavouring to expand itself.< rQu. zz. IvIay not Planets and Comets, and all gross t h e m o l e c u l e s , a n d i f t h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e . Bodies, perfornr their Motions more freely; and with less o f t h i s v e c t o r f o r a l l t h e m o l e c t r l e s w i t h i n a n e l e m e n t o [ resistance in the Aethereal I\{edium than in any l-luid, which v o l u m e b e t h e p r o c e s sw h i c h r v e c a l l l i g h t , t h e n t h e e q u a t i o n s fills all Space adequately without leaving any pores, and by which express this average will be of the sanre forrn as that w h i c h e x p r e s s e sh e d i s p l a c e r n e n ti n t h e o r d i n a r y t h e o r y . < t consequence is nruch denser than Quick-silver or Gold i l'or instance; If this Aether (for so I will call it) should be Accordingly it rvill be.seen that the prcsent paper is s u p p o s e dT o o o o o t i m e s m o r e e l a s t i ct h a n o u r A i r , a n d T o o o o o a development of the reasoning sketched by Neutlott, r7zt,timetsmore rare; its resistance would be above 6oooooooo and again briefly outlined by Maxwrll in r,877.

t/i

I8I

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vector pfoperty, such as rotaiion about an axis; . . Ih. ,*hich Manoal/ supposes might be impressed or) the aether molecules, will be furnished by the rvave motion in the aether, 'when the waves are taken to be flat in the planes of the equators of ordinary atoms. This is shorvn in the theory of magnetism outlined in the first paper, and wilt be treated of more fully in the tbird paper, in connection rvith a correction to the fundamental conceptions of the rvave-theory of light. I I. Under the Kinetic Theory of the Aether M i c l t c l s o n 'c e l e b r a t e d s Experiment of rggT should yield a Negative Result. New.'l.heory of Stellar Aberratiorrbased on the Motion of Light relatively to the uroving Iiarth.

The path of the light, lrom a terrestrial ,ou."", is thus . made parallel and perpndicurar to the direction of the earth's orbital motion; and the two half beams mutually inter_ changed for observation of the relative displacemeni of the, interference fringes. In his work on Light Waves and their Uses, r9o3, p. r58, Michclson sums up his experience thus: >It rvas found that there was no displacement of the interference fringes, so that the result of tlie experiment was negative and would, therefore, show that there still is a dif-, ficulty the theory itself; and this difficulty, I may say, _in has not been satislactorily explained<.

the reasoning given below, in describing Fitzgcrald,s . .By. hypothesis, sect. r2, it is shown that the effect sougtt is v e r . 1 ' s n r a l l d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s q u a r e o f u fc : , rf toool, the In rlrc Philosophical Xlagazine for rgg7, prof. Michelson ratio of the velocity o[ the earth in.its orbit to the velocity d e s c r i b e s t h e f a ' r o . s e x p e r i n r e n t* ' h i c h h e d e v i s c c rt o d e t e c t of lieht, and thus of the order of r : r oo ooo ooo. IJut t h e e f f e c t o f a S u p p o s e da e t h c r d r i f t p a s t t h e e a r t h , d u e t o llfic/tclsott estinrares that by his improved apparatus he could an assumed effect of the earth's orbital rnotion. In this. s e e f r i n g e d i s p l a c e n t e n t so f r p a r t i n 4 o o o o o o o o o i f t h e y experiment a l;eam of light, from a terrestrial source. is snlit existed; and thrrs the precision of the apparatus exceeded the into trvo parts, one of rvhich is sent to and f.o. the m a g n i t u d e o f t h e f r i n g e d i s p l a c e m e n ts o u g h t b y f o r t y f o l d . l i n e o f t h e s u p p o s e d a e t h e r d r i f t , w h i l e t h e o t h"cro.s s e n t er is O n r e p e a t e dt r i a l , u n d e r f a v o r l b l e c o n d i t i o n s ,e v e r y t h i n g along the line of the aether drift. s e m i - t r a n s p a r e n m i r r o r s e t a t a 4 5 o a n g l e i s e m p l o y e d behaved exactlr. as if the aether s,ere stagnant. ,4fichclson t _.A t o s p l i t t h e b e a n r , a n d a p a i r o f n o r r n a l . a n d o r d i n a r l . m i r i o r s t h e r e f o r e s u s p e c r e dt h e d i f 6 c u l t v t o b e i n t h e t h e o r v i t s e l f : s e t p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e t u ' o h a l f b e a m s , a r e e r n l l l o r e d t o a n d r v e s h a l l n o n ' e x a r n i n e i n t o t h i s r l u e s t i o n ,t o s e e i f a n y r e t u r n t h e h a l I b e a n r s* ' h c n c e t h e y c a m e , t h u s e n a b l i n e t h e r n g r o u n d f o r t l r i s i r n p r e s s i o nc a n b e f o u n d . O r v i n g t o t h e t r a n s l a t o r ym o t i o n o f t h e . e a r t h , w e m a v to enter the observer's eye through a telescope. change the 6xccl Neq'tonian coordinates to correspond to uniform rnotion in the direction of the .r:-axis:

'N. ,ir4 .V/ii'

a':.a-yf

yt:y

2t:2

.lt:1,

(SO)

the'initial epoch / : o , w e l n a y e q u a t et h e s ec o o r _ clinatesto z.ero, and our transfonnations, owing to the nrotion of the earth, become: ht).t z, : (SZ) ctzr. ),'S i n c e t h e v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t i s t h e s a m e i n r e f e r e n c et o t h e 6 x e d a n d m o v e a b l e s ) ' s t e r n s f c o o r d i n a t e s ,a t t h e i n s t a n t o t-: t' : o , w e g e t f o r i d e n t i t i e s o f t h e s p h e r i c a lw a v e s u r faces propagated from the nroving source of light: r2-+-1,24s2: 62f x,2-f1,,2qrrz : 62Sr2 (SS) . where r is the velocity of light. Under the kinetic theory any heavenly body carries an electrodynarnic rvave-fieldabout its centre of figure, in perfect kinetic equilibrium. The arnplitude of the waves and therefore tbe density of the aether is arranged as shorvn in the acr. c o m p a n f i n g d i a g r a m ( p . r 8 S ) , w h e r e t h e t w o s t a r sn r a y h a v e t h e independent motions indicated by the vectors. The motion of either star automatically carries rvith it that star's own wavefield, and each field is independent of the other, just as th-e field of light waves emitted by any star is independent of that propagated lrom any other star. Hence owins to the earth's orbital motion we have the phenomenon oi stellar aberration, as iI the aether were really stagnant, because the wave-field has no nrotion relatively to the earth, though the earth itself rnove3, and thus generates the aberratioin, as follows: s':a.r(r-rit)

W'}.::N
Fig. ro. Illustration of the paths of the split beam o f l i g h t i n L l i c h t l s o n ' se x p e r i m e n t o f r g g 7 , one part trar.eling along the tlirection of thc earth'sorbital motion, the other at right . angles thercto. The apparatus was mounted on.a stone support about , 4 feet square, and one foot thick, and,this stone in turn mounted on a circular disk of rvood which floated in a tank 'fhe of mercury. resistance to rotation of the floatins disk is very small, and a slight. pressure on the circur-nffrence enables the observer to turn it around in say five minutes, rvith practically no oscillation.

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r84
l.ave-field in kinetic equililrriunr, moves with t h e e a r t h , a n d t h e g r a r ' i t a t i o n a lp o t e n t i a l d e ' pends on the integration of all these ivavelets betrveen the lirnits ._oo to -foo' Thus the triple integral for the potential correspontis to a trebly infinite system of rvavelets due to stresses decreasing rvith the a d i s t a n c e ,) ' e t s u p e r p o s e d t a l l l l o i n t s o f s p a c e , but thc potential for arty body itself is finite, as in the. thcory of action at a distance.

:'' I

\.

r' I ,' : SSS,, L( - .' ) ' - +( - tt) t+- ( s - '') '11 ..

Xdsdr'<ls. (Sq)
Sonre of frot-n any Fic. Il. r \ i t l t t l t e r r tc t ' r r t l l l u s t r a t i o no f t h e p r o p c r m o t i o n o f t \ \ o s t i t r sr r ' ) r i c lc a r r y jtrst as-.tltey arry tlleir c .""iti. *"""'n"ltls in perftct kinetic elrrilibrium' the inrlividual save , o n e p a r t i c l L ' l . r e ,o t r l e : -f' Zt : -{t! l'l .l,'' J'' t] l'l 3 ' 2: -r"-rl'"-r sttr{accs

ttio3, rvho cotnparetl l>y l'oun,g, -the. to thc llind blorvingthroughthe tol)s of tlirough,n" "oiit', .fhe l i g h t f r o m a d i s t a n t s t a r t r a v e l s i n d e p e n c t e n t l y , o f| save-llcld t h e u r o t i o n o f t h e e a r t l t : r n d o I i t s r n o v i n ga c t l r e r the earth's forwarcl nrotiort, in j Hence to take account of r a 1 ' so f l i g h t respect to space, \yc ,1av i.ragile the parallcl identical from the star to be given a b"ackrvard urotionh i.Sl 'L' s is the trtre earth, Z/. rvith the forrvard motron of the bl m o t i o n o f t h e l i g h t r e l a t i r . e l yt o t h e m o v i n g e a r t h , u n c l this simple de'ice, steliar aberration is lteriictly explaineil. .l.he 1 , l i g h t a c t n a l l y c o m e s f r o n t h e c l i r e c t i o r - r , , Sa n r i a r e ' tru.tiuJ 'rediu.r i. the path rvill have no ell-ect $ hatever. '

lil:'.:,Jil1:;,.,;':'.'J;,J',,lll.;1"::i il;i;';,;;::"J'f:',"#'.il;""'l:in:'i':,i: to aether' su1r1'osetl bc stretttting

trccs.

"'"'*j'"a"2 -

itn!

ir co)

liio. tz.

A t : i r e; c t a n J s i r n P l e c x p l a r t a t i o n o f t h e p h e n o u t e n o l r 'i;;i . ob"r.",iu., buse,l on the motlon of light ;f

c2tt2 't'he i n v e a c o t . t t t t t o na n d - intlividuul NuYe surl'eccs 2 ' : 1 ] 5d / : ' l o k r t t s "o r v i n g l r a r a l l t ' )r l i ' l r l r ' t t r r t t t t i l i : 1 " 1 6 1 " t o t h e o r l r j t r L ln i o t i o r . to l - t h e c a r t l l . Y c t t h c s t r e s s o l t h e a c t l r e r , i n k i n c t i c e t l u i l i b r i t l n r ,i s clctcnrrinccl irr-tle r:ontl.rortndingof the effect-sof tlie $'avcs 'I'his fixestbe tlcrrsitl'antl rigirlitv cprxnxrilr( lionr the earth. o f t h c a c t l - r c r ,r.v h i t : h i s a r r a n g e c l s y n r n l c t r i c l l l r ' : r l r o t t t t l r e p v i l - , r a t i n . q a r t i c l e s o f t h e g l o b e . A < ' < : o r t l i n g l v ,t t n t l e r t l r e r i k i p c t i c i 1 , . o . " , t h e a e t l i e l i s s t r t t l t r ; t t r lt r r t ' s 1 , t t t o t h e r r r o r i l ' g earth, prct:isely as founcl l,r' ,llir/ttlsott in his t elelrrrrtt-d e x l r c r i t t t c no f r 8 8 7 ' t IIcnce no theor]' Jiut the kinetic theory, rvith the part i < : l e sn r o v i n g r . 5 7 t i u l c s l ' a s t t r t h i l n l i g h t , c a n b e a d n r i t t e d ' 'l'his o l f o l l o s ' s a t o n c e 1 ' r o t to t t r i n v e s t i g l r t i o n f t l t e e n o r r l r o l t s ( ltlsc of e l a s t i c i t y o f t h c r e t l t c r , r v h i c h g i v e s t l r e p h y s i tl l ol- iooooo knts lrer second, ior tlle the obserlctl veiocitl' rnL e e' r ! c o st tl i \ a vc l l o i ll t *\''a Y C tlno t lto o s t s co nn sl t j tttltl ltg n { lr ir grlrrLt 'e r r dr c rlc ( tt:rtrr! ir c)i't 1 "
'I'hus it onll' rernuins to statc 'clearly' the kinetic h1'po-

.r''l-|--t,''2-Frt'2

r e l a t i v e l yt o t h e r n o v i n g e a r t h .

tSesis lncler)1ing

the riave.tht'ory'of lthlsical forces, nanlel.v:

The.reasoning of Klittfterfurs, about ihe refractive index of the medium in rvhich the light penetrates, does not dcal with the nrotion of the light rilatir;ely to the uroving earth, a n d t h u s h a s n o b e a r i n g o l n t h e s u b j e c t . A n c l l i k e r v i s e. ' l i r - v ' s\ o b r . r u " t i o r r u i e x p e r i m e n l , r v i t h t h e z e n i t h t e l e s t r o p ct u l , r e3 6 I i n c h e s l o n g , h l l e d r v i t h r v a t e r( G r e e n r v i c hO b s e r v a t i o n s , . r S T ,. I j T h e n e g a t i v e r e s u l t so , l , f. ,-r01, is misappliedingenuityr). | -simple

i"r""j'ii

-l t l r . F o r t h e a e r h e r h a-s a' n e' l a s t i c i 't,y-6 8 9 3 z . 1 6 o o o o o , a r. Vle w lrc e s e ru S l m P t e v i eW h e frc s c rt f o trrtrh . I A : '. I :: greater than that of our air in proportion to its densiti" just as each star carries its orvn l'ave-field I tinre. Accordingly, t-'i:.']l::':':r"li:"j;.-il

: o[ is ,t,"." ^'"',tt..ities" proof oi the correctness the | ...r-,r" the larv of density !
-

we concei'e all atonrs ol-nratter to receive and to etttit rvaves, rvithortt regirrtl to the nrotion "^lln::"."::lll: :,::ijtT]t,.1: other atonis, just as rve knorv the stars enrit thcir tvPicrl it'r space' spectral lincs in spite of their proPer r))otiorls s A c c o r c l i n g l r 'a s t h e A e t h e r c o r P r t s c l c h a ! e t h c . : o , . n ' o l l , i y e l o c i t l ' o f ' . 1 r o o o k m s p e r s e c o n d , t h i s r t r e t l i r r n rs t a k c n l o T kinetic equilibriurnabotrt the *u"lnq."1,r,lll .:I:ll":;-:] Le in

, r,

.antl.

of witle amplitude

lack.:l pe.ll:'l^fli:::, *ott"' in.the I and, of with it, so also,eachparticle vibratins ii,1"t rvould disappear frour the aethereal
rnhoie I earth, sends out its system of spherical waves, una ,n. r) Though I have exarninedmanv authorttiesl c-anfind no satisfactorv :L{:"^ii":,:f

envelope of the earth

t1r':.,*:T:.t::,i'-'l:?,1'"""111,,:::l:"1r,'}#t:

, ' " n , " u , o n 1 n | . l ] * i n J l i ; : - : [ ' : . ; . ; ; , ' ' i } , , / , , i I " : ' ' ' ' i g n . r v " ' " ' a i r d t h eoirr U,."" " , i,rr t9 on ,i p . r 5bri : , t' o. l b e oebo c i tc t io f nl tg hith ia n d' pf l ae ' .f i l l e d J t t i 3 ts or t l i r e ' l j e y o i o , s e i * r ii -

the velocity w a s , h o r v e v e r ,r a i s e d t h a t i f t h r s a n g l e ( 2 o . 5 ) r v e r e t h - e r u t i o o f one antl one'third t o b e o n l j ' t h r e e - f o u r t h so f w h a t i t i s i n a i r , i t s ' o u l d t a l i e a t e l e s c o p er v i t h r v a t e r , l n * h i c h t h ? , e ) o " i i y o f l i g h t i s k n o r v n c r o s s - l v i r e s ,a n t l h e n c e $ e o u g h t t o o b s e r v e ' n o t t h e a c t u a l a n g l e objective to th" times as long for the light to pass from the center of the 'l'he antl obserjhould be one-thi*l greater. e x p e r i r n e n tr v a s a c t , a l l y t r i e d . A t e l e s c o l x I a s t r l l c d w i t h $ x t e r ' of aberration, but one which result that alurost exactly.the satne valuc was founcl were continued throughout the greater part of the year, rvith the vations on various stars for the angle of aberration'n

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i n a n i n f i n i t e l y s n r a l l f r a c t i o n o f a s e c o n d , o r v i n g t o t h e do not apprer:iably carry the ether rvith therr. Their motion m e a n v e l o c i t y o f t h e a e t h e r o n sb e i n g 4 7 r o o o k m s p e r s e c o n d . d o e . s n o t s e e m t o d i s t u r b i t i n t h e l e a s t . < >'l'he presumption is that the same is true for the I 2 . S i r O l i u c rL o d 3 e ' sE x p e r i m e n t s f o r d e t e c t i n g a t h e V i s c o s i t y o f t h e A e t h e r , r 8 9 r - g 7 , a n d - l ; ' i / z . g c r . a / des r t h ; b n t t h e e a r t h i s a b i g b o d y - - i t i s c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t ' H y p o t h e s i s o I a c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e d i n r e n s i o n s o f so great il ntass may be able to act rvhen a srnall mass rvould fail. I rvouid not like to be too sure about the earth - at bodies in the clirectionof their nrotion. 'l'ransactions, le.ast,not on a strictly experinrental basis. \\/hat I do feel In the Philosophical r 893-97, Sir Oliurr Lodge d,escribes elaborate experinrents l'ith rcvolving stccl s u r e o f i s t h a t i f r n o v i n g m a t t e r d i s t u r b s e t h e r i n i t s n e i g h disks, aborrt a meter in diameter, n'hich he hacl sprrn rvith b o r h o o d a t a l l , i t d o e s s o b y s o r n e n r i r r u t ea c t i o n , c o m p a r a b l e the highest possiblespeed, in close proxinity to a split beam in antount perhaps to gravitation, and possibly by meansof the same prol)ert)' as that to rvhich gravitationis due ; not of light, arranged as in ,4fichelsazz's experinrent of r887, in t h e h o p e o f c l i s c o v e r i n ga r e l a t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n to I t h e f r i n g e s , b y a n y t h i n g t h n t c a n f a i r l y b e l i k e n e d t o e t h e r i a l v i s c o s i t y . due to viscosity o[ the aether. 'l'he experimcnt u'as s.ell S o f a r a s e x l r e r i n r e n th a s g o n e , o u r c o n r : l u s i o n i s . t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y o r f l L r i df r i c t i o n o f t h e e t h e r i s z e r o . A n r l t h a t i s c o n c e i v e d , n n d e x e c u t e d* ' i t h g r e a t s k i l l , b u t i t f a i l e d t o g i l e a n e n t i r e l l ' r e a s o n a b l ec o n c l u s i o n . < the smallest indication of a displacement such as viscosity In vierv of onr. theory of a kinetic' medium, we mav of the aether rvould be supposed to yielcl. 'l'he rcsults rverc entirely.negative, and Lod.gc, like ltichclsozz,cou)cl onl1, con- now so frrrther rhtn Frtsttel, Mir/ttlson and Sir Otirrr I.odgt, c l u d e t h a t t h e a e t h e r l ; e h a v e sa s i f i t r v c r e a b s o l u t e l ys t a g n a n t . a n d d e c l a r e t h : r t : r s t h e c o r p u s c u l a r a e t h e r r e a d j u s t s i t s e l f Let us norv consider rvhl' the negative results of tlfirhrlsott i n s t a n t l y t o a n y s t a t e o f s t e a d y m o t i o n , i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e and lod.qc follorv, if the aether be a kinetic medium such as t n o t i o n o f t h e e a r t h c a n i n n o w a ) r d i s t u r b i t . T h e r e i s 1Vu,lott, tlfaru,rll and Dr. S. Tolucrf\'tsl02t conceiyed it to be, p l a n c t a r y i n c l u c t i o n i n d e e d , f r o n r t h e r v a v e - e f f e c t u e t o t h e d rclative rnotioir of the sun and ea1th, l;ut this is observable a n d s r r c ha s r v e h a v e f o u n d i t t o b e b y e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n s . I f t h e a e t h e r b e c o r p u s c u l a r , t h e p a r t i c l e s h a v i n g a o n l y b y m a g n e t i c i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d n o t t r 1 . r t r e a n so f o t h e r v e l o c i t y r . 5 7 t i n r e s t h a t o f l i g h t , i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t i t r v i l l a l ) p a r a t u sl l s e d i n p h y s i c a l e x p e r i n r e n t s . Il, as is definitely proved by calculation, the aether a d j u s t i t s e l f i n s t a n t l y t o a n ) ' s t a t e o f s t e a c l yn r o t i o n , a n c l t h a t t h i s k i n c t i c e q u i l i b r i u r n s ' i l l l r e o l r t a i n e c lr n o r e r a p i d l r . t h a n h a s a n e l a s t i c i t y 6 8 g 3 2 r 6 o o o o o t i m e s g r e a t e rt h a n t h a t o f even the propagation of lieht. t\nd rvhen Str Oliurr Lod.gt's o u r a i r i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s d e n s i t y , i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t i t n o t m o v i n g d i s k i s r e v o l v i n g s t e a c l i l y , h e a e t h e r n i l l a c t a s i f o n l y p c n c t r a t e sa l l b o d i e s , b u t e v e n t h e e l e c t r o d y n a m i cr v a v e s t i n t h c a e t h e r n t a y t r a v d r s e t h e b o d y o f t h e t e r r e s t r i a lg l o b e it rvere absolutely stirgnant. r ri t h o n l v a s n t a l l r e s i s t a n c e , g i v i n s m e r e l y r e t r a c t i o n , d i s p c r s i o n , a n d p e r h a p sa b s o r p t i o n o f p a r t o f . t h e e n e r g y , a s \ \ , e h a v e s h o r v n i n t h e t h e o r y o f t h e l u n a r f l u c t u a t i o n s( E l e c t r o d . \\Iave-'l'heory f Ph1'sl'orc., vol.I, r9 r 7). It not only follorvs o . t h a t t h i s a d j u s t m e n to f t h e a e t h e r t o a n ) ' s t a t e o f s t e a d ym o r i o n rvill occur, ltut also that no pou'er in the universe could p r e v e n t s u c h a k i n e t i c a c i j u s t n r e n t n t h e a l l - p e r v a d i n gn r e d i u n r , i, u n d e r t h e a b o v e s t u p e n c l o u sc l a s t i c p o r v e r r v h i c h i t e x e r t s a g a i n s t i t s e l f . I t i s t h e r e b r , r e n d e r r ' d a l n r o s ti n c o m p r e s s i b i e , t h e r v a v e s r a v e l i n g* i t h a v e l o c i t vo f 3 o o o o o k m s p e r s e c o n d . t 'fhe physical nreaning of such rapid propagation of w a v c s i s t h i s : \ l / h e n a r v a v e b e g . i n st o b e g e n e r a t e d , t h e d i s t u r b a n c es p e e d s a 1 \ ' l y v e r y r a p i d l y , s o t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t is not cyclicll' conrplete until a wave length L has been traversed. As the arnplitude a is very srnall, conrpared to i,, - as Lord Krluitt, ,4laxruell and Larmor have shorvn, - rt follows that the aether is nearly incompressib)e,hough the t density at the sun's surface is only F-ig, t3. Illustration of Sir Oliuer f.odgc's apparatus for effccting a disl a s t c o n s i c l e r a t i o n sa l s o s h o i v w h v r v e c a n n o [ Hence the conclusion reached by Sir Oliutr Lodgc d i s t u r b t h e a e t h e r b y r e v o l v i n g d i s k e x p e r i n r e n t s , A c c o r d i n g l y ( A e t h e r o f S p a c e ,p . 8 z ) , a s t o t h e r e v o l v i n g < i i s k e x p e r i m e n t s , it is not reu.rarkable that Prof. ,F. E. Nphet-, of St. Louis, \\'as natural enough and quite justified in the premises, l'hen h a s s n c c e c c l e di n d i s t u r b i n g t h e a e t h e r o n l y b y m e a n s o [ h e d e c l a r e d : ) I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h e e t h e r m ' o v e s . l t d o e s n o t e x p l o s i o n s o f d y n a m i t ' e , a n e x p l o s i v eo f e n o r m o u s p o w e r a n d rnove at a five-hundredth part of the speed of the steel disks. e x c e s s i v e l yq u i c k a c t i o n . l ' h i s n o t o n l y s h o r v s t h e f u t i l i t y Further experience confirrns and strengthens this estimate, of viscosity experiments, rvith comparatively slorv, steaciy' and my conclusion is that such thines as circular-saws, n)otions,as rvhen the revolving disks, a nreter in diameter, f l y w h e e l s , r a i l r v a y t r a i n s , a n d a l l o r d i n a r y m a s s e s o f m a t t e r make 66 rotations in a second t), but also confirms the
t) This is only r : 2356193 of the velocity of the aetheron, 47t239ooom per second.
placement of the aether, otving to viscosity, by thc rapirl rotation of disks of stecl, near u'hich a split bcarn of liglrt is passcd, 6: 2.o X to-l'.

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extremely rapid readjustment of the aether when disturbed. Therefore it follows that our theory of a kinetic tnediunr, with the particles traveling r.57 times faster than light, is in accordance with all the established t'acts of observation. After giving a summary of all the known effects (Aether of Space, p.6z'63), Lodge concludes that the aether behaves under experiment as if it rwere stagnant with respect to the earth. rWell then, perhaps it is stagnant. The experiments I hane quoted do not prove that it is so. They are equally consistent riith its perfect'freedom and with its absolute s t a g n a t i o n , t h o u g h t h e y a r e n o t c o n s i s t e n tw i t h a n y i n t e r ' nt"di"t. position. Certainly, if the aether were stagnant nothing could. be simpler than their explanation'< 'l'he nerv theory of .the aether as a kinetic t'rtcdittm gives the stagnant quaiity sought by /lfichelsott and f.odge, yet it preserves the rperfect freedom< with rvhich the ex-

such an alteration in dirnensions is consistenirvith souncl physical larvs. By this hypothesis o[ Iiitz,gcrald, the end-on-dimensions of a moving body i-' shortened

)))*

I Illustration of Fi/z,gtttr/r/'s hyPothesis that the dintensiotts of a bo,ly, Inovitrg frccly, uniforrnly, and rvithout constraint, is tlecrcased in the di' rcction of the nrotion

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'l'his h y p o t h e t i < : a lc h a n g e i s n o t its shorvn in the figure. postulatcd lbr thc starting of a lrody in nlotion - rvherc its fisure rnight be changed in overconring inertia, when - lrut for a body the fbrrvard vc'locity is being develolled periments are consistent' alrerrdf in unilirrur rectilil)ear urotiotr, anci thus so far as is Accordingly, the aether being a perfectly elastic cork n o w n s u l > j c c t c dt o n o s t r a i n o f i t s l i n e a r d i r n e n s i o n s . p u s c u l a r m e d i u m , a l w i r y s a d j u s t i n g i t s i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e sr v i t h 1\ttttt/on'sllrst llrv of motion (l'rincipia, Lib. I, Axioms) - t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e sh a v i n g at leastthe velocity of light i s : > l . i v c r y b o t l l ' p c r s e v e r e si n i t s s t a t e o f r e s t ' o r o f u n i f o r m - it follorvsthat around a velocity of r.57 times greater)'et, n r o t i o n i n a r i g h t l i n e , r t n l e s si t i s . c o n r p e l l e d t o c h a n g e t h a t a b o d y m o v i n g r v i t h u n i f o r n r v e l o c i t l ' . t h e r ec o u l d b e e x e r t e d i n r p r e s s e dt h e r e o n . < atolrs, to s t a t e l > y l i > r c e s no sustained forces, irnpressed or acting upon the > > l ) r o j e c t i l el')s r s e v e r ei n t h e i r t r t o t i o n s , s o f a r a s t h e y e alter the linear dirnensions of the uniformly n.rovingbody; a r c n o t r c t r i r d c c l b 1 ' t l r e r e s i s t a n c eo f t h c a i r , o r i m p e l l e d arrd hence we reject 't'-itz,gcrald's hypothesis as altogether d o * n r v e r t l s l - r vt h e f o r c c o f g r a v i t l ' . ' \ t o p , r r ' h o s ep a r t s b y misleading. c tlreir cohesion arc I)erpetrtrrlly lrlrrvnasitle front rectilinear H F i t z , q c r a l d ' s y p o t h e s i s , t h a t t h e i i n e a r c li t n e n n r o t i o n s , d o e s t r o t c t a s e i t s r o t a t i o l l , o l l l e ' r r v i s et h a n a s i t 'l'he sions of bodies are altered by nrotion relative to grertcr l-rociies f the planets o is retarded [rv the air. the aether, superfluous and misleading. a n d c o n r e t s , u r c c t i t r gl i t h l e s s r e s i s t a n c e i n t r i o r e l i e e s p a c e s , ntiorrs In Natrrre for Jttne r6, r89z, Sir OIit'tr Za{q'r Irre l ) r e s e r v e t h c i r m o t i o n s l r o t h p r o g r c s s i v ea r t d c i r c t t l a r f o r a a conversation rvith the late Prol. Gco. F' Fitz,qcrall, (cf. also n r u c h l o r t g e r t i n t e . < Lodge's Aether o[ Space, I go9; p. 68) to the effect that the lf these axiottts \\'ere obYiotls to Sir Isaac Ntu.'lon, it d i m e n s i o n so f r n a t e r i a l b o d i e s a r e s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d r v h e n t h e l ' rvill no doubt be etpralll' obviorts to tls that a body ri'ray 'l'he negative result of - as a r e i n n r o t i o n r e l a t i v e .t o t h e a e t h e r . have its dimensions altercd irt actluirirrg a I'elocity, the Michelson-'lforley experitnent oi r887 rvas the ocqasion i v h e n a b r l l i s s t r u c k b y a b a t - 1 ' e t t l r e e l t r s t i c i t f o f t h e which called forth .l'-itz|'crald's hypothesis. b o d y l , i l l i n t n i e t l i a t e l t 'a s s c r t i t s e l f , s o t h a t t h e f i g t r r e w i l l I t / b e t h e v e l o c i t v o f t h e e a r t h ' so r b i t a l r r l o t i o n , / t h c o s c i l l a t e a b o u t i t s l l ) e a n o r u n d i s t u r b e t l l b r n r ; a n d a f t e r a v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t , / t h e l e n g t h o f p a t h t r a v c r s e d b y t h e b e a t t t c e r t a i n t i u r e t l r c o r i g i n a l f i g u r e r v i l l [ ) c ( ] o l I ) cr e s t o r e d . A n d of light divided in Michelson'sexperirnent; then, one ol' the i t & c r e a f t e r t h c r e r i i l l I r c t t o p e r t t t a n e n tc ] r a n g eo f f i g u r e , T h i s trvo portions of a split beam of light should urake its jottrnel' i s a f a c t o f u r t i l e r s a l e x p e r i e n c e , a n d m a y b e v e r i f i e d e x ' rbe in less time than the other by the interval lz2lf c2, tf 'l'lris lteriurentally in ottr laboratories b1'all lnanner of actual aether itself be motionless, as Mithrlsarz supposed. ll)easurelrents. 'l'he difference, however, would be compensated if the arm of nrost crrrefttl physical experiments shorv that bodies in the direction oI the earth's urotion the apparatus pointed undcr constraint, tend very rapidll'to restore their 1;la<:ed Lf lf c2, whicl] f i g u r e s o f e r l t r i l i b r i u m . A c c o r d i n g l y i t f o l l o l s t h a t b o d i e s ru"r" sho.t.r than the other by an amount "/2 g b o d i e s a r e w o u l d f o l l o w i f t h e l i n e a r d i r n e n s i o n so f m o v i n having uniform trtotion of long duration in .any direction, 'motion in the ratio of could not undergo changes of figure, in virtue of uniform contracted in the direction of their ft-'lrVzfc2) to r. motion, rvithout physical constraint, rvhich in trrrn would cali is: Norv tbr the earth the ratio in question forth the power of restitution, at the instant of release. (ror) Hence in uniform unrestrained tnotion no alteration in the t/toooo Ylt: 3okm/sec:3oooookm/sec ( r o z ) figure of erluilibriurn appropriate to a state of rest would be r/roooooooo V2fc2: and the square - namely possible, and Fitzgcrarl's contraction hypothesis is contrary which shows that -the alteration in dimensions to the order of Nature.

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The minuteness of .is only one two hundredth millionth. this hypothetical observed effect would make detection by experiment extremely difficult, even if a valid method could be devised. But let us consider' on other grounds, whether
..-3'

In concluding this second paperr it is scarcely necessar)' to point out that prior to the development of the kinetic theory o[ the aether, experiments like those made by tlfichclson and Il,forlel, and Sir Oliuer Lodgc led to the idea of a stagnar)t

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aether. Theie are indeed profound reasons rvby the aether br4cing the untenable speculations of Einstein when the facts should act as if it were absolutely stagnant, u,hereas the o[ observation themselves are insecurely established. particles really move r.5Z times faster than light, and thus And as for the overdrawn statement of prof. Sir /. ]. the medium instantly adjusts itself to any state of steady T/tottson, President of the Royal Society, that the ,up[o.ia m o t i o n , w h a t e v e r i t m a y b e ; b e c a u s e t h e m o t i o n o f t h e larger value of the solar deflection of light indicated by the aetheron is roooo fold faster tha! that of our srviltest planets, eclipse observations of May 2g, rgrg, >is the -most important and over two nrillions of times faster than any steady result obtained in connection with the theory of gravitation artificial motions rvhich rve can make experimentally, as in since Ncutott's day, and it is fitting that it shoutd be anthe researches of Sir Oliutr Lodge rvith rapidly revolving nounced at a meeting of the socieiy so closely conlected disks of steel. rvith him<<, it suffices to call attention to the nnfortunate On the old hypotheses tl.te Mic/telson-Morle1,experiment impression thus conveyed to investigators, who remember 'r887 on of r v a s a d m i r a l ; l y a d a p t e d t o d e t e c t t h e e f f e c t o f t h e the one hand the historical lact that the Royal Societv in e a r t h ' s m o t i o n t h r o u g h t h e a c t h e r . L i t t l e c i i d t h e s c c n r i n e n i r686 refused to publish L) Ntuton's Principia, and thus it'had experirnenters dream that thc earth carried its rvave-field of to be issued at the private expense of Dr. Ednurd ltattq, aether rvith it, - all infinitely extended and adjusted in (cl. l)rru,sto's Life of Alctaton, z vols., r855), and on thl p e r f e c t k i n e t i c e r l u i l i b r i u r n . ' I - h i s w a v e - f i e l d h a s c i e c r c a s e d other hand the vast development and perfection of the theory density towards the centre, in virtue of the increesccl arn- of gravitation since mrde by Eulcr, Clairault, Lagran,gc, p ) i t r i d e s o f t h e w a v e s e m a n a t i n g l r o m t h e a t o r r s , a n d t h u s Lop/art, Poisson, Rtsscl, Gauss, Eansen, Lcucrrier, Ait.1,, Dci s t m l y s t a g n a n t a b o u t t h e n r o v i n g e a r t h i n r e s p e c t o f r v a v e s launa1,, Adans, Tisscrand, G1ldln, ffill, Nett,contb, poincary', o f l i g h t f r o m d i s t a n t s t a r s , i n t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f a b e r r a t i o n . Darwin, and seveiral erlinent geometers still living. ' .{ccordingll', rvhether the components of the split beam In contradistinction to the singularspectaclethus preol light, frorn a terrestrial sotlrce, as used by lficrtclson, travel s e n t e d i n t h e R o y ' a l S o c i e t l ' , i t i s a r e l i e f t o f i n d a m u c h i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c a r t h ' s o r b i t a l m o t i o n , . o r a t r i g h t n r o r e c a u t i o u sa t t i t u d e i n t h e . i \ ' I o n t h l y o t i c e s f o r N o v . , r 9 r 9 , N angles tlrereto, no shift of the fringes is theoretically possible, p. zl, where Prof . ,\7u,a// gives good reasons for rejecting because of the perfect kinetic equilibrium of fhe rvave-field Einstuin's theorv of the deflection of light in the sun's field, of the aether about the earth and extending away frorn it i n f a v o r o f o p t i c a l r e f r a c t i o n . indefinitely. In the \ineteenth Century Magazine, for Dec., rgrg, For similar reasons Filz,grrald's hypothesis rests on a Sir OIit,tr Zarl.qr Iikervise is skeptical; for he reasons that if false premise, and only beclouds the reasoning in this dif- we acccpt Linsfuin's theory in its entirety, >the death knell 'fhe ficult subject. fundarnental condition required for real o f t h e a e t h e r u ' i l l s e e m t o h a v e b e e n s o u n d e d , s t r a n g e l y progress is a valid kinetic theory of the aether, such as efficient properties rvill be attributed to ernptiness, and Nculon first outlined two hundred )'ears ago, and Matrurll theories of light and of gravitation rvill have come into approved in r877, but ,left very incomplete, orving to the being unintelligibleon ordinary dynamical principles<. Such prenature death o[ this great rnathematician. protests rvould indicate that .the Nervtonian philosophy still S i n c e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s c o n n e c t e d r v i t h t h e m o t i o n o f t h e has sonre su.pporters in E,ngland, but apparentll' they are not perihelion of l{ercury and of the lur.rar perigee, as well as a \ \ ' a r e o f t h e r e a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e i r c a u s e , a s n o w b r o u g h t t o the lunar fluctuations, which .Neutcorzlpronounced the most l i s h t i n t h e N e r v 1 ' h e o r y o f t h e A e t h e r . e n i g m a t i c a l l t h e n o n r e n ap r e s e n t e d b y , t h e c e l e s t i a l m o t i o n s , Accordingly, in .r.iervof the comprebensive results alare fully overcome, rvithout any mystical doctrine such as readl' reached in the Nerv 'I'heory of the Aether, the defenders Einstcin introduces, it is evident that the whole theory of o f t h e N e w t o n i a n m e c h a n i c s c o u l d h a r d l y w i s h f o r a m o r e relativity, as heretofore developed, is shaken to its founda- c o m p l e t e t r i u m p h . A n d i t i s g r a t i f y i n g t o r e a l i z e t h a t i t i s tions, and will no longer deserve the serious consicleration based rrpon the original conceptions of Sir fsaac Arcutlon oI naturaI philosophers. himself, after the sinrple and elegant theory of this great For several years experienced investigators in all parts p h i l o s o p h e r h a d b e e n a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y a b a n d o n e d b 1 , h i s of the world have rvondered at the strange sight prcsented c o u n t r y m e n , by British men of science in unjustifiably abandoning the I am indebted to rny young friend I!Ir. .d. L. Middleton, established natural philosophy of Ncuton, and hastily em- f o r v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c en . t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s i n v e s t i e a t i o n , i

Starlight on Loutre, I\{ontgomery City, Nlissouri, tgzo Febr. r9.

T. J. J. Scc.

r) The well known d e l a y o f t 4 y e a r s ( r 8 o 7 - r 8 z r ) i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f l i o t u ' i e r ' s m a t h e m a t i c a lr e s e a r c h e so n t h e t h e o r y o f h e a t s e e m s to Place the Paris Acaderny of Sciences in an equally unfortunate light. In the dloge Historique of Fo*rier delivered by 2rogo, blame. is placed on the commissionery oj the Academy - Lagrarge, Laptace and Legendre - for poisoning the pleasure of Fourie)'s triu-mph, which L o r d ' J ( e l u i n h a s a l s o c r i t i c i z e d . A s n o c o m m i s s i o n e r sc o u l d b e m o r e c o m p e t e n t t h a n . t h e ' t h r e e g e o m e t e i s j u s t c i t e d , h i s t o r y o f t e n i s w i r n e s s t o t h e * ' e a k n e s s e so f t h e h i g h e s t a c a d e m i e so f s c i c n c e s ; a n d h e n c e , i n h i s v e r y o r i g i n a l R e s e a r c h e i i n t h e L u n a r T h m r y , t 8 j 7 , D r . G , I I / . n i / / had recourse to private.publication, which probably rvas better than the fate accor<ied to Neuttorr and, tr'ottt'icr.

Anzeige. Atts dern Instrumentenbestande des frtiheren Reichs-Kolonialan)tes rverden. demndchst eine Anzahl kleiner astronom. Instrumente -'Durchgangs-Instr., Universal-Instr., Astrolabien, Pendel-, Schiffs- u. Taschenuhren u.s.rv. verkituflich, Die Instrumente sollen nur an Selbstbenutzer abgegeben u'erden. .Wegen Errverbs dieser Instrumente wollen sich Reflbktanten u'enden an Prof. Anbronn, Gdttingen.

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Band 212.
New Theory

Nr. 5079.
of the Aether. tsy T. /. /. See. :

15.

(Third I'apcr.) (With 3 Plates.)

l. Two RenrarkableTheorems on the Physical Constitution of the Aether. In the year rgro Professor E. T' WtittaZrz published, under the auspices of the Dtlblin University Press, a valuable )History of the Theories of Aether and l)lectricity< from 'Ihe the age of Dcsrurtcs to the close of the rgth century. title of this useful treatise and the general usage of science recognizes that there is some connection bet*'ecn aether and electricity, yet in spite of the great learnins shos'n in Whittahcr's work, the nature of that connection remains profoundly obscure, and the modern investigator thercfore labors in vain to obtain any clear light rrpon the subject. If we coulcl prove, for example, that an electric current is nothing but a series o[ rvavesof a certain type propagated in the aether along and fronr the wire which beais the current' and also connect these rvaves with rnagnetism and light, by an extension of the reasoning thtls laid down, it would add so much to ottr understanding of the processes nnderlying the unseen operations of the physical rtniverse, as to be worthy of aln-rostany effort. Indeed, it woulrl be rvorth hazarding any chance offered by the conscientiotts contemplation of knorvn phenomena. And thus I ventrtre to adcl some considerations, which, without exhausting the subject, may open a new field to those rvho have the independence, practical energy and firm resolution to ptlrstle pioneer paths in science. l'hese untrodden paths alone offer the hope of importarit discoveries in the physical universe. And first rve Intlst confirnr a new and iurportant tlleorem on the velocity of rvave-progagationin monatotnic grrses, announced in the first paper, and also make knotvn a new and very remarkable rnethod for determining the clensitl' ol' Gas
It

the aether based on an extension of recognized' processeb in the theory of sound. As the only method for attacking the problem of the density of the aether heretofore known is that invented by I-ord ,Kcluin in 1854, this nerv method rvill prove extrernely useful as an independent check on the numerical values attained in these recondite researches; and be found the more valuable because it is absolutely decisive against the doctrine of a large deirsitj' for the aether, which has recentll' exerted in science an influence both baneful and hervildering. ; (i) 'l'he nerv theorem u -- rf zrt l/, connecting the mean velocity of a monatomic gas with the velocity of wavemolecr.rlar b p r o p a g a t i o n , y m e a n so f h a l f t h e A r c h i m e d e a nn u m b e r ,e x a c t l y confirnred bl' observrtion in case of oxygen and nitrous oxide. Since finishing the first paper on the New 1'heory of the Aether,Jan. r4, r9zo, I have had occasion to discuss the nerv theorem (') I - rf,rr It g c o n n e c t i n g t h e r r l e a n r n o l e c u l a rv e l o c i t v o f a r n o n a t o n r i c a s b and the velocity of wave-propagation, 1'means of half the Archinredean number ru, ivith the celcbrated English physicist Sir Oliuu F.odgt, on the occasion of a public address at San lirancisco, April l r, rg2o. And as Sir Oliucr Lodgc kinrlly shos'ed a great interest in this theorem, regarded it as \/ery important, and urged me to extencl the u.'"cof the theorem, I have searchedfor other gasesto rvhich it might be accnrately applied. 'fhe obscrvecl data givcn in the follorving supplemenE tary tableare taken from II'ii//nrr's xperimental-Physik, B a n d r , p . 8 o 4 , a n c l s ' e r e a c c i d e n t a l l yo v e r l o o k e d i n t h e p r e paration of nr1' earlier table. rnolecular l't
L

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Z(Air:

r) 1 1 6 . ,n t l z8r.r i

z' observed

gJ z(observe ol rr. /(b1lk) I z-/

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all of which are of comparatively simple molecular constitution, rve may regard it as fully established by experiment t h a t s u c h .a p h v s i c a l l a w g o v e r n s t h e . m o t i o n s o f w a v e s i n

m o n a t o m i cg a s e s ,a n d t h a i t h e v e l o c i t yo f w a v e m o t i o n i s which verifiesrvith great accuracythe use of halt the Archi- I :^;-,: . solely dependenttrpon the mean velocity of the molecules' medeannumber z, in the theorem,
r, r ,. connectingthe mean molecular velocity with that of rvave-I ,oll".ulo. velocit];, we may use the obseived velocity of in monatomic gases' propagation generallyio throw light upon the molecular wave-propagation As this theorem is now minutely verified for the six best determined gases, namely: r. Air 4. Carbon dioxide CO: *61g61sof all gases ivhatsoever. ln the relerence abo'e given to ll,'iillntr's Experimental-Physik, Band r, p. 8o4, rve find that the velocity of sound in hydrogen was found by Dulong But in acldition to the argument thus built up, for a high wave velocity, where rve have a rare gas of enormous

z. Hydrogen 3. CarbonmonoxideCO

5. Oxygen 6. Nitrous oxideNO2

t i m e s t h a ti n - a i r , a n d b y . R e g n a u l t , 3 . 8 otri m e s ] to be 3.8123 that in air. The rnean of the two valuesis 3.8o665. Now r6

235

5079

236

in hydrogen has a velocity 3.8o665 tirues greater than in a i r , t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 2 3 75 5 o t i m e s t h e v e l o c i t y o f s o u n d in hydrogen. But hydrogen is a biatonric gas .with the ratio r.4ot, while aether is monatouric, with the ratio B u t s i n c e o x y g e n i s s u p p o s e dt o h a v e o n l y r 5 . 9 8 t i n r e s h 2 : r . 6 6 6 ; a n d t h e r e f o r et o r e d u c e t h e m o t i o n i n h y d r o g e n the molecular weight of hydrogen, we should use the square I r : to the basis of a monatomic gas, we have to divide this root of this number, or 3.9975, instead of 4, for the multiy'(ttllr): r . o g o 4 77 , w h i c h l e a d s t o t h e n u m p l i e r , w h i c h g i v e s 3 . 8 o 7 a ; a n a l m o s t e x a c t a g r e e r n e n tw i t h n u m b e r b v 'fhis ber z r 7839. is the ratio of the velocity of light in a the mean of the velocities of sound in hydrogen foLrnd by rnonatoniic aether to that of sound in a hypothetical monaDulong and Regnatll tomic hydrogen, yet with density o.oooo896. It follorvs, lrom'these considerations, that the velocity 'fhis result is based on the wave theory of sound as of wave motion in sirnilar gases varies inversely as the square 'I'he fourfold increase in the velocity given by Sir Isaac Netuton in the Principia, r686 (Lib. II, roots of their densities. of sound in hydrogen compared to that in oxygen gives l'rop. XL,VllI), which rvas corrected b5' Lallace in r 8 r 6 ' us a definite larv which rnay be appiied directly to all com- ( c f ' . t r f d c a n i q u eC i l e s t e , ' I . V . I - i v , X I I , p . 9 6 , a n d A n n . P h y s . parable gases, and even to lnonatonic gases bv the use of e t C h i u r . , ' f . l l l , p . 2 8 8 ) , t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e a u g n r e n t e t i o n of speed due to the ratio of the specific heat of a gas under tbe faktor t/(4lar). , c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e t o t h a t u n d e r c o n s t a n tv o l u m e . A s a b o v e (ii) New method for deternrining the density of the used the formula for the propagation of sound is further aether from the velocity of light and electric wavcs comcorrected to take account of the increase in velocity in a pared to that of sound in terrestrial gases. nronatornic gas, hrst inlerred theoretically by Clausius abour U p t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e o n l y o n e q e n e r a l r r e t l r o d h a s sixty years ago, but since verified experimentally for mercury been availabie for calculating the density of the aether, vapor, argon, heliunr; neon, xenon, and krypton. 'l'he forrnula namely, that devised by Lord licluin for deternrining the t h u s b e c o m e s f o r a e t h e r a n d h y d r o g c n , r s r e d u c e d t o a mechanical value of a cubic rnile of sunlight, anci first l n o n a t o m i c e l a s t i c i t y : published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of l.ldiny'(Eto2fE"or):zr7S.;e. , lrlI/r: 13/ l b u r g h f o r M a y , r 8 5 a ( c f . l l a l t i n . r o r e - e c t u r e s ,r g o 4 , p . z 6 o ) . This method was somervhat inrproved by the subsc-(luent Under identical physical conditions at the surlace of the E.t, and thus researches of Lord Kcluin, tlfarurll, and the present rvriter, eartb, Zi : 'l'ht'ory as duly set forth. in the llrst paper on the Neiv of l/rltrr: t/(o2lo):217839 the Aether (AN 5o44, 2tt.ag), ),et the principle underlying o r it remains largely unchanged. (ztZ8:S), : Vr"lV"' : ,tzldt: -\r1: 4745383oooo (4) A s ' i t w o u l d b e v e r y c l e s i r a b l et o h a v e a s e c o n d i n - w h i c h i s t h e d e n s i t y of .hydrogen in units of that of aether. dependent method for determining the density of the aether, 1'o get the densitl' of water in units of that of aether, I have held in rnind this great desideratum rvhile occupied we take with the researcheson the rvave-theorv,and finallf it occuired (S) to me to attack the problem from the point of vieu' of the M :,4/r/o.oooo8g 6 : 5 z 9 6r g o o o o o o o o o . gases. For rr'e have norv shos,n that velocity of sound in Accordingll' the absolute density of the aether at the t h e a e t h e r i s a g a s , w i t h p a r t i c l e st r a v e l i n g r . 5 7 t i n ) e s s * ' i f t e r e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e b e c o m e s : than light; and this general theory is again confirnied by r/i": o: r888.r5.ro.1s. (O) the discussion above given for waves of sound in oxygen It should be noted that Lord l{cluitis nrcthod of r854, and nitrous oxide. rvhich rve used in the first paper on thc Nerv 'l'heory of the Owing to its extreme rarity, the aether is the one abAether, is not strictly valid, becausealthough it gives the solutely perfect gas of the universe; and tve lnay even use density. at tbe earth's rnean distance, in units of the assumed the velocity of light in the aether to calculate rhe density densitl' at the sun, this latter value itself cannot be found of this nredium. It will be shown, especiallyin the fourth by .Keluitis rnethod, because of the decrease in the aether paper, that there is much less difference bet|een the rvaves density near the earth, not heretofore taken account of. of sound and light than we have long belieyed. In his lumiLet oq be the density at the neutral distance, Qs, where nous but neglected memoir of r83o, the celebrated lirench geometer Poisson, showed and thrice repeated, in spite of the sun's gravitational intensity is just equal to thar of the the earlier repeated objections of -Frcsncl, ttrat in elastic media earth. Then, since at the solar surface the mean gravity is the motions of the molecules, at a great distance from the 2 7 . 8 6 5 5 5 t i m e s t e r r e s t r i a l g r a v i t y ( c f . A N 3 g 9 2 ) , r v e h a v e : source of disturbance, are always normal to the wave front, as in the theory of sound. And rve shall show later how $ optical and magnetic phenomena are to be reconciled rvith this incontestible result o{ Poisson's analysis. . Iirorn the data given in the first paper on the New Theory of the Aether it follows that the velocity of light is 9o4z68 times swifter than that of sound in air. As sound

the velocity of sound in oxygen found by Dulong was o.9524 times that in air; and on multiplying this by 4, we get 3.8o96 for tbe theoretical velocity of sound in hydrogen.

2 7 . 8 6 5 5 5 1rQ) z : s

r/(r!

\7)

rvhere gs distance at which solar and terrestrial gravity 'l'his will just balance. gives b;' calculation Qs: 4r.4868 terrestrial radii, about 'lt of the nroons distance. The following table gives the results of. sinrilar calcr.rlationsfor the absolute density of the aether at the surfaces of the lun and principal pianets of the solar system.

'Jt

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Table of the Absolute Density of the Aether near the Principal Bodies of Solar Syste . m
rl

Body The Sun Mercury Venus The Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

tr{ean radius

g."'i,y] lnt""n
I at surface I

{ I1

R
o
a

Mean distance of planet in solar raclii

r if
I : ;.

&

5
o 7 8

l c ' l _, _ri_ 6 9 6 o 9 8 k m s z 73 . o r 6m 2 r 75 . 3 r r . 8 7 9 4 + 8q.7 q6 t 6o 9 o . 8 6 8 . ts s t r58.4r25 6 3 7 o . 5 2 r 9 . 79 76 2 2 | g . o o o 3365.87 J . I I L + 333.687 6g++g z6.zr7o4 1139.4r4

Distonce at rvhich gravity A b s o l u t e r l e n s i t yo f I 9f eusotutertcnsity. of a e t h e ra t o r b i t o f p l a n e t i p l a n e t a n d s u n a r e e q u a l , "' I the aether ar surface mcan radii of the planet I Oi o":6il

_l

ai=!t 4:tjtlsl
/.v.).1 / o 9 ; A e

Qi

t:,u,:1

z r643

I r.442 3 r 3.o4oo t 4.646o

z o 8 g . o o6 4 zo z . 8 9 I 6585.a5o

3032z.7 'ro-rE 4 5 6 6 6 r' o 4 ' r o - 1 3 78333.34.ro-18 r r s 3 5 5 . 9 'r o - r 8 4o7553.r.ro-18 j4j209.S.ro-ls r 5 o - 1 3 r 9 'l o - l s 23SSS2jto--r* '

4r.4868 3 9 . 2r 9 r<r.o8< 427.664 7z 9 . 6 z o t 5 z5 . 2 8 8

357.6865.ro-r3 4?rr.r.ro-18 r g g T. 5 6 . r o - r 8 r888.r5'ro-te 3o4J.3'ro*1s rr54.z6.to-18 t7 46.r . ro-ts 9 r 6j 6 . 6 5' r o - 1 ' " | 5 4 4 . 3 2 'r o - 1 s

61;r: r888.rg.re-tfi i n a p p r o x i m a t e a g r e e m e n tr v i t h t h e d e n , s i t t r l e r i v e d f r o m . the 3 . O w i n g t o t h i s d e c r e a s eo f o n e a r t h e e a r t h , r v h e r e e n e r g ) ' o f t h e s u n ' s r a d i a t i o n , n a n r e l v : observations are made, I{cluin's method of rg54 is not valid, rr: 43S.ro-'l even for the calculation of the density at the sun's surface, which horveveris no longer valid, as already pointed out. b e c a u s ei t r e s t s o n t h e h y p o t h e s i so f h o m o g e n e i t y t h r o u g h o u t 1'he question ntay properl,v be raised as to how far interplanetary and interstellar space. this appro^xirnateagreement o[ the density of the aether, 4. At earth's surface the new method shou.s 4 3 8 . r o - l s , a n d 1 8 8 8 . r 5 . r o - 1 " , d e r i v e d f r o m t h e t h e o r vo f r I 1 ':' r 8 8 8 ' r 5 ' r o - l E ' the sun's radiation, and the theory of sound respectivelf, is At' sun's snrfa<:etherefore accidental or brought about by systematic tendencils involvinc . r / 0 , : ( r 8 8 8 . r 5 . r o - t ' f z r 9 ) . 4 r . a 8 6 8 : 3 5 7 . 6 8 6 5 . r o - 1 " . ( q ) c o n s t a n t b i a s d u e t o u n k n o w n a n d u n s u s p e c t e dc a r r s c s . 'fhis It alrvays is difficult to affirm the total absence of such i s a b o u t r 7 8 . 8 4 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n r i , a so b t a i n e d l t y I { t l u i t t ' s m e t h o d , l h i c h , a s a l , o v i s h o w n , i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e s 1 ' s t e m a t i ce r r o r s , o r c a u s e s s . h i c h b i a s j u d g e m e n t , b u t i n rvithorrt modification. Ilut as the aether densitv alwavs is v i e r v o f t h e d i r e c t n e s sa n d s i n r p l i c i t yo f t h e a t o v e r e ^ s o n i n g , e x c e s s i v e l y n t a l l , t h ' i s l a t t e r e x p e r i m e n t a l - t h e o r e t i c a la l t i e t b r I c a n n o t s e e a n y g r o u n d f o r d o u b t i n g t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s v the solar surface nrav be accepted rvithout question as the nerv rnethod, rvhich is based on l\icuton's formula of 16g6, as corrected by Lallact, r8r6, and norv further corrected true value of the absolute density o[ the acther. to t a k e a c c o u n t o f a g a s o f n t o n a t o m i cc o n s t i t u t i o n ,a s Accordingly at the sun, rtos : experi-. 357.6865.re-rs /-^\ \ r u ' / m e n t a l l y s h o w n t o e x i s t i n t h e c a s e so f m e r c u r y v a p o r , a r g o n , a t t h e c a r t h ,d 3 s : 1 3 3 3 . r g ' r o - r s helium, neon, xenon, krtpton. rvhich fulfills the larvs of lvave action: For rvhen rve have trvo similar gases, such as oxygen A r r r p l i t u d e.,t : l l r and hydrogen, both biatomic, rvith the ratio of the speclfic (") F'orce, jr-A2_pzf7z heat under constant pressure to that under constant volume, in accordance rvith tlre observed for.ce of eravitation. /t2: r.l,or, we nta)' connect their velocities at the sanre For upon trial rve may verify the above calculations: temperature and pressure by the formula: c 3 3tf( r s : r 8 8 8 . r 5 1 3 5 7 . 6 5 6 5 : 5 . 2 7 7 8 8 : t t/(Sol1t) (rr) I/f llz : t/(ZorlZro). (r:) o r ( o r ' / o o . ) t- g o / g r : z 73 . o r 6 fg . 7 9 7 6 2 : 2 7 . 8 6 5 5 5. And, since the physical condition of the two gases is . 'Ihe accompan,ving table for the absolute density of identical, we may put .6 : 82, and thus, in accirdance the aether may be extended to any binary system among the w i t h e x p e r i m e n t , fixed stars in which the masses and dimensions are known, IzfIr, : /(ozlo) : r/3.8o665 (r4i and thus the nerv theory of the aether has all the accuracy as already pointed out. of the theory of universal gravitation. And rvhen the gases are dissimilar in molecular con(ii.i) The new method based on the velocity of wave- stitution, as in the case of the aether and hydrogen, but the propagation, as in the theory of sound, definitely excludes ratio of the specific heat under constant pressure to that a large value for the density of the aether. tinder constant volume is known, we may stiil calculate their r6.

Accordingly for reasons already indicated we reach , the following conclusions. r. Whatever be the density of the aether at +r.ag6g terrestrial radii, u'here the sun's and earth's attractions are equal, the aether density, from that point, must decrease towards the earth, by the divisor ar.aSOg, and towards the sun by the divisor zr9. z. That is at the earth's surface 6 . t ": osl4r.4868 . (s)

Since it is an observed fact that hydrogen propasates gggnd 3.9975 tinres fasrer than oxygen, and is ,!.9b ii-., lighter, we know that the rapidity of tne wave_propagation in the aether can only point to n gas of extremeiy-small de.nsity. No orber hypothesis is admissible. And aiopting this experimental method, the result for the density oi tlI aether.:rt the earth's surface becomes

239

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theoretical value of wave propagation from the use of the ,^rio y(nrf rt). And if the'r'elocity of the rvave-propagation be observed in both cases, and we desire to determine the relative density of one of the gases, we may effect this as in the above case of the aether, which absolutely excludes the possibility of a iarge density. As the aether is a gas of excessively small density, it is therefore cornpressible, as previously inferred, but only by powerful, cluick-acting forces. The study of the aether as r grs, in accordance rvith the views entertained by Neu,ton in r7z r, and approvedby Marutcll in rE77, thus opens nerv possibilities, ancl introduces criteria of the utmost vaiue to physical science. 2 . G e o m e t r i c a l a n d l ' } h y s i c a lO u t l i n e o f t h e I{elationship betrveen Light, [Iagnetisnr atrd the E l e c t r o d y n a n . r i cA c t i o n o f a C u r r e n t . 'freatise on OpIn the 3'd edition of the celebrated tics, r 7 z r, Query z 8, Sir lsaac '\-tw/otr treats of l{tq'ghens' theory of double refraction in Iceland spar, on the hypothesis of two several vibrating mediums rvithin that crystal, for relracting the ordinarl'and extraordinlry rays, but says that Euyg/ttttJ was ilt a loss to explain thenr. t For ltressions or motions, propagated from a shining lrody through an n n i f o r m m e d i u m , t n u s t b e o n a l l s i d e s a l i k c ; r v l i e r e n sb y tbese experimentsit rppears, that the ray's of light have rlifferent properties on their dill'erent sides.<

Let zz denote the displacement of the aether particle fron its vertical position of equilibrium, as on the surface of still water. Then we have for a flat wave in the plane . r ' - r 't h e w e l l k n o w n e q u a t i o n (ts) u: asin(zn.tlr-+p) - asin(2n-rl).-+ 1r) rvhere zz represents the displacement at right angles to the r-axis, a is the amplitude, ,1,the wave length, .and p the plrirse angle, from which the revolving vector of radius a is ruteasured. Such a flat wave represents motion like that propagated along the surlace of still n'ater, and the nrovements git'en in tletail by figure r, Plate 4, rvhich is slightly ".c rrrodifie<i from that used by Airy in his grcat treatise on 'l'ides and \\raves, r845, It rvill be noticed that each particle of water undergoes a n o s r : i l l i r t i o na b o u t a r n e a n p o s i t i o n , s h o r v n b y t h e c e n t r e s of the circies, in this very accurate figure, rvhile the rvave form uroves on, in a direction correspondingto the axis oi 'I'hus the particles undergo not only a . u i n e r l u a t i o n( r S ) . b v e r t i c a l o s c i l l a t i o n ,a s t h e w a v e p a s s e s , u t a l s o a l o n g i t u d i n a l 'l'his is typical of all rvaves in rvater. oscillation.

Norv it is usual to take (r 5) es the equation of the motion of the aether in light, and to call zz the light vector, and to describe this light vector as revolving, when the wave 'fhe motion u in (r5), hoivever,is simply a side ac'lvances. normal to the ,-axis, u'hich nray be produced rlisyrJaccr-nent lrv tire revolution of the radius rz in the circles, as in o In pioof of this confession 1-lailure, b.t'/{tq3htts, r r t r r l r g r r r c n r o d i h c c l l - r o n t . l i r S ) s a n a l l ' s i s o f n a t er r v a v e Ncu,lott cites from the'-['raite de la Lurnicre, r69o, p. gr, 'l'he r e a l r . u o t i o no f t h e a e t i r e r p a r t i c l e s s h o u l c i b e rnotion. t h e r v o r d s : > [ I a i s p o u r d i r e c o m n l e l t t c e ] a s e fr l i t , j ! ' n ' a y s o n r e r i ' h a te l l i p t i c a l , b r . r tr n u c h l i k e t h o s e o f t h e w a t e r p a r jusqu'ici qui nre satisfasse.( rien trouve t i r : l e s , a b o u t a n r e a n p o , . i t i o no f r a d i u s a . I i q u a t i o n ( r 5 ) t h e n Arctalon then argues efl'ectiveiyagainst the explanation r v i l l c i v e o n l y t h e s i d e d i s p l a c e m e n t ,n o r m a l t o t h e . r - a x i s ; o{ Eultghens, and points or.rtthe improbability of trvo aethereal and to get the rvhole rnotion of the particles we have to m e d i a 6 l l i n g t h e c e l e s t i a ls p a c e s ,w h i c h b a s b e e n e m p h a s i z e d take the conlponents u and u normal to the -/-axis and z-axis in recent times by lfaru,cll, who declared it unphilosophical r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e n t h e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e d i r e c t e d to invent a new aether every time a new phenomenon was r r . r a g n i t u d ew h i c h r e p r e s e n t s t h e o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e , to be explained. about its mean position, will be In the early days of the modern wave theory of light, , t/ : 0 cos(arr'tlr1-?) the properties of polarized ra1's were carefully investigated ('6) u - b cos(zz't,!'r-+q) by ?'rcsncl and Arago, and subsequently verified by -qir Tohn 1 1- r c o s ( 2 n . t f r - + r ) , Eerschel and ,1iqt, rvho fully confirmed Ntu,lott's conclusion (ui a)'!-+-(uI t)2 -r (uf c)2 : 1 ('z) t h a t s u c h r a y s h a v e s i d e s w i t h d i s s i n i l a r p r o l ) e r t i e so n o p 'fhe y'(uz-+uz-+w2) . Fresnrl's progress given by : posite sides. account of ('8) s Arago in his liloge Historique, July 26, r83o, is vcry inIt \\'ill l)e proved hereafter that there is a fundamental structive, since Arago was associated rvith rnany of li'esncls e r r o r i n t h e r v a v e - t h e o r yo f l i g h t , a s h a n d e d d o r v n b y t r a discoveries. Resides the able anall,sis in the celebrated and dition lionr the days of Yo'ung and ,['-resttc/;and that in a r comprehensivearticle Light, Irncyclopedia Nletropolitana, 849, ray of comrnon light the aether particle not only has transSir Johi E[crschcl's Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects, verse motion, but also a corresponding longitudinal motion, r867, are valuable, in showing his rnature conclusions. depending on the snrall ratio of the amplitude rl to the wave It being thus recognized that a ray of polarized light length /,. After polarization these natural free rnotions of the has sides, with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, it aether are restricted, by the resistance impressed upon natural remains for us to form a clear image of such a ray of light, light, in. the surface action oI reflection, or transmission and electricity, through transparent bodies, crystals,etc., and by unsynrmetrical and to examine the phenomena of magnetisrr.r to ascertain if a relationship to light can be established. transparency in different directions, as in tourmaline, which The late Professor Paul Drude's coutprehensive Lehr- forces halfl the ligbt into one plane and destroys the other buch der Optik, Leipzig, rgoo, may be consulted for a modern half. Originally the general path of the aetheron rvas elliptical, analysis of purely optical problems; but, as our object is to and although now transforrned into oscillations near one plane outline relationships not heretofore developed, we shall make the vibrations in most cases still are narrow ellipses, because it is proved by the reflection of plane polarized iight front the optical treatment very brief.

24r

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242

a silver surface that an almost circular polarization results, Faraday's discoveries. He found that, if heavy glass, bisulwhereas that reflected from galena has very narrow ellipses. phide of carbon, etc., are placed in a magnetic field, a ray This could not rvell resnlt unless the polarized light before of polarized light, propagated along the lines of magnetic 'I'he larvs o[ the phenomenon werb reflection from these metals described narrorv ellipses, rvhich force, snffers rotation. carefnlly studied by l/crdet, whose conclusions may be summed are not exactly straight lines. N o r v t h e e l l i p t i c a l p a t h s e s t a b l i s h e db y e q u a t i o n s( r 6 ) , up by saying that in a given meclinm the rotation of the (r7), (r8), are similar to those analysed by l{er-rdtcl in y r l a n e f o r a r a y p r o c e e d i n g i n a n y d i r e c t i o n i s p r o p o r t i o n a l S e c t i o n 6 r 8 o f h i s g r e a t a r t i c l e L i g h t , r 8 4 9 , S u p p o s e r v e to the difference of nragnetic potential at the initial and consider the part of these waves rvhich in a polarized ray f i n a l p o i n t s . I n b i s u l p h i d e o f c a r b o n , a t r 8 o a n d f o r a have only right-handed rotations. Then if such a selected difference of potential equal to unit C.G. S., the rotation of beam traveling along the r-axis be looked at flat on, from t h e p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n o f a r a y o f s o c l a l i g h t i s o . o 4 o z a point on the z-axis, the paths of the aetherons rvould n r i n t t t eo l ' a n g l e . < )A vcr)' important distinction should be noted between resemble the motions o.f the particles of rvater in Air1"s 11gv11s given as fig. r, except that the aetherops rnay have paths more the magnetic rotation and that natural to quartz, s)'rup, etc. '1'bis is the simplest I n t h e l a t t e r t h e r o t a t i o n i s a l w a y s r i g h t h a n d e d o r a l w a y s highly elliptical than are shown by Air1. f o r m o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e n e r v w a v e - t h e o r y o f l i g h t , left handed rvith respect to the direction of the ra1'. Hehce rvhich will be developed in the fourth paper: and rve shall nou' x ' h e n t h e r a y i s r e v e r s e d t h e a b s o l u t e d i r e c t i o n o f r o t a t i o n s e e i f i t i s p o s s i b l et o 6 n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g o s c i l l a t i o n s i n t h e is reversed also. A rlv rvhich tra\.erses a plate of quartz i n o n e t l i r e c t i o n , a n d t h e n a f t e r r e f l e x i o nt r a v e r s e s h e s a m e t field of a magnet and of an electric clrrrcnt. In the ycar rB45 fiarado-t, marle a cclcbratcd cxpcri- t h i c k n c s sa g a i n i n t h e o p p o s i t c c l i r c c t i o n , r e c o v e r si t q o r i g i n a l r a m e n t i n w h i c h h e y r a s s e d b e a m o f p ) a n c y r o l a r i z e dl i g h t p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n . I t i s r l L r i t eo t h e r r v i s e v i t h t h e r o t a t i o n a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f f o r c e ; a n d d i s c o v e r e dt h a t r l h e n t h e l i g h t u n d e r m a g n e t i c l o r c e . I n t h i s c a s e t h e r o t a t i o n i s i n t h e t r a v e l si n a m a t e r i a l m e d i u m s u c h a s h e a v v l e a d g l a s s ,c a r b o n - s a m e a b s o l u t e d i r e c t i o n e v e n t h o u e h t h e r a y b e r e v e r s e d . d i s u l p h i d e , e t c . , t h e p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n i s t r v i s t e d b y t h e Hence, if a ray be reflected backrvards and forrvards any action of the masnetic field. Not only is the plane oi number of times along a line of magnetic force, the rotations 'I'he polarization rotated, but the rotation increascs in direct pro- due to the severai l)assagesare all accumulated. nonportion to the length of path traversed; and even u'hcn the r c v e r s i b i l i t l ' o f l i g h t i n a m a g n e t i z e d m e d i u m p r o v e s t h e light is reflected bick and forth many times the trvistin.g of c a s c t o b e o f a v e r y e x c e f t i o n a l . c h a r a c t e r , a n d ( a s r u a s t h e p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o n i s a l r v a y s i n t h e s a u r e d i r e c t i o n argrred br Sir II;. T/tottsnn) indicated that the rnagnetized like the helix of a circular winding stairs, as s'as lorig ago rneclium is itself in rotatory motion independently of the propagation of light through it.< noted by Sir Jotn.Errsrhel. N o r v i f I u n d e r s t a n dt h i s s u b j e c t a r i g h t - a n d m y p e r In the article lVave-'fheory, Encl'clopedia 13ritannica, 9'h edition; Lord Ral,lcigh describes this rotation of thc plane sonal correspondence rvith the late Lord Ra1'leigh shows that he concurred in the present writer's viervs - we must o[ polarization by magnetism as follos's: >>1'he possibility of inducing the rotatory property conccive a line of force, circling around between the poles in bodies othenvise free from it rvas onc of the finest of o f a r r r a g n e t , t o b e t h e a x i s o f r o t a t i o n i n m a g n e t i c w a v e -

I I I I \ | I n\ ///!/,. \ l:.'!1,',1, \ llt4i;t,:,!

i-

n -+/e1},+-e_| | lh fl ,^,U-,.-.'

motion, as shown by figure z, repeated from the first paper on the New Theory of .the Aether. If this in'.erpretation adnrissible, be we see that just as plane polarized light a has sides,- with dissimilaipropertieson n oppositesides,as remarkedby Atcwton, --/+S**_the Fresntl. Arago and Sir John llcrstfitl, L/ so also there are plane waves receding /J

T I I

s i d e d n e s sw i t b t h e i t r v o - e n d e d n e s s f a n r a g n e t t h e t e r m p o l a r i z a t i o n a r o s e ( o

from magnets with exactly the same sides, rvith dissimilar properties on the opposite sides. It is these sides rvith oppositely directed rotations in the waves of the aether which gives poles to n:agnets.l) Magnetic polarity is. thus directly connected by similarity of the rotations in the plane rvaves with plane polarized light. And just as the amplitude of light waves decreaseinversely as r, the distancg -;--"-l' t'"' ,''. z . T h e w a v e - t h e omya g n e t i s s h, i c h g i v e s a r l i r e c t a n d s i m p l e_ . . - * - i1 r of m / ; radiating ' ^ : . - _ i ^ from the _ ; , : : , _ _ - ^ centre ^ ' (cf;' Drudc, ,,,a r,".-onir"r'fti of both attraction rcnulsion. and / "*ot""rtion | I phenomena magnetisrn, knorvn l<n'orvn of optics and electrodynamic action. Lehrbuch der Optik, r 9oo, Teil II, Kap. II) _ , r) ,Ncr,lon clrne to the conclusionthat each of the nvo rays (of polarizedlight) had trvo sidesr;landifrom the analbgyof this twoGagc's Principles of Physics, r897, p. 4o4.

2+3

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so also in magnetisnr, the rvave anrplitudes follow the law: A : /tlr, giving the force if - k2fr2, as observed in the actions of magnetism and universal gravitation (cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., Vol. t, tgrT). Accordingly, the connection between magnetism and light is obvious, the moment we do not restrict our conceptions of light to the s i d e d i s p l a c e m e n ti n ( r 5 )

u :

a sin(zrr'/1-t-p)

(rs)

but regard light as a disturbance involving a circular or elliptical displacement of the particles about a mean position, as the vector 4 representing this displaceurent in th case of a circle, revolves in a plane, which may be tilted at an1' angle relative to the coordinate axes. In his celebrated article Light, r849, Sir John -[fu'scle/ shorvs,by carefully considered leasoning, that in the elliptical pat{rs of the aethereal vibrations constituting light, the niotion o f t h e a e t h e r o n i s a b o u t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e e l l i p s e s ,j u s t a s is the path of a vibrating conical pendulunr,rvhich may a)so change the path of its rlotion under the steadvapplication of small impulses. Suppose the undisturbed position of an aetheron bc taken as origin, and let trvo radii vectores, drawn frorn the centre of the elliptical path to the disturbed aetheron,be g and g'; then rve have the rvellknorvn e(luations
. Q, : .r:1j,? _+_ 5'.1 gg'cos0: : 3,) 1_1J2 _1_ 3t2 ,r,.1 rr'-Y1,-1,t.r- 't 5 / - , \ \2ol

of the sun, the light of a candle, the light of a glorv-lvorm. Take arvay from the rvorld electricity, and light disappears; remove from the world the luminiferous ether, and electric and nragnetic actions can no longer traverse space( (cl. I{rtz, I i i s c e l l l n e o u s p a p e r s ,p . 3 r 3 ) . -fferlz was not able to rnake out the details of the r e l a t i o n s h i ps o u g h t , b u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t sw h i c h h e d e v i s e d t o shorv that clectric waves are refracted, reflected and interfere, like light waves, marked an epoch in the development of r a d i o t e l e g r a p h y ,a n d h a v e l o n g s i n c e b e c o m e c l a s s i c . Y e t rviren others took up the work, after -Ffur'lr's premature death, rvhilst they verified and used his results, they did not add to the theor)' of the aether, which IIertz considered essential to scientific progless. Ffence the r-reeci still remained to trar , e r s et h e l o l i y s u n . r n i i t s o t ) ' e t e x p l o r c d ( I f c r t z , l . c . , p . 3 2 7 ) , n antl to ruake out geometrically the nature of tbe displacenrents involved in these rvaves. Accordingly rie have gone into tl)e nature of light nnci e l c c t r i c r v a v e si n s u c h a w a y a s t o i l l u m i n a t e t h i s r e l a t i o n shrp. IItrlz renrarks that to rrlany persons ,lfaxue/l's electronuqnetic theory is a book sealed tr'ith seven seals. Thus the breaking of'the seals,that *'e mar.read the details otthc illunrinated pages, rvould alone give us a direct view oI D a t u r e ' ss e c r e t s ,a n d j u s t i f y a n y t r e a t m e n t r v h i c h w o u l d t h r o w light on this obscure subject and con6rnr the doctrine of ( o n t i n l l i t v i n r ) r l t l l r a l1 ' h i l o s o p h y . J . I i t r l t r ' sl ) e f e c t i v e ' l ' h e o r y o f I i a g n e t i s m h a s . 'I'hought in \Iodern Science: Sinrple rlisdirectecl I.)xplanation of Indut:tion, ancl of the Dynamo on the \\'ave-'l'heorl'. \i) Euler's theory of aetherial circulation, and its pers i s t c n c es i n c e r 7 4 4 . N o t h i n g c o u l c l L r e t t e ri l l u s t r a t e t h e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t a t e . s of the traditional cloctrines f electricityand magnetism, than o the old concel)tior1 f . r magnet, first outlined by Eukr at o I 3 c r l i n , r 74 . + , a n d s i n c e h a n d e d d o n ' n , w i t h v e r y s l i g h t changes,and tlrus copied, rrith the original defects of symnretry, into hundredsof rvorks on physics used by the prin-. cipal nations of the rvorld. It is authenticated, that in his university career ar l}asel, .ltuler had studicd both anatorny and physiology. .\s. an outcome of this anatomical research he tlas lhmiliar with 'l'hus the circulation of the blood in the human body. he u n d e r s t o o dt h e v a l v u l a r s t r u c t u r ei n t h e a r t e r i e s ,w h i c h s e c u r e s . the liow of the blood in one direction only, as the heart beats to expel the blood through the arterial systenr. Accordingly when Euler attempted, t\\'enty years later,. to develop a theory of nragnetisnr, hich should reconcile w all the.knorvn facts, including the attraction of unlike and the repulsion of like poles, he assumed a flux o[ the aether, along the axis of the n'ragnet, inward at the south pole and outrvard at the north pole, as shown in figure 3 Plate 4 lron Eule/s rvork (Dissertatio de Magnete, r744, published in Lule/s Opuscula, vol. lll, Berlin, r75r, Plate I). 'l'his remarkable figure has been handed down by tradition for r76 years, and its validity apparently seldom or never questioned, though it probably is less used of Iate years than formerly. lt appears in the pbysical treatises o[.

c o s d . : c o s a c o s r r ' - F c o s p c o s p ' - + r : o s ; ,c o s ; , ' : c o s 2 a - l -c o s ? p - f c o s 9 1' : c o s z { r ' - + c o s : p ' - + - c o s 9 7 ' 1

(' ')

1 ' h e a n g l e 0 n r e a s u r e st h e r n o t i o n o l ' t h e l i g h t v e c t o r in the plane of the ellipse, rvhile the angles c(, P, f, tt', F', /' are fixed by the direction cosines of the revolving radius vector at any time, It now remains to examine the disturbancestakinq place about a wire bearing an electric current florving fronr s o u t h t o n o r t h , a s i n O e r s t c d ' se x p e r i n e n t o f r 8 r 9 . H e r e we notice that if the needle be suspended beneath the rvire, the north pole is deflected to the west by the actior.r of the current. If the needle be suspended above the rvire, under like conditions, the north pole is deflectedto the east. It thus appears that just as magnets have plane waves - l i k e t h o s eo f p l a n e p o l a r i z e d l i g h t r o t a t i n g i n o n e d i r e c t i o n , and thus having dissimilar properties on opposite sides so also an electric current has plane n'aves lvith sides, and with dissimilar properties on opposite sides, as shorvn by 'L-his the study o( Ocrsted's experiment of r 8 r 9. follorvs also from the production of rnagnets from common steel under the electrodynamic action of a solenoid, as in Any'lrr's experiment of 18zz, 'I'he correct theory of an electric current is that it is made up of plane waves, flat in the plane through the axis of the 'rvire, as shown in figure r z, section VI, and more fully in figure rA (el. 6), section IX, below. In his celebrated address on the relations between light and electricity, Sept. zo, 189o, I{crtz tried to illuminate the connection previously recognized by lLfotuttll, and distinctly referred both light and eiectricity to the aether. rI am here<, he says, )to support the assertion that light of every kind is itself an electrical phenomenon - the light

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all countries,and has vitiated even the mathematical theory of Martaell (Treatise on Electricity and tr{agnetisr.n, vol. II., p. 28, $ ao4).

Maxu.'clls reasoning js as follows: rThe nragnetic force and the magnetic induction are . identical outsidethe magnet, but within fhe substance of the magnet ther. must be carefully distinguished.< ,lln a straight uniformll,-maguetized bar the magnetic _ force drre to the magnet itself is fronr the end rvhich ioints north, rvhich lve call the positive pole, towards the south e n d o r n e g a t i v e p o l e , b o t h w i t h i n i b e n . r a g n e ta n d in the space u'ithorrt.< The Iack of symmetry and of appropriate phy.sicai basis to tliis reasoning is so truly remarkatle-as to occasion genuine surprise that it should have been used bv ,4{arur//. He continues: .rThe magnetic induction, on the other hand, is from . the positive pole to the negative outside the magnet, and from the. negarile pole to ihe positive rvithjn thJ ..gn"l so that the lines and tubes of induction are reenrenng or cvclic figures.< This artificial and unnatural theorl. is outlinecl in the acconrpanfng sketch, see Fig. q pl. q'. Fig. i pl. a illu_ 5 strates.the usage of Euhr's Circulation ;lt .o.y of a Magnet in various modern u'orks. The 6gure above, on the left is from tVilli/ran and Gah,s First Course in I,h1,sics,r 9o6 ; that to the right is {ront Gaztbroal's Electricitl, ancl l\lagnctisrn, t g o 3 ; t h e s p h e r eb e l o n ' i s f r o m c t - r s l a / r ' s r t i c r e o n a trIa!netisnr, E n c y c l .B r i t . , 9 E d . , r 8 7 5 ; w h i l e i h . f i g u . " t o t h e r i g h i beiou., js from Dnrdt's Physik des Aethers, rg94. It appears that lfaturtll adhered to Eulcr's conceptions \ii) )fa.ru,cl/'s difficulties overconle by the wave_theory. so far as induction is concerned, but added to But, first of all, n,e call attention to the fact that it to explain in his magnetic force. p a p e r . O n P h 1 - s i c aL i n e s o f F o r c e ( S c i e n t i f i c p a p e r s , l vol. I, T h e a n o m a l y o f i m a g i n i n g t h e m a g n e t i cf o r c e t o o p p o s e p . 4 6 8 ) l f a r u , c / l s e a r c h e dd i l i g e n t l y b u t i n ' a i n f o i t h e the induction u'ithin the body of the niagnet, "nr*". but not rvith_ to the question: )\'hat, is an electric currenti( ,r:]t, i..striking, and probably due to ttrJ naU;t > I h a v e f o u n d g r e a t d i f 6 c u l t y , < h e s a 1 , s ,r i n of referring , conceiving all actions to that of a unit north Dole. of the existenceof \.ortices in a nrediunt side by side, rel On the other hand the rnuch simpler conceptions o f v o l v i n g i n t h e s a n t e d i r e c t i o n a b o u t p a r a ) l e la x e s . T h e c o n t h e \ 1 ' a v e - t h e o r ) r, r 7 , n e e d n o e m p h a s i s . \ 1 : e .9 rhere imagine tlquous portions of consecutir.e ortices must be nroving v in the stress in the aether to be dui to waves fronr all the opposite directions; and it is dif6cult to understand ho*rthe atoms, so that the lines of force _ rvhich are the axes of rnotion of one part of the medium can coexistwith, and even rotation of the receding \1,aves tend to shorten themselves, ltroduce, an opposite lnotiou of a part in contact rvith it.< as Faradot' had obserr.ed, and as rve have explained >The only conception xhich has at me_ all aided me in .the chanically in the second paper on New Theory of the concei'ing of this kind of motion is that of the 'ortices Aether. b e i n g s e p a r a t e d b y a l a 1 . e ro f p a r t i c l e s , r e v o l v i n g each on It is verl'difficult to account for the defective theorr. its orvn a.xis in the opposite direction to that of th'e vortices, of t.744 excepr by remembering that Erkr hrd i"j;r;; s o t h a t t h e c o n t i g u o u s s u r f a c e so f t h e p a r t i c l e s and of the e y e s i g h t ,w h i c h d i d n o t e n a b l e h l m t o d e t e c t t n e true sym_ vortices have the sante lnotion.< metrical nature of magnetisn, by experirnents ith w soft iion, . r I n m e c h a n i s n r ,w h e n t w o t v h e e l s a r e i n t e n d e d to reor with smailer magnetic needles, as shown in the a c c o n r l volve in the sanre direction, a wheel is placed between them panying photograph, see Fig. 6 pI. 4 , o f a n e x p e n m e n t s.o--as be in gear rvith both, and this wh&l is called an .to made by the presentwriter, lg14. ,idle wheel'. 1'he hypothesis about the 'ortices which I have . Sgft iron paper lasteners lreely suspended by threads to suggest is that a layer of particles, acting as idle wheels, are used to indicate the pulling from the equator _ towards is interposed between each vortex and the nlxt, so that each eitber pole of the magnet. ThJ lines of force thus visiblv vortex has a tendenc)' to make the neighbouring ,r,ortices tighten and shorten themselves by the aetherial suction into revolve in the same direction with itself.< either pole; and Euler's defective theory of an inward florv The dif6culty heredescribe by Marutell is immediately d . at the south pole and an outrvard flow at the north pole is solved by the wave-theory, when a for continuousseries of disproved by observationswhich any.one can make for hirnself. waves are florving,the rotatory motions

To be sure that no injustice was done to Eulcr, I took a small magnetic needle, suspended by a thread accurately fastened to its centre, and iound by actual trial how this small magnet behaved when substituted for the soft iron wire described above. \\'e find by trial that the suspended needle also is drawn from th equator-of the magnet towards either pole, 'The exactly as in the case of the soft iron nire above used. deflection of the supporting thread from the vertic.al direction of gravitl', shown by the glass marble suspended in the centre of the field, under actual trial, shows ihis clearly and unmistakably. It seems therefore absolutely certain that Eulcr,s defecti'e theory of magnetism,with fatal iack of essentiasvnrr metr)', yet copied in all. the works on physics for the past r76 years, was an o'ersight due to the partial brindnessof t h a t g r e a t m a t h e r n a t i c i a n ,a n d t h u s e x c u s a i r e . But what shail $'e say of the careless reasoning of phvsicists, rvhich has e n a b l e d t h i s u n s l ' m m e t r i c a la n d u n n a r u r ; l h g u r e to be handed d o r v n u n c h a n g e d t h r o u g h n e a r l y , t r r . o e n t u r i J s ,o r c e l s en r e n d e d b1' strained reasoning Iike that used by i[a:xutctt above? I t m a y p e r h a p sb e a l l o w e d t h a t t h e a b o v e e x p e r i m e n t a l result definitely establishes the electrod. w a v e _t h e o r y o f magnetism, set forth in the Electrod. \Vave-Th"o* of ilnu.. Iiorc., r'ol, I, r g r 7. Accordingly, since rve ha'e attained a l t a t u r a l p o i n t o f l i e u , , b a s e d o n r e c o g n i z e cs v n t m e t r r , , l for the t h e o r i e s o f - e l e c t r i c i t va n d m a g n e t i . , r . , ,. " s h a l l o s e eh o s . f u l l y the nel' theorf is con6rmed br. de6nite lrhenomenarvhich a r e s i r n p ) ea n d e a s i l v u n d e r s t o o d .

of ail the particles

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of the medium are in the same direction, as we see frotn the above Fig, r, Pl. 4, frorn Airy', znd no such antagonism mentions can arise. Surely this removai of as tlfaruell Marucll's dif6culty, 'along with the complicated structure of ridle wheels<, which he devised for the stationary aether vortices, in default of wave-motion, must be considered a very remarkable triumph of the wave-theory. In r9r4 I found by caref-ulexperinrent that a suspended magnetic needle is bodily attracted to a wire bearing a current, owing to the interactions of the waves from the wire and the needle. But it appears from Maxwel/'s address on Action a t a D i s t a n c e , ( S c i e n t i f i cP a p e r s ,v o l . I I , p . . i r ? ) t h a t h e d i d r) a not look upon an electric current as bodily attracting suspended magnetic neeclle. >\Ve have now arrived at the great discovery by Oersted of the connection between electricity and magnetism. Oersttd found that an electric current acts on a magnetic pole, but 'attracts it nor repels it, but cattsesit to move that it neither round the current. He expressed this by saying that ,the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner',>The most obviotts deduction from this new lact rvas that the action of the current on thd n)agnet is not a pushand-pull force, but a rotatory force, and accordingly many minds were set a-speculating on vortices and streams of aether whirling round the current.( And I have not been able to find any clear staterlrent o f t h e p r o v e d a t t r a c t i o no f n e e d l e t o a w i r e b e a r i n g e c t l r r e r r t , i n l a t e r w r i t e r s ; t h e y a l t e v a d e i t , b y a r g u n t e n t sa s t o t l i c behavior of a unit north pole, rvhen no such single pole exists. In the theory of magnetisrn it is no tnore pert.inent to discuss the actions of hall of a magnet than it rvould be in human physiology to treat of one side of our bodies only, rvhen the whole body is perfectly sylnmetrical, and not to be split up into halves, and cannot act as such. One leg, one arm, one side of the brain and spinal colun-rnperfortrts no functions alone and all such discussion is unscientific and a very imperfect rnakeshift.

magnetic metal is at relative rest, but the moment any relative rlotion takes place, th6 rvave-fieldpenetrating the non-magnetic metal undergoes change, and this change of the wave-field disturbs the equilibrium of the aether in the non-magnetic metal, and the result is induction, or the generation of electric waves in the metal, which becomes temporarily magnetic. 'I'he nietal therefore enrits waves rvith rvhirls or rotations opposite to that of the inducing magnet. 'ottr demonstration of the cause of n-ragnetism, Now in r g r 7 , i t i s s h o w n t h a t t h e r e a s o n w h y o p p o s i t ep o l e s a t t r a c t , is that the opposite rotations in the rvaves frorn such poles cause an undoing of the stress of the mediunr, so that it collapses, and this tendency to contriict is rvhat we call attraction. In the same way the relatiie motion o[ a cottrpass needle over a metal plate induces in it opltosite polarity, with opposite rotations iu the rvaves enritted tlierefrorn; and then the tenlporary magnetism induced in tbe plate by tire relative motion of the needle, calls lbrth attraction betrveen the needle and the metal. Accordingly, this induction acts as a drag on the vibrations of the necdle, and brings it to' rest sooller than rvould be the case if the vibrations were over rvood, rvhich is almost devoid of inductive effect, because it is non-rnetallic.

(iv) Arago's rotations and the tlvnanro explained. S o o n a f t e r G a n b e ; , ) so b s e r v a t i o t ti n r 8 2 . 1 , t h e s u b j e c t rvas ini'estigated by .lrago, \'ho found that a col)l)er plate' i u n c l c r t h c n c c d l e w a s m o s t e f l ' e c t i v en d a n r p i n g i t s v i b r a t i o n s . On rotating the copper disc in its oln piane beneath the needle, he found that the needle rvas dragged around b1' an invisible frict.ion; and rvhen the magnet was rotated near the colrperdisc, the disc was dragged by the rotating magnet. 'l'his action rvas spoken of for a tinre, as a sort of magnetisrn of rotation, but in r83 t, Faradal'discovered induction,. and shoned that zlra,qo'srotations depend on this cause. Accorriing to Faraday a tnagnet moved near a solid. llrass or plare of metal, induces in it disturbanceswhich result in currents rvhen they are properly directed, as from (iii) Induction due to rnotion of a.trtagnet explained a dy'narno. If they are not directed through a circuit, they florv fron'r one point to another, ancl the energy is lrittered by the wave-theory. 21 In the year r8z4 it rvas observed by Ganltel' 111a1 dorvn into heat, but meanwhile the electroriragnetic forces. compass needle oscillating in its box came to rest sooller act as a drag on the rotations taking place. if the bottom were made of metal than if of rvood. What ] ' i g . Z , P I . 5 , i l l u s t r a t e st h e e d d y c u r r e n t s l o n g r e i s t h e r e a s o n ' o f t h i s d r a g g i n g a c t i o n o f t h e n r e t a l i I n t h e cognized in such experiments. But from our electrodynamic Electrod. \Vave-Theory of Phys. Forc., rve have explained rvave-theory'of nragnetism, we recognize these rvhirls as the and shown that when waves having, elements of rotations in rvaves receding from the nragnet. induction by rvave-action, say, positive rotation suddenly penetrate a metallic substance, If rve spin the disc of copper as shown in hg. 7, and the effect of these positive rvhirls is to generate negative lead off the disturbances by a circuit of wire connecting the nretallic whirls, in virtue o[ the disturbances of the aethcr' points rz and / rve get the current generated by a dynamo, 'fhat which rvas also invented by ?brada1,. is to say, no such permanent disturbances will 'fhe above explanation of the generatiorr of a current occur when bgth the magnet emitting rvaves and the nont) LI4eue//, fiistory of the Inductive Sciences, ,On attempting h . 3 r de d . r 8 5 7 , v o l . I I I , p . 7 3 , e x p r c s s e s i r n s e l f i n a b o u t t h e s a t n er v a y : to analyse the electro-nlagnetic phenonrena observed by Otrsled and others into their sinrplest fornrs, they appeared, at least at first sight, to be t l i f f e r e n t f r o m a r r y r n e c h a n i c a la c t i o n s w h i c h h a d y e t b e e n o b s e r v e d . l t s e e m e d a s i f t h e c o n d u c t i n g w i r e e x e r t e d o n t h e p o l e o f t h e r n a g n e t o a f o r c e r v h i c h v a s n o t a t t r a c t i v e o r r e p u l s i v e , b u t t r a n s v e r s e ; - n o t t e n d i n g t o d r a u ' t h e p o i n t a c t 'e'd e n n e a r e r , o r t o p u s h i t f u r t h e r o f f , i n lh forces appcared to be such as l{cflcr the Iine rvhich reached frorn the acting point, but urging it to. rnove at right anglcs to this line. had dreamt of in the infancy of mechanical conceptions; rather than such as those of which Neuton had established the existencein the , s o l a r s y s t e m , a n d s u c h a s h e , a n d a l l h i s s u c c e s s o r sh a d s u p p o s e d t o b e t h e o n l y k i n d s o f f o r c e w h i c h e x i s t i n n a t u r e . T h e n o r t h p o l e o f t h e needle moved as if it rvere impelled by a vortex revolving round the wire in one direction, while the south Pole seemedto be driven by an. opposite vortex. The case seerned novel, and almost paradoxical,r

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'into the history' of the subject But we should look , since the earliest experiments, eighty years ago, in order to get a connected view of the whole subject of electric oscillations' ---' -i. It r842, Profes sor Josclh Eenry was occupied with jar, and reached the the study of the discharge of a Leyden that what upp"..t to the naked eye as a single conclusion of soark, >is not correctly iepresented by the single transfer fluid from one side of the jar to the other'( .an impo.rderable rThe phenomena,( he adds, >require us .to admit the ex' istence of a principle discharge in one direction and then feeble several reflex actions backward and forward, each more >I{enry's than the preceeding until equilibrium is obtained' conclusions *"re dr^*r, from observations of the irregular jar discharges magetizations of steel needles rvhen Leyden through a coil, as in Sauarl's experiments' are-directed ' were mathematically confirmed 5. I{cnry's conclusions for the in ,rSj3 by Lord Kclain, who reached the formula time of these oscillations:

jar' If oniy is released, as in the discharge of. a Leyden inductance or capacity, were present' one of these factors, but not both, the disturbance would rise and fall according to some exponential function of the time, yet without regular

oscillations. When both inductance and capacity are present, as in all metallic systems, the disturbance calls forth both elasticity and inertia, because the electric disturbance is physically impeded and the aether is set into wave motion of the kind nbove described. g. So long as difference of potential is maintained at the trvo ends of a circuit this electric wave oscillation is maintained along the wire. As in the case of the Leyden jar, so also for a battery; the oscillatory discharge begins ihe moment the circuit is-complete, and continues to flow as a steady current. Since there is finite but small loss of \\'ave energy through the body of the rvhire, owing to its physical ...i.ton." to the free movements of the aether, the wave disturbance erlvelopes the rvire cylindrically, traveling nrore rapidly in the free aether outside; but the wave front \ " J / T: znlt/0lKL-/t2laL2) just is continualiy bent inward ton'ards the metailic cylinder, exaround the globe, by the greater where ,( is the capacity of the condenser, now usually as the *'ireless wave is bent oressed in Farads; Z the inductance, now usuaily expressed resistance to the n)otion of the radio wave in the solid globe - o'ot i . , H " n r y s ; a n d , ? t h e r e s i s t a n c e ,i n O h m s ' I f ' ( - o, ihe time of of the earth. Henry, and i? 'l'he Microfarad, ,f :6.ees6r above bxpianation of the waves propagated from the frean oscillation will be found to be I : 5o3ooo' or gives a very satisfactory account of the phe'l'hey niey be a conductor quency of the oscillations 5o3ooo per second' liom a physicai standpoint. Ilut it is hdvisable to h i g h e r nornena made'as rapid as rooooooo per second, or even of look into the matter also from the historical point of view, as rapid as the rvaves frequency; yet we cannot make them to perceive the driti of research during the past atonric i n o r c l e r of iight,- becruse our physical apparatus is not of sixty years. 'freatise dimensions. on lilectricity and ltlagner o. ln the celebrated 6. When R'l+Lt is so small as to be negligible comtism, r87S, S lZ r et se(l', '4[axu'ell tirst irrought out the fundaof pared to tf I{L, tie time of oscillation becomes like that mental differen.e betrveen electromagnetic and electrostatic simPle harmonic motion: undamped u,a u n i t s , a n d s h o w e d t h a t t h e r a t i o i s a l ' v a y se q u a l t o L f T : \z+) f :2ryI/KL. velocity. flpon this basis Martacl/ erected the foundation of But if R2f+L2 is snrall, yet not wholly insensible, the discharge the electromagnetic theory of light, rvhich has come into the is oscillaiory, for undei the danrping due to resistance, general use, titough the mystery of the connection between electricity was not fully cleared up' For example, period is aitered, and the tinre of oscillation becomes of the iight ".rd telegraPhY: iorm us"d in radio Lorcl .Kttuiu never could see how it helped the rvave-theory of light (Baltimore Lectures, r904, p' 9)' zy'(nzt-12)'1/I{L T ' As already pointed out, it witl be seen from the table where / is the logarithmic decrenrent' given belorv, that the dimensions of resistance, in electroexperimentally confirmed Lord 7. In r858 Feddcr:scn which represents.a velocity' This jar iragnetic units, is LT-', theory 6f tbe oscillatory character of the'Le1'den ' Kcluinis is i uery remarkable fact, having profound physical signifia discharge, by photographing the image of the spark 'in cance, which may well claim our attention' ls it possibie .rotating" mi.iot, and found that the image of light rvas drawn and obeying Ohnls each that the resistance felt in all conductors, out inio a series of images, due to sparks following 'Ihe law, is an indication of the motion of electromagnetic wavesiilustration of this oscillatory. other in rapid succession. along the wires, by which the resistance is generated? lf in fig. 8, Plate 5, was obtained in r9o4 by Ztnntch' discharge .o, ,ff. dimensions in electromagnetic units should be z2 times who usid a Braun tube as an oscillograph' that in electrostatic units, as actually observed' 8. Now in the case of a steady electric current, the r r. ln his celebrated discussion of the elecfric medium conductor connects points having difference of potential: Masu,ell showed how re,< could be determined.experimenthis difference tends to adjust itself, by the electric contact, tally. In fact, Vf/ebcr and l{ohlrausch as early as 1856, r7 set in resulting from the conductor, and thus the aether is years before Maruell's treatise appeared, had already carried oscillati,on and the waves travel along the wire, iust as water tut a numerical determination, and obtained the approximate runs dorvn hill from higher to lower gravitational potential' value er: 3 r o7 4oooo nretres per second (Poggendorffs Ann', and in this transfer some dissipation ol energy results' r 856, Aug., PP. I o-z 5). ' Inductance is Present in the wire, and as it has also 'l'his constant has since been determined by many . capacity, the contact yields electric oscillations, when energy

( ,s )

i i.l ; i.', i"

254
investigators, rvorking albng lines indicated by Masutcll, witl,t ments. It suffices to confine our attention,to a very.accordant resurts, the latest and physical no doubt the l".t felng explanation of the results obtaine.d, that by Professor E. B. Rosa and zV. Uut not yet n iorrryoftV"stingion] clearly understood by natural pt itosophe.rl ' "ppnr.ntly tgo7, Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, vol. 3, ,;.. ; comparing the dimensions of the and 4, p. 6or, namely: electromagnetic 9". units with those o[ the.electrostatic units, we find that there .u: z.gg7.toro. is always a uniform diffe^rence t.?. Ar these publications are universally d"p;l;;g on the common , accessible, factor Lf ?:u, or L2f Tz:rr, we shall not go into the details -": " " in the f;ll;;l;; ' of these electrical exoeri- tables. ,. "'r-rn-o*"n 1 3 . T a b l e o f t h e equivalent dimensions in the'trvo theoretical systems of units. Electrostatic E lect ro_magne t ic r. Charge of electricity e - 17,tlz Mtlr aEh 7-r ath. n o M./, L't, z. Density - i14,1tt 114'b a-th T-7 Q ytlr a*6lt a-stz., 3. Electromotive force . E * 11th i1('h a'h 7-1 jll'|, LEt' ?-2 L,h T-2. r lu 4. Electric intensity R-(X,y Z) i17"tt T-r : ,17t"1,n7-, il, a-'n 1y'h 1,th 7-2 5. Porential p'rlr ltlz 7-l ,' : 1lltlt art, 7-2. ,'1) 17'h a'h 7-2 6. Eleictric polarization 11'h 11-'tz T-r - 71,tt 1,-,i., x, l,) llf, iY'tlt a-Elt 7. Capacity C * L-1 ?-2. L '8. uz L-r 72 Current .' ;. - 74.1h ,ytth aEh 7-2 a,b 7*t ., lyth 1,'h 7-r g. Current per unit area (u, u,'tt,) j[,,,|-*ri -r., l{'/, L-tl' T-2 : , M'/t L-Eh 7--r r o. Resistance R -L?-r.rluz L-rT L 7-r r r. Specific resistance ,r _ f.2 7__r .'t T "r ii lu2 L2 T-l r z. Strength of magnetic pole t4 'h. lf L'h : 1l.1th t l ' l t l t Lr t h t r - t LEl, Z--r. rf t, r 3. .\'Iagnetic lorce - H (o, /l[t./. L\h I'-2 t r f r l r | - r l .' - ^ - r ,.11'1, a-'i T-,6.u .8, ,f) 1tr r4. l\,lagnetic induction' L ,l B (o, b, c) J1'l,L-"1, : '': r' 71ttz1, 1tt T-r. r lu 7 1 t l t L - t h 7 - r r5. Inductive.capacity , I{ r :L-!Z-.:.ur r,.'t' L-t 72 r6. tr,Iagnetic permeability L-2 T2 lt' : 1 . 1 f7 , 2 'l'able I of practical units in the two s y s t e m . s Forsimplicity, q
Quantity
r\ame ol unll ' l\r asu r I i l ee a s trlee i n I\Ieasure in . ec o attic . r r o m a_ ,., ^ . , ^ e l c c ttrro sst t a l cu n li tt :s ^ m, g electr .- un ts (/,:3. ro,,,C(iS)

problerns where energy ii expended. r4..It thus. appears that the ratio betrveen the trvo sets of units is uiriformly Lf T: z, in the first or second power, and thus z undo_ubtedly representsa velocity, as 6rst -;; clearlylset forth by Marueil, T.;";i* Electricity and Magnetisni, s 7zr et seq. Fortunatery it ioppen, that this ratio can also be determlned experimentalty, f.om a current of electricity in motion, and from an identical electrostatic charge, at rest: thus a, admits of electric measurement, independently of any theory of light. But as the value ofz is the same.as velocity of light, Maru,ell naturally _the concluded that the electric medium is identical *itt ttre tuminiferous aether. The following is an outrine of the method of ln.u.u.",n.nt.

Obm ro9 It will be seen from the element, resistance, no. ro, in the above table, that to establish equiualence, electrothe static unit must be divided by (f a-'t|z i, t1, ,r, which is t h e s q u a r eo f t h e d i m e n s i o n sn ' . t . . t . # o f n e t i c i units. l.his indicatesthat eiectronragnetic wavesresist& by a conductor depending on ihe squareof the ueiocttyrvith rvhich .1o^ travel, _*:rU they which conforms to general experience in all physical

Capacity Capacity Current Resistance

Chargeof electricity Coulomb Electronrotive force I Electricintensity I Volt Potential I

Farad Xlicrofarad Ampdre

ro '

3'ro3

ro8
r o-9 r o- 15 -1 ro

r ff t . r o r )
g'ro11 g'r05 3'rol' r/(9.ro1t)

s u p p o s e c o n d e n s ei r c h a r g e d i r f r i f i " . s * i , - , ^ , . _ .and let tricity, its quaniity, p, u" .neusu..a i" erectrostatic unlts, dete-rmining i".tni.e .h; ,;;ij;rr ro, which a given fy proportion of thc total chargeproduces in a torsion balance of known dimensions. 'Let t h e c o n d e n s e r , ba g a i nc t r a r g e do t h e e t s a m ee x t e n t , and let it be discliarsed.th.oug-tgotuuio_.ier. By measuring " the deflection prodriced, the const?nts ;a;;; deflectedthe galvanonreter. This gir".'Uf ai.ect observation :. : Q G . ^ . ) l e ( e . s . ) C . 3 . o . r o r C f: 3 . o . 1 6 1 0 o

-" \n:*n, ;i;";;;ine

the. qo"n,i,y ;;T:llilil,tffi:f,

when the current set up by the air"f,".g. i"s unit " intensitv. r 7. The ratio between the units is always of the dimensionsof a velocity, and ,. i, f,ofj. under the con_ dition that ttre centimetre is the unit oi- length, and .the second the unit of time, we see by experim?; ,il ;; .:.- .1,t, r 7r ,;. ,"{'.-: a

or .r..tri.iiy ::g?.,]" luantily wire whlch traversesthe of the galvanometerin aa"ond

r . o 8 8 ' 1 6 $: , o . o r o 8 8 . r o 1 0 . 3 / 3: o . o o 3 6 . ( 3 . o .r o r o ;. Hence the ratio of the. electromagnetic to"the-el".t.ort"ti" '" units is 3.o.ro10 : velocity of li;;;. 'fhe electrostatic quantit p"G. s.) is f the quantity of . electricity which attracts or repels another equal quantity at a distance of r cm, with a force of dil. The electrop (e.m.) is the qu"niiry "

in ,hu foltorving *ay. 1-hee. rn. f. or, pu";.iir;i ;", be measured by such an instrument I_ordI{eluin,s as electrometer, and foLrnd give in electrostatic to units "L.ofu," say o.oo36. 'l'he foi""ti"f "f same differen-ce potential me"su.ed of in electronragneticunits rvill be found io haue the value ,i

;;*":il#i, .r6.r.heprocess

i,,u.,.^,.a

'.

. r.

'. '' 'i::iiil : ^.-:.":,:"i_:.il

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:iffi*ii,

: 5079

256

i,retio.is the actualvelocityof light, 3.o.ro10, which establishes the rvave spreads outward, and onli zdat varies, the cylin' with that of the lurnini- drical sector thus increases,like the circumference of a circle, I . ,_Ti,ti .ii,thi,identity of the electric.medium perpendicular to the axis of the wire. The expansion

zm, of the radius of the circie thus determines the increase in the area of ds, the elementary area of the cylindrical surface, in rvhich the electrical waves'must expand. 4. Norv the area of the circular cylindrical sector varies as zdar or as the radius, dro being constant in a fixed element of the sector. And as the waves thus become less crowded, in the direct ratio.of the distance, r, it follows that the intensity of the wave action decreases, varying inversely as r. 'I'his is a direct and simple view of the geometrical. basis of ,Biot and Sauart's law, heretofore apparently little studied b1' natural philosophers. has 5. This remarkable law of Biot and Sauort thus the simplest of explanations: namely, the elementary cylin'as r, and the resulting drical surface ds increases directly 'lhe larv electrical action therefore decreases inversely as r'. thus follorvs at once from the restritted freedom of the waves propagated from the rvire: and as it rvas confirmed by experi' and harmonizes all known electrical phenomena, inents of Biot and Sattart, r8zo, the iaw in turn establishes in the units, and is an especially satisfactory terrnination of a half century the dependence of current action on electrodynarnic waves' 'taves could prodtrce this result, beof scientific discussion of tne relation betleen electrornag- No other agenc)' tlian a It is not by chance that only z c a u s e w a v e s i t r v o l v e e x p a n s i o n , n d t h e a g i t a t i o n h a s t o f o l l o r v , rietics and electrostatics' the gcometricai inverse larv of the increase of space. I and z2 appear in the above table' '' ' - --" -___--___--o 4Lrrv.ro If the actions of the medium involved -something besides ltIE ll ,ir" , 6 . R y e x t e n d i n g t h e a b o v e r e a s o t t i t l g ,r v e s e e t h a t i f - ;'- say'induction, where u aPPears,or resistance'where zz apl)e:lrs' the l,a'r,es from a body can spread in all directions, thel' : :"..'. . -L^,.11 ,a n 6nd , n or r v i l l f i l l a s p h e , r es u r f a c e , s : . 4 7 t r ! , a n d h e n c e t h e I a r v o f perhaps h e h i r d expected tto .find ,z iin n e r h a r r s tthe tthird o r i.,:l ,;; lij, .should lbe o v n o n t o l qrc t l . i - t,.ili. : . . * r . il. i l e h by obser- decrease of the intensity for the action varies inversely as r', established v o h s e r but no r r n h powers.are s t e h l i s h e d " fOurth.powers;l r t n n "such n n w e r c * ir' wtion, which confirms the alrove interpretation. namely i -f : nf r2, which holds for universal gravitation, ' 'Ihe and other'physical forces of nature' rrragnetisrr], Geometrical and l'hysical Signi[icance ,l'." i .q. , o ' , - - . - . " : o f ^ ' . C- 1-r for t.he As the coincidence betrveen the requirements of L-a.w . 7. 1-*i'gt Biot and Sauart's Jn^tSnsity .a - o to rvaves and the space expansion is rigorous, fronr r F, the chances against such a mere accidental conr: 'i"' infinity to one. Accorr. The law of .Biot and Sauart for an electric current forrnity, rvithout physical cause, are Si 'i '-^J-r-t. ( tl;^r at lti : . 1'-" --.:-^ L^+L^ -i*.^l^ e^.^ \nttnrt A (Biot sauart,n n Ann' dingly, Biot tnd Sauart's law furnishes direct proof of the form et ' l:i' i;;, ifh ."i,i1g_n, 5 p . 2 z z , utmost rigor that u'aves underlie electrodynalnic action, as 1 b i m . P h y s : ,Y:*-.ni.^^tn.-"1Tf]' ' r v e l l i r s g r a v i t a t i o r r , n r a g n e t i s m ,e t c . _r9zo)-: \26) , .f:.KIflr 'fhere "'i has been such a bervildering confusion of thought ,(.i1 a colltant, and 1;ttre intensity ol th.^,"]*:: W,hpfg connected. with the whole subject of physical action across :' r which varies inverselyas the distance from the wire, space that it is necessary to bear in mind clearly the fun' "itiott and' directly as the current strength l/. .:' ': damental principles of natural philosophy. To this end t'e z. We shall give a simple geometricalbasis for Biot need obvious proofs of the causesunderlf ing physical action, : and ,sauart'.slaw of the inverse, distance. ln the Electrod' under the sinrplest of nature's 'laws. The sintple laws exclude ,Physic'.'tr'orc., have shownthat the action the larger nunrber of complicating circunrstances,and enable we Wave-Theory,of of an elqctriccurrent,is due to flat waves,with'their planes the bause involved to stand out in such a way that we may .

t o f ' r o t a t i o n c o n t i r i t t i n gh e . a x i s o f . t h e s t r a i g h tw i r e , t h e r o - r e c o g n i z e i t . ". . taiion of the wave'elementsbeing'aroundthe lines of force, . Very diflerent indeed is the confusion'of thought carried which are circles about that axis. All points of the wire on in certain scientific circles. At a discussion of the Theory in the form of a cylindrical surface,thus spreading as a circular cylinder aroundthe wire, but not in the directionof the wire. The element of cylindrical surfacebecomes:

'

I .

of Relativity, .as reported in the tr[onthly Ndtices for De' cernber, r 9 r g, Sir Oliucr Lodgc justly coniplains that Professor Eddiu,glon thinks he understands it all. >To dispense with a straight line as the shortest distance betrveen two points, ( " . \ and to be satisfied with a crazy geodesic that is the longest rThe where.zdar' is an element of the circles of expansion, in- distance between two points, is very puzzlirig.< . . . rvhole relativity trouble arises from giving up the ether' as creasing as the radius r, and d/ is constant, along the length - ignoring absolute motion through the standard of reference of:.the cylinder. -, rejecting the ether as our standard of reference, length d/ is constant,as the ether , .r New,since,the:el.enlent,'qf

orl EI .!'l

s1 'l
I

. $ t A s t r o n o r n N a c h r i c h t c nl l d . 2 I 2 . ft

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Tafel

t^.

,l,rj I'i
$l

1
r

I
I

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N
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tr\

d/*,'t.tr {
<-a

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/1

l{{
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rl rl
Fig. t.

J
t

i,

<

t-

/ir1,'s illustration of the rnotion of the particles in a wave of u'ater. Each particle moves about a rrrean position, rvhich is shorvn by the centre of the circles; and the radius vector drau'n frorn the centrc, slrols the \\'ater vector at various phases ofthe oscillation,

I'ig 3' 1 ' ) tl t t ' s ' l ' h c o r y o f l l a g n c t t i s r n , I 7 - 1 4 ,. r v h i c h c o n c e i vcrl a rrragnct as having ralres in thc,1\rteries( along its axis, pcrrrritting the aetircr to llorv in one tlirectiorr onll', frorn the S()utlr t0 thr' \ortlr l)ole, . , 1 , 1 , ' . ' l ' h in r i s l c a , l i n s l r r i n , s c i l r l ch a s l r c c nu s c r li n n c r r r , l l a l l s o r k s < r nr r a g l r . t i s r n lor thc pa:t I 76 r'cars, t)rough it sonrctirncsis arlllrtcrl to rnorlern thorrght irt tlrc rotrnrl alrorrt arrrl c o r r l r l i c r t c r l 1 r r < l c t ' s s co f s

\ ^ l - + - - - - - - - -< - > - --- f,----+r-- -tr_igq_l yolt- - -

Irig..1. I)irgrarn shou.ing the adaptation of Etlcr's the< ()f l7+-1 rnade by ^llosurcl/, -freatise on Elect citv anrl )Iagnetism, 1873, vol. lI, S +o+.

Fig. 5. Illustrations of the usage of Euler's Circulation Theory of a llagnet, t714, 1n vrrious nrirrlern rvrrtlta,

F i g . 6 . F l x p e r i m e n t a lc o n f i n n a t i o n o f t h e E l e c t r o d y n a m i cT h e o r y thc nttrtt:rion of soft iron to rnagncti'c oles. p

Astronom. Nnchrichtcn lld, ztz.

Tafel 5.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

F i g . 8 . I ' h o t o g r a p h o f t h e o s c i l l a t o r yc h a r a c r e r o f t h e d i s charge of a Leydenjar, taken in t9o4 by Ztnntck, who used a Braan tube as an oscillograph.

Iiie. 7. I)iagraur of the Edtly Crrrrents in<lrrced in a <lisc oI metal by motion rclative to a nragnet, anrl thenct: the gcneration of a crrrrcnt, as in a <lynarno.

I,'ig. g. Illustration of the rcstrictcd arrrplirrules of thc u.avcs rcce<ling trorrr a strright rvirc, rrrtrlt'r ljto/ and .\otta/.1,s , a l a r v , r v h i c h l . e r r n i t s s l , a c e e x p r n s i o r r , a n c l t h r r sr l c c r c a s e of arnpliturle, varyirrg irrr.crselyas the sqrrrrc root of the distancc 2..

I ' ' i g . r o . I l l r r s t r a t i o n o l . / i i t t / a n L I . S a t , a tI ' s l a r v , r 8 z o , w h e r e \ v e r ) t c a s l t r eh c i n t e n s i t v , / a s t h e d i s t a n c ez - v a r i e s ; t and of ()Luis lar', tEz6, in rrhich at a constant r i i s t a n c e a n r l r v i t h r r n i f o r r ne l c c t r o l D o t i v e f o r c e r v e lltcasrlre tlte rcsistance,/r,,or current strength,L

------

1:

.{,1,

Fig. Ir. Illustration of a magnetic l'hirl about a s'ire, rvith Wave-theoryof this whirl, on the right. Each Iittle piece of iron. filing becomesa small magnet, and they nrr rJrd$'illo[reth6f l , l , l h a F l t i ' n r , l i . , n S r f t h e i i . j i . l i ! ! r l * r i , i i l d ( ,

A s t r o n o m .N a c h r i c h t e n l l d . z t z

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Ta{el 6.

-'a-=-,
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l " i g t . 1 . I l l t t s t r : r l i , r no f t l t c \ \ ' r l c - t ] t c o r y o f t l r c l , r r r t l r ' s u r i r g r r c t i . r u ,s l r o u i n g t h t : n r a g r r c t i c f l r c e s r l i r c c t r - , r l 'l'lrc towartls citltcr polc. a n n c x c r l r l i l g n r r r r o r r l l r c r i g l r t s l r r r v s t l r c r ( ) t i r t i o n st ; r l i i n q lrlacc in thc ficlrl as tilc rrrlgttctic uavcs rcct'rlr', ulrrlq' :rlrorc it is lirc lrgrrrc ot ir snurll lrrr{rrctic lccrllc 'l pointitrg alotrq the linc ol tirrce,llriclr i. llrc rotltion axis oi rlrc u,rres. l r c r l r r g l c t i c i i c ) , 1i s f o t r t t < l r 1 ' ( ; r f l / . r .tf( ) r l c p c t t r l o r r r l r o t r L I : t . l S o r l r 1 r ; r r to l t h c i r t o r u r , u l r i l l l l r r c r n r i r i r q r . l 7 ( l : I i f i o t h s o l ' t l l c i l t ( ) l l s . L r r t r l c r r r l , l r ; r z i r r o lr i t . r r t l t i , ' r rq i v c t l r r , c c n l r j r l i r c l i ( ) n ( ) l ! r , r \ l t i r t l l r t r . I r ,

,//^ "

4
/

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it | r
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'fhe I"ig. t8. Illustration of the \\'arrc-field aborrt a lire bearing a stcacly currcnt. oscillatory discharge tliagrams on tbe left are 'l'elcpiron1,, from l"ltnin,g's I)rirtciplcs of Ii]cctric \\'ale'l'clcgmphy anrl r9r6. As the vire has both inductance and capacity, the <lisclrarge along it is osciliatorv, and thc s'ale-llcld rlevelolrs as dran.n. It is illustrate(1 in Orrrlc'rr''s experi. j t t i o t l l . , f t S t q , a n ' l i n . J r ; a 3 " ' e F \ t r r i f l n * , n rt j i l r r i , i , t ; r r t r . 1 . . , , l i r a ) .

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. ztz.

Tafel 7

T.J. J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

Iti tt t

lllustrrtiotr ol'tlre elfcct ol orthogonal pro,lcction, lrl slriclr rnolccular rrrotions, irr 1i,r.,rr'r's elongated ellipses nortnal to thc save I-ront, at rliifi'rent parts of a spherc surllcc, lrcc6rle tnrinly transl'crse to the direction of thc ra1', at r grert tlistancc Irorrr ihe sorrrcc. 'l'hc orrter circle is rnagni6ed to distinct visibility', so as to rendcr the carrse of rhe trans\.erse r.ibrations in light more obvious to the imagination, as shorvn also by the darkened areas of the enlarged ray at the centre of the figure.

F i g ' 3 . G r a p h _ i c aill l u s t r a t i o n , b y m e a n s o f t h e s h a d e d p o r t i o n , o f t h e e n o r r n o u sc o n c e n t r a t i o no f l i g h t vibrations in the periphery of a beam, under orthogonal projection of the sphere, with I'oissit,s elliptical paths for the -molecular oscillations along the iadii from the centre, and, by means of the small factor '1,'1, thus making nearly all the vibrations transverse to the direction oi tne ray.

C. Schaidt,InhaberGeorg Ohcim,Kiel.

A s t r o n ( ) r n .N r c h r i c h t c n l i i r l .z r z .

T..l.J. Scc. New Theory of the Aether.

Tafel E.

i $\r,
,;t: ;';t'r[., .
' ,1" \'-:' ./'

t,l

":',"r"

+ - -I

Irig -5'(icncral vicw of tlrc ntrgltctic llclrl alr.rrr tlrc cartlr, *,itlr . s1x:cirncrr l t5c \r.i'cs . t() *,hiclr t6e ficlrl is <luc, sh.rvn ort.tlrc right. 'l'hc r r r a g r r c t i cr r r : c < l l e i t ' s i n t l r c l r . l l o r v p f t l r c r v a r . t , s , r n r l l tittts r!c sec rt'lll it to tltc ttortlr. (;1/z.f.f''l'llc()r)'ol tlrc I,larth's nragnctlsnr lxlirrts c6rrcs,.nrls ttr thc rvavc'thcory for tlrc l)rrt ()l'tlrc irtoms rrlrich line,l rrp in parallcl, to pro4uce thc c.rth,s ' l ' l r e" r c ttragttctic licltl, alr.trt I I.llioth .l-thc *'l.rlc. rcst .l-thJ at.rirs, rrz,tr'ra'so,r,.-.,t-ii;;.ri;.;i": give thc ccrttral actio' ciil)c,l gra'irrrti.rr, lrLrt thc gra'itati.nal rvatc iitii,l is t.' c6rrr'lt,x to lrc shorvn in thc rlilgrarrr.

I'ig. 6. l l l t r s t r a t i o r ro l - t l r c r c s r i c t i o n o l ' l l . c ey i l r r r tions *lrt'n thc rvavc rnotiorr is srrtlrlctrlv t c s i : t r ' , 1r r t t l r e l , o r r r r r l r r l o l r r . , r l i , i b r , , l r ' . L)rril! lo lll(' re-istanc(. t<, r,le .i,le i,t tlrt' rrry tlrr' l,ca1r of Ii1.1lri. tl,rtrerrr.,l t I t l i c l 1 q ' 1 1 6 ' q . 1 1 r t , l r r r r( ) l \ \ i r t ( . r , I l t r l st l tlrr:rrcclbrtlr bccorncs polrrizcrl, r.ilrraring \\'ltll grcttcst frccrlorn anrl largcst arnpli_ t u r l c i n t h c l t l l r r c p c r l r c r r , i i c r r l a rt o t l r c lrlanc ofliolarization, as heil by. J)tstrt/.

C.Schaidt, lohaber Georg Ohcrm, Kiel

A s t r o n o m .N a c h r i c h t e n B d . z t z , ,

T.J. J. See. New Thiory

of the Aether.

Tafel 9.

Illustration of light polari. zcd by reflection frorn the blue sky. 'I'he vilrrations are norrnal to thc planc ,lf polrrization passing tlrrorrglr the sun anrl thc z c n i t l t , a n r lt l r c lrolarizrtiorr attalns a ll)a\itnuln irt a c r l r r a l l y r l i s t : r D tf r o n t Pornt the zcnirh.

F-igz'

l.'ig. 8. trndulatory explanation of the interference of polarized light, when tbe paths of the aetherons are circles. It .uill hold for ellipscs, and. even for straight Iines, brrt SuCn restnctlons are not necessarv. In tlre rrJrper part of thc figrrre thc rvnvc phases rliffcr lry t/rI; in ihc lower parr the plrascs concur, and give doublc in. tensity. The light and dark bantls above correspond to the present position of the s'ave, indicated by the heavy linc, whilc the arro$'s shorv the advanced position of the s'avc rrhcn it has moved to the right after an interval d/.

C.Schaidt,

Iohabcr

Georg

Ohcirr,

Kiel.

. Fis. ro. I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e t l i f f r a c t i o nf r i n g e s t l r r c t o a r e c t a n g u l a ra l ) c r t u r e ,r v i t h t h e c o r r e _ s p o n d . i n gv i s i b i l i t y c u r v e a b o v e i t , o n sli gh tly d i fferent scale (.1 . /t./.t t i;.' l. he ft o c e n t r a lb a n d o f i i g h t i s n i n e r r r r r e r n o r t , s r n t e n s e t h a n t h e f i r s t s c c o n r l a r yr n a x i w.!;le the higher ordersoi Lands, 1,um, a|l paralte[ to the sides of tlre rectan. gular slit, are still fainter.

lr
i ;l

257

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and replacing it by the observer. By putting the observer in the forefront and taking him as the standard of reference you get cornplexity. If you describe a landscape in terms of a man in a train looking out of the window, the description is necessarily complicated. The surprising thing is that t h i s t h e o r y h a s a r r i v e d a t v e r i 6 a b l e r e s n l t s . <. . . . > T h e t h e o r y is not dynamical.'There is no apparent aim at real truth.. It is regarded as a convenient mode of expression. Relativists seem just as ready.to say you are rising up and hitting the apple as that the apple is falling on you. It is not comrnon sense, but equations can be worked that way.c 8. It is quite rernarkable that heretofore the lau, of tsidt and Sauart should have been so little studied bv int e s t i g a t o r s . A l a r v o f s u c h s i m p l i c i t y ( c o m p a r eF i g . 9 , I ' l a t e 5) has enormous advantages over any cornplex law, especially when it comes to searching for the causes rvhich produce the p h e n o m e n a o b s e r v e di n n a t u r e . T h u s i t i s p r e e m i n e n t ) yt h e s e simple laws, which admit of .one interpretation and onlv one, that should claim the attention of natural philosophers. 9, In the closest analogy with what lliot and Sauorl's latv puts before us, for the intensity of an electric current, on a straight wire, the Newtonian gravitational potential, for . a homogeneous sphcre or a heterogeneous spheie made of concentric layers of uniform density, presents to us the ex: essively simple fcrrnrula

investigators,,who thus exhibit ,a feeble giasp of the

e s s e n t i a lc o n d i t i o n s o f g e o m e t r i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l r e s e a r c h ., . l , ; . , .;t.

Accordingly, sincethis Gcrbcrformulais invalid, when , . 1,i ;(i'-i :t:ii; I

applied to a homogeneous sphere, or a spherical mass made .rs., i''-"-i"i :tilt',i up of concentric layers of uniform density like the sun; its r :i|l

above explained. Accordingly let us see what connection,,if,!,r;r. any, exists between Ohn's law and that of Biot and Sauart.',".:,. ';'" a) In Riot and Sauart's larv we vary the distance, with

V:

Mlr

(rs)
b e l o c n tte d .. ) ed
c) 'Ihus Biot and, Sauart's law, with a fixed "teadt .,i,r,',r,',t: \ .i i'.-', i:,* :i:'

which we have already interpreted in terms of wavcs frcell' expanding in tridinrensional space. Any other interpretation than that given for the Nervtonian potential function in thesFsimple cascs secms absolutely excluded, by virtue of the simplicity and directness of' the most obvious special relations, as when the rvavesexpand outwardly from a spherical nrass such as the sun. r o. Any modilication which renclers these formulae complicated or non-homogeneous is to be viewed u,ith pro'I'hus found . suspicion. the substitrrtion of Gerbcr's formula:

v:t4r(t-rfe.drldt)2 \"9) for Ncutton's as cited in equation (28) above, is unjusti6able occurring a fixeddistance, calcutated at as and indefensible; yet in the perverse search for complexit.v and tlrose occurring at a varying distance,as calculatedUV, instead of sinrplicity, such bewildering confusion goes on. 'l'he
Dr. P. Gerber first published this unauthorized formula in the Zeitschrift fiir Mathernatische I'hysik, I3and XLIII, r898, p. g3:r04, and the. exploitation of it since made by' Eiastcin, and his followers ignores the fundamental fact that by introducing the second power factor, /2 : (r - t f c. arl at)2 in the,dlrisor, the dimensions o[ the equation are changed, which is physically inadmissible and equivalent to violating the essential mathirnatical condition of homogeneity for the equatioir for the potential. Such an objection is fatal 1), since it rests upon both geometrical and physical grounds; and thus we witness the adoption of a mere convenience, in violation of recognized principles. -scientific rr. Tbe fact thatihe Einstein speculations involve this . fatal contradiction seems to have been overlooked by previous

1 , ', : . '- - . . 1 i f 1 , . : , r .j t 'l'.liil r r. Accorclingly it appears that these two l"ws aie jl'r '' n r u t u a l l y s u p p l e r n e n t a r v . F o r a l l t h e e f f e c t s ,i n t h e f i e l d 9 f , ; i , ' i . . $ 1 i . electrodynamic waves about a wire, should include both thosd!l'; , *l-.oo; ';;'Ji;lriili:'"'.

rr,

rLrvcr

lut

LdlLutd(lllE

LIft!l!,-

jlr,

tensity at a fixed distance.

to the wnve-theory.

: ':'S,l t , .{Si'. the law of lliot and,Sauart. trvo laws are thus broughi into immediateand necessary relationship, and both conform' :l: ,.,.|.ff

. l'.$il

\Ve may tt'rite Biot a.nd Sauart's larv in the form; -t:,i,,i;,-.,=il

,,,,,,i

,,; S,,liii"

I:
and Ohnt's law in the form:

KIIIr IIIR.

."(Si

ffi
,:

T:

(s'):"
rlR. .

Accordingly on combining the two expressions which rve may do by equating the identical intensity at any point,
we oDtaln vrtl KHlr

IIIR

or

I{ :

Therefore, rve find on substitutin for K i t s v a l u e , f o r ' g any value I{ and r,

,,

' . ,( r l )

I:

rIflRr:

I1 R

'

{ tr.

t) This rnay b e m a d e a l i t t l e c l e a r e r b y n o t i c i n g w h a t w o u l d h a p p e n if the exactly analogous formula for the lelocit y, l/ = Lli,, hacl e factor 1t introduced into the divisor Z. Such an arbitrary modification of the expression for the potential is purely a change de cori., Tenance, and not permissible on mathematical or physical grounds
. ....i / ;

25.9

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260

which again yiel.ds Ohnt's larv, in the form which holds for 'any fixed distance. '., r4. These two laws therefore confirm the wave-theory of the entire field about a wire bearing a steady current' - the resistance Ohm's law implies a cylindrical.wave field the axes of a rectangular hyperbola and intensity being Biot and Sauart's law also referred to its assymptotes represents a rectangular hyperbola of the same type, but with r varying instead of ,? (compare Fig. ro, Plate 5). These two laws give the complete theory of the electrodynamic wave'action, in the whole field about a wire bearing a steady or variable current, and thus greatly simplify the theory of the electromagnetic field. : : E 6. Ocrstcd's xperiment, r8r9, Arago'sExperiment with copper wire, t8zo, and the IMagnetic rvhirl shown by iron filings near a conducting rvire all confirm the wave-theory, which also agrees with Ampirds theory of elernentary electric currents circulating about the atoms. In the Electrod. Wave-Theory' of Phys. Forc. we have given a simple and direct explanation of. the deflection of ihe magnetic needle first observed by Ocrsled in r8r9, the adherence of iron filings to copper wire conducting a ctrrrebt, first observed by Ara.go in r8zo. We also explained ., the.circulir whirl assumed by iron filings near a conducting wire, and finally were enabled to harmonize the wave-theory with Anfbrc's theory of elementary electric currents al)out the atoms (comp. Fig. rr, Plate 5). l .,,.,,Such- an illumination of the obscure subject of the magnetic field is too remarkable to rest on nrere cbance; as.the best and thus we shall describe the argument briefly,'l'he electromeans of unfolding the true qrder of nature. propagated from the rvire bearing the current dynantic waves lie in planes through the axis of the wire, and are of the type

tangential to the lines o[ force, which are iircles normal to the axis of the wire. If now, without other circumstances being altered, the direction of the current be changed, the two poies of the needle immediately interchange at all points about tire rvire: The south pole is deflected to the west when beneath the .wire, and to the east when above the wirb. And in general, every point in the orientation is exactly reversed. What can be the meaning of this phenonrenon in which the current acts as if it has sides, when reacting on the magnetic needle? We shall see that just as the magnet has two poles of opposite properties, so also the current has ts'o sides, due to waves which appear to be righthanded rotations when vierved from the opposite point. Consider the case first cited above, rvith the current frorn the'positive copper plate of the battery florving north and the needle suspended beneath the wire, but with the north pole deflected to the west when the current flows. 'l'his means that the rvaves desceuding belorv the wire have vortices rotatins righthanded, as sho*'n in the following figure, frorn the writer's work of I g r 7.

s: :

asin(znxf),-t-p) asin(znylT-rp)

( 3s J
Iiig. lz. Nerr theory of O.rttdtl's nnd Antgo's cxPerilncnl.s, r 8 t 9-zo, tnd of induction.

where r and y are interchangeable, owing to the symmetry of the waves about the z axis, which is taken as the axis of the wire. Owing to cylindrical symmetry the axes ol' r and 7 might be rotated about that of z without any change in the expressions for the waves receding frorn the rvire under tire action of the current. But as we have already pointed out the arnplitude a decreases as in Biot and Sauart's law, inversely as y'(xzt-tz). r: . (i\ Ocrs*d's Experiment of r8r9'

It meens aiso that the rotations of the rvavesreceding from the south pole of the needle have the opposite direction of rotation, as shorvn in the figure. r. For it is found by experinrent that the needle is bodily attracted to the wire, by the action of the current, and hence the waves fronr the wire must undo the opposite rotations in the waves from the needle. Accordingly the contraction of the the experiment of r8r9, it was observed by Ocrstcd mediurn tends to collapse, and by this In the mediunr the needle is drarvn to the wire' that if the magnetic needle be belorv the wirb, and the current volune of z. In all the works on electricity and magnetism which from the copper positive pole of the battery directed north, the north pole would be to the west' I have seen including Marwcll's great treatise, this question is the deflection of evaded by the claim that the north pole tends to wrap wire, but the other circum- sornervhat If the needle be above the 'unchanged, the deflection of the north pole was ob- itself around the wire, in one direction, s'hile the south pole stances wire in the opposite direction; served to be torvards the east. The needle might thus be tends to wrap itself around the without any change of and tliat this actual bending of the needle rvould occur if revolved in a circle about the wire, flexible. I proved by direct experimept iu the relative position in relation to the axis of the rvire' the needle were the needle is bodily attracted. to the wire in Accordingly it appears that the axis of the needle, sets itself r g r 4, that

',

' : , 1' t

' " , , { , ,, . '

t,1;.'..,

. I l:il*j' ,. ,.);,': t

'.1 -;11

I -,i
F'. t

Ii: 26r 5079

262

t$

every possible position it may take, but I cdnnot.find so simple a statementof this essentialfact in any earlierwork on electricity and magnetism' about the tendencyof the unit 3. .The usualdiscussion

dl*t from generation gen^er-ation, | and 7. It is norv easy te reconcile Antplrc,s theory of :"*,I_^hil9:9 eminent scholarshave often renrarked.to difficult it is to jelementary electric cnrrents how irr" ;;;il;; "uo,rt get rid of the most obviotis errors, rvhen entrenchedin "^"r*.;; the wave-theory.The formula for a plane wave is irvith authoritv

north pole is very unsatisfactory, because rvhile the tendency rvaves emitted by the conducting wire in Oersteds ind Arago,s I thus outlined is fairly accurate, it conveys the impression erPeriments, described above, will have their elementsrotatling I that all porver is centred in the polb, .rather than in all the in perfect agreement with rthe vortices inside the body o1 I particles, - notwithstanding the fact that if we break the tfe magnetic needle.. 'l'he waves from the wire thus supporr ] physical'oscillations within the more resisting body of magnet we get as many separate magnets as we havc fraglthe ments, and since this subdivision may be extended to moli- | the needle, and by rendering the sunr total of the mutual cular dimensions, we know that the theory of pole action a.ctions a minimum, the balanced needle is in equilibrium in i is altogether nrisleading, yet such vague teaching contirrues the position observed by Ocrstcd, r8rg. I

o. It is worthy of note that since the lines of force I within I about a magnet are rentrantvortices, the filaments the axis of ihe magnetrotating in exactlythe opfosite direcI I tion to those in the magnetic equator,for example,- the

j1:i:

4. Further'proof of the above theory of the action of 'upon nrric an electric c r r r r e n , upon a n r o n ^ a + i ^ ^ ^ r t ^ * : _ L . r _ ^ deduccd electrlc current ntagnetlc needle might be , ^ , _ , - , nragnetic from the fact that in nature physical actions always "*

l,o.-.,": :rn.,

I A: - ^n.r-l a q w F m r ry . h ;ifftt , r ,e - ^ , i-n t io . rt^h e _e v . ^l , _ n,g _ e-c t o'r : e a , sh th ^ po . rf r ^ - o v i . _v - t t " I | 1,. .llsying the phase angle y', lve see that by chinging I try alteri 7 rt''"- o6 ti ,n, rve shouli ha'e a complete oscillation of tbe ]

s:

a sin(znrf )"+p\ .

(:o)

i"1:rt:::j"]':"^,lo_"t::tlt_l'-:tTt't

attlacteg to the needle .u.r.n, once about the atom; and also to the advanceof ]

; ;;; "" ;;,;;.;# il'";;i:

but not from the other: there undulations m.st nroceecl fr.,b o t h b o d i e s i n c e s s a n t l y ,a n d . t r a v e l w i t h t h e \ n ^ ' i ; : " " : ; , : ' ; ' l ' T h i s is proved by observation. for ,h. .",r:jo;:tTji n s "llj-o This i s p r o v e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n , f o r t h e r y a y e a c t i o na

.1:.1'.H.il:'',1',1'1"'_*: i::H,';"';''l,j';:.: ;::":";,l*":n:sl*,i:1iiii:i.::::i_":":[::i l:* i.,,,",r"1

Lrtuurtrrcrcrlce tnan a wave length ,t ol the rvave I ""'l.'.'tr ] emrtted from the aton), all we need to do is to point out i thnt we do r r u r know the nrechanisrnby which waves originate, l Y c u v not K r r u w r r r c I r l c c l r a n l s l n L l y w n l c n w ' 1 v e s o r l g l n a t e t
i l'-l',*

proceed from the needle and also from the wire, and by ,",i.r. their interpenetration develop forces of the kind observed in I (

a bar of steel inserted in a solenoid 1), it follows that the velocity of the trvo classes of waves,. one from the current and the other from the magnet, must be the same, and in b o t h c a s e si d e n t i c a l r v i t h t h e v e l o c i t yo f l i g h t , u : 3 . o ' r o l 0 c m s . t ( i i ) ' A r a g o ' s F ) x p e r i n r e n to f r 8 z o . "'"1:,"'^_'."^:'.. :. .

from a natural mag'et ha'e ne'er u."n airJ.tiy il:J:::: I :Trliiplier anv accuracv nx rt rvith yet since magnets"arer r d u c by the action of;;,,;";t";;;; l r r a S u r r r 4 r E . r made u y L r r c a u l l u r r 0 t a c u r r e n l u D o n I I
I ] I I ] I |

Lu ro undetermi lii,::.",;1":{",:"", v e l o c i t yj{q":t l : : : , : l - *.:.;::o'lf";Ji":J',i"-1;:J:'*n e d w a v e so f a m a g n e t;::f ,t h o u g h t h e .:fii:_J e w a v e sI:;i",t' l r c s l ) o n c r r n a ! o t t n e a t o m ' A n IXJ};;.,,J."j i t s e l { l*:"1:: of th probablf is invol'ed here, brrt at presentrve cannot
(iii) Natrtre of atomic vibrations considered. For in the case of sound, the dimension of the Echnholtz resonators is not closely related to the length of the corresponding sound rvaves received and emitted by the e l a s t i c o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e r e s o r . r a t o r .A n d e v e n i f t h i s c o u l d h o f ^ , , - , r ; - air, : 1 . . . ^ . . r r _ ^ r L ^ ^ L ^ ; - it would not be the [,e fotrnd sarne in hydrogen, .in

pro::^1"..::-^"::f1.:^:i1"li::: -"^tll,r.,l that copper wire conducting a current will give.a wave 6.ld of' these media, *;[-; I n.rii.r ", If iron filings be j",,.1_1t I oi the resonator,its shape,mass,";-;.";hr;;";';;;;"#; ctc. elasticity,rigidity, :::Jt^t|^'jlllll_ """. such a conducting rvire, ,?,!". obvious that it is L"i:::

it is ob'iou'lo*ygen, nitrogen, other gases; or but dependon the

theyshoulrladher"e.oi.,,in.".".inii'g#><{--'''-a-':
'

u) .,.' t h e w h i r l o f m a g n c t i c a v e s b o u tt h e w i r e . { w a ,,2. \,,.' \ ,/ \., .,' . '\r. Accordingly Arago's experinrentis simply ,., l-,.-,/::=7\ ,z'\ ,/ " verificationofou.stcd'sexperiment,butren.\A,/..XX.,/''.>''

r w t l t D e c o m e t e m p o r a r y a g n e t ,t he e n d s ) y ' Z a m the , ")'. _ o , ' . . r ::, oppositepoles, :1i-' :," natureds )/,zi- i * r-..2'. / \\\Y\ " , :-. .rt'''' :::": :"i.^'"-Tl"'lll ro the en // X having owing of X, ,(

z/... ,i'"'..-/::.' ,t7 X.

,/ f:j;:;,:.";;;

;^-

deredmoregeneral the useof a copper,?!)< by n.rti

fall offwhen the current stops, and the wave "'''

\1,1 Irig'r3'

.>'

wire, and solt iron filings, rvhich therefo.e -.-.-K]S1-/-:r<'-)

"u",iif.."ppe.'*;*"Ji,;;il;

;:"f;:tJJ,rerectric

currents about atoms

r) As lar back a s - r 8 z o A n y ' ) r e s h o w e d t h a t i f a r v i r e b e r v o u n d i n t o a s o l e n o i d , d e l i c a t e l yp i v o t e d i n m e r c u r y c o n t a c t s ,a n d a c u * e n t passed through it' it behaved as a magnet' with a north ancl south pole. Hence .tinflre,was irnp.".r!d with the solenoidal character of magnets; a n d i m a g i n e d t h a t r h e e l e m e n t a r y c u r r e n t s a b o u t t h e a t o m s . r n u t u a l l yd e s t r o y e d e a c h o t h e r r v i t h i n t h e b o d y , a n d r e m a i n e d e f f e c t i v eo n l y i n t h e surface layer of the Inagnet' rvhich was thus viewcd. as. a shell. tlit ,tr,fire's reasoning is equally useful for proving that there are \vaves proceeding from tlrb wires bearing the current, and that they are flat in the plane througi; the axis of the wire.

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So also within'the aether, the vibrations of the atons are determined by causes which at present are but little understciod;,and we can only infer that the atomic dimensions are not directly related to the wave length, or \Yave lengths emitted, though there probably is. some correspondencewhich I may be nrade out in time. ', t g. It appears trom the researches in spectroscopy :heretofore made that the atom of a single element nay emiti a complicated series of spectral lines, which means .a very complicated series of vibrations, sonre of rvhich are connected by the forrnulae of Balncr and other investigators. Now most of the vibrations of the visible spectrum are belorv the resolving power of the microscope, and thus the rvaves are so short that such vibrations do not penetrate solid or even transparent fluid bodies to any appreciable depth. But we know by the transmission of the sun's rays through such a medium as the terrestrial atmosphere that longer rvaves have increasedpenetrating power. And since Langlel extended the length of the solar spectrum tg some zo times that observed by Netuton, without finding any indication of an end, it is natural to bold that the waves upon rvhich gravitation, magnetism, electrodynamic action, etc., depend must be of comparatively great length, otherwise they would not Penetrate solid masses as they are observed to do in actual nature. ro. It thus appears that the shorter atomic rvaves there' fore do not produce forces acting across sensible spaces, ancl in dealing rvith the long range forces of.the universe \\'e nrust look to waves of considerable length, which have the re<luirecl penetrating power, and are least delayed in propagation 'rvill explain gravitation, through solid nasses. Such waves ma$netism, electrodynamic action, and are the only nreans of rhaking intelligible the correlation of forces and th'e conservation-of enetgy, since light and heat certainly are dtte 'IJnless the other energies be due to waves in the aether. to waves alSo there would be violation of the doctrine of continuity, which is so fundamental in natural philosophy. flowing in the same direction, and the repulsion o[ currents florying in opposite directions,, and therefore assigns the true physical cause of these electrodynamic phenomena. r. Frotn the foregoing discussion it follows that when fronr the east of the meridian we look at a positive current florving to the north (fronr the copper terminal of a battery) rve find the elements of the waves propagated away to be rotating righthanded (clockwise) beneath the wire, but lefthanded 'l'his (counterclockwise) above the wire (cf.'Fig. r8, Plate 6). foliows also frotn the relative positions taken by thc freely pivoted rlragnetic needle, which presents to us a south pole when beneath the wire, but a north pole when above the'rvire. z. Norv suppose we have two such independent currents ffowing north: wbat will be the mechanical effects of the mutual intbractions of their waves? If we imagine ohe wire above the other, for conformity to the wave picture jttst outlined in paragraph {, we perceive that between the wires, ithe wave elements from the two conductors rvill rotate in opposite directions: which will cause the undoing of the separate weve stresses,and a collapse of the medium, and the result of this contraction will be attraction.

3. On-the outside of the two wires, on the other hand, the rotations of the wave elements will be in the sanre direction, the stress oi agitation of the medium will there' fore be increased, so that it expands: which will tend to press the rvires together from the outside. Hence the wires will be made to attract both from the internal and the external wave actions. Accordingly, we have a simple and natural explanation of the mutual attraction ofcurrents flowing in the same direction. And it is based upon the same conceptions as are involved in the attraction af magnets presenting unlike magnetic poles. In fact by the suspension of magnetic needles close to the trvo conducting wires, the sanre conclusions follow: for unlike poles are presented in proxirnity, which nreans attraction. 4. Norv let the directiori of one of the currents be reversed. It is easy to see that between the u'ires the rotations of the rvave elements will appear to be in tbe same direction, as vierved from the east of the meridian ; and thus the agitation of the medium will be increased, the nredium rvill expand, and the wires be forced apart, so that the action I e a d s t o . r e p u l s i o n , j u s t a s w h e n l i k e p o l e s a r e p r e s e n t e db y two n)irgnets 5. On the outside of the two wires, howeve;, the rotations of the waves, flowing in opposite directions, will each tend to undo the other: in the external region the niedium rviil tend to collapse, which rvill allow the wires to be forced al)art, so that repulsion from the region between the wires rr'ill be accentuated by this external tendency of the rlediunr t o c o l l a p s e . A c c o r d i n g l y m u t u a l r e p t t l s i o nw i l l b e o b s e r v e d whenever two currents florv in opposite directions. 'l'his is equivalent to the mutual repulsion of trvo 6. magncts rvhich present like poles : the interpenetration from opposite directions oI waves with ]ike iotations caused the nreclium to expand between the bodies, and to coLlapsebeyond them, so that repulsion immediately follorvs. Accordingly the whole theory of the attraction and repulsion of electric currents florving in the same and in opposite directions respectively, is analogous to the mutual actions of two magnets, and the causes are one and the same. And as the outcome o g r e a t l y s i n r p l i f r e s u r t h e o r y o f e l e c t r o d y n a m i ca c t i o n , s o a l s o ',u" u* correspondingly assured that the results conform to t the true laws of nature. The harmony of so rnany distinct b p h e n o m e n ar v o u l d n o t b e p o s s i b l e . u n l e s s a s e d u p o n t h e t r u e causes invoived: for the probabllity of such an accidental outcome approaches zero. 7 . I l ' c b c t ' sL a r v i n d i c a t e s t h a t G r a v i t a t i o n a l , I V I a g n e t i c ,a n d l i l e c t r o d y n a m i c A c t i o n s a r e a l l d u e to Waves traveling with the Velocity of Light; thus explaining the Senridiurnal ,'l'ide in the Earth's Magnetism depending on the NIoon, which Ncwton's Law will not account for. As we have previously pointed ottt, Wcfur's funda' mental larv of electrodynamic action, published in r846, has the form:

1:

| tf Q n l f r 2 ) { r- ( r / r ' ) ( a r fa t ) ' + ( z r l c 2 ) . a 'a r } l . ( : z )

. The first terni of the second member is identical with Nctaton's law of gravitation, 1686, and of coorse gives the

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principal'parl of the force which regulates the motions . of but of such lengih that they may be propagated through the hear,enly bodies. But there are slight effccts resulting s o l i d m a s s e s s ' i t h o u t v e r y g r e a t l o s s o f e n e r g y . 'l'he from the second and third terms,l'hich were first numerica)ly z. rvave is taken to be flat in the equator of the investigatlcl by Tissu'and in r87 3 (cf. Tissu'azrl's 1\,ldcanir1ue atom, so that in this plane, the waves are perfectly plane C e l e s t e , T o m e l \ r , l a s t c h a p t e r ) , b u t ' t h e t h e o r y w a s r e n d e r e d waves, while in the trvo hemispheres of the atom the rotations more conrplete in the present rvriter's Electrodynanric trVave- g i v e r i g h t h a n d e d o r l e f t h a n d e d h e l i c t ' s , a s a c t u a l l y o b s e r v e d 1 ' h e o r y o f l ' h 1 ' s .I , - o r c . , o l . l , t g r 7 , w h e r e t a b u l a r d a t a r v i l l in polarized light rvhen propagdtd. through certain crystals. v b e f o u n d f o r t h e p l a n e t s , . s a t e l l i t e s c o m e t s a n d b i n a r y s t a r s . This specification fulfilled . the most necessary optical re, , T h e c h i e f e f f e c t o f t h e m i n o r t e r m s o f e q u a t i o n ( 3 7 ) q u i r e n r e n t s ,a n d t h u s p r e s e n t e d n o d i l f i c u l t y f r o m t h e p o i n t i s t o g i v e t h e p e r i h e l i o n a s m a l l p r o g r e s s i v em o t i o n , w h i c h o f v i e r v o f l i g h t o r e l e c t r i c i t y . -+r4!5r i n t h e c a s e o [ t h e p l a n e t I v l e r c u r ya m o u n t s t o d a : 3 . T h e m a g n e t i c r e q u i r e m e n t ,t h a t c o n t m o n s ( e e ls h o u l d in a Julian centur)'. This reduces the anomaly in the out- be capable of magnetization by the action of an electric s t a n d i n g m o t i o n o f t h a . t p e r i h e l i o n t o a b o u t t w o . t h i r d s o f i t s crrrient, was met by rhe theory of lnfire that before mag-r4z!g5 to d6: - + z S 1 ' 4 4 ,b u t n e t i z a t i o n t h e p ) a n e s o f t h e a t o m s I i e h a p h a z a r d , w i t h t h e i r value, namely from 6a: d o e s n o t o b l i t e r a t e t h e a n o m a l y , w h i c h i s m o r e e x h a u s t i v e l y e c l u a t o r i a lp l a n e s t i l t e d i n d i f f e r e n t l y i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s . T h e investigated in the second paper on the nerv tbeory of the actjon of the electric current, with waves flat in the planes through the axis of the conducting wire, rvill yielcl electric aether. It was in his celebrated paper of r864, A l)linamical oscillations in the form of plane waves, oriented at right 'fheory. of the E,lectron)agncticIiield, that ll[arirl/ reached a n g l e s . t o t h e a x i s o f a b a r o f s t e e l u n d e r m a g n e t i z a t i o ni n t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y o f e l e c t r o d y n a m i ca c t i o n i s a s o l e n o i d . H e n c e t b e s e e l e c t r i c o s c i l l a t i o n so r p l a n e $ ' a v e s identical rvith that of light, as alreadf indicatcd lty /t-oh/rausrh's d u e t o t h e c u r r e n t , u ' i l l f o r c e t h e a t o m s o f t h e s t e e l. b a r t o e x p e r i m e n t a ld e t e r m i n a t i o h o l u , i n r 8 5 6 . I S u t a l t h o u g h s u t : h t i l t a r o u n d , s o a s t o m a k e t h e i r v i b r a t i o n s c o n f o r m t o t h o s e a conclusion follorved fron Kohlrazsrl's experintents, ancl d u e t o t h e c u r r e n t i n t h e s o l e n o i d ; a n d r v h e n t h e m a g n e t i z e d from .tifttrutrl/'s theory oI the electr.onraqneticficld, it rvas s t e e l b a r i s c o o l e d s t r d d e n l y , b y p l u n g i n g i n t o w a t e r ' o r o i l , necessary to lbrm a more definite conception of the nature t h e r c s u l t w i l l b e a p e r m a n e n t e l e c t r o m a g n e t o I t h e t y p e o f t h e a c t i o n , t h a n w a s t h e n a v a i l a b l e , b el b r e t h e u s e o f z first rrade by '4tnfire about r8zz. l'hus the atoms of the mxqnet are set in planes at right angles to the axis through could be introduced as a rvorking hypothesis. the poles, and all vibrate in concert. tlfarutll's electromaenetic theory of light rvas prrt in such shape that thc existence of electric \\'aves\\'as renderecl 4. Accordinsly, rve find a direct relation betlveen magp r o b a b l e ,b u t n o t d i r e c t l y v e r i 6 e d b y a n y t a n g i b l e e x p e r i r n e n t , n e t i s n r a n d e i c c t r o c l l ' n r n r i c c t i o n , a n d a s d y n a m i c e l e c t r i c i t y a t i l l I { e r / z ' s d i s c o v e r y o f t h e e l e c t r i c r v a v e s( r 8 8 7 - 9 4 ) r v h i c h i s f o u n c l l ; v e x p e r i m e n t t o t r a v e l o n w i r e s r v i t h n e a r l y t h e b e a r h i s n a m e , a l o n g v / i t h a n r e t h o d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n gt h e i r v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t , i t i s i n r p o s s i b l et o d o u b t r h a t t h e r v a v e s p r o p e r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g a n e x p c r i m e n t a l d e m o n s t r a t i o nt h a t t h e y er-nittccib1' nrtr.rral and artificial mrgnets travel also with the travel rvith the velocity oi light. s a n r c s p e e d . I n f a c t i t f o l l o r v st h a t b c l b r e u r a g n e t i z a t i o n h e t This practical development of the rheorl, of electric steel emittecl rvavesof the srme type as after action by the o s c i l l a t i o n s , r v i t h e x p e r i m e n t a ld e t e r n r i n a t i o nt h a t t h e v c l o c i t y e l c c t r i c c u r r e n t , y c t p r i o r t o t h e a c t i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t t h r o t r g h of the electric u,ates is identical with that of lieht, lcft no the solenoid tlre orientation of the atoms was a haphazard d o u b t o f t b e i d e n t i t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c n r e d i r r r n v i t h t h c l u n r i n i - o n e . ' I ' h e a c t o f n r a g n c t i z a t i o n o n s i s t si n f o r c i n e t h e e ( l u a t o r s r c fereus aether. Otherwise it is inconccivablc that the tn'o of the atoms into parallel planes, so that they may I'ibrate velocities shorrld be identical. The previous and suLrscclucnt i n c o n c e r t , r v h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e g r e a t s t r e n g t h o f m a g n e t i s n r d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f 2 h a v e c o n f i n n e d t h i s c o n c l u s i o r r ,s o t h a t in comparison rvitir the feeble force of gravitation. 'I'his such a result has nou' been aciepted for abotrt a quarter of brinss ns directly to the problem of cosmical 5. a centurJ,. It remained, however, to form sorne demonstrable m a g n e t i s m a n d o f g r a l i t a t i o n . I n s t e e l n ) a g n e t s o f g o o d p h y s i c a l c o n c e p t i o n o f m a g n e t i s ma n d o f g r a v i t a t i o n , * , h i c h q u a l i t y a ) l o r n e a r l y a l l t h e a t o m s a r e f o r c c d i n t o p a r a l l e l i s r n u'ould justiil' the clainr not only that elcctric rvavestravel by thc neitations'of the current throueh the solenoirl. Now with the speed of light, but-also that magnetic ancl gravi- the heavenly bodies contain some iron, nickel and other tational forces are due to a similar citusc, rvh-ich s'as the m a g n e t i c e l e m e n t s , b u t m u c h o f t h e i r m a t t e r , o f a s t o n y o r s, a i m o f t h e w r i t e r ' s r e s e a r c h e ^r g r 4 - r g r 7 . g l a s s y c l r a r n c t c r , e x h i b i t s n r a s n c t i c p r o l > c ' r t i eis a v e r y f ' e e b l e n r . F i r s t , i t r v a sn e c e s s a r y o s h o w t h a t a p b y s i c a l t h e o r y d e g r e e . N l o r e o v c r , t h e p l a n e t s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o n o . v e r y t s o f m a g n e t i s n rm a y b e b a s e d o n t h e m u t u a l a c t i o n o f . w a v e r ) , s t r o n g s o l e n o i d a l a c t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h a t d u e t o t h e s u n ' s a n d t o d i s c l o s e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e r v a v e s ,u ' h i c h n ) u s t m e e t m a g n e t i c f i e l d . I t i s n o t r e m a r k a b l e t h e r e l o r e t h a t t h e y a r e m c e r t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n e l e c t r o d y n a m i c s ,a n d c o s m i c a l. n t a g - o n l y p a r t i a l l y n r a g n e t i c . T h e i r n r a g n e t i s n . r a y h a l e b e e n netism, so as to be adaptable to' the more hidden problem acquired or considerably nrodified by the secular action of of universal gravitation. This requirement was rnet by the t h e s u n s i n c e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s o l a r s y s t e n t . theory of rvaves from atbms, shorvn to conforrn to Anfirt's 6. Accordingly, Faradals great discovcry tbat under t h e o r y o f . e l e m e n t a r y e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t s a b o u t t h e s e p a r t i c l e s , c u r r e n t a c t i o n a l l b o d i e s a r e m o r e o r l e s s n r a g n e t i c ,w h i l e
r) The fact that w a v e s ' r v i l l e x p l a i n t h e a t t r a c t i o n a n d r e p u l s i o n o f m a g n e t s , u n d e r t h e o b s e r v e d l a s ' s o f m a g n e t i s m ,m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s a v e r y n o t a b l e t r i u m p h - A s n o o t h e r e , r p l a n a t i o ni s k n o w n , t h e s i m p l e c a u s e t h u s a s s i g n e d m u s t b e h c l d t o b e t h e t r u e c a u s e . ' 1 8 i i .

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nickel, iron, steel, etc., are the most perfectly ,adaptable to the process o[ magnetization, would lead us to expect cosmical magnetism to be a very geheral phenomenon, but always somewhat feebly developed, in accordance with actual observation. Herein lies the connection with universal gravitation, which Marwcl/ found so difficult to conceive. lVhen the equatorsof the atoms aie not lined up in parallel planes, so as.to oscillate in concert, they naturally are tilted haphazard, and do not lead to poles, - as in a magnet, rvhich Airy describes as exhibiting a drlality of porvers, - but to the central action cailed gravitation. As the hed.venlybodies are partially magnetic, this means that they have feeble n)agnetic poles, in addition to the powerful central gravitational action, and thus two independent wave fields are developed, about them, one due to the atoms lined up and acting in concert, called magnetism, and the other to gravitation (cf. Fig. r4, Plate 6). r 7. It is impossible to hold any other vierv of the interlocked magnetic and gravitational {lelds observed about a planet. In the case of the earth Gauss fo,lod that about r : r 38oth part of the matter acts as if it rvere magnetized ( A l l g e m e i n e T h e o r i e d e s E , r d m a g n e t i s m u sr,8 3 8 , p . a 6 ) , w h i l e the remainder, r3jg: r38oth', should give the central action o[ gravitation. I3y the observations taken at Mt. Wilson Solar Observatory the sun's magnetic field appears to be s o m e 8 0 t i m e s s t r o n g e rt h a n t h a t o f o u r e a r t h . W h e t h e r t h i s is due to the heat of the sun, and the resulting greater conductivity of rvave action through its matter, so that the action on the planets produce a larger secnlar effect upon their atoms, or to some unknown cause, cannot at present 'fhe be determined. strength of the sun's nrirgnetic held has no doubt added to the cosmical mngnerism of the planets, though the changes are excessively slow. ' 8. It is more than probable that the secular changes in the earth's magnetism should be ascribed to the working of the sun's strong magnetic field, which is not equally powerful at all times, but varies appreciably with the sunspot cycle, the relative position, and seasonal tilt of the earth's axis, etc. As the magnetic storms are definitely shorvn to be related to the cycles of the sunspots, as is also the aurora, and the earth currents, these related Dhenomena deserve a too.e detuiled investigation than they have yet received. 'I'he periodic phenomena all appear to depend on the sunspots, with their magnetic fields uncovered, and thus are more active with the maximum of the spot cycle. 9. For many years a great difficulty existed in accounting for the senridiurnal tide in the magnetism of the earth, depending on the action of the moon. 'lhis rvas first detected by l{rcil at Prague in r84r, but independently discovered by /ohn Allan Broun, 1845. A very accurate analysis of the observations at Dublin was published by Dr. Llo1d about 1858, which showed that the magnetism of the earth had the same semidiurnal period as the tides o[ oui seas. Ac, cordingly ,4.iry d,eclare'Othat there is )a true lunar tide of magnetism, occurring twice in the lunar day, and showing

magnetic attraction backward and forward irr the'line from the Red Sea to Hudson's Bay< (Treatise on Magnetism, r87o, p. zo6). r o. This semidiurnal tide in the earth's magnetism depending on the moon's action is shown to be coperiodic rvith that of gravitation (cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., rgr7, pp. 5o-53). And on examining Ltoyd's analysis i n t h e P h i l o s o p h i c a lN l a g a z i n ef o r M a r c h , r 8 5 8 , I h a v e s h o w n it to be vitiated by a subtile error, in that he retained the hour angle 0 instead of the z0 rvhich occurs in the exp r e s s i o n sf o r t h e t i d e - g e n e r a t i n g o t e n t i a l . A p p a r e n t l y h e d i d p n o t s u s l ) e c tt h a t t h e r e c o u l d b e s u c h a t h i n g a s a r n a g n e t i c t i d e , a n d t h u s h i s r n o d e o I a n a l y s i ss i m p l y b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n , and the resulting error is repeating in many later rvorks. For example, in his Mathematical '.fheory of E,lectricity and N l a g n e t i s n r ,r 9 r 6 , p . 4 o z , J e a n s a s s e r t s t h a t t h e d a i l y v a r i a t i o n o f t l i e e a r t h ' s r n a g n e t i q mi s n o t s u c h a s t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s c o u l d p r o d u c e - t h u s r e p e a t i n gL l o y d s e r r o r o f r 8 5 8 . Of course this is not true, for a careful exarninationof the problenr shows that the larger part of the terrestrial maguetism is constant, as depending on the arrangenrent of r / r 3 8 o t h o f t h e a t o r n so f t h e g l o b e , w h i l s t t h e v a r i a b l e e l l - e c t s a r e s u l ) e r p o s e db y t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e s u n a n d m o o n . T h u s a l l t h e k n o r v n p e r i o d s . o t 't h e t e r r e s t r i a l m a g n e t i s m a r e s h o w n to follorv frorn those of the heavenly bodies. r r . N o r v . i t i s f o u n d l h a t A r e w t o n ' sa r v r v i l l e x p l a i n a l l l grar,itational plienornena, but not the phenomena of the rnagnetic tide depending on such a body as the nroon. Iior a s , l i r v p o i n t s o u t , t h i s i r n l t l i e s a t t r a c r i o n b a c k r v a r da n d f o r rvard, in tire line frorn the Red Sea to F{udson's l}ay, ri.}rich is along the iine of force of the edrth's nagnetism. 'l'he i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e a r t h ' s m a g n e t i s mt h u s v a r i e s i n s e r n i d i u r n a l , periods, just as the direction of the vertical varies under the gravitational attraction of the moon, and in similar periods. rz. Accordingly, the attraction to the carth'smagnetic pole is subjected to a true tide in the earth's nragnetism, arid can only be explained by ll/tber's larv, which takes account of induction under the changing distance of the p a r t i a l l y r n a g n e t i z e dr n t t r e r o f t h e g l o b e , t h e l i n e s o I f o r c e towards the rnasnetic pole being subjected to the same ebb and flow as the central forces called gravitation. This connects lnagnetisrn rvith gravitation, by direct observation: for the earth has feeble polarity, with magnetic lines of force directed to the magnetic poles, as rvell as the much nrore powerful central lines of force producing the phenonienon of gravitation. Now the phenomenon of local gravitational c h a n g e , d u e t o t h e m o o n ' s a c t i o n , . i s i n d i c r L t e db y t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e s e a , w h i l e t h a t d u e t o t h e u r o o n ' sm a c n e t i c action is felt only by magnetic instrurnenrs ri'hich show the variation of the northrvard cornponent of the earth's magnetism. . r3. When the tide-generating potential is developed in hour angle /ie (rvestward),'longitude / and latitude l, of the place of observation, declination of the rnoon d, the components of the gravitational attraction are shown to be:

-t V : ( s f r n a z f r t ) l L fc o , s 2 ) , c o s 2 d ch o - t ) - r s i n z l s i n d c o s d c o s ( , 1 , ) * t l " ( l o - s i n 2 , 1 ) ) z( os (:S) 2 : westw. comp. : ? Il acos)'67 zf,(tnfM)(alr)3 {cos).cos2 sin z(/to l) -*sin l. sin z d sin(zo z)} d (ss) s o u t h w ' C o m p , * a l f a d ) " : 3 l a @ r l M ) ( a l r ) 3 { s i n z l , c o s 2 d czo s o - t ) - 2 c o s z , l s i n z d c o s ( l e - l ) - r s i n z ! " ( r _ (n 3 s i n ? d ) } .( a o )

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. It will be noticed that the westward component is made up of two periodic terms, one going through its variations twice and tbe otber once a day, *'hile the southrvard comj ponent undergoes like periodic oscillations, as illtrstrated by the following figure, lrom Sir Georgc Dartain's Tides and Kindred Phenomena of the Solar System, r89g.

(S) An rr:year fluctuation depending on the sun spot cycle. (6) A period of 18.6 years - which is the cycle of the revolution of the moon's nodes. r6. This result confirms Joln Allan Broun's discovery that the diurnal variation depending on the moon follorvs very accurately the law of the inverse cube of the moon's distance. -Broun remarks that >>the ratio of the moon's mean distance from the earth in tbe half orbit about apogee is ro that in the half orbit about perigee as r.o7 to r; as the cube of r.o7 is r.z3 nearly, we see that the mean range of the curves for the trvo distances are in the ratio of the inverse cubes of the moon's distance from the earth. as in the theory of the tidcs. < (Stuaart's Article Meteorology, Encyc.Brit. 9tr'ed., p. r79). lts Broun had observed the lunar magnetic effects io be as r to r..24, and. Sabinc had found similar results, he natrrrally regarded the veri6cation of this tidal law in the l u n a r s e r n i d i u r n a lv a r i a t i o n a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . W i t h t h e a b o v e correction of Llo1,d.'serror of analysis, this result of Broun shows conclusively that all the diurnal effects observed can be explained by the ntagnetismof the sun and moon. It is not strange therefore that in his celebrated article on Terrestrial Magnetism, \ t39, Batforr Slcwart recognized that as the moon's magnetic influence follorvs as nearly as possible Jh'oun's larv of the .inversecube o[ the distance from the earth, it is impossible to refrain from associatingthis - m a g n e t i ci n f l u e n c e e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y w i t h s o m e t h i n g 'fraving the type of tidal action. Slctaat't points out that Airy found a similar semidiurnal inequality depending on the sun in the Greenu'ich records, and A. Adams found corresponding rEarth Currents< to be induced in the crust of the globe at the correspondinghours.

N
?l

s
l'ig' "'l::::(;:,::1-:T";i,in iurnar semi <r

r4. As Neulon's law will explain the periodicvariations of gravitation depending on the heavenlybodies but not the observed magnetic tides due to these bodies, it follorvs that -Ncutton'slaw is only a first approximation, though accurate 'l'he enough for two centuries of astronornical science. universe is governed by electrodynamic laws, and Wcbr/s fundainental law of r8a6 is the chief law of nature. This is another reason why rve must use Weber'slarv in calculating the motion oI Mercury's perihelion, which therefore shorrld progress dd - -+r4!5r l)er century, instead of the arbitrary and accidental amount of 43n, as inferred by Einslein, rvithout first taking accorlnt of tbe time of progagation of gravitation. By connecting nragnetism with electrodynamic action and 8. Plane \\'aves propagated from the Equators with gravitation s'e knorv all these actions take place with of the Atoms of a N{agnet fulfi l1 Poisson's quation E the velocity of light. of Wave trIotion ?'!Qtf7tz:22gr (D, and yield the r5. Since magnetism is thus connected with electro- L a r v o f A m p l i t u d e r e q u i r e d t o p r o d u c e the Forces dynamic action, and shown to travel with the velocity of ' o b s e r v e d i n I r l a g n e t i s m . light, and on the other hand directly connected with gravi'fhe oscillatory motion in a plane wave propagated tation through the semidiurnal magnetic tide depending on along the r-axis may be defined by the rvell known equation: the moon, rve perceive that gravitation must be propagated )" (+t) E: ocos(znxf +p) with the velocity of light, and thgrefore all these forces rvhere the zgro of the angle (znxl),-rp) necessarily depend on \ilaves. is reckoned from It is not wonderful therefore that in the earth's mag- t h e p a r a l l e l t o t h e y - a x i s . llut in plane wave rnotion the particles not only undergo netism the main dependence is on tbe orientation of the atoms of .the glolte, at the same time we have minor terms a p e r i o d i c s i d e d i s p l a c e m e n t l i k e t h a t e x h i b i t e d i n a c u r v e o f s i n e s , b u t a l s o a l o n g i t u d i n a l m o t i o n , s u p p l e m e n t i n gt h e depending on the following periods: ( r ) A s e m i d i u r n a l m a g n e t i c t i d e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ; above, which may be expressed in the form: q:psin(znxllt-p). also a smaller but very definite semidiurnal magnetic tide er) depending on the moon, discovered by Kreil atPragne in r84r, In general particles the tbus undergo elliptical moticin but independently detected by Joltn Allan Broun in r845. de6ned by the equation: (b) A sotar diurnal variation of the rnagnetic declia z ( +r ) { 2 f 2 - r r 1p ,fz : , . nation, changing slorvly through the year. This may become circular nrotion for surface waves ( r ) A f l u c t u a t i o n i n 2 5 . 9 3 d a y s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ' s in still water, as illustrated graphically in the foregoing mean rotation period. figure r, Plate 4, from Airyt's celebrated Treatise on Tides (3) A fluctuation in 29..53 days, which is the synodic a n d W a v e s , E n c y c . M e t r o p . , r 8 4 5 . month. In the electrodynarnic wave-theory of magnetism it is (a) A yearly period depending on the motion of the sun. held that when the magnetism is imperfect the atoms may
r8r

z6g

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. It will be noticed that the westward component is made up of two periodic terms, one going through its variations twice and the otber once a day, r,r'hile the south.rvard comj ponent undergoes like periodic osciilations, as illtrstrated by the following figure, from Sir Georgc Daruin's Tides and Kindred Phenomena of the Solar System, r899.

(S) en rr:year fluctuation depending on the sun spot cycle. (6) A period of 18.6 years - which is the cycle of the revolution of the moon's nodes, r6. This result confirms Jo/tn Allan Broun's discovery that the diurnal variation depending on the moon follows very accurately the law of the inverse cube of the moon's distance. -Broun remarks that >the ratio of the moon's mean distance from tbe earth in the half orbit about apogee is to that in the half orbit about perigee as r.o? to r; as the cube of r.o7 is r.z3 nearly, rve see that the mean range of the curves for the trvo distances are in the ratio of the inverse cubes of the moon's distance from the earth, as in the theory of the tides.s (Stewart's Article Meteorology, Encyc. Brit. 9tl'ed., p. r79). As Broun had observed the lunar magnetic effects fo be as r lo r..24, and Sabine had found similar results, he naturally regarded the verification of this tidal law in the l u n a r s e r n i d i t r r n av a r i a t i o n a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . W i t h t h e a b o v e i correction of Lloyd.'s error of analysis, this result of Broun shows conclusively that all the diurnal effects observed can be explained by the n)agnetismof the sun and moon. I t i s n o t s t r a n g e t h e r e f o r e t b a t i n h i s c e l e b r a t e da r t i c l e 'I'errestrial on Magnetism, \ t39, Ilofour Sltu'art recognized that as the moon's magnetic influence follotvs as nearly as possible JJroun'slarv of the inverse crrlre of the distance from the earth, it is impossible to refrain from associatingthis - m a g n e i n f l u e n c ee i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y r v i t h s o m e t h i n g 'having t i c the type of tidal action. Sletuart points out that Airy found a similar semidiurnal inequality depending on the sun in the Greenwich records, and A. Adans found corresponding >llarth Currents< to be induced in the crust of the globe at the corresponding hours.

N
3t

l2

s
m<l rn r i i, a

l'ig' "''l;::#:;,?*T'TJi,lh.se

r4. As ,lVcalon'slaw will explain the periodic variations of gravitation depending on the heavenlybodics but not the observed magnetic tides due to these bodies, it follorvs that Ncalon's law is only a first approximation, though accurate 'l'he enough for two centuries of astronornical science. universe is governid by electrodynamic laws, and Hibrls firndairental law o[ r8a6 is the chief law of nature. This is another reason why rve must usc Webcr's Iaw in calculating the motion of Mercury's perihelion, which therefore should l)rogress 6a:-+r4!5r per century, instead of the arbitrary and accidental amount ol 43', as inferred by Eins/ein, rvithout first taking account of the time of progagation of gravitation. By connecting nragnetism with electrodynamic action and 8. Plane Waves propagated from the Equators with gravitation rve knorv all these actions take place with of the Atoms of a Magnet fulfill Poisson's quation E the velocity of light. of Wave N{otion 32A1A1z:42y2 (D, and yield the r5. Since nragnetism is thus connected with electro- L a w o f A m p l i t u d e r e q r r i r e d t o p r o d u c e t h e F o r c e s dynamic action, and shown to travel with the velocity of ' o b s e r v e d i n M a g n e t i s m . light, and on the other hand directly connected rvith gravi'l'he oscillatory motion in a plane wave propagated tation through the semidiurnal magnetic tide depending on along the *-axis may be defined by the rvell known equation: 'the moon, rve perceive that gravitation must be propagated acos(znrf),-+1t) (qt) Ewith the velocity oI light, and thprefore a]l these forces rvhere the zgro of. the angle (znrlT-+p) is reckoned from necessarily depend on waves. It is not wonderful therefore that in the earth's mag- t h e p a r a l l e l t o t h e y - a x i s . Ilut in plane wave rnotion the particles not only undergo netism the main dependence is on the orientation of the atoms of .the globe, at the same time we have minor terms a periodic side displacementlike that exhibited in a curve o f s i n e s , b u t a l s o a l o n g i t u d i n a l m o t i o n , s u p p l e m e n t i n gt h e depending on the following periods: ( r ) A s e m i d i u r n a l m a g n e t i c t i d e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ; above, which may be expressed in the form: ,l : p sin(znxf (+rl )"+-p). also a smaller but very definite semidiurnal magnetic tide In general the particles thus underg'o depending on the moon, discovered by Kreil at Prague in r84r, elliptical moticjn but independently detected by John Allan Broun in r845. d e f i n e db y t h e e q u a t i o n : (b) A solar diurnal variation of the rnagnetic decli(+:) 1 2a 2 - r r 1 2 f z : t ' f P nation, changing slorvly through the year. This may become circular nrotion for surface waves ( r ) A f f u c t u a t i o ni n 2 5 . 9 3 d a y s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s u n ' s in still water, as illustrated graphically in the foregoing mean rotation period. figure r, Plate 4, from Airy's celebrated Treatise on Tides (3) A fluctuation in 29.t,3 days, which is the synodic a n d W a v e s , E n c y c . M e t r o p . , r 8 4 5 . month. In the electrodynarnic wave-theory of magnetism it is (a) A yearly period depgnding on the motion of the snn. held that when the magnetism is imperfect the atoms may

r8'

I
[ : :

27r

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have their equatorial planes tilted at any angles in respect to 'Ihe plane waves above outlined would the coordinate axes; apply to the midplane of a perfect magnet, but it is necessary to conside,r the most general case. Now the equation of a plane passing through the origin of coordinatesis : (++) lr-rrny-rnz o. If the wave be fiat in this plane it rvill travei rvith the velocity a and at the end of the time l, rvill have spread 'distance to a al. Accordingly, the argurnent
5 tYtx2y*nz-a/

of volunre Q,5- ls dy dz, and integrate throughout the volume bounded by a closed surlace S

-r02@f -ra2@F,\ : ar,z d, [ ! !O'ap,,)a": ",! [ [Q2af0r2

: -"'I].Qala4ds.

(sr)
its

If the surface S is a sphere of radius r *ith centre at the point P, rve may proceed as follows: '

Ja,,1 ! ! Qu, os: fJlaoFr),"d, : r, (010,) ut, (s+) ! ! a,

t 4 5 / tlre sphere of radius r, about the ccritre P.

rvhere d). denotes the value of @ at points on the surface of

w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e m o t i o n o f t h e d i s t u r b a n c er v i t h v e i o c i t y a . \Vhen rve introduce polar coordinates into the first Ilut s is the equation.of a plane u'hose norntal has rrenrbcr oi (Sf ) we obtain: the direction cosines ,1, at, n, and whose distance frorn the o r i g i n i s a t - + -s . . I t i s i n f e r r e d . t h a t t h e p l a n e i s t h e r e f o r e traveling in the direction of its norrnal rvith the velocity a; ' O n c l i f f e r e n t i a t i n gt h e r i g h t m e m b e r r e l a t i v e t o r - , w e but it is equally logical to say that a rvave originlting in t h e .p l a n e i s t r a v e l i n g i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s s ' i t h t h i s v c l o c i t y , a n d g e t f r o u r t h e o r i g i n a l e c l u a t i o n ( a 8 ) t ; y m e a n s o f ( 5 3 ) : ( 1 P _ , . . " | ^ , ^ , ^ , ( P a t t h e e n d o f t i r n e l , t h e s p h e r es u r f a c e l a t ) 2 : r2-+-y21rt : a,\0ldr)(r,\dldr)) r-\c!,ct:)) (S0) ){Itrda )Qtrdot). would be this distance \at-rs) frour the original centre of r O ,a . r v h i c h a p p e a r s . i n Yet the surface intcgral 'l'hus i n s t e a d o f c o n s i . d e r i n gt h e ' p l a n e t o r r a v e l , ! ! distufbance. we may consider tire rvave to travel and carry a plane b o t l r u r c r n b e r s o f ( 5 6 ) i s 4 , r t i n r e s t h e r n e a u v a l u e o f t h e $ ; i t h i t p a r a l l e l t o t h e p l a n e i n ( + S ) . tirr-rction@. on the surface of a spltere of rtrdius 2,. ^Suppose s - + - a t- l r - r n y * n z , tliis rrrean value. be denoted by Q,;. then slnce The directions cosines o[ the plane fulhll the larv ItA,a, : (q0) : 72-tnt2{172 1. 47t @, rve haie ' r ' z Q ' ) A , f A:) o 2 ( 0 , ' ? r ) ( , ' ' . Z t O , l 3 r ) . ( S Z ) i Norv with the value of s'in (a5), rve nray take thc equation On differentiating and dividing by'r, rve nray put (D(lr-+tny-rnz-at) @: \+l) this in the forrn: and derivethe follorvingresultsby simpledifferentiation : A2|'@)|AP: ar?"(rtO,\10r2. (ss)

p'pfl ,!!a65 (otl0rl!! : a.(ia,,-,,r,.) (ss) .

Abp,t, : tt e'\s) 1 4 7l i / We ma1' nol introduce two nel variables z und z, ?Al?t : - a rD'(s) as follon's: u : at-tr u : (SS) at- r. TtrDf?x2 | e'(s) T@lAl - 21\eY ls) ( + z, ) l 02rDl0z2 n2 rD' (s) OlQtf - a2 Qt'(s) . 0f 7 'fherefore, by aclditionof these terms rve find : , -+-02rD aDtrltl0t, . 0'tQt f0# f01,2 : V2@ : (12-+-rn2-+-n2).(r" ttt'(s) . (s) : ( + zc J t rlt'(s) 2 Qt'(s)
And hence by the last of the above second diffcren-'

?4tl6r : A@lAz:

tials .we obtain

A,reftt2 _ a2V2(D

( +s )

which is Poissot's celel-rratedequation of rvave motion. (Sur l'intdgretion de queiques dquations lineaires aux dift'drences p a r t i e l l e s ,e t p a r t i c u l i e r e n l e n t e I ' i q u a t i o n t d n d r a l e c l r rm o u v e d n r e n t d e s f l u i d e s i l a s t i q u e s , <\ { d m o i r e s d e I ' A c a d i r n i e I L o y a l e 'l'ome Ill, Juillet r9, r8 r9.) des Scicnces, I( u representsthe displacernent of the particles above c o n s i d e r e d ,i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r - a x i s , w e l n a y d e r i v e a less general . but urore obvious ibrrn of Itoisson's erluation, which rvas appiied by Eulet'to the theory of sound. ' . Put s sil(nf-kr\ n: ,nal)" k : zrcl)". (+S) And then we nray derive iminediately: --kcos(nt--hr) ?ul1t: 0uf0r: ncos(nt-Ar) 02rl0t.t--tt2u 32uf0r2:.-+rtIu 02uf0t2: -(n2fi2)A'rl?r'. whence ' (So) (Sr) (Sr)

If ig. I6.

Illustrating the Wave us in rellccted l,igirt.

'f

lrcorl' of J\,i.rtot ,

if, for brevity, we l)ut 7(p, the dcrivatiyes:

'fhen

r/-rrve have for

82t1tf?tt:a2l02ql0u2-+-z1ttpf?yDy-+-02q10u2) (Or) 0zqf0rt:0'VlD,,'- z02qf0uou-r7zqf1u') (o:) .

lJy equation (5S) we have through the addition of the terms of the right of (62) and 63

p 0tl f 0t : A+, lfi uf A -r 0q f 0u.0I 0t : a (0 I 0u-r 0Lp u) (oo\ p t u tp 0p l0r :0p l0u.0uf1 -r0q l1u. f1r: aql1a- aql1u (o' ) 0i r

In the usb of Poissott'sequation of wave motion ' A2{Df7f : a2V2(D (+S) we may multipll' both sides of the equation by the eleurent

: 0zqf0u0y

( o+)

:i
,:..'l

. .i.:l

.?7 3
.Thisequationyieldsthegeneralsolrrtion:

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Suppose, for exarnplb, that initially O ana liOflt are for a certain region ,?, whose nearest poiirt . where / and f2 are perfectly arbitrary funcrions o f t h e i r is at a distance 1 frorlr P, whilJ the remotest point lies at a distance 22. arguments. Then so long as \ <r1f a the mean value of @ on If /: e, the left member vanishes: the sphere of radius af, is zero, because the waves from the o : _f,.(at)-rf, (at) . ( oo) nearest point have not yet reached p. After an interval A n d a s t h i s h o l d s f o r a l l v a l u e s o f l . i t follows that t2>r2f a there rvill be no rnore rvaves and O@Ft wilt again the functions f1 andf2 are not independent, but one is t h e be zero at P. negative of the other, namely

rp:1rQ)-+f2fu)

( o s ) both zero, except

frkt) :

-,fr{"t)

(oz) (os )
(oq ) ( ro )

b y ( O O ) , ' w h a t e v e rb e t h e u a i u e o f t h e a r g u m e n t a l . ' Accordingly we norv put and then we have rA,: f (at-r.r)-f (at-r). . . When rve differentiaterelative to r, we get: . (D,+r?rlt,f d7 : . /,(at-+r)-+-f,(at-r) ' And on putting t..* e,.this leads to

(D,.j

,{,,rJ,rn"n o. : 7.

( z' )
hr)
1\'C .get

On differentiating (6q') relative to r- ancl t, successively: (A l0r) (rrD,) : /, (at -t-t.) +-/, (a t - r) '

'I,'ig. poi.r.eon,s 17. Illustreting Theory of Wavcs. Accordinely disturbances vill prcvail oirly in tlie time r , r y f a < l < t ' t f a a n d t h c y r o u ' e ro f c l i s t u r i r a n c e , . o rv e l o c i t y p o t c n t i a l ( / ) , i s p r o p a s a t e d i n a l l r l i r e c t i o n s* , i t h t h e v e l o c i t y a . llt' rrsirrc lrolar coordinates. poissotr has obtained a lrlore < l i r c c t s o l u r i o n , l r c c a u s eO ) t h e n l r c c o r n e si n c l e r r e n d e no f t h e t a n s u l a r c o o r r l i n n t e s . I i r l u a t i o n ( + 8) b e c o m e s ,

Qla4 QQi,):

a l/' (at-+ *.f, Q; - iI . r)

(;:) (;+)
(;.;)

A c c o r d i n s l y , l r y a d c l i t i o n , . r v eo b r a i n

? ( , @ ) P t - + ( t l a ) . A Q a , 1 p t: 'f And for : 6,

zJ'(,tt-+t.).

W b e nw e u s ct h e o r i g i n a v a l u e f O ) r : ( r l a r ) j I r n , 5 , , , l o i t t h u s a p p e a r sh x t \ . c o l r t a i n : t

[ A V @ , ) l A r - + - l l Q . a Q a , ) F : , ,,f,,.( , , ) . t) "

( ; o ) or

-r z 0zetl?t2 a2(0zrDl012 f rA0l0r) : 0)(rrn)f11t n2.3r(r2)10r2 : .

A s o l r r t i o no f t h i s e q u a i i o n i s

(s') (s, )
(S:) ir;i

Nou' suppose tliat at the initial instant, / : o. the values of (D and its time derivative 7rttf1t are givcn in funct i o n s o f t h e c o o r c l i n a t e so f a p o i n t i n s p a c e :

2f,(r): IQpi {,1 [ ! a, a,] +n. -+ft la) f an: l{ea,Fr) ,t,,,D, l, I

u'hichields: f

r e) : /lat_r) qt:1.@t_r)lr.

(;;) ]

[ @ ] , = ":

f i ( r , 1 , ,z )

pOtl?1,:":

/ ( r , J , ,, ) .

(;s)

Then by (77) n.e have

-+ z/' (t'): Ql?i iV'4.-r ! n,a,,,,yeI an 7,aa. (I s) a) ! I ),f !

But when 7': st, rve have bV hr) the centre, and thus.finaliy rve obtain: zf,\at): e)p at

@: :

UI qo)fppat) @t!!.F"1do-rt].' It,,aro)]

(so)

for all points of space, and all times for which at-r l t t s . t h e s a n r ep a r t i c u l a r v a l u e w e h a v e t h e s a m e v a l u e r'(0, as the particular r.alue of (I) travels outward rvith the velocity a. It should be notcd that the value of O) is inverselrr propgrtional to the.distancer traversed. And although the analytical fornr (8a) makes @ infinite rvhen r : o, vet in r e a l i t y t h i s c o n d i t i o n d o e s n o t o c c u r , [ - t e q a u sp h y s i c a i l i m i : e tations imposed by the strnctureof matter excludes the value / : o, and @ is altvays finite. Follorving the method of poisson, Lord Ra1,letgfr'and other rvriters'on sound are accustomed to take the ielocitv
naronri - l

'l'lrus

which is Poisson's general soluti6n of the equation (ag), for wave motion From this solution, it follorvs that the vajue of O) nray be com^puted for every point P if rve know the rnean value of O4tld1 at a time earlier by the interval at, for all p6in15 on the surface of a sphere of radius at about p, as srll as the rate of the variation of the mean value of O) x5 ths radius of the sphere changes. This is the typical condition specified in wave motion.

'

A : : JOC,

-rJ(.r, : t)

,qcoslznf )..(r-at)l 6.

(S5)

rvhich fulfills the irrotationalcondition of hydrodynamics:

p !{,ra**o al,q ts)

(so)

But it is a fact of great importance, which,rvili be d i s c u s s e da t l e n e t h i n t h e f o u r t h p a p e r o n t h e n e r v t h e o r r ; . of the aether, that Poisson never concurred in the theorv of transversevibrations for light, Poisson'sdissent from Frcs)tls assumptionstvas based on the mathematical theory 9f waves

275

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in an elastic fluid. Besides the celebrated memoir of rgr9, already cited, Poissontreated the matter in another able paper, presented to the Acadenry of Sciences, March 24, r g 2.3, Mimoire sur la Propagation du N{ouvement dans les Fluicles E l a s t i q u e s ,f i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e t i t l e : S u r l e M o u v e ment de Deux Fluides Elastiques Superposds (lvldmoires de I'Institut, Tome X) in which this celebrated geomerer confirmed the conclusions previously reached, nanely, that whatever be the direction of the original disturbance,the vibratory motions of the particles finally become normal to the wave front. \Yhen li'esttel and his follorvers obiected to ?oisson's processes as founded on mathematical abstraction, though deduced from the assumption of contiguous elements, tte celebrated geometer returned to the subject in a series of later menroirs, as follows: r , M i m o i r e s u r I ' E r l u i l i b r e e t l e X ' I o u v e m e nd e s C o r p s t E l a s t i q u e s ,A v r i l r 4 , r 8 2 8 . I v l d m o i r e s e I ' I n s t i t u t ,' I ' o r n eV I I I , d p p . 3 57 - 6 2 7 . z. Mdmoire sur l'llquilibre des Fluides,Nov. 24, rgzg. Tome IX, r-88. 3 . M d m o i r e s u r I a P r o g a g a t i o n d u l V l o u v e m e n tc l a n s . i e s M i l i e u x E l a s t i q u e s ,O c t . r r , r 8 3 o , 1 ' o m e X , p p . 549-6o5. 4. Mdmoire sur I'Equilibre et le lVlouvementcles Corps C r y s t a l l i s d s ,T o r n e X V I I I , p p . 3 - r 5 2 . In all of these memoirs the earlier conclusions of r 8 z 3 a r e c o n f i i m e d a n d e m p h a s i z e c l t h a t r v h a t e v e rt h e p r i , m i t i ' r ' e d i s t u r b a n c e m a y h a v e b e e n , a t a g r e a t d i s t a n c ei h e m o t i o n o f t h e , r n o l e c u l e s f i n a l l y b e c o m e s p e r p e n c l i c u l a rt o t h e w a v e s n r f a c e . T h i s i s d e d u c e d j n t h e m e r - n o i ro f r g r o , pp. 5Zo-5?r, by an argumentwhich cannot well be evaded, and announced in these words: r l l e n r e s u l t e d o n c q u ' l m e s u r e r l u e I ' o n s ' d l o i g n ed u c e n t r e d e I ' i b r a n l e m e n tp r i m i t i t , l a v i t e s s e u p o i n t l l a p p r o c h e d de plus en plus d'6tre dirigde suivant son rayon vecreur ,., et qu'tr une trds-grande distance, oi l'onde mobile peut 6tre regardie comme sensiblenrentplane dans une grande itendue, o n d o i t , e n m e m e t e m p s , c o n s i d i r e r I e m o u v e m e n td e s r n o l i cules qui la composent, comme perpendiculaire i, sa surface, quel qu'ait itC I'dbranlement primitif.( On pages 524-5 of the same menroir of rg3o, poissott deduces the formula (D : r lr . t! (r - at, y,, 1,) and passes to tbe case at > r* c,

distance, ces ondes sont sensiblement planes dans chaque partie, d'une petite dtendue par rapport i leur surfacb entidie; et alors, la vitesse propre des moldcules est, dans ious les c a s , s e n s i b l e m e n tn o r m a l e i r l e u r p l a n t a n g e n t . M a i s o n p e u t aussi considdrer directement la propagation du mouvement par des ondes infinies et planes dans toute leur. dtendue. Or, on va voir que. la vitesse des molecules sera encore p e r p e n d i c u l a i r ea c e s s o r t e s d ' o n d e s e n m o u v e m e n t . < Accordingly, in his most matuie memoirs, after re_ searches on the theory of waves extending over.25 years, f'oisson confirmed the conclusion that in elastic rnedia, of tbe type of a gas, the nrotion of the molecules is alwavs like that of sound. This result rvill be found to have great s i g n i f i c a n c e w h e n w e c o m e t o d e a l w i t h a f u n d a m e n t a li r r o r in the wave-theoryof light, in the fourth paper on the New 'lheory of the Aetber. Q. liejection o I T/tottttsou's rpuscular Theory Co o f a n E l e c t r i c C u r r e n t , b e c a u s eo f t h e S m a l l V e l o l city tbus attainable:'I'heoryof a Magneron also r e j e c t e d b e c a u s eo f i t s I n c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h E l e c t r o _ d i ' n a n . r i c\ c t i o n : o b s e r v e d H i g h V e l o c i t y o f E l e c t r o n r runder Charge explained by Acceleration due to Aether \\raves. (i) T'ltotrsonand other electronists hold that an electric current is due to the notion of electrons. In his Corpuscr-rlarTheory of Nlatter, rgo7, Sir J. J. T/to,tsott p,t forth the 'ierv that an electric current consists i n t h e n r o t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r o n s . > O n t h e c o r p u s c u l a rt h e o r l of electric conduction through metals the electric current i; carried by the drifting of negatively electrified corpuscles a g a i n s t t h e c u r r e n t .( . . , , ' I ' h e c o r p u s c l e s w e c o n s i d e r a r e t h u s t h o s e r v h o s ef r e e d o m . i s o f l o n g d u r a t i o n . O n t h i s v i e r v t h e d r i f t o f t h e c o r p u s c l e sr v h i c h f o r n r st h e c u r r e n t i s b r o u s h t about by the direct acrion of the elecrric field on the fiee corpusclcs.(p..lq.) o

uAs, ho*.ever, the mass of a corpuscle is only about . t f t T o o o f t h a t o f a n a t o n ) o f h y d r o g e n , a n d t h e r e f o r eo n l y about r/34oo of that of a nrolecule f hydrogen, the mean 1 vaiue of the square of the velocity of a corpuscle must be i4oo times that of the sarne quantity for the rnolecule of. hydrogen at the same temperature. Thus the averase v e l o c i t y o 1 -t h e c o r p u s c l e m u s t b e a b o u t s g t i m - e s that oI a molecule of hydrogen at the tem-perature @ - rfr'tlr(p,1) o f t h e n r e t a l i n w h i c h t h e m o l e c u l e s a r e s i i u a t e d1 ) . where we should have At o' C. the mean velocity of the hydrogen molecule is - rfa2'06fA1 o : s a b o u t r . 7 . r o 5 c m / s e c , h e n c e t b e a u e . n g e " n e l o c i t yo f t h e '' >Il rdsulte de cette discussion q u e d a n s l e c a s o i l l a c o r p u s c l e si n a n r e t a l a t t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e is about ro? cm/sec, formule uds * udl -+-wdz ne satisfait pas i la condition o r a g r p i o x i n r a t e l y o r n i l e s p e r s e c . 1 ' h o u g h t h e s ec o r l t u s c l e s 6 d'intigrabilitC, les lois de la propagation du rDouvement, I are charged, yet since as n)any are ntoving in one direction une grande distance de I'dbranlernent, ne diffdrent pas essen_ as in the opposite,there will be on the average no flow of t i e l l e r q e n t d e c e l l e s q u i o n t l i e u , l o r s q u ec e t t e c o n d i t i o n e s t electricity in the metal. Although the change produced in remplie, ainsi que je I'avais supposddans rron ancien memoire the velocity of tbe corp-uscles y this force is, in general, b sur Ia thiorie du son.s v e r y s m a l l c o r n p a r e d w i t h t h e a v e r a g ev e l o c i t y o f t r a n s l a t i o n > L e m o u v e m e n t i m p r i m d a r b i t r a i r e r n e n tI u n e p o r t i o n o f t h e c o r p u s c l e s , yet it is in the samedirection for all of limitde d'un fluide homogdne se propage toujours en ondes t h e n r , a n d y r r o d u c e s a kind of wind causing the corpuscles sphiriques autour. du lieu de cet dbranlement. A une srande to flow in the opposite direction to the electric force (since,

(sz)

(ss)

t) The s p a c i n g ' o u t o f t h e c o n c l u d i n g s e n t e n c ei s m i n e -

not in the.original.

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the charge on the corpuscleis negative),the velocityof the wind beirrg the velocity imparted to the torpusclqs by the electric forcer).<

Thontson's calculations of the velocity of 6o miles per second are based upon the formulae cited in Section I2, below, which I had made before I found the above statement. T/tonson does not drvell on the inadequacy of this velocity of 6o miles per second to explain the transrnission of electric signals on' rvires, which have a velocity only slightly less than that of light. On page 68, horvever, he points out that in a Rdntgenray-bulb giving out hard rays the velocity of the corpuscles in air may be about roto cm/sec,.or ros times the r;elocit1, of those in the metals. It is held in tbe theory of ionization of gases by X-rays, that the positive and negative parts of the atorns are separaterl. >The positive ions are attracted to the nesative electrode and the negative.ions to the positive elecirode, and the movement of these electric charges consritutesa current,( says Du1fs, 'I'ext Book of Physics, (ed. r9 r6, p. 498). This is used at the Uniyersity of California, and (ii) Experimental tests of the velocity of electric waves this discussion was rvritren by Prof. R. I{. ,ltcCluzz.gof the University o[ ]\Ianitoba, who is a Doctor of Science of the o n r v i r e s . University of Cambridge, Ensland, and thus speaks rvith The problem of the velocity of the electric waves along rvires has been much discussed, and formulas given in such authority. >Calculation of Alternatihg Current problems<, Likervise, Crotather says on p. r3g of his r\Iolecular lyorks as Cohen's P h y s i c s : r W e h a v e n o w c o m e t o c o n n e c t e l e c t r i c i t y w i t h rvhilst the propagation of waves in metals has been treated e l e c t r o n s ,a n d h e n c e a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t i s a f l o r v o f e l e c t r o n s theoretically by Drurlc, Lehrbuch der Optik, 2, Chap. IV, from a place of high to a place of lorv potential. \Ve nray a n d b y o t h e r a u t h o r i t i e s . regard a conductor, then, as a substance ontaining electrons c But rvhen we come to deal .rvith concrete .measurewhich are lree to move under the action of an electric field, r n e n t s o f a c t u a l v e l o c i t i e s , s u c h m e a s u r e l n e n t s o n o t d seem w h i l e i n n o n - c o n d u c t o r s t h e e l e c t r o n s a r e f i x e d a n d u n a b l e to be plentiful: yct we note a ferv values in the following to follow the impulse of the field.< table. Observed Z 4 6 3r 3 3 K m . 3 t o 4 75 r7989o 99938 z r o q o oI z4r 8oo Authority Wtcalstonc, Phil. Trans., r8r4 I{irchltoif Ganot's Physics \ 796 Iiizcau and Gounelle Siencn-s and Frblich, Ann. Bd. CI-VII. Poggend. Remarks [)uration of ])lectric Sperk IIethod. Theoretical Calculation frorn the trIeasurements Constant Electric Currents. of Signals on Copper \\'ire. Signris on Iron \\'irc. O l r s e r v a t i o n so n T e l e g r a p h \ \ ' i r e s o f I r o n , 2 3 3 7 2 K m s . l o n g . 'l-elegraph U l r s e r v a t i o n so n 1\'ires 7352 Kms. long, ir

"dds: no electric force be acting, will be moving in all directions, so that if we. take any cross section of the metal the number of electrons crosSing it in one direction will be the same as the number crossing it in the opposite direction, and sb the total transference of electricity across lthe section will be zero.< >If, bowever, rve apply an electric field to the body there .will be a force on each electron urging it in the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e 6 e l d . T h u s i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r r e g u l a rm o t i o n due to the heat energy of the body, there will be a steady d r i f t o f t h e e l e c t r o n sa s a w h o l e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e e i e c ' tric force. (( 'Ihis discussion, like that of Thomson, admits that an electric field is necessary so set the electrons in motion, but the nature of the electric field itself is not explained, beyond the general phrase that difference of potential is involved. This is almost as unsarisfactory as the failure of the electronists to account for the high velocity of electric signals on wires.

iThese electrons,. if

,isZo" I

These measurements, rvhich are of very unequal value, give a mean of 2546t8 Knrs., which ruouli not seem iml probable, in view of the lact that the Sitntrns-Fr-i)licl series, apparently by far the best, give a mean z4z966 Kms. for electric waves on iron rvires, As the electric disturl;ances should travel with the velocity of light, 3ooooo linrs., except for the resistance of the wires, it rvould thus appear that the velocity is reduced about 1/5,ho. t/u,n of the rvhole. 'l'he rsistance causes the disturbance to travel slorver in the rvire and thus the waves around the wire envelope it, and necessarily follow it as a conductor. A more modern investigation of the velocity of electric waves on wires was nrade by .Prof. Jofin Troral,rirl,ge and

W. Duane, and published in the Philosophical Magazine,for r8o5, vol. 40, p.2tr. They.used a pair o[ parallel short wires, 58.6 metres long, but determined the duration of the electric oscillation in the rvire very accurately by photo.graphy of the sparks in a rapidly rorating rnirror. The wave lengtlr rvas 56.77 m, and the duration of the spark was found to be r.8goZ.ro-7 second. The mean valueof the velocity 'of the lvave on the wire came out I/: 3.oo3. ro10 cm/sec.', which slightly exceeds the adopted velocity of light. But a much more thorough direct comparison of thre velocity of electric lvaves on wires with, light itself was quite recently undertaken by the French physicist C. Gutton, . 'Ihis experimenr J o u r n a l d e P h y s i q u e ,r g r z ( 5 ) , . v o l .z , p . 4 r .

) I quote at length from the chief authorities, in ortler to feel sure that the views of the electronists are correctly cjted. As I cons i d e r t h e e l e c t r o n - t h e o r y r o b e g r c a t l y _ o v e r r a t e d ,t h i s p r e c a u t i o n i s d e e m e d n e c c s s a r y ,i n j u s t i c e t o t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s ,r v h i c h f ; i i g h t 6 n d dif6culty i n a c c u r a t e l yc o n d e n s i n g i n t o a n y b r i e f e r s t a t e r n e n t s . I li

279
':was

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arranged with great ingenuity, and the apparatus so designed as to sho.w a small difference in the trvo velocities, 'rif such difference existed. The first observations showed that the two velocities were nearly identical, yet not rigorously the same. Under the delicate and dependable means o[ adjustment used Gutton discovered that the velocity of the electric wave on the wire. was a little. less than that of light. And he found that the difference thus very accurately deternrined amounted to about one-half of one percent. Accordingly for the velocity.of eiectric rvaveson wires Gutton'svalues would be: Electric rvaves Z: z9g5oo Kms. Zj3oooooKms. Light This retardation of the electricwavesby wires is small, but fortunately the experiment of Gullon was so rvell de. signed that no doubt can attach to the reality ofthe difference. We must therefore admit that the electric I'aves on *,ires a r e s l i g h t l y r e t a r d e d b y t h e r e s i s t a n c ei n t h e . n ' i r c s . l - h i s h a s b e e n p r o b a b l e o n g e n e r a l p r i n , c i p l e s ,a n d i n d i c a t e d b y t h e o l d e r e x p e r i r n e n t s ,a n d i t n o ' n ' t a k e s i t s p l a c e a s a n established fact of observation.

1'he result is sinrilar to tbat rcached in the frrstpaper on the New Theory of the Aether, rvhere we shorved that wireless wa\\'es travel more .slowly through the solid nrass of the earth,-and the wave front is thus bent arourrd the lil:lgt)('toil. r . l t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s o - c a l l e dm a g globe, w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e o b s e r v e df a c t t h a t t h e l ' i r e l e s s 'fhis wave travels around the earth. propagation of the n e t o r ) i s p u r e ) i ' h y p o t h e t i c a l . I t w a s a t f i r s t a d n i t t e d , r v i t h a a w i r e l e s s w a v e a r o u n d t h e g l o b e h a d l t r o v e d v e r y n r y s t e r i o u s , s o n r ei r c s i t a t i o n , s a p o s s i b l ec o r p u s c l e ,i n n r a g n e t s , n a l o g o u s to tlle elcctron in the problcns of .elcctricity. 'l'his idea and no .satisfactory xplanation of it had been lbrthconring. e I ne . A s * ' e h a v e n o r v d e f i n i t e p r o o f o f t h e r e t a r c i a t i o no f s e e n r e c i o g i c a i i n t e r m i n o l o g y , a n' d' r t h e an a iro n sa p p e a r e d i n c t : r t u i r rI ) a I ) e r s l ' t h e } h i l o s o l r h i c a l I a n s c t o of the Royal e l e c t r i c . w a v e sb y t h e r e s i s t a n c e n c o u n t e r c cw i t h i n a n t e r a l l i c e l Society, and it has since conre into rnore general use. w i r e , w e s e e t h a t t h e r v i r e i s s u r r o u n d e t l b v a n e n v e l o o eo f 2. Ilut the above described ternrinoiogy apparently . w a v e s i n t h e . f r e e a e t h e r t c ' n d i n g t o l i r o c e e di v i t h t h e v e l t c i t y o f l i g h t , y e t h e l d b a c k b y t h e r e s i s t a n c ew i t h i n t h e r v i r e , o v e r l o o k s t h e f a c t t h t t m a g n e t s a r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e a c t i o n and thus the advancing rva.r'e envelopes and is made to follorv o f a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t . I f t h e r e f o r e e l e c t r o n s b e a c t i v e i n wire. Is it not probable that we have here the trr,re a c r l r r e n t , a n d t h e c r l r r e n t g e n e r a t e s a l l t a g n e t , i t i s m o r e .the n a t u r a l t o e x l t l a i n n ) a g n e t s b y t h e c f f ' e c t so f ' e l e c t r o n s ,a n d explanation of the nature of a conductori Of course a conductor must be metal, n'hich has both to do away lvith the nlagncton as supcrfluous. j . I n t h e l ) r e s c n t n L r t h o r ' s* ' o r k , l r o l ' t . r ' t : r , w a v e s a r e t h e p o r v e r o f i n d r r c t a n c e n d c a p a c i t y ,- o t h e r u ' i s eh e e l e c t r i c a t made the basis of the generation of a rl)agnetout of steel distur.banceswould not take the forrn of wavs, thus exl)ending the energ)' due to difference of potential. Yet, there b y t h e l i n i n g - u p a c t i o n o f a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t . I r i s t h u s m u s t b e a n o t h e r p h y s i c a l c a u s e a t w o r i < t o m a k e t h e d i s t u r - i l l o g i c a l t o i n t r o d u c e f i t : t i t i o u s c o r p u s c l e si m a g i n e d t o h a v e bance follow the wire. It is this, that the rvave in the free rotatory propertics, rvhen sirnple waves in the aether suffice aether'travels more rapidly than 'lvithin the dense resisting for all practical purposes. 4 . I n t h e l ' r i n c i p i a , L i b . I I I , t 6 8 6 , / \ r e t u l o zlra y s d o w n . w i r e , a n d . o w i n g t o t h i s r e s i s t a n c e ,t h e w a v e s f o l l o r v t h e w i r e , as the frrst rule of philosoplry: >\Ve are to admit no more being bent towards it on all sides,. as shorvn in the inner causes'of natural things tl-ran such as are both true and sufpart of the Fig. 18, Plate 6. 'l'he ficient to explain their appearances.< >'l'o tiiis purpose the discharge spark of d Leyden jar is due to the philosopherssay that nature does nothins in vain, and rnore oscillations of the invisible aether, rendering particles of air. is in vain rvhen less rvill serve; for nature is pleased-with luminous by the agitation; and rvhen this spark is photo'mirror, sirnplicity, and affects not the poulp of superfluouscauses.( graphed in a rapidly revo.lving the oscillations are 5 . U n d e r t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,t h e r e i s n o n e e d f o r , t h e shown as indicated on the axis of the rvire to the left. \\/e must therefore assume electric surges from one side of the wire hypothesis of a magneton, and thus we reject it because its . to the other, just as in a Leyden jar. Moreover, as the aether use in inconsistent with electrodynamic phenomena as ex' is compiessible, this compressibility contribntes to the develop- plained by the wave-theory. (iv) Velocity of the electron made to approximate that ment of waves. I t i s t o b e n o t e d t h a t . t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s photographed of light . by the action of electric waves. in the mirroi have their phases spread along in time, and In his later researches on the ratio of the charge to"

therefore the disturbances are spread along in space, when ne deal rvith a wire on rvhich the disturbance travels, so. that the oscillations diagrammed on the left are repeated throughout the wire. 'l'he reflection of any element of the aetber wave outside the wire is given dorble effect by the surge from the opposite snrface of the wire, as shorvn in the diagram. And thus the wave rotations take the reversed directions shown 'Ihis above and belorv the wire; is the wave field we investigate in Otrste d's experiment, and find to follorv Biot and, Sauatt's larv, as already explained in Section 5. A c c o r d i n g l y t h e d e l a y i n p r o p a g a t i o r it h r o u g h t h e w i r e causesa slight whirling.of the aether particles against the w i r e , t h e n a r e b o u n d , . r v i t hr o t a t i o n s i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n i n r v a v e st ' h i c h a r e . p r o p a g a t e d a w a y d s s h o w n i n t h e diagranr of the ivave field. In regaid to such reflection from metallic surfaces, Prof. F'leatiug says: )'I'his electrical radiat i o n ( r v a v e so f l e n g t h a p p r o a c h i n g 4 c n s . ) , p e n e t r a t e se a s i l y through dielectric bodies. lt is completely reflected from nretallic surfaces, and is also more or less reflected lrom the s u r f a c e so f i n s u l a t o r s u( p . 4 r r ) . : 'a (iii) Rejection of the theory of magneton as contrarv to electrodynamics. 1\re norv pass to the discussion of the so - called

z8r

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z8z

the mass of cathode ray particle, Thomson devised 'a method for exactly balancing the electric and magnetic forces, and was able to determine the ratio efm, and get V from the ratio of the strength of the electric field X 1o the strength of the magnetic field ZI, both of which could be measured. In this way he found V:2.g.roecnrs. per second, or about one-eleventh of the velocity of light. This value was found to be not qnite constant, but to vary somewlst with the potential in the tube, yet the value cfm was found to be I.Z.ro7, and shown to be independent of the nature of the gas used in the tube. The greatest value of cfm known in electrolysis is for the hydrogen ion, and comes out roa, whence it was concluded that the value for the cathode particle is rToo times that for the hydrogen ion. As the charge r carried by the cathode particle rvas found to be the same as for the hydrogen ion, it was held thaf the mass of the cathode particle is r f r 7 oo of the hydrogen ion or atom, It will be seen that notwithstanding the great ingenuity displayed by Thornson and his pupils, this whole subject is involved in considerable uncertainty. Perhaps it may fairly be asked whether any of these phenomena are yet interpreted on their final basis. No doubt the experiment as described supports the result found, but it is always difficult to feel sure that some entirely different view of these matters may not develop hereafter, orving to further experimentation, 'in the theory of the aether. or improvement The net result is therefore as follows: r. Viewing the electron as a corpuscle of a gas, it would attain a velocity of only about 98 kms. (6o miles) per second, or r:3ooo'h of the velocity of light. This is very insignificant compared to the velocities observed in light and electric waves. z. Under the action of impulses in the tubc not yet fully understood, but generated under considerable electric tension, the velocity of the charged particle may be augmented nearly 3oo fold, so as to become a little less than a tenth of the velocity of light a.nd electric waves. 3. The mhss of the corpuscle is considered to be due wholly to the charge, but too little is yet known to justify this claim, and it cannot be admitted. Apparently wave action alone could produce the velocity oI the electron, z.8.roe, approaching one tenth that of light, becausethe aetherons move r.5Z times faster yet. 4. In his *o.k on Irfolecular Physics, p. 7-8, Croutthtr describes how much energy may be given to a small mass by increasing its speed to about r/r5th of the velocity of light. rSuch particles, however, actually exist, and it is the discovery of these particles and the measurementsmade upon

them that have led to the great advances in molecular physics which we are about to describe. Particles having this velo, city are shot out in large numbers from radioactive bodies. To anticipate a little we may say that the a-particles from radium consist of atoms of helium shot out with a speed of this order of magnitude, and bearing a positive charge. Thus it is that a single a-particle is able to cause a flash of light when it strikes upon a screen covered with a suitable material.< The view that the high velocity attainable by the electron is due to the action of electric waves is suggested by Croutlher's further remarks: . rThe a-particles consist of helium atoms only. Velocities approaching that of the a-particles can be given to atoms' and molecuies of other substances by passing .an electric discharge through them in the gaseous state at very low pressures. The phenomena of the discharge tube have indeed afforded the best means of investigating the properties. o[ moving electrified particles, anU we shall proceed to their . c o n s i d e r a t i o n i m n r e d i a t e l y< Aciordingly it seemsthat the electron researches strongly support the wave-theory as the only means of generating the velocity of the electron found by observation1). If heliurn atoms or a-particles can be given such high velocities by electric cbarges, still more may electrons, in view of their very small size, be given the high velocities approaching r/roth that of light. I,-or as helium gas is .monatomic but trvice as heavy as hydrogen, the electron is about 68oo times lighter than helium, and under gaseous laws a velocity of over 8o times that of a helium atom might be expected for the electron, if equal energy were concentrated in a single corpuscle, This gives ample power to account for the observed velocity ol' projection of the electron, and the high velocity therefore is naturally attributed to wave-action. It is worthy of note tbat, with Crotathtr's estimate that the electrons attain a velocity of r : r 5th of the speed of light, the aetherons ave a speedr5.r.57:23.55 h times that of the srviftest corpuscle heretofore recognized. The 'I'heory New of the Aether thus bids lair to give quite an impetus to the study of high velocities. 'l'he Io. Identity of the Velocity of Electric Waves rvith that oi Light shows that the Aether underlies both Classes of Phenomena: the Formal Public Discussions on doing away rvith the Aether recently held before the Royal Societies in London striking Evidence of the General Bewilderment. (l) fne physical significance of the identity o[ the velocity of electric rvaves with that of light.

1) In his History of tbe Inductive Sciences, Whene/l bestows high praise on Rocmer, - who lived about a century in advance .of his contemporaries, so that his discovery of the velocity of light was accepted by very few, chiefly by Neulon and l{u1,ghens,- because this c e l e b r a t e dd i s c o v e r e r n o t i c e d t h a t t h e e c l i p s e s o f J u p i t e r ' s s a t e l l i t e sv e r e d e l a y e d i n t i m e i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e e a r t h f r o m J u p i t e r . Thus when Jupiter was near opposition, the eclipsescame about t6 minrrtcs earlier than when the earth rvas on the opposite side of the sunl tnd, WheucII remarks on the highly philosophic character of Roctnc/s argument for the gradual propagation of light across space, which no one before him had suspected from the earliest ages. Now in our time the researches of the electronists have occupied great prominence, but without any inquiry, so far as I know, being instituted by them to account for the known velocity of clectric waves on wires and radio waves across free space, This neglect greatly weakens the position of the electronists, and when they propose to do away with the aether, without accounting for the propagation of light and electricity, they add presumption to carelessness; and therefore if Roemer's course was highly philosophic the course adopted by the electronists has been just the reyerse - unphilosophic and indefensible !

r9

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'

The early evidence deduced by Maxwell, in r864, and his successorsduring the next quarter of a century, to the eft-ect that electricai actions travel sensibly with the velocity of light, received a remarkable confirmation from the physical discoveries of I{crtz, who devised nrethods for investigating electrical rvaves of the type since used in radio-telegraphy. And the.progress of radio-telegraphy has been such that the velocity of these waves between Paris and other parts of France, and between Paris and Washington, has been measured as accurately as is humanly possible in the deternrination of inten'als of time iess than a fiftieth of a second. We cannot sa)' indeed that the meastlrelnentsbetween Paris and \\rashington give incontror,ertible experirnentalproof that the electrical rvaves travel rvith exactly the vclocity of lieht. Perhapsthe velocity of propagation is involved in say fiue percent of uncertainty; yet all the observations are consistent with the speed of light.' And in vierv of the accuracy of the determinations of l/, by such nrethods as were ernployed by the American llureau of Standardsin rgo7, we must hold that the radio-rvaves betrveen Washington and Paris travel with the observed laboratory velocity, which appears to be exactly identical with that of ligbt. 'fhe fact that approximateiy the same speed is attained bv light and radio-electric waves, reduces us to the necessity of adrnitting: r. llither the trvo classesof rvavestravel rvith oreciselv the sarue velocity. z. Or rve must assume the existenr:e of tu'o media rvith siightly different elastic porvers, vet giving rvaves of practically the sarne velocity. Marucll long ago protested against the unphilosophic habit of inventing a nerv medium every time we have a new phenomenon to explain ; and fortunately in this case lneasurenrent Fupports ll,faru,ell's contention, by showing nrore and more conclusively that the two velocities are identical. 'l'he difference between the velocity of electric waves in free aether and light is now so small as to be within the probable error of the separate determinations; and it is difficult to decide which rnethod affords the greater accuracy of measurement. We must therefbre wholly reject any claim for two media, and acknowledge that light and dynamic electricity depend on one and the same nrediunr - the aether. And we have discussed the physical character of that medium, and fixed the constants with such great accuracy that when the density is calculated by a new method, in the ltresent paper, it is found to be 6: 1888.r5.ro-18 as against the other value, now no longer adnrissible, as shown above in section I, 6: 439.ro-tS yet found in the first paper by the rnethod invented by Loid Kcluin in r854 and since improved by Kcluin, Maxutcll and the present writer. 'lhe physical significance of the identity of the velocity of light and electricity is therefore unmistakable; nanrely, electricity in motion consists of waves in the aether, and as they travel with the same velocity as light, we know that electricity and light both depend on the aether, and are

simply waves of different length and type in this all-pervading medium. (ii) Accordingly, as Sir Oliuer Lodge correctly says, Einstcin has not done away with the aether, but simply ignored it, and thereby shown a renrarkable lack of under: standing of the physical universe. I n a i r u b l i c a d d r e s sa t S a n F r a n c i s c o , A p r i l 1 r , r g 2 o , Sir Oliucr Lorlgc dealt with the physical properties of the aether, as the vehicle of energy, and enphasized the vierv that although totally invisible, the aether is capable of exerting the nrost stupendous power throughout space, and thus is the medium or vehicle rvhich transutits the forces rvhich govern the nrotions of the planets and stars in their orbits. Not only is the aether necessary lor conveying the light of the sun and stars across space, but also for conveying the stresses to get)erate the planetary forces, tvhich are equivalent to the breaking strength of gigantic cables of steel stretched between the sun and planets. 'l'hese stup e n d o u s g r a v i t a t i v e m e c l r a n i s m sa r e w h o l l y i n v i s i b l e , a n d y e t frorn the observed operation of centrifugal force, we knorv that the gravitative forces lbr balancing them do really exist. Under the circunrstances, as Sir Oliucr Lod3e pointed out, we cannot hold that appearances correspond to reality. \\re know of the aether chiefiy fronr its transm'ission of rvave action, which in free space travels with the velocity of light. Accordingly, after tracing the physical properties of the aether, Sir Oliuer Lod.gc jttstly exclaimed: >You have heard of Einsttitt, and probably knorv that he has go use for the aether. He has, however, not done. away with the aether, but sirnply ignored it.< 'I'his concise statement covers the case exactly; but in view of the fact that Einsftin shuts his eyes to the unseen operations of the physical universe, which Nru'lttz artribdted to irrpulses in the aethereal mediunr, it is not remarkable that the uranl' sagacious investigators.of natural phenomena are obliged to reject the nrystical and misleading doctrines of,Lins/titt. 'fo turn as'ay frorl a mechanical explanation of the tvorld, and attelnpt to account tbr phenornena by ruere f o r m u l a e r e p o s i n g o n t h e s u p p o s i t i o no f a c t i o n a t a d i s t a n c e , and to furtber cornplicate the reasoning by the assurnption when such an hypothesis is of the curvature of space, unnecessary and purely fictitious, * is not a sign of penetration, but of lack of experiencd in natural philosophy. It is just such unwarranted procedure which Ncutton denounces as resting on >vain fictions(, in the second sentence of the discussion following the statenrenr of Third Rule of Reasoning in Philosotrihy: >We are certainly not to relinquish the evidence of experiments for the sake of dreams and vain fictions of our own devising; nor are we to recede from the analogy of nature, which uses to be simple and always ionsonant to itself< (Principia, Lib. III). It appears from Ncutton'sdiscussionthat electrical actions conveyed along wires and across space, as in radio-telegraphy, and found by actual experimental measurenrents be transto ruitted with the velocity of light, are the very kind of >evidence of experiments< which that great philosopher says we are not to relinquish for the sake of dreams and vain fictions

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of our own devising; yet Einstcin and his followers have thus plainly violated Ncu.ton's Third Rule of Philosophy, in proposing to do away with the aether. Without this medium the phenomena here cited are not explainable, so that even a cbild can see the necessity for the aether. The sun and stars are the perpetual witnessesto the existence of the aether, and all rvho live and behold the light, as Honer says, thereby recognize ttris superfine medium (.1i0{1d. (iii) The formal discussions on the theory of relativity before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec., rgr9, and Royal Society, Feb. 5, r9zo, wholly unpro6table, in default ,of a kinetic theory of the aether. In view of the above criticisms it is unnecessary to emphasize the unprofitable character of the fornral discussions held before the Royal Astronomical Society, Dec., r g r g, and the Royal Society, Feb. S, rgzo. But the fact that two of the oidest scientific societies in Europe did not refuse to $'aste their time and resonrces of publication on the vague thereby still further and chirnerical theory of relativity confusing the public mind, already bewildered by the misapplication of mathernatics which rests on no physical basis, u'hen the problem is primarily a physical one - may rvell deserve our attention. A report of these meetings will be found in the Monthly Notices, and in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, and other journals, such as the Journal of the British Astronomical Association, for Nov., r g r 9, ar'd Jan., r g zo, which al)l)ear a month or so late. lVe may condense the discussion as an American physicist summarized .a similar discussion held in Washington about ten years ago: >When we got through, we did not know any rnore than when rve started.< Now we submit that such methods are not those by which science is advanced. And when the proceedings of learned societies take the form oI unprofitable debates, orr rnere subtleties, or on reasoning which rests on false presuch as a mere mathematical foundation, mises,it is a sign when a physical foundation is required, of the mysticism which usually accornpaniesintellectual decadince. There can be no defense for the policy of exploiting Einstcin's theory without first considering the kinetic theory of the aether,which renders such mystical doctrines unnecessary and wholly inadmissible.

cite an exampleof historic interest,the chimerical is characterof Kcller's early speculations judiciouslypointed out by Loplact (Precis de I'Hist. d'Astron., p. 94): >Il est affligeantpour I'esprithumain de voir ce grand homme, mCme dans ses dernidres ouvrages, se complaire et avec dilices dans seschimiriquesspdculations, les regarder comme I'Ame et la vie de I'astronomie.< Delanbre is even more severe, and subscribesto the judgement of Bai$, in regard to Kcplcr (Astron. du moyen A g e ,r 8 r 9 , p . 3 5 8 ) : >After this sublime effort (discoveringthe planetary laws, is meant) I{epler replunges himself into the relations of music to the notions, the distance,and the eccentricities of the planets. In all theseharmonicratiosthere is not one

'fo

true relation; in a crowd of ,ideas there is not one truth: he becomes a man after being a spirit of light.< The results brought out in the first and second papers on the New Theory of the Aether, show the worthless bharacter of the whole theory of relativity. We are justified in saying it is a foundation laid in quicksand, rvhen a foundation of granite rvas near at hand. And therefore the whole theory of relativity, as heretofore taught, is now shaken to its foundations, and thus no longer deservesthe serious con. sideration of natural philosophers. As throrving some historical light upon the unprolitable subtleties of the theory of relativity, and the vague and chim e r i c a l d i s c u s s i o n sw h i c h t h e R o y a l A s t r o n o m i c a l S o c i e t y and the Royal Society have inflicted upon a bewildered and long suffering public, \rye recommend an attentive reading ol the latter part of the first volume of Wheutell's History of the Inductive Sciences.lllcu,ell dedicated this justly celebrated *'ork to Sir John fftrsrhtl, and it ought to be familiar to every modern investigator. ll'heutrll's lurninous discussior-r the >Indistinctness of of I d e a s i n t h e M i d d l e r \ g e s < ; > C o l l e c t i o n so f O p i n i o n s < ; > l n d i s t i n c t n e s so f I d e a s i n l l l e c h a n i c s < > > l n d i s t i n c t n e s s I d e a s of ; i n A r c h i t e c t u r e ( ; > I n d i s t i n c t n e s so f I d e a s i n A s t r o n o m y < ; > I n d i s t i n c t n e s so f l d e a s s h o w n b y S k e p t i c s < , ( p p . 2 5 3 - 2 6 8 ) is especially worthy of study. In opening the treatment of >Indistinctness of Ideas shown by Skeptics< U/hcu,cll remarks: rThe same unsteadiness of ideas which prevents men frorn obtaining clear views, and steady and just conyictions, on special subjects, may lead them to despair of or deny the possibility of acquiring certainty at all, and may thus make them skeptics with regard to all knowledge. Such skeptics are themselves men of indistinct views, for they could not otherwise avoid assenting to the demonstrated truths of science; and, so far as they may be taken as specimens of their contemporaries, they prove that indistinct ideas prevail in the age in which they appear. ln the stationary period, moreover, the indefinite speculations and unprofitable subtleties of the schools might further impel a man of bold and acute mind to this universal skepticism, because they offered nothing rvhich could fix or satisfy hirn. And thus the skeptical spirit rnay deserve our notice as indicative of the defects of a system of doctrine too feeble in demonstration to control such resistance.< Accordingly, from the considerations here advanced, it follows that the recent formal discussionsbefore the Royal Society and Royal Astronomical Society of the theory of relativity, which is both vague and chimerical, have confused rather than clarified the subject in the public mind; and thus in the cause of truth I have felt obliged to protest against the misuse of the powers of these learned societies. I L Rejection of the Theory of ,Electrical Mass' except for Smail Particles of Common Matter expelled under Electric Charges:the so-called,Electrical Mass'thus not applicable to the Aetherons, or Corpuscles of rvhich the Aether is made up. (i) Description of the so-called ,electrical mass'. Of late years a number of physicists occupied with tg'

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experiments involving the ejection of snrall charged particles, in an electric field of very considerable intensity, hive Iaid much stress upon the so.called ,electrical mass', and even gone so far as to entertain the view that all mass is electrical (cf. Crowthcr, Molecular Physics, r9r4, pp. 6Z-8S). It is true no doubt that under the charges involved in these experinrents there is an ,electricai mass' because tbe small mechanical mass is thereby thrown out of electric equilibrium with its surrounding field. But when we deal with the aether as an all-pervading medium, we have to do with the motions of the aetherons only, and as common matter is not involved, we have to reject the ,electricai mass' as applied to the aether, for the reason that the aetherons make up the field, and normally are in kinetic equilibrium, so as not to be subjected to any forces except those due to passing waves in the aether, involving concerted displacernent of neighboring aetherons. It is well known that Ncuton rvas quite aware of the effect of the resistance of a medium upon the motion of a sphere or otber body projected through it. In the Optics, r72r, pp. 342-3, Ntaton discusses the very problem here treated o[ in the follouing manner: >>Theresistance of water arises principally and almost entirely from the vis inertiae of its matter; and by consequence, if the heavens were as dense as water, they would not have rnuch less resistance than water; if as dense as quick-silver, they rvould not have mnch less resistance than quick-silver; if absolutely dense, or full of matter rvithout any vacuum, let the matter be ever so subtile and fluid, they would have a greater resistance than quick-silver. A solid globe in such a nredium would lose above half its notion in moving three times the length of its diameter, and a globe not solid (such as are the planets) would be retarded sooner. And therefore to make way for the regular and lasting motions ol the planets and comets, it's necessaryto ernpty the heavens of all rnatter, except perhaps some vcry thin vayrours, stealns or effluvia, arising from the atmospheresof the earth, planets and comets, and {iom such an exceedingly rare aethereal mediun'r as we described above. A dense lluid can be of no tse for explaining the phenomena of nature, the nrotions of the planets and comets being better explain'd without it.< In this passagerve have spaced the sentence especially applicable to the problem of the ,electrical mass', rvhich is explained as follows. I.et m be the ordinary mechanical mass o[ the nroving particle; then the ordinary kinetic energy .due to its motion becomes

by the particle, and a is the radius of the spherical space occupied by the charge. The ,electrical mass' is not quite constant for all velocities, but the above formula holds approximately for moderate speeds. (li) fire rejection of the theory of the so-called ,electrical mass', as an effect of the aether due to the systematic arrangement .of the u'aves, justified by Thontsaze's views o[ the motion of a corpuscle' through an electrical field. In his Elenrents of Electricity and Magnetism, 4th ed., rgo9, p. 5zr, Prof, Sir ]. |. Tltotnson indicates that il nt be the mass of an uncharged sphere, the kinetic energy of such a sphere with charge e, magnetic-permeability 1e, and radius of action a. is

6 :

rf

f 2 l n + 2 f s p c 2a ) u 2.

(s')

The effect of the charge is to increase the mass of 'I'his the sphere by ?fspre2fa. is a resistance called the ,electrical mass', and the question arises whether it should be regarded as an increase of nrass, as described by Tlunsou, or an effect of the field in which the sphere moves, as described by tVutton in the discussion above cited frorn the Optics, r7zr. 'fhonson compares the motion of a torpuscle Sir ]. ]. through an electrical field with that of a sphere through a liquid, which he says leads to an increase in the effective mass, because the moving sphere drags some of the liquicl along with it. .Thus.rvhen a sphere nroves through a liquid it behaves as if the mass were increased from n to n-rr;'.,ttt', where nl is the nrass of the liquid displaced by the sphere. Again, when a cylinder moves :rt right angles to its axis through a liquid, its apparent mass is til-rrn', where zr'is the mass of the liquid displaced by the cylinder. )In the case of bodies moving through liquids<, says Thonson, >the increase in nrass is due to the motion of the body setting in motion the liquid around it, the site of the increased nass is not the body itself but the space around it where the li<1uid is rnoving. In the clectrical problenr, n'e rnay regard the inr:reased nrrss as due to the .|'-arada_l,ttbes settingin nrotion the ether as they urovethrough it> (p.5zz). This reasoning concedes that the so-called ,electrical mass' depends not on the sphere itself, but on the field about iti in other rvords the,electrical ntass'is an effect due to the surrounding fieid, and not inherent in the body itself. For that reason it is necessary to consider carefully whether the ,electrical mass' in the larger mechanics, ought not to be rejected altogether'as fictitious, and due to disturbances in the aether 6lled with waves and thus polarized, the arrangement of the waves exerting the force called the ,electrical mass'.

E -

rf 2n.u2

(ss)

But electrical experiments on small particles ejected under considerable charge, show that there is in addition a quantity of energy due to that charge. I'he total energy is found to be made up of the two parts shown in the right nrember o[ the following equation:

(iii) Theory of J. A. Cr;otother, rgt4. I n h i s I v l o l e c u l a rP h y s i c s , r 9 r 4 , p . 7 o , ( e i r i t a d e l p h i a , Blakiston's Son .t Co.), J. A. Crowtltcr, also of the Cavendish Physical Laboratory, Cambridge, points out that the extra or ,electrical' mass is due to the fact that the particle carries rf ( S o ) a charge. Crou,ther even says that if the B - r f, n u 2 - + - rs e 2 ua :f f 2 , [ m - r 2 fs c za ] u 2 f ,mechanical' mass the first term yielding the mechanical energy depending on n be zero, the ,electrical' mass will still persist. Analytically n, and the second that depending on the so-called ,elec- this follows from the above formula (9 r ), but physically trical mass', 'lot'lo, where e is the electrical charge borne there is no proof that such an ,electrical' mass can exist

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independentlyof nratter, and thus Crowther's claim cannot be admitted. Croutlhcr announceshis final conclusions thus (pp. 7o a n d 7r ) ;
. >Since this,electrical'mass is really that of the rnagnetic field surrounding the particle, it resides not in the particle itself but in the medium surrounding it, that is, in that mysterious fluid rvhich lve call the etherl). As soon, however,as we attempt to alter the motion of the particle this energy flows into it from all sides, so that, as far as experinrents upon the particle itself are concerned, the results obtained are precisely the same as if it resided permanently there.(( >To make this somewhat novel idea a little clearer n'e may consider a close and very servicable analogy, where the rnechanism of the extra mass is a little clearer than in the elcctrical case. lf anv body is nroving through water, or any viscous fluid, it carries with it a certain anrount of the liquid through rvhich it is moving. In the case of a sphere, for exarnple, the quantity carried along by the motion of the body anrounts to half the volume of the sphere itself. A long cylinder rnoving at right angles to its orvn length rvill carry with it a quantity of fluid equal to its own volunre. On the other hand, if it moves in the direction of its own length the fluid entangled is practically nil. Thus, in order to set the body in rnotion rvith a velocity er, rve have to supply to it energy enough to give this velocity, not only to the sphere itselfl but also to the mass of fluid which it carries with it. That is to sal', if M is the mass of the sphere itself, and M' the mass of the attached fluid. the 'n'ork done in starting the body is tf"(-lfe-U,) .i,2. In other rvords, the body will behave as if its mass rvere increased by the mass of the fluid entangled by it. Just as in the electrical case, this extra mass resides in the surrounding medium.<

(iv) We therefore conclude that the ,electrical mass depends wholly upon the aether. As the ,electrical' mass admittedly depends on the aether, and the inffuence it exerts depends on the wave motion in this medium, it is better for most purposes to reject the doctrine of a so-called ,electrical mass' as fictitious, and consider separately the common Newtonian mass ,rr, and the influence exerted by the field in which zz is moving. In case of the ,electrical mass':

E -

2f,p.c2uefa

(sr)

where a is the radius of the space occupied by the charge, and 1athe mag.netic-p.ermeability the medium, e the charge, of it is thus obviorrs that Z becr:mes trrrly a drag exerted on the moving mass /,,/. It is evident that this effect ought to depend on /2, and z?, since the induction due to the waves is thus developed like ordinarl' rnechanicalwork done. F o r i t m u s t l r c r e m e n r l r e r e d h a t t h e r e a r e r v a v e si n t h e t field, produced by the bodies and charges of the universe, and also waves, or Faradav tubes of force, produced by the moving corpuscle itself, rvith charge r. Since the charge a is a measure of the electri6cation of the corpuscle, the field about it necessarill'lvill have ,a corresponding condition,, but negative in character, and the interaction of the charged corpuscle on the field will be measured b.v the product of these charges, and thus by a2. This explains the nature of the formula (92), except the divisor a. And Croathcr (1tp. 16z-3) shows that the total energy in the field is the integral of the total magnetic energy lretrveen trvo spheres of radius r and r*dr, when taken from the surlirce of the electron of radius a to inlinity, becomes: [:
r . P , t , . , 1 t, r " t' e 2 u 2 ) d r fr ! :

t f, 1 , 1 2 , ,a .f 2

(qs)

l'rom this line of investigation it appears rhat we are justified in rejecting, and even required to reject, the ,elecAccordingly, it clearly appears, from T/tonson,s and, trical mass' for the aetherons, rvhich pervade the universe, and Crou,l/tc/s arguments, that the ,electrical' mass 2fsezfa clepends by their vibrations render the aether the vehjcle of energy. rvholly on the field in which the charged corpuscle is moving, A c c o r d i n g l y o u r c o n c l u s i o n sa r e : not upon the body itself, and changes when the motion r. It appears that Prof. Sir ]. ]. Thonson's argument through the field is altered. All that the arguments can be said to prove therefore is that the aether in a magnetiC field, tor the ,electrical mass' is an extension of that given by exerts an influence on bodies moving through it. 'fhis shows Ntruton, but is likely to be misapplied, unless the specific that the aether really exists, is polarized near magnets and condition of non-electric e<luilibrium underlying the experielectric wires bearing currents, and acts physically according nrents with small particles is clearly borne in mind. 'Ihe z. doctrine of the ,electrical mass' has therefore to definite larvs. a very limited field of validity. On page g r of the rvork This is a reason therefore rvhy the theoiy of the aether above cited Croutthu says that most physicists cherish the cannot be rejected, as some superficial rvriters have held. belief at the bottom of their hearts that all mass is electrical The other reasons for adntitting the aether are as convincing in origin, ,but it cannot at present be said to be much more a s s t u p e n d o u sc a b l e s o f s t e e l w o u l d b e . i I w e c o u l d a c t u a l l y than a pious hope.< see them stretched from the sun to the several planets for (v) lhe nature of the X-rays investigated. holding these huge masses in their orbits. l'or the centrifugal force of the planets has to be balanced and the It will be recalled that for a long time great mystery aether is the medium which sustains the tremendous forces attached to the nature of the X-rays. Soon after these rays required to curve the paths of the planets at every point, were discovered by Rt)nlgen, in the winter of r895-6, three and enable them to describe Keplerian Ellipses about the different theories were formed of their nature: (r) Electrified sun as the focus. material particles projected with great speed fronr within the
r) The s p a c i n g . o u ti s m i n e .

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bulb quite through the walls of the glass tube; (z) the Ultraviolet theory, which supposes the energy to be aether-wave rnotion of the same character as light, but of only about r: rooooth part of the wave length of visibie light; (3) the longitudinal aether-wave theory, at first lavored by Ranryen, Jauntann and others, which ascribed the observed effect to longitudinal motion in the aether weves. Probably something could still be said in favor of each of these theories, and it is not yet certain that the nature of the X-rays is understood. In the usage of men of science however, the ultra-violet wave-theory has found most favor. In rgrz the Swiss physicist Dr. Laue first nrade use of X-rays to investigate the structure of crystals, and from this beginning has grown a resourceful nrethod for attacking the problem of molecular arrangement in crystals, which may even throrv light on the internal structure of the atoms thenr. selves. An article on this subject by Prof. l[/. L. Bragg, on rCrystal Structure(, will be found in Discovery, Feb., rgzo; and a review of the subject appears in the Journal of the British Astrononrical Association for March, r92o, pp. r99 till zoo. The following table gives an outline of the different types of waves, expressed in Ahgstrdm units, or tenth-metres, r m'ro-10, D"f's Physics, p. 64o: Gamma rays X-rays Shortest ultra-violet waves Shortest visible waves (violet), about Violet, about o.r r 6oo 38oo
4OOO

Blue

Green

i:::

Yellow i Zoo Red 6qoo Longest visible wa'res (red) Zi"o Longest rvavesin solar spectrum,more than 5 3ooo Longest waves trensrnitted by fluorite 95ooo Longest waves by selective reflection from rock salt 5ooooo from potassiumchloride 6rzooo Longest waves fronr nrercury lamp 3r4oooo Shortest electric waves 4ooooooo:

4 nrnr.

It is very difficult to understand horv such very short waves as X-rays are supposed to be, on the ultra-violet theory, could penetrate so easily through the human body and other semi-solid subst4nces, as they are found to do in practice. The experiments of lauc, Bragg and others in crystal photography show the extreme fineness of the X-rays, and their great penetrating power. But it is perhaps possible that what appears to be a

passageof X-rays through resisting structuresis rather a general agitation of the aether by which the atoms emit wives 1) rvhich can impressthe photographic plate, than an

actual passage of such short waves through these resisting masses, If so, the facts of experience would lend a strong. support to the wave-theory since it might be much easiei to evoke vibiation of appropriate length than for such short waves to actually pass. The waves evoked by agitation of the aether would show crystalline structure, and even the diffraction of X-rays, quite as well as. the passage of X-rays waves. In confirmation of this view that the X-rays observed are waves evoked by agitation, lve quote front Dulf's TextBook of Physics,1916, p. 64r: >Glass is opaque to waves shorter than 35oo Angstrdm, units, and longer than about 3oooo Angstrci* units. Quartz is transparent between the wave-lengthstSoo and 7oooo, and for some longer waves; rock salt is transparent between r8oo and r8oooo, and fluorite, one of the nrosttransparent substances, will transnrit ultra-violet waves liorn about l, roootol-g5ooo.( A similar argument has also been adduced by Prof. Sir J. !. Thonsoz to the effect that X-rays depend on collisions by negatively charged particles. They are evoked by the somewhat irregular agitation of the wave-field, the disturbance produced being due not so much to regular continuous wave motion, as to isolated wave irupulses,rvhich travel throughout the neighboring aether, and set free the corpuscles from the atoms. Such X-rays could not well interfere, and their diffraction, if obseived, would be of the type photographed by Lauc tn crystais, corresponding to short waYes, probably produced by the degeneration and breaking up of longer a e t h e r i m p u l s e s o f n o c o n s i d e r a b l er e g u l a r i t y o f m o v e m e n t . 1'his puts the ultra-violet theory in a new light, in Iine with the wave-theory, and at the sarne time explains the mechanically injurious effects of X-rays in surgerye) as due to the irregular u'ave impulses, which regular ultra-violet waves could hardly produce. And it explains also why calciurn tungstate lray render the X-rays capable of casting shadows visible to the eye. !'or the irregular irnpulses would come rvith sulficient rapidity to give an effect which optically is apparently continuous. When obsen'ing the X-ray througb calciunr tungstate I have noted an appearance of rapid llickering, as in the case of rapid but irregular electric sparks, or liglrtning flashes in quick succession but at un-. eclual intervals. In connection with this subject it is well to bear in mind that magnetism, which in the .wave-theory depends on polarized waves of perfect regularity, can penetrate thick plates of glass 9r any other substance, but the action seems to take a little tinie. Probably the polarized character of magnetic waves and their length makes this penetration possible, whereas it is possible for the confused waves of light only within fixed limits. Thus we hold that the irregular inrpulses in X-rays correspond to long waves, which under degeneration call forth the very short ones used for the newer investigations in crystals.

') This idea is suggested b y l l i n l g e n ' s o r i g i n a l e x p e r i m e n t o f c u t t i n g o f f a l l c a t h o d er a y s w i t h b l a c k c a r d b o a r d , y e t n o t i n g t h a t s o m e crystals of^barium platino-cyanide in the darkened room were rendered lurninous by the general agitation in the aether, '?) A dispatch from Paris, \lay 26, quotes M. Dauiel Bcrthelo/ as reporting, \laf 25, to ile Acatlemy of Sciences a nerv method. ftrr protecting operators against the injurious effects of X-rays, which are neutralized by a simultaneous application of infra.red rays. This use of infra-red rays to counteract the X-rays confirms the theory here developed; unless the agitations underlying the X.rays were long, the long infra-red rays could hardly afford the protection reported. - Note added, May z[, rg2o,

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t2. The acknowledged Failure of the Electron Theory, which. represents a Subordinate Phase of Scientific Progress: The Larger Problems of the llniverse can only be attacked through the WaveTheory based on the Kinetic'l'heory of the Aether. (i) The acknowledged failure of the electron theory. In his interesting but unconvincing work on l\4olecular Physics, Philadelphia, r914, Crout/ur treats of rnany molecular phenomena from the point of view of the electron theory. Including the effect of the electrical mass, 2fse2u2f a, Crorulhrr concludes (p.8t) that the mass of an electron is 8.8. ro-28 gms., while the value of the charge it carries is r.57.ro-20 units. Thence he deduces for the radius of the electron r .8 7 . r o- 13 cms.1) , Calling attention to the conclusion that the radius of an atom is of the order of lo-13 cms, he adds a comparison u'hich I give spaced: >We rnay now say that small as the atom is, the electron is so mnch smaller that the electron bears to the atom which contains it very mucb the same relation as a pea to a cathedral.< rWe have seen that the whole of the mass of the electron is due to the charge which it carries. 'fhe thought at once suggests itself: Are there indeed trvo kinds of mass or is all mass electrical in its originl Probably nrost physicists cherish this belief at the bottom of their hearts, but it cannot at present be said to be mrrch more than a pious 'l'he hope. mass of a negative electron is about 1/17ep part of the mass of a hydrogen atorn. Neglecting the positive charge of the atom, of which we know practically nothing, it would require rToo electrons to make up the mass of a single hydrogen atom. This of course is not a priori an i m p o s s i b l en u m b e r c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s m a l l n e s so f t h e e l e c t r o n ; and speculations along these lines were for a time freely indulged in. In this case, however, experiment failed to con'I'he firm the bold conjecture. nurnber of electrons in the atorn has been determined at any rate approximately, and affords no support for such a theorv. < Croutther then examines at some length the question of the number of electrons in an atom, and after admitting the obscurity of positive electrification, finally concludes, pp.'8S-8+ as follows: >Unfortunately, we are not yet acquainted with the nature'of positive electricity. Prof. Sir J. J. Thonson's experiments on the.positive rays, brilliant as they have been, have not at present thrown nruch light upon this exceedingly difficult problem. For the present the term ,positive electrification' remains for the physicist very much what the term ,catalytic action' is for the.chemist - a not too humiliating

method of confessing ignorance. lf we suppose that the positive electricity is distributed uniforrnly over a sphere of the size of the atom (a hypothesis which lends itself very readily to mathernatical treatment), the author's result would indicate that the nunrber of electrons in an atom is almost exactlv t h r e e t i m e s i t s a t o m i cr v e i g h t . T h a t i s t o s a y , t h e n u m b e r of electrons in a hydrogen atom would be three.2) If we go the other extreme, and suppose that the positive electrification is a sort of nucleus at the centre of the atom, and that the electrons revolve around it somewhat after the manner of the rings of Saturn, the number of electrons in a hydrogen atonr works ouf at unity, the number in any other atom being equal to its atornic weight. The assigning of unit atomic weight to hydrogen would then have a very .definite physi.calsignificance, as it $'ould be the lightest atom which could possibly exist. In either case the number of electrons in an atom is only a very small nrultiple of its atomic weight. We cannot, therefore, assign any appreciable fraction of the mass of the atoms ro the negative electrons it contains.< >'fhere still renrains, of course, the possibility that the mass is electrical, but that it resides in the positive portion of the atom. If the formula for the electric mass be examined, it rvill be seen that for a given charge the mass is inversell' yrroportional to the radius of the sphere upon which it is concentrated. II we suppose the positive charge on the h1'drogen atom to be concentrated upon a sphere of t/rroo ol the size of the nesative electron, its mais would b e r T o o t i m e s a s . g r c a t ,t h a t i s t o s a y , e q u a l t o t h a t o f t h e hydrogen atom. Our perfect ignorance of the nature .of positive electricity renriers the suggestionnot unt'enable, though evidence for it is sadly Iacking.< 'fhis is a very frank confession of a failure of the electron theory, for two chief reasons. r. In size the electron bears to the atom about the ratio of a pea to a cathedral. z. The nuntber of such electron peas to the atom cathedral is very small, either r or 1 for hydrogen, and always a small multiple of the atonric rveight. Hence the i,mportant conclusion: )We cannot, therefore, assign any appreciable fraction of the mass of the atoms to the negative electrons it contains.< Accordingly it is not surprising that Crouttho. admits that >for the present our belief in the electro-magnetic nature of all mass remains an expression of our faith that all the varied phenomena with which we have to deal are manifestations o[ some single principle or essence which underlies them all.< Another important and much more elaborate work, >The Electron Theory of matter(, by Prof. O. W Richardson

r) Another proof of the great uncertainty attaching to the theory of the electron is afforded by conflicting deductions as to the absolute d i m e n s i o n so f t h i s l i t t l e m a s s . . _t. _Crouthcr' pp. 8t-r65, give3 for the radius of the electron r.87.ro-ts cm, and for the radius of a hydrogenatom t.2r,ro-8 cm. Thus the hydrogen atom has about 66oootimesgreaterdiameter, yet it has only rToorimesthemassoftheelectron, wlich makes the electron relatively very heavy for its small diameter. If of equal density with the hydrogen, this mass would make the'hydrogen atom have a diameter rr.93 times that of the electron, z. But the diameter of the electron itself must^be very uncertain, In Phys,Rev.vol. r14, pp.247-259, Sept.1919, A.I{. Comliton, who had previously estimatedthe diameter to be z'ro-toc-s, now finds it to be (1.85*s.qe5;.rotid".r, or")':6.g"i.t;;; cm. This is about zoooo.times larger than Crouttler's value; so that apparently no conhdence whatever can be put in these results. ') The s p a c i n g - o u ti s m i n e .

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of K_ing's College, London, appeared under the auspices of containing electrons which are free to move under the action the University Press, at Cambridge, rgr4, pp. r_612. We of an electric field, whire in non-cond.uctors the electrons are cannot attempt to describe the treatment, except to say that fixed and .unable to follow the impulse of the.field.c it is similar to Crouther,s work, but less expeiimental, )How are these electrons set free? and In the first place sets forth .the mathematical tbeory in greater detail. it may be noticed that the only good conductors of elec_ In spite of the elaborateness of this treatise, Ric/tardson . tricity are metallic, that is to say, elictro-positive i., .t u.""t.r, is obliged to admit the short-comings of the electron theory. substances which we know from other phenomena readily On page 5gz the author admits tf,at rwe cannot be sure part with an electron under the slightesi provocation. Now 'provocation that the rnass of the electrons is not appreciably different in a solid. such may well be supplied by the in djfferent substances.< .Accordingly it'would appear that close propinquity of the neighbouriDg molecules. It is well the mass of the electron is definitely fixed only in particular known that a charged body *ill ^tt.u*"t light uncharged sub_ substances which have been experimentally investigated, It stances. The attraction of a well-rubbed siick of seaiing wa* is acknowledged that nearly ail the atomic problems are for srnall clouded in great obscurity. .pieces of paper is generally our first introduction to the science of electricity. The attraction is of course Under the head of General Conclusions,p. 6oo, we read: mutual, the force on the charged body being equal to that r>A review of the preceding discussion shows that the on the uncharged paper, Hence an ilectron in one atom electron theory is not in u porition to make very definite is attracted by a neighbouring uncharged atorn, and under assertions about the nature of gravitational attraction. It ravouraDle clrcumstances, and especially in the case of an seems likely that the Newtonian law of attraction between atom only too ready to part with its electrons, the attraction elements of matter is one between elements of mass or con- may well be sufficient to enable it to make its escape.< fined eneigy and.that it is of a very fundanrental character. It is obvious without further discussion that this theory It is doubtfull) if it can be replaced by a n r o d i f i e d is so very defective that it cannot be seriously entertained law of electrostatic force bitween electrons or by investigators who are familiar with the propagation elements of electric charge, unless the of modified electric and radio-telegraphic waves and light-acioss free law includes the associated mass explicitly. E v e n space. For, in the first place, it claims to account for disso, the case does not appear very simple. << turbances along conductors, which cannot be done with In closing Richardson concurs in tie opinion of Lorenlz e,lectrons of the recognized mass. And, in the second place, th.at gravitation may be an electrodynamic effect propagated the electron theory gives no explanation of light and iadioyilh..,h." velocity of light, like that since develop"d i.,,gi"t.. telegraphic waves across free space, wbere the aether alone detail by the present writer. is involved. (ii) The electrons usually assumed to Accordingly the electron theory cannot be more or less explain the . to aroms, and set free chiefly i" -"t"f. (.;;j;.: phenomena of the aether, and it rnu.i b. ,bou,nd. adrnitted that the torsj,. to make up an electric current: but this will not subject of the electron is still involved in great obscurity. explain the propagation of electric disturbances as we can judq-e it can only be cleaied with the up ly tt e 9o .fur velocity of light, and thus the electrons cannot replace the further. development of the wave-theory, deduced from the aether. new kinetic theory of the aether. It is well known that the electrons usually For although the mass of the aetheron given are 'which taken ^ in the to be more or less ,bound, to lhe atorns, with first paper on the New Theory of the Aether, will thef have to be are associated. A vast amount of discussion has arisen as multiplied by about 4.3r to take account of the increased to the setting free of the electrons, by heat and electric absolute density of the aether, found by the new method disturbances. It will be noted thereiorei of section I above, after Lord l(cluin,s method was sbown r. The electrons are not taken to be entirely free, to _be invalid: yet the total change in the mass of the to pervade all space and all bodies, like the aetherons, which aetheron is comparatively slight, ,,a-.rrely: molecular weight travel with, a velocity times that of ligbt, 47rz3g kms. : 6 7 . o 7 2 . r o - r z . ^r.57 z. The speed of the electrons is no"t taken Accordingly the general mass and dimensions to le in of the any case greater than one third that of light. As the mass aetheron are but slightly altered, yet the size of this corpuscle of the electron is considerable, though irly is somewhat increased and becomes: yrfr. of that of a hydrogen atom, this smiller velocity, "Uorrr. The radius of the aetheron 'lroor., ;;; of that of a rooooo kms. is very intelligible. "f' hydrogen molecule. The hypqthesis of Crouther, and others, (Molecular z . T h i s r a d i u si s e q u i v a l e nt o 5 . + 4 ., o ' - t , c m s . , t h a t Physics, p.r39), that ran electric current is a flow oi electrons o f ' h y d r o g e n b e i n g t a k e n ,.34.ro-"r.rr. from place high to a place of low potential( cannot ". (iii) fne electron theory like that of radio_activity .a -of be adnritted, ,because the observed velocity of is 3ooooo kms, a subordinatephase of scientificprogress, for light and electricity could not be attained b! suctr heavf The electrontheory developid luring the last quarter masses as electrons. 'physiof a century by a considerable group of e"lperimental Crout/ter states this electron theory as follows: -;h;", -", cists. led by. Prof. Sir j. J. Tionsin and others, >We may regard has now .ondu.tor, a substance I a c q u l r e d such d e f i n i t e f n r m a n . l c h a , , , o . , . ^ L defects, a L - ^ we I acquired s u c h definite form and shows such r ^ r ^ ^ . ^ _-_' " that 1) The spacing.out is mine.

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are safe in considerin!' it a subordinate phase in scientific progress. If it should prove to be an ultimate development, apparently this can only be owing to the more fundamental rvave-theory, which underlies the electron.theory and gives a \ physical basis for the pihenomena of electrons. r. l'he alpha-, beta-, gamma-rays, recently so much observed, are held to give experimental proof that snrall particles, under electric charges of grenter or less intensity, are. ejected from certain bodies with velocities which may be one third that of light, z. It is very difficult to understand how alpha-, beta-, gamma-particles can be ejected with this enormous speed unless conrrnotions incident to wave action underlie the ejections. For electrodynamic waves travei with the velocity of light, and material particles caught up by a combination of such waves might travel more slorvly than light, but yet with so great a speed as to approach that speed or a large fraction of it. 3 . I t i s i n c o n c e i v a b l et h a t v e l o c i t i e sa p p r o x i m a t i n g o n e third that of light could be generated without sone association rvith the release of elastic action in the aether, which speeds on with the enormous velocity of 3ooooo kms per second. llven in solid bodies.the aether waves advance at a rate which is a large fraction of that in free space. .+ 4. Now rnolecular and atomic velocities are very small indeed compared to that of light. I{ence it is apparent that no ordinary molecular collisions or disturbances could eject particles with these enormous speeds. But if invisible electro. dynamic waves underlie these ejections their speeds are easiiy accounted for. Under oscillating electric charges the particles nright be carried along from the surface or even into the interior of a splid anode or cathode, or similar terminals. 5 . I n t h e a u t h o r ' sw o r k o f r 9 r ? , p . 2 0 , w e h a v e e x plained the nature of an electric current, and illustrated the waves about a conducting rvire by a figure (cf. fig. rz, p. z6o, above) showing the rotations which make up the waves; Tbe 'waves act in concert, tbe elements whirling everyrvhere in the same direction. If therefore, there be a particle small enough to be ejected, yet observable, it might be carried away with great speed. 6. But in a Geissler-tube, or similar rarified gaseous medium, we have rarified gas itself for the conductor or discharge of the electric sftain at the ternrinals. In such a good conducting partial vacuum, it apparently wouid be much easier for a small particle to be ejected with great speed than from any conductor of metallic constitution. 7. Thus, in all the phenomena of electric discharges through rarified gases, on which Prof. Sir ]. f. Thonstn has experimented for so many years, the indications are that the observed velocities of the ejected particles are attained under wave influences or releasesof electric stresses, commotions by in the aether traveling with the velocity of light. 8. Since the rarified gas acts as a conductor - Prof. Troabridgc of Harvard University having found that John rare air is a more perfect electric conductor than even copper wire -, we should in fact expect certain solid particles to be transported along with a large fraction of the velocity of light. Thus the electron phenomena are not remarkable, but naturally lollow from the wave-theory.

9. Accordingly, it hardly seems possible that the alpha-, betd-, gamma-particles,so rnuch studied in the electron theory, can be other than a temporary phase in thc progress of science. Irrportant as the results attained are, they do not disclose to us any workable theory of the universe. Even the ejectiqns of small charged bodies rnust rest on the wave. theory : there is no other possible way in which we can explain the ejection of these corpuscles, and their enormous velocities, whereas the wave-theory makes their ejection natural and re<luires it to be at high speed. to. Incidently, the electron theory renders the corpuscular theory of the aether more probable than it otherwise would be. It all implies excessively rapid motion for very small bodies. Unless there be waves traveling with the velocity of light, it is impossible to explain the phenomena of radio-activity. To show the difficulty of reconciling these results, we add a few calculations. Let us assume in tbe first case that the free electrons behave as a gas, and thus follow the law announced by tl{arutell, that all nrolecules have equal kinetic energy, which is verifed by experience for many actual gases. 'Ihen, if m and u denote respectively the mass and the velocity of a molecule of hydrogen, while n, and z, denote corresponding quantities for an electron, rve have: rf2nu2: tf2n,u,z. (Sq) 1/3ae6of a Accordingly if u : 1696 ms, and r/ : hydrogen molecule, *'hich contains two atoms, we find u' V 34oo.r/: 58.3r.r696 nrs:98.893 kms. (SS) 'fhis is a comparatively snrall velocity, e little over 6o nriles per second; and thus rve find the electron as a gas partiq]e could not attain a sensible ,fraction of the velocitv of light, 3boooo kms. Different authorities give differeni v e l o c i t i e s f o r c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s : C r o u t i l e r ( p . Z O ) c o n s i d e r sa particle moving with one tenth of the velocity of light, and Milliftan has asserted.the probability of a speed of one-third t h a t o f l i g h t . S u c h h i g h v e l o c i t i e sa r e w h o l l y i m p o s s i b l e ,o n the kinetic theory o[ gases; but as expelled under electric charges they might be possible, iI carried along by the wave action traveling at 3ooooo kms per second. But the acceleration of the velocity appropriate to a gas, under the kinetic theory, would ha.r'e to be very great. For the above value q8.8g: kms is less than t/uooo,n that of light; and if rve take ll[illiian's estirnate ot' t7r-iie velocity of light for the swiftest charged particles, ejected, the above kinetic velocity will have to be accelerated a thousand times its calculated value, or receive energy augmentecl by the factor (rooo)? 16e66e6feld, Now in view of our ignorance o[ molecular physics, it is difhcult to say upon what forces such an acceleration may depend; but I know of nothing adequate except waves traveling with the higher velocity of 3ooooo kms per second. A particle having a speed of Lf, f, lvould have only l/sth of the energy of a particle traveling with the velocity i. It looks therefore as if waves passing by with much greater velocity might have given the particle a velocity which is a considerable fraction of the velocity of light. On p. 8r, Crowt/ter attributes the whole mass of the electron'to the charge which it carries. We can not admit

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such a supposition, lbr reasons already given; yet if the charge exerts a drag on the aether in which the waves are traveiing,. the velocity attained will be reduced to a fraction of that of light, in accordance with observations. No other hypothesis than that here adopted will explain the phenomena; and it seems certain that the electron phenomena are explicable by means of the aether, but not without 'nrediunr. this nruch finer (iv) Explanation of inertia, momentum, the larvs of motion and of static electricity. Ever since the formulation of the Newtonian philosophy in the Principia, r686, the problenr of inertia, momentum and the laws of motion have appeared to natural philosophers as 1>henomenarequiring elucidation; yet for n iong time no solid progress could be rnade in this inquiry, becausethere was no adequate theory of the aether. Now that a kinetic theory of the aether is outlined, and the properties of the r r e d i u m s o n t e w h a tu n d e r s t o o d , w e c o n s i d e r i t a d v i s a b l e t o sug(estan explanation of the chief mechanical actions which underlie natural philosophy. r. Since the aether is filled u,ith rvai'es and presses s1'mmetrically upon bodies at rest, or in uniforn-rrnotion, and all bodies carry their wave fields rvith thern, - whatever their state of rest or rnotion, we perceive that the high elasticity of tlie aether makes it impossible to move a body at rest, or alter the velocity of a body in motion, without expending energy upon it. For in every case the wave-field about the body must be readjusted, and rrnder the elastic porver of the aether, this involves work, - just as the aether waves of solar radiation, for exarnple, do work when arrested in their motion at the surlace of the earth. The kinetic theory of the aether therefore accounts for inertia, which represents the energy to be overcqnre in readjusting the wave-field about any body, z. To make this a little clearer rve recall a remark of T1'ndall in his work on sound, 3'd ed., 1896, p. 73: >A certain sharpness of shock, or rapidity of vibration, is needed for the production of sonorous waves in air. It is still more necessary in hydrogen, because the greater mo-_ bility of this gas tends to prevent the formation of condensations and rarefactions.< In further proof of Tyndalls remark as to the increased difficulty of starting waves in hydrogen compared to air, we cite the fact tfat heretofore Prof. F. E. Atiphcr of St. Louis is the only experimenter rvho has been able to generate 'I'o waves in the aether by nrechanical nreans. this end Niphcr used dynamite, which generates trenrendous forces acting with extreme quickness - exactly as Tltndall points out should be the case for a gas having very great mobility of its 'l'his molecules. confinns the kinetic theory o[ the aether and the cause assigned for inertia by an experinlentunt crucis. 3. ln the case of momentum, the physical cause involved is the same as that assigned for inertia, for very obvious reasons, Ior mornentum is the prodtrct of mass by velocity, tnu, and as the mass does not change, the change can only occur in z, the velocity, and thus momentum and inertia are identical as to physical cause. We may even go a little further, and say that all

Lf 1f (so) 2nu2 : "ud2sf dt! involves only mass zr, which is constant, and the velocity z, any charfge in which is resisted by the moving rvave-field about the body, exactly as in the case of inertia. 4. Ls Ncwtoz's laws of motion, Principia, Lib. r, are concerned with motion, which involve chiefly chanees of velocity, we perceive that these laws have their recognized form in virtue of the kinetic medium of the aether: and that all.changes of motion involve.changes in the aether wave-fields about bodies, and are thus proportional to the forces acting, and produce effects in the direction of these forces, or stresses,in the aether. 5. It only remains to l)oint out that as rve ascribe dynamic electricity, or electric currents, to waves of the aether in motion, so also rve ascribe static electricitv to a non-equilibriurn of the wave-field of the aether due to the escal)e of certain waves, under friction or other disturbing causes, which lbcilitates tbe escape i-aster than restoration takes place, and thus leads to the developnront of charges 'lhus of static electricity. it is easy to throrv the universe out of electric equilibriunr, and develop electric stresses. 6. As a charge of static electricity is not permanent, b u t a c c o r n p a n i e db y a g r a d u a l d i s c h a r g e , i t i s n a t u r a l t o h o l d that the insulators on u'hich the electric stressact:umulates do not allow of an adequate flow of aether waves to rlaintain the electric e<luilibrium in the local lield of the universe. H e n c e s t a t i c c h a r g e sa c c u m u l a t e , a n d m a y b e d i s c h a r g e d b y varlous causes, 'lhis nray involve graduai restoration of the equilibrium, by wave dissipation through the air or other media, or a sudden restoration, when metallic contact is made by a conductor connecting the so-called positive and negative charges, and a nrotion of aether waves along the wire restores complete equilibriurn. It rvill be seen that the viervs set forth in this paper and nraintained rvith vigor are very different from tbose previously current among investigators. In the search foi truth we do not enter upon such new paths from any mere love of novelty, but only from the hope of finding a way out of the general confusion heretofore recognized to exist. It it be thought sourewhat audacious to depart from these old ways of thinking, in extenuation thereof I must point to the triunrph of the theory of a very small density for the aether, after a density of zooo million times that of lead had been held by the electronists, as outlined in the 'l'he first paper. small density no\\' appears to be established on an unshakable basis, by the discovery of the new method for determining the absolute density o[ the aether. And in general when nothing is hazarded in the hope of the discovery of new truth, history shows that inrportant discoveries cannot be made. Thus I think it infinitely better to venture upon paths which promise progress rather than to hold to lines of mere conservatism, which retrlrn to some part of the old dark labyrinth, without leading out to real light under a clearer and brighter sky. If others are able to add to the development here brought forth I shall heartily welcome their ad-

kinetic energy depends on the aethg; for the fornrula for the kinetic energy
E -

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But various corrections must be applied. These include the attraction of the mercury on the counterpoise, and on the beam, and on other parts used. The greatest admissible error for asymmetry of the mercury is :to.oooog mgm. The net effect after the application of these corrections is (o.ooog8to.ooor6) m g m . T h e a u t h o r n e x t c o n s i d e r so t h e r possible causes of error, such as electrostatic or magnetic actiorl, radiometric or electrornagneticaction, heat effects,and mechanical perturbation. He considersthese effectsnegligible,< > T h e v a l u e f o u n d f o r k i s 6 . 73 . r o - 1 2 . O n a p p l y i n g these results to the sun, the author considers the sun's true density to be 4.27, which is three times as great as that believed in by astronomers.( This remarkable result seentsso strikine as to be worthv oI careful attention. It rnay be recalled that in the F]lectroj. Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., vol. r, rgrT , p. r 5 5, paragraph 18, I pointed out that )up to the present time the researches of astronomers throw but little light on the amount of rnatter within the heavenly bodies. 'l'hey have simply calculated the.arrount of matter within these masses which nay nrake itself effective by external attraction; and the amount of matter actually there may be considerably larger than we have heretofore believed.< Perhaps it may appear premature to claim that my prediction of r9r7 is already definitely verified by Majorana,s researches,.but as his experiments were well planned, and executed with such care as to command :ippro,r,al in the highest scientific circles, the evidence certainly indicates the detection by dilicate physical experiment of a screening effect in the action of universal gravitation which I first discovered from the fluctuations of the moon's nrean motion, l)ec. ro, r g r 6 , a s r e c u r r i n g w i t h t h e e c l i p s ec y c l e s ,a n d t h u s d e p e n d i n g on the interposition of the solid globe of the earth in the path of the sun's gravitative action on the rnoon. The conrse of this celestial-terrestrialprogress is the nore remarkable, because Prof. E. l4/. Rrotun, the leading lunar theorist, had pronounced against the theory, after Ilottlinger and Secligcr had been unable to conlirm the interceotion of part of the sun's gravitation near the time of eclipses. It rvould notv seem that Majorana's experiments open a new line of attack on the nature of gravitation, which can scarcely be interpreted except in terms of the rvat'e.theory. If so, it will no longer be admissible to speak of action at a distance, rvben the sun's action on the moon is 'shown to be partly put off by the interposition of the earth's mass near the time of lunar eclipses, while terrestrial gravitation can be sensibly reduced by the layer of mercury made to surround one of trvo deiicately balanced lead spheres, in Majorana's laboratory experiments. It may be noted also that the explanation of the prosression of the perihelion or mercury given by me in AN 5 o 4 8 , p . r 4 3 , s e e m st o b e t r i u m p h a n t l y v e r i f i e d , a n d t h a t t o o without resorting to relativity or the theories o( Einstcin, which I believe to depart from the laws of nature, because they are both lacking in physicai basis. It is not by accident that '4[ajorana's experiments confirm my lunar researches of r g r 6 , a n d t h e s i m p l e e x p l a n a t i o no f t h e o u t s t a n d i n gr n o t i o n of Mercury's perihelion given in AN 5o48.

vance; and I ask no more of <ithers, in respect to following the new path here struck out in the hope of discovery, than I voluntarily exact of mysel[, in the search for light, more lightl As this paper is somewhat lengthy I shall defer going into further details of static electricity, till we conre to deal rvith the phenomenon of lightning and the molecular forces, I am indebted to lt4r. V:. L. Middlcton, Mr. G. L. Ealey, and especially I{r. tr4/.S. Tranftle, for facilitating the completion o[ this paper. Starlight on Loutre, l{ontgomery City, Missouri, r g z o I V I a y8 . T. J. J. See. Postscript: Since this paper lvas finished, I have just received Science Abstracts, No. z7o, June 3o, r9zo, with notice of the Theoretical and Experimental Researches on Gravitation by Prof. Q. Ifajorana, of Rome (Phil. l{ag., vol. 39, pp.488-5o+. N{ay, rgeo), who raisesthe question as to the absorption by a dense rnedium o[ the encrgetical flux which is supposed to proceed frorn all matter and cause gravitative attraction. N{r. P. E. Shau' gives the following account of Majozarza's researches: ' )A particle of mass dar would put forth a fl,ux kdn. If this flux passesthrough distance r of a dense rnedium, having quenching factor I{, the flux at the end would be rtdn.c-Ht, Here E is proportional to the density of the medium - /r0r. Now, suppose the particle of mass dn to be a particle inside a sphere, the author finds that the total flux emerging from

all pointsin the sphere is -+, -F : h n 0, Rs [r fp _ r f zpt_+ 2-"r (r f1;2 I

where ?u : density of the sphere, R : radius of the sphere, and p: 1717. Let Mo - the apparent mass of the sphere. This is less than the true mass Mu on account. of this atji sorption effect. I.et Mo - 7[,9 - af..rr7rR] p, where

"?t)]

,lt :

u nlt - r zp\-+e-'n (r p2-+ t r?t)) . I l? f f l

The relation of yt to r/-r is shown graphically. The case of the sun is specially considered. The astronomical density of . the sun is r.4r. This is the apparent density. On certain hypotheses we can arrive at a value for the true density, and fronr this deduce the. values of 1p, ?, and I{ successively. -l'he .values of t!, ?, and f{ the author drarvs up in a table, giving a range of hypothetical density from r.4r to 2o.o. For a material of density r.o the value of .E{ is h. This factor h is supposed to be a universal constant of value b e t w e e n r o - 1 9 a n d r o - 1 1 .u >In order to find the value of /t, the author has performed the following experiment. Fronr a delicate balance in 'r,acuo hangs a lead sphere, counterpoised.by a similar sphere. One lead sphere is hung in a chamber surrounded by one which can be used empty or filled rvith mercury, so as to surround the lead synrmetrically. The lead has mass 1274 gm, the mercury has mass ro4 kg. By means of a mirror, the balance, and a distant scale it is possible to estimate the mass to 1/rroorngnr on each readine. On trying the experiment, the author finds that in all casesthe weieht of the lead is reduced rvhen it is surrounded by mercuiy. This indicates an absorption effect by the mercury. The observed decrease in weight is (o.oozo9to.oooo7) mgm.

r g z o A u g u s t1 8 .

T. J. J. Su. '
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. ASTRONOMISCHE NACHRICHTEN:
Band 212.
New Theory

t:-'i1 T:f ,i .

Nr. 5085.

of the Aether.

By T. /. /. See.

(Fourth Paper.)

(With 3' Plates.)

By lvay of introduction, we remark at the outset that this Fourth Paper is occupied chiefly with the foundations of the wave-theory of light. The subject is presented from a new point of view, in harmony with the electrodynamic wave-theory of magnetism, to which I have been led by the researches on electrodynamic action and universal gravitation outlined in the preceding PaPers. As will be remembered by those familiar with the historical development of the wave-theory of light, Ncu'ton, I{u1,ghcns and, Euhr had not considered the modern theory of vibrations confined to the plane ofthe wave-surface,normal to the direction of propagation. Indeed these great founders of the physical sciences did not discriminate between the n a t u r e o f t h e m o l e c u l a r o s c i l l a t i o n sw h i c h p r o d u c e s o u n d a n d those which produce light. But abottt r8r7 Dr. T/tonas Young, in England, and Frcsnel and Arago, in France, were led to assume that in light the molecular motions of the aetber are normal to the direction of the ray, like the lateral vibrations of a'stretched cord. This view seemed like a lery startling hypothesis, and;thus for a time it encountered great opposition. At a somervhat earlier period both Poisson and Cauchlt had been occupied with profound researches in the mathematical theory of wave-nrotion, and each of these eminent geometers presented a number of brilliant memoirs to the P a r i s A c a d e m y o f S c i e n c e s ,c h i e f l y b e t w e e n t h e y e a r s I 8 r o w and r84o. When the first of theseresearches ere-presented to the Academy the venerable Lagrangc, who died in r8r3, was Still numbered anlong its most honored members; and Laplace continued to take a deep interest in the wave'theory till his death in r 8 z 7. It thus appears that Lagrangc died before Young and .Frcsnal brought forward the thebry of transverse vibrations (r8r7) for explaining the interference and polarization of light; but Laplace lived to witness this development for ten years; and, with his pupil Poisson, always held to the historical views o[ lvave movement handed down by A'ewlon, IIul'ghcns and Eulcr, that at a great distance from the source' the vibrations of the particles of the aether are largely in the direction of the radius drawn frorn the center of disturbance, as in the theory of sound. From these circumstances, and the new physical ex' periments of Young, -Fresncl aod Arago, on polarization and interference, there arose a celebrated controversy on the wave. theory of light, which occupies a prominent place in the A brief but Memoirs of the Paris Academy, r8rg-r839. lucid review of these papers as they successively appeared is given by Llofi in his contemporary Report on the Progress and Present State of Physical Optics, made to the B r i t i s h A s s o c i a t i o n. f o r t h e A d l a n c e m e n t o f S c i e n c e , 1 8 3 4 ,

and reprinted in -Lloyd's Miscellaneous Papers connected with P h y s i c a l S c i e n c e ,L o n d o n , r 8 7 7 , p p . r 9 - r 4 8 . It will be remembered rhat Lloyd had experimentally confi rnred l{ani lton's theoretical prediction of conical refraction, and therefore speaks with authority. After the appearance of Poisson'smemoir of l8 rg, the French academicians were divided into tu'o groups: the geometers, led by Lay'lacc, ?oissort, 'LamC, contending that at great distances from the source of disturbance the vibrations of the particles are in the direction of the radius, as held by Nculon, I{u1ghens, Eulcr, and, Lagran,ge; and the physical group, led by Frcsncl, Ara.go, and Cautll', claiming that in light the vibrations are transverseto the direction of prop a g a t i o n , a n d t h u s e x a c t l y o p p o s i t e t o t h o s e r e c o g n i z e di n t h e theory of sound. This celebrated philosophical controversy extended over sonre twenty years, but never led to any satisfactory conclusion. The mathematical genius of Cauchy came to the rescue of Frcsnel's experiments, by showing the possibility of a medium transmitting transversewaves. Yet neither Cauchy nor Fresncl showed how such 'transverse waves could arise; and after the death of Poisson, in 1839, there was a gradual acqniescence in the doctrine, without any theoretical explanation of the origin, of the transverse rvavesin light. Since r84o there bas been no change in the theory, though it often has appeared far from satisfactory to eminent investigators who.expect unbroken continuity for the whole body of wave-phenomena in nature. In his lucid article on Light, Encyclopedia Americana, r9o4, Prof. Cltas. S. Hastings, o[Yale University, states the crucial difficulty more recently encountered by the wave. theory of light as follows: >This great work of Frcsncl was looked upon, as indeed it well deserves.to be, as one of the greatest monuments to the human understanding - comparable to Neulon's doctrine of universal gravitation - and it long remained of almost unquestioned authority. Ultimately, however, one of its fundamental postulates, nanrely, that the vibrations are always at right angles to the directbn of the motion of the light, began to give rise to difficulties. The fact also that the tbeory could not determine specifically whether the direction of vibration of plane-polarized light is in the plane of polarization or perpe.ndicular, to it was not only a manifest incompleteness, but it was a constant stimulus to a critical inspection of its premises. The more these points were studied the more insoluble the difficulties appeared, until there came to be a tolerably widespread belief that the theory was not only incomplete, but that in some way it must be essentially in error, < Frour the development given below it appears that

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afrer considerable uncertainty, extending over a full century, 'fheory of the Aether now makes it possible to the New recoricile the difficulties which so perplexed the illustrious geometers and physicists of the Paris Academy of Sciences. This greatly simplifies our view of the wave-theory of light, without introducing any arbitrary hypotheses. And as the new wave-theory connects the theory of light directiy with the theory of sound, according to the views of Poisson,'183o, it must be considered not the least fortunate solution of a problem which greatly bewildered some of the most illustrious a c a d e m i c i a n so f l i r a n c e . I. As the Aether is a Gas, and thus Isotropic in all Directions for Ordinary Terrestrial Distances, it is a Fundamental Error in the Wave-Theory of Light to deny Radial Motion, in Order to hold to the Doctrine of Vibrations alnrostwholly transverse to the l)irection of a Ray. 'It is fully realized that the modern wave-theory of light is so vast a subject that any treatment, even o[ the foundations rnerely, necessarily is much more incomplete than those given in standard treatisesl) on light. Yet even a partial diicussion of the foundation principles, provided it unfolds a ;lew aspect of the theory of light, may be welcome to investigators who seek the laws o[ nature. .'I'hus I deenr it worth rvhile to present the results at which I arrived. Under no other principles have I been able to b r i n g t h e v a r i e d p h e n o m e n ao f l i g h t i n t o h a r m o n y w i t h t h o s e of clectricity, magnetism,and gravitation, And since Prof. Majorana, of Rome, in the Philosop h i c a l I \ , I a g a z i n e ,o l . 3 9 , i l { a y , r ' 9 2 o , p p . 4 8 8 - 5 o 4 , h a s b e e n v able to confirnr experimentally the conclusion respecting gravitation to which I was led in r 9 r 7, (Electrod, WaveTheory of lrhys. !-orc., vol. r, p. r55) - that the amount o[ r'hatter within the heavenly bodies is nruch greater than we heretofore have believed, actually r.naking the sun's true we see mass three tiures that accepted by astronomers, evidence of a coming transformation of doctrine in physical science, greater than any which has occurred since the age ol Kcpler, Galilci, and Ne ulon. The new theory of the lunar fluctuitions, rnotion of .N{ercury'sperihelion, and of the.prob l e m s o f t h e a e t h e r t r e a t e d o f i n A N 5 o 4 4 , 5 o 4 8 , s e e m st o have triumphed incontestably. Under the circumstances it will not do to shut our eyes to new conceptions just because they have not been handed down by traditions. When so nrany difficulties have arisen in the wave-theory of light, which can not be overcome on the old theory, it seems to be a sign of error in the assumed.foundations of the theory itself; and the need for a rnodification of the theory is therefore urgent, not only in the hope of winning new truth, but also of attaining harmony and simplicity. If by following the principles o[ the new theory of the

aether already unfolded we have been able to confirm the work of r9r7, - as by Majoraaa's experiment of r9r9, and also obtain a much simpler view of magnetism, eiectrothere is plain dynamic action and universal gravitation, indication that we should attempt to harmonize the wavetheory of light with,this theory of the aether. In venturing upon this new line of thought, in accordance with the views of Poisson, r83o, it is of course understood that investigators should welcome suggestions for intprovements which have not yet been made, owing to difficulties in the old point of vierv, as handed dorvn by tradition from the days of Young, F-resnel, Arago, and Cauchy. ln preparing the third paper we discovered a nerv method for deterrnining the absolute density of the aether, and developed a process by rvhich we were enabled to calculate this density at the surfaces of the sun and planets of the solar system. This new method was found to be applicable to any stellar or sidereal system, where tle force of gravity is known by observation, and thus rnay be extended throughout the immensity of space. The method has proved to be of great importance in c o n 6 r n r i n g a n d d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h i n gt h e s m a l l d e n s i t y o f t h e aetlrer, in accordance rvith the views of Areu,lorr, I{ersclttl, .Keluin, and Maxutcll, This not only does au'ay rvith the strange claim put lbrl,ard by electronists that the aether t may have an immense density (estinrated o be zooo million t i m e s t h a t o f l e a d ! ) , b u t a l s o d e f i n i t e l y e s t a b l i s h e st h e c o m pressibility of thc aether when powerful forces act rluicklr', as in the explosiorrs of dynanrite, n'hich rvas successltllv ernployed by Prof. Francis E. Nipher of St. Louis, to disturb t h e q u i e s c e n c eo r t h e m e d i u m . Sinie the aether therefore is a gas, with properties which nrake this mediurn approximately isotropic for ordinary distances at the surface o[ the earth, though aeolotropic in respect to the heavenly bodies, as distant centres of n'aveagitation, we perceive that the doctrine of the *'ave-theory of light, that the 'r'ibrations are rvholly transverse to the direction oI the ray, rests on a fundamental error, and a correction is required to take account ofthe gaseouscharaiter of the aether, and its equal compressibility in all directions. 'fhus, contrary to the assunrptionsof Green, and others, rvho get rid o[ the longitudinai component by arbitrariiy making that componentof the velocity infinite; there is a longitudinal componentin light, as in sound; but it is very small, because it depends on the ratio of the amplitude to the rvave-length Al)": ro-5,.due to the very slight compressibility of the aether. The longitudinal cornponent thus becornes 'y' (,511)'g, where g,is the spheiical projection factor, about l / a s , d e d u c e df r o m F i g . r , P l a t e s o t h a t t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o m Z; ponent probably does not exceed r/4oooooo 2). According to the very accurate experiments described by Prof. I{astings, in section ! below, I{uyghens' construction for the extra-

t) Arnong the great standard treatises on light, that by Sir John lfersehel, Encyclopedia Metropolitana, r8.q9, is to be especially 'commended for'its cornprehensiveness, and because it reflects thc state of the subject justafter the epoch of Young, Fresncl and Arago. Drude's Theory of Optics, translated,by ll[ann and 'llillihan, (Longrnans, Green & Co., London and New York, I9r7) is the best recent treatise s'ith which I am farniliar. Lofi l?ayleigh's article Wave-Theory, Encyclopedia Britannica, g,h ed., r887, presents a masterly survey of the subject, b a s e d o n g r e a t p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e ,a n d r n a y b e u n r e s e r v e d l y r e c o m m e n d e d . ')Compare the later calculation in the noteSof Sept. rz in section 4, and in section8, below, which indicate that this componenr i s a b o u t l : ( 6 6 . 1 2 o .r o " ) .

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390

o r d i n a r y . r v a v e s u r f a c e c e r t a i n l y i s a c c u r a t et o r : r o 6 , w h i c h therefore lends a remarkable'support to the new theory of transverse rvaves in light. Finally, it remains to point out that although in our new theory of the aether we usually speak of the waves as resembling the waves on the surface of still water, - which convey to the mind the image of particles revolving in circular or elliptical paths, while the wave form moves on, 'as yet, in the theory of sound, it is allowable, in many phenomena, to conceive the oscillations oI the particles to take place in such narrow ellipses as to be practically rectilinear, in the normal to the wave front, according to Poisson's t h e o r y o f r 8 3 o . S u c h a p p r o x i m a t er e c t i l i n e a r m o t i o n a l w a y s is referable to sinple harmonic motion, according to the ordinary theory of uni.form motion in the circle of reference. Thus our theory is not restricted in any rvay, but is applicable to any possible elliptical oscillation of the particle, fronr a circle on the one hand, to a straight-line ellipse on t h e o t h e r , a s i n t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t sr e f e r r e d t o s i m p l e h a r m o n i c motion in the theory of sound. In the third paper on the nerv theory of the aether ( A N 5 o 7 9 ) , n e a r t b e e n d o f s e c t i o n8 , e q r r a t i o n s A O )t o ( a S ) ( and beyond, rve have carefully cited the reasoning of Poisson, who devoted over 25 years to the mathematical theor-v of w a v e s ,a n d i n h i s l a i t p a p e r s ( r 8 r 9 - r 8 3 9 ) m a i n t a i n e d t h a t at a great distance from the source of disturbance the motion of the rnolecules always is sensibly normal to the rvave front, as in the theory of sound. -fhrts Poisson never concurred in the views of Fresncl, zIra,go, and Cauch:t,,which were gradually adopted in the traditional wave-theory of light. And it must be plainly pointed out that Fresncl's doctrine of purely transverse waves was an assumptionpure and simple, which offereda needed explanation of the interferenceof polarized light. It is a rratter of authentic record that at first Frcsnel a,nd Aro.go hesitated to take snch a radical departure as to postulate transverse rvaves (cf. Aro,go's Eulogy . on l,resntl, English translation, Boston, r849, pp. ztz-zr3). In regard to the reluctance ol the early investigators to admit a lateral vibration in light, it nray be pointed out that l{u1',ghens, A'cu,lott, and, Euler had held to the vierv of oscillationschiefly in the line of the rrys, though liulcr's equations involve no necessary restrictions as to the direction of vibration, being of the sarue general fornr as in the theory of sound, (t) asinlznf)..(Itt-r)l. d 2 u fd t z : - c . 0 2 u f 0 r 2 u : But at length, Yorng began to entertain the idea that the molecules of the aether might oscillate in parallel directions transverse to the direction of the ray, though he thought that longitudinal vibrations might exist also. Frcsncl independently reached the. idea bf transverse vibrations, but like Young he could not account for it dynamically. In his History of the Inductive Sciences,vol. II, 3'd ed.,

r857, pp. 332-333,Dr, Wtcuill cluotes the renrarks of Frcsncl: >M, Your)g, more bold in his conjectures and less confiding in the views of geometers, published it before me, though perhaps he thought of it after me.< And from personal jn. formation of the progress of the theory of transverse waves, Dr. Whcwell adds: >And M. Arago was afterwards wont to relate, (I take the liberty of stating this from personal knowledge) that when he and Frcsncl had obtained their joint experimerrtal. results, of the non-interference of oppositely-polarizedpencils, and when Fresnel pointed out that transverse vibrations tlere the only possible translation of this fact into the undulatory t h e o r y , h e h i n r s e l f p r o t e s t e d. t h a t h e h a d n o t t h e c o u r a g e t o publish such a conception; and accordingly, the secondpart of the memoir was published in Frtsntls name alone. What renders this more remarkable is, that it occurred when N[. Arago had in his possession the very letter of Young (Jan. t z , 1 8r 7 ) , i n w h i c h h e p r o p o s e dt h e s a m e s u g g e s t i o n . c F r o m t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e sh e r e r e p o r t e d i t w i l l b e s e e n that -|'Vesne/ and Arago did not feel very securer) in their position, under the criticisms of lajtlarc, I'oisson and their followers. Accordingly Frcsncl and, Arago rvere nrore thun glad to have the mathematical support of Cauchy, in favor of the possibility of transrnitting transversewaves, if once t h e y e x i s t e d . l l u t t h a t w a s a l l t h a t C a u r / t 1 : sa n a l y s i sp r o v e d . I t d i d n o t i n d i c a t e h o l v s u c h t r a n s v e r s er v a v e s w o u l d a r i s e in nature, nor did Frcsntl and his follol ers throrvany light on this di{trcult problem. A c c o r d i n g l y i t a p p e a r st h a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e vibrations in light has never been explainedon a satisfactory basis; and for that reason it is hoped that the simple theory i n s e c t i o n 4 b e l o w m a y c o m m e n d i t s e l f t o g e o m e t e r sa n d natural philosophers Another difficulty of quite fundamental character in the rvave-theory of light has been before me for many years. We conrmonly have offered to ns for illustration of transverse wales the vibrations of a single stretchetlcord: this looks obvious and convincing, when we deal only rvith a single cord free to vibrate in empty space. But in the theory of light rve should have to imagine altfr /3, t': e, /: all space, in the sphere V: r, aborrt the source of light, fillerl entirely lull of sqch cords, rvhich would thus mutually crowd each other on every side; so that no one of them would have the assumed freedom of the single cord used in our class-roorn illustrations. The surface of the sphere has the area S : 47t12r and for a spherical shell of thickness dr, the volume is 4nr2dr, and anfr'dr. Now by no possibility can the sphere surface S4nrz bq increased. Accordingly no one cord can be moved sidewise, in transverse vibration, without crowding all the other cords extending outward from the centre, unless we assume .simultaneous motion of all the cords in the same direction the integral of volume is V:

r) In another place, Hist. of thi Induct. Sciences,vol, II, p. 359, Dr, Wheuctl explains the embarrassmenrof Arago as follows: M, Arago n'ould perhaps have at once adopted the conception of transverse vibrations, when it was suggested by his fellow-labourer, Fresnel, if it had n o t b e e n t h a t h e r v a s a m e m b e r o f t h e I n s t i t u t e , a n d h a d t o b e a r t h e b r u n t o f t h e w a r i n t h e f r e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n so f t h e u n d u l a t o r y t h e o r y , to which theory Laflaee, and other leading members, were so vehemently opposed, that they would not even listen u'ith toleration to the arguments in its favour. I do not knorv how far influences of this kind might operate in producing the .delays which took place in the publication of. Fresnel's DaDers.(

z,6r

39r

5085 02al0f:
-

392
equation of wave motion is And as Poisson's

The chances are infrnity to for the spherical shell 4nrzdr. against this occurring. one These considerations alone show that the old wave'theory of .light is inadrnissible. The ,same difficulty does not arise ' in Poisson's theory of r 8 3 o, which makes the vibrations normal to the wave front, as in sound, and thus allows vi' where brational increase of space equal to ll/4nrzdr, dr is the amplitude of the oscillations, With the new theory .as to why the waves are mainly transverse, nrore fully set forth in section {, below, it is believed that the last out' standing difficulty in the wave-theory of light has been removed, But before quitting this subject, we mtry state the expansive diffrculty pointed out above with somewhat greater mathematical rigor. If @ be the velocity-potential, we have the usual differential exPression 12) Now it is well known that the line integral of the tangential component velocity around any closed curve of a moving (incompressible) fluid remains constant throughout all time; so that when d@ is a complete differential, the

azvlo

(s)

o, excludes the existence of waves, if we see that V2@ this condition held rigorously for the time dl. Wherefore we conclude that in traversing the surface S, the condition in (6) will hold for the wave from the centre at the beginning and also at the end of the time df, corresponding to the propagation of a rvave through all its phases, over the wave'length 1, which represents a complete oscillation of the fluid. But for shorter, intervals, the equation (6) will not hold rigorously; so tbat temporarily, over an interval less If I/, there is both znfu: than the wave frequency, t: Slight compressibility and a flow of the fluid across the boun' d.ary S - 4nrzi and, for dtcz wq have:

dd) :

udr-rudy-+-wdz.

(61 (a'l,n : ortl 6t)

[ ! aaf an'asat

t dn

(s)

rvhere drz is the total fluid temporarily lost, an infinitesimal mass positive or negative. Accordingly, in the wave motion of the aether, there is slight compressibility, and a minute temporary radial motion circulation Jara it zero, just as in the obvious case when of the fluid does take place. Hence we cannot have purely transverse motion, as assutned in the traditional form of the the fluid is at rest: wave-theory of light due to Frcsnel and Cauchy. : : dJaar 6tfua"-ruat-+utdz)s . During the last half century these problems have been When the fluid is incompressible this integral round discussedby many eminent iratural philosophers - Lord l{cluin, a closed circuit is evanescent, and the momentum, like the Muxucll, but Glazebroo/t, etc., Lannor, Lord Ra/cigh, circulation, is zero; but for a compressible fluid,'tbe existence whilst they give up Grccn's views, they do not reach satisof a velocity'potential @ does not imply evanescenceof the factory accord in their views of the aether. A useful surnintegral momenturn round a closed circuit (cf. Lord Rayleigh, mary of their reasoning is given in Daniell's Principles of Theory of Sound, zoded., r896, r'ol. 2, pp. 8-9). Physics,3'd edition, r895, p. 5 ro. Under the circurnstances In the case of the aether, horvever, the huid is so rve have felt that the older viervs must be entirely abandoned, nearly absolutely incompressible that the above theorems and the waves in the aether treated as in Poisson'sTheory will hold, and we may talte d@ to be essentially an exact of r 83o. There is no experimental evidence of different differentiai; so that the velocity in any direction is expressed velocities for cornpressional and distortional waves, and no by the corresponding rate of change of @, and therefore such assumptions are authorized by the existing state of our duf dx-rduf dy-rdutf dz :02tDf0x2-r02tDl0l2-rlzrDl7z'z . (a) knowledge.

(s)

Let .us now consider any closed surface, such as that of the sphere already spoken of, S: 4nr2. Then the rate of flow of the fluid outward, across the element dS, becomes: ' dS'drDldn.

2. Maruell's Electromagnetic Theory of Light rests on Vibrations wholly transverse to the Direction of a Ray, and thus in View of the above Con' siderationsthe Electromagnetic Theory also must be the density is constant, the total loss o f r e j e c t e d a s n o t b a s e d s t r i c t i y o n t h e L a w s o f N a t u r e . And when fluid in tirne dl is given by the double integral: We have just outlined .the geometrical and physical difficulty encountered by Fresncl's classical conception of (61 dt)(al or'1: [ [ aa I an'asat sn wholly transverse to the direction in which light where the integration is to be extended over the entire sur' vibrations is propagated; and have shown how waves flat in the equators face S : 4tt/2. of the atoms, under haphazard arrangement of the atonric Now when the sphere surlace S is full both at the planes, would be equivalent to the uriiform spherical distri' beginning and. at the end of d/, the loss of fluid vanishes, bution of the elliptical vibration paths exhibited to the eye so that ( o ) in Fig. r, Plate 7. This new prlnciple in the wave'theory ( 6 l d r ) ( a l s n o:r s )t t a a f d o ' d S d t : o . of light gives two remarkable results: fluid The equationof continuity, for an incompressible r. From any spherical source o[light, or luminous mass' deduced frorn the spacial element drdydz, under this con- where the number of atoms is large, it would lead to vibrations dition of no loss of fluid across the boundary, is so nearly transverse, that the longitudinal comPonent pro' tD ?2 l0x2-r02 rD -r?2 tD s2 : e bably would not exceed the value r/(4'rou), and thus be l0y2 l0 \7) : insensible1) to observation in optical experinrents' o. or briefly S2@

(s)

!) A much smaller value

rl(6642o' ro"), is reached in section 4 below, Sept' ,2t r92o,

393

5085

394

2. It makes the molecules oscillate primarily in the direction of the normal to the wave-front, as held by I[uyghcns, Ncuton, Eahr, Lagrangc, Laplacc ar,d Poisson, prior to the theory of lateral vibrations of the stretched cord introduced by Young, Fresnel and Cauchlt. Thus we have at once a vindication of the profound wave-theory of Poisson, r83o, without need for recourse to the artificial and dynarnically inadmissible theory of -Frcsntl, that the vibrations are rvholly transverse, 'Ihe above citations from Whcacl/ show that Young, .Frcsncl and Arago were loth to entertain the theory of purely lateral vibrations, which they could not account for dynamically, as contrary to the views of geometers since the age of Ncutton. Apparently it never occurred to Young and Frcsncl normal eliiptical paths, that a theory of projection for Poisson's s h o r v ni n F i g . r , P l a t e 7 , r n u l t i p l i e d b y t h e s m a l l such as'is ratio Af )', would give mean vibrations almost normal to the ray; without the strained and unnatural theory of lateral motion appropriate to a stretched cord. Tbe the<lryof lateral vibrations, drawn from the example of the stretched cord, is approxintateiy correct, as respects the snrallness of the longitudinal component, but it is wholly lacking in physical basis, as shown above in section I.. More' over 'it introduces an unfortunate and unnecessary conflict between the doctrines of experimental physics and geotnetry. The eminent experitnenters,Frcsncl and Arago, and the great analyst Cauchy, were thus arrayed against Laplacc, Poisson, and Lanl; yet apparently it was not possible for these illu' strious academicians to settle the controversy which thus arose, because the premises in their reasoniug departed from the order of nature. If the theory above traced be admiss'ible, it follows that the claims of geometers since the da1's of Neuton and Eulcr, as put forth by Laplacc and Poisson, certainly were correct, that at a great distance from the source of the disturbance the molecular oscillations are normal to the wave front. On the other hand, the average vibration in light is nearly normal to the ray, owing to the effect of the spherical projectio'n from the variously tilted elliptical paths ai the soJrce of the light, and the srnallness of Al7. Ac' cordingly we are impressed with the necessity of the most crucial test of the premises underlying our reasoning in natural philosophy. In order to outline this defect clearly, we shall now treat of the difficulty of the electromagnetic theory of Mar' u,ell, which will also show the unwarranted assumptions underlying the Frcsncl- Cauchy wave-theory. rIf I knew,< says Lord Keluin, (Baltimore Lectures' r9o4, p. 9) ,what the electromagnetic theory of light is, I might be able to think of it in relation to the fundamental principles of the wave theory of light. But it seems to me that it is rather a backward step from an absolutely definite mechanical motion that is put before us by -Frcsnel and his followers to take up the so'called electromagnetic theory of light in the way it has been taken up by several writers of late. In passing, I may say that the one thing about it that seems intelligible to me, I do not think is admissible. What I mean is, that there should be an electric displacement perpendicular to the line of propagation and a magnetic

disturbance perpendicular to both. It seems to me that when we have an electromagnetic theory of light, we shall see electric displacement as in the direction of propagation, and simple vibrations as described by .Frcsncl with lines of vibration perpendicular to the line of propagation, for the motion actually constituting light.( If Lord l{eluin had such difficulty in understanding the electromagnetic theory of light, it undoubtedly is very allowable for the present rvriter to atiempt to put the theory of light on a simpler basis. The figure .from Matutal/'s Treatise on Electricity and 1\Iagnetism, vol. II, p, 439, cited belorv, will put before our minds the electric and magnetic vibrations, conceived to be in planes at right angles to each other, and thus calling forth the above severe criticism by I-ord Keluin, who was Iong an associate and friend of Maxuell, It seems to be certain that Lord Keluin was very much bewildered by the unnatural complications of the electro-magnetic theory, and thus it proved of little or no value to him. In his Electriciti et Optique, r90r, p. 73, Poincar! has pointed out the difficulties and contradictions he found in following Maxpell's processes. rll ne faut pas attribuer i cette contradiction trop d'importance' J'ai exposi plus haut en effect les raisons qui rne font penser qlue Maruell ne regardait la thdorie du diplacement electrique ou du fluide inducteur que comme provisoire, et que ce fluide inducteur auquel il conservait le nom d'dlectriciti, n'avait pas a ses yeux plus de rCalitCobjective que les deux fluides de Coulonb.< The importance of having a perfectly clear understanding of Maracll's electromagnetic theory is so great that we quote his ieasoning in full' It is not very long, and the deductions rvill justify it (pag. 438-39-4o). >7go. Let us now confine our attention to plane waves' fronts of which we shall suppose normal to the'axis the of z. All the quantities, the variation of which constitutes such rvaves, are functions of z and / only, and are independent of r and 1'. Hence the equations of magnetic induction, (e),'ert. 59r, are reduced to -dGldz o c: b : dFldz a: [r3] (ro) or the magnetic disturbance is in the plane of the wave. This agrees with what we know of that disturbance which c o n s t i t u t e sl i g h t . ( rPutting Pa, PB and p'y for a, b and c respectively, the equations of electric currents, Art. 6o7, become

4Tt(t,u : 47tpu:
4fipta:

- dbldz : - dzFldz2 d a fd z : - d 2 G f d z 2
o.

[ r + ]( r r )

rHence the electric disturbance is also in the plane of the wavb, and if the magnetic disturbance is confined to one direction, say that of r, the electric disturbance is con' fined to the perpendicular direction, or that of 7.< ,But we may calculate the electric disturbance in anqther way, for if f, g, h are the cornponents of electric dis' placement in a non-conducting medium,

u: dfldt u: dsldt w: dhldt. [r5] (rl) >lf P, Q, r? are the components the electromotive of intensity,

ll

'i ii
It

w
k

395
-f : Klm'P s: Kl+n'Q -dGlat h: RKlqn'R -drrlil,

5085
[ro] (13) Itl] (t+) Irs] (r5)
[14], 1t

396

P- -dFldt Hence u:

and since there is no motion of the mediurn, equations (B), Art. 598, become

Q:

u: -r{l4n-azFldt2 -Kl4n.d2Gldt2 w:.-Klqn.dzHldtz.

these valnes with those given in r, F/ r o-t'1o22:I(p.dlFldt2

Comparing we find

equation |

dzGf dzz -

Kp'd2Gf

dt|

0 -

r{|t,.dzrrf dr2.u

tr9l

\ro,l

z\

and fail to adrnit three component motions depending on x, y and s. [zo] (rz) 4. There was a celebrated controversy on this point between Poissotz and Fresncl and their followers, in the InThe solution of the third equation is stitute o[ France, (r8r9-r839), but to the end Poissonheld I{: A+-Bt [zrJ (r8) to the conclusion that in general the vibrations are not where ,4 and .B are functions of :. Zf is therefore either normal to the direction o[ the ray. Frcsncl himself held constant or varies directly 'rvith the time. In neither case such views, in virtne of the necessity of explaining polarican it take part in the propagation of \vaves,( zation, iirterference,etc. ; and Cauchy'smathematical researches r 7 9 r. It appears from this that seemed to indicate that if vibrations existed norrnal to the the directions, both of the rnagnetic ray, they could be propagated in the aether. and the electric disturbances. lie 'fhere i s n o d o u b t t h a t a n y k i n d o f v i b r a t i o n s ,o n c e 5. in the plane of the wave. The established in the aether, may be propagated in that mediurn; mathematical form of the disturb u t t h i s d o e s n o t s h o r vt h a t t h e a c t u a l v i b r a t i o n s i n p o l a r i z e d bance therefore agrees with that light are of this type. Here is a fundarnental crror in the of the disturbance which constiwave-theory of light, which the wave-theory of magnetism tutes light, being transverseto the has enablecl us to correct. direction of propagation.< 6. We hold that light must have a longitudinal corn>If we suppose G o, the ponent depending on the ratio of the amplitude to the rvave disturbance will corrbspond to a length, rvhich is small but finite. In the Philosophical Magaplane-polarized ray of light.< zine for Sept., r 896, Fitzgerald has a thoughtful and useful rThe magnetic force is in paper on this subject, beginning as follows: this case parallel to the axis ofy >In nrost investigations on the propagation of light, and equal to rf p,.d,|t-ldz, and the attention has been concentrated on the transversenature of electromotive intensity is parallel the vibration. Longitudinal rnotions have treen relegated to to the axis of r- and equal to 'l'he the case of pressural waves, and investigators have devoted - dFldt. magnetic force themselves to separating the two as much as possible. In is therefore in a plane perpenSir Gur.gt Slo/tes'sclassical l)al)er on Diftraction, and in Lord d i c u l a r t o t h a t w h i c h c o n t a i n s Fig. z : il[aruelf,sFig.67. I{eluin's Baltinrore I.ectures, the existence of a longitudinal the electric intensity.< component is mentioned; but it is mentioned only to shorv >The values of the magnetic force and o[the electrothat it is very srnall and thtrt the motion is mostly trans. motive intensity at a given instant at different points of the verse. Now the longitudinal component is no doubt generay are represented in Fig. 67, (cf. Fig. z), for the case of rally small, except in the immediate neighbourhood of a a simple harmonic disturbance in one plane. This corresponds source; but it by no means follows that, as a consequence, to a ray of plane-polarized light, but whether the plane of the actual direction of motion is transverse at all points in polarization corresponds to the plane of the magnetic distura wave. In every complicated wave there are points and bance, or to the plane of the electric disturbance, remains often lines along which the transverse component vanishes, to be seen.< and at all these places the small Iongitudinal component Critical Analysis of Marutcll's Processes. may be, and often is, of great relative importance, so that r. Il,fa*tucll conceived the vibrations to be entirely iir the actual motion is largely in the direction of wave-propagation at tbese places.c \cf. Fitzgcrald's Scientific Writings, the wave-front, normal to the axis of z, and thus wholly dependent oi * and 1, This is a pure assumption, in accor- r 9 o z , p . 4 r 8 . ) dance with the orthodox theory, but indefensible, as is more ?. The principle of the dependence of the longitudinal component in light on the ratio of the amplitude to the fully shown hereafter.

>The first and second of these equations are the equations of propagation of a plane wave, and their solution is of the well known form

z. It appears that Marutcll did not regard the.electric or magnetic vibrations as having any kind of vortical rotation as the wave form moves on, because he expressly states, near the close of section 791, that )this corresponds to a ray of plane-polarized light,< which in the orthodox classical theory of .Fresnelis conceived to be direct linear vibrations, at right angles to the direction of the ray, as shown in Maxuell's figure. 3, After much investigation, rve have reached the cotrclusion that strch suppositions are pure hypotheses, not justified by anything in .nature. For we cannot hold the aether to be a superfine gas, the aetherons having alt the degrees of freedom appropriate to Poisson'sequation : Az@fAtz a2(A2@f?r2-+lzqf7tz-+02Af?2,) (rS)

.p : fi(z- Vt)-r1r\-r W) G:AQ-rtt)-+fnQ-+vt).

.397

5085

398

wave lenght, Z: Al),.p, rvill enable us on the one hand to reconcile the views of Poisson, on wave propagation, with those of Frcsnel and Cauchl; and on the other hand to correct a fundamental defect in the wave-theory of light, rvhich.has stood for nearly a century. 8. Thus it will be seen that Maxucll,s figure above given has handed down the defect of lack of rotation of the rvave elements, whatever be the amplitude, and therefore does not represent nature. No wonder that Lord Kcluin and others have failed to understand the electronragnetictheory. As given by Matuell it is contrary to the profound and conscientious researches of Poisson, rvhich were criticaily examined by Laplace and Fourier, and not at all authorized by the researches of Cauclty. \lith Poinca,"/, therefore, we disrniss Maruell's electromagnetic theory as ,provisoire', not deduced from the laws o[ nature, but from certain arbitrary a s s u m p t i o n s ,a n d t h e r e f o r e l u n d a m e n t a l l y d e f e c t i v e . . 3 . T h e C a u c h l - F r e s n rT h e o r l ' l of rvholly TransI'erse Vibiations d1'nslnically Inadmissible for a GaseousMedium of High Elasticity and practically Incompressible, whether Isotropic or Aeolotropic. In his celebrated article on the \t[ave-1'heory, Ii,ncy. clopedia Britannica, gth ed., the late Lord, Ila1,ltigh ofren points out the rveakness of the wave-theoiy of lieht, and shows that although we may adopt it as a working hypothesis, we are not to trust the theory as a representation of nature. Thus on pp. 422-445-446, he points out Grcen's assumption that the longitudinal component has infinite velocity, in order to get rid of this diffrculty; but it is evident that Lord Rayleig/t regarded this procedure as a somervhat violent hypothesis, scarcely justified by any kno$'n phenonrenon. Ilal,lc;f7t t^r", >The idea of transverse vibrations was admitted with reltrctance, even by Young aid Frcsnel thenrselves. A perfect fluid, such as the ethereal medium was then supposed to be, is essentially incapable of transverse vibrations, Ilut there seems to be no reason a priori for prcferring one kind of vibration to another; and the phenornena fpolarization prove o conclusively that, if luminous vibrations are arralogousto those of a material mediunr, it is to solids, and not to fluids, that n'e must look. An isotropic solid is capable of propagating trvo distinct kinds of waves, - the first dependent-upon rigidity, or the force by rvhich shear is resisted, and the second analogous to rvaves of sound and dependent upon compressibility. In the former the vitrrations are transverse to the direction of propagation, that is, they may take place in any direction parallel to the rvave front, and they are thus suitable representatives of the vibrations of light. In this theory the luminiferous ether is distinctly assimilated to an elastic solid, and the velocity of light depends upon the rigidity and density assigned to the medium.< >The possibility of longitudinal waves, in which the displacement is perpendicular to the rvave-front,is an objection to the elastic-solid theory of light, for there is nothing known in optics corresponding thereto. If, however, rve suppose with Green that the mediurn is incompressible, the velocity of.longitudinal waves beconres infinite, and the obiection is in great degree obviated.<

' On page 4zz. Ral,leiglt had already indicated the limitations of the elastic-solid theory: r.For these and other reasons,especially the awkrvardness with which it iends itself to the explanation of dispersion, the elastic-solid theory, valuable as a piece of purely dynamical reasoning, and probably not without mathematical analogy to the truth, can in optics be regarded only as an illustration. << In order to set forth this difficulty somewhat more clearly we shall outline the mathernatical theory oIplane waves in hornogeneous elastic solids. The new theory of magnetism, in relation to light, recently developed, requires for comparison a definite outline of the theory of plane waves i n a h o m o g e n e o u se l a s t i c s o l i d . I t i s o n l y i n t h i s w a y t h a t we can decide whether the waves fronr a magnet are sirnilar to those of a solid, or are of a somewhat different nature. 'l'he followins very brief outline is founded on Lord Keluin's article Elasticity, Ency. Brit. gth ed., p. 824-5; but is in accord with tbe researches of Caur/t1,, Rankine, Grcen, lord Rat,leig/t, Loue, and niany other eminent authorities. (i) Definitions. Let the rectangular axes OX, Oy, OZ be so oriented that OX is perpendicularto the wave front, and QY, OZ in the plane of the rvave front. 'fhen if rr, P , y b e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t so f a p a r t i c l e o f t h e s o l i d , w h o s e u n d i s t t r r b e dc o o r d i n a t e s a r e ( r , 1 ' , z ) w e h a v e f o r a n y t i m e the disturbed coordinates ** a, 1* p , z-l-f . Accordingly the displacernentsr, B, y are functions o[c and /, and this . is the definition ol' rvave nrotion. 'l'here is therefore a sirnple longitudinal strain I in the direction of OX, arrC two diff:rential slips, 7 parallel to O Y, and ( parallel ro OZ, u'hich are sirnple distortions, in the shear of planes of the rnaterial one over the other. 'fhe valucs are ( : d.'/d" 1 1112'dfrldr (ro) I : 1/ 2'dyldr. (ii) Calculation of the rvork done td produce strain. lf II/ denote the rvork per . unit volurne required to produce this strain, the stressrluadric becomes:

W - r f r ( a [ 2 + . n r , e - r C ( ] - r z D q e - +z E ( { - r z F E t i ( r r ) which is an ellipsoidal surface,A, B, C, D, E, I being modulusesof elasticity of the solid. lf !, ,1, r' be the three componentsof the traction per unit area o[ the rvave front, we shall have the linear e q u a t i b n s o n n e c t i n gt h e s t r a i n a n d s l i p s r v i t h t h e r n o d u c l u s e so f e l a s t i c i t y :

y' : A {-rFq-+Ei { l / ' 1 , : F { t - B , t - rD ( 71/tfr: El-+-Dq-rCE.

( "r )

Now let it be further assumed 7, ( fulfill linear relations, I, 'three r v i t h t h e n r o d u l u s eo f e l a s t i c i t y n t h e s i directions: 1l[f - A[-+Frt-a-Ei 1l[q : FEl-B 't+De Qs) ' ' lf E : E{-tD ?1-rCE The resultingdeterminantal cubic givesthree real positive values for M, rvhicb definethe ways in which the solid' nray be strained. If we substituteany one of these values

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i n ( 2 3 ) , w e m a y d e r i v et h e r a t i o s f : 7 : ( ; and the components of the traction yield (r+) M.dyld*. M'df ld* /: M'daldx {: !: The three componentsof the whole force due to the dz parallelopiped d.2 d* tractionsof the sidesof an infinitesimal of the solid obviously are: dpldr.6rdydz dqldr.drdydz drfdx'6rdydz. ("s) Now these component forces are in equilibrium with the mass I in the same element of space; and hence we have the resulting equations:

r. A compressional wave, like that of sound in air, or other elastic fluid, with the motion normal to the wave front. This corresponds to the conclusion reached by Poisson in'his celebrated memoir of r83o, and holds for any elastic medium. z. A transverse wAve, with the motion parallel to the wave front, This wave depends on the assumed properties of an elastic solid, which resists shearing motion, as when one layer slides over another, (v) fne simplest case o[ waves in an inconrpressible solid, aeolotropic or isotropic. When the solid is incompressible Grccn has shorvn from equation (zr) above, that the nrodulus of elasticity and hence the displacement along the *-axis la.4 * o; o' Therefore (zr) becomessimpiy o, 5 : nishes, or d:

dtz.qdr b 6z : dzaf dt}.qdr 6y6z : d2Pf dzyf dtz.q6* 6y dz :

d?ldt.dx 6y 6z dqldr.6ri6y6z drldx'61 6y 6z.

("6)

(iii) Equations of motion for wavesin an elasticsolid. /,,\ B t l z - +C ( 2 + - z D q ' . E . W: Without regard to the spaceof the element, therefore, the equationsof motion are: And the*first of (23) vanishes,leaving merely: : dqf dr : q' d2 ldtz dpf acc g . d2afdt2 (::) B ME DI-+.Cl: B4-rDl - M4 Qt) drfdr: q'dzyldtz. T h i s r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e o s c i l l a t i o n st o t h e p l a n e o f 1 ( , Substitutingthe values of E, I, ( from (zo), in (23) gives a determinantal quadratic instead of cubic, yielding tu'o and integrating in respectto .r, we get wave velocities and two wave modes. The velocity along

'

Aa-+-(,FP-rEy)y'2 Ma Fa-r(np-rD7')y'2 - MBy'z Ea-r(OP-+C)r'2 : MlVz.

(rs)
be called the ratios b y b y , c 1, subject to

the axis of r'.is thereby taken to be infinite and a disappears; leaving the two velocities:

t/2: r'(Mld

rtr: r'(M,lq).

(s+)

The three roots of his determinantal cubic may Mr, Mz, Ms; and the corresponding values of flo, flo, determined by (28), may be denoted b, , c2, b", tt , . Accordingly the complete solution of (27), (28), becomes of the form: 0t : &t*a2*ag F: T: btal*b2a2*bsas 4ar-+-cza2-lcsas

as in (3r), and rtt2 Anci in the case of isotropy, I/z:11, and Ms are principal moduluses, each equal to the modulus of rigidity. is a mixed modulus As Lord tYcluin points out, I\ of compressibility and rigidity - not a principal modulus generally, because the distortions by differential rnotions of planes of particles parallel to the wave front give rise to tangential stressesorthogonal to them, which do not influence the wave motion, (vi) Conclusion applicable to the elastic medium of the aether gas. This outline of the theory of plane waves in homogeneous elastic solids enables us to form a fair idea of the possible types of motions of waves in the aether' When the motion of the aether wave is not through ponderable bodies, it is free of most restrictions, and follows rectilineBr paths: if through ponderable masses, the action always follorvs -Fcrnat's minimum path, defined by lfant'iltoz's stationary

ar : .frlr-rtl(Mld)+4lr-tr'(Mrld) a2 : f2fr -r t r' (Ir, I d) -r Fr[* - t r/ (M I e)] us : /sl*-+ tr'(Mld)-r Frfr- trt('tr'ldl .

( z at o)

\-

(iv) lltrree different wave velocities inferred. In the above equations /1,1ft,-fs, 4, Fz, Fs are arbitrary functions. Owing to the forrn of these expressions it is therefbre inferred that there are three different wave v e l o c i t i e s ,n a m e l y :

v, :

t/(Mrld

t/r:

rt(Mld

r" : r'(Mule) (so)

" os c o n d l t l o n , o Jr , :

o.

by and three different kinds of waves,determined (28), and depending on the aeolotropiccharacterof the solid. The waves are thereforevery complex, but are much simplified in an isotropic medium. Simple case of waves in an isotropic solid' of Let the solid be isotropic,and then the moduluses elasticitv reduce to the Form: p-fi:f:e B:C ( s) ' Ms -- B' M2: M1 : ,4 Accordingly, the above three differentkinds of waves three different velocitiesnow reduceto just two: Com' with pressionalor Longitudinal.

Accordingly we learn from tbe above analysis that most any kind of motion may be transmitted by the waves of an elastic soiid: and the question to be discussed is therefore not the type of waves which may be transmitted, but rather the type of waves which actually exist in nature, and have therefore to be transmitted by the aetherial mediurn. This is mainly an observational question, and the observations should therefore be extended to the phenomena of magnetism and gravitation as well as to those of light and heat. r. Since the aether'is a gas, and'therefore conrpressible, by extremely po#erful quick-acting forces, it follows from the kinetic theory, that even if the propagation of waves

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Scientific Writings of Filzgcrald, p. 4r8), and by Professor Chas. S. Ilaslings, Encyclopedia Americana, r go4, article Light,, quoted in section I above, rvhere it is pointed out that the conviction has grown that the wave-theory is in some way wrong. 9. It is obviotrs that waves of the types imagined by Cauc/ty and "Frcsnel could. be transmitted by the perfectly elastic aether if they existed - as is correctly heldby Ifcrschcl but the question of fact remains: Do they in z. For such an afbitrary restriction would give the and Airy aether gas anisotropic properties, - symmetrical as respects g e n e r a l e x i s t i 'I'his ro. important question must be answered in the the ry-plane, but unsymmetrical in respect to the z-axis, 'is along which the light propagated, for no assignable negative. For in magnetism we recognize, from -Faradalt's physical reason, except that the light is propagated along rotation of a beam of polarized light, r845, the rotations of the elements of the aether, the atoms having their equators the z-axis. lying in parallel planes. In common luminous bodies, on the 3. And this unsymmetrical anisotropy would change other hand, no such parallelism in the atomic planes can be its direction in space with the change in the direction of the ray of light, or the mere rotation of the axis about a s s u m e d :i n d e e d t h i s p a r a l l e l i s m m u s t b e e m p h a t i c a l l yd e n i e d . r r. And as 1ve cannot have luminous bodies, with the the origin o[ coordinates; and hence we see that the hypo'doctrine atomic planes all parallel, as in magnetism; so also we can thesis is physically inadmissible. Such a physical that the property of the aether changes with the direction not imagine these atoms so tilted as to send rays to us only of the ray can no more hold a place in natural philosophy from their cornbined poles, Hence the wave-theory of light than can an established reductio ad absurdum in geometry. as herefofore taught is physically inadmissible. . 12. We must hold that the waves of light in general 4. If we view the aether in free space, as homogeneous and isotropic, except as rendered heterogeneousand are flat in the planes of the equators of the atoms, and these planes tilted at all possible angles, as explained below aeolotropic at great distances, as of the celestial bodies, as shown in the first paper on the New Theory of the Aether, in Section ^r[. If the axis of z be in the plane of the equator AN 5o44, we cannot admit that its vibratory nrotion o f t h e v i b r a t i n g a t o m , t h e o s c i l l a t i o n w i l l b e o f t h e p l a n e is different in different directions, and changing with the w a v e t y p e c o m m o n l y s h o w n . I f t h e a x i s o f z l i e s i n t h e northern hemisphere of the atom, the approaching waves, as direction in which the light is allowed to travel. we look at them, will seem to rotate left handed, in the form 5. Therefore if we admit a series of transverse displacements of the aether particles for making waves of the o f a l e f t h a n d e d h e l i x . I f t h e z - a x i s l i e s i n t h e s o u t h e r n type imagined by -Fresnel, Cauc/t1,, Sir John lferschcl, Air'1t, hemisphere of the atom, the waves received will seem to rotate right handed, like the coils of a right handed helix. I{cluin and Marucll, rve must admit also corresponding longitudinal displacements of the aether in the direction o[ wave propagation thus giving rise to rotations about nrean positions, or true waves of the type imagined by Poisson. 6. Instead of the special polarized waves imagined by Marutell of the type described in section 2 above, and implying merely a rectilinear side oscillation of the particles, like that of a stretched cord, we should therefore imagine waves of the Poissontype, referable to sinrple harmonic nrotion as illustrated by the modified figure of Airy for lthe surface of still water. 'Ihe geometrical conditions are fixed by the equations: u-acos(zntlr-rp) | t\,./ r,\, I Reasons why the Vibrations 4.Geometrical of Ordinary Light are mainly'fransverse. If we contemplate the hemisphere presented to our view by a luminous spherical source of light, such as the sun, it is evident that the waves propagated towards the observer will cover a surface of area
.tl : 2g 72

by means of vibrations wholly transverse to the direction of a ray of light be a geonretrical possibility, and Cauthl, shorved, and, Airy and lferschcl con6rmed by independent researches, it is physically inadmissible to assume transverse displacenrents, and deny corresponding longitudinal displacements, such as was implied in the theory o{ Poisson, t83o, and suggested by .Fitzgcrald's paper on the Longitudinal Component in Light, r896.

(ro) (rz)

And in orthogonal projection this area will be reduced by one half, and become merely the area of a single great circle o[ the sphere ,{t:7g72,

The sphere surface seen by us in projection is enormously fore-shortened and contracted in area at tho border, while at the centre no decrease in apparent area takes place. a: ccosl2n llT-1-ll I[ therefore the atoms emit waves which are flat in the 7. It is therefore evident that in adopting Cagchy's planes of their equators, and a haphazard arrangement of ideas of vibrations similar to that of a stretchedcord,I{cr- the atomic planes holds true, as should occur in a nonschelwas misled, and he in turn misled Airy and others magnetic sphere, it follows that the beam of light emitted substituting mere geometrical a abstraction, and practicallya by the sun should have its vibrations so largely peripheral physicalimpossibility, the valid physicaltheory of Poisson, that, with AfL very small, it rvill present practically the for which makes the vibrations of the aether similar to those appearance of transverse vibrations, - as long taught in the of sound, bt Al)' very small. wave-theory of light. 8. The result has been a traditional falseteaching in In order to examine into this subject somewhat more the wave-theoryo[ light, as hinted at by -Fitzgcraldin the critically we may proceed as follows. Let Fig. 3, Plate 7, memoir rOn the Longitudinal Componentof Light,< (The represent an orthogonal projection of the sun's hemisphere,

u: bcys,(zn *:,!_'ir;,,:I;y :l;.:' (ss) :1":r,i

27

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with the centre at O, and the coordinate axes OX and OY as shown in the diagram. Then, if we subdivide the quadrant of the circle into zo parts, corresponding at the centre to an angular distance of 4?5 between the small circles about that point O as a pole, we may plat a curve aiong the radius OX which will represent a section of the visible surface of the hemisphere, as if the area were not decreased by the orthogonal projection. The equal distances along the radius OX will represent equal values of the sine of the polar distance, 0, or equal values of the cosine of the latitude reckoned from the base of the hemisphere here represented by the lower circle. The curve may be drawn from a table of natural sines or cosines by taking y proportional to this function, so that the change will make a curve of the kind indicated in the Fig. 3, Plate 7, which is repeated on both sides of O, in order to show to the eye the enormous condensation of surface near the circumference of the projected henrisphere. In fact the double curve on both sides of O is a semicircle, drawn about Y as a centre, and thus exceedingly simple. 'fhe coordinates of the curve, to four places of d.eciurals, and the surface integral I for the cornponent of Poisson's radial wave motion in Iine of sight, equation (38), are:

Angle 8;
oo

Xi :5inpi o,oooo o.o785 o.r564 o'2334 o . 3o 9 o o4826 o.4540 o . 5 22 4 o.5878 o.6494 o . 70 7 | o . 76 o 3 o.8ogo o.8526 o.89r o o . 9z 3 8 o . 9 5r r o . g 72 3 o . 9 8 77 o . 9 96 9 r.oooo

Yt r --cosdi
o.oooo o.oo3I o.or23 o , o 2 77 o . o 48 9 o , o 76 z o .r 0 9 o o.r474 o.r9ro o.2397 o.2929 o . 35 o 6 o . 4 r 22 o . 4 77 6 o . 54 6 o o . 61 74 o . 6 gr o o . 76 6 6 o . 8 4 36 o.92r5 r.oooo o.oo3o8 o . o o 9r 5 o . o r5 o 2 2 o . o 2o . 5 o.o255r o.oz985 o'o3342 o . o 36 3 4 o . o 3 8r 4 o . o 3 gr 6 o . o 39 o 6 o . o 3 8 z4 o . o 3 6 z5 o . o 1 35 o , o,oz978 o.oz76r o.o2o5o o.or5oI o , o o 9I 4 o . o o 3r o o.5o238

4.5 9.o
r 3.5 r 8.o 22,5 27.o 3r.5 36 ' o 40.5 45.o 49.5 5+ . o 58 . 5 63'o
7 2,o

67.s

76 . 5 8r.o 8c.(
90.o

t : 2 0

i :

.a t :
I*: :

rsl

7:

(sin0r- sin0;-1) sin1/:(dr-r8r-r) f^ rf $ tt :

6.orttrn , l n o ,n e a r l y .

Al),.I^ .

(ss)

From these considerations it is evident that if we imagine the atoms in the sphere to have their equatorial planes directed radially, rvhich will be the average position in a large nrass, under haphazard atomic arrangement, the effect will be to give us an enormous preponderance of transverse vibrations near the periphery of our Iuminous

globe, or in a ray of ordinary light from a globe like the sun or a star. This reasoning applies to any luminous body or flame, such as that from a Bunsen-burner in our laboratories, rvhich have haphazard arrangement of the atomic planes, all atoms vibrating so rapidly that from any single atom several hundred waves o[ the same type will reach the eye of the observer before the translatory motions of the luminous atonrs will produce appreciable change. In his Undulatory Theory of Optics, r866, pp. r 55-r 56, Airyt says: r>Common light consists of successive series of elliptical vibrations (including in this term plane and circular vibrations), all the vibrations of each series being similar to each other, but the vibrations of on'e series having no rela' tion to those of another. The nurnber of vibrations in each series must amount to at least several hundreds; but the series rnust be so short that several hundred series enter the eye in every second of time.< 'Ihis criterion of Air1, obviously is fulfilled by the light from any luminorts source, since even in a very stnall mass the atonrs are nunrbered by the trillion, and no change in their average orientation occurs with the lapse of time, though in their a l individual atoms. e q u a t o r i mutual interactions will slowly shift planes to new positions, as the their individual millions of rnillions of vibrations are emitted. The centre of the yellow light of the spectrum has a f r e q u e n c yo f 5 r 7 5 o o o o o o o o o o o v i b r a t i o n s p e r s e c o n d ; a n d thus with such an enormous flow o[ waves, they nright be subdivided into ten thousand nrillion successiveseries and still leave a flood of 5r75o groups o[ waves beatin! upon the eye in a second. Accordingly, Airyt's criterion is per' fectly consistent with the rnotions of the individual atoms, in mutual collisions at the rate of say roooooooooo per second (cf. AN 5044, p.66), which is about the average for terrestrial gases under laboratory conditions. Returning now to our figure for illustrating the enor' . mous preponderance of transverse rays in a beam of ordinary light, we easily find by calcuiation that 6z percent of the light conres fronl the zone 0=: goo to 0 5Io45'z7', near the periphery of the orthogonally projected sphere surface' We may even extend this zone inward f6 B : 44" 25' 30' and still not approach the centre of the circle more than o.3o of the radius; yet this outer zone to 8'includes 7r.4 percent of the luminous sphbre surface. Thus we see frotn the corresponding small circles drawn in the figure about the pole O, why in ordinary light it may be described as practically transverse - since a great preponderance of the light from the atoms acts as if the vibratory motion were in the plane of the wave surface. lThe great hollowing out of the curve of ligbt near the centre of the figure, from which alone indications of a longitudinal component could be expected to come, and the shows why there is such a feetlle smallness of the factor l/i, indication of this longitudinal component in ottr actual experiments. It is not surprising therefore that in his Undulatory l'heory of Optics, 1866, p. 9r, Sir GeorgeAirl' says: >The reader who has possessedhimself fully of this hypothesis, rvill see at once the connection between all the experiments given above.(

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the very conclusion announced by Airy, in the above passage, that there is not the smallest trace of visible fringes of interference due to the longitudinal component, rvhich of course hns to come from the light near the centre of the canopy, Ait'1, personally repeated the experiments which he described and reduced to mathematical expression: so that his conblusions ha'r'e been rvidely accepted by naturai philosophers. It is by virtue of Ai4,'s ,ur"lrrl experimentation and analysis of the wave-theory of light, following the independent and profound analysis of Sir John Eerschel, in the great treatise on Light, Encycl. Metropol., r 84g, that we adopt Air1"s presentation of tbe Subject as authoritative. Our conclusions therefore are as follorvs: r. About Zr.4 percent of the sphere surface is included within the elevation of 45o34'3o, lrom the base of 'fhis the hemisphere. part of the sphere is a zone so near t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e a s t o a p p e a r t o t h e o b s e r v e rt o b e e s s e n tially peripheral. Hence the origin of the belief, in view of t h e s m a l l n e s so f t h e r a t i o A f ) , , t h a t t h e v i b r a t i o n sa r e a c t u a l l y t r a n s v e r s e ,a n d t h e i n t e g r a l f o r t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l c o m p o n e n t insensible to the experimenter. z. I.ight vibrations conring from this periphery would a p p e a r e s s e n t i a l l ya s t r a n s v e r s e \ . a v e s ;a n d b y p r o p e r o p t i c a l \ a p p l i a n c e sc o u l d b e p o l a r i z e d i n t o r i g h t h a n d e d , l e f t h a n d e d , circularly polarized or elliptically polarized light, as seenin that transmitted through crystals. 3 . A s o n l y 2 8 . 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e s p h e r e s u r f a c er e m a i n s in the larger zone, near the pole, and a considerable part of the vibrations on that polar surface could be resolved likewise into circularly or elliptically polarized light, we see that in ordinary light, tbe average vibration is described as made up of elliptical vibrations (Airy, I)ndulatory Theory z: !1'dr (ss) of Optics, r866, p. r 56). ' 4. In discussing experiments Ieading tp to Iloyd's 'lo derive a corresponding expressionfor the Poissonwaves observations on conical refraction, Airy notes, in regard to emitted radially from the sphere surface,we put p o l a r i z a t i o n o f l i g h t , t h a t >i f c o m m o n l i g h t b e i n c i d e n t , *-sin0 y-r-coS0 ( + o ) (which not improbably consists of successiveseries of waves dr:cosdd0. And we integrate for I betweenthe limits o and,7f2n, polarized in every conceivable plane) rays will be formed and, for the surface generatedby revolving the axis of .r, directed to every point of the [Newton's]ring, each ray having we use ar betweenthe limits o and zn. Thus we have as the polarization proper to its point of the ring; and a conical sheet of light will be formed within the crystal< (Undulathe surfaceintegral of the hemisphere lf"tr ztc tory Theory of Optics, p. ro6). Again, summarizing the . - c o s a ) c o s 0d d d a - z n . L' : ( + ' ) description of nordinary polarization, Airy d,raws three con: J(' tf fronr common light we produce, by any clusions: (r) known contrivance, light that is polarized in one plane,. To 6nd the light .in a beanr we calculate the reduction there is always produced at the same time light more or of area by orthogonal projection. less polarized in the plane perpendicular to the former> If now we integrate for the light distributed over a (p.ss)' more limited surface S : .f(0, ar), we shall find the value 5. On this first conclusion Airy comments as follows: of the integral so trifling, that till Q o . T , >The 44a25'3o', r: first leads at once to the presumption that polarization only 28.6 percent of the light will be included in the cenis not a modification or change of common light, but a tral canopy. I\1loreover the average factor for the part of resolution of it into two parts equaily related to planes at the Poisson radial wave motion in the line of sight is only right angles to each other; and that the exbibition of a bean.r l/re, and the ratio Af )": ro-5, makingl) of polarized light requiresthe action of some peculiar forces : Al)..p: ( q r ) (either those employed in producing zl rl\.ro'i) . ordinary reflection ancl Accordingly one rvould expect experinrenters to reach refraction or those which produce crystalline double refrac. 4 .: t) The c a l c u l a t i o n s m a < l e S e p t . r z , r 9 2 0 , a s g i v e n i n t h e n o t e t o s e c t i o n8 , b e l o u ' , m a k e . . , / / t r : r : r 6 6 o 5 o 8 o o o , r v h i c h s , o u l d m a k e t : ( 6 6 4 z o . l o ' i ) - - u v a l u e h o p e l e s s l yb e y o n d t h e r a n g e o f o b s e r v a t i o n . - N o t e a d d e d , S e p t . r 2 , r g 2 o .
oz*'

>For the general explanation of these experiments, and for the accurate investigation of most of the phenomena to be hereafter described, it is indifferent whether we suppose t h e v i b r a t i o n s c o n s t i t u t i n gp o l a r i z e d l i g h t t o t a k e p l a c e p a r a l l e l to the plane of polarization, or perpendicular to it. T'here are reasons, however, connected with the most profound investigations into the nature of crystalline separation and into the nature of reflection fronr glass, etc., and confirming each other in a remarkable degree, that incline us to choose the Iatter: and thus:< rWhen we say that light is polarizeclin a particular plane, we mean that the vibration of every"particle is. perpendicular to that plane.< >Thus, in the undulation constituting the ordinary ray o[ Iceland spar, the vibration of every particle is perpendicrrlar to the principal plane of the crystal: in that constituting the extraordinaryray, the vibration of every particle is parallel to the principal plane. When light falls upon unsilvered glass at the polarizing angle, the reflected wave is forn.red entirely by vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence: the transmittedu'ave is formed by some'vibrations perpendicular to the plane of incidence, with an excess of vibrations parallel to the plane of incidence.< rThe reader will perceive that it is absolutely necessary to suppose,either that there are no vibrations in, the direction of the wave's motion, or that they make no impression on the eye, tr'or if there were such, there ought in the experiment of (98) to be visible fringes of interferences: of such however there is not the smallest trace.( If we examine the figure, we find from the integral in the plane ty, that the total light emitted is given by the expression n

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tion) which will enable the eye to perceive one of these point of the ring, each ray having the polarization proper parts without rnixture of the other. This presumption is to its point of the ring.< strongly supported by the phenomena of partially polarized 7. To view this reasoning graphically, imagine a series light. If light falls upon a plate of glass inclined to the of planes drawn through the centre of the sphere and fixecl ray, the transmitted light, as we have seen, is partially poat equal intervals normal to a nreridian of the circuntference larized. If now a second plate of glass be placed in the having its pole in the observer's eye. Then irnagine the path of the transmitted light, inclined at the same angle as whole set of fixed planes rotated about the pole through the fonirer plate, but with its plane of reflection at right the observer's eye, and stopped at successive intervals of angles to that of the former plate, the light which emerges the circumference equal io those between the fixed planes. from it has lost every trace of polarization; whether it be The equatorial portions of the hemisphere wili thereby be examined only with the analyzing plate .B, or by the interdivided into rectangular conrpartments with areas equal to position of a plate of crystal in the rnanner to be explained 12 cos)"dl, dra, lvere {d is the angle about the pole, and I is 'fhis hereafter (r45). seems explicable only on the suppo'fo the latitude. get coml)artnrerrts of erlual areas in higher sition that the eflect of the first plate of glass was to latitudes, the revolving systeln rnust stop at intervals etlual dirninish that part of the light which has respect to one to da;/cos/,:(znfn\sec),. From these considerationswe plane (without totally rernoving it), and that the effect of perceive that in higher latitudes the number of rectangular the second plate is to dirninish in the same proportion that compartments decreases rapidly; and if the number of flat part cif the light which has respect to the other plane; and wavelets of Iight are proportional to the rectangular areas therefore that, after enlergence from the second plate, the on the sphere, the wave disturbance in light rvill be almost two portions of light have the same proportion as before. wholly peripheral, or transverse. On considering this presumption in conjunction with the 8. Small as is the amount of light depending on the second and third conclusion, we easily arrive at this simple vibrations in or near the line of vision, our sphere shows hypothesisexplaining the wholec: r C o m m o n l i g h t c o n s i s t s o f u n d u l a t i o n s i n w h i c h t h e that the central great circles distributed in haphazard fashion, vibrations of each particle are in the plane perpendicular do not lie in the line of vision, but pass around it on all to the direction of the rvave's motion. The polarization of sides; and hence we perceive that the disturbance necessalight is the resolrrtion of the vibrations of each particle into lily is rotational in character, aird nearly transl'erse to the two, one parallel to a given plane passin.qthrough the direc- direction of propagation. - tention of the wave's rnotion, and the other perpendicular to 9. Frorn considerations based on polarization, that plane; rvhich (from causes that we shall not allude to ding to shorv that in the ordinary ray of Iceland spar the at present), beconre in certain cases the origin of waves that vibration of every particle is perpendicular to the principal travel in different directions. When we are able to separate plane of the crystal, while in tbat constituting the extraone of these from the other, we. say that the light of each ordinary ray, the vibration of every particle is parallel to is polarized. When the resolved vibration parallel to the the principal plane - the polarized light in both cases being plane is preserved unaltered, and that perpeqdicular to thc already systernatically resolved by the action of the crystal - Airy concludes in article ror of his Undulatory'lheory plane is diminished in a given ratio (or vice versa), and not separated from it, we say that the light is partially pola- of Optics, that there is not the srnallest trace of visible fringes of interferences. r i z e d .q 6. In view of the considerations here deduced by Airy,, lve see why the spherical distribution of waves from atoms in every conceivable plane will give rays directed to every point of the circumt-erenceof the end of a beam of light; just as in Airy's discussion of the polarization in Newton'srings, it is held that the waves )are polarized in every conceivable plane<, and >rays will be forrned directed to every ro. If the considerations on the spherical distribution of the planes of the flat rvavelets above deduced .be valid, Airy's resrlts could be true, and yet give us an inlimited number of component flat rvavelets not originally normal to the direction of the wave propagation, but inclined to it by the angle e , as in the electrodynamic formula of Frans Ncunann, 1845:

,tr:

t t ' ! [ t f , c o s . e d s d s ' : _ x x ' j , f $ l i ( o x / a s ' d x 'tf- r d y l a s . a y ' l a t - r d t l a s . a z ' l a t ) d s d s ' ( + s ) d

cos6 : cosa coscr'-t-cosp cosB't- cosy cosy' s6s(7,7')
(qq)

and yielding the general forrnula lbr electrodynamicaction in universal gravitation, or Anfire's theory of elementary electric currents about the atoms: -tr:"["f"["f"f !t1,ror(t,r)[(t-a'12+-1r-y\2-r(zrr)t)-'tzd.udlds x'dj/dz'. d

(+s)

f'hus the difficulties of reconciling the wave-theory of light with the electrodynamic theory disappear. The resolved waves in polarized light are largely nornral to the direction of propagation, but their original conrponent flat wavelets were not, being in atomic planes inclined at all angles.

F u n d a m e n t a l O b j e c t i o n s t o Fresnel's 5.Other Theory that I-ight lVaves are purely Linear Tran s. verse Motions. (i) Certain circumstances favorable to the old wavetheory of light permitted it to progress but did not establish it on a permanent basis.

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r. In his memoir of r83o Poisson showed that in elastic media waves propagated from a centre are essentially like sound waves, and at great distances the molecules move mainly in the direction of the normal to the wave front. Rut Poissorzdied in 1839, I'hile Cauchy lived on till 1857; and moreover the deceptive argument drawn from the vibra' tions of an elastic cord misled l{erschel and Airl, who failed to perceive that the underlying pretnise implies anisotropy in the medium. z, As Poisson never concurred in the theory of vibrations normal to the direction of the ray, Fresnel and Arago sou$ht comfort in the analytical results of Cauchlt, And because such waves are theoretically possible when once they are generated, it rvas inferred that light has such motion as is observed in the vibrating cord. 3. Cauchy'sanalysis seems to have proved that if waves norrral to the direction of propagation be started, they could be propagated by such transverse motion; yet he did not explain how they would arise, or would be started normal to the direction of propagation. Nor did his associatessee the anachronism implied in a medium with anisotropic properties along .r, ),,2, -z being in the direction of the ray, whatever that rnay be. 4. After a visit fr6m Ara.go, 1816, Youn,g began to form a theory of'waves with motions normal to the direction of propagation. They were held to be similar to undulations carried along a stretched cord, as stated in a letter April 29, 'l-his r8r8, (cf. ll/hittaker's History of the Aether, P. rzz). physical analogy which example of the vibrating cord gave a was afterwards adopted by Frcsncl, I{crschcl, Airy and others, but it was really an anachronisnr; for it implied a >stringy<< condition in the aether, in any direction the wave might 'Ihe z-co.mponentof the travel, but not in other directions. o, and vibration along the-ray vanished, which rnade C: y'(821-'rJ2) becomes confined wholly to the therefore s : wave surface. 5. As we have seen above, Green took the velocity of the longitudinal component of the waves to be infinite; which left the finite motion wholly in the wave surface. In the case of a gaseous aether of cotlrse there is no authority for this procedure; and thus it simply begged the question, by offering an arbitrary hypothesis. 6, I{anilton's prediction of conical refraction (conf. l4/hitlaker's History of the Aether, p. l3 r ) only showed Fresnel's ideas of the theory to be correct in general, but rvas not an accurate test in all details. The theory above outlined will explain conical refraction equally well. Accor' dingly in the absence of definite objections, the old wave' theory triumphed by defaulq, at least temporarilyl yet the assumptions rnade to get rid of the longitudinal component never were satisfactory, and could not be justified' because based on an arbitrary hypothesis. 7. The physical inadmissibility of Green's postulate that the longitudinal component has infinite velocity \Grccn's Collected Papers, p. 246) is easily shown by the following considerations: a) tn his work on Sound, Chap. V, Tyndall shows that Tvhen the bow of a violin is given a stroke along the violin

string a shrill sound arises, owing to the rapidity of the wave along the string, - giving high pitch to the sound. Owing to its higher elasticity, waves travel say ten times nrore rapidly along the string than through the air. b) Now it is easy to see that this is analogous to Green's unauthorized procedure, which amounts to assuming a )stringy( condition of the aether in any direction in which light is sent. And the chance that the assumed longitudinal component would not manifest itself in some way is very slight, since the aether, with excessively snrall density, is naturally taken to be a gas, and the'velocity of the aetheron z 1- 4 7 r o o o k m s . 8. Again, in his work on Sound, (p.Z:), Tlndall shows that a sharpness of shock, or rapidity of vibration, is necessary for producing sonorous waves in air. >It is still more necessary in hydrogen, because the greater mobility of this light gas tends to prevent the formation of condensations and rare[actions.<< Therefore the aether should present enormous difficulties in the generation of rvaves therein, and stlch is observed to be a fact. By way of experiment Prof. NiTher alone has generated disturbances in the aetber; and to produce them he had to use dynamite, which gives intense forces quickly exerted. Observation thus verifies the high velocity of the aetheron, and will not permit us to assume different velocities of the aether rvave in different directions' (ii) Purely transverse vibrations in light would imply only transverse undulations in magnetism and electrodynamic action, rvhich is contrary to observation' The theory of transversewaves was first admitted somewhat reluctantly by Young and Frcsnel in the early part of But under the celebrated the rgth century, (I8oz-r829). e*pe?intettt. on diffraction, double refraction, polarization and interference conducted by -Fresnel and Arago, the theory 'fhis apparent experibecame I new means of discovery. mental triumph of the undulatory theory aroused such interest that a long series of brilliant mathematical researcheswere entered upon by the eminent natural philosophers then resi' Nauier, Poisson, Cauchl, and Lanl. dent at Paris It is true that these mathematicians lvere by no means agreed among themselves as to the details, yet their work was mathematically so impressive that it created great interest in other countries, more especially in England, and was adopted by Airy, E[anilton and Ifcrschcl, and sttbsequently by Green, Thonson (Lord Keluin), Stohcs, Maruell, and Ra1'leigh. ln this way the undulatory theory as now taught came into wide use; and yet it was always suspected to be somewhat defective, and we shall now point out some additional reasons why the traditional view can not be valid. r. The theory of purely transverse waves in light is directly inconsistent with the rotations actually known in magnetism, and with the electrodynamic action of a current on a magnetic needle, in such phenomena as Ocrsted's ex' periment of r8r9. z. For if the motion of the aether is linear and transverse in light, it would be logicai to conclude that it must be of the same type in the waves by which electrodynamic action is propagated across space. Indeed, experiment proves

4rr

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that both actions have the same velocity, and take place in the same nredium. And we have no grounds for assuming a difference of wave type. 3. Yet we know by actual observation that in Ocrstcd's experiment of r8r9 the magnetic needle not only is directed in a definite way, depending on the direction of the current, but also attracted to the conductor by the action of electrodynamic waves propagated from the .lvire, as first pointed out by the present writer in rgr4. 4 . N o w t h e e l e c t r o d y n a m i cw a v e s d i s c o v e r e d i n r 9 r 4 can not be wholly trat'rsverse,as held by Fresncl and his followers in the wave-theory of light; for in that case there could be no actual attraction bn the needle. On the contrary, Marucll held (1'reatise on Electricity and N{agnetism, 3d ed., S ZSS) that such transverse waves exert a slight repulsion, and on the preruise employed it is difficult to refute his conclusion. 5. In order to exert the observed attraction, the electrodynamic rvaves must have rotations somervhat like those observed in water waves; and the needle must so orient itself that the elementary Ampdre-currents of electricity about tbe atoms coincide in direction with those in the electrodynamic waves propagated from the wire. 6. The observed attraction of tbe magnetic needle to the wire therefore is inconsistent with Fresncl's doctrine of purely transverse waves, as taught in the theory of light and adopted by Lfarwcll in his electromagnetic theory. Now magnets thernselves have circulation of currents about their atonrs, as first shown by Any'brc's experiments with currents in rSzz; and these .currentsabout the atoms give rise to the rotations about the Faraday-lines of force, thus forming the waves propagated outward from magnets. It is only in this way that we can imagine how magnets presenting unlike poles attract; and, when like poles are presented, iepel, by a mechanisnr at last disclosed to our vision. 7. Therefore the magnetic needle is attracted to a conducting wire by the electrodynamic waves propagated outwardly from it; and magnets' themselves also attract by sending out waves defined by the well known rotations about the Faraday-lines of force. Accordingly it follows that all such waves must necessarily involve rotations in the aether to make up the waves; and the waves incontestably are not wholly transverse, but only transverse in somewhat the same way that water waves are transverse. 8. The "Fresncl theory of purely transverse light waves thus again is definitely disproved, and we may reconcile the varied mathematical researches of Poisson, Cauchy, and LanC, It should be noticed, however, that Cauchy's reasoning had no physical basis, to control the legitimacy of the hypotheses underlying it, except. the artificial analogy with the vibrating cord. Poisson and IanC on the other hand never were fully convinced that the motion in light is rvholly transverse. 'l'he theory outlined in section .r[ above probably had never occurred to them. 9. Accordingly there are real weaknesses in the traditional wave-theory of light; and the difficulties noriced by the earlier inlestigators have never been satisfactorily overcome, l'he objections here pointed out appear to be nerv, and absolutely fatal to the theory of rvholiy transverse waves

as held by Fresnel. He was essentially a specialist in light, rather than a mathematician.and all around natural philosopher, like Poisson, who never did believe that in nature the aetherial vibrations could be as -Frcsuel inragined. T'he temporary scepticism of the illustrious Poisson is norv verified fron a new point of view, after the lapse of nearly a century. ro. It is remarkable that such a palpable perversion as the theory of wholly transverse vibrations gained currency in science through the nrisdirected reasonins of the follorvers of Caudty. 1'hey seenr to have been misled by beautilul general formulae, valid enor.rghas applied to lvave motion in crystalline media, but utterly deceptive as appliecl to the simple case of the aether itself, vierved in free space as a uniform isotropic mediunr, which furnishes the general basis 'I'his for the undulatory theory of light. outconre is the rnore renrarkable and unfortnnate, since Poisson was a greater and more sagacious physical phiiosopher than Cauthl', rvho las chiefly a pure mathematician. (iii) Diffrculties in the wave theory of light as ouilined by Prof. Chas. S. .E[astings. In a letter to the present writer, dated Aug. r 7, 1916, Prof . Easlings speaks as follows: >That light vibrations necessarily are transverse only is proved in many ways - perhaps most obviously by the fact that cornplete polarization is possible.k rIf light waves fall norrnally on a refracting surface, any free element of volume in the first niedium is sustained in permanent transverse vibrations o[ definite period, but if it is attached to an element of the secbnd medium as at the interface, the second nredium having either a greater density or a greater rigidity, it will not (although necessarily retaining the same period) move so far from its position of equilibrium. Just at this region, therefore, so far as the first medium is concerned, we must add a system of waves of opposite phase and of an amplitude easily calculable from the ratio of light velocities in the two media. - this constitutes the reflected light.< >Now consider the refracted light. The element of volume just below the interface has. the sanre period and amplitude as the attached element above; it is therefore a portion of a system of waves propagated in the sanre direction as the incident waves but with a velocity determined very simply by the density and rigidity.< >It is when we consider oblique incidences that we get into difficulties, ]i'esncl assumed that the same condition held in these cases also, but, as you gan readily . see from the diagraru, ) there could exist a stable \ state of vibrations at the Iig. 4. Professor lfastittg's diagrarn the srtrface OnlV when there of pathof light at the interfac"' is a systeni of co'rpressional u'aves also proceeding from the interface in a direction and of .an intensityeasily calculable ii the ratio of loluureelasticity to rigidity is knos'n. Norv no such systern of

i ,

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longitudinal waves exists under any circumstances, because the energy carried by the reflected and relracted wave systems taken together always equals the energy carried to the refracting surface by the incident wave system. (This, by the way, is the direct answer to your principal question. I might stop here but the fixed habit of an old teacher leads me In order to get rid of the obvious difficulty to add: -) .Frtsncl assunled that the volume-elasticity of the ether, both free and associated with matter, is infinitely great, in which case the velocity of the longitudinal wave system would be infinite and it would carry no energy with it. Aside from the fact that absolute incompressibiiity is difficult to conceive there are other serious difficulties in the theory connected rvith the phenomena of double refraction.<

measurements (the first made since Eryghcnsl) but failed in attaining adequate precision. Finally I demonstrated (Amer. Jour. Sci. somewhere) that Eulghens' construction is certainly accurate to r. ro-6.< rMore recently Ikhin, who was especially desirous of getting a defensible elastic-solid theory of light, proposed a zero volume-elasticity, or a collapsible ether. This gives zero velocity for compressional waves and hence no energy is carried away from the interface. Keluin apparently left his readers to imagine an outer boundary condition which would prevent the ether-universe from collapsing.<

6. Outline of the General Theory of the Waves from any Body, whether due to Light, Magnetism, >Stokes is said to have invented an elastic-solid theory, E l e c t r o d y n a m i c A c t i o n o r U n i v e r s a l G r a v i t a t i o n . (i) nesults of Poisson's analysis for wave motion. rvhich, however, carried with it as a necessaryconsequence As we have seen, in the third paper, Poissonreduces the proof that lfq,g/tczs' construction of the extraordinary wave surface in Iceland spar is slightly erroneous, say in the (Memoir of r83o, p. 556) the sextuple integral for the profourth decimal. Fitzgerald attempted to test this by accurate pagation of waves to the double integral:

q :

(r I an)i

o o

ir1,

* * .osd, y * at sin sinar, z-r at sin6cos / sind dddar d or)

n2r. !IrQc-+atcos6, yt-atsindsinrl, z-+-atsindcosar)/sinddldro. (+O)

<-$lan)(a/al)J

increase with at; and the disturbance, in the plane of the Now the equation ( + z ) flat wave, in the equator of the atom,. will travel away with I **n1t*n z: o the velocity at, and remain parallel to the original in all 'represents plane through the origin. And a : o represents parallel planes, Th:us lrl-my-rnz-(at-+-J) (+S) : o lr*my*nz-(al-rs) the disturbance in the equatorial plane of the flat waves from (at-+s) from the any atom, propagated in every direction parallel thereto. representsa plane with perpendicularp: origin. Our integration should include the disturbances along lf plane waves proceed from the equator of an atomi these planes in which the waves are flat. Accordingly, for .the radius of the spherical wave surface about the atom will the waves from any atom we have

A:(rlaflf!nlt(r-ratcosd)-rrn(y-+atsin|sinri)+-n(z-ratsin|cosar)-(a/-r-s)]rsindadar,r
. o o .n 2tt (+S)

,'

(z-+atsind sinr,r)-+-a cosar)-(ar-+-s)] dddco rsind . IO ll(x-ratcosd)-+-m(y+-atsind ornr. for the wavesfrom all the atomsof a body, we shall have And if *" int.gr"tl "*Or..rion ft 2'lE 1E 2ft
! !@l+"1[ !p{t(*-+atcosd)-+nt(y-+atsindsinro)-r-a(z+-atsin0cosa,)-(at-+s)lr2sinddrd6drl.tsin0dSd,a
o o
,' 11 211 E 211

-r$lan)(alarll

"@:"f

o o o

(so)
s i n u ) - + n ( z - + a t s i n c o s o r ) - ( a r - r s ) ] z z s i n d , r d , 6 , o t . t s i n l d , 0 d t.o 0 d

*[

! ttrtA@ld|j.

:nU(r+atcosd)-rnl1,+atsind

employed by ?oissonin his Memoir of r8r9, p. t27. This equation may be simplified somewhatby a transformation In this we put: rta:lsind,cosrrr, (Sr) la-pcos6, ma:?sind,sinar, and then the second terms under the integral signs become of the form t \ c o s 1 ' c o s d - l c o s ( a- r o ' ) s i n i ' s i n d ) : t c o s t l , t r
and therefore
/n2'E IC 2E

dll :

sinddddro

( sr )

a:[[jtqoaISF{tr-+-n1,-rnz'-(at-+s)-rtcostp\12sin6drd0dto'rsinddddr,r
rfi2n fi 2N

(s s).

* Mtr

ld

o o o

6 d t s@ ld 4: I n Q * + , , 1 - r n z - ( a t - * ) +t c o 9 l r ' s i n d r d dd o ' I s i n d dd a . ,
o o

.
I

4r5

50d5

416

(ii) Simplified expressionsfor all the elementsof a sphericalsurfacewith nrotion making any angle with the radius. Accordingly, when we have equationsof the type found in Poisson's (Memoir of r8rg, p. tz7): expression
E 2il

P : we may put and thus obtain: P : g_

: [ /k
o o

rot o * h sinu sinu i-Z sinz cosz) sin u du d,u

(s +) (s ) s (so) (sz)

pcosa' h:?sinu'sinu' k:?sinu'cosu,, n 2,E O F -r J J / | p l.ot "' cosrz cos(z z') sinrz'sin ul\ sinu du du o o

By using the simplifying formulae: j61 : cos tf.r : cosu' cosu*cos(zz')sin u' sinu sinu d,ud,u this reduces to n 2ft P: { {f?cosrlr)dar. rThus this quantity P represents the sum of all the elements of the spherical surface, multiplied each by a given function of the cosine o[ the angle comprised between its radius and a radius determined in position.c A wave flat in the equator of the atom is defined by lr*n1*nz-(at-+s): The coordinates for the spherical' propagation of the wave are ** Ffence n 2E
o o

(sa)

s. z -+-at sind cosa .

(+a)

at cosl

y-+ at sin4 sin ot

(ss)
(0.)

6:$lan)t

! n Q Q - + o t c o s d ) - r n t ( y - + a t s is i e . l ) - r n ( z - r a t s i n d c o s a r ) - ( a r - r s ) ) t s i n d a d a a r nn
fi2'tl

+-(rl47ik,ldrl!

[o

z Q ( * - r a t c o s 0 ) - + n t ( 1 t - r a t s i ns i n r , r ) - i -(z - r a t s i n d c o s . ; , ) - ( a t - + s ) ] r s i n d d d a . d

(ot) ats|n|.sino, a1 5i1( cost.r.. eccordingly ar the tinre / the coordinates of the disturbed moleculeswill be: (l;;) rne equations wavespropagated for spherically I in i,,,1 i n ' e l a s t i cm e d i u m . r-rat cosd y-+atsind sinao z*atsin| cosro (Or) . I Consider a system of waves propagatedspherically, And Poissoz's solution yields the integral over the sphere I from any point, whose coordinatesare x,y, z, t. Then the I surface(at, l, a): with the wave-theory.But before entering I phenomena, summarize hypoth.se,uide.iyi ng Poisson's we the I analysisas briefly as possible. I !-!'.: z-2t : @: (t I an) d, -r ! ! n l"* at cos 7 at sin6 sina, z * atsin/ cosar) t sin| d,6d,a oo nzr + Q I an\ (al dl lx-r at cos|, yt at sind sinar, z * at sindcosa;] t sin0 d0 6o . S[ "

' These solutions are general for wave motion in light, coordinates of the disturbed molecules at any time l, will be I m a g n e t i s mo r s i m i l a r n a t u r a l p h e n o m e m a ; a n d t h u s i t r e m a i n s f o u n d i n a s p h e r e s u r f a c e : ( a t ) z : ( x * * , ) 2 - r ( y - 2 , ) 2 - r ( z - 2 , ) 2 I to examine certain expressions in Gaass' Theory of Terrestrial I - atcosd r-1st : 7969g I Magnetism, to ascertain if these phenomena are consistent I -r;;; -C;;;

r"indsinr'r : rsindcosor -

(O:)

And the equation of wave motion is:

'I i

: Dz(Dl?tz a2(a2@1012-rD2rDf01,z-raz@faz\. (oc)

The fundamentalequations dufdt:a2dsfdr dufdt:a2dsldy dwfdt:a2dsfdz d s / d r : d u f d r - r d u f d 1 , - + a a l a t z ', : i r l o r l a O l i t

(iv) Gauss' theorem that the sum total of positive and negative nragnetic fluid in any magnet is zero confirms the wave-theoly of magnetism. In his Allgemeine Tbeorie des Erdmagnetismus, r838,

lead to the components of the velocity of any molecule

G a u s sh a s s h o w n t h a t t h e s u m t o t a l o f p o s i t i v ea n d ,- ,lO.zr, (65) f l u i d i n t h e e n t i r e e a r t h i s z e r o ,s o t h a t lnegative :

u:dcDld*+-(j
'where

u:dtDldt-+rr

u:drDldz-+W

7, I/, l[/' are arbitrary functions of *, y, z, in accor- where the integral to be extended over the whole magnet, | dance with the conditions laid down by Lagrangc in the and q denotes the distance of the element of magnetic mass I

(66) I

, I rn.

expressionfor the potential, d'e to the magnetic n,ass1a,is

.fon o.

(or)

v:

_frlq.dp

(68)

MCcanique Analytique.

/ ap from the point acted on (x,,!,, z,),

417 we coordinates have: In rectangular : y' l(r - r')' -r(l - /)' -+ (z- z')21 e

ioss
(e s)
r : : *[il.fs;nu aufblq) 12 dr
2 7 l E /

4r8

of the sun on the earth's atoms is equivalentto the action of the earth on the sun's atoms:

and, in the spherical coordinates used by Gauss, -l-r s Q : V' {r2 roz z r rslcosucoszze sinzz inu() cos(L' ),0)]} ( z o) u.and us being polar distances, r and rs being radii of the earth, lo a fixed longitude, and l, a variable longitude, to be used in extending the integration throughout the mass.

(z ) +

*r

{at {'in

o au! @l r2dr q)

(z ) s

'fhus

: dz r : - !,le.d1a - S[ :Gla)dx d1,

: -]'I].Vtq\dr'rdu't'sinud)..

o ( z ' ) J j J t t l e t o d * d y d z i i ' c o s ( i , / ) : o ; J o a l s oi n t h e c a s e f
electrodynamic action depending on all the atoms, it follows
o , PPP. +L^ r n art

And both of these expressions ^re zero, in accordance rvith (07) and (7r); for if in the case of the earth's magnetism involving t/rurntn part of the atoms, f Of : o, which means

Accordingly when we extend Gauss' theorem to the entire terrestrial globe we have the expression for the potential:

r:

, d fi rr o, J d l J s i n z " ) l a l f lr , d r .

211 Ta P , . e .

h ,)

r t./.,t\ : (20) o) J ' a p l e J J J G l d t ; ' c o s ( r , e 'd x d y d z : o restricted the limits specito is if the integration rigorously

i'e), rvhich point (16, ez6, This will give the olr"r,l"t *, "; may be outside the earth, as in the moon or sun. (v) ' Extension of this theorem to the electrodynamic action betrveen two spheres, as the earth and sun. Imagine electric currents to circulate arottnd the atoms of trvo globes: it is requircd to consicler the resulting electrodynamic action. We have the sextuple integral

: o S::: l,f('/e) i i' cos(i,i') dr dy dz d dr' dy' dz'. " The two masses may be called, M and nt, the laiter
the sun.

(zs)
being

fied in (7a) and (75). Now it happens that the actions between trvo globes M and ,il are not restricted to their centres as seen from each other; but the globes subtend measurable angles zr,r, zo', and the atorns are correspondingly dispersed. When the mass is concentrated at the centre, suppose it restricted to a minute rneasurable area of unit size; then the actual expanded lrodicswill be larger than this minrrte area in proportions of z and /' titnes. If the action on unit mass in the minute area be one unit, the action of all the mass in M will'be yo times that powerlul; and that of all the mass Hence the necessity of integration over in nr will be v'd. every area horvever small and horvever nripute the density. (vi) The wave action positive as in the observed case of gravitation. If the concentration of the action of the distant body in the centres M and rz be indicated by integration with rigidly fixed limits, zn in the case of 1,, and z in the case of u, - which restricts the mutual action to a single minute area - we may write two integrals for the whole action: one with no spacial distribution, and the other variable throughout the solid angles zo, za': d*' dv'.dz'

r. The coordinates of the snn (16, oo, )'o) nray be taken as fixed, while the integration is being extended over the earth. z. In the same lvay the coordinates of the earth as seen from the centre of tl're sun may be regarded as fixed while the integration is being extended over the sun's'mass. two masses as respects each other are thtts 3.'fhe reduced to weighted points of rnass .rl1 and n. The action

P :

dz ::::::gls)rlcos(2,z,) odxdy d

(;, sinu drs sin dus ,nl, ,cos ,')orzdr dJ" dud 162 d)'s u(r TI !T! i\'
2 a 2 b ,r 2 ( r , 2 t ) . , . o

: o
(z i)

*:

: S :

-A. S Jt'/e) ii'cos(i,i')or2drdlsinzdudrn2dr6dl'ssinundux

(i) Mechanical analogies are convincing. r. We have found the aether to be enormously elastic, so that when any pencil of the medium is filled with a beam of light, which consists of rvaves tilted at all angles and flowing dn in almost infinitely rapid succession, the pencil may be viewed as maintaining its figure by the elasticity of the medium and the rapid succession of the waves. If the pencil of light strikes a solid or liquid surface, the speed of the wave motion is suddenly checked, and reaction on the equilibrium of the pencil .at the boundary takes place: so that the vibrations in certain directions are altered by the contact with the solid or liquid surface.

The latter expression ,4 is positive, because all the factors depending on the cosine, i i'cos(i,z') are positive - the total angles of integration being in excess o[ a whole or semi'fhis last expression circumference by the amounts 2to, 2tD'. (77) explains why gravitation always appears as a positive force, though the electrodynamic action on a point vanishes, - because also it enrits no waves. Both bocliesfill measurable space, and the angular overlap is ztrt, zrrr' when the action of all the atoms in both bodies is considered. 7.Why Reflected Light is Polarized in a Plane at Right Angles to the Plane of Incidence o [ - F r e s n e l 'V i e w s . s and Reflection: Confirmation

419

5.o85

420

z, To judge by a tangible and familiar experiment, as to what may happen to a pencil of light, we may compare it to the stream of water flowing from the nozzle of a garden hose. The cross-section of the stream of water is assurned to be circular, and rve recognize that the forces which keep it so, are chiefly the forward motion and surlace tension, - the attraction of the water for itself. In the case of the pencil o[ light, the equilibrating forces depend on the elastic power within the aether, and thus are different; but the effect produced is very similar, for any slender cylinder filled with a flow of waves. 3. Now we knorv by daily observation, that when a round strearn of water is thrown by a hose against a solid wall, the cross-section of the stream ceases to be circular, and beconres highly flattened, so that the new cross-section of the stream becomes an ellipse, having its longer axis nornral to the plane of incidence and reflection. The flattening of the reflected stream of rvater is easily seen by the most careless of observers: and thus analogy leads us to expect a sirnilar flattening o[ the vibrations in a beam of reflected light. It is true that the flattened stream o[ water is not vibrating Iike the aether, yet the reflected stream is flattened, and tends to retain that figure, with elliptical cross-section. 4. It has been proved by flash-iight photography that when liquid drops are forming and falling, the detached spherules oscillate about a mean figure, - being alternately prolate, then spherical, and finally oblate. In the case of drops therefore the particles o[ the fluid oscillate about a mean position, under the influence of surlace tension. The figure of the drop is drawn out of shape at the instant of detachment, and in falling the action of surlace tension restores the normal figure, and carries it beyond, so that tl-re globules o:cillate about their rnean forrn, which is sltherical. 5. Norv in the same rvay, when a pencil o[ light is retlected from a solid or liquid surface, the act of reflection brings into play, for an infinitesimal time dd certain forces rvhich tend to flatten the beam, as reflected, in a plane normal to the plane of incidence and reflection. Considerltrg merely the relative motion of the beam in respect to the solid or liriuid, we may regard the circular pencil as struck by the solid or liquid in the act of reflection, Owing to its elasticity, each elernent of the pencil rebounds like a lubber ball f l a t t e n e d .i n t h e p l a n e n o l m a l t o t h a t o f p o l a r i z a t i o n , a s w e see in the actual behavior of rubber balls in collision.' Since each element of the pencil is elastic, there is incessant recovery frorn the flattening effect - so that the per.rcil continues to vibrate, but by relative crowding of the vibrating aetherons it has lost its circularity of cross-section, and become elliptical, owing to the restricted freedon.rimposed in the process of retlection.

pencil of light the aether particles describe ellipses - not straight lines, as often stated, in the theory of polarization. 7, It has been shown by the recent researches of I{eiberg that Arc/titnelas used mechanical means of proving his theorems, at least in the first instance, and then made them rigorous by improving the geometrical denronstration. Accordingly, in dealing rvith polarization, we are justified in adopting similar methods. And the only question is one of devising a valid model rvhich affords a true analogy. To this end we rely upon the evidence of experiments, in phenomena easily understood and admitting of but one interpretation. 8. The rnodel of a reflected stream of water above o u t l i n e d c e r t a i n l y i s u r e c h a n i c a l l yv a l i d . A n d i t m a y b e c o n firmed and extended by considering the instantaneous forced forrn o[ a series of rubber balls, in such close successipn as to be united into a solid tube, like the streanr of u,ater, yet not actually touching prior to reflecLion. At reflection each ball rvould be flattened by the resistance of the reflector, so that the vibrations of the aether in the pencil take the sanre form, as observed in polarized light. g. \Vhen liquid drops are formed, in the breaking of a jet, flash-light photography shorvs them in rapid vibration, owing to surface tension. They form, and vibrate up and down, under gravity; but the rvaves of the aether pencil would vibrnte nornral to the plane of polarization, rvhen they 'l'he are reflected. vibrations in a plane at right angles to the plane of 1)olarization thus necessarily results from the reflection o[ rvaves in an elastic medium. ro. Accordingly, on the basis of actual experience, i n r v e l l d e l l n e d p h e n o r n e n a ,i t i s i r n p o s s i b l e t o i r n a g i n e a n y kind of vilrrations in reflected light other than that at right angles to the plane of polarization. If rve adopted, the Maccullagfi-Neumann theory of vibrations, in the plane of polarization, rve should have to expect mechanically a similar effect when a circular stream of rvater is reflected by a snrooth solid wall. No such effect is observed. And as reflection is etluivalcnt to a blorv against the round movit-rgstream, renewed at every instant, at inlinitesirnal intervals dl, rve see clearly that the distortion of the vibrations should take place, rvith the longer axis of the ncw elliptical nrotion at right angles to the plane of polarization, No other result is rnechanically possible. (ii) Analysis oi light vibrations. Let the three components of the revolving light vector be:

u : u : ra :

a cos(zn tf r -+a) b cos(zn tl.c-r p) ccos\zn llrt-y)

'l'he

r:

(ula)!-+(ult,)2-r(u,fc)r 1, : I (u2-+u2-+uP1.

n\ t76/

lburth of these equations indicates that the path 6 . I n F i g . 6 , P l a t e 8 , w e m a y i r n a g i n e e q u a l a m p l i t u d e s described by the end of the light vector is an eilipse; and of vibration, in all directiens from the centre of the incident the fifth equation gives the displacement relatively to the beaur as shown above; but alier rel]ection the resistance thus equilibrium position of the aether particle at any time. B)' altering the angles through Llzrt-6, we are enabled encountered forces the circle into the ellipse, as shown. 'fhe to use sines in the place of cosines: nlutual crowding towards the centre, owing to restricted freetf r) cosp-rcos(zn tf ,r)sinp dom at the instant of reflection,.forces the pencil as a whole sin(zn tf r -+p):,'la:sin(zn -r t) :, : sin(z n t f r) cosg -+ cos(z n tf r) sin q (l out at the sides, and thus it takes on a very elliptical form sin(z n / f t I l, S) for the cross-section. In spite of a notable flattening of the sin(zn tf r-rr'): u,lc:sin(zn tf r)ci>sr+-cos(zn tf p)sinr .

rrC

42r

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'

422

Tbe quantities u, r), ?t), represent the rectangular coor. dinates of the end of the revolving light vectoi; and the equation for the path, quite indepencJently of the tinre, nray be obtained by eliminating / from equation (79), by the following process. If we multiply the expandecl form of these equations by sin (g-r) , sin(t -p), and sin(p-q) respectively, and add them, the right hand members rvill be found to vanish, and we get:

Except for the phase difference d, these components become identical with those in (ZS), by rotating the coordinate system through 9o", about the a-axis. Accordingly, we have by taking the sums of the components, thus geometrically compounded: 21-+ : A'2 : 21' Az -+ 82 -+ z A B cos(6 -r q - p) (SS) q) zC2(r-f cOSd) By sirnple addition we have from (ae) the followins geometrical composition of the components of the Iight vectors': 4t13'2-lC'2 J': which is equivalent to z7-rzC2cosd- 4ABsindsin(q-p). J' : s-rL)' : ty-ft2, 8,2 : Ct2 : Az-+Bz_zABcos(6s-p_

(uI a) sin(q- r) i- (u t) sin(r-p) +- (a I c) sin(p -,t) I

o . (so)

And we see that this equation is that of an ellipse whose principle axes coincide with the coordinate axes u,hen so that only the first terms of the right mem4-S:1f2rc, ber remain, and the left member is unitv:

o f t h e s ee q u a t i o n s e o b t a i n : w sin(zn tf r)(cos1s - cosrl sinq sinT): fula)sinq- (ulh)sin1t ' cos(z tf r)(co sl sin11 cosqsinp): - (uf a)cosq -+ (u l,)cos ( s ) n I 1t. If we square and add these two expressions, ger we sinz( p - q) - u2 a2 -t-uz bz- z (uI t) cos(p - q) . ( s r ) f f "\fu I

This linear equation connects 1,, n, ,(t, which are the rectangular coordinates of the end of the light vectorl and hence we see ih"t the path described by it lies in a plane passing through the origin. The path of the vibration therefore is a plane curve. To get the path as projectedon the coordinate planes, w e u s e t w o o f t h e e q u a t i o n s z s ) . ' l ' h u s from the first two (

(sq)

(so) But it is found by experiment that rve have sensiblv ,7, or the intensity of the compound ray is equal to 7'the sum of the intensities of the separate rays, and inde_ pendent of the phase difference d. Hence it follows that the second and third terms jn (9o) are so small as to be insensible to observation. Therefore we conclude that within the limits of observation:
Q : 6

r - u 2 f a z + a z1 2 . f (s ) s This represents elliptically polarized light, in which a a n d b may have any ratio.
If we put t,: o, a: b, ?-q: ttlrfr, conditions for circularly polarized light: u: asin(zntfr) u: w e h a v et h e

r,: acos(zntfr) (right handefl) ,^ , - a c o s ( z n t f r ) ( l e f t h a n d e d ). \ d 4 , asin(zntfr) n : . 'lVhen the vibration ellipse reduces to a straight line, or in practice approximatel so, a: y o, ?-Q: o, or ?-q:lt, w e h a v e b y t a k i . n gt h e s q u a r e r o o t o f ( S z ) :

u fa * u fb :

o.

(ss)

Iight, by reflection fronr ( 7 9 ) a n d t r a v e l i n g a l o n g t h e z - a x i s ,a r a y o f e q u a l i n t e n s i t y , particle. If thereforeplane-polarized is but polarized at right angles to it. If the componentsof metallic surfaces, rendereddecidedlymore elliptical in its ligbt this new ray be u', t)', u)', and the phase difference be d; motion, it would seem to follow that in plane-polarized the motion is never strictly rectilinear; on the contrarysuch then we shall have I i g h t a l w a y s h a s i n i t s m o t i o n a s l i g h t e l l i p t i c a le l e m e n t , q.2' - 1l sin(zn.tf : u' : Bsin(zn tlr-rq+d) r-+pt-d) ,^ \ by ( 8 2 ) which permits of notablerestoration, reflectionfrom silver w'Csin(znrfr-rr-+6\ and other high conducting metals.
z8f

When the plane-polarized light is reflected from silver, tbe resulting polarization is almost circular - probably because silver is so perfect a condrlctor of electric or aether We shall now apply this compositiontheorem to po- wave nrotion, that the normal tendency to elliptical motion larized light. It is well known that such light is free from is largely restored. But if the plane-polarizecl light be reinterference,when polarized in planes mutually inclined at flected from galena, a lead ore of lorv electric conductivity, right angles, but alway'sgives an intensity equal to the sum t h e r e s u l t i n g p o l a r i z a t i o n r e m a i n s a l m o s t p l a n e . o f t h e i n t e n s i t i e s f t h e s e p a r a t ea y s . o Now since elliptically polarized liglit never vanishes, r _ (iii) Analysis of the composition of polarized light when examined in a Nicol prism, though at alternate positions it becomes fainter, such elliptical motion in light must comparedwith the eviclence observations. of Let us superpose upon the ray defined by equations be considered the general type of vibration of the aetjrer

In wave motion, the intensity of the action, or the eneigy of the disturbance, is proportional to the square of t[L amplitude. Hence we add, for the geometrical sum, the squares of the component amplitudes A,.B,C, and thus obtain. y : Az-YR2-y Ct' .

is, in polarizedlight the radius vector js sensibly perpendicular to the direction of propagation oI the rar:, and the motion therefore sensibly transverse, Also from equations (Sz) or (S5) it follorvs that the particles vibrate sensibly in a straight line. From this analysis, it follows that rays which have suffered double refraction or reflection at the polarizing angle are plane-polarized, and thus consist of vibrations whlch are sensibly transverse. We use the ternr sensibly transl,erse, instead of absolutely transverse, in order to reconcile other facts of observation with mathenratical theory. It is shotvn by experimental research that when plane polarized light is reflected from metals, the effect ls to convert it into elliptical polarization, - tbe degree of the ellipticity depending on the direction of the iniident rav. and on its plane of polarization, as well as on the natuiJ o f t h e r e f l e c t i n g n r e t a l ( c f. G a n o t ' s p h y s i c s , r 4 t h e d . , r g 9 3 ,

'I'hat

f - q : o .

(s')

S 67r, p. 6S6).

(a o;

+23

5085

+24

It is for these reasons that, in our discussion of the above equations, (82) to (qr), we admit the plane-polarized vibrations to be only sensibly transverse,not rigorously transverse, in rectilinear paths. This conclusion from the combination of experimental r e s e a r c h. w i t h m a t h e m a t i c a l a n a l y s i s f u l l y s u s t a i n s o u r v i e w that there necessarily is a longitudinal component in light. Any other vierv than that here set forth is contradicted by well established facts of observation, which appear to adrnit of but one interpretation.

8. The Undulatory Explanation of the Phenomenon of Interference in Polarized Light confornrs to PoissonTheory of the Elliptical Vibrations 's of the Aether Particlesmainly in the Direction of the Normal to the Wave Surface. (i) Explanation of interference when the particles describe ellipses. We have shown in section I and .z[ above that the traditional theory of the transverse vibrations in light is not strictly rigorous, but requires rational revision, to take account of the geornetrical conditions specified I'ty Pois.eon,and the Now a detailed treatlDent of the leading phenomena related electrodynamic rvavesfrorn each atorn, rvhich underlies of interference is beyond the scope of this paper; yet we the theory of magnetism. Thus it is advisable to reexanrine the bearing of these results on the theory of interference of rnay sketch briefly the wave-theory o[ this subject, in order to show that in spite of the defect above pointed out in the polarizcd light. l. The ordinary explanation of interference handed forrn o[ the l'avc-theory of ligtrt handed down by Young, <iown frorn the days ol Young and Fresul is based upon an F-rcsnl, Ara,go, and Cauch1,,this defect does not invalidate a s s u m e d a n a l o g y w i t h t h e s i d e v i b r a t i o n s o f a n e l a s t i c c o r d . the explanation of interference. 'I'his (i;) t'neory of the light and dark bands. theory allows disturbances given the cord to travel along it, while the particles of the cord have only a transverse An adequatc treatutent of diffraction phenomena would motion. But we have seerr that .this explanation begs the rcquire a mathcmatical discussionof Frcsnels integrals (Drudc's question, in that it practically assumesa >stringy< condition I'heory of Optics, pp. 188-196), rvhich have the fornr: of the aether, whereas Poisson'stheory of elliptical vibrations, U U t I ' l r r . \t with their major axes in the direction o[ the normal to wave I : J P s i n t fl, n u 2 d , u . d (SS) 5 :J cos f 2rru2 u ? surface, gives an almost identical result, without physical premises involving the auisotropy of the medium, or geoTh.re f.lrnctions nray tr. thoug"tlt of as the rectangular metrical postulates of purely lateral motion which cannot be coordinates of a point in the light plane f7. Accordingiy, arhnitted. frorn (93) we have at once: z. Accordingly, the analogy of the waves conveyed dF: dz cosrfrnu2 (q+) dq: drsinrf2nu2 along a twisted cord seemed so plausible to those who did d s - y ' ( a g z - + A 7-: ) d u . (sS) not study tbe problem deeply, that it came into general use, and still hoids its place today. Yet a rnore mischievious And when the spacial length s is rneasured fronr the doctrine seldorn has been introduced into science, because o r i g i n , w e h a v e .u. (SO) s: although plausible, it is dynamically and geometrically unThe functions E, q'ure illustrated by the foilowing fig. 9 sound in principle. (Drudc's Theory of Optics, p. r92), rvhich has been calculaled For rvhy is the aether, in the traditional form of the by the nretlrod originally d,ueto Cornu (Jour. de Phys.,3, r 8 7 4). wave-theory, assumed to be capable of a transverse rxotion Fig'g' of appreciable dimensions, but incapable of an equally large Diagram of the doublespiral longitudinal motion i The chief reason for this hypothesis of Frcsn cl's integrals,for the dif- for it is rnerely a convenient hypothesis - is the problem f r a c t i o no f l i g h t . T h e c u r v ec o i l s about the two asymptotic oints of explaining interference, and polarization. It is knorvn p F and, . where z: -{-o, and F from modern research that diffraction only requires that the e ,: - . T h e m a x i n r aa n d m i length of the waves shall be small compared to the diment n i m a o f i n t e n s i t yl i e a p p r o x i r n a sion of the aperture. tely at the intersections of the line -F.F'rvith the spiral curve. l. Fig. 8, Plate g, shows how a split beam of planeIf the free intensity be r, the polarized light rnay produce interference fringes when they m a x i m aa r e / r : r . 3 4 , / " : t . z o , differ in phase by 1/2,1.. X : r . t 6 ; t h er n i n i r n a / r : 6 . 7 9 , Foi reasons of sinrplicity in construction the oscillations 7r:o.8+, 7s:o.87 ftf . F-resne/ of the particles in the figure are taken to be circular, yet O e v r e s C o m p l d t e s ,l , p . 3 z z ) .

sinrilar reasoning will hold true for elliptical paths of any kind, and hence the results here shown are true for every kind of vibrations in poiarized light. It wiil be noticed that the rays consist of plane waves with amplitude A and, wave length )", and the ratio ell is comparatively small, but here drawn on a scale large enough to enable us to see the rotation of the elements of the wave at every point. The waves are imagined to be flat in the plane of the paper, and hence they have a longitudinal component depending on the amplitude ,4. 4. The adjacent diagram of light.and dark bands shows the interference effects, and is seen to have strips of darkness and of light, rvhere the motions of the split rays are such as to destroy the rotation, or augment it by the superposition of the separate effects. Il, for example, the wave travel along the *.axis, the displacernent o[ the particle parallel to the 7-axis is rl, and { parallel to the r-axis: asin(znxf )'+-a) : 6t - acos(znrf )'+-a\ : (sr) 6, { s : l/(rl2-+{') : o, in circular rriotion.

('il

425

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426

(iii) Application of the theory to the formationof . It is shown by Cornu'smethod that for the asymptotic diffraction patterns, points -F and -F' we have
It is found in the application of the above functions, the equations give the central fringe intensely.white, 5r:J"or1/z nuzdu Zr {sin with adjacent blackest area, near the centre of the pattern; side integrals may be evaluated by putting *, ! as here thi double integral totally vanishes, but on either These - 12, where of the centre there remains some illumination. When a space the rectangularcoordinatesof a point P, fi2+!2 has been traversed along the r'axis equal to a certain length, z is the distance.from the origin. If, therefore,we put: the light reappears as it should do by the above equations ( se) depending on sine and cosine, with corresponding periodi!e-t'ay:,Y !c-"'d*:M cities. The sharpness of the boundary is an essential cono o dition of a weli defined diffraction pattern; and without the $'e get for their product the double integral: fulfillment of this geometrical condition, a satisfactory ex@ & hibition of the theory can hardly be realized. (sq) 'In practical experience therefore the values of the . f f ,-("'*t')d* dy,: 1142 d a ) oo, the double integrals often are someu'hat approximate, o, may be looked upon as a geome- formulae being rigorously true in the centre of the dark and a""oraingt"y trical surface element in the xy plane; and the problem is light bands, rvhen the screen effect is mathematically sharp, and thus we have to evaluate Frcsnefs integrals for the diffraction. It is shown but at other places only partly true, interference bands, shading arvay gradually and attaining that the asymptotic point I has the coordinates @ maxima at intervals, where the contrast reaches a maximum, tf rf (roo) as shown in the diagram. 7r:Jsin znuzdu:rf , Fr:.[.o, 2nu2du:rf , O O In general the researches o[ experienced physical inintegrals for the point 1', whose coordi- vestigators have shorvn that the theory o[ transverse rvaves with corresponding accounts for the diffraction pattern rvith great accuracy. ln nates are negative. have seciion g above Pro{. IIas/in.$ states that he fottnd ]fi1',ghens' In the more general problem of diffraction we c o n s t r u c t i o na c c t l r a t et o r : l o { ; , r v h i c h i s a r e n a r k a b l e d e g r e e the two integrals: pheP . , ^ P . r . r ( , o , ) o[ precision, and equally valid as applied to diffraction 6':J'cos11$,1')ldo5:Jsin[1@,1'\ao. nomena. Here the function Now in our slight correction of the foundations of the - (r,ll)('lqt-+ '/go)[r' cosz s+-12f (roz) wave theory of light, given in sections I and {, we found fb,l,) nright be attained before that an accuracy of r:(4'ro{;) and o is a small opening of any form in a screen of infinite e). any sensibleoutstanding phenomena rvottld be Iikely to arise extent, rvhile the radii vectores perception in modern And as this is belorv the lirnits of our qo : y'(xoz-r1be-+-i02) qt : y'(rtz-+!J-rzL2) (ror) -'' experiments, we may disrniss the question as beyond the. g : a n g l e o f z - a x i sw i t h g r . o . ( r r q o ) : - c o s ( t q 1 ) : c o s . / . ' limits of detection in the prescnt state of physical science. Near a straight edgel) these functions C and S become. But to show that a real lonqitudinal component should {- t exist in light waves, though it is excessively small, rve may -+recall an actual measttrement of the smallness of the longi'/go) lxzcos2y-ry2l} d, cos C{ \(nl))ftln' _Jo" tudinal component in a well determined experiment rvith (to+) 'l'he -F@ late Lord. RayleigZ observed the musical note sound. r n o due to a pipe of an organ which could be heard at a . r/go)lx2cos29-ry2)} sin ay, {(zr/f)(r/qr-+S :J ,fi' J-0" distance o[ 8,zo metres; and found by measurement that the
@

\f du 2na2 .

( s r ) that

1) One of the great historical difficulties in the u'avc-theory of light was the problem of cxplaining lvith geometrical rigor the pro' The p a g a t i o n i n s t r a i g h t l i n e i , s i n c e o n H r v g h e n s ' p r i n c i p l e e a c h p a - r t i c l eo f t h e a e t h e r i n t h e r v a v e f r o n t b e c o m e s a c c n t r e o f d i s t u r b a n c e . yielding appro' lbSve integruls, .", ,uork",i out 6y moderi g"o,r"t"rr, have theii limits so fixed as to include.the whole region of disturbance, priate fringes due to interference, but otherrvise giving rectilinear proPagation. ' t t t " c e l e b r a t e d g e o m e t e r P o i s s o n ,o . * i l " o i n f r o m t h e t a r e f u l n o t e a p p e n d e d. t o h i s p o s t h u m o u s m e m o i r o f 1 8 3 9 , p p . I 5 I - I 5 2 ' w a s much occupied rvith the proble- of the rectilinear propagation of light during his last illnes_s: . . -. i,quand le mal moins avanc6 lui permettait eniore de causer science avec ses amis, il a dit qu'il avait trouv6 _commenil pouvait se t le mouvemcnt propag6suivantles directions u t f a i r e , q u ' u n 6 - b r a n l e m e n n e s e p r o p a g e i t d a n s u n m i l i e u 6 l a s t i q u e q u e , , s u i v a n _ tn e s e u l e d i r e c t i o n ; l a t 6 r a l e s 6 t a n t i n s e n s i b i e u u s s i t 6 i q u e " l ' a n g l e d e c e s d i r e c t i o n s i v e c c e l l e d e l a p r o p a g a t i o n 6 t a i t - a p p r 6 ' c i a b l e .I l a r r i v a i t a i n s i i l a p r o p a g a t i o n pourtant, de la lumidre en ligne droite, Plus tarl, c6dant au mal, et se d6cidant enfin i interrompre I'impression de son rn6moire: c'6tait a - t - i l d i t , l a p a r t i e o r i g i n a l e , c ' 6 t a i t d 6 c i s i f p o u r l a l u m i d r c ; e t c h e r c h a n t a v e c p e i n e l e . m o t p o u r e x p r i m e r s o n i , l 6 e , i l a r 6 P 6 t 6p l u s i e u r s f o i s : . de science qui c ' t a i t u n f i i e t d e l u m i d r e . p u i s s e n t c e s p a r o l e s , r e l i g i e u s e m q n tc o n s e n 6 c s p a r l e s a m i s d e M , P o i s s o n , l e s d e r n i d r e s p a r o l e s s o i e n t s o r t i e s d e s a b o u c h e , m e t t r e l e s s a v a n t s s u r l a i r a c c d e p e n s 6 e ,e t i n s p i r e r u n a c h d v e m e n td e s o n o e u v r e r l i g n e t l u c o m l n e n c e m e n t . c It is unfortunate that poissott'srnernoirs have become very scarce, and thus little knolvn to modern readers. It has long been recogof I'oissott's celebrated nized that there is great nged for the reprintidg of Poisson's Collectgd Works. Rut for py good fortune. in obtaining a set 'iormerly belonging to the librury of Sir /ohn Itel,sehet,the results brought out in this paper would not have been possible' memoirs on waves, 2) In the note dated Sept. 12, below, it is shown that the longitudinal componentis L: (Al)')P: r':1664zo' ro6), very much smaller than first estimated.

427

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428

amplitude of the oscillation in these waves could not be greater than o.o6 of a millimetre. Now in case ofrli' there are 2784 vibrations per second, and the length of the wave,under a velocity of 332ooo mm per second, is therefore r 20 mrn. If the amplitude be o.o6 mm,.as found by Lord Ra1,l6ig1x, follows that the wave it length is zooo times the anrpiitude. As a con'creteexample of the molecular oscillations which produce musical sound, this result is quite rernarkable. In the case of light we can determine the wave length very accurately, but we cannot measure the amplitude of the aether v/aves by any direct processr). Yet if the length of typical musical waves be some 2ooo times their amplitude, it will follow, from the nature of the similar cause involved, that for so elastic a medium as the aether the waves should also be enormously longer than their amplitudes much greater than roo times, as assunred by t{cluin, ,4fae;u'c//, 'I'his value of Al7: and Larnor. rs-2 is a relatively snrall amplitude, but it gives a longitudinal conrponent zo tinres larger than that noted in tbe sound wave above cited. Accordingly there is reason to believe that in the case of so highly elastic a medium as the aether the amplitude ,4 is less than r: roooooth of the wave-length,or at least rooo times snaller tban l{cluitt, Maraell, and Lannor assunred. This would make the ratio in the case of the very elastic aether fifty times smaller than was observed by Lord Rayhigh for typical musical sound in our air, Such a value as r: ro5 certainly is not too large, but it may be that the ratio should be considerably smaller yet. The following figure r r illustrates the interference phenomena observed when light passesthrough a glass wedge, with the sides mutually inclined at a small angle. This too represents interference, much like that of polarized light shown in the preceding discussion, but it exhibits the phenomena more in detail; and the phenomena exhibited are consistent with rotating elements in the waves 'I'he like those in the first diagram. wedge of glass explains why the waves interfere in bands at right angles to the

height of the wedge. In the first diagram the direction of the height of the wedge, for separating the phase of the wave by 1/21,,would have to be imagined horizontal, and the light returned along a path parallel to its emission.

i n te rfcrence re enforccnent

h[r-L

1\,(

tttI orrerenr c
reenlor< emeu I

in lerltcrence rc.en l"ort pn en ! i tt lerlrerpuco retnlorcemen t

Figrr. Farniliarillustration interfercnce reenforceof and menr,when rhe light of a candle fallsupona glass wedge(tlli/likon and, Ga/e). This givesbrighi and dark bands,parallel to the edge of the s,edge, exactlyas in the caseof Newton-rings about the centre,in the caseof a lens. (iv) Integral expressions for the kinetic and potential energy of the .medium when filled with ryaves. Let {, 11 I be the rectangular coordinates of a particle , at the time l, then the differenrials df, drt , de will denote the component velocities of a particle in the medium rvhich is propagating the waves. The particle is oscillating periodically about a nlean position, at any time /, and thus bas both a velocity of which the components are df, d7, df, and a distortion from its mean position, or displacement. It is well known that in wave motion half the energy is kinetic, half potential: there{bre the kinetic energy due to the component velocities of the particles becomes:

T:

tletplrl]'. -r(arllar), -r(dl at)21 d-1,d2 dr . ! ll[6lafl,

(, os) (ro6)

For the potential energy due to the distortion of the elementsof the medium lve have:

u / : ( , 1 + n x . ] ' ! S t [ e l d / - . d r t l a z ) , - + ( a { l a z - d 6 l d r )rrl-l - rx - a 5 1 a 1 ) \ d r d 1 , d z . (a a In these equations the component velocities of the wave disturbances are d{/dr, form of the elements 6t:dEldt-dqfdz, of the medium along the coordinate axes, The total energy in the medium at any point is the sum of these two energies: T-+ W I , or 6z:dEldz-defdr, 6s:drlldx-d!/d7

drll<Jt, d(f dt, and the distortions of the g i v e t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t so f t h e e l e m e n t s

s2:('lan)[[[l'lrpltatla),-+(arllat),-r(o!/ar)z]-rtlK.l(dildt-aqlaz)2-+(aglaz-aelax)r-+(a7lor-dIlay)rllaxay (ro7)
which illustrates the agitation of a medium filled with waves.
r) Since writing the above paragraph, it h a s o c c u r r e d t o m e t h a t w e m a y c a l c u l a t e t h e t h e o r e r i c a l r a t i o o f t h e a m p l i t u r l et o r h e w a v e length of the aether by the following process. We have provetl that the aether is e:68932I6ooooo tirnes rnore elastic than air in proporrion to its density. And it is this elasticity which gives the aether u,avestheir enormous velocity; and, as compared to air, the anrplitude'should b e - s m a l l e r i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f t h i s n u m b e r . ! - o r w h e n a w a v e i n t h e a e t h e r b e g i n s t o b e g e n e r a t e d i t s p e e d sa w a y s o r a p i d l y , under the enormous elasticity, that the amplitude is small in the same proportion that the velocity z is great. Now liom the above value we 6 n d t h a t y ' e : 8 3 o 2 5 + ; a n d a s t h e r a t i o i n a i r f u r n i s h e d b y l , o r d R a y l e i g h ' s e x p e r i r n e n t si s r : z o o o , * . h a v e f o r t h e a e t h e r t h e r e l a t i v e r a t i o : rl83oz54'tlzooo: r/I66o5o8ooo, or 83o254 times smaller than the ratio of the arnplitude to the wave-lengthin the musical sound investi. g a t e d o f L o r d . R a y l e i g l t , T h e t r u e r a t i o t h u s . - a p p c a rt o b e t 6 6 o 5 t i n r e s s r n a l l e r t h a n t b a t i n d i c a t c d a b o v e , a n d s h o u l d b e A l ) ' : r : ( 1 6 6 o 5 . r o 5 ) , - r : ( r . 6 6 o 5 o 8 . r o r r ) ,w h i c h r n a k e sr \ : ( z l \ ) p : r:(664zo.rou). - Note added Sep. rz, r9zo.

429
The wave-theory' indicated nature.

5085
by all the phenomena of

430

In concluding this discussion we draw attention to the indications of nature from the widest survey of physical phenomena: r. In the whole :lomain of mathematical physics, modern investigations lay great stress on boundary problems. Now boundary conditions naturally would have great importance if natural forces are due to the action of waves; because at the boundary of solid or liquid bodies the velocity of propagation is changed very suddenly by the resistance, and the tendency to refraction and dispersion. z. In his celebrated a'rticle on light, Iincycl. Metrop., 1849, section 56r, Sir Jo/tn I{ersc/trl shows that the forces producing refraction are such as )may be termed infinite<. It is now recognized that these porverful actions dppear in dispersion and diffraction, as well as in refraction, and give rise to the molecular forces, which in a future paper will be referred to wave motions, thus confirming the great importance of the rvave-theory for all the phenomena of nature. 3. Now quite aside from the physical considerations . of particular phenomena, we have general mathematical methods for treating partiai differential equations, invented bv .Fourier, Poisson, Cauclty and other fJeometers about a century ago. Thus in our time practically all the equations of mathematical physics turn on the treatrnent of partial differential equations, as in sound, heat, light, electrodynamic action, n'ragnetism, etc. And these general mathematical methods, so largely devised by Fourier and Poisson, point to waves in the aether as the underlyine cause of physigal forces.

papers on the Nerv Theory of the Aether, I believe we may safely conclude that, notwithstanding the very extraordinary physical properties of the aether, in a certain sense it behaves as an elastic solid for quick acting forces: namely, that the aether will faithfully transmit any kind of vibration communicated to it, whether it involve dilatation of volurne or mere change of form o[ any element dr dy dz , Unless we grant this extraordinary porver of transmission of wave motion, we can scarcely reconcile the new theory, including the extreme velocity of the aetheron \f,n l/ : a : 47 rz39 kms per second, with the known e x t r e m e e l a s t i c i t y o f t h e a e t h e r ,w h i c h i s 5 : 6893z16ooooo times greater than that of air irr proportion to its density. It is evident that the aether is so different from air, in respect to the high velocity of the aetheron, and the enormous elasticity of the rnedium, that no movement of any kind can occur rin it without the rnost perfect response to rvhatever waves arise. In this sense I regard the aether as an inhnite aeolotropic elastic solid; but I do not assurne hat all the physical t restrictionsof the ordinary elastic solid, which we can subj e g t t o e x p e r i r n e n t i n o u r l a b o r a t o r i e s , n e c e s s a r i l yh o l d f o r t h e a e t h e r . S o m e o [ t h e s e p h y s i c a l r e s t r i c t i o n s ,r v h i c h w e ascribe to molecular forces in solids, rnay be and probably are missing in the aether, orving to the absenceof the complex molecular structure knorvn in solids, and to the enorrnously greater rapidity of the motion of the aetherons. Our conclusions therefore are as follows:

r. Any movement whatever given to the aether will be faithfully transmitted, owing to the extremely high velocities of the aetherons, rvhich gives the medium both 4. Accordingly, the importance of boundary conditions, extremely great ehsticity and high rirridity, - yet the medium in problents o[ the transmission of energS' through matter is not like ordinary solids, in tbat it has an extraordinarily undergoine sudden transition of proltcrty, by virtne of fixed small density. domains of discontinuity, and thus requiring the rnethods of 'Ihe z. aether, therefore, has most of the rvave transpartial differential equations for their exact treatment, seemed - rvill transmit any to be so remarkable an argument for the wave-theory that m i t t i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f a n e l a s t i c s o l i d kind of wave; yet alrvays rvith one velocity only, a uniform it should engage the attention of georneters and natural 3. ro10 clns, rvhich is somervhat different from philosophers rvho aim at extending the researchesol Fourier velocity I/ rvhat is attributed to ordinary elastic solids, rvith two different and Poisson. velocities, of the follorving kind, narnely: p. Theory of the Propagation of Wave Energy, ( C ) A c . o m p r e s s i o n a l w a v e i n a n e x t e n d e dm a s s , n n d e r P o i s s o n 'E q u a t i o n 0 2 0 l f 0 t 2 - a 2 Y ) Q ) , i n a C o n t i s say of steel, depending on both the compressibility /l and n u o u s E l a s t i c S o l i d , ' w i t h a n A n a l y s i s r v h i c h s h o w s the rigidity z: 1\7avdsraveling in Different l)irections. t y'(k+-alrn) :655ooo l/": cms per second / a\ ln the New Theory of the Aether (AN 5oaa, 5oa8) lrod' n-o,95,ror2 k-r.84.ro1?. 'lve have calculated the rnean molecular velocity of the aetheron (T) A purely transverse distortional rvave (rvithrf .rn V : to be zr 47 r 219 kms per se.ond, and sho,rvn out change of volurne) expressed by the simpler forrnnla: that the aether obeys certain larvs of density and rigidity y'(olo) Va: (toS) not heretofore suspected. The length of the rnean free path 348ooo cms per second i s a b o u t 5 7 3 o o o k m s , a n d i n f r e e s p a c e l e s s t h a n o n e c o l - i n t h e c a s e o f a n e x t e n d e d m a s so f - q t e e lr,l : d e n s i t y : 2 . 8 5 . lision per second occurs between the free aetherons, under Thus for steel the former value is nearly twice the normal motion. Owing to the decrease of density and rigi- latter, which renders the theory doubtful, in view o[ the dity torvards large bodies like the sun and earth, all our old non-separation of the earthquake waves of these two classes. analogies with the traditional elastic solid have to tre care3. In certain respects the aether is more like a gas fully revised, and adapted to the new theory rvith extreme than a solid, and up to this time it is probable that excaution. perirnent has not fuliy established the two velocities theoretiAfter very careful consideration of these problems, in cally predicted for an elastic solid by Poissott, Cauchy and the iight of the data contained in the first, second, third other mathematicians. In his Tides and Kindred Phenomena

43r

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432

5. Accordingly, it appears that the actual propagation of waves in solids deserves further study, Our premises so frecluently are false that the actual facts, in regard to solids earth are of two kinds. The first sort of wave is one in both homogeneous and heterogeneous,deserve nrore statistical which the matter through which it passesis alternately com- inquiry, in cases where a definite decision may be attained. pressed and dilated; it may be described as a wave of In his article on Light, Encycl. Brit., 9th ed., $ rg, p. 446, compression. In the second sort the shape of each minute the late Lord Ra/eigh says that in such bodies as jelly the portion of the solid is distorted, but the volume remains velocity of the longitudinal vibrations is a large multiple of 'I-hese the velocity of the corresponding transverse vibrations. No unchanged, and it may be called a rvave of distortion. two vibrations travel at different speeds,and the compressional doubt there is some assumed evidence for such a statement, wave outpaces the distortional one. Now the first sign of a besides the calculations above given, but as no authorities distant earthquake is that the instrumental record shows a for conclusive experiments of this type are known to me, succession of minute tremors. These are supposed to be due I think a result of such delipacy should be received with to waves of compression, and they are succeeded by a much great caution, more strongly marked disturbance, which, horvever, lasts only 6. A few cases, however, even if true, are not enough a short time. This seconclphase in the instrumental record to establish general conclusions; and in view of the diffrculty is supposed to be due to the wave of distortion.c 6f conceiving how the two classes of waves can be actually >If the natures of these two disturbances are correctly s e p a r a t e d i n n a t u r e one set of waves inevitably tending ascribed to tbeir respective sources, it is certain that the to run into the other - the only safe course is to appeal matter through rvhich the vibrations have passed was solid. to a variety of experiments, under conditions which may lead For, although a compressional wave might be transnritted t o a n e x p e r i m e n t u m c n r c i s . without much loss of intensity, from a solid to a liquid and Notrvr'thstanding this uncertainty as to the true order the theory being not certainly verified by back again to a solid, as would have to be the case if the of nature i n t e r i o r o f t h e e a r t h i s m o l t e n , y e t t h i s c a n n o t b e t r u e o f experiment, it seems best to examine briefly the chief t h e d i s t o r t i o n a l w a v e . I t ' h a s b e e n s u p p o s e d t h a t v i b r a t i o n s mathematical conditions imposed by the propagation.of waves d u e t o e a r t h q u a k e sp a s s i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h ; in an elastic solid. In an elastic solid, the equation of Poisson if then this could be proved, rve should knorv with certainty A l Q f A t z- a r v 2 @ (r ro) that the earth is solid, at leastfar dorvn towards its center.< is s a t i s f i e d y t h e d i l a t a t i o na n d t h r e ec o m p o n e n to f r o t a t i o n b s This reasoning implies that this eminent naturai philo- as follorvs: 6:0trl}t;-rappy-+Dyl0z (rrr) sopher was in doubt as to the validity of the two-r'elocity -AzlAP) : Lf : 1f theory, in practice, rvith actual masseslike the earth. o4 a2 ,(0c;lAz-ArlAr) , ,(0ylAJ, \ lr r 2, f In studying earthquake seismographic records and disa . y: L , ( o p p x - a t p & ) cussions I find the disturbance to rise very gradually and e , f , / b e i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n ta t a n y p o i n t y ' ( t , 1 , s 'l'hus I have not been able to "). die down equaily gradually. In the elasticsolid solutions, components rotation the of verify the assumption of two distinct types of waves: we o)r, oJz, (d3 &r connectedby the well known relation: nrerely find that at a great distance from the source of : ?at f Dr-rou"f 0y-r061"f02 s ('rr) disturbance the earthquake waves are spread out like a spectrurn. This spreading out might be due to varying and only two o[ the three sets of solutions are independent. resistance to waves of one type, but of different length, Combining these rvith the solution for d, we have, in all, three sets of independent solutions. as in optics. 'l'ake a rectangular volume of the elastic substance On purely physical grounds it seemsdifficult to irnagine r:d, the distortional wave being actually separated lrom the conr- r : o , z:o, z:f,Then at !:o, !:f, 'l'hat (ff;; and fy Fourier's theorem the o, @ pressional wave. actual nature would effect this ideal any time t : separation seems very doubtful. And so far it is not sup- valtre of {)s.for any point within a p y may be expressed ported by earthquake phenonrena adnritting of verification by the following triple surnnrations, which include all positive by observation on the propagation of waves through our globe. integral values of l, nt, n from o to oo:
I:@ n:6 n:@

of thb Solar System, 1899, pp.26r-2, Sir GcorgcDaruin remarks in regard to earthquakephenomena: >The vibrations which are transmitted through the

@o:)
l:o I:q

t
m:o m:e

)2,^,cos(tn*f
n:o n:q

p)cos(nnzf y) e)cosQttnyf

(' ' +)'

*2" 2, Z:'^nsin(tnrf

y)-r. a)cos(*nylp)cos(,nzf .-

(cf. Lord Raylciglt, Theory of Sound, zod ed., 1896, p. 7o). The full set of eight coefficients, for all possible arrangements of sines and cosines, are given by the integral expressions: Atmn:$l"B/)![:rDscos(tnxfc)cos(nnyfp)cos(nnzfy).dxdydz

(" s)
(rr6)

B t^n :

rD (sI p il n n p) zI [ [ S s sin((t * f a) cos(nryf cos(nrcy). d* dy dz "

'

.J

, a a

5 0 85
Ct^n: Dlmo:
D. LImn -

434
(" 2) (rrs)

1;. a l m n wlmtr -

Lt. tr Intn -

p) a) zlfl.dx dydz tst" p tS ! !@x cos(tnrf sin(ntnyf cos(,n rf zf dz nllB) cos(,n y).dx d1, tst" p r)S! S@xsin(tn a) stnQtt (sloBi! SSos cos(tn a)cos(nrn4,f rf zl).dr d1, dz B) sin(nn sin(tn u) cos(nnyf sin(,nzfy)'dr dydz rf B) $1" p t: : SQt,, a) zf sin(nn y)'dx dydz $1" Btf S[@6 cos(tnxf sin(ntnylB) (n sin(t n fsi " Bt M rDs n r f a) sin n1I B) sin\n zI y). dr dydz.

("s)
(rzo) (rzr)

ftzz)

As @ is a scalar quantity, we may suppose the rate of increase at any time l: o, to be denoted by D@olAt, rvhich may be expanded in series similar to that in (rr4), but with accented coefficients, A't^o, B't^o, Ct16n, etc, Knowing the initial values of @ and A@fAt, we may at once write down the complete solution of (rro), rvhich is
easily seen to be: l:a *:a rt:a

O:

>
/:o J:6

>l
r1t:o ,rt:6

p) A'6nsinpt) rf )].o, (tn rl n) cos(,nn1,f cos(rn y)(Amocostrt-+

rt:o ,t:@

",\

l:o

,1t:o

tt==o

'fhe In order to satisfy (rro) *e must have: pagated rvith different speeds. trvo equations of Pf,issru - a2n2(t2f rr?-+nttlB'-+rtlyt). thus become: (t"+) ?2 ?2al1i - arYz(D at : y'Vt+llsn) We nray now combine terms which have the same values of for the compressional rvave; l, n, n in (rz3), and thus rve find that @ can be expressed (r z6) 02Dl0t2 - a2y?d) as a sl1m of terrrs of the form: az: y'Vlo) for the distortiorral wave. - t---'t

heory of Gases, znded., p. 383, r g r 6), that the solution represents sets of plane tvaves traveling in different directions. But from (rza) it follows that all the waves are propagated rvith the same veiocity a, ^s in the luminif'erous aether. I f t h e e l a s t i c s o l i d h a s c o n t i n u o t r sc h a r a c t e r , i t s p a r ticles have dynamically all the degrees ol' freedorn appropriate to the aether, r'hich is an absolute continuum, the finest molecnlar or atomic stnlcture in the universe. A medirlrn so constituted has the capacity to transnrit waves from any direction. And in case the mediunr is the ultimate nredium underlying the physicaluniverse,no energy can be Iost in the niovement of the waves, rvhich move incessantly liom one body to another, and in free space travel with the velocity of light. When the velocity of the waves is retarded, energy is expended, and pressure'developed by the retardation of the rvave front. Forces of a more intricate kind arise wben refraction, dispersion, diffraction, etc., develop, as in the encounter rvith particles or bodies in which the velocity is suddenly changed, and the wave-field redistributed, so that the density and local internal pressure of the aether is altered. But rve can only treat o[ this topic when we come to deal rvith rrolecular forces, which heretofore have defied explanation, orving to lack of a kinetic theory of the aether and the undeveloped state of the wave-theory. Usually it is assumed that in an elastic solid both compressional and distortional waves co-exist, though pro-

(t r.s) @ e) ),'l''cos\pt+lnsf a*ttr1,lB+nnzly',uhere thfinrrnation is to be extended to ail valuesof t /, r( tn, *:n, and the constants and r are of coursediffercnt for each set of values. Put in this form, it is clear, as Jcansremarks(Dynanrical 'f

With most solids the latter velocity a2 is considerablv s m a l l e r t h a n a 1 , t h e ' r ' e l o c i t yo f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n a w a v e . l n l the numerical exampleof steelabove cited, a1 is nearly twice as large as ao, but it still is uncertain to what extenta real separation of the two kinds of.waves takesplace. In other words, the two kinds of waves are distinct and should be s e p a r a t e d ,i n t h e o r y ; b u t i t i s q r r i t e u n c e r t a i n w h e t h e r t h i s occurs in actual practice, orving to the limitations of freedom of movement in such material bodies as we find in nature. 'fhere is only one velocity of s'aves in the aether. In the case of earthquake rvaves, there is no evidence of separation o[ the two kinds of rvaves, all the seismographic records being explicable by the unequal velocities incident to mere n'ave-lencth, and thus having different speeds of propagation. It is true that the earth's crust is a very complex structure, and the movenrent incident to an earthquake involves release of strain, and thus consists of a series of adjustments of the quasi-solid lava beneath faulted and mutually crowding blocks of granite some 2o miles thick. Perhaps .we could not expect distinct separation in such a mass of Jremors, partly direct and partly reflected, by the faulted blocks of the ciust. Yet if the two classes of waves actually separated in practice, rve ought to perceive two distinct shocks from earth waves incident to explosions, as of powder magazines, masses of T.N.T., and other high explosives, which are powerful enough to be felt at a great distance, but do not involle complex direct and reflex actions in the crust, as in the lava adjustments due to earthquakes. So far as I have been able to ascertain there is no weli established record of double waves from such explosions 29

435

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above ground; and thus the experinrentalevidence would seenr the form of the function ,f depending on the arrangernent to point to a merging of the two classes of waves into one. o f t h e p a r t s o f t h e m e d i u m . In the case of the aether it is certain that only one Ir{aking use of this value of u in (r33) rve obtain class of waves is observed, rvhich in free space travel with 6c : !{r14 (or ddr-rd-7 ddy-+-d:dd:)/ds uniform velocity, as in the case of sound in gases. Accor-r -r (du . -+ dingly the aether certainly behaves as a gas, yet its elasticity J'$ 1",1 ds I d t 6]" duf dx.6x duI dy.61, dufdz.dz) ( r 3 5) is so gleat that waves of any kind may be transmitted, as or 6t fft1")@rlas'6r-+il,f ds.6y-rdzlds.6z)) in an elastic solid, but apparently the velocity is uniform, - dt"!Gl,\auf ar.as o,IG 1,,)duf d,r.ds u'hether the rvavesinvolve a rigidity, with sliding of one layer over another, or compression, as in gases. - o1,f duf * orf duf dt.ds. (,

ft lr')

fu,.ds

i l,\

s6)

Io. Geonretrical'l'heory of the'Iransmission of Light and other Phy-sical liorces along Fernat's Xlininrunr Path, dr : 6 . 1 ' t l " . d 3: 6. (i) The proLrlenr of refraction in the minirnunr path. For any path in syrace,with'radius of curvature q, and curvature r : q, we have for the length of the cun'ed path s and the curvatrlre: r:QL rlg:d1lds (trl)

Tlre last three integrals of (r 35), under Eaniltois stationary condition, varrish, because the fixed terrninal points make <)r, 6-y, 6z each equal to zero. 'l'he rest of the expression depends on the terntinal points of the path, and on

the wave-lengthonly. ' T'heseconditions therefore lead to fotrr equations d r / d t : ( t l u ) A r l a s 6 r f d 1: j l u ) a l l a s ,

6rf6z :

il, ftlu)azlas tlrf :

)'lrlrtyaulil".as.

(':z)

Now the tangent to the curved path ds is defined by whete 1 is the angle betrveen the osculating tangent yllanes, the three differential direction cosines, fulfilling the condition and ds is the elemerit of the curie, and g the radius of (ar/os)2-+-(ayfas)r-r(azlas)z: r. curvature, for the osculating circle passing through three 1,.s; consecutive Doints. And therefore if we square and add the first three equationq 'I'he of (r37) rve shail obtain cun'ature for any ltath is y'[(azrlas")z-+(ai,/asr)'-+-(drs/d{r)2] ( d z / d r ) ! + - ( d r l d 1 , ) ' - r ( d r l d z ) z' 1 , , t . : rle (r z8) (,:s) . And the direction cosines of the radius of curvature l'r : Q d2,'-/cls2 ),t : Q dtr'/tls: T:t : Q cle;/ds:, (r rS) Norv in rcfractiqn, tlre 1;nth lnust be consistent with the principle of lcast time, and also conform to the principle 'I'he o[ Ieast action. principle of least tinte was recognized ( i r e e k g e o n r e t e r sa t A l e x a n d r i a , a b o u t by the 3oo B.C., in tlre constructions of Eul:lid, (cf. Electrod. Wave-Theory of Phys. Forc., vol. I, r9r7, pp. 63-66), but the principle of the rniuinrurn path, .in simple refraction, was discovered by Fernat (r6or-r665), who found the actual path to conform to the law: r:: ('so) hu1*12u, where the second rnernber is made up of the sum of two terms, each a product of the length of path, I by the velocity in that path, z. In gradual refraction, such as that of light in the atmosphere, the direction of the ray changes at every point, chiefly because of the varying density. And thus if r be the time .of passage, rve have the integral

(ii) (leon.retrical conditions ful6lled by I{attti/ttitis c h a r a c t e r i s t i cf u n c t i o n . ln r823, rvhen only eightcen .1'earsof a,ge, I{auillon obtained insight into his method, and gradually introduced the consideration of a characteristic function ,4 defined by. the following differential equarion for a single particle of unit mass.

dA :

dt.il,-rdzfdt.6s) [drlat.M-rd1,f -(Ar.u/Or. ro-rd1,rf 66-rd,zof dzola-6H (t d dt. dt. t ao) .

wlrere ZI is the constant of the total energy I{ : T-+ Iz. If the moving particle be entirely free, the seven variables in the right rnenrber of (rao) are independent ot' o n e a n o t h e r ; . a n d t h u s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i cf u n c t i o n , 4 t u l f i l l s the follorving remarkable differential equations:

0ef7x: 0'tf0y : 7efDz:

<*fdt 6t,f 4s dzf dt

r:
dr:

).,fu,ds.
d[rlu.d5:6 .

(,rr)
(rsr)

7ztl1^-o: -d.r.n/dr 02101,: -il,ol,tt : O,<fDzn -tuoldt O.tl1tt : t.

(,+')

And,-Fcrnat's condition of the rninimuurpath becomes:.

Therefore we have at once

(d.r/d/)2-r(ay,lat)r -r(azl at)r :

(0 I 0r), -r (0 I A1,), (a I 2,), : a + e a

u2 :

z(il - ()

z(H- yo) (r+s) Now it is obvious that if physical forces be due to By the rnethod of the Calculus of Variations. equation wave-action, these forces also rvill conforn to the reruarkable ( t s t ) yields o , o o,t : dds-J tfu2.dsdu. ( r : s ) geometrical properties of l{ani//on's characteristic function, )rlu. and his analysis will be applicable alike to the ltropagation If 2 be the rvave-length, it is obvious that the velocity of light, electrodynamic action and universal gravitation. would be defined by the functional relation Since the characteristic function z/ satisfies the partial u : f (),; n, J,, z) ( r s + ) differential equation:

To bring out the geometricalconditionsof the theory of the minimum path, we have to develop the subjectsorne- : w h a t a s o u t l i n e di n t h e a u t h o r ' sw o r k o f r g r 7 .

(0 l?r), + (0 I ar)r -+- Af 0zr)2 : e (0 t

(drn/dr)?-r(dto/dr)'-r(ozrf t)2:yo2: a

( ,+ r )

t,l

+Jl

5085 z(rt- rr) (, ++)

438

: s,! (D,el?rf-+(0el7y),-r(0,<lAz), :

it follows that the partial differential coefficients with respect to the coordinates represent the components of the vdlocity in a motion possible under the forces rvhosepotential is Z. And as Z is the potential energy of tbe system, this result is lery remarkable ; for it assinrilates tbe propagation of rvave disturbances, such as light, and electrodynamic action, to the action of universal gravitation, rvhich also fulfillsthe same condition.

that the second members also represent the same thing, Accordingly the proposition stated after equation (r44) above is established, and obviously applies eqtrally to iight, electrodynamic action and gravitation. (iii) The physical interpretation o{ I{antilton,s analysis points to wave-action. We have now to consider the physical interpretation of Eanilfon's analysis,.and lve note first that the celebrated function A was invented by lfanilton for the treatment of light. Yet if all physical forces depend on rvaves due to vibrations in atoms, rvith equatorial planes lying haphazard, or mutually inclined at various angles, - it n ill a p p l y a l s o t o m a g n e t i s m ,g r a v i t a t i o n , a n d a l l k i n d s o f e l e c t r o dynanric action. Ifaniltotis characteristic function ,4 is therefore above all a wave-function, equally applicable to all the forces of the universe. To interpret the above analysis, for the path of light, through a physical rnediunr like the luminiferous aether, rve resume the equation

By partial differentiationof (raa) with respectto the co-ordinates we have

0tt l?x -0z l012+0 Z f Dy. A f1x0y-r0A l0z. ?,e l0r0, 02 e - -A yf7s : X : d|rldtz : (dldr)(dxldt) 0al0r.D'!ef?r01,-+0a101,.0,,a10y2-+0tf0t.6zafataz \ : / - -ArlAt: y: d2tldt2: (alat)(atlat) \r4s/ A lfu . D2 I D 0z-+0A I At . A,AI At 0z-r ?Af 0z . 02 f 0z2 : tl zt s A - -A lfqz : Z : d2zldt2 (d/d4 : ftzlat). drlat'D2tl0r2-+dtlat.7zt 1axel,-+ dt.02A dzf F*az : : (o/az) (atl0r)
.\lso, diff'erentiating in respect to d we have

- rfuz. (dr/dr)'2-+-(drl61,)'-+(drldz), ('+6)

('s')

: (dlat)(aalay) <t f dt. F,1i 0,r0z+ <\'I dt' A, I AtA -+dzI dt . 02 l0z' : r A z A : (d/d4 (aAla,).
: ds,idt 0Afqr a.tlat: 7ztl7y (tzf : dt AAf Az

.l.t/dr. U,'t f ?r 1jt-+ dyf d t' Atrq13-t,* dzf (V . A2,4q' At : f .

And we see that if rve can obtain a complete integral of this erluation, containing there[ore two arbitrary constants a, E, in the form

?:

F(r, 1', z, ),, a, P)

q'

('ss)

/ \ ( r 54] f, satisfy simultaneously the two sets of equations. will represent two series of surfaces,wfrose intersections gir,e If norv rve take a, B to be constants which may com- t h e p a t h o f t h e l i g h t i n t h e m e d i u m . . bine with 11 to give the complete integral of (l++), it follows As a' and p' are also arbitrary constants, the four t h a t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a t h a n d t h e t i m e o f i t s d e s c r i p t i o n constants &, 'are necessary and sufficient for the F, d', B' rre given by the equations: pllrpose of making the two intersecting snrfaces each pass : oAfoa o, o,<lop p, aAlau : t-re (t+8) t h r o u g h a n y t l v o g i v e n p o i n t s ? t ( r o , ! 0 , z 6 ) a n d p ( " , y , ) . : 'Ihese I{anillaaian considerations, on simple refraction rvhere a1, p1, e are three additional arbitrary consrants. By complete differentiation of (ra8) .rvith respect to /, in non-hornogeneous rnedia, shorv, as was originally found by Frrnat, that the actual path is that of least time, through the three coordinates r, lr z, we have at once: as well as that of least action. D,A at -r1trtl01,0a.dyf dt-+ l0t0o.drf Now in the case of light the physical cause of such - r 3 2 A l 0 z 0 a . d zd t : o f action is known to be waves in the highly elastic aether, 3tal0t0p. dxf -+D2af 0y0p.fu,ldt-+ dt ( ' + s ) and propagated with unequal velocities, in different media, -+02,tf0z0p.dzfdt:o according to density, effective elasticity, and wave-length. A,A I 0,r0 dr f dt -+-A2fAtAE. dyI dt -r tt. Increase of density, due to the presence of ponderable matter, A -rjzZflzltt-dzfdt:o. hinders the progress o[ the wave of given length, while inSinrilar differentiationin respect to a, B, ZI, respec- crease of elasticity under thinning out of the matter accelerates it. And in general decreasing the wave.length increasesthe tively, gives: retardation in velocity. -+02 f 0a 0*. 0A f0s +02 A P a At. AA fAt a Equiactional surfaces, orthogonal to the path of light, -+0zel0a0z.7AfOz : o are so distributed that the distances between them, for geoA,A 0x.0Af0*-+0r.<10 p 0y.0Al\-r lAp metrical reasons, are always inversely as the velocity in the (tso) - o +-0zef0p0z.0ef0z corresponding path. -+ ?2,<IIAx' 0,aA -r 0,z l0tt7y. 0e lD1, 0 Now [it is clearly shown in the third paper on the r'-+02el0rt7z.0Af0z: I I New Theory of the Aether (eU 5o79), that electrodynamic r action is conveyed by waves, traveling in free aether with On comparing these two sets of equations,we find the velocity of light, and therefore these waves will follow : dxf : 0eflr dt a1,lat 0tl7y dzf :0,tl0z . (r Sr) the same general laws as the waves of light. Such a physical dt And as the first membersof these equations representthe cause necessarily takes the path of least time and of least componentsof the velocity of the moving particle, it follows action, which is also that of least resistance to the distur-

Q n c o m p a r i n g e q u a t i o n s( r a 5 ) a n d ( r 4 6 ) , r v e f i n d t h a t

(r+l)

then the derived erluations ?rf1ct : 7f;(r, J,, z, )", n, F)l7o : ?,rf7p : 7-F(r, 1,, E, l, ct,F)I\B :

2g'

439

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bances of the mediurn. And as the motions of the planets confornr to these principles, the question nay properly be asked whether any other cause than electrodynamic waveaction could be irnagined to produce the attractions o[ the heaveniy bodies. This question has been dealt with at sonte length in the second papeq (eN 5o48), and from the additional dis' cussion included in section l2 below it would seem to follow incontestably that no cause other than wave-action could explain the phenomena of universal gravitation.

are bent in the same direction; and thus it is evident that if waves be of unequal length,.they will encounter unequal resistance, - the shorter waves, owing to their more rapid oscillation, being relatively more resisted than the longer 'fhe result of this unequal resistance is that the waves ones. are dispersed, as in the spectrum, the longer waves being least refracted, while the shorter waves, in normal dispersion, suffer maxirnum refraction, thereby producing the spectrum effect of dispersion, as in a grating, Now however, many separate waves enter a relracting medium, the refractive action on each vibration occurs as I t . T h e N e r v l V a v e - ' fh e o r y o f L i g h t a c c o u n t s if the other vibrations did not exist: thus rve have not merely l{efraction, for all I(nown Optical Phenomena refraction but also dispersion. In fact dispersion, depending D i spersi on, An omal ous I) ispersi on, I)iffraction, on difference of wave length, seems to inrply that the seprInterference, and the Aberration of I-ight from the rate atoms, or same atoms, are ernitting not only their orvn Fixed Stars. distinct waves, but in most cases each atom gives quitc- a (i) .l.ne problem o[ refraction variety of these waves, as we see by comparing the table It norv renrains to survey briefly the leading optical o[ wave-lengths for the different elements, as sodiunr, calciurtt, phenomena, to see if the nerv l'ave-tlteor)' of light will h y d r o g e n , i r o u , t i t a n i t t r t t ,e t c . 'l'he explain the observed phenomena as well or better than the observed phenon-renon of dispersiort is therefore vibrations entirely normal lavorable to the nerv rva'r,e-theor1,; old wave-theory, rvhich a.ssulr)es for rve realize from tlre to the direction of the ray, as in the rrotion of a stretched knorvn phenorncna of the spectral lines that each atom has cord, but does not assurne vibrations flat in the planes of its orvn several periods of liltration; and thrts dispersion, tlre equators of the atoms. or unetlual refraction clepending on wave length, ought to And, first, the phenomenon of sinrple refraction presents occllr. no difficulty. For the bending of the light always is due A s f o r a n o m a l o u s d i s p e r s i o n t h e p r o b l e r ni s m o r e to the unequal resistance offered to the trvo sides of the conrplex, because the substancesgiving this phenomenon erlrvave front, - the one rvhich is more resisted lteing held hibit extrenrely varilble effects. But as each aton of a giverl back in its advance and the other therclore propagated nrore snbstanceemits its orvn characteristic rvaves,there is no reason rapidly, and thus turning the direction o[ the ray of light rvhy the eft-ect of a given refractive tnediurn should atlect 'fhis reasoning holds for re' atoms of the diflbrent substances in the same way. l'he torvards the dens&r mediur.n. fraction in water, a prisrn of glass, or such a slightly hetero- proportion of energy absorbed chtrnges rvith each substan<:e, geneous nrediunt as the earth's atmoslllterc, where the air and the resistance to each color is a function of the rvave: is nearly homogeneous for sn.ralldist:rnces, 1'et in the larger length, but not the sanrc ibr ali wave-lengths, owing to the problenrs of the globe arranged ir-t concentric layers, with v a r i a b l e m o l e c u l a r r e a c t i o n o n t h e l l a s s i n g l i g h t w a v e s . increased density and refractive power torvards the earth's Accordingly just as refraction depends on the rvavesurface. leneth, for homogeneouswaves of one color, so also anomalous On the old rvave-theory of light this explanation has dispersion rnust depend on different resistancesfor dill-erent alrvays been considered satisfactorl'; and on the new wave- colors or wave-lengths, - drte either to the absorptive effects theory it is etlually valid, because rve consider a beam of of the substance, by which different wave lengths are unlight to be nrade up o[ an infinite number of independent equally affected, rvith the thinning out of particular wavetvaves from the separate vibrating atoms. And as each wave lengths, or to the increased resistanceof the substanceto certain is transmitted independently of the rest by the superfine waves, thus causing then to crorvd over into an adjacent medium of the aether, - just as on a telephone or tele- part of the spectrunr. graph rvire large numbers of independent nressagesrnay be In the well ktrown case of fuchsine, rvith the abnort-nal sent at the sarne instant - it follows that in transmitting deviation of the violet rays, by which this color is less deviated the infinitely complex waves of common light, each atolnic than the longer red rays, we may suppose the fuchsine to rvave will be refracted exactly as if the others did not exist, have an inherent attraction for the violet rays great enough and the integrai effect after traversing a distance ds rvill be to offset its shorter rvave length as cotrpared to the red. that all the waves will be refracted in the same direction, Kundt's careful observations on anomalous dispersion owing to the greater resistance on the same side of their showed that it r\ras common in bodies having surface color common wave front. or a different shade by reflected light from that given of relraction retnains un' Accordingly, the explanation by transrnitted light. Norv since in reflection we perceive changed, while that for dispersion is iurl>roved, as shorvn the colors which are not absorbed, it follows that bodies below. presenting surface color, different from that shown by light 'f'fre (ii) p h e n o m e n ao f d i s p c r s i o n , i n c l u d i n g a n o n r a l o u s transrnitted through thetn, nrust absorb the colors rvhich they do not transmit. And therefore in transmission the spectrutn dispersion. - certain waves being absorbed or taken up b1' In ordinary refraction, as we have seen, all the rays is deficient, so as to nrake possible the obdepending on the rvaves ernitted by the individual atoms, the villrating rnolectlles,

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An') TT-

served deviation of the remaining waves frorn their arrangement in tlre normal spectrum shown by a grating.' It would appear from these considerations that 'the phenomenon o[ anomalous dispersion is highly favorable to the wave-theory. flnless all rnolecules enritted and absorbed Naves appropriate to their orvn molecular structure, according to liirchholf''s law, it does not seern possible to account for 'fhe the actual results of obsen'ation. theory that each nrolecule or atoln vibrates in its olvn period, so as to absorb certain rvaves in transmission, but reflect others from the surface of a body so constituted, seems to harmonize all knowrr facts in a simplc way.

(iii) The problem of diffraction, interference, stellar i a l r e r r a to n . 'l'he phenomenon of diffraction consists in the bending of the rvaves through srnall apertures and at sharp corners, by which light is spread around and gathered into fringes rvhich beconre distinct. The wave-theory accounts for the phenonrenon, under the hypdthesis that the rvaves are very Ji'nuat's minirnun path and I{ani//ott's principle ot short, which is fully r,erified by actual measurements. In thct for a given width of slit, different colored light gives strtionary time, as applied by SloLrs, rvould lead to the geoa n a p p r e c i a b l ec h a n g e i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f i i n g e s , d e p e n d i n g m e t r i c a l c o n d i t i o n " " dr: d .rlo s / ( r - r / u * r t t u - r n u ) : o . (rs6) on the length of the rvavesin the light used: u'hich obviously 'lo confirms the wave-theory, not only as herctofore tausht, brrt rluantitiesof the first order in (u , u, z,)/,:, this is also as now modified to talie accorint of rl'ales flat in the c t l r t i v a l e n t t o planes of the equators of the atoms. 1'he theory of the rvavcs a , : d j a r / . - , ) J ( r f c 2 \ ' i , , c h z-c l r , -r , d z )- o . ( , s ; ) ' f + fron.r the individual atoms therefore does not add to tl're 'If the medium fulfills hydrodynamically irrotational difficulty of the problem of diffr'action in an1' ,lr'ay. conrlitions, rvithout rvhirling motion of the parts en mass, In the matter of interference, the conclusion is sirnilar, so that d(D : u dj|*u d),-rro 6ls: e is a perfcct difl'crential, -l'his as we have alreadv found in section 8 above. is natural, the scconcl intcgral rvill deperrd on the values of u, .t/, tt) since the rvavesfrom each atom are by hypothesis inriependent at the terminal points, and thus rvill be indcpendentof the of those fr:om the other atoms; and rvhatever the positions motion in the aether about the earth. When this hydrodynarnical of the equa-tors,each wave is transnritted by the aether incondition is satisfied,the patb of the ray of iight, ltetween trvo dependently of the waves frorn the other atoms. lnterp o i n t s w h o s e v e l o c i t i e sa v e g i v e n , i s d e t er n r i n c d r v h o l l y b y t h e ference thus takes place in the modified theory just as in values o[ these velocities anri does not depend on the motion the older theorl', except for the detailed changes already o f t h e a e t h e r b e t r v e e nt h e s e p o i n t s i n t h e p a t h . o f t h e l i g h t . described. I f t h e t e r n r i n a l p o i n t s b e c 0 , ) , 0 , i r t , a n d 1 1, ) , t , i t , In AN So48, p. r8?, rve have given a uervand simple and the intervening rnedium be filled rvith a uniform explanation of the problem of stellar aberration. It is so stream of aether llowing with a uniform velocity whose comvery direct and sinrple as to be rernarkable. In view of the ponents are u, u, u t - then rve shall have diffictrlty felt since Bradlc1"s discovery in r727, which has - l - , 1 , t ^ l , t t . l , / been increased rather than decreased by the investigations " " P " P (r sg) dt: d J t f r ' d s - 6 ) r l c ' ! ' ( ud r + - t td 1 ' - rz u : ) : o d of the last half century, it is surprising that this sirnple xt )'o it .rr,.l,oarl analysis of the problen o[ steilar aberration has not been rt )j tr developed before. lt presents no difficulty from the old or | | "f . : d-l'd.r- d I r ftr' lu\4- tc,,) r( -t't _t'o) il'(st-rn ) ] ] . ( t s s ) * * the new point of vierv of the rvave-theory, but rests wlrolll' on the motion o[ the earth relatively to the independent motion But by hypothesis second term of the right member the of the rays of the star, in the moving wave-field carried along o f t h i s l a s t e q u a t i o ni s zero, and therefore we have with the earth in its orbital motion about the sun. All that rve need consider is the independent motion of the rays of light relatively to the nroving earth. We therefore give the parallel rays of light a common backward motion exactly equal and opposite to the foru,ard motion of the earth in its orbit. The diagonal of the parallelogram :gives the true nrotion of light relatively to the nroving earth; and by drawing this diagonal of the parallelograrn rve have a direct and perfectly satislrrctor,v explanation of the stellar aberration.
5t /ot tt

(iv) Stohes'investigation of r845 harmonizes with the neu' theory of stellar aberration. In the Phil. Mag., 1845, 2J.9, Sir Gabriel Stohcs attempted to examine the theory of aberration so as to find out rvhat distribution of velocity may be imparted to the aether al;out the earth, without changing the path of the rays of light in space. As the nerv kinetic theory of the aether (AN 5o44) rvas not yet devcloped, Stohrc was unrvilling to accept the vierv that the earth could pass freely through thc aether whithout setting it in r.notior.r; and he tried to find the r:onditions which rvould leave the observed aberration unchanged. IL r be the velocity of light in the stagnant aether, in a direction whose direction-cosines relative to axes fixed in space are /, n, n, and the colnponents of the supposed velocity of the aether at an1, point are zl, u, to; then prior t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n to f t h e n e r v k i n e t i c t h e o r y , r v i t h i ' - ' l r n I-, the velocity of the ray in space at the point irr tluestion rvouid be I' c -t- I t -+- lrt 2.t-t lt ill

( 'ss )

6r :

d J d s:
xo/o zo

o.

(16o)

Accordingly the path s obviously is a straight line, in the free aether, from (re,J'0,50) to (,r'1 J't, st), which are the , terrrrinal points of the path. Slohes found, that rhe differentially irrotational condition rvould be ful6lled if the aether behaves like a perfect fluid for the slorv motion of material bodies throueh it.

A '.t lt J

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easily explained on the old conceptions of waves wholly transverse to the direction of propagation. ' 3. The external conical refraction mathematicallV predicted by Sir l,It. R. .Ffanilton about rg3z, and soon'aiter_ rvards experimentally verified by Ltoyd for aragonite was fbund to be definite and decisive. yet in examining the cusp-ray refraction Llo.yd found that the >bounclaries were no longer rectilinear, but swelled out in the form of an oval clrve( showing a very.gradual diffusion, due to appreciable scattering of light (cf. Lloyd,s Miscellaneous papers Connected with Physical Science, London, rg7j, p. r4, (t:yr A:Alr ( r 6 r ) figures i and k). extending away fronr it indefinitely. 'I'hus a ray ol light from 4. Nearly all the very exact measurelnentson polarized a fixed star enters the earth's aether lvave-field as if this light by Lord Raylcig/t, Drudc, Janir, and others trins out medium were absolutely stagnant. And unrler the relative rcsiduary phenornena rvhich shorv a sensible del>arture fron motion of the rays of light and the moving earth, the stellar the classic undulatory theory .(cf. Glazcbroo/t,I,hysical Optics, aberration discovered by Bradhy, r727, really takes place, L o n d o n , r 9 r 4 , p p . 355-382). just as in the emission theory of light. 5. In the donrain of electro-optics,the,(arr phenomenon For the ray of light fronr the star pursues a stra.ight directly points to the rvave-theory, including the rotation o[ Iine in the earth's wave.field, and the identical componint t h e p l a n e o f p o l a r i z a t i o nb y m a g n e t i s n r ; a n d a l l t h i s i s e v e n of -be the earth's motion lbrward, but directed backward, may more consistent with the new wave-theory than rvith the old. transferred to the moving rays of light before they reach If the poles of an electro-magnet are polished, and plane our globe. l'hus, relatively to the moving earth, the rays of polarized light is reflected therefronr, it is found that rvhen light really come from the direction in which the stars appear, no current passes the plane of polarization is not rotated. and ds is a straight line. If then the current flows in one direction, there is a corThis explanation of stellar aberration is therefore georesponding rotation of the plane of polarization; and the metrically rigorous and perfectly satisfactory. And since in l n o n r e n t t h e c u r r e n t f l o w s i n t h e o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o n , a n d t h u s the new rvave-theory of light, no change is made in a ray changes the pole to opposite polarity, the plane of polario f l i g h t a s r e s p e c t sv e l o c i t y a n d d i r e c t i o n , b u t o n l y a s r e g a r d s zation is rotated in the opposite direction. 1.his is very the internal tilting of the planes of the vibrations lrom the definite proof of the wave-theory, both for optics and magindividual atoms, we perceive that the explanation of abernetisnr, for the l{et and Zecnan phenomena. ration leaves nothing to be desired. 6. The production of elliptically polarizecl light by Accordingly it follbrvs that in respect to aberration not the smallest difficulty is encountered in the confirmation letting a polarized bean fall upon a transparent inJulator, such as glass, liquids or gases, under strong electric stress, oi the new wave-theory of light. Such entire agreement, in - the region being filled by electric rvavesrotating in definite such diversified optical phenomena, can have no other meadirection, as in a magnetic field - rvas first discovereci by ning than that the nw wave:theory of light accords with Kcrr, and confirmed by Btcqutrcl, I{undt, Ri)ntgtn, the order of nature. euinc/:i, Lippiclt, Du.Bois, and others. When the medium.is connected Other phenomena examined under the new wave_ with the poles of an electric machine, the waves constituting theory of light. the discharge make it possible to produce double refraction, In addition to the above general phenornena there are as in a crystal, and in Zeenmn'sphenonrena, where the specmany special phenomena which might be used to investigate tral lines are doubled. All these phenornena are founci to the nature of light. With this object in vierv I have loo-ked harmonize with the new wave-theory, quite as well as or into a variety ol observed data to ascertain if any contrabetter than with the classic theory of Fresnel. diction of the new rvave-theorycould be established, or even rendered probable. No such result could be brought out, Iz. The Wave-Theory of Gravitation to wards though I have gone over the principal phenomena iir optics a S i n g l e R o d y e x t e n d e d t o t h e C a s e o f W a v e s fronr 'I'wo and electro-optics. Equal Bodies by means of the Geonletrical r. Polarization in crystals, which presents conrplex and T h e o r y o f C o n f o c a l C o n i c s , i n C o n f o r n r i t y w i t h t h e intricate interference phenomena, and would be likely to O b s e r v e d M o t i o n s o f P l a n e t s a n d C o m e t s u n d e r t h e Newtonian Law. offer a contradiction if any existed in nature. (i) Why the aether remains heterogeneous and presses z, Brcutsttr's law, n: tgg, where z is the index of towards a single body like the sun. refraction, and g the angle of polarization by reflection. The partial failure of this law discovered by r. In our theory of the emission of light and heat Janrin and others, when g differs from 55o35,3o,, seems to point to the new waves from the sun, (AU 5oaa), we have shown that under theory rather than the old. It appears that the outstanding the spherical expansion of the wave surface in free space, residuary phenomena, not in conformity with this law, bu-t the amplitude of the waves follows the law yielding rnaximum polarizing effect when ,: tgg, is not A: klr

Norv in our nelv theory of the aether (AN 5oaa, 5oag) rl.e have shown that the aetber particles fulfill the law of 1f It : ntean velocity ?- zn 47 rz39 krns/sec. Accordingly, the elrth's motion is only r : rqToBthpart of the mean velocity of the particles. And since the ,reloiity of the arth is very small and nearly uniform, owing to thl circularity of the orbit, it follorvs that our planet expiriences no secular resistance from the aether. Nloreover, the earth carries its aether u,ave-field with it, all arranged in perfect kinetic equilibriunr, tvith law of density and wave amplitude

ft6zl

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and the force towards the centre due to the recedingrvaves is thereforeas t h e s q u a r eo f t h e a n r p l i t r i d e : - 4 z - T r z fz 7 (16S) "f w h i c h h a s t h e fonn of the larv of gravitation observed in nature.
-

z. The mere existence of waves, as of light and heat, rvhich certainly radiate fronr the sun with tremendous - ft lr ) asQ- r .,) pnld,s . ( ,os ) rl energy, [:s ] thus necessarily operates to malie the aether ;f'his equation may be interpreted ..t'here heterogeneous, according to thi law o: in the following r,r, is no .rva1':1'he light disturbtnc .16at any point .Pe (r"f,ilf, doubt of this law holding for light and heat rvaves; f,"i a n d i f been. taken as origin) nray. l3e looked upon as the gravitational and magneti. ,u"ueJ exist, they too rvill follorv position of -super_ disturbances rvhich prnpogoted rvith u"foii,y this same larv. It appea.rs that ,XtlagneticSiorms, and ,X{ag_ /,'tou'arcl -Pe lronr "." " tlre surlace elcnrerrts d.! of any cl.r.cd nctic Tides' :rre referable onlv to i"n""., ,,s shorvn in rriv s , r f a c c w h i c h i ' c l u d e s the Poi.t /f,. lior, since the elenrents rvork on Physical Forces, r g r 7 ; and aside frorn the conarc funcrions of the urgurn.n, nection of electrodynamics with gravitation previously .integral [35] t. sholn l? tr l 1 1l.',,, . u .n ye g , i v e n p h a s e o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y a to exist, it is fair to ask the broad question: d i s t u r b a r i c er v i l l exist at Ii, rl I,'seconds after it has existed at dS.< What is the probability that the force : A2 I 4zf ,.2 . -f n'ould give arr appropriate lvave amplitude ) 6. It thus nl)pears 4f 7, ,rn1'"r, that clisturbanceselltanagravitational waves also existi No such coincidence coulci ting from lu torvards dS occur by nrere chancel In fact the chances against such a in a conical solid angle coincide.nce occurring for all the atoms of a body in the d o , m a y b e a s c r i b e dt o ])otential a n n disturbances from the -/)r*(r/- : r , ) t ) - ' t a .o d r d y d z ( , 6 + ) J J J [('-.u')?-r (t, e l e r n e n td S o f t h e s a m e js at least infinity of the third order (oos) to r. corrical solid angle dr,r, l\{oreover, since electrodynarnic action certainly. is lront an)' closed surface clue to $'aves, and these exert a tnechanical action like about 1|. Just as the magnetism -sudden a'd gravitation, rvbat is the chance that there is integral of the outflorvirrg a break in the continuity of natural forces at the r v a v e sq i v e s { i T J a , Q U 4 boundary rvhi<;h is assumed to divide electrical action fronr tron (r65), so alsorhe irrurriuersal gravitationl Evidently the .probatrilitl, is zero. For tegral of thc energy of rve find b' experirr-rents on all the forces of nature that the <ioctrines F i g . r z . I ) i a g r a r n o f t h c d i s t u r b a n c e s , , t h e i r r f o $ ' i n gd i s t u r b e n c e s l reflccted from the srrrfacc ,5 are etlual, and of the correlation of forces and the conservation oppositely o1. enerey about thc point li,, and thus are valid. 'l'hus it is irrpossible to separate gravitation rlirected, which proves from rnaintaincd in perpetuity. the other forces of nature, rvhose electrical character the proposition. is so rvell established. 7 . T h e i n t e g r a l o f t h e v i b r a t i o n s i n t h e s e p a r a t es o u r c e s 'Ihe aether is thus thinned out by rvave aritation, of the inflowing disturbances clS has to be taken over the 3. whole closed surface,and thus the calculation tos'ards all single masses; ancl as the aetheions is complicated, have-a vclol involving a surface integral at the interval c.ity of 47r23g k'rs per second, we perceive that dl over the soiid the erasarrgle rrr : ticity, c 68S3zr6ooooo times greater than that 4ir about the point 1'6. And in orcler to rnainof our tain the action the integral has to be air in proportion to its density, rioulcl secure renerved ,at infinitely an instant short intervals, d1, corresponcling to surface hornogeneity of the aether everywhere but for the thickness incessant a<:tionof the receding waves. Accordingly the world dr is filled . . . , P Nlth waves, constantly received and constantly o)', d / : a,n r! Jl,Jr . elnitted from . (r60) all atonrs. The rvaves are in some tvay due to the o motions of the aetherons, rvhich collide with anil are reflected But as these renewed integrals h a v e t h e by the samevalue reactions of the atorus. for the interval dl, u'e may take d /.' c O n S t a n t , 4. Thus on the one hand, the receding waves would <1r 'n give by reaction the central pressure ot. gravitation; dI-: and r=,ldr : c 47t ('62) o n t h e o t h e r , t h e r e s u l t i n g h e t e r o g e n e i t yo i s u . h an elastic o kinetic nredium also implies the .saire cent.al pressure. Owing o w i n g t o t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o t . l i g h t . to the e.normously rapid nrotions of the aetherons they tenJ Accordingly, if the aetherotrs \\,ere once heterogeneous, pou'erfully to become equally clistributed, and . thus male the in spacial distribution, they u,ould alrvays ,t,.h inluJ.d, u,.,j rr-redium horrogeneous, but as they are reflected violentlf p e r h a p s g e n e r a t e $ , a v e se v e n i f t h c y d i i not already cxist. fronr the atoms, - the collisions and rellections keeping up But. once existing, and enritted ,, iight, hcar or other like th.e.rvaves incessantly - the medium remains heterogeneous, radiation, heterogeneous density oi the aetherons rvill with the energy of the central inrush of the .the aethe.ons luri ahvays exisr. Hence the wave-field about a body like the balancing the loss of energy by the waves receding o*:oy. sun depends on the kinetic exchange of the rapidly moving

In D.n(Cs 'lheor]' of Optics,r 917, pp. r t,_ ..5., (iinglish translation by Mann ^na ,lfitt;t7,rj, o 'u".y7 9 - r g o , ;".;;j kable theorem is drarvn from the rigorous formuiation of I{tq,,g/tms'principle, as followsI rWhen the origin lies within the surlace S, oo tn : ! p[s(t- rl 7z)lr]lar.cos(n r)

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a conic section, by giving it an initial velocity equivalent to the integrated effect of the two bodies frorn infinity, (the 8. This explains rigorously the central pressure of smaller being now rernoved from the simplified problem). gravitation. If waves exist, the density thereby becomes Accordingly if the influence from the otber focus be cut off, y r; and since the waves of light and heat fulfill this at the instant of starting, yet its integrated effect be included d : law, the waves of magnetism and of gravitation also necessa- in the initial velocity, we have the motion in conic sections rily conform to it. for a single body as laid down by Ncuton. There are inThe moon's fluctuations shorv that gravitational waves finite systems of hyperbolas, parabolas, ellipses, which may really exist, and are long enough to traveri the earth's mass, be described, depending on the initial conditions, as more just as similar gravitational lvaves traverse the bodies of fully set fortir belorv. Jupiter, Saturn, etc. It also follows that the aether is excessively fine grained,.otherwise these reflractive phenomena would not be distinctly realized, so as to become sensible to observation in the effects they produce on the moon's motion. 9. The above nrathematical theorem, relative to the inrvard propagation of the disturbances from a closed concentric surlace S, with velocity I/, e<yualto the velocity of the waves traveling outward from the centre Zs, will be fulfilled by the energy florv conveyed through the aether by the individual aetherons from any spherical surface g4nri. It is not necessarythat the ilisturbances s6 from the elements o f t h e ' e n c l o s i n g s u r l a c e d S b e r v a v e s ;t h e y m a y b e s t r e s s e s due to the energy of the individual aetherons produced by the heterogeneity incident to the receding waves, and thus converging to the centre whence the waves come. Accordingly, the above intbgral (r65) rigorously fulfills the geometrical condition for a heterogeneous aether: it is kept to the larv of density 6: r,r. by the receding waves, and the aetherons alrvays pressing inu,ard, by virtue of t h i s v e r y h e t e r o g e n e i t y , a n d t h e e n o r r r ) o u se l a s t i c i t y .e : 689rzr6ooooo tinres greater than that of our air iu proportion to its density. (ii) l'hysi<.al illustration of the ettects of- waves Irorn the trvo foci of an ellipsoid, corrcsponding to a double star rvith equal components. The acconrpanying rvave plate Fig. r3 (Guitlenin, Les P h i n o m d n e s d e l a P h y s i q u e , r 8 6 g , p . r 8 z ) r e p r e s e n t sa f a i n t systenr of confocal conics due to waves receding from two equal centres, such as a double star o[ equal cornDonents: (a) The confocal hypertrolas ..pr"..nt the reacting pressures at the ellipsoidal boundary, if reflection were to take place there, or the inwardly direcred stresses fulfilling the above equation lor 4rtsu, under lfig.ghrns,principle for this more complex system of trvo bodies, insteadof the one central mass already considered. (b) Each wave from any centre as it reaches the hypothetical ellipsoidal boundary is nret there by a wave from the other centre; and in reflection the reaction lronr the assumed bounding surface is in the direction of the hyperbolas, as shorvn in the figure. The reflection is perpendicular to the surface of the bounding ellipsoid; and, whether reflected. or not, the stressesare along the .hyperbolas shown. (c) If one of the bodies be rlearly insensible in mass, it is obvious that the other will emit practically all the waves, and the reaction or reflection would be central, as in the case of a spherical body like the sun. 'fVhen there is a single centre of waves, a comet may be nrade to move about it in

aetherons, under the steady outflow of wat.es, and is therefore eternal like matter itself.

Fig. t.;.

'l-he upper figure is a diagram of pagated frorn two equal loci. r\s the enclosing ellipsoidal surface, the confocal hyperbolas norrnal entire system of confocal conics distinct in the lorver figure.

the rvaves prorcflected liolr) they produce -fhe thereto. is 'made more

(d) 1'hese novel considerations throw a new light on dynamical problems, and bring the laws of celestial mechanics into harnrony with the wave-theory. They are therefore of deepest interest in the theories of the motions of bodies. Every possible notion in a system of two bodies is accounted for, by the effects of perfectly siniple waves, and the resulting stresses in the aether, towards central masses. Celestial nrechanics thus acquires a hydrodynamical basis,

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the aether being always subjected to stresses, owing to the waves receding from the stars and other bodies of the physical universe. A very remarkable comparison may now be made between the waves from two foci reflected from an enclosing ellipsoidal surface, and that above given for .u'avesreflected from a spherical surface enclosing a single centre. r. We have seen that if the waves emanating from a single centre be reflected from the enclosing spheiical surface S : 4fir2, we have the equation (165). z. From this equation it follows that if we imagine a wa'r'e-field established, in kinetic equilibrium, about a radiating star, and suddenly enclose that star by a perfectly reflecting surface, $: 4/t121 the energy near the centre will flow outward, till reflected at the enclosing boundary, rvhile that near the boundary will as steadily flow inward, ro restore the energy lost by the central spherical she)ls,

effects for the two centres are combined as shown by the system of confocal hyperbolas. The system of confocal conics shown in the acconrpanying illustrations is thus of the highest dynamical interest. (iii) The wave-theory rigorously extended to a system of two bodies, by n.reansof the geometricai theory of confocal conics. We have just investigated the physical theory of waves propagated from the two foci of an ellipsoid, and shown that very remarkable phenomena may thrrs arise. As the theory thus outlined may have great dynamical importance, it is necessary to examine the problem somewhat mbre critically from the point of view of geometrical rigor. Perhaps it is not immediately obvious what all the physical phenomena would be in a wave-field about two eoual stars. Yet there obviously is ample assurance rhat should the wave-theory triumph for a pair of equal binary stars, it would necessarily hold for triple and quadruple stars, and sidereal systems of higher order such as rve find in the globular clusters. These splendid sidereal systems are so crowded with stars in their inner spherical shells as to attain a perfect blaze of starlight towards the centre, and thus the glory of globular clusters, like M.r3 in Hercules, ro Centauri, and 47 Toucani, is unrivaled by any other objects in the starry heavens. Accordingly we recall briefly the geometry of confocal c o n i c s , i n t h e h o p e o f i l l u n r i n a t i n gt h e w a v e - f i e l d s n s i d e r e a l i systems of high order, so much studied by the elder lfcrschcl. 'l'he equation of a system of confocal conics in the r _ 1 . p l a n ei s ff(a2-+l)-+lf(b2-rl): r. ( ' zo )

4n lr' dr .
o

P "

3 . And as the velocity of we have r-+ dr ./l( " . 4 7 al f - o r : t

, . 4

V i s constant,
(r 68)

d1t P . . 4 nd r ' d r . l

Accordingly, the loss of wave energy from the centre a n d i t s perfect restoration goes on without ceasing, and the motion of the waves thus confined is eternal.

4. Now in the same way, let us imagine waves elnanating from two equal foci, as in the case of a double star rvith equal components, and suppose both foci suddenly enclosed by a perfectly reflecting, confocal, concentric, ellip- And for the more general systen) of confocal conics, i n trisoidal surface: dimensional space, rhe corresponding equation is 1 2 f( a 2 - + ) , ) - + - 2 20 2 + 1 ) - + z z f ( c 2 + - ) " ) : , . (f ('6s) 12f (a2-+),)-+yzl(tt-r7l+-z2f (c2-rl) : 1. trogl Then the waves from either focus will return to the Fronr the forms of these equations, we perceive that, what other in an interval of time dl, corresponding to the distance applies to the plane of .r7, will apply also to the system of za, traveled before and after reflection, in any plane section confocal conoids in r1tz. Thus for the sake of simplicity we of the ellipsoidal surface; and thus the wave-field about either shall consider the system of confocal conics chiefly in the focus rvill be perpetual. And just ris the wave-field reflected plane 11, as sufficiently g.eneral for the requirements of our for restoration is perpetual, so also the inward stress, from present problern in tri-dimensional space. the aeth,:r outside the surface, is equal to the radiant energy If ,1, is positive in the equation, the resulting curve constantiy reflected, and thus also eternal. This is the foun- is an ellipse; but if /" is negative the curve becomes an dation of celestial dynamics, resulting from the nerv theory hyperbola. The tranSition lrom the ellipse to the hyperbola of the aether. is explained as follows. From the form of (l7o) we perceive that the principal 5. Tbe inwardly directed system of conlocal hyperbolas indicate the direction of the rvave stressessustained by axes of the curve rvill increase as l. increases, and their ratio the ellipsoidal reflecting surface. And since if rve remove will tend more and more to equality as l, increases. Accorthe surface, the waves will proceed into infinite space, we dingly a circle of infinite radius, (a : b - oo), gives the recognize that a wave.field about the two radiating foci must limiting form of the eiliptical conlocals. On the other hand, when /, is negative, the principal inward stressof rhe axes rvill decrease as I increases; and the ratio to EEll

g:
s::ess a.e:-i :lc trDt?at3 :o :':t< sss:e:x. crn. ": I O (a l f , \ ' p e r l O . a . 'fhis 6. gc-o:ne:rica. ier:::;::oa conreus :o c:j! lr.)ncjs very clear cjvnamical ii,us:-rzt:on of the beirar':or of ihe a ( \er:< ::s

(t)2-+),)l@r-+),)

(tz')

x i i l a l s o d e c r e a s ea s 2 i n c r e a s e s . T h e e l l i p s e t h u s b e c o m e s tlerter and fletter, until l, is equal to -1,2, when the minor a x i s v a n i s h e s ,b 2 + ) , : o; and the major axis is erlual to the distance between the foci. The curve thus narroivs dou.n aether about a slstem of tro egrnl srrs. The inward stress to the line-ellipse joining the foci, which is a limiting form is no longer directed to e.ch o"ntrc lcp.ntely, but the total of one of the confocals.

449

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the aether being always subjected to stresses,owing to the 'n'aves receding from the stars and other bodies of the physical universe. A very remarkable comparison may now be made betrveen the waves from two foci reflected from an enclosing ellipsoidal surface, and that above given for waves reflected from a spherical surface enclosing a single centre, r. We have seen that if the waves emanating from a single centre be reflected from the enclosing spherical surface S: 4/tr21 we have the equation (165). z. From this equation it follows that if we imagine a wave-field established, in kinetic equilibrium, about a radiating star, and suddenly enclose that star by a perfectly reflecting surface, $ : 4n121 the energy near the centre will flow outward, till reflected at the enclosing boundary, while that near the boundary will as steadily flow inward, ro restore the energy lost by the central spherical shells,
a

effects for the two centres are combined as shown by the system of confocal hyperbolas. The system of confocal conics shown in the accompanying illustrations is thus of the highest dynamical interest. (iii) The wave-theory rigorously extended to a system of two bodies, by nreans of the geometrical theory of confocal conics. We have just investigated the physical theory of waves propagated from the two foci of an ellipsoid, and shown that very remarkable phenomena may thus arise. As the theory thus outlined may have great dynamical importance, it is necessary to examine the problem somewhat more critically from the point of view of geometrical rigor. Perhaps it is not immediately obvious what all the physical phenomena would be jn a wave-field about two equal stars. Yet there obviously is ample assurance that should the wave-theory triumph for a pair o[ equal binary stars, it would necessarily hold for triple and quadruple stars, and sidereal systems of higher order such as we find in the globular clusters. These splendid sidereal systems are so crowded with stars in their inner spherical shells as to attain a perfect blaze of starlight towards the centre, and thus the glory of globular clusters, like M.r3 in Hercules, ro Centauri, and 47 Toucani, is unrivaied by any other objects in the starry heavens. Accordingly we recall briefly the geometry of confocal conics, in the hope of illunrinating the wave-fields in sidereal systems of high order, so much studied by the elder Ecrschrl. 'I'he equation of a system of confocal conics in tbe ', r// 1 ^\ ry-plane is -t- ^)\ --t-!-. r l l , r -+-t") : \1. ('2")

+n)r2dr. on 3. And as the n.to.i,y of propagati I/ is constant, rve have r_rdr n_d_/l P o , P " , (r08) 47tJ/ 67: 4r)r-dr.
r R Accordingly, the loss of wave energy from the centre and its perfect restoration goes on without ceasing, and the motion of the waves thus confined is eternal.

4. Now in the same way, let us imagine waves etnanating fronr two equal foci, as in the case of a double star rvith equal components, and suppose both foci suddenly | \ai \0enclosed by a perfectly reflecting, confocal, concentric, ellip- And for the more general system of confocal conics, in trisoidal surface: dimensional space, rhe corresponding equation is -r -r x2f (a2-r),)-+t2f (brr-).)-+zzf (cz-+),): ('6s) 1 12f (az-+ ),)-ryL (12 ),)-r z2 (c2 )u)- 1 . ('6s)

f'hen the waves from either focus will return to the other in an interval of time dl, corresponding to the distance za, traveled before and after reflection, in any plane section of the ellipsoidal surface; and thus the wave.field about either focus will be perpetual. And just :is the wave-field reflected for restoration is perpetual, so also the inward stress, from the aethr:r outside the surface, is equal to the radiant energy constantiy reflected, and thus also eternal. 'Ihis is the fotrndation r>f celestial dynamics, resulting from the nerv theory of the aether.

5. The inwardly directed system of confocal hyperbolas indicate the direclion of the rvave stressessustained by the ellipsoidal reflecting surface. And since if we renrove the surface, the waves will proceed into infinite space, we recognize that a wave.field about the two radiating foci must have its equilibrium sustained by the inward stress of the external aether, which is therefore at every point normal to the enclosing ellipsoidal surface. The external aether thus n: \t2-+)")l@r-r2,) exerts its stress along the tangents to the systems of con- rvill also decrease as l, increases. The ellipse thus becomes focal hyperbolas. flatter and flatter, until ,1,is equal to -b2, when the minor 6. This geometrical description conveys to our minds a x i s v a n i s h e s , b z - r ) " : o; and the major axis is equal to a very clear dynamical illustration of the behavior of the the distance between the foci. The curve thus narrows down aether about a system of two equal stars. The inward stress to the line-ellipse joining the foci, which is a limiting form is no longer directed to each centre separately, but the total of one of the confocals. 3o

Fronr the forms of these equations, we perceive that, what applies to the plane of ry, will apply also to the system of confocal conoids in tyz. Thus for the sake of simplicity we shall consider the system of confocal conics chiefly in the plane xy, as sufficiently g.eneral for the requirements of our present problern in tri-dimensional space. If i is positive in the equation, the resulting curve is an ellipse; but if ,?,is negative the curve becomes an hyperbola, The transition from the ellipse to the hyperbola is explained as follows. From the form of (r7o) we perceive that the principal axes of the curve rvill increase as I increases, and their ratio will tend more and more to equality as /, increases. Accordingly a circle of infinite radius, (a : b - oo), gives the limiting form of the elliptical confocals. On the other hand, when l. is negative, the principal axes will decrease as i increases; and the ratio

('z')

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(tZf) -'tit a stnall ne' x,2f(a2-+-),)-rJ/2f(t)2-rl): r. If the process continue till b2-+I == 'fo very firrd the solution for this condition, n'e remember gative quantity, the transverse axis of the hyperbola is - q' : a2-e2 c2+-I, nearly equai to the distance between the foci; and the com- t h a t / 2 : 6 2 - s 2 e 2 , a n d p u t / : - f 2 plement of the line joining the foci is a limiting form of the a n d t h u s o b t a i n t ' r o r t r( r 7 r ) 'fhis ',,t -r -ry,') (r1, a't c") -- t1,Qi -+- e2): limiting fornr of the hyperbola is the narrow o hyperbola. a2 ,, ( , Z+) the right and lcft respec- or hyperbola shorvn in the figure at - ot (r,z -+ l/2 - a2 ,r) - o' e2 : 6 . 1{! ,':t -'rl is a larger negative cluantity, the tively. When /e-+,1, 'fhis is a rluadratic with trvo roots, both real, but of opposite hyperbola spreads its branches more rvidely and the vertex -r7' beilrg signs, and thus there arc two conics, [2a)': becomes rnore distant from the foci on thc horizontal axis, -7,' being the corresponding the ellipse, and It2+-l: as sholn in the central part of the figurc' As ,l' becorr.res hypcrbolr. greater and grcater, the angle between the asynrptotesof the r)r (t ) One conic of a conlocal syste and only one rvill in the lirnit both branches coincide hyperbola increases, and touch a given straight line. with tbe axis of 1,. !-rom the equations Accordingly, wc pcrceive that by nraking i, approach : (tlS) -1,2, we narrow up the confocal ellipses into a straight line : r2f(a2-r)')-+1''!f(t,2-+)") r o lr-rn1,-r joining the foci. And rvhen the change continues still ftrrthcr, rve find lor tange'ncy: l2z1)" - -rl, a vcry small negative quantity, tlte curve passes ( rz 6 ) from the straight line joining the'foci into another strxight which is linear in /,, and yields one value of i,, corresponline running ftor.n eithcr loctts to in{inity, rvhich givc the ding to one coufocal conic, and only one, bounding the l i n e - h y p c ' r b o l ac o r r e s p o n d i n gt o t h e i n t e r r t a l l i n e - e l l i p s e . T h e , 1'his might be tangent to the ellipse, thus ccases to rl)ove between given straight line. point describing thc linc-ellipse or to the hyperltola, bttt rrot to both irt the sallre point, bethe foci, and returns to the otirer focus through inFnity, cause the hyperbolas always are at right angles to tlre ellipses whcn thc linriting clliptical confocal passcsinto the lirniting at theit intersections.' h1'perbolic confocal. lVhcn l, is negative and nunterically Ily subtraction rve have froltl thc trvo ctluations giattat tltan ae, the curvc is inragirr:try. I i f a t , + 1 ' z ft , ) : :t2f(a2-+).)-*lf (b2-r).): r Let us now rettlrn to thc al;ove lrgttres, and inragine (' zz) . s'!f[u)(a!-rl)l+)/'lu)'!(a'-+/.11 : two eryual wave ccntrcs, as lronl a dotrlrlc star of crlttal cotll" t h e n o b v i o u s l y w e h a v e t w o e t l t t a l A n d r r s , t r " . n t r { i t i o r t o l ' t a r r g t ' n c yi s ponents, like TVirginis; (tZS) lvave-fields, one about each focus, u'ith the double systcm x / f d - r 1 ' 1 r f / 1 2 : v r r f ( a 2 - + 7 ) - + 1 , 1 t f ( 1 2 - + - 7 ) :t 'l'he o[ confocal hyltcrbolas, as shown in the above tigure' we see that (r78) shows the rectangularityof the curvesat entire solid angle altorrt the centre of the confocal ellipses t h e i r i n t e r s e c t i o n s . is 9: 4n. ' (v) r\pplication of the theory of confocal conics to But we may split the system of contbcal hyperbolas the rnotions o[ cotnets, as under t],e rvave-theoryof physical into two equal parts, on either side of the rnedian plane, forces. Lfrg : 27t. each equal to Ileferring to the figure given abovc for the waves liour It will be evident on'rcflection that all the hyperbolas tlvo eryualstars, we notice that tire boundary thcre represented about the lorver focus will curve about the right star I' jttst i s o n c o f ' t h e c o n f o c a l e l l i p s c s ; o t h c r s o f g r c a t c r o b l a t e t r e s s as in the case of comcts rel'olving abottt our 'sun: and all are shown ncarcr the ccntrc of the figure, but the approxiabout the upper focus rvill curve about the lctt star ,/'. And mations to the line-ellipses very near the centre are ottritted, these in6nite systems of hyperbolas rvill include curvcs of all for reasons of clcarness. possible eccentricity, rvith a perihelion distance less than a, It rvill lle found that the spheri<:al waves propagated haif the distance betrveen the trvo foci. from thesc two centres give the confocal ellipses, and also The waves propagnted froln trvo eqttal stars by ge- the confb<:al hyperbolas, as cleaily outlinecl in this figure. - the 'l'he nerating a doubly infinite system of confocal conics independent circles about the two foci are at distanccs ellipses cutting the corresponding hyperbolas at right angles a \ , a / 2 , a h , . . . A h . - fix the paths of infinite varieties of cornets about either At the boundary the waves liorn the trvo foci are refocus, as will tre nrore ftllil' discussed bclo*" flected, with reaction in the direction of the perpendicular to the surlace. Hence we see that the nortnals at these points (iv) Geometrical properties of confoctrl. conics' hyperbolas. Accordingly, if (a) Two conics of a confocal system pass through any of reflection give the confocal - one an clliprse, tbe other an hyperbola. After waves were traveling with uniform velocity from' both foci, given point and reflected at the confocal elliptical boundary, there would the above outline this is alnost obvious, rvithout tlrther thereby rcsuit stresses in the aether directed along the condiscussion, for if the e(itlation of the original conic be at the intersections of these two systems. ( r t r ) lbcal hyperbolas s l f a 2 + - 1 tb z : r 2f 'l'his result of the intersecting system of confocals is very the e q u a t i o no f t h e c o n l b c a lc o n i c ' i s renrarkable, since it will hold for every point of infinite -r 12 @2 7) -+- f (b!+ ).) : space, and thus for ellipses and hyperbolas of every possible )'! I that this cun'e will pass throtrgh form, nrutually intersecting at right angles, as shorvn in the

And it is obvious

the g i v e n p o i n t ( x ' 2 ' ) , i f

figure.

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It was established by the researches of prof. Strbngrcn, might be greatly extended, but we shall not enter uDon o f t h e R o y a l O b s e r v a t o r y , C o p e n h a g e n ,a b o u t r g r o - r r , that it here. all the comets heretofore observed describe ellinses about In conclusion, it only remains. to add that in the fifth , the sun in one focus, lt htti previously bccn suliposed tlrat 'ancl sixth pal)ers I hope to throrv some light on the obscure the orbits of certain col.rlcts were hyperbolic, ylt greater physical cause undcrlying molecular and atomic forces. The refinement of research proved the elliptical characier of calculation of the wave-stresses at the boundary of a liquid all these orbits; so that they return to our sun, and thus globule, such as a rain drop or a drop of dew, will lead are relics of our primordial solar nebula, as set forth in rus to the cause o[ surface tension, constantly acting for the my Researches on the Hvolution of the Stellar Svstenrs. generation of rninimal surfaces throughout narure. vol. lI, r9ro. It is not by chance that all Iiquid drops take the If the comets had greater than the parabolic vclocity spherical tbrml The qcomcter may disbover theiein a sreat o[ movementrelativelyto our sun,u>/tt/(t-rnt). ll(zf r), the secret of thc physical nniverse! paths would be hyperlrolas; snch orbits, horvevcr, are nor If so, this acir.ance will illuminate also the difficult , yet of record. It is obvions that we can now interoret thc p r o b l c m o f c a p i l l a r i t y , w h i c h h a s a l r e a d y e n . g a g e dt h e a t _ physical significancc of the s),stcrn of confocal conics, in t c n t i o n o f s o m a n v entincnt geolnetcrs. \Vhence we hoDe conforniity with the obscrved larvs of celestial ntechtnics, to attack the subject of cohesion anci adhesion, and euln and thc indications of thc \Vlvc-'l'lrcory of physical l.'orces. of explosive forces, n'hich hcretofore hirvc appeared even For examplc, if a cornet rvith zero velocity lvcrc to n r o r e b e w i l d e r i n s . cross the boundary to enter the ficld about the trvo foci, .in Mr. W. ,5. I)'an/tlt has laid nre under lasting obliga-' the abo'r'e wave-figure, thc instantancous stresscsto the foci, t i o n s b y l a c i l i t a t i n g .the completion of this fourth paper. on the line of the rcflected rvavcs, wonld cause the comet And IVIrs.Siz"s synrpnthetic interest in tltese researches has to pursue the indi<--ated hypcrlrola, passing throuslr thc point lent a support which olten proved so invaluable as to be b, t). Under slightly rnoclifredconditiJns this reasoning] I'cyorid all praise. Starlight on Loutre, l\{ontgonrcryCity, I'1o., rg:o Sept. 6.

T. J. J. Str.

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()utlines of a Ncrv of Nlolecullr I i o r c c s i r l s c d o n \ \ r r l e - A < : t i o r r , s ' l i i c h i s a l s o i r r cil- t h c l a s ' s o { - r r t t r a c t i o r -' r i c h r v o u l d r e p r e s e n t h e s ep h e n o m e n a ; s h c a t c t l b 1 ' [ , e p l r r : c ' s c l c l r r l t t c d C r i t c r i o n t h r L t t h e s c l r u t s o n r c l l t c r c s e a r c h c sh a v e r e n d e r e d i t e v i d e n t t h a t t h c C I i o r c e s l r c c o r r c s c n s j b l c o n l l ' a t i n s e n s i l r l cI ) i s t a n c c s . r r ' l r o l t :n r a v l r c r c p r c s c r r t c db y t h e s a m e l a r v s , r v h i c h s a t i s l y ' S i n t ' t - 't l t e r c r . t n i s s : t r t ,o [ 1 , h 1 ' s i c e lr i c n r : c i n t ] r c a g e o l - t h c p l r c r o n r c n ao f ' r c l r a c t i o n ; t h a t i s , b y l a r v s i n r v h i c ht h e -c s G a / i l r o n e t r r r a ll r h i l o s o p h c r sh : r l c l a i r o r c c lp a t i c n t J vl o r t h c d i s - a t t n r r . t i o n i s s c n s i i r l c o n l r a t i n s c n s i b l ec l i s t a n c e s ;a n d l t o u - r c o v e r v o l - t l r c q r c a t l a s ' s o f l l r t u r c ; : r r i r lt h u s l b r a l r o u t t h r c c t h i s p r i n c i y r l c \ \ ' c c a n d c c l u c c a c o r n p ) c t ct h c o r y o f c a p i l l a r v . c t ' n t u r i c st h c r ' l n v c c r t c n r : j c rtlh c i r i n v c s t i q r r t i o r l r 1 ,n r c a n so f l t t r a r : t i o n< rs > ( . . 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' \ < : r : o r c l i n u lifn r r r o r i c r nr ro r k s o n I ) h 1 ' s 1 , n ' a t i r : r t t l r c c l p i l l l r l ' a t t r a r : t i o n i s , l i k e t h e f o r c e p r o d u c i n g r e c '. t rl s o i s t i l l s c : r r c h n v a i r r f o r a n i n t c l l i q i l r l c e x p ) a n a t i o ro f t h c n r c - l r e r : t i r r r r , : r na li l < : h c r n i c :a f l r n i t i c s , c n s i l r l e n l y a t i n s c n s i b l e r 'l'hc r l i s t a r r c c s . / h t r , / l s 1 , t e l r s c r v c c t h r t i n g l a s s t u l r c s ,* ' h c t b c r t h e o l chanisnr unclcrlving thcsc lbr<:cs. s r r l r j c c tt h e r c f - o r ch : r s r c n r a i n e c v c r l ' o l r s c r r r e , l n c l c o n t i r l u c st o r : h a l l c n g et l r c i r r - g l l s s i s i ' c l v t i r i c k , o r l c l ' y t h i n , t h e r v a t e r r i s e s t o t h e s a n t c l g e n u i t v o f l r o t h t h e c c o n r e t c r a r r r l t h c u l r u r a l p h i l o s o p h c r . h c i s i r t , i f t l r c i n t c l i o r r l i a m c t e r sa r c t h e s a m c . I i e n , : ei t f o l i o l . s 'l'hc l o h i s t o r l ' o f y r h l ' s i c a ls c i c r . r c c l r o l ' s t i u r t l ' h c r r t h c t h : r t t l r c c r ' l i r r c l r i c a s t r ' : r t i t f e l a s s , s ' h i c h a r e a t a s e n s j l r l c s c l i s t : u r c cI i o l r r t i r c i n t c r i o r s u r f : r c c ,d b n o t a i d i n r a i s i n g t h c s o l t t t i o n o f a ( r c a t s t i r n ( i i n qp r o l r ) c r n a t . l c n q t l r i s a t t a i n c . c l , i t s e l d o n r i s t r u c t l r a t t h e r l r s t a t t : l c l i u ' a s l l t o l l l s u r : c c s s { i t l . \ v x t c r , t l r o l r , l l t i n c a < : l to n c o f t l r c s c s t r a t a , t a k c n s c l t a r a t c l r ' , o r r g h t t o r i s c a l r o r - ct h c l e v c i . I t i s n r t t t h c i n t c r I n d c e r l ,n r o s to f o u r l l n i r l s o l u t i o n s 1 - d i l - l l r : r p lrto b l c n t s r c s u l t t h c l l r r i r l o r l r o s i t i o r ro l - l i r c s t r e t n ,u ' i r i t : ht l r c f i n c l u d c b c t l ' c c n t h c n t , l , h i c i t l r o n r s u c c c s s i l cl r r o r : c s s c o f u p p r o x i n l r t i o n . . ' \ n d t h r r s i t n u r l ' s l r c d o u l r t c r ll h r , : t l r t t r c s o l r r t i o n o I t h c l r r o l r l c n t o l ' u r o l c r : r r l a r j ) r c v c n t s t l r c i r a r : t . i o nr r p o n t h c u ' a t c r ; f o r i t i s n a t n r a l t o s u p 'h l)osc thxt tlrc cirIillarl' tttraction, likc the forcc of grliity., tbrccs nou'in siqht is rltritcconrplctc. i s t r a r r s n r i t t c r l r o r r l l l to t h e r b o d i e s ; t h i s a t t r a c t i o n n t r l s tt h e r c th liut clcn if thc ncu- cliort onll oltcrrshc l'a)'tori',rrrls t s t h c f i n e l s o l u t i o n ,s t i l l i t r r r l v l r t : o I t ] r c g r c i r t c s ts c r l i r : c t o f o r c c l i s a p p i ' r r r o l c l r ' 1 r y r c a s o n o f t h e r l i s t a n c e o f t h c 1 - l t r i r l t . s c i c r r c c . I r o r p i o n c c r c i l ' o r t a l u ' a l s I r l s t o p r c r : c r l et h e p c r f c r : t 1 l ' o n r l r c s c s t r a t a ; l ' l r c n c c i t f b l l o w s t h n t t l r e a t t r a c t i o r r o f t h c g l a s s u p o n t l r c r i ' a t c r i s s c n s i b l eo n l y a t i n s e n s i b l ed i s t a n c c s< < . d c l c ) o p n r e n t o f s r : i c t r c c j, t t s t e - s s o n r c u ' l u t r r r t l c s p r : c i r r r c no f s 1.olltrt jrr-st1r' ler.s strcss ul)on I{au,/lshre's observation s c u l l ) t u r ea l r c la r r : i r i t c c t r r r e r c < : c c i e rtlh c p c r f c c t r l c v c J o p n t c n t p of (lrcck art in thc aqe of Ir/ittrs, 1'lilias nttl Jj a.tilrlrs. t h e t i n q l a s s t u b c s , * ' h c t h c r l c r y t h i c k o r v c r ) ' t h i n , t h e n ' : r t c r i c a . . \ c o r ciln q 1 ' ,h a l i r rg a r r iv c r l a t : r n c f l l r : i c n tp ' l y s i r : a lc a u s c r i s c s t o t h e s l n r c h L . i q h t , l ' t h c i n t c r i o r c l i a m c t c r s r e t h e s a n r e . r 1 'l'lri-s i r r r l i r : r r , t rt,o l / . t f l o r t t h a t t h c i n t c r i o r p a r t i c i e so f a t h i c k t o f n r o l c c u l n rl b r c c s l t i t i c h s e c n l s t o b e i n q c n c n r l o P c r e t i o n t h r o u g h o u t n a t u r c , \ v c ( l c c r ) ti t r l c s i r a l r l c o s c t [ o r t l t t i r c r c s u l t s , t u l r c o f q l : r s sc x s r t s n o s c n s i b l c a c t i o n o n t h c a d h c r i n e l l u i t l . t 'l'hougir b e c a r t s et h c s t t g g c s t i o n s i ' h i c i r t I i s c i c l c i o p l t c n t l l l l y c o l t y c ) ' r r l c l e r s l r s l ) e c t c ch e r e t o f o r c t h i s r c a s o n i n g o 1 l to others arc )ikcl1'to I)rolc lnritlirl. f . o f l o r r f i b r r l s t h c n r o s t r : o n c l u s i v ce v i c l e n c c t h a t m o l e c u l a r t \ i ) L a / l a t s t : r i t c r i o r r , l t a t n t o l e c u i u rf o r c c sl r c c o m e s c r . r - f o r c c sr c r r l l r ': r r c r l u c t o s ' a v c - a c t i o n .I t l i l l b e s h o q ' nh c r e a f i c r s i l t l c o n l y a t i n s c n s i l r l e r l i s t a r t r : c , s ,c c n ) s t o p o i n t t o l r r ' c - t h a t c x l t c r i n r c t r t a l r c s c : r r c h c s i r y l i i i r / t u ' a n d o t h e r s o n t l t e s , a c t i o n a s t h e u n c l c r l v i r r ql r h l s i c : a l c : r u s e . t h i c k n c s so l - s o a l r l r u l ; l r l c s ,t t h e c r i t i c a l i n s t a n t o f r u p t u r e , a I n t h c i n t r o d r r r : t i o no h i s c : c l e l r r a t c r i ' l ' h c o ro l' - C a - r n a k c t h c r a r l i r r so l r < : t i o n o f t h c s c r l o l c c L r l a rf o r c c s s o s m a l l t 1 'l'onre pillaritv, (\lccanirlucCdicste, l V , r 3 o 6 , * ' i t i r , s u l ) l ) l c r n c n t t h a t t h e l t : o r r c s I o r t 1 1o t h e s ' a v c - l e n g t h so f t h e u l t r a - r ' i o l e t t t o t i r e t h c o r y i s s L r e cn r t i o T ) / . a f / a c r c x a r l i n c s t h c t h e o r i c s r c r l i o r l o f t h c s p e < : t m n r a f a c t r v h i c h r r a y b c r e g a r d e d a s a n i i , o f h i s p r e c l e c e s s o r lsi t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i cs a g a c i t y . . e x l ) e r i n r c n t a r : o n f i n n a t i o r orf t h e l ' : r v e - t h c o r vo f t h e s ep h v s i c a l l ^ . \ t t h e l e r J ' o u t s e t o f t h e c i i s r : u s s i o n e a l l u d c s t o t h e forr:es. h r e f r a c t i v ep o \ \ ' e r e x e r t e d l x . b o c l i c s u p o n I i e h t , a r r i l s r y s t h a t It aplrcars thtrt Lallou h'inrself came near to this line t h i s f o r c e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h c a t t r a c t i o n o f t h c i r p a r t i c l e s , v e t o f a r g u r n c n t , f o r i n e x p l a i r r i n gt h c p r o c e s s e s d o p t e d , i n t h e a h e h o l d s t h a t t l r e l a s . o f a t t r a c t i o n c a n n o t i r e r i e t e r n r i n c c l i n t r o r l u c t i o nt o t h e t h e o r l ' o f c a p i l l a r y a t t r a c t i o n , h e s a 1 ' s h a t t b e c a u s e > t h e o n l l ' c o n c l j t i o r r r e r l u i r e c il s t h a t i t n r r r s t e i n - i t i s e v i d c n t t h a t ) ) t h e d i s t a n c e a t u ' h i c h t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b s c n s i [ r l e a t s e n s i b l c c l i s t a n t : c s . <F I e t h e n P r o c e c c l s t o c ] c a l t u i r e c e a s e s t o b c s e n s i b l e i s i n r p e r c e p t i b l e ; s o t h a t , i f b y u ' i t h c a p i l l a r ) ' a t t r i r c t i o n , i n r , h i < : h e r t e n s i v c u s e i s m a d c o f means of lr \-er), po*'erful nricroscope, rve shoLrldbe able to this sanrc )rvpothesis.r\ part of his reasorrings as follo*'s: rnrl<eit ill)l)car ctlunl to a ntilliurctrc,it is probable that the i r9

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'l'hese same magnifying porver would give to the <lilnteter of tl)e to physical probicnrs. t u ' o i n d c p e n c l c n tc i r c r r r n s t a n c e s 'I'he tube an apparent length of several meters. sLrrfaceof s e e r n e dt o n r e a n o v e r w h e l n r i n E[- r e u l r e n t l o r t h e i v a v e - t h e o r l ' r t h e t u b e m a y t h e r e f o r e b e c o n s i d e r e da s v e r y n e a r J ya p l a n e l s r e p r e s e n t i n g h e t r u e o r c l e ro f l t a t u r c , r v h i c h r v e s c c e x h i b i t e d t surfirce, for an extent rvhich is erlual to tliat of the spirerc n r o s t s i u r p l y i n t h e r e f r a c t i o n o f l i g h t . of its sensible activity; the fluicl rvill therelore be clcr'ated In the Nel"l'heorv o{ the r\ether *'e hrrve d*'elt on o r d e p r e s s e d n e a r t h a t s u r f a c e , i n a l r n o s t t h e s a n t e l t l a r ) r ) e r t h e e r l L r a t i o no f u , u v e n ) o t i o n d e v e l o p e d b y ] ) p i 5 s p 1 1 1 as if it were a plane. Beyond this point the'lluitl *'ill be DtQl0t2 : a) (Ftttl?.r.t-i-fiLq1tfi-r't-+'i)et'A|) (r) s u l - r j c c t c d n l y t o t l r e f o r c e o f g r i r v i t l ' a n d i t s o \ \ ' l r : r ,L i u n o r ) o L i k e r v i s e l , b u r t : t t ' ' s ' l - h c ; o r i e\ n a l y t i r l L r ed e l r C h a l e u r , . its particles; its surflce rvill be very'nearly that of a slrherical e s e g r n e n t ,o f r v h i c h t h c e x t r e m e t a n g e n t l t l a n e s , b c i n g t l r o s c r 8 z r , l e a d s t o t h e s i u r i l a r e - r p r s s i o n : t -+ of the fluid surfece at the limits of the sensible sphere of AI Oi A ) :,t, (D (.) A.rt AI et,'_1, A,0,,Artl ? t -+ t i (r) a c t i v i t y o f t h e t u b e , r v i l l b e v e r y n e a r l y , i r - rt l t e c . l i l ] e r e ntru l ) e s , 0 : J ' l r ' , . ) ' , s , t ) ; O - . =/ ( . . , r , : ) , t - - o etlually inclined to their sides; l'hcnce it tbilorvs that all r v h i c h h o l d s l i r r t h c p r o P e u l L t i o r ro l ' l r e u t , a n c i o t l l c r \ ! l v e r r r r , I i o l ] : . 'l'he s e g r n e n t sr v i l l b e s i n i i l a r . comparison oi-thcsc results Iiclr cottstrtnt tcll)l)crrture, i('1,?t: o, unri tIere lilc g i v e s t h e t r u e c a u s e o f t h e e l e Y a t i o l t ,o r d e p r e s s i o r r , 1 ' { l u i c l s , o A ) 6 , 1 f A . t t - r 6 t ( - ) , ; ? rtt(.l l 1 . t - o . ? in capillary tubes, in the irtverseratio oi thcir rlirLrneters.rr l.; > > ' l ' h e r e f b r eh e a t t r a c t i o n o f a c : a y r i l l l r yt u l ) c l r i r s n o l , ' o rt h e d i s t u r b e n c cis t l r c t l r t o r l ' o { ' s o u n t l ,J l , j s s t , t t n t r i ,, o t i r e r i n f l r - r e n ( i u p o n t h e e ) e v e t i o n o r < l c p r c s s i o ro i ' t l r e i l u i c l L r s u a l l y v r i t e sl b r t h c v c l o c i t l . - l ) ( ) t e n ry i r lt h u s : e r , n,hich it contains, tlian that of deternrining tlre inc:lirration A ) r lf,At ' ) : , i t ( ? t , 1 D . u+ - Dr U ,3,, ,: - i - i ! , 1 ,i ' r : , : | ) i (+) a. t. , o f t h e l i r s t t i t n g e n t l t l a n e s o f t h e i n t c ' r i o rl l u i d s L r r l r r r : e i,t u r L t e t l s O ). r 1r.!J. l : : : , 7 r f : 1 r ; , i . : - . / t r . , . t . , : ) ,t : o v c r y n L ' : r rt o t h e s i d e s o f t h e t u b e ; a n d i t i s r r p o n t h i s i n I n t l r e t h c o r l . o f l i q h t , t l r c s l r u c c i i i l c r c r r t i a le ( l u r t i o l t clinationthat the conclvity or convc-\it)'ol'thc surl-ut:c 'l'hcor1' rLriscs (r:i-. l )rLrcle, ol-Optir:s, l)1rt l, C6.1rtcr I I I , \ : ) c l e p e n d s ,a s r v e l l a s t h e r n a g n i t u d e o 1 -i t s r e r l i u s < . A ) s fI / ! : /u r (015.10.,..:1i.i:.e,iir1:r1i:51f.':) ( i i ) ' l ' h e l , a v e - t h e o r ) ' n d e r i i e s h c r r r a t h c n r e t i r ea l r L l l ' s i s u t : n 4,., 1),.' : c'3lr)/_ l , = f , - r ; . l . . _ . / ( r , - r , :, , ) , / : o. o l ' J i o u r i t r l t d . / ' o i s s o t t , r ) , l s e c l o r ) t l r c s o l r r t i o l ro l - p a r t i l l l l n t i r e t i r e o r l , o l u , l r v c sl e i t l L l e l o r 1 ; l l L r r c. l L v ee l o n g dill!rentiiLl e(luutior)s. u s I n t h e I , ' o u r t hP a p e r , n c a r t l r e c n c i o 1 - e t ' t i o r r i , I l r : L v e t l r c . r ' - : r r i s : S f t : a l l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e g r e a t i n i l ) o r t a n c ea t t r r r : l r e ttlo ) r o u r r t l l t r ' 1 . /7 ) ( 6r _ t- , . l s i n I : : . . r , ' 2 . . 1 . r . + , r 1 , r : o n d i t i o n sb y u r o c l e r ni n v e s t i q a t o r s n t i r c o r e t i t : l L l i l r l . s i r : s ,n r i l : ] u t i . t r i r i i r r r t , r r : i . . r L ls 1 r : re , t l l e ( l i s t r l r b e ' r . c s I r e r L r i s i . r l i i u i 1 h a v c l l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h c p r o n r i n c n t p a r t p ) a 1 ' c cll- r 1 ' p e r t i a i t i t r c c t i r r r t ss i t l i t l r c v c l o c j t v l - (at)):..ur i-l,:-1-, ot : d i l i - c r c n t i a le q u a t i o n si n t l r e m a t h e r n a t i c e lu ) c t l ) o d sa p l ' l l i c a l r l c a r r d i l - o r r a n r ' p o i r r t l ' ( t , , y , : ) , t h c s p h c r e s u rl e t c l , c , . o r n e s : J (o. : (:t -+- / cosd) r + (..r+ a / sir.r sin ro)r-r (: r o I sin6 cos r,r) t)) a d \7,/ rvhich rve have treated itr previous l)irpcrs. 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l l y i n c l u d i n g t h e lactor r /8 ir:j i n t l i e a r L r i t r a r yl L t n t : t i o r . r , i s m a y b e r v r i t t e n i n t l r c r v e l l k n r - r * ' n l b r n i o l ' t h e e x p r e s s r o n th

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. \ n d f i n l l 1 r . , i n t h c l i o r t r t h I ' : r p c r , ( r \ N . 5 o E - 5 )r,v c h a v e r c a r : l r c r l / b i - r s o n c l o r r b l c i n t c g r a l: s (l) : ()'-+ q)" s d ( r/.r.r),1' 4 I I o s 6 , . t ' * a / s i t r s i n t , , ,: ' r r ' ' i t t 6 I ' o s ( nIt , i n B 6 d r ' t . l ' z 'i \ ' a l
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1rrrirlt,/'(r.'.l',':)erlritr:tr'crsit.tglrlIs1lar.c1l,rrtrltlllt o t : r r r l r s s , r r 1 1 r lt l t r r s \ \ ' c l l l l s t c x t c l t ( l t l r c i r r t r { r e l o l ' / ' r t i s s o t t 1 n ' t l l i i r t g n z n / ; 2 n (l) -

for the voltttne ancl densitl':

t t ' 1 - , t / , o s A , . t - ] - t t l s i n d - . i n ( t ) i, - 1 - t / s i n d r : o : r , r l l r s i n A < l t ' < 1 6 l r , r ' l s i n d r l 4 r l r , t ,[,f'.1'(,r.rt,).1',f'Z't1

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t u 0 * * . f ' . f '. f '( r ' . r . ,) i a ,a r ). f '. \ ' l l t , .+'' ar < - r t s, - t ' o/ s i n4 s i na r , - . a / s i n 4 , , r , s ,) r . r s i n d d r d 8 d o t ' t s i r t 6d 0 d o t
o o

2 . l ' ] r c I i . c r : o q n i z e dR e f r a c t i o n a n d l ) i s p e r s i o r r n I ' h i s i s : r d o u i 1lc r r r r i n t r r p lic t c e r a l ,e n r i l r v r c [ c r r i n gt o t h r ' r c lt tr tr t h t r 1 t o rcs ro t l ro ll r c t l u l t i o t . t s( q ) o . { r ::)) a llrroo c c \ \\''cc s (c c t h ::t r t( r - 1 )) ::o r r r c ls l rr otr so l s o l - L i q l r t i n l I ) r o p o f R a i n s h o r v s t h e C a r r s c o f t h c
a s i n g l c l t o n - n r r p l c i n t c . g r i L li n t l r c o r i g i n a l l - o r r l o l - t h c s c 'r r - ( l 6 r t i o 1 s , l r r t c u u s ct h c r l i s t r r r ' l i a n ( ' (n s u s l i , c c o n c c i l c r l t o I{itinlrou', rr'hcn thc tnrl sttgqcsts of'Light Sintillr is X{olecltlar cxtcnclcd I ' ll - t - e r : t s Sotlrcc b1'l)otrlllc

p r 6 c c c c l ' r o r nc : r r : l r t o r r r o l t h c n r a s s ,
, , ,= \ . t| f ,ilr.in4'lr,la,lnt

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to thc Srrrl'ace of thc i'lntire (lelestial lntcgrrtion Slrlrcrc. ( i ) ( ) r r t l i n c o f ' t h c t l r e o r y o f t h c r a i n b o r v ,a s a t r i n ' t r o r l u c t i o n t o t l r c r ta v c - t h e o r l ' .

t J , r ' tt h c r : i r c l ri:n I r i s . r r e p r e s e n a s e c t i o no f a s p h e r i c a l t N , r r v i n t l r c p l n s i t : r l t t n i v c r s c ,s t t < : li t t r l c p c n t l c r tq r a v i l t a t i o n a l \ \ - a v c sn r u s i l r c i n r l g i n c c l t o l ) r o ( ' c c ( '1 l - o r nt h c s c l c ' r l L l r a i n - t l r o p . , \ s s r t c r i s ) i r 1 t t i ca n d y i el d s t o t h e f o r c e s a c t i n g l ju e t o n r s o I a ] l l > o d i c sl h r t t s o c : v c r , s t l s l i q l r t r r ' : t v c st l o l l - o t t t o n t h c s r r r l u c ct i r i s h r ' p o t h e s i so f s p h e r i c i t y i n t p l i e s t h a t t h e r e a t s c l r ' . l ra t o r n o l - t h c s c i l l l t t r r i t r o t t g e s c so f t h c s t r Ls . ' \ t ' c o r t i i n g l v a r c ( o 1 r : i t ; u r t l r -t t i n g l o r c es a t r v o r k t o m a i n t a i n t h i s f i e u r e; s r r r : hi n t c g r : L t i o nh a s t o l r c c , x t c n c l c ctlo t h c l ' a v c s l l - o t u a l l arrcl rvc linorv frorn thc researcires of Lorcl liay'1ri,;'I (1'roc. o l l i r s s e ss c l c l a l l r ' . u r r r la s t h c r c i s a n i n l r n i t u c l c 'f l t o d i c s , t h c l i o r ' . S o r ' . ,\ l r r v - 5 ,r 3 7 g , n o . r g 6 ) , o n t b e o s c i l l a t i o n - p e r i o d s s o ih , i r c s u l t i s a n i n t c g r : r li n l l n i t t ' l r r c l r c a t c t l ,o r a n i r r l l t t j t c r . r t c g r n l , o l - g l o i i r r l c s 1 - 1 i t 1 L r t r la t t h e f o r < : e a t r v o r k a r c r l u i t e p o r v e r f r t l , o c t h o u g h t h c v r l u c o l ' t l r c d i s t t r r - l r t t r t :r c t t t l t i t t s l l r ti t c r t t c \ c r ) ' o t h c r s ' i s ct l r c o s r : i l l a t i o l r s l - t i r c d r o p s o f d i s t o r t e c lf o r m r v o u l d n o t l r c s o r : r p i r l a s t h c l ' a r e o l ) s e r v e dt o l ) e . point of-sp:rce. . \ n r l r r o to r r l l i s t h c r c a d o u i r l ci n f i n i t c o l i n l l n i t c i n f r n i t c r s \ ' , s t L ' n r i n t c r p c r t e t r i t t i n q v a v e s ,l t r t t a i s o t l t c r c s i s t l t n c c s of a l ' i t i r r e l i a c ' . i o n ,r l i s l r c r s i o n n d i n t c r f ' e r c n c c a t t h c I r o t t n r l r r i c s o f a l l - * o l i d s a n r l ) i r l r r i c il r o t i i c s . I t i s t h c s e r t ' s i s t : t n c c s a r e l ' r e c t i o n - sd i s p c ' r s i o n s ,r l i f l - r e c t i o n s , n c l o t h c r \ \ ' a v c t r { r n s , 'l'hcv lhir:h qilc rise to nrolecular forces. fornrations rusLtalll arc ver\- grorr-crfulat the srtrfaccsof boclics, ar-rcllry s l t h e i r m t t t u a l i n t c r a < : t i o t ro n c o n t i g u o u s t o n ) s a n c l t r o l c c : r t l e s l , c a u s e c o h c s i o n , a r l h e s i c . r nc a p i l l a r i t r ' , a n r i < : h e t r t i c aa f l i n i t l ' , a n d o t h c r l r h e n o r r c n a h e r c t o l b r c L r t t e r l yb c s ' i l d c r i n g t o t h c nntural philosolrher. N o r v i t i s o u r p u r p o s e t o o t t t l i n e a p r e ' l i m i n a r l 't h e o r ) ' of these forccs, in the hope that the light thLts shed on a v c r v o l r s c u r e p r o l r l e n . rm a v i n d u c e o t h c r s t o c r t c n d t h c s e researches. lt is olrvious tirat the prclinrinarl tireorv nrust n e c e s s a r i l vr c n r a i n v e r y i n c o n r p l e t e t i l i t h c p h c n o n r e l r Aa r e u c a r e f u l l Y s t L r c l i e d n t i c r a c r i t c r i o n r v h i c h n r a . vo l ) c r a t c a s a 1 1 < experinrenturucrucis. BLrt these verifi<:ations :an only lre b cler'luced y inlestigators of great expcricncc in the several lrrarrr:hcs f phlsicrl scrcncc. o

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Iiie. t. I'ath o1'thc sun's rays in the theory 'l. he irrge circle of thc rainhort. rcl)rcscnts thc rnaqnificcl raindrop, enrl ().t tlrc rlircction of the sttn.
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As.our theory of rnolecularforces is based upon the action b e i n s u c h p o s i t i o n t h e t t h e l i g i r t e n t e r i n s t h e r n i v i l l h n v e 'rYenlust be careful llot to asstlllle undergone rlinimutn deviation, ar-rd send to the observer lt of waves of various lengttrs, are that rvavesother than those of the visible s])ectrr-1ul absetlt, relatively large antottttt of light, on a darketrcd backgroLlnd. 'l'his sirnple theory briefly outlines the toundation of thc the probleln of the rainbo\\r otlr reasouittg of cotlrse yet in r e l a t e st o t h e v i s i b l e s p e c t r u n r .I t i s b e l i e v e dt h a t l ' a v e s s h o r t e r r a i n b o r v , b u t t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f c o l o r s i s s t i l l t o b e e x p l a i n e d . \\Ie shlll norv inciude the eft-ectso1' rcfiaction and re' t h a n t h e v i s i b l e s p e c t r u n g i v e r i s e t o c h e n r i c a la l - l r n i t y ,c a p i l rvhilc the u'avesof the infra-red region, haling llection, so as to take account of dispcrsion. '\s the sun's larity, etc., enorrrorls wave-lengths,generate heat throucll irreilliil)g up into rays inlude all the rvave-lengths of the spectrul'n, 1ve lllust c o n s i c l e rt h e p r o d u c t i o n o f c o l o r i n t h e r a i n b o r v . I t i s o b shorter and shorter rvavelengths. ln figure r the circle represents l sectiotr ol'a sl.therical v i o u s t h a t i f t h e s o u r c e o f l i g h t \ y e r e a p o i n t a n d t h e r e r v e r e s rnin-drop, rvith parallel rays of sunlight 51 ,ld, and thtts r n o n o c h r o r n a t i cl i g h t , t h e l t t r t t i n o r " rb a n d u ' o u l c l b e r e d u c e d s'hence 'it is rellecteci t o a l n e r e I i n c o f o n e c o i o r t : i r c l i n g a b o u t t i r e a n t i - s o l a rp o i n t . internally refracted along tlre ltath 'lf1li1, t ,4{, and then otltrvarclly refrlctecl along l l n t r v h e n l i g h t o i t h e r v h o l e s p e c t r u t n i s i n < : i c l c r tu p o n t h e along the path -111 'I'ire line fror.u the centre O-ll, trakes an r l r o p s , t h e v i o l et r a y s a r e d ei ' i l t t c d u r o r e t l t a l t t h e l r v e r l g e ; tlre path /i(-P1. a n g l e o f 5 9 ' w i t h t h e p a t h o f t h e i n c i d e n t l i g h t , r v h i c h , a t m o r e o v e r t h e l ' i c i t l i o f t h e s o r t r c e o f l i i l r t l t t s t i r e s ' e v e sl l l l e\lt this snrall circle d abor.rt ,'l'1 as a pole, is less deviated by a t s l i g h t l y d i t f e r e n t a n g i e s , u n d h e n c'I'ltec i n n e r s i d e o i t h e rrrinirorv is tirus a o". trvo refractions ancl reflectiotr, than is the iiglrt inciderlt at cone has en rnglc 1 of al-rortt,1 irr. It appears tirat tlrc sttrface of c o n i c a l b a n d , a b o u t z " s ' i c l e , r v i t h t h c r c d b a n c l l b o u t 4 : " other small circles aLrout t l i e r a i n - d r o 1 ri s d i v i d e d i n t o d i f f b r e n t z o n e s a b o u t t h e p o l e f r o r r r t l t e i r r )il' s o l u r l ) o i n t . I n a d r l i t i o n t o t h e p r i n r a r y r r i n i r o t v t h t r s L r r i c l - l ye x IIf, and the path rvithin depencls ot.t thc poler ,tngle d, rnd plained, there is t secondlry ntinbol' tlue to lisht rvhich lres of the light. also otr tlte rvave-lerrgth b e e n t r i ' i c e r e l l e r : t c d w i t h i n t h e d r o p , a s s l t o t v r . itt t l l g r t r e z . It rvill be found that lor rays of the visiblesl)ectrllr)r, Iieht incident in the narrow zone or srttfrLte the
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operates to fortn u ,r"rlt,", pcncil u\', -11 l'lren tltc ra1'sltai'e undergone their lasl refraction in leltvirlttthc rlinclrop. In nertrcr the poie, the incidcnt a n o t h e r s t . u a l l c rz o n e , a s "l{1, l i g h t f o r n r s a < l i v e r g e n t1 ; e n c i l , \ i 1 ? , , r v l t e t l t l r c o r i g i n a l l y 'l'he o direct illurrrirr:rtion f tlre p a r a l L e lr a y s l t a v e c l e l t a r t e d . the drop turned to\\'ar(ls thc srttr tlrus yields henrisphere of zones abottt the pole rll: snccessive.

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t t t r d e r s t a n ctl l i e i l l u r n i n a t i o n o f t h e s k y n o t ed i n r rainbolv, rve notice that in the case of an ernittcd parlllcl t p e n c i l , t h e o n l y d e c r e a s eo f t h e l i g h t r v i t h t h c d i s t r L n c cl e p e n d s o n t h e a b s o r p t i o n i n t h e r a i r l c l r o p a s I t t t e r i i L t t r lr,v l r i c h i s is srnall. llut rvith the divergent pcncil the cast-' vcry tlili'erent, llrea lrec:rusethe ra1'slre sltread over il qreiltcr lLtld g-t'eater a s t h e y r e c c t i c l r o r n t h e i r p o i n t o f i r l t e r s e c t i o t t ;a n t l l t e r l c e the illumination rapidly decrc-lses u s i ; \ c c c . r r c l i n g l yt,t v i e t r ' i r t g L t c i r r a i l r r l r o l rl r - o r rltt c l i s t l t t l r : c , rve slrould receive a consirleralrle lttrlottttt of IclilLt;tccl )iglit i n l o o k i n g a l o n g t i t c < : o n i c : t ls u l l l r c e 1 ' r ; \ i , l r L r t v c r y l i t t l c tire ltl-rt.rLtt sLtrilLr:c when ri,e look along ally other cr>t.ticlLi

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o I ' i x l , l a r l L t i , , r r i t l t e P r i l t r r r r vr r r r l s e c o n , l a r v r r i t r l i t t t t ' , t l l e l a t t e r lr1 .r Icrrr'rrl ,lur'l,lt rt tltttiutr rvitlrirr tlre rainLlrolI.

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anti-solarpoint. A f t e r p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t i r e l i r l l i n g r e i n t i r o l i st l r e l i g h t o 1 ' g l i i g . . ; . ( . i c n c r a lo r r t l i r l co l t l r c t i r t o r y o f t l r c r a i r t l r o t v i v e r ti t r sun thits becotnest'edistrilluted in the sliy, atrti rl Ilttrlittotts the \-.c\vtotr'()l)llcs, I 7o+. s b a n r l a p p e e r s , c o r r c s p o n d i n g t o t h e r a ) ' s r r ' l r i t ; l lc r t l e r g e a s Orr'ing to t])e I'cversed uatttre of tire rcllectiorl, fron-t p a r a l l c l l t e n r : i l s ; b r t t i n t h e o t h e r z . o t . t c tsi t e t ' c r s r c l a t i v c l y thirt the colors itl thc secolldary s i n c r e a s e d d a l k n e s s , g r v i n g t o t h e d i v e r g e n l ; 1 'r ' l r r L l c o r - b e l o r v u l l w n r c l , r v c l l c r c e i v e responding thereto. It \\'iil be seen from the los'er Irart oi'thc hqLlre that the angle i! P2X' : y is 4zo; and hence lll rlindrops on the surface of the cone 4zo lrot-n the arlti-solar lloint u'ill
'fhr'rs lvhilst tlte 1'.rrinllrl'borv gives shor.ritl bc reversecl. thc red above irncl the violet llclorv, tltc secouclary borv has the violer above lnd tlie red belorv. r\rld the angles 7 of the cone are abortt 54o for the violet, atrd 5 ro for the red' bo\.

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The secondarl' rainborv is therefore u'ider than the prirnary b o r ' , a n d f a i r - r t e r ,n ' h i l e t h e c o l o r s a r e e x a c t l l ' r e v e r s e d . l i r o r n t i r e r e a s o n i n qh c r e o u t l i n c d , i t f o l l o r v st b a t t h e r e are t\\'o z.oncs fbr proclttcine the rairrbol's: 'l'he I)ritnarl' 13os', r.
tr.r

/[rrsrhrl'sanalysis the intensityof the forces of producing i s r e f r a c t i o n s s o r v o r t h yo f c a r e f r r l t u d yt h n t w e q u o t e i t a s tollon's:

> \ \ r h a t e v c rb e t h e : f o r c e s b y r v h i c h b o d i e s r e f l e c t a n d refr:rct )ight, one thing is certain, that they must be incorlrparably more energetic than the force of gravity. The attraction of the earth on a particle near its strrface produces a r i e l l c x i o no f o n l y a b o u t r 6 f e e t i n a s e c o n d ; a n d , t h e r e f o r e , in a nrolecule rnoving rvith the velocity of light, rvotild cause a c r l r \ ' : r t u r e , r c h a n g e o f d i r e c t i o n , a b s o l u t e l y i n s e n s i b l ei n o thnt tjrnc. In fact, we lnrlst consider llrst, that the tinre during l'hich thc l'lrole action of the rnedir.rmakes placc, is only t tliat rvithin u'hiclr lieht traverses the dian-reternf tlrn cr.l.n'o r of scrrsil,lc r tio' of its r'olcculcs^i rn" ,,,.f*;.';i";il;,; s o r r r r r : h e s a t h o L r s r n d t ho f a n i n c h f o r t h i s s p a c e i s b e v o n d al1proirabilitl,,and this interval is traversedby light in thc rfrz6i zooooooooo part of a second. Now, if we supJ)osc t h c c l c v j a t i o np r o d u c c d l ; 1 ' r e l r e c t i o n t o l ; e 3 o o , ( a c a s e u ' h i c h f r c r l r r c r r t i lh a p p e n s ) a n c l t o b e p r o d u c e d b y a u n i f b r r n f o r c c ' a < ; t i n gr i u r i r . r qr t ' h o l c s e c o n d ; s i n c e t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a l i r r c a r r l c l l c x i o n o [ ' z o o o o o m i l e sX s i n 1 o o , o r o f r o o o o o r n i l e s -t-iooooooX r(r I'cct, such a forcc nrttst excecr.l : qravity on the eartlr'ssnrfaqe t3oooooo times. Ilut, in fact, tlie l'hoie cffect lrcins procluced not in one second, Lrut in tl-re snrall fraction o{' jt above mcntionecl, tlre intcnsity of thc forcc o p c r r t i n g i t ( s e e l ' l c c h a n i c s ) t . r t u s tb c g r c a t c r i n t h c r a t i o o f t h c s r l u l r c o f ' o n e s c c o n d t o t h e s r l n a r co f t h a t f r a c t i o n ; s o r thirt tlrt: lcrst inrprobablc sLrpposition ve can mlkc givcs a r r r c a n l o r r : c c r , l u n lt o 4 9 ( : o rz ( t z i z X r o 2 { t i m e s t h a t o 1 -t c r rcstrill gralitr'. llrrt in eddition to this estimate alreaclvso c l r o r n l o l l s ,r v c h a v c t o c o n s i d c r t l r r t e r a v i t y o n t h e c n r t h ' s s r r r f a c ci s t h e r e s u l t a n t a t t r z r c t i o no f i t s r v h o l e m a s s , r v h e r e a s l t h e f o r r : c d r . : l l c c t i n g i { r l i t i s t h a t o f o n l y 1 } i o r " m o l e c u l e si r n n r c c l i r t r : 1 vr d j o i n i n g t o i t , a n d u ' i t h i n t h c s p h e r e o l ' t h e clcilccting forccs. Norv :r spherc oI r/ rooo of an inch dian r c t c r , l n d o l - t h e n r c . a nd c n s i t y o f t h c c r t r t h , u ' o t t l r l c x e r t u a t i t s s r r r l : r r : c l T r a v i t a t i n gf o r c e o n l y

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rvhere 1r , lz, ls, /".t a r e t h e : 'l 5 r,r_."l e s o' l ' t h c c o n c s f l o n r t l t c " r' " anti-solar point. Norv consider rvhat woulcl be thc result for grcatcr . c h a n g c s i n l r t y e l e n g t h t h a n r i ' e l t a v e c o r r s i c i e r c dO l r v i o r r s l v t h e r v i c l t h o f t h e s e l t t t n i n o r t sz o n e s s ' o t t l c li i e i n c r c t s c c l , a t t t l attain artl' rviclth apProPriatc to the r:rngc in thel' r-r.,1*1.', 'l'hLrs b if tltc rengc o[ *'avc-]ctrt{th e rtttrltipliecl rvave-lcnqth. tlrc zonc oi light nrisht lrccornc rlttite lr'icle. say tcnfolcl, l I i i n a l l y , s ' e s h o L t i cc o n s i d e r t h c c f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i r t gt h e , r v i d t h o f t h c l u u r i r r o u ss o r . l r c e a s b y p u t t i n g a t l c l i t i o n a ls u n s t o r a d i a t i n g , s i d e l r y s i r - l e .O l r v i o r r d l l 'c a c ] r s r t n r v i l l g c l t e r a t e 'v i t s o r v n r a i r r l r o r . , r , i t h o u t r c q a r c lt o t h a t c l u c . t o t h c o t h c r s L t t r ; i , a n d t h u s r v c s h o t t l t l h a v c a s r t p e r p o s c c lo r a c r : t t t t t t t l a t c dn o t e g r a l c l i - c c t o r t t h e l r i t < : l < g r o r u t cfl- t h c s k 1 ' . I f t h c r c l r c s t t t t s .: 60 Io o, : side lry -sidc, ll-onr 11; 36o", u'Iiere or is thc r , a z i n r u t h , t h e c i r < : u l a rs t r i n g o f s t 1 1 1l sc l r t h e h o r i z . o r r r r ' o t t l d t f i l l t h c I r c l l c n s n ' i t h r t i n b o r v s s u l ) e r l ) o s c ( lh r c c o r r n o r e l a 1 ' e r s d c e p , a n t l t h e s , h o l c l o t v c r 1 ; a r to f t h e s k t ' n ' o t t l c lb c c o t u c v e r y l u r n i n o u s . i \ n d i f t h c c l e l a t i o l r o f t h c r i n g o f s t t n sb c i n goo, :: o", c r e a s e r i ,f r o n r t h c i t o r i z o r t t o t h c z c n i t l l , i : s ' h e r e : i s t h e z e n i t h c l i s t i t n c c ,l ' c s h o u l d f i l i t h c r v h o l e h e i r v c n s s e y c r a l. t i r l c s o v c r s ' i t h t h c i i g l r t o f r a i n l ; o r v s . 'l'lrcsc r : o r . r r : c p t i o nr l , a * ' n f r o t r . ro u r t h e o r y o f t i r c r e i n sr b o s ' , a s c x t c n c l c db ) ' i r r t e g r : r t i n gt h e c r r t i r e c c l c s t i l l s l l h e r e , ( t i r " o o ) x ( r i n c h / < l i a n r c t c rf t h e c a r t i r ) o r v i l l l r c r h r p s p r o v c o f v r l u c u ' h e n 1 \ ' | c o n r e L o c l c a l* ' i t h t h e 's'ave tireor'1'of nrolccttlat' lbi<;cs. o 1 -o r r l i n a r l ' r ; r a l i t l ' , s o t h a t t h e a c t t t a l i n t c n s i t y o f t h e f o r c e cxcrtcri lrr. thc nrolcculcs conccrncd "cennot be less than (ii) Sir J',,/rn /1rr.r,:lrl s rrsunrcnt that in rcll-:r<:tion thc ( t o o o . e a r t h ' s i a n r e t e r ) / rn c h ( : 4 6 3 5 z o o o o o o ) i d m e c h a n i r : a fl o r r : c sc r c r t c c i n r u s t b c t e l t r c t l i n l r n i t e , n r a l ' l r c t o t ' l i s p e r s i o n a n d t h c h r r r c ' l t t c s sf l r o d i c s , a s i i r n e s t h c a l r o v c c n o r n r o r t sn t t m b e r , o r u p r v a r d s o f z ' r o I I , o a extencieti iso n u , i r c n r : o n r p a r c d \ \ ' i t h t h c o r c i i r - r a riy t e n s i t y o I t l r e q r e v i t e t i r r q in section I0 lrclorr'. l n I r i sc c l c l r r a t c r l r t i r : l c o n l , i g l r t , I i n r : r ' c l . \ l c t r o p . , r 8 4 g , p o u c r o f n r a t t c r . S u c i r r r e t h e c n e r q i e s c , o n c e r n c t li n t h e Sect. 5 6 t, S)r j'o,"it /lrt'srht'1 has r:tlc;ttlltccl thc jrttcrtsitv ol- l r h c r r o n r c n ao l - l i g l r t o n t h e A b u l o n i t t t r c l o c t r i n e . I n t h e u n u , t h e r e i r a c t i v e i o r c c i r - r c o r n p a r i s o n s ' i t h t h c f o r c c o f g r a v i t l ' t i u l a t o r , vh 1 ' p o t h c s i s n u m b e r s n o t l c s s i m u r e n , s e ' i l l o c c t t r ; s r r r f a c e . \ \ r h i l s t h i s r e s r r l t i s o l r t l i n c c i o n t i r c n o r i s t h c r c a r 1 ) rn r o ( 1 eo f c o n c c i v i n g t h e s u b j e c t r v h i c h c l o e s at thc carth's l i \ V u ' f o n \ n e n i s s i o n t h c o r y , a n d n o t l r l c c i s c : J vp p l i c a b l e t o n o t c r l l u l ) o n u s t o a d l l r i t t h e e x e r t i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l f o r c e s t the prolrlen'rbcforc us, )'et this reasoning, ts /[rr-rrhrl rcnrarlis, r v h i c h r u r l ' r . , c l l L r c - c r n t e d i n h n i t c . < 'I'e 'l'heory of Surface nsion t i s r v e i l c a l c u l a t c c l o s h o n ' t h e g r e a t n c s so l - t h c p o u ' c r o I 3. OLrtlinc of Nerv 'l'lris nlolecular forccs, cnorrnotts force'!ve no\\'rssirln to a n d o f C a p i l l a r i t y b a s e d o n \ \ / a v e - A c t i o n . (i) ifronr the snrall radius of activity ofthe urolecular o r v a v e sa c t i o r r , a n r l c x p i a i n l r l ' t h e v c r y h i e h e l a s t i c i t - v f t h e 6 8 g 3 2 r 6 o o o o o t i t r e s r n o r c e l a s t i c t h a n f o r c e s o b - . e r y c db y Q u i n t / t c i n r 8 6 9 , - n a m c l y 5 o m i c r o a e t h e r ,r i ' h i c h j r 6 : o o u r a i r i n p r o p o r t i o r l t o i t s d e n s i t y ; a n c l - v e tt h i s e n o r n r o u s l y m i l l i r l c t r c s , c o r r e s p o n d . i t - t g a w a v e - l e n g t ho f o n l y o n e h a l f t c l a s t i c a c t h e r n o t o n l 1 . i r a s t h e r v a v e s u r f a c e r c f r a c t e r l , a n d t l ^ ' a o f t h e s h o r t e s tl v a v ee v e r m e a s u r e d - i t f o l l o u ' s t h a t t h e s e o t h u s s n d d c n l f i r e n t i n t o : r r r c l ' p o s i t i o n , a t t h c l i o u n c l i r r y l ' f o r c e s c l c p e n d o n r v a v e s i r r t h e i n v i s i b l e c h e r n i c a ls p e c t r u m . lrr Poggcndorff's r\nnalen, I37, r 869, Quinc/r.c gives l s o l i d s a n d l i r l r r i c i s , r u t a l s o s u f ' f e r se n r n r e r l u a l e f r a c t i o n o r c e r t a i n r e s l l l t s o f h i s o b s e r v a t i o u a lr e s e a r c h e so n c a D i l l a r i t y d i s l l e r s i o no f t l r c u , a v e s a c c o r c l i l r gt o t h e i r l c n g t h .

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a n d . s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a , a n d i s l e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o r rt h a t Iironr the above reasoning rve lray suppose this value ot the nrolecular attraction becomes sensible at a distance of 7't < 250 ltlt,. a b o u t 5 o m i c r o - m i l l i u r e t r e s ,o r e o . o o o o 5 o n i m , o n e u r i l l i o n t h z. Now Langley found by his e-rplorations of the in' of a millimetre rp,1t,: o.ooooor mur. lra-red sl)ectrurr, by means of the bolorleter, thirt the heat Rdn/nld and Riiclcr have strikingly conhrmed Q)titt/te's s p e c t r u l r u ' a s a b o u t z o t i n r e s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e v i s i b l e s p e c t r u r n 'l'hcy conclusions by their researcheson soap bubbles. lbund o l r s e r v e d b y t \ : L t t , / o t t , r v h i c l i n t n s f r o m . l : ? 5g.4 (tlt, to that the black film alrvays fomred before the stable bubble . 1 f : 3 9 3 . . ; t i , r r # , a n d t e r n r i n : t t es r l u i t e s u d c l c n l y i t t z O o . o f l # . , 'fhus the heat spectrulr, rnade np of breaks, and that it has a .uniform or nearly uniforrn thickness a c c o r d i n g l o C o r n u . o f r r o r r 2 m i c r o - l r i l i i n r e t r e s ( P r o c . l t o y . S o c . ,J u n e z t , r 8 7 7 ; l o n g r v a v e s i r r e q u l a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a i v i d e s p a c e , i s o f , enornroLls extent) enclins in the other direction be1'ond the a n d P h i l . 1 ' r a n s .R o y . S o c . ,A p r . r q , r 8 E . 3 ) . I n h i s w e l l k n o w n A d d r e s s o n C a p i l l a r y r \ t t r a c t i o r . r r e d , a t s a y 7 : l : +o l . l r . Lord Jieluitt remarks that the abrupt comllrer)cenrcnt aud the 3. t\Iagnetic and gravitationrl rvaves ere supposed to be perrnanentstability of thc biack lilm bring to light l 1)ro- considerably lonqcr tlrrir the heat rvirves, lrut rn instmnrent 'I'hus the position of firndarnentai inrportance in urolccular thcorl': to detcmrine their lcnsth is not yet avaiiable. on long rvaves, rvhile namell' the tension of the filnr, which is sensibl)'collstilnt yrlanetary forces uncloubtcdll.dcpcnd r v h e n t h c t h i c k n e s se x c e e d s5 o p 1 r , d i n r i n i s h e st u i r r r i n i n r . l u r , t h e t n o l e c n l a r l b r c e s t l c l . r e n c i o n v e r y s h o r t r i ' r r v c s . 4. lt is obscrvcci tliat tire lorrgest l'avt''lenqtli of light a n c l b e g i n s t o i n c r e a s ea g a i n r v h e n t h e t h i c k n c s si s t i i r n i n i s h e c l yet nrersured is z5ooirir, anrl thc shortcst clectrir:ul ciscilto rolrrrr. It is not possible, I.,ortf I{t/t,itt conclnclcs,to explain t h i s f a c t b y a n y i r n a g i n a b l el a r v o f l o r c e b c t s ' e e nt h e < l i f f e r e n t l a t i o n y c t t l e a s l t r c d i s s o t n e 6 o o o o o l r / { . . i \ n d l c l i n r . r u i r o n r in h a l t o r t i o n s o f t h e f i l r n s L r p p o s e d o u r o r r c . n e o u s ,n c l u ' e a r e t h c l r h c n o n t e n l t o 1 ' r v l t v e s l ' a t e r o i t l i e s r u i i n r i o t h r r t l L t i r l s lbrcecl to the r:onclusion tlrat it clepends ulron nrolc<:ulrrrthut lont{ \\,r\\'cs lluv be lrrolicn ul) jnto shortcr ones lr1' r c s i s t l n t ' c . - - \ < : r : o r c l i n g l r 'r,v c c o n c l u c l e t h a t i r 1 ' r c s i s t a n c e I o n g he t e r o g e n e o u s n e s s . Ar:cordingly, the rrolecular structure rnd sustairring f o r c c s c l e p e n d o n c l i s t a n c e so f t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s , u s i l t l i , - ' 'l'his forces are dr.re to rva'r,esn the chcnrical sl)ectnlnl. i r e a s o n i n g i s b a s e d o n r v e l l e s t a b i i s h c do b s e n , a t i o n a lc l r r t uo n the radius ol' at;tion of rlolecular lbrces; ancl tlrus it rruv a l s o t b r o r v l i g h t o n t h e c a n s eo f t h e s ef o r c e si r - r u c l i l r l r c r r o n r c n n s as capillary xttraction. Here is a suggestivc Lltr)nrarir, *,lrir:h s )'r the niicro-millimetreis thc unit r. \Vave length of -I)-line of sodiunr p -5()o l{ z . I \ ' I a x i n r n no f c h e n r i c a l a c t i o n i n t h e s o l a r s l ) c ( : t n l r n. + o o ) r r . L i v i s i b l e s l ) e c t r u n lb e g i n s 3oo ) .4. Shortest wave-lengthever lreasurcd roo , 5. Quittc/te observes rnolecular action eflective 5o , 6. Iitittlttt/t/ .rnrJJ(iic/tcr rupture soap bubbless at thi(:l(n e s so f ro , It has long been knotvn that chenrical action is conf i n e d c h i e i l y t o t h e u l t r a - r , i o l e tp a r t o f t h e s p e c t r u u r . r \ n d n o r v i t a l ) l ) e a r sl i o m t h i s t a b l e t h a t t h e r n o l e c u l a r l i i r c e s , i 1 duc to wave action, arc chiefly developed in tite totally invisil-rle spectnrnr,tire violet 11 Lrndz( lines of the solar sl)ectnlnt corresponcling to about 4ooplt,. Lorrl t{t/uut estilratr:s the r a d i r t s o f a c t i o n o f t h e r r o l e c u l a r f b r c e s a s l es s t h a n 2 S o f t , f L , and on the rvave theory this resuit is conllrnred. 'I'he tprestior-r arises: Horv are \ve to inter'plet thc development of these short rvaves? In any ne*, tlteory therc i s n r u c h r v h i c h s t i l l r e n r a i n so b s c u r e ,b u t t h e f o l l o l i n s o u t l i u e e n a b l e su s t o i n t er p r e t u r o s ti f n o t a l l o 1 ' t h cI < n o * ' nl r i r c r r o m c n : a t . \ n L a ! l a c t ' s t h e o r y o f c a p i l l a l y a t t r a c t i o n , l ; a s e do n tlte theorl, of niolecllar forces sensi[le only at iusensible distances, he puts/(r) as the unknorvn fr.rnctior.r thc lolces, of and takes
c l c c t r i r : \ \ ' l i v c sg c n c l r r t c h c l i t \ \ ' i t v c s ; u . n r ia n a d t i i t i o n a l b r e a k i n . g Irlr of lierLtsalcs givrs fhc still sltortcr Iight u,avcs; n'ltile e sfill iirrtlrer clisintegrrtion ol- tlrc light rvarrs, sitr: tlre r:]rcnlir:al 'avcs 'I'liis 5. al)l)cars to be in the surfacc of'tltc i ni'isil;le sl)ectrun)lrel'onrl tlrc ultre,r'iolt:r. t r a r t s { i r r t r t a t i o n l r 1 ' } ; 1 c ' , 1 1 n g r . r 1 ro l t i r c u r t r r ' s thc orricr oi'llltrrre. It is er]iiiritrrl t on:tan!11'

t r r o t i o D so 1 ' t h c s c r r . , \ r t l l r V t r r r n i n g o l r u n l l r i r : h r r l r s s l r o r n i n t l i c i u . r t h o r ' s l ' < . rk clectrir; currcnt, r o 1 ' r g r 7 , t o b e a e t l r c r N l L rt s r . r l r L r : c r t e i n t f l ) e the clistttrbance is obscrvtrl lo lrtrt rr *'irt: rill it bcr:onres red, l-iy the resistancc clpposetl to thc rr)oti.)n of thc lorrger electric \\'aves. liurther olrerlrtiou ol'thc elet:tric t:urrerrt rnakc's tlre resistance rvire glo*' uitlr the brillianr:y of the electric spark or arc, rvhich is llllctl *'itir liolet light, like thlt o1'tiresun. S t i l l h i g h e r a c t i o n < . r t - t h c t : u r r e n t c a u s e s t l r c . r ' a l t o r i z a t i o no l t l r c l u u r i n o u s f i l n r o 1 ' t l r c e l e t : t r i r : I i { : h t , a n d t l r L r st h c g e n e r a t i o n

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(rt)

rvhere 1d,-Ii2 ,I(3,/{4,' ' 'Iir-, are coefficients of conductivities, b t, r f o r r e s i s t a n c e o r t h e p a r t i c u ) a r r ' a v e - l e n g t hh e r e s i s t a n c e e i n g the recipror:alof thc cortductivity.

forms tivo sel)arate u'aves, the lear lvave being shorter and having the suraller anrplitude. 't'trc (U) longer of thc parts of the broken'ivave ecomes b actuallv of larqcr arnplitude than the original rvave. And ( i i ) L l i r c c t p r o o { ' t b a t l r o r t n d a r y p r e s s t l r cd u e t o r v a v e s i v h e n s u l r c l i v i s i o na q a i n o c c u r s , t h e s a t l e t e n d e n c y a r i s c s is the cattseof ulolccttlnr for<tes. 'fhis conclusion of e lrore \1'aves, nrl of larqer arnplitLrde. g o r . A f t e r t h c f o r e g o i n gd i s c t t s s i o n f t l - r e c n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s z i i r ' , yi s v e r i l l c t l l r y t h c t i d c h e i g h t s o b s e r v e da t S a n I i r a n c i s c o underlying the rvale'thcory, \\re now cntcr rtpon certain pror n d a t 1 \ l e r cI s l a n d - t h c t i d c s a t t r l a r e I s l a n d b e i n g h i g h e r 'l-he o l r s c r v a t i o n a lc l a t a a r e l n c e s s e so f e x a t : t c a l c : L t l a t i o n . i I r v t h c l - a r ; t o r . : 6 , r i ' h i r : h s a n o t i c c a l ; l ei n c r e a s eo f a r r t P l i t u r i e c o m p l e t e ,] ' c t t h e l ) r o ( l e s s ed i s c l o s c dr v i l l P r o v c v c r y i n s t r t r c t i v e ' s ( in travclinq :.5 nriics frour the Golc.lenlate. In treatises on ph1'sics, (<:(.Dauir//'s l'rinciplcs of I'h,r'si<:s, u ( c ) I n , : o n s i c l c r i n gr v i v e s t r a n s [ b r n r e db y r e s i s t a t r c e c that tlrc 3'd eclition, r 3g 5, p. r 4z) ,,'e fincl thc cotrr:ltrsion havc to sunr nl) thc prcssttre cltte to all lcngths, atrd the Iiinetic Iinerey dttc to a stcatly flou' of tvavcsis , clillcrent rrrnplitrtdcsrvhir:li rs,lttires an in|f,o,," ( " r ) e f t c r : t so 1 ' t h c i r e t c g r a t i o n o f ' r r l l t h c v a r i a l r l ce l e t n c n t s . rvhere g is the dcnsity of'thc metlirtnr atr<izr the velocity 4 . I f n l r c t l r c i r t t l c x o I r c f r a c t i o t t , t h e r e f r a c t i v ea c t i o n of thc rvrvcs. a t t h c b o u t t t l r t r v s ' i l l b c ( " ' - t ) , a n c l t h c \ \ ' 4 1 ' ep r e s s t l r e z . N o r v f o r s i n t p l e h a r t n o n i c n l o t i o t - t i n a c i r c l e o f c x c r t c r l o t r t l r c b o t t r t c l a r ,o f t h c l l u i d s ' i l l b e , i n d y n e s p e r v .1, raclirtsa, rvhich corrcsporldsto a rva'r'c-antplittl(le s'c ilavc: s ( l u u . r cc n r o r c r g s p c r c r t l r i c c t . t - t : (ri) ,nof /, ,| :4lt.2 azft) : o 1r-2a2 t'2 aj : (, t 2 ; 7 t , t 2 g t , 2( " t lvhere r, :
) S)

, lt is the rvavc-frcrlttcn<:y. l : | L r ti t i s r r ' c l i k n o s - t r t h a t l a n c l z z a r c r c l a t c r l , t h o t r g h n o t i r l U s i n g t h e s ev a l t t c si n ( : z ) u ' e o b t e i n l o r t h c p r e s s t r r c x \ - c r ) ' s i n r p l c * ' a r ' . . \ t : c : o r r l i n g t o t h c c c l c l - r r a t e c lr e s c a r c i l c s dne to thc steady tlon' of \\'nvcs: ol C,rttrht'on thc rcfraction ancl rlisPersion of light, ,lrg u'): (re) - : z t t 2 t t 2g t , ) lj y2-* C trl . . 1+ - J - l) " ) + - C ) . - t : , 4 - + 2 7: \r+) d y n e s p e r s q t t a r e c c r l t i r t t c t r e ,o r c r g s l l c r c t t i l i c c n r . 1 . W h e n t h e s ' a v e s a r e s h o r t , l i s i n c r e a s e d ,a n d t h t t s the pressurc ?i7 is increascd, rtuless the amplitude a is cor'I'his r a i s e st h e q t l e s t i o na s t o r v h e t h e r r e s p o n d i n g l yd c c r e e s c c l . t r e t a r d e ( lr ' a v e s h a v c g r c a t c r o r l e s sa n r l l l i t r t c l eh a n t h e o r i g i n a l u n c h a n g e t l r v a v c s .I t r l e s t i g a t i o n s h o r v s : (a) 't'ne long s'aves break up into shorter rvavcs, by a process ftrl)i' outlinerl for u'atcr rvavesll1'Sir (-lror.gr.tit',r, -fiilcs I. a n c l \ \ : a v e s , l ' ) n r : 1 ' t :I1 c t r . , I 3 4 5 , ( c f ' . S c c o n d I ' a p c r o n t h e N c r v ' l ' h c o r yo f t l r c l \ e t h c r , r \ N 5 o 4 8 , l ) l ) . r 4 r - t 1 2 ) . It is siro*'n that thc s'nle front becotrcsstecl),owing to resistance, an<l the crest 1)reaksinto tw'o parts, anrl firrally ftl : " t r ' ), \ . \ . \ " M d 9
o o o a pv ,,PPP

rvherc ,4, fi, C, are coe[6cients, and I' is the rvave length, 'I'his forrlrula (26) holds l tlre corrcsponrling rvave frequency. rpitc accuratcly lor the range of the visible spectrum' ' 5 . r \ c c o r t l i n t l l ' , f o r a g i v e n r v n v e - a t r l r l i t r t d le l,v e - l c u g t h , irncl acthcr t'lt:nsity, rve liave a D= - z ; r ' ), r 2o t , ) ( n 2- t ) (. n\ \' t t : 2 ; 1 2 . ! g t , r l , ( . , 1 _ + l i r , 2 _ + _ c r r . rr)]2._ a z l l u t a s t h e e n r p l i t u c l ca , d e n s i t l ' 9 , a r t d r v a v e - f r e q u e n c y :rrc varialrlc, tr']rcn s'avcs :rrc rcsisted by ntatter and thtts r'1, tr:rnsforrre \\'c llrLlst takc the tri plc integral for these three i n d e p c n r l e n t c l e u r c n t s ,i n o r r l c r t o g e t n r i g o r o u s c a l c u l a t i o n o o f t i r e p r es s u r c l t t h e b o t l n c ' i a r y f t h e f l u i d :

-+-1s7,e) -r du l z ' 4 r ' : - + - s " I' / Jr ' ' t - r6 (B') I C) r,:'-+ t 6 R C ui

( ,s )

6 . I t i s t o b e r e t r et n b e r e d t h a t t h e e l a s t i c i t y e a n d density Q are both variable in Aitu'lotis fortrtttla, for the velocity of a rvave in free space: ('q) Il: Ii t/(tlg): ti {(rtlrc)

B u t i t i s e i ' i c l e n tt h a t t h e r e s i s t i n s f o r c e s , r v h i c h t r a n s f o r n r \ l , a v e , w o u l d a l s o i n v a l i d a t et h e t l s eo f t h i s d i l T e e n t i a l e q u a t i o n ' s In practice s'e have to rely, for tloderately homogeneous o \ v a v e s , l 1 c r l t t e t i o n\ 2 7 ) o r o n e q t l a t i o n( 2 8 ) r v h e n a n y p r o c e s s exists by s'hich the triple integral may be, evalnated' The so that the velocitv I/ does not sensil;lyvary in planetary difFculty of el1-ectingthe integralion for the action of rvaves t s p a c e( A N 5 o 4 a ) . \ l t h a t r n a y o c c u r r v i t h i n t r a n s p a r e n b o d i e s c o n ' r i n g f r o n r n l l d j r e c t i o n s i s i n c r e a s e db y t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e that lloth is not definitely knorvn, but it is ttsrtally asstttned that they are so short as to be rvholly invisible, and tl.re t h e d e n s i t y a n c l e l a s t i c i t y v a r i e s . I f t h e p r e s e n c eo f c o r p r t s . f r e q u e n c y l t h t t s i u d e t e r t r - r i n a t eH e n c e t h e a m p l i t r r d e a l s o cnlar matter did not interfere tvith the wave propagation, the is indeterminate, attd the effects must rest mainly on ar' Akrulonian forunla (:o) It2 : K2 tlQ gulnents of probability drarvn from a true catlse recognized rvould give dI/ : . ( g d e- e d g ) ( s ' ) t o p e r v z r d et h e p b y s i c a l u n i v e r s e . lK2f (2o"h,'/,)]

X
1
295
z{.Pirl.sical Liquid I)rops. '['heory

5 3o
of the Globular Forrn of

296

(i) Leest action leaclsto mininrunr clcr.iation and therefore n.rinirrunt clispersionin the passing \vtves, the paths for rvhich are hcre illustrated for raindrops in thc caseof the rainllos,. If the dircction of an incident beam of light passing throuqh a prisrn, ivith section in the form of an erluiangular o r i s o s c e l c st r i a n s l c , b e s u c h t h a t t h e p a t h u , i t h i n t h e p r i s n t b e p a r a l ) c l t o t h c L a s e ,i t i s s ' e l l k n o * ' n t h a t b o t h t h e d e v i a t i o n a n t l c l i s p c r s i o nl ' i l l b e r n r i n i m l r n r , a n d t h c c x t e r n r l p e t h o f t h e t r a n s r n i t t c c l i q h t r v i l l b e a s n e a r l y a s p o s s i t r l ei c l e n t i c a l u ' i t h t h a t o f t h c i n < : i d e n tr a y . ' I ' h i s r c s u l t i s t h e o u t c o r r e o f the principJc of lcast action, u'hicli ntly lrc lrrief)y outlinecl irs follol'-s. I n t h c r : r s c o f s i m p l e r e f r a c t i o n i h e l a r i of Snc//irts, r6zo, is 5j17 :275i117sinrr* 'I'o tf n-stni.

(:,)

find the lcast action along the actual patlr, rvc r e t n e t r l r c r t h : r t t h i s a c t i o n i s l b r l e n s t h s o f p a t h 1 1/,2 ,/ . ..1. . I ; : (t,1rt-t,,lr*74 l.;,-'. . .-+r;l;) . 7 1: / (::) Anrl the condition for the mininrum of this action is All?s: ( ? l a t )( , , , / 1 * 7 r , / o * 1 t j / , ; * . . . - r u i 1 , ) : o - 0l3s(/r-+ fnr./,-+rfnr.h+. . . r r f r , ; * 1 . l i ): 6 . , \ \3'+/ (< l s : c l r ; , ' [ ( D . r / E s ) ? +? r , l 0 s ) , - + ( ? z l 0 s ) r ) : 4 7 1 / [ ( r t . f d r ) , - + ( \ ' l a t ) 2 - r ( ( ] z / d 4 ' r l. r action or lork is a nrininrum along the actual p:rth, ancl thcre is no change fbr a srnall r.ariatiorrin thc lxrth: or, in lfo.nilozr's phrase, the action is stationary. I i 7 , I r c t h e n ' a v c - l e n q t h ,t h e l c l o c i t y t , : i f l t , , t , ,z ) , a n c l t h c t i n i c o f l ) a s s a g eb c c o u r e s '['he

. :

P t , \ l : P, r.,. . J r fu ' c t s , \ l r l f ( i , . r , , r , : ) l . d s

(sS)

r \ n c l f o r t h e n r i r - r i n r n np t t h o n r s t a t i o n e r l . c o n d i t i o n i s r

(:.,)
s o l u t i o r - r h o l ' s t l r : r t t h e t i n t c o f p a s s a g ei s d e 6 n e d s by the function r - I'' (r, J', z, ),, ru, trl)( 3 i) u'here rc anrl p arc t:onstants of inteqration. \\re rriayolrtain a better geometricaland phys i c a lg r a s po f t h e s ea c t i o r r s b y c o n s i d c r i n gt h e { b l l o r v ing sketch of the rvaves oflight,in passinshroush t the raindrop for the production of the rainborv. r . The wavesare o I velocitl' I.': 3. rolocnt i n t h e a i r , b e f o r ee n t e r i n g I . i g . 4. lllustration of the suclden change t h e s p h e r i c a ld r o p ; t h e n a t of wave-lcneth ). and s'avc.velocity /; at thc bounclary of a raindrop, the boundaryofthe drop, l'1 slriclr inrr;rr,iIressrrreise.rcrthe velocity ,',- n, ted at the,surfacc of the I1uid, as n'hich for rvater gives a the s'avcs arc both coming and d e c r e a s eo f s p e e d i n t h e goinq. 'l'lre

ratio of 4 : 3. Within the drop, therefore, the rva.r,esare sirorter than rvithout, in the same ratio, because the same 3l+s, as shorvn nttr.nbcr are crorvded into a less space s, : in tlrt' figure.1. z. r\fter reflection at the opposite boundary of the drop, thc path returns, and the light cmerges as shorvn in thc fiqure. It may be noticed that just as the velocity ancl r v a v e - l e n g t ha r e d e c r e a s e d o n e n t e r i n g t h e r a i n d r o p , i n t h e ratio of 4 : 3, so also, on leaving the rvater,the velocity is i n c r c a s c c la t t b e b o u n d a r y o f t h e r a i n d r o p i n t h e s a m e r a t i o 3 : 4 . A n c l j u s t a s t h e r e t a r d a t i o n o f t h e r v a v e s n t e r i n st h e e drop qives a l)ressure of the aether against the suifece -v zr(2 tzzo t,2 (tt2- r ii : ), here indicated by the arro*,; so also, on lcar.ing the clrop, the suddcn acceleration at the b o n n d : L r r ' , 1 ' r c a c t i o n , g i v e s a n e q u a l b a c k r v a r do r n e g a t . i v e b - z ; t 2a 2 o 7 , 2 ( n 2 - r ) . ' l ' i r e s e f o r c e s , Gi : l)resslrrc dcpendirrg o n w a l c s t l o n t a l l r l i r e c t i o n s ,a p p l i e d a l l o v e r t h e d r o p , e i v e rise to surfl<;c tension, l.hich is rcally a central pressure opcratinrr throueh the stressgenerated in the aether at the I r o u n c l a r l 'o f t h c l i q u i d , l r y t h e s u d d e n c h a n g e i n t h e v e l o c i t y oI t]rr' r rLves. 'l'he (ii) a c t i o n o f p a s s i n gr v a v e sr o u n d s u p s n r n l l m l s s e s of litlLrid into spheresor spheroids of rninirnum objateness: I)clinitc gcornctricalproof basedon a theorem ol Arc/titrtttlts. r . l ' h c r es c a r c h e so f a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n g e o r r e t e r so n i s o p c n n r c t r i r :p r o l r l c u r s , m o r e e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f E u l t r a n d Lo.qt'an,;.r, II:ril slras.r tnd Schuars, have shorvn that a circle I r a - sn r a r i n r u n ) u r c i r f o r a g i v e n p e r i m e t e r ; s o t h a t f o r a f i x e d a r c u , t l r c < ; i r c l t : ,o 1 - a l l p o s s i b l e g e o n r e t r i c f i g u r c s , h a s t h e I t r i n i n t u n rp c r i u r e t e r . l l a n l ' 1 ' c a r s u c o I ' l / t i t 7 s l r - a sp l a c e d t h e C e r l c , l u s o f s \ r a r i a t i o n so n a b a s i so l s t r i c t r i g o r ; a n d f o l l o w i n g h i s m c t h o d s , SrItt,ar: has dcalt cxtensive)y u'ith tlre general problem of ' r i . i r r r l s r r r f t t c c s ( ) f ' t h c - s e u r l a c c st h e s p h e r e i s t h e s i u r p l e s t , . s antl it is casilv shoq'n that it has maximum volrrme for.a f i x c r l s u r [ a r : c ; o r f o r a f i x e c lv o l u r . n eh a s t h e m i n i n t a l s u r f a c e . 'l')re z. slobular forrn of lirluid drops of rvater is i l l u s t r a t r : t lb y t h c r a i n b o r v , s ' h e r e t h e s n t a l l e s td e v i a t i o n l r o r n the sphcrical firlure in the water clrops rvould destroy the observcrl arraltgement of colors. \{ercnry, ntolten metal, nrolten glass, suspcndecglobules oi oil, and other liquicls, have a l s i m i l e r f o r m ; a n c l w e a r e n a t u r a l J yl e d t o i n q u i r e w h y n a t u r e adopts n'i.nt ntathernaticians call mininral surfaces for such 1 1 ) a s s eo f l i a r r i c l . s 3. If r be the radius of a sphere, the volume treconres I't - 4fyrrfi\. (:s) Ancl for the volnnre of an oblate spheroid, produced by the revolntion of an ellipse about its ntinor axis, rve have

V-

tf,rr s.2 : [

tlrn a' l/ft -e2)

(sq)

r v i r e r er i s t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y o f t h e s e c t i o n s t h r o u g h t h e s h o r t e r axis f. i,'or erlual volumes, y': l/t, the strrfaces S>S', or t h e s u r f u r : co f t b e s l t h e r o i d S i s a l r v a y s i a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f the sphcrc S', as may be proved b)'the follorving anal-vsis. 'l'lrc di[ti.rentirl exprcssionfor the length ot' a curve along the;r-aris is

ds/dr :'1/ [r -+ (9,I dx)r-+ (dz dn)r) I and thc ir-rtegral: , : .[ llr-_.(dJ,f dn)r-r(azlar)r] ax .

( +o ) ' \4rl

t
Astronom. Nrchrrchten Rd. zr4

T.-1. Sct:. New Theory J.

of the Aether.

- i ' ' - -

i
__J _'

l;ig. tt, JIIrr:lrrtion t tuorcc\lrr()r,ljrtrrl O attrl rntrcrrrr'-

Ifig. l-i.

Illrrstration of thc disturbance of the s.avc,front s'lrcn rays ltass from air to glass and rncrcrrry in contact, qiying rise to the obscrvcd ncgatiye calrillary forccs.

Fig. r.1. l,rof..\tcIuat.:,s illustration of thc rninimal surlace I, /\'1 | ttJ\', : o, u ith equal but oPpositc curr.atrrrc on the trlo sitlcs.

Irig. I 5. Prof. .JrIt,arz'sillustration of another trvistetl nrinirrral surface, t,1.I.rf I /,'., : o.

C. Sch.ri,lt,Inhnhcr Gcorq Ohcim, Kiel.

l s

L9

/r.-|'7

.-),Jv

298

(+, ) If the surface bc S u'e slrall have bt' calclrletion: " ' : . 5: r r . . f . r ( i . r : . r ' r a 2f h : ' J [ ' ' ' 1 , ' t - r ) f , , 2 r l , tf n 2 t 2 ] ' l d . , ( 4 z ) the solution of l'lrich is:

4. And for en oblate spheroid rve have ( r .-+ l,t t;2f aa1,:)'/'dr . a.t :

t = ';',i,'-i,1,t,ti, (+q) :'1,1 ,'l--jlll::i/l;--:li' ::

( Qft ,7.t t 1z)'l' (+S)

s'here log. ijenotcs thc nattrrrl or Neperien logarithm. -5. Jior:r sphcrc sttrfacc l'e ltavc thc tlrrtch sinrplcr'
algebraic cxprcsstott: qn ,'z : ,\' -

a(r-rz)1lt, rvhcre tirc radius z'erlual volurnc s'ith thc spheroid. nc

is for tlrc sphere of thc

a p p l l ' t h c s c f o r n r t t l a c t o a t t t t t t t c r i r : n lc x r t l l l r l c , 6.'l'o |, t a l i c t l i c c l s c o l - t h c c l r t h r r i t h c r l t t n t o r i a l r a c l i t r sd shich (ilcs for thc e<:celltricitv and thc ol;latcncss r/2q3.:; ol' the terrcstrirtl rrtcritliar.r t ' ) r : z r ; 8 . i . - r - - l ' ( r a._6.efl,rsr3:. (+r')

I3y thc seconcl tcrtn of the fortnttla lirr thc sttrflcc, rrc fitltl : 'i, ('-- r'r)ir: 6.oiaq(>7. i17l

(,s) ,:t:l[ii:]lli_:ll=i?zt;itj

( 1 2 $ j r 3 5 z , l l r e s c r : o t t t lt e r l r t , u i t l l . ^\nrl sincc 2;1 : i t l r e f i r c t o r s d c p c n c l i n q o t i t i r c c r : t ' c t t t t r : i ' . r ' , l r c t : o l t l c s: . ) ] " " 6 . u . 5 q rr 4 o . ( + q ) r:),ir lng,[(r rr)l(,t "irti2(.r ( ) n a t i r l i n g t l r c l l r - s t t c r r r r , \ \ ' c g c t l o r t l l c r r h o l c s t t r7. tace ol thc olrlatc splicroiti .\, antl ol- tlrc crlttel splrtrt: ^S': .S .: 'l'hc r:..5:,S:9q .S'_.: rz..5t8:7o. r.^\ \-)"/

cs r i i l , t c ' r c n t ' l r c t l t ' t ' r .lri r t ' s n r - l - r t < ' o f t l t c s p l t c r o i r l a t t c l s I l t c r c : r

(St) ^!' ^l' = o.ooooz(). l .\r:<:ortiinqlv, it tirtrs rl)l)clrrs that for -sttt:tloltlatcttt'ss, t h c r c i s v c r r - l i t t l t : t l i l l i r l c r r r : c l r c t t v c c ' t r t l t c s : t t r I r t r : t :r t l ' t l l c s p h c r o i t i , a n r l t l r t - ' s t t r f : t tc o f - e s p h c r c o f c r l r r l t l t ' r l l t t t t t c . I I r , , a s c ' o I t l r c c u r t ] r ' s o l r l u t c t r c . q s r i z o f i . : , t l r c r l i i l i : r c n r : ci i r t l i t : ' s s r r r f u t : c is o n l r ' : g l ) i l r t si r r l : 5 . 1 E 2 7 o , a ) l ' o l t c ) j l f t i t t . 1 . i : r o o . l 'l'his 3. e r a t r t p i c p r o v c s t ) r t t t h c s l r l r c t i t : r l s t t tl : r c c i s : r r . n i n i r t . t t t t t I r c r : r t t s ci t i s t l t c 1 r ( t t r c t o l ' h i t : l r t l l c o l r l a t c s l r h t : r o i c l r, approar:hcs nc:rrcr atrcl lrc:rrc'r'rls tlrr: oirlaicncss is trr:ttic snrallcr than ittrl' :tssigtrltlrlc rlttrttrtitr'. In thc thcort ol- crLlrill;rritv a:rtl sintillr sttr[t,:cs, itr tlrree clinrcnsions, the surlur:tr iras thc gcncntl lortrt:

\52/ Y e t f o r s p h t ' r o i r l r r lr ' l r o p s o l ' l i t l u i d o f 1 ; c r l - e cs t ' n r n t c t r v t h e t a l . r o l e s i n r p l r ' r r t c t l r o d o f ' s o l r r t i o n i s s u l l i c i e i r t ,a n d s ' c s h a l l not go illto lro[c <:otllrlexsurhccs. 1\'e g. I''or fronr a ph1'sicalpoint of ,'1s11,, tlttst retnctlbet' t h a t s ' a l c s a r e l ) r o l ) r q a t o r lt i t o t ' er t r p i d l y i r r a i r t h a r t i n l i q u i d s , , s r . r c hn s s ' u t c r , o i 1 , n r e r ( : l l r 1 'e t c . , & s s h o r v n b y ' t l r e o l t s e r v c d 'l'hus, in pltssing refrrctive indiccs ltncl clectric t'csistarrces. re a th r t h r o u q h l i q r r i c l - s , c r v a l e s e n c o L r r r t es t t c l c l c t r s i s t a u c e t t l i e b o u n d a r r , t r n r it l r c v c i o c i t f i n t h e l i t l r l i c lc l c c r c a s e fsr o t n z rt o z , ' ; a s t h e u ' a v c s I e a l c t i r e l i r l L r i d , t h c l c l o c i t f i t r c r e a s e sf r o t r r

u'to u. \\rave energy is thus given up on entering the liquid, owiug to intcrnal retardation. On leavingthe liquid, the rvaves a r c n o l o n g c r r c t a r d c c l , b r . t t a c t u a l l y a c c e l e r a t e d ,a n d t h u s cirarvirrs ne\y energlr fiom the unlinrited reservoir of the < a c t h e r t h c l ' r c a c t , o r > k i c k L r a c k <c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y . I t l r a s l o r r s l r e c n r e c o g n i z e dt h a t a r a y o f l i g h t f o l l o i v s t h e p a t h o 1 -l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e ;e l e c t r i c d i s t u r b a n c e sf o l l o r v t h e l J a t s a u r e a n ' , n c lg c n c r n l l l ' t h r o u g h o u n a t u r ea l l p h 1 ' s i c ao p e r a t i o n s 'I'herctakc plucc accortlinqto the principle of Le ast r\ction. if an infinitc variety of *'aves fronr nll dircctions entcr lbre a n c i l c a v c t h e q l o b r r l e o f l i r l L r i d ,t h e a c t i o n a n d r c a c t i o n o f l a t h c i r p a , s s n g c' i l l l ; c s u c h a s t o n t a k e t h e t o t a l r c s i s t a t t c e 'l'his r:an happcn only rvhen the figurc of the nrininrunr. s l o l r r r l c j s - . p h c r i c a io l c l l i p s o i d a l , r v i t h n r i n i r n u m o l r l a t c n c s s . r o. LJp to the yrrescnt ime rve knol but little of these \\'aves, )'ct tlrcl' appcar to corresponclto the forces of surfacc t c n s i o r r , r ' h i c h a r c s u g r c r f i c i a il n t h c i r c h a r a c t c r a n d p o r v e r . a . C h c n r i c r ' . 1 l ' l r n i t 1 i s k n o l r - r t o c l e p e n c lo n v e r y s h o r t s ' a v e s , ' . r ' i o l c t l i q h t , \ \ - h i c hc r n n o t as irr l ) c n e t r a t es o l i d s , t l r r o u g l - r ' l r i r r n c s l -: r v c r s . S t t c h w r v c s c a n I r a r c l l yp e n e t r a t c l cvcn t. s o l i c i s : r r l 1 , r r n c lJ r a s sw i t l r d i f f i c u l t y t h r o t : g h t r a n s l ) a r e n t 'l'bus i t i s n a t r t r a l o a t t r i b u t et h c f o r c e s t l i r 1 r r i r 1 u r r c lg : r s c s . s, t o f s r r r l i r c r : c n s i o r r t o \ \ ' a v c s ,c h i e f l y ' o f ' t h c u l t r a - r ' i o l c t s I e c r t t r r r n r ,l r r r l t h c l ' 1 1 1 1 l1 'c ' o l ' c y c n s h o r t c r r r ' r v c ' l c n g t h . ( ) r ' i n 1 1t r > l a t : k o f p c n c t r a t i r r g I ) ( ) \ \ ' c r h c s c s i r o r t s - a v c s t ( ' o u l ( l 1 1 r ) r o n r c r j i r c r : t l vl i o n r t h c i n t c r i o r o l - t h c g l o l r c , v c t 1 r 1 1 l 1 1 , 3 1 1 1 1 1 1:,o r n c l r o u r t l r c s t a r s j n t h c i n r n r e n s i t o' f - s p l r - - c , t ) r c l r r r r i i l,r s o l t l r r : ; r i r , o n a l l s i c l e s ,a n c l f r o t r r t h c s t t r f a c c l o f t h c r l l r , i ( i r r t l ) i 1 ) t h c h e n r i s l r h c r c> c l o w c v e r l ' c l r o p o f r l i r l r r i r i . I l , c r ' ( ' : . i i l i l n ( 'rc ,n c n t c r i n gt h c l i r l u i r l ,a n d t h c r e a c t i o n o o n l c , r v i r r qi t , l l c e r l r r a ) , : r c c o r c l i nig t h c t l r c o r y o f l i g h t , 'l'he ( S i r / / t t s t i t t l ' s e r t i r : l c L i g h t , I , l n c y c l l.t c t r . , r 8 + 9 , S 5 6 r ) . , t o t r l c l l i ' r ' t o l - t i r c u ' e v c s i s a s i f t h c c l r o p s , e r e p r e s s e c li n 'l'his i s o u r e x p l e n a t i o no f o n a l l s i r l c s ,I r J . c e n t l u l f o r r : e s . s r r r l u r : ct i ' n s i o n , u r r r ' i t l r c g l o l r u l a r f r g u r c s t r o t i c c c l i n c i r o p s of lirluirl. r l . N o w w r r v r . sr : o n r i n g a n c ' lt o i n q j n a l l d i r c c t i o n s , l i l l t l o l i : r s t l . o r l i r r q e i n s tt h c q l o i r t t l e u ' l r e n i t s f i g r r r ci s s J r ) r r : r i r : l l .l i o r l r s p ) r c r ci s a n r i n i n r : r ls t t r f e c c ,a n d t h t t s e i l e s ' l c l s t r ' l m n c t -o i c o l l i s i o n s i t i r t l r e m o v i n g a e t h e r o n s . A n d f r r l i c r r r r i l l i s i o n ( ) c ( : u r s b r t h c w r t v c s ,t h c s p h e r i < : afli g u r c y i c l c l s t l l ( ' s i r o f t (s t i l \ ' ( ' r r { c l r i t h f o r t l r c * , a l c s r v h i c h e n t e r t h c m a - s s 'l'his s p h c ' r i t : r r l1 u r e c o r r c s p o n d sh e r e f o r e o t h c l g t t ol-1ir1rrit1. l c e s t a r ; t i o n f o r a l l t h e \ \ ' a v c so I t h e u n i v e r s e ; lrrirrr:iplr'o1i r r r t t l r c t r . r r t h l ' t h c p r i n c i p l c c a n b e n r a c l ec l e a r c s t b i ' a r - r o illustration. 't:. ^1tt/tttttrlr'.i slrowecl, - in tr fanrottsthcorern rvhich hc rlcsjrcrl crrlravccl on iris totrrb, atrci * lrich rvas actually forrrrd tlrt'rc lty (.'ict'o rvher-rhe rvas r:onsul at Syracusc, r 4 o - that the ratio of the volume of an in1 ' e a r sa l i c r r i ' a r c l s s c r i b c d s y r h c r c t o t h a t o f t h e c i r c r i n r s c r i b e dc y l i n d e r i s a s 'l'lrus, t i i ' u ' u v c s e r - r t e r h e c y l i n c l e ra t t h e e n d t h e y r v i l l z : 3. , f c l l c o l l n t c rc x a c t J y: , , / ,a s r n u c h r e s i s t a n c e i o m t h e l i c l u i d s p h e r e as ll'onr n cor.rtinuouscylincler of the sarne licluid. : \ s t h e s l r h c r e i s a n r i n i m a i s t t r f a c e ,a n d s 1 , n l n l g t 1 i 6 ^ 1 tt i n a J l c l i r c c t i o n s ,i t i s s r . r f F c i e n o c o n s i d e r t h e s ' a v e se n t e r i n g t h e c n t i o l ' t i r c c y l i n c l c r f r o m a n ) rd i r e c t ' o n . I - e t t h e s p h e r e s b c i m a g i r r e c lt o h a v e a n e x p a n s i b l eb u t r r n c l a s t i c r t r f a c e ,a n d aftcr cxpansion let thc srtrfacebe punctrrred,to allorv exchange

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5 30
of the fluid. Under these conditions tlre cnclosecl and en. c l o s i n g i n c o * 1 - l r e s s i b rte i d r r a y a d a ' t i t s e 1 1 ' t o u any artcratio' 'l'hcn of the spheroidal 'olu'e. trrc artcrctl surr.ce ri,iil be g r e a t e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n a l s p l r e r e_ s u r t i r c e , o u s h th the cylincler rvo,ld still contrin ail the lirf ici. 'l'lrc distc.rrtcr.l closcd strrluce l v o u l d t h r . r si l l n r o r e t b a n 2 f ; o f ' t h e c i r c L r r n s r : r .ri li r, er c h i n r e c l e u n f \ c y l i n d e r ; a n d t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c et o a l l t l r e l . r L r . c s *,ithin the ! i r ' e r ' a s s o f l i q u i d * ' o u r c lc ' x c e e c r / . ; o f ' t i r . : t o t . r rcsistr.ce dre to the Iiq.id c1'lindcr rone. 'r'hrrts, thc sLrrr:Lcc a i ol.tire spliere *ould be increasetl Lry dsl so tr).r ir- the .rigi'ai s P h e r e s u r f a c e l t e S - . 1 n r - : t h c ex p l i ' r i c r i s r r r l a < : e : *,oulcl becorne S' : Sr-<lS -: ;lit r.'.r-r-clS; apd t|r,, oriqi'ul 'olur'e J l , t r 1 3 u ' o r . r l db e r : o r u c I'-_Fri/': I i : ) . ,). .r: "+ ( 1 l I/' _ I
. l i r o n tt h i s a p l t l i r : a t i o n ol- the I I/titt's/t ttss-.Scl u,ot-; n r a t h e n r a t i c r Lt l r c o r y o i ' n r i l ninrel surlirces to a i_rci.l volunrc ol' Iirluirl conllnecl l,ithin tlre r\rt:lrinrcclt:en sphcre and r:ircurnscriLrctl .:r'lincler, it fbll<tl,s tlter.cfole that rvlrvcsplssing l'ronr irll tlirections tlrrough snrall nrl.sscs ol litluid <_rl-r n1' : ligure rvhatcler, lrut rr'itlr grcatcr resistance tlrirn a:r, n c c c s s r r r i l l 'u i i l g i v c l e r i s t rctic.rlr, rvlren tlre lrgLrrcs r.rl' t h e l i i l L r i dl l ) l s s c s a r e s l r h c r r c r l . l l - t i r c l i r l u i d p l o l ) e sb e ofappreciairlc size, thc ac-

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g. Neu' 'I'heor1,of L i g h t n i r r q , l _ r a s e co n t h l A.:.:r_tuLrlatingress of the'.tcti,e St .'at the Iloundar Coalescing Ii"aindroPs, :,,.rJ ,1," (,)scillato :.l. I)ischurge. (i) Ocneral rcr'arks o' t'e , l t e t i . r r r c ' a o l _a t ' r o s l ; h e r e l e c t r i c i t . ya n c l l i g h t n i r r g .

,,t (lttn.ol'sl)lr1'sics, translutecl,1.t7, .,1//it:ttsott, elJ, r gg3 i.1rt, \ " 9 9 . 5 , u ' e l l n d t l r e t t l r c t r ea t l l ) c n t o l - t l ) c c l u s e s of atnro Lresins.rvith tire ti,rtr,,,:r,g sLr.!tsesrivc ad :li,l:j.l: r )f1.".:,']:',,'e l r l s s r o t h a t t l l c s o p c n L t i o D sO 1 . n r L t L r r e r c c l o L r c i c ciln i r l l ) e l t c t n r l ) l ct l r r r l i n t , s:s

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t t i o n o f r a r a v i r l , o r rr c i i g u r e sl " i s 5 . I l l L r s l r r L t i o r ro l i r : , 1 r i t r . r . x .u ( l c r r c l l t ) tl scriircrl cylirr,l,.,r.,u.it]r rt,rtrrucs rn o l . t h e l i r l u i i l l ' i l l r e s i s tt h c ' .l'lrc tl)c (.\.iLclrlti() ()l ::1. ilt e n r l e n c yt o g i o l ; u l i L ll'b r r r r ; illstftil()u ls lr(.1 . i11:r()(lLtccti to ( f b r t l r e s t r r l ; rt ,: t ( . n s i o ni j l ) r o \ e r i i i L ti l t l r e c . r l i r r , l t . r I r L . i i l l . . , l t v i t l r : r l r i u c o r r r l , t( . - : i i ) l r , l i ( l ltil, rLtr!1 s u l r c r l i c i a o n l y , r v l r i l er r r i L l . , ( ut , r c r tlre splrt rt lrc riilriit.ri v i t y l ) e n e t r a t e s u ] l r s s ,t n c l a i irlto j; / t+ rl.\' :rlr,ryc or lrt,lou., lrl the result is e correslrounny pirrls u lrcrt,lIIL,trvo gcorrictricrtI lr{rlrrs llfc ti()L Ill o()ltli!cl, tltc d i n g s l r h c r o i c i a li l , t u r e . coI 'I'hese tirrLrotrs llLri,i rr iLlrirr tlre {ll5tortcrl hgLrres i lluid o r+rl.\ sJrlrcresrLrllrcc .\" .l;: z ivill drops cvidently l'ill be ot ()jler Il1()re titlrtr ::.j ll\ nluclt nrirrinrurr oltlateness, or Ila5lSiiltlcrt 1o llrr' rrLs ittu \\.lr\.es iLS ( l ( ) L r )t l r ( ' r v l r o l c t 1 l i r t r l c r Irraxinruuisphericitl., brrt ol lirlLrirl. 'l'lrc,\rclrirrrcrlclrr,l.lrcort:rrr be detem'rined by the 1ra. tlrirs..r'it,lris lL t.ir-,,rr-o,rs I)f(ri)i. tl)irl lance of Iorces betlygsn ,rl :,ll . . 1 , , - i l , l , . 1 , . 1 1 1 1 r ,, l r . r , , r r , , l gravity on the one hanrl t l r o p o t l i r l r r i , l r n r r l . L r r i i t : ,t i r t , s p i r e r c ,]:ll.ii,l,i"l ',, in thc ttisr:t,,rrse ,, r.cvtlen o i l c r s r r r i r r i r r t r r r rl i( , i i s t i r r r c c rrr-rcl surlhce tension q11ths jar. to tllc i:l,il, e r t r i r . P s u r c r r1s.l r ' r c ' t i ) i t l t r :i_ u irolc Irorly ol rir \\,irvcs lrrirrr rll o t h e r . 1 3 ye t l u a t i n g t h e o b l r L r r so l . t l - r . . i " * r ' ; ; ; ' - , , , r ' ; ; tilrcclions: r u ' e r l r r rc l c c t r i c t c ' s i ' ' . . , \ ' c l r L s t h e r lutrl irr nr{tufe colycrls sen.ed cornpressiondue ro c i o . r . l, l . r u o i s t a i r tllling glolrtrlrir. (lrL)l)s into l,(.rl(.ct \ t l l l { , L l \ \ ' t t l r r 1 1 . 1 r 1 r _ l , c-'jtlile . - s ,s ' t o s l t c a i i ) t s * c o . t i r r c t c l r ' r erlvity to the calculltecl slll)ercs, tliis r,lr;,.icrri lirct is ir Jrrilif h a v i n g . l r o t i r c e r . r a u r t v n c l i n t r r r c t i r r ) ( : (t,i,r e a t i l i ! t \ y i l \ , ( , Si t r c c . : r r r L l y l r l ! \ , c r j c u'aveaction in the surlacc t i i s c : h : L r g a, a . , " r , lllC s a r i l y . i s r _ i s r : i l l a t o riln c h r r r r L c t e r .. \ t l r L s h , lllllydrsc rrr irll rlirt,ciiorrs. tension, \r'e urity be nble r _ , l1 s h t n i i g i s t h u s i a serics o1'ri'evcslii<e tlrat slrol.n lrr. to study the ltol.er of the rvave l r h o r o g r a l i l r l ,l r o u r a n a c t i o n i n t h c c u s c o f - p r L r t i c L r ) u ro s c i l l o g r r r p hr r 'l'his i o L r rl a l t o r r L t o r i u s . fluids. r n e t h o d i s , s o r . n e r v h l te n l l o g o u s to tlrat uscti lry I1' clcctrocil'nar'ic rbrccs ..rrtr-or tlre 'rotio's . of- the Quinc/te in his rcsearches on surface t.-,rrlo,r rLnci neecisnot p l a n e t s , a s s h o r v n i n t h e a L r t h o r ' s l,ork of r g r 7, and in be further ciiscussedar present. r \ N 5 o . 1 . 1q o 4 8 , i t l b l l o u , s t h a t a l l l r o t l i c s , ure centres of
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. i ' r r c t l r e. s t r c s J l r t t l r c : i r r l : L t . t r r .i. t1," d,.o1rr. ,I.his t s t l r l l u r l l t n c . l c t . i r i r .t . i r : ! r ! c ( ) n l j i r , r : t i r r r i r o l l s .i l l r ( l : l s t h e J ) r o c c s s { ( ) c s o l t t l r r . o t t . q } r o r t ltt e r l o L r , i , 1 i i . _ r tlrnrngr,rllelttof t l t c | ] t . r : t i i r :e , r l r t i i i l r r i r r r D t : O D ) c s , , , , l , r i , , , r , , u r , . c r l br t l r i L ti r ( l i s _ t irrLrqc()ccurs, rr,lrir;irs crllcri i li.tlrtrr'i:r:. i , r r r i r r l l r c c o t r t l c r r s l L t i o orl - t i i l r r l r o 1 , . , t i r c , l r ; r : r r : i t rl .r . r r tire.t'riirLr.qt'tlrop to.rroltl tlrL: ti t . o l l r . il t , t l r l r : L r . g c l L r r t ' . r orrlv r r s t l r e . r r i l i u sr . , r r , l r c r c u s l r e a r r r ' r r r r t . l t .ltr tr_iciL;-:,,.,;;,,,,,,,';, ttrltlcr tlrc <:onrlcrrsirtirris rr t9 lrro1r1r1ti1;1r;ll tirt. rtrtrirl.rcr f o d r o , 1 r s . r ' o l l e c t c r tl o g c t l r c r o r t l r r : ti,r.,.t totlLl volLunctoi-\.1[rr, ).,j, Itrttl thus vlrrit.s us tlrr. r rrirrel tlr.. 1r,lirr., *.lric5 is /r.l t i r n c s l r t s t c r t l r L r r s t : r l r l c .t , . l e t : t r i r : , . , 1 r i i l i l , r : i L r r , r will srrpport. 'l'hLrs t l r c t c r r r l e n r : 1 t. o r j i s r . i r : t r - { ti , , , . , " , , . " , ,,. ,Or. l l l s r c n l t i r l ( l L l r l ct l t l r t 5 u r r i t , C l r , l i : i ( ) 1 1O l t L r i t . o l t t i o e s l).ot l,ll(lltrLsu rit.l.rirc :;izc r.rl r t t l r t r i i r o l r , r i . l r i r . i r. l r o l . s t l r l i t it r , l t e , , . e x r L r . t l i . t l t5ci i l i l L , \ i ; l L t c \ ' t , r t t r Ct i : e r l r t l i t t s . ,,1,.:,.,:,r,',,,,,,,., l ' r \ t \ \ ( . i . \ .L i r l . . l r . r l * i t i r f i t c l - o r t : c s. i . ' . t L t r e , a r t t l i r r r l r l i e s l r t c t r r i c r i r . \t' , : t t i c t . r t l L s c i i ' t l r e r r ; t . , t r . l L ll t t : t i o t i l r ) l)rol)ortio' r r s t l r e s L r r i r r c c ' r : r . e , r r s , .rst ,t ; t s - 1 , . t i t.!. IIe.ac il s,rllLcc tcrsi.. l)e lrrr ('lcctiit: l r r r i rt l r e r l r . l i s l r e c o i r t l c . s i r g ;r)re..'crr.', to lar'{cr sizr, tlrc terrtle.r:.,to , rLll)t,rc tirc clrctrc crl.iitirrilrr. l t I t ] t c l r o t r n d a r y l t 1 ,o s c i l l l L , r r r r . ) . i i i r , , ] , , r , . g " l.iil irr,:rc:rsc s /r_:. 'l'his a t:orres'o'r.i5 'yi1]1 tlre krr,rr.. rii:rlt,l'lrrrrcrrt .i iig.lrrrri'g r v l r c r t t l r e r l r o l i l c t s c o r r, l t i s , . ci r r t o r r L l ; r , l r l p i _ * . . lI t h c c i e c t r j c t r r r : j , r r r u r . l r u L i rre ) l t c j 5 rtt tlte Loundary 'l lL tir,;l u*.i.s t . r ) l r i g ) r l L ' r i l r r c , i r I r r -ui s , , , , , , , ) , cak l,r-;;:

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i c a u s c t h c s c t i i s a s t r o t t sn d u c t i o n s , ' r v h i c h t r a v e l w i t h t h e s p e e d 'fhe o f l i . q b t , g o 2o o o t i r r e s f a s t c r t h a n s o r t n d i n t h e a i r , a r e i n t c r r u p t e d a n d o t l t o f s e r v i c ea t t h e lines so lrurnt out i n s t a n t \ \ ' c s e e t h c l l a s h , l r L r tt h e s h o c k t o t h e c a r t h i s l - e l t s o u r c l ' h n t 1 : r t e r ,o r v i n g t o t h e s l o t v p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h rvave rnrl the air wavcs, l)oth of n'hich trayel rvith conrti3z, qrnlitationrl intro<ittr:ccllty I'ofittt, irotential '/' rr rlj'd: paratirclv los' spceci. (', <1'r' ,' : .t.f .F[( ,, - r'')r-r(-r'-.t'):-r- -:.'):1 \541 \ \ ' c t : o n c i u d e t h c r c f o r e t h a t t h e t c r r i f i c p o r v e rs h o l ' n i n r e l ) r c s c n t s t l r e a c < : t t t l l r t l a t e c ls t r c s s u n t l c r t h e c o r r c s p o t l c l i t l g thc action of liqhtrring has its sotlrce in the strain of the r anrplitttrlcs ol' rttvcs lr-ottt tltc tllltss c n r > r n r o u s Jc'l r s t i c a c t h c r , e n d i t s s t t c l d e n c l c a s e , t h r o u g h a l 'l'his scrics o1' lorrtr s uvcs iike those of an osci)lograph. : crt' rr 1.5.51 .\' .\'rrcr.r cr: ,\' i, r v h o l c a c t h c r - f i c i d o f t b c e n r t h t o o s < : i l 1 a t cn a < ' : r u s l st l r c 'l'hc thus nraliitrq tlrc Iotcntiril- ,,",:.In" sinrPlc fornr scrics ol' s uves lontt cnorrqh to pcnctratcsolid boclics. - rt/11' ( s o ) s c r i c s o l ' p i r l , s i r ' : r lo s c i l l a t i o n s t h u s s e t r r p j a r t h e v c r l ' e r r t l t I v i o l c n t i r -r ' l t c r c t h c l i q l r t n i n q s t r i k e s . In thc srlntc \\':ty all cler:tricrl Ibrt:cs clc'pctlti otl ti alc'l'hc (ii) r n o l c c u l a rl b r c c s o | e r a t i n g i n r a i n d r o l ) s a r e d l t e tltc ncn tllcorr-oI thc ect]rcr, :rction. Jn thc'l'hir11 I'aper otr o ( r \ N . 5 o 7 q ) l c h r l c ' s h o u t t t l r l t t : t t r c l c r ' l r i c c l l r r ( ' l ) ti s I l o t h i r l g t o \ \ ' i l l c s t n v c r s i n q t ) r c r v o r l d , a n d t l r t i s l i g h t n i n g c l e p e n d s n rf s s r r r : h c < : r r n r L r l a tan tt h c rs t r c s s c a t t h e l r o r . t t r d ao y t h c d r o p s . a ic sn i r t t t * ' a v c s o l - a < : c t ' t a i n t t l l c a l r o t t t : r r - r t t l r l i tl 'i r r ( r i r c ; I n n r a n v t r c i r t i s c s o l r t h c a t t t t o s p h c r ci t i s n o t c t l t l r a t i that acthcr arrrl t'lct'tricitl' nrc ciircr:tll r:ontrct:tt-'tlll lr l ltv b , a c l o t r c l s r c i r r q c n c r a l c l c c t r i f i c d t t s t t a l l r ' p o s i t i v c l y ,t t t s o m e s'hich <:an scarccly' lrc tlerrit'il. IIctlcc as atr clt't:tric ctlrrcllt t s tjnre nt'q;rtilcir', anrl orrll tiiili'r clcrtricalll' 1-rotll hc carth is sirnplr orclcrcrl s'ltvcs itt tlrc ectit<:r, :trr:tllgcrl itl e ccrtlitr 'l llc fornlation of a n r in tircir lriehc or loucr t)ote tial. it l'ith tlrc rvav rirout a rvirc, rttrtl trltvclitlg a\ril)'ll'orn a l l e l o c i t l ' o t - l i q h t , i t i s n i t t r r r l l t o i r l r l t r i r c i t t t o c l l ' l l a t r r i t ' . a l t c l p o s i t i l c l i ' c l i ' c t r i l l c c lr : l o t r c i s b 1 ' s o t t r c a r l t l l o r j t i c s t t r i l r r r t c t l 1 1i t o t l i t ' r ' r t l r o r r l i - s c n q 1 1 g f r'o n r t h c c a r t l l . ( ) t t r r - i e s ' , h o s ' c v c r , \\'c scc it in thc <:loucls' stirtic clcctrit:itt'rs i s t l r l r t t l r t : r l l l c s s h i t ' l l g i v c r i s c t o t l t o l c c t t l a rf ( ) l ( ( ' s[ l r c I n c l c < : t l i t : i r li r r v c s t i q l r t i o t t s ( ( ) \ ' c r i l l r { I r r i t l c l l t : l r l u t l r,r ' t h r r t s t t ' r t r 1 1 s ' a v c s t r l a i r l t a i r l c t l a l o n g : r t t ' i t t t t t ; t \ ' ( ) l r c r : t l r ' l l l : r l s t r r r v i ' r s i r gt h c s ' o r l t 1 ,l r r r t t h c s t a t c o i t l l c t l o t t t l , finrl rllrrl o t a s r l 1 ' n a n r i r :c l c t : t r i t i t l ' . l ' , l c t : t r i r : c t l r r c l l t , l i r r c r : r t r t l p ) c ' i s g t ' r l t ' - r u l r o r r r 1 r c t l r c c ; l l t h , l ) y c o t l r ' l c t l s a t i oo t1 -r l r o l r ) c t s , q i v c :r i ' c a q c r : r t c r i l r l a r 1 r ' t t l t r r oo t l t o f t l l c t l r l t { t l c t i c ' l r c l t l o l t l l c t : r r t l l , r u rv l l r , r ' s i s t l r r r t o t h c p l t . s s i t t 1 \ ' : L v c s ,t l d t h t t s
r v h i c i r r t l u a i ' s c r j s t s . I I t ' t t < : ca s t l l c l i g i r t r r l l r qr c l ) l c s c l l t sr i l t l l t l t l i r : t r ) ( i i l l ( l r l r r r ' r , l t ' l i r t t i r ' I o l c n t i l l l r c t l r c c l i t h c c l o r t t l a t l c i c l t t i l ' . o I l : . ' . ,t l l i i r r r u n t l r l t t ] r c c l c t ' t r i c a l c a J t a < : i t 1 'f - a r l r o l r g c l c c t r i c i t r ' , t l t t c t o r l i s t : h l t r q c t t t t t l t ' r a t ' t : t t t l l t t l l t t i t ra c t l l c t s t r c s s r t i l l ( o l l r l c ( : t i r ) l l j 5 1 , 1 r r a it o t l r t ' r ; L r l i l r s ,n l t i t h s l i o u s t h a t l l l g c l c l r o p s l l e v c a t t h c : , l t r i r c c s o l r l i t r r l r r ) l ) s , r \ ' ( ts l r o t l l r l s t t r r l l t:ttllc t s i t h t h c r i ' l v c - t i r c o r v a s : r u l t o l t ' , s i r i c h i r l r ' l r l r l ( ' s h c r c r l t l l s l : r n i n i r t ' r r ' . i n gc l 1 , ; i c i t r ' , l r t i t i t l t t g t t t c r t t s s l o r r l l ' , a s t h c root ol llrc nrtss. l;or i1' zzrlte tllc: tllass, l c bllc rrlgnctir: l'ar c'lrt'lrl. . \ r ' e l i r l t i r t ' o 1 1 ' o i - t l r cl i q l t t n i n r l , c o t l l i r r i t l i t t g t o t l l e l ' r t v c i t h c o r v o f p i r r - - s i t : rfl - o r r : c s , s t l t c r c l i r r c i I l l l o s t t l r l { c 1 r tr i t ' s i t l t ' r r t l t t t u : o i s c i c n r : c . . ' \ r t t l r r r r t i l t h i s i s r t t l t l i t l c < i , i t l a c c r t r c l : t l t r : iu ' i t h t h c 1 t h c o r l ' o l c l c c t r i c s l t l c s : t t r t l o s t : i l i a t i o t l s ,t l r c I l l l ' s t c t ' o l - t l r c lightning ('rllnot lre intclligt'rrtlt' att:tckttrl. s i n c c t l r c r t t ' t l t c r h a s a 1 1 t ' l n s tj r : l ) o \ \ ' (l / : - - : Nos q 6 S g : z l 6 o o o o o t i n r c ' s r c a t t ' t ' t l t e rtth a t o l ' o ' l r : t i r i r r p r o p o r t i o t l c t o i t s r l t : n s i t \ ' )\ ' c s c c t h n t l i g h t r l i l l g i s l l t t l r r i t t o t t s f i c c t o l ' u - a v c o s r : i l l e t i o n s i n t h i s c t l o r t r l o t t s i v c l l t s t i r :t : r ' r j ' t t slrt l ; t r t l l c r l i L t n r , r r h i r ' ] r e ( ' ( ' o u n t s l b r t l r t r v i o l c t t t ' c o { - t i l c c l l c r : t r i t :s l l o t : l < 'l'llc a c t l l c r l i l r r : L t i o t t sr c s t t l to rnatcrial olrjcr:tso1'tlrc *orlrl.

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' l ' h e c o a l e s c e n c eo f t l i e c i r o p l e r sr o f b r u r n L i n - r s s e l ) u r a t e dl t y t h e d i e l e c t r i c o f t h e aturoslrhere.Ii.riction, drops is therefore the one chief conclition reilrrisite to the c.onde'sationof d'oplets, l'd sirnilar c a u s e st e n c l t o d i s t u r b d e l e l o p n r e n to J ' I i g l r t n i n g . t l r c c l e c t r i c e t l L r i r i l r r i L r ro r ' t h e e a r r h u n d n c l o u r r s i , ' rt n . r ; r y . 'l'hc I n t h e r v n ' e - t h e o r y o f m o r e c L r l u r ' r b r c c st i s r r c r r r i, l r i i t t c , r vP o r v e r r . r l ' a l l l r g c c l o r r c l i r t r e s l ) c c t th,t to the earth the retardation of th.- waves el)terilg the cI,.o1,., r 1 , i t l r . : i r I t l i I ) ' .c o r r c s l ) o n t l t o : i 5 g o o o l c el l s , a s i o n [ 4 . rrgo sho*.rr b1, c o r r e s p o n d i n g a c c e l e r a t i o no n l e a v i n s t h e d r o l r s , g i v e s r i s e J)t 1o liut .,uttl:l/it1l,,r lirr ..light'irs tlrt,;lr ,i ,,iif" i' le'gttr. t o a e t h e r s t r e s s i n t h e b o u n d a r y o f ' t h c s e g l r , i r r r l c s ., i . h i s 'l'ltis e n o r r u o u s l e r - t r i c ) o \ \ . e 1 c - 6 p p t L r i a t ii n g c l r 1 the consurfuce stress of the aether rrt tllc lroutrrllrl, rs t h c c : l r r r s e r l c r s i ' g c i r o l r l c t s. r u r i e s t h c c j r c , r i r : t c r r s i o ' t to, Iriglr fbr the . n d e r l y i ' g s u r f z r c et e . s i o n . \ \ / h c . t i r c l L c t h c r r : s , s t r . e s s e d r c l l L t i r , e l r ,c.l e c r c : r s i n gc a p a t : i t v o f t h e rirolrs, unci tends to at the boLrndary,and the drolrlets rre coitllscing, t l r c r e r u i ) t u r e t h e e l c c t r i t : e t l u i l i l r r i u r rrrr l l r t i ' e t o t h c earthbclo*.. 'l'his usuallyis a, changins electrical state, anrl rlrr,s tlic t:lourl i n c l i t ' r r t c tsl u r t s c is electrilied. I f r v e c o n s i d e t h e i n f i n i t e l y r : o n r l r lx : r e l r , . r r e _ r l . r t v e l l c i c l o l - ' . t L r r e u s r r r v l r a r c , i t i s c i i l ' l i r : L r tr 'tr c r c r l r g i r t . i r r g t,lr'1: about the earth, rvhich we cAlt litrrn -.Orne r t r , 1 ) { . r l ) t l oo f c r L r r s co t i r e r t r * r r * ' u ' e s . ' r ' h i s n 'l'hird 1rlr1'sicur:aLrsc.iorr l *.oLrrd fronr figure r4 of'the l , a p e r ( . \ N 5 o ; 9 1 . i l l u s t r l t i n . q r r r a l i e p < - r s s i b l cr r i s a c t : ' r r u r ; t t i . ' t of lctrrer stiris .t tirc L,rr.t l t e e a r r h ' s n r a g n c t i ci r c l d , r v e s l r e l l c l s i l i j l ) r r (! , i v c t i r : r r i t t l a r y o r ' t l r e g i o b . r e s . f - t r r c c i r r r t i s , r r c c u u s e a t t h r s l , l o u n c'lia,r ' . r s t r o t l t o s s i i t l e1 b r c l r o p l e t s o c o l L l c s c le i t l r o r r r . n r r n g ) n ! . t ( . tnc thc \\'itve rnovcn)cl)[ L]lliu]g(,s srrtiricrrly, ,,1.1 tl,.l ."r,,f , e l e c t r i c . l r e s i s t a . c eo r t o t i r l t e ' s i o r . ri ' t i r e r c r r r t . r . ( r . c elrr:trit: trr)siolt r.clcu.crils ii.qlrtning. to rric Jrassingrvaves. Iir lL. .iitlr'.:s licrir.r thc \\'.sttr., S,cictv of-I,r'gi'eers I l e f o r c .c o n r l e n s r l t i o nh i s r e s i s t a n t : c i,n r r r , , i l . y i n g r r t ( . ) l r i c a g o , I < 1o , i ) r . ( ' i r , t . ; .I , . , \ ' l t t t l t , . / : , t : i rirtr thc t,nrrnent elec_ l i e e r v a v e n l r t v e r 1 r e l l to 1 ' t h e a e t h e r , i s s t r i t ' t t lt r t ( i n c e r - ,l r L s r l i : , . ; 1 , . u r l i r c o i r l e r , p r l r 1 ; r o l r c r r ) r) i ( r t o I i r e .j r tl). ...\\.rr tl)eorics t o t a l s P u c eo c c u p r i e c b y t h e d r o p l e t s o f - , , r l , i t c r(,) r l i o i ) ! , c u i ) c o l i i g l r t n i r t r . I I c : l L \ s t i t l L I t . r l r u r i e l t ( ] r , ) r ( ) \ , c st l l r t n o t o v c r l o 1 -t l r c i r r a d i i . Y c t t ' e c a p a c i t y o l - i r c l r o ' t o i r r l r i r L l l : r c i l r l ) c r c e r ) t r . r l t l r c c i t . rt r c - h a r g ei s p r o p o r t i o n : t l t o i t s _ e l e c t r i c uc a p l c i r l , , ( , f l s l n ) l ) l \ .t ( ) t h e r a , i L r s . l ' c o u d e . s r r t i o ' , t h e r e l o r e ,r v h c . e r y l r ' r r r r y t l r _ o , l r t s J ) i L r t s( ) l t l r c t . i o u , l . coalesce illto a sinvlc tlrop, the rvuve resistiLrr,:., I I t t . , r r t , . i L r t i . .t st l L l i l r t : i t u s l r o t t r ( ) l c i .,,r,,,,r, lo trvrr Irrilus in t o r h c s 1 . r a r : t i l l e r l r v i r h l , r L r c r , 1 . . : , f , , , r ' 7 i : , , , l c l ) g t n l u c l ) l - ( ) { r e' s j \ c i r r t l r e i r n l L t L i l u .. l . i t t . r . . t . t r f e_ \ rvitli t}re f :r l : . . , i : n):u1 o ,t o l t l r r c l l r : r t . i t yl b r n r a i n t a i n i n g l e c t r i c. , , 1 , , i i i b . i , , , r il ) t l I ) ( : t u r l n g( ) l i r s i ) o r t s l ) i r c c i ) c t \ \ . r . c l t r ( J u l ) s e g .r('; 9 1 . i i r . o l r so t t t o f o n l f i n c r e a s e ss i r n l r l y a s . 1 i . c . l r r : t r i re r f i l i ' r i ' r r r , : o o r . . i o , i " , : rr.cl s'rea. rrrtil 'fhus t h c p o t e n t i a l s u r e r r l L r a l i z e t l t o , r v l , l t"r1 , , , . i , I ' r n n i t h e r c l e t i r . c l i , i n a r l c i l L r a t(ee l ) i r ( j i t ( l t ) c ,:c,.rcspontiing to tl)e j y of voltagc rcrluilcri to rnaintain.tlte t l l e g r o l ' i n g d r o p , c o r n p a r c c lt o t h e r c l r r t i v c t y tlischtrr.e in tbe ,i^,,r1,l rrrlritl grol,tlr 'I'lrc p e r i o c l o l ' t h c t l i s c h r r r q ei s 1 r . o r n o f n t a s s ( 1 1 : l )t h c r e a r j s e s r r t c l t r l c t ) , . \ , u f u l ) t u r L . r l r c i o o o o o r r o o . : 5 s e c o"n.t.l , r cltt:trir; l b r t l t c s i c l r v c r - t r t : t i r rl gl L s i r e so l ' r l o r e eq'iliLrriurn, roportio'al to 1ij. 'l'his n,,.,,r, p l u r r i l r l r r r r1 ; o t c r r t i t r r l i s _ r , \ . r . r 'r i r i . ( i r o l ) , l s o t l l a t t h e r v h o l e c l o L r d b e c o n t e s l c < : t r i t :" r , l y c l , j t . i r r , r . q c t l ,. i t l r t r i l r L t t i c l r r . , \ ' l t t : t t , t/,: ( . ( ) l t ( : ' r s i r r t l r r I i e i ' i r l r ( ) \ . c e \ l ) r c s s e ( l t l r r r t r . r r l ' l r s r r l r r r l - r ' rt i t l . r t h e c o n d e n s a t i o no l - t h e , - d r o p l e t s u n d l L st l r c Lr ; t i r e i i ! r i t , i i r g t i r s t r r r l r l . ) . c sl L r c 1 > r o t . t . .l ; r o ( t c r ( l s ) ,t 1l.c(runlrates in dillerent llic rrrrt L,,,1r.,t.fire Irtaks iLld of'tlre cr.ri,l trrc ir)(rfeasilrq t i t l c t o c j i r c r : i , , t r o l i L . . , i J)arts l r L t r i ) o . t s i r e i . ! t i L l r t o ( . , 1 (t . , . : r l i r : t r t , s e l e c t r i c s t r e s s( 1 1 : ) f i n a l l y l e e t i s t o t h e r l e v e l o l ) r r t c n r * . i t i r i r t t i r r c e dr . o l t l t g c s ol osr;ii_ ol lrc.rlt5ooooc to I oo!coo. r I a t o r y d i s c h a r s e o r l i g h t n i n g . . l . i r i sh n p P e n s u:i soon us rlrc condLrt:tivity'r' the air pcrnrits - \ t : c o r t l i n . qt o t i , e r ( . 1 ) o r it l t t l r r L i t e r l r r y o o s . i l i u t o r l . r e l c r r s co r - r h e l)ilcst ol.Nov. :o, . " > t l t e r t r c t h r r t i( ) i l i ( . ( . i t r t j u j i r t i r r q r ' c r e i r s l . g e l e c t r i cs t r e s so n t h e s u r ln c e o 1 - s o . r e t r r . l I r r q e ( ) 1 .5 o o o o o o o v o i t s o r . o f ' t r r cr l i ' d r o p s . I P O S s i b l y t u ' i . c t i r i s ' u ] r r e o ' a t ; i . r r d - r r , r r sc r l i l l r i a e t l a s i a l ' o r o b s e r v a t i o n s h o u , st h a t c l r y a i r i s a non-(:on(luctor I'olt'irtg an initilLi cliergc o1 sptall o1'electricity, aucl tlrcrefbrc rvhen thc atrnosphere ltlrltir;lcs o1 contlenscri i s c l r _ . r , o r crl l ) o i s t u r e , i tite initirLl t.hur.gcbcing rlLrL,ir thc posrtton c r , fm o i s t u r e , a d i s c h a r g e i s d i t - t l c L r l te x c e l ) t t , ot-thc rl rirc lbrrn ol. j t:lt>rrrl rvitit rcsl)cct to tl)c eartl). it l,tL, (.\l)iirillc(l s h e e tl i g h t n i n g , s o o r t e n o b s e r v c - d, r r l r y u , e , r t h e r . tltat rhe i . . \ rt . r . r n l i r r . q .ir y r r r t l r , r it:rs srrr.rorrrrclciry trn electrostlrtirt tlciri rj i t r v i l l n o t s u r p r i s eu s iritlr I graclient t h a t l i g h t n i n t r l ev el o l i s , , t r i . i . i y . . l r o L t t r v r r r r i l - r ' a r r rt l r c s r r r f : r r : c ' .- \ r . i s t L t r e ( r o a ( r r . r s i a { d t t r i n a r ' a i r , e s l t e c i a l l yft'o hre oe c , a . i t r l l L t i r .c i i s t . . c e ,,,,,,,,rr.rtio,,1' orc-lrall' . r r r i l c r ' r o . r t l r c eu r t l r * o L r li l r t r r " '" n,ur o r s t o r l r ) , i b r c h a n { a i n g a p i i l l y t h e c n u lte s c e 1 r l r " r i , , r e rierci at a o n,:" of.tl,c ,lroPlcts, r)()teatii\(.r1'rooooo'.rts t. e.rtli l'r(1 u.illti lrssrirrrr ci)irrge l r v h i c h a l s o n r a y l c a d t o t l t e l l . c c z i n so l - s o n r e c oi.rlreruinto corrL:spontlin.q t o t l r i s I ) o r e r i I i l ] . ) i y r : o l l c r : t i r r gi n t o huil lt is u'ell krorvr t'at'.il Ierg'er L r . i r u l r yr c ( i o l ) ) r ) i , l r e ) l o s t i rs | ; t t t i t l es t l t e c l t l r r g c . l o r r l r l l r c r r ( r c u l r ) u l i r t r ( r t n t t l y a l u c s violcnt tlrunderstornts. l of (iii) Under condensarion f glolrulcs o l,itlr rlrc clecrrrc; t e n s i o n i n c r e a s i n ga s / t r , 2 a c l o u c l o r r l ) t l ' t o l ' l L < : l o r rlr L i e : o u r c s charged and lbnus l,ith anothcr pelt o1-tlre c l o L L t l ,o r r v i t l t t h e e a r t h b e l o r v , r L c o n c l e n s e r ,t l r c i r r t r . r ' r ' c l r i r i lg i r . 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t h a t t h e l l o s ' o f t : L t r r e n t t r a y b e n t r l ' u ' h c r c f r o m r o o o t o the refractivc index of rvater, aud glass, and thus the n'rve r o o o o o a n r p i : r ' c st,h c s c e s t i n t a t e sb c i n g b r s c t l o t . tt h c s i z c o f l c l o c i t i c s i n t h e t n ' o m e c l i a , a r e a c c u r a t e l y k n o r v n . Jf , t l r c r c f o r e , t h e a d h e s i o n o f t h e w a t c r t n t h e o l e s s t t h e c c ' n d r r c t o r s h a t h i l v e l r c c t r n r e l t e c lc l t t r i n q t h e d i s c h a r c c 'I'hc .n"ii ;; ;i;i" t; ;"; ,';;"; ;,; i i l L t m i n a t i n gl i c c t o f l i s h t n i n s l,c rlrrt' ro \\'.\'c ,rcti.rr, c o f l s t r o k ct o t h c s r o u n d . "" r r a s u s e c i t o c s t i n r x t c t h a t t h e l i q i r t c r t c r t l ' o f a l l a s h n r i g h t a n a l 1 ' s i so I t l r c f o r c c s r l i t ] r s o r n c d c g l c c o f c o n f i d e n r ; c . l n <r figure 7 u'c siron'a cross-section f a r,indorvpanc, r'ith a o b e e i l t i i l a l c n t t o t r l r h o r s e - . 1 r o u ' c r - h o r t <s . 'l'hc clrop of rain rclhcrirrg to it. And rve remark that in glass, rjischargc is ft rclcrrsc of clcr:tric tcnsion in the r v i r t c r , a n r l u i r , r r i r r , c so t - l i g h t r v o u l d h a v e v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e c a e t h e r a t t h e s , . r r f a r :o f t h e t l r o p s , l r u t i t h a s t o o c c u r t h r o r r g h r o , | 2 , r 6 : 1 o r t h e r e f r a c t i v c i n c l i c c sa r e i n v e r s e l y t h c l n c c l i u r r ro l ' t h c a t r n o s p l r c r e ,i n r v h j c h t h c c l o t r c l l l o a t s . r a t i o o f v , ( l e i s s l c r - t u l r c c r p c r i r n c n t s , t h c l e l o t : i t ] ' i s r l r c a t , l r t t t a s t h c i ' e l o r : i t i c sa n r l t h e a p p r o x i m i r t c a l u c so f t h c s ci n d i c e s a r e i\s in , \ i r - r v a t r - nr:, ' r.33:1';f 1, :h l e s s t l r a r r t h a t o i ' l i q h t ; e n d a s t l t c c l c r : t r i cr c s i s t ; r t r rc c e n q c s 1" . , \ i r - g l a s s ,l t : r.60 : o 10 l i t h t h c t l i s r : ' h a r g c , r v i r g t o i n c l t t c : t i o ni n t l r c r ' l o t t r l s a t r r ' l r o t h e r l l t a s s c st ,i r e q x t t hn ) i l \ ' : l i ) p c : t z i { z , i { , r t s s l t o t v tltr v a < : t t t a l vl , \ t : c o r r i i r t g l v t h e l b l l o r i ' i n e f i g r t r ei s 1 ' g 1 v 1 1 o o s 5 e ; f o r , 5 s f l n s h c s . ; \ c r ; o r c l i n g l r 'a l t h o u { l i t h c c l c c t r i c :t r - ' r t s i o in i n : r f i r c t l \ \ ' c s e c i n r r r r c r l i u t c l l t h c f o r c c s g e n e m t e c l ,i n l i r e p r o p a g a t i o n , c l i r c c t i o n ,t h r : t l i r c c t i o n l r l t c r s r v i t l r p e r t i a l r c l c a s c ,i t t c l t t c t i o n of )ight. It thuslrer:onrcs a n d r c d i s t r i l i r t t i o n f c l c c t r i c t c t r s i o n ,s o : t s t o g i l c t h c a r : t t t a l o li ..,'J-t clcar that in plssing ll zigzag yrrthslrrcscntt:crv lightninq. liom air to \\'atcr,\valcs I o f i i c l i t r r c c i c c r c a s c di n It nrust lrc undcrstood, in vieri'inq thcse discharqe l e l o c i t y b 1 ' t r . , ' o t 1L . phcnonrcna, that thr: clectrir: tcnsiott is dclc)opcd lrctl'r:cn I n p a s s i n . gi o n r n ' a t c r t o l t h e c a r t h a n c l c l o u c l , o r r l t h c r l r c t r r ' c c nl r i l l i r > n so l b i l l i o n s 'l'hcrclbrc L.rLrrw.' gllss thc vclocity likeu'ise as tlrc t o f r a i n d r o p s i r r c l i l T c r c np l r t s o 1 - t h c c l o u c l . 6 r.. c',. < : h l n g c sr o n r 1 2 / 1 t o r n l r , , , , f f c l i s c h a r g c ,i r . t l r { r o u 1 r o f d r o p s , y r r o , : c c r l s r o t l o t r c 1 r : r r to 1 ' t l \ \ ' l l r ( l )r < / i . I l ) c \ \ ' i l v e p t h e c l o u d t o u ' a r c l st h c c a r t l l , o r t o r v a r t l s a n r t r l j e c c n t l t r t o l r n r o t i o n t h t t s r : h a n q c sr - c l o tc , t h e c l o u r l , t l r c l o c l l t c n s i o r . irs r c l c a - s c da n t l r c r l i s t r i l r u r l : t s { ' i t t l n r l 1 1 ( ' l r c lt c s a s t r a i r r e t h c l l a s h a t l v a n < : c st;l r i s q i r r ' s r i . . c t o ; r \ c r l s t t r l r l c nr t ' r t r i r r t l r c :l u v c r o f a c t l r c r e n r i , s r a l ) g c m c n t o f t h c c l c c t r - i < :t r c s s ,l u r t l : r st h c r c s i s t l t n c t ' : r l o t t q nrilltcr( r)ntlinitrqtlte surt h e p r t h a l s o c l t a n g l s ,l r v t i r c r c l c : r s t :t ,h c z . i g z l q ) l t l t l l l l t t t l t l l \ ' l 1-rrc of thc lr'atcr, anri ( ' i l s c s) i l r t so f c l c r : t r i l l c r l: l o u r l s r r .s o s i t t t e t i , l , a ' r c s u l t s .I n s o n r c l likcl'isc at the surfuce j t h a t t n ' o o r n r o r c r l i s c i r a r g c so i n t o g c t ) r c r : t t r r i u ' c ] t : i v c lrct*'ccn the gliss ancl forkecl liehtninq. thc rr'atcr. Nou' in thc clsc of tlrc Lcldcn jur tlischarqc,n'c h:rvc 'l-he tension of the s c e n t h a t i t i s o s < : i l l a t o r r 'r,: o n s i s t i n go f i r s c r i c s o f - \ \ ' l l c s o r molccules clrre to tlre r u s u r g e s i r . r t h e n r c r l i u r n ,r : o l t r i r t g ' i t h s u c h r n l ; i r l s t l c r : c s s i o n s t o l e a v c n o i n r l r r c s s i o no r r t l r e c y L - , J ' c t c r l r l i r l t : o f l ) c i n g l f i g . 7 . I l i r r s t r r t i o r r o l t l r e a t i l t c s i o n o f a a c t h e r s t r e s so f t h c s u r r l i r r , l r o l r t o a r v i r r r l o l ' p a n c , a r t r l o f f a r : c o f t l r r r r ' a t c ri s c : r l phototraphccl lrv a rapidil rotrtinq trirror r:lllcrl an oscilthc srr,l,lcncharrgc in thc vclocitv lcd strrlnccension; that t lograph. In lilic r)rillurcr, thc lightninq is an osr:i11:rtor1' o l l l r . r r r r v c s l t t l r c l r o r r n r l a r yo f lrctu'ccn the u'ater encl v c r l ' s r n r c k i r r r l; a n r l i t - n ' c c o u l r l s t . c l l r c uaicr, g)r.<, tlrc llrrfc rncrlil. rir, d i s c h l r q c , o 1 -t h c a u i o r r rl , i c l r t l r c l , l l r c . i o r r r l c I c r r r l s q l l s s i s c a l J c t i r i h c s i o n , s u r . q i n go f t h c n t c r l i L t t n l,c s l r o t r l i l p c - r c c i v cl t t t ' r v t ; r p i , l anrl makcs thc watcr l r o \ c u l c n t t o a n t l l r - o i n t l r i s r r q i t u t i o no l ' t i t c e c t l t r ' r : r 1 o n g ri I b o t h e p e t h , n ' h i c h t h r s b c c o r n c s u n r i n o u s c r : e u s c l - t h c v i o l c n t a r i h c r c t o t i r c i n r l r ) i l1 ) i u r.e l i r o n r t h c a l t o v e f i q r t r e w e p e r ceivc tltrit light u avcs pussirtr fiorn thc irir to the rainclrolr o thc lcngth a g i t a t i o n so l - t h c p r r r t i c l e s f ' t l r e u t n r o s p h c r c , o u t c r l . r o u n d a r lo f t h c d r o p , a n d t h u s t h c ' lj'orrr thc r'lorrrl to tlr,c clrtlr lrcing so grcxt ls to nrtlic irrc rlcla\,cti:rt tlre rr'avc ll'orrt I)r'('sscin on tlte \\'atcr, so xs to givc thc surface s r r r o s ti n r p r c s s i l c a r r c l t c r r i l . v i n go l ' t h c )ightningonc of-tlrc tcnsion olrst'rvctl. On passing on into the rtlass therc is a p h e n o r n c n ao f n a t u r c ( s c e 1 r r . 6 , p l a t c z ) . s c t : o n d r i c l u v o i t h c l ' a l e f r o n t a t t h e b o t t n d a r l 'o f t h c i l l a s s ; 6 . \ \ ' u v c - ' lh c o r v o l - t h e ' \ r i h e s i o n o f a I i a i n - a r r d t h i s e c i l r e r s t r c s s o r p r e s s u r e o v e r t h e s u r l a c e l r e t u ' e e n d r o p t o a \ \ ' i n r i o s ' l ) a n c :O u t l i n c o f t h c C a u s e o f t h c \ \ ' i r t c r : L r r r lq i u s s c a u s e s t h e a c l h e s i o n r v l ' h i c h t h e u ' a t e r l C a y r i l l a r i t l r r n r ' lo l ' t h c P e r f c c t S p h e r i c i t v o f S o n l r i r c l i r c r c s o t l r c q l a s s . t llulrlrlcs. 'l'he r r i n d r o p , h o \ \ ' e v e r ,a d h c r e st o i t s e l f s o m e w h a tn o r e ( i ) \ \ h l e - t h e o r ' \ ' o f t h e a c l i r e s i o no f a r a i n d r o l ) t o a s t r o n s l y t h a n t o t h e g l a s s ; b e c a r r s ei I t h e g l a s s b e i n c ] i n e d * irrdon Plnc. and jrrred, the l'ater rl'ill run dorvn and fall offas a drop, 'l'his -l'hc s i n r p l e s t p h c n o n r e n a o f t e n g i v e u s t h c r r r o s tl i g h t i e a v i n s n r e r e l l ' a t h i n l a i ' e r o f m o i s t r t r c o r r t h e g l a s s . o n t h e i n v i s i l r l c t ' a u s e sl t n r i e r l fi n e t h c o l ) e r x t i o r l so f n a t r . t t ' e ; r e c o g n i z e c l u n r l o b v i o u s e f f e c t r v i l l h o l d t o r r v a v e s P a s s i t r q t . a n d t h u s \ \ ' c s h e l i c - x a r r i n es o n r c u ' h a c a r e l i r l l l ' r v h 1 1 1 . 1 n ' f r o n r t h e r L i r t o t h e q 1 a s s ,a s s h o r v n i n t h e u y r p e r h a l f o f n o d r o p l r i b c r e s s o s e r : L r r e ltv a l ' i n d o r i ' p l l n e . N o p h c n o n r e o n t h e a b o v e f i q u r e .
L ' , ' h w r -

llLrt rr'e must consirier warres from all directiotrs, and r ' c o u l c ll r c l r c t t c r l < n o l ' r ' t h a n t h i s l a c t o 1 - e v c r 1c i a l ' o l r s c r v a t i o t . t . I t i , sc v e r v \ \ ' h c r co i ) s c r l e d , r n c l l b r t u n l t e l , vl r ' e r r e i n l I r o s i t i o n t h u s l ' e a s k r v h l t s ' i l l h a p p e n i f t h e l ' a v e s m o v e i n t h e b t o x t t r c k t h e p r o l r l c r n r r r e s e n t e c l y ' t h i s p h e n o r l c n o n , [ r e c a n s e o p p o s i t e d i l c c t i o n , a n d h a \ , e a l r e a d y t r a v e r s e dt h e g l a s s , a n d

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307 5 30 3o8
are leaving it to enter first the u,ater, thiLr-r the airi In this case the effect rviil be as shorvn b1, the arrows in the lorver p a r t o f f i g u r e 7 . A s t h e v e l o c i t y i n g l a s s i s s n r a l J ,t h c w a v e s rvill speed up on passing frorr-rglass to s,ater, lLuri ngain on passirrg fronr rvater to air. Ancl in both cases thet, l.ill react o r ) k i c k b a c k < , , g i v i n g a n a e t h e r s t r e s s o r a c l h e s i o no f t h e l ' a t e r t o t h e g l a s s ,a n d a t t h e o u t e r b o u n c l a r l 'a s u r l a c et c n s i o u n e x t t o t h e a i r . A c c o r d i n g l y , r y h e t l r e rt l r c l . a v c s c o n i c l l . o r n the air or lrom the qlass they l,i.ll givg tl)c uctlrt,rstresscs c l u e t o c h a n g e o f I ' e l o c i t y , a n d r c s u l t i n t h c r n o l c r ; L L l ab r c c s lr observed.
'fhe thnn glass, this flLrid rvill be repelled by the glnss tr.rbe, and the colr-r.rrr of this liqLrid *'i)l be depressecl, *,hereas rvlter and sintilur lluicls arc elevatcci. 1'his expl.rnation is not so verl,ciiliercnt lionr that pLrt lbrtlr b,v Io!ltce in iris tlrcory of capillarity. a cenlrrlr ago; lbr this grcrrt geo.reter cxP)ui'ecl the rbrccs .c.rg orl llrcrcur), r c l a t i l c t o a { l a s s t L r ' l l ea s n c g a t i v e , l n c l i r 1 , h i i a n a l y s i s of t h e l i r r t : c sl r - s s r r r r c t o b c s c ' s i b l c o . l ' a t l irse,sible rlisianccs, o l r t u i r r c c i r L ' c r ) : s r r t i s l r r c t o r v t h c c - r r 1o i - t h c c l c p r e s s i o r . o t - . r e r ' r cury i' t:.1rilla'y t,l;cs. 'I'he I)rcscnt thi,orl.Lasccl o'*,ar.e lLcti,' is, lro* c'cr, 'roi'c logical, a'ri hus t]ie lLtlr,r.t^ge of s)rorvi'g * ]r' tltc lbr<:e s _arr reg.li'c, a , t l c i . r r ru r : t o r r l 1 . a t irrscnsiirlt clisrlnr:cs.

theory hcrc lrriefly traceci cnal>lcs us to ir:rtlt,rstanri the aclhesion 'f'tire ruin drop to the rvinclorvlr:Lrc. Ir is lrcv.rcl d o u b t a l a v e l r h e l o n r c n o n , b c c l L u s ci 1 ' t l r r -lrr r i l r c r l r r i r i l c . t l , i t l r l l r r e r . tr r r1 ' r v i l l s c n s i l r l f i r r t e r ' t ' 1 r t r , . g n ' q.r'irutiolrul * ' a ' r s n r O t i . g i n a l i c l i r c c t i o n s , t l t c s e l i r r c t , : ; i r i l l r t c r : c s s e r i l l , \ \ ' r t \ : c s , : - t s , l 1 d / t ) /( r / / ( z s l r o 1 1 ' . ' " , t i l i -r rnor.c rvjll it rr,sirt lntl 'I'his rcsLrlt. ri'ill holcl truc for light \ r\.ts ol- rire lisible rlucni:lr tlte sltorlrl *'aves ective in <:alrill:Lrirr.. 'l'irc sl)cctlu'1, or ibr u,rvcs ol'shortcr le.qtlr \\.lrit.lrar.c lirLrrclto i l i t i s r r r L r i . r rl , g . q , l ) 1 . : i , o l ' t h c i r r r . r . c u s i . gl e l , r c s r i . ' r t c o l r c s p O n c l t o t h e r i r c l i u s o l n c t i o n l b r c i L l r i l i r i r i r r . ,r i s o l r s e r v c r l o l l t r l r ' r i : r r l v r : o l r r r r r ru ' i t i r r l c t ' r c l s i r ) g ( l i u l l r t t r r r r l t l i e t t r l r c n r l r r r Ity liiicltr, /(tfulo1i, A'Lluin ancl othcrs. l r c r c g l r r i i t r l l L s r l i r e c t l i t t . r o l ' o l t l t c t : l r r s cs i r r r r l . L t . i t r l r l r c ,,, (ii)'l'hc r : a s e o 1 ' u t c r c L l r ) , , r v i t i r : l i l i v c s r i r l ( . 1 ) i L . s : i c ( ll i ; r ' t. s * l r i t i r l r r , r i i i t c e l c ' e t i o r r o r ' r v u t e . i r c u p i l l l L r y r ttrl;cs r : o l t t r n n i n a t r l l ) c , u n d a p p a r . c n t l f i s r . t . 1 r c 1 l t ,i i,ir . L l r r : l l l l t s s . u r t l r t l r o , . t . i l r i c i r , 1 . . 1 r r . . t l ) c ( . o r r e l ) o n c l i n gc c l j u r r r n r .-c s of'rncrcttri,. 'l'hc a i t o v e c r l t l l n e t i o n o l ' t l i c l i t l i r t . : i o n o l r r r : r i r r t i r t . ; 1 r l " o r i n l r r r t l r t : L : rr l i , e l r l t t , r r o n l c n l ro l ) s c r v c c l l _ , c c o n r cr n o r e t o u l ' i n r l o * ' 1 t a n c o u t ) i n e s l r r i e l - l r . t h r r v l r r . - r l r c o r . t . r r f t . a l r r l - r \ t r c r l 1 , r i i t i r t l t c . : r r . r ( r \i \. g . o i t l r a < : . l r t a t . tlre *,atcr l r l i t y , l r u t I l i r l u i r l l i l < c n i c r < ' u r 1 ,u j i i r . l r c l o r , n ( r I r v c t t ] r e r i s i a . q l r i u ) r c r l r . r l l l r . . l r r ( . r . ( .ra l : i . ) i i . g l L r i ' e , r c l l r t i r . c l y t o r t l , t ' l u I r ' l o l ' l i . t - r r , t: : . . I : , , - : t ' . . , . g l a s s l l l u s t b e e- r l r r r r i n c c l . l t u i l l l t c l i r r r n r i t l i r L l t l r t . l r i v e_ '1'bis t h e o r y r v i i l l r o l d l b r t l r c c r s c o l ' l n c r c l l r ) . r s w t i l r L sl b r t l r i r t ctlect is rr.li slrr,lri irr Iri.r,r,rr, 1rl:rtc;, ,.lighrlv o f N ' a t e r , l [ r t i t i s r ] e c e s s a r y t o a s s u l ) l e g r c r r t r c s i s t l L r r ( r t o t l r ( l r r r o r l i l l el I i o ' r a * o r l i . r r l , r r i t l i i : , 1 l , i : r . : i r . . , i , r . . / , l . i r , , u . i l t f ./)ttt,is, lhc l\ll<:\lillarr Lio., \crv !r,rk, r ()r; , 1t). aether rv.r'cs i' thc nrerctrrl., rvhich is * lrrLt slr.Lrlri lrolrl in ; 4. :ut: jr e c ( ) n t r i r s t i r r r l c y l L t i c i r r s l ' i i t l r r i t i c O l r r r r r i s\ \ o L i l r j 5 ! , c n r t ( ) t u l i \ . t h e P r o P e g a t i o ' o f t h e s e * ' a ' c s t l r r o a g h t l r i s t i c r r - s er r r e r l i u ' . o l , ' o r i ' h i s e x P er i r ' e n t s - a t t h e J . , h y s i c a l L u l r . r . i r t r > r ' i r r . l ' . r . i t r , i r r c - r 1 r l i . l r l r 1*e t l i o r r t l i s i r r P l e e r r c l r l i r c t : t t h e o r r ' l i k e t i r a t l r e r c i r g r g, 1'rofi:ssor Q. tllolorauo f'ottr-td lret evcn the loug u.avcs t l ) l c s e n t c ( 1 . , \ n t l i l ' \ \ ' r ( ] | l 1 ll r r o v e t l l l r t $ , i t ] t t i r c D a r r o r i , i D g o f of gravity are scnsiblf intcrcelttecl by a lu1,cr ol- nrcrcury, t l l e t L r l r c s ,* ' : r ' c u r : t i . . . r e f itrcreusi'uly clc'utc thc height (cf. I'hilosophical Xlaeazine, r\lay, rg2o, o 1 ' r v a t c ri . c a l r i l l a r i t l ' , i t r v i l l a r t o r r r a t i c . l l l ' e s t . l r l i s h t h e s a r i r e l)l). aiig-5o,1). causc lbr the tlelr.cssio. o1' the level of n)crcurv, i. sinrilar t t t L e , ; , s ' l r i c h i s < - , l r : ; c r y c rtlg I e c o l r c tlte nlrrrori ing ol tlrr: tuires. : \ l r r - . , t t t l r t c t . r i t L rire s l r l o lllorc I)ropolnr:eci g.itli

it rrirs cllrsrrvrrl Itl. Ilott,Isl,te

t h l t i i ' t u o l c r t i t l L lr r i n r l , l l r : r r r eL e r r t ' c L r r l r t r . l r ' . . r , , tr r r l l l s i rs jl l L n g l eo 1 -n t r r t r r l L n t : l i r r : r t i o r n r L l l r s i n o l ' l l t t e , t h e l , l t e r ir r i i r r e r t s e s i t t t j t c l o r r r r l l : L r L , t . 1 ) ! t r l ; r rl r r ( l r c r l r o l l Ls I o w i n g , t h r t t i r t s r r t h c e l r i l l u r i t yt l r c l i l t i n g l b r c c ' r ' u r i e s i r t v g 1 5 s l 1 ,1 s 1 t h e c l i u n t c t c lo r w c i s l r t o l ' t l t e c o l u n l i t n b e l i { i e t . l .I h a l e r e r : e n t i y r u l d e s o r n c o b s c r v a t i o n so n t h e l o n n o f t h c c u r . r . c o f d c p r c ' s s i o nI o r r n e r c u r y ' , a n d c o n l l n n e i i t h e s l i r l e l a * . o i ' t h e r c c t a n g u l a rl t y P c r b o l ar c l c r r e c lt o i t s e s \ . 1 ) l l ) t o t t s\.' l r c r c l o r e \ i t s e e r r s i - n r p o g s i b lte d o ' l r t t h e * ' a ' e - t h c o r ' . f t l r c s ec a l r i l l u r y o l r h e n o ' r c ' a , t h c c a u s e c r f * , l r i c l r l r , . q r . , , , , , i r r c c le . i g ' i a t i c l i l atrtl eyen bcl'ilclcring to naturul yrlrilosoplrcrs. l " i g . l i . I l l u s t r a t i o r . ro f o r t l i n a r y c a p i l l a r y Ilreno*ren^, lbr rv.ter arri 'rcrcury. ln z1//rittsott-(,'zzzzrl's I)lil.sics, l). r oo-t, it is shol,r-r that A l l n ' e n e e d t o d o t o e x p l a i n t h c n e g a t i v e a c l l r e s i o n l ' t l r e r : o n c l L t c t i v i t y 1 ' n t o r c r t r ) ' l o r c l c c t r i c u l r v a r . c ss l o r v , r . 6 , o o i l r e r c u r y t o t h e g l a s st u b e i s t o t a k e t h c v el o t : i t y o f e l r r o p l g a t i o n r i h i l c f b l s i l r ' c r i t i s a s i r i g h i r s l o o . o o , a n t l l - o rc ( , p l ) r 9 g . g . o f t h e r v a v e s i n t h e s e v e r a l m e d i a a p l ) r o x i n t a t e l y s f b i l o l . s : 1, i l i e v i s c ,( p . j o j r a ), u'c lcrLrntltat ullss oiers tuore clectrical air 16, water rz, glass ro, and l)tercurl, about hall'that of rcsistance thrrn air encl othcr clrl'llses, rvhile l,ater is a g l a s s , o r 5 . 1 ) T h e s e n u u t b e r s a r e a l t p l o x i m a t e o n l 1 , , u n c l i n < : o n r l n c t o o i l e r i n g n t r r c l rl e s sr e s i s t u n < :tc r n c i t l t er r i r o r g l l L s s . r h t h e c a s e o f n t e r c u r y t h e v a l u e i s a s s u n r c r l ,l , e t t l r c i . u r c r \ c c o r c l i n q l y . , l ' u , a y c s o l ' a et h er , i . c i i r r e r l t o t h e l c r c l i sufficiently exact for our present purposes. .\ncl thus \ve see s n r l a c e l r r e t o 9 l)ass through ri'ater,in colttirct u ith gllLss n that if mercury offers more resistance to the passageof rvaves o n e s i d e a n d a i r o n t h e o t h e r , i t r v i l l 1 b i l o u ,t l r r r t h e l e v e l
r) on t h e s c a l e h e r e u s e d t h e f i g u r e f o r r r l e r c l r r yo u g h t t o b e n o t l a r g c r t h a r ) r , i l r v e j u d g e b y t h e e l e c t r i c rcsisrarrce i rrrercuryo

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of the n'atcr shoulcl lre rrriscd in contact u-ith the glass and b e I o u ' c r e d o r r t h c s i c l e t o r v l r r l s t l r e a i r , i t r a r : c o r d r t n < : ct r ' i t h ol;servation. \\'c shrrllgo into this at greeter'lcrtqth in tlcaling u ith capillar-itv, lrrrl at I)rcscnt orrly' <lu'cll ort it lortq cttottqh

celebrated argunrcnt ura.lc b)r 'Jfa.ru,t//, Treatisc o n I i l c c t l i r : i t 1l' t r c l l l a t n c t i s n r , I 8 ; o , \ \ j 9 2 - j 9 3 , a n d t h c n c:ll krrorvr.rcxpclimetlts ol Arirhols utcl JJir// anrl LcItde u,, r g o r , s l r o l ' s t h a t e c t h c r w a l e s c l o c x e r t p r c s s u r ea g a i n s ta n r o -curfur:c rr l'hit:h thcv impintc. Yet in order to have an to point out the lcrifrc:atiott of thc rvltvc-tltcorr'. 'l'hc i (iii) p c r l ' c r : t s p h c r i c i t l ' o f s o e l r l r t t l r l r l c sc x p l : r i r r c r i o l r j c r : t i v cl r r o o f o 1 - l r i s i n r P o r t a n tt l r e o r e t nd r a r v n c l i r c c t i l ' f r o r - n u l r { r t 1 r r cl,r l o l l s c r r ' : r t i o n s ' h i t : i r \ \ ' e c a l r c a s i l y v e r i f l ' , i t i s a d r r l t i c l t t t t l t l i r - ' st l t c t w o l c a s t r r (t i . ) n t o p a s s i t r g t ' a l c s , lrv t v i s e l r l ct o q o i r r t o l h i s r c l s o t r i n g s o n r c r v h am o r e c a r e f u l l y . r : o n r : c r r t r i r s p l r u r c s t t r l : t c c s : t l s o r r r i r t i n t : t ls t t r l l r r ' t : s . : \\;c tlrclcl,rrc consi(icr the tbrnt and acliott of a scrics of , J t t s t a s l h c . ' l t t / t i n r t l r . r - l l i ' i r t . r / t a s s . - , \ ' r / t t t ' r r t ' .t h c o r v o l \ r n i n j n r l l s r t r f : r r : c sl,r t t r l c r s ' : t v c r t t : t i o t r ,u ' i l ) c r l t l l L i n t l : c t t t o l c t : t t l r t r s t c x t i J ' \ \ ' i Lo s i r r t l r c s c a . forccs rvltir:ir qivc-'sphcr-it':tlor sphcroirial fbrtrrs to srtr:tll r . I t i s u ' c i l l < n o r i ' nt h a t r v h e n t h e s , r r , c s o f t h c s c a n r l s s c , s o l - l i r l r r i r ,i s o : t 1 s ou i ) 1 i t c r p l a i l r t l t c I l o l c c t t l a r r t r : t i o t r a l r y r r - o e r :tllr c s l r o r c , r v h e r c t h e $ ' a t c r i s s h i r l l o r v ,t h c n r o t i o n r o f { r l n r s i t r s u , h y r i t c t t o r t t c t r t: l s s o i r l ) l l t i l r l r l c s . o f t h c l r l s c o l - t l r c \ \ ' 1 \ ' ei s r e t a r d e d , r v h i l e t h e t o p o f i t 'l'he ( l i ' o r l s o r p l r t t l r i r i c i s n r a r l c L r l t o f t u ' o c o n c c r t t r i c s l t i r e r c t c l t d s t o l r l r ) \ ' L r ) 1 1r s l r c f o r c . result is thc formation 'l'hc itrrtcr sttrl:tr:c. tlrc otttcl sttr[tce arttl tlre srrrftrr:es s o f l ) r c { r l i c r: t h c l , e s c o f t l r e r v a y e i s s o h e l c l b a c k t h a t t l r e st t o D l r c r : o r - . r t s c c 1 l ,r r r r l f r r r a l l yc l t r l s o t ' e r t i l l t h c $ ' a v e b r e a k s l ) r e s s r l r c o f t l r c c t t s l r i o t r o 1 - r i r l ' i t h i r r t l r c l r r r l r l r l cp r c v c n t s i t l - r o n r c o 1 ) u l r s i r r g ; : r r t r l t l t c - u ' a v c s t r a v c r s i r r g t l r t - - o t t t c r s t t r f t t , : e i n a n ' h i r l i n gn t . 1 t o t ' f o n n r .
a c t i n t h c s a n r c \ r ; r v a s i n t i t e c a s c o l ' r t s r , l i r it l r o I o f ' l i r l L t i d , anrl thtts rottnil ttp tlre rntrss frotl s ithotit. O n t h c i n n l : r s t t r [ : t r : ct h c r c i s r r r : t t r a l o q o t t s \ \ ' r t v e l ) r c s s t l r c directccl torr';rrrls tirc lirluirl anrl thtts lctittg itt ett r>tltrt'ltt'd 'l'his is rrot ll'onr tire cotrtr:tr'tl lir, rv)ti,'h is lt clire<:tiort. t d i s c o n t i n t t o t t s r : L ll t i o n , l r t t t l - r - o n r l r t : i r r l r r r r l c l l ' l r r r c l l c i \ \ ' o l l i ( ) l ' 'l'lrc r r : s i s t r t : r c tt o t l r c t v l t r c s t l t r o L t g l t t i t t ' c r r t i r c : passing r':rlcs. u l r t r l , l r l c , i t h t l r c r l o t t l r l r :1 i , 1 r r i rl lr t 1 i , i s l c r s t r v i t c t r l l t c t , l t l r in tirc s'atcr- is thc shortcst; tlrlt i-s, rvltctr tltc \\'lllcs qo rts

n c ' u r t h c c c n t r t - ' o l t h c l r o l l o u ' s p l r c t ' c l s p o s s i i r ) t ' ,a s I t t r t r l , c c .1. In orclcr to nrakc an experinrcntLlln rucis clircctiv s l r o r v nl r l r r : r t h c n r r t i r : r ta t t a l v s i s . l l r r t i t : t t e r 'l r r ' s c c t l i r t t r r t t r l i l t t ' l r l r n 1 ' 1 r 1 i c r l , l c ' ti.lr r l r r o i r i c n r l t o w i n I t a n d , s ' e s h a l l i r r r g i n e ' r f r o r n t l r c q t : r > n r c t r i r : liJ r r i i c a t i o l r so l - t l t c l i , r ' r t t r t lu t t i t t i l t r : t t i r . . lu s t a s t l r i ' l r l n r o f lltcr i s p r t ' s s i : t lt r i g c ' 1 l r c : r into lr tltitt lltlcr, lrv l.ltl inu':rrrl l)irss:ig(' ol tlrc l'alcs frotrt tlrc orrtriri., s o : L l s on ' i l l t l r c t h i l l i r t c s s :' of thc lrtrlrlrl,-rs :r u ltolc lrc conrlircsscrllrv insidc 1\'alc I)rcssil c ('\'cr\'\\'llcrc r r l i r c < : t c r l t r > r y u r i l st h c o l r t si,lt'. Iior as tltc rvltvt's ncur thc txngcnt to tl)c

2 . \ o r v t i r i s r l c l u r - o f t h c n r o v e r n c n to f t h e b a s e c a u s e s l t l r c u ' l v t : t o c \ c r t a l ) r ' c s s l r r eq a i n s t t h e s h o r e r v h i c h r e s i s t s i t s i u i v r r r r c c . . . \ t ' r ' o r r l i n q l r\'\ ' c n l l \ - t h t r s v c r i f y t l | ' a : r u t l / ' s c o n c t : l u s i o r r t l r ; i t \ v t v L - sc x ( ' r t l ) r c s \ t n r r g : t i r s t r c s i s t i n g o b j e c t s . o \ \ ' c s c c ; L l s o t J t c e r f f c c t s f s t t c ] rr c : i : l i t n c c i n t h e w e a r i n g r l w l v o f t l r c s c r r s h o r c n ' h c r . rc x p o s c r i t o t h c c i a s h i n gi n r u s l - r o l - t l r c r v r r v c s .S r r n r la r r d s o f t c u r t l t a r c c e r r j c d l r o c i i l va l o n g w i ' , l r l l r t : \ ' r r v c s , a n ( l c v c n s o l i d r o c k i s s l o nl r . r i ' o r n a n ' e r ' 1 , t ' t h c i r r i ' c s s a n tl r c a t i n q o f ' t h e * ' a ' t ' c s .

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, . 1 . \ r : r : o r r i i n g l r ' s c p c r c c i v c t h a t a s t h e r e s i s t c dl ' a v e s . , l u c l \ ' i l n ( ' o v c r t l r c s u l ) n ) c r g c ( lt t r b l e - l a n c l r v h i c h i s n o t t a k c n c t o l r c ' n c e r c n o u g l ) t o t h e s u r f a c et o f o r m b r e a k e r s ,t h e y a r e inncr l r o r t n r i a tv o t - t ) r c r s l r o r t c r a n r i s t c t - ' p e rt h a n t h e o r i g i n a l l v a v e s a s t h e y c o r n c llrrid tlrcy rerrr:t rrgrrittst jn ll onr tirc <lccpcrsce. r o . ) i r g n i l i , ' , i c r ( ) s ss c c t l o l t ( ) l r s o r l r t h c a d j a t : c r r tl i i l u i r l , o l ' i n r r t lrirlrlrlr',slroiritrg t:rinittrtttrrhic)iNori' u'lr:rt s il) iral)pcn rvhen the lcsistc(l \vrves rt to thc grclltcr rr:sistliri<'e n c s s o 1 -l i , 1 r r i , l { i l r r l t l l t t ' c e t r l r c , l c n q t h r l c p : r r - tl - r o r n t h c t a l r l e - l a n r l ,a n c l a g l i n c l ) t e r t h c d c e p thcsc :rrijar:cnt along l i n r l l c a s l r a \ l s l l i l c e l ( r \ v l l \ ' ( l sl ) l l s s ? scrron tirc olrpor,itc irlc s i n g i n t h e l , l i r c c l i o t t ,r t ' l t i c l t c r paths. plains tlrc ccitlrirl cotitrt(:liott itnil l i i r : t , i t i s t ' r ' i t l c n t t i r a t t h c u ' a y c sr , . ' i l lt a k e o n g r e a t c r l).v this reaction olr s y r n r n c l r i c a l f r t r n r o l i t s o r r l rl r r t l r l r l t : . s l ) e e ( li n t l r e r i c c p c r \ \ ' l t c r ; t h e ) ' u i l l t h e r e f o r c b c c o r n e l o n g e r t h e i n r t c r l ' r r 1 1 sh c i i r l u i d t jtrst as thcv bccolre s'hortened i s p r e s s e r lt o i t s i : l f l l - o r n i r o t h s i d es , a n c l t h e l a y c r b e t t v c c r t i t r t h c l l ' c t . l vt i c l r i i n s . r l c e p s c t r , rL l r v r c s i s t l r r r r : c st h e l ' r l l n o l c r t l t c s l t t t l l r l u ' r v a t e r . s thc outer ancl innc'r sLrr{aceurxdc as thin as possil)lc. r\s the rvavcskecp thc confrnccl laycr of liLluid synrrnctricalli' l l c o n r l ) r es s c co n b o t h s i d c s , r L r p t u r eo f t h e - s o a p r u i r b l e i s n o t 1 er ) ' e i l s \ ' . I n t i u r c i t c o n r c s a i r o t t t , h o w e v e r , o u ' i t r g t o t i r c a r v a t e rt l i c k l i n g d o \ \ ' n u n d e r i t s o s ' n g r a v i t , v , n d t h u s r o r t n d i n g rll) into u )irluici sphere or sphcroid fornrerl right on the lorver -sicleof' the soap lrulrble, as it beconrcs r,urs)'lnllletricei. ( i t ) l ) i r e c t l r r o o l ' o 1 ' \ \ ' r l v cp r e s s u r ea t t h e b o r t n d a r y Illrrstration of tirc prcssure cxcrtctl by sca-lvaves against a srrbmergccl island plal.cau. of a drop.

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z . \ \ ' a v c s f t o n r b e l o r v $ ' o r l l d a c t a s s h o $ ' ni n t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o l - f l ( r r l cr 3 , J ) l a t e , I n a i l c a s e st h c l e r , e lo f t h c r l e r c u r l ' : ( ^ ) I f t b c r c s i s t a n c ct o t h c l ' a v c s i t r n r c r c l l r ) rl r e g r e a t e r i s c l c p r c s s c c l . ( . ) O n t h e l e f t , t h e s p c e d i n g u p o f w a v e sl e a v i n gt h e than in rir ancl g)ass, thcn thc rcliactions and rcactionarJ. l ) r e s s u r e st o t h c u : r v c s u r [ a c c a s i t a r ' l l a n c c su ' i l l l ; e o l - t h e n r c r c l r r t ' l b l t ' h c a i r a n d q ) a s s , q i v c s a r e a c t i o n r r ' i t h n e g a t i y e t y p e l r e r c p i c t u r c <:l t h c \ \ ' a v e s c s c a p i n q f r o r n t h e n ) e r c u r ] ' I ) r c s s uc , - / , r n c l t h e m c r c u r f i s f o r c e d l t a r : k , o r l o u e r e d r a n d s p c c r l i n g o n r n o r c r a p i r i l f i r r t h c q l l s s t h a n i r r t i r c x r o l u r ( l t l r c g l a s s , a s i f t h c l l u i c l s e r e r e p c l l c db y t h e g l a s s . ( l r ) ( ) n t h c r i g h t , t h e j n c r c a , s c d c s i s t a n c cc l u e t o t h e n r e r c u l ' 1 l, i l l b r - t h e r c b o u r r r l , y ' , p r c s s t h c f l u i d b a c k f l o n r r t h c e l a s s , o n t l r c l c f t . ( ) n t l r c r i . g h t , t h c i r r r : r c a s crre s i s t a n c e l l c r c r t r \ - J l l r c n t h c \ \ ' a \ / c sc n r c t r l c 1 ' r o n t i r c e l a s s j n t r >t h c a i r l .r t o t h e u a l c s r l r : c t o t i r c n r c r c l l r ) ' , l s t h c r i a l c s l c a v c t i r e o r l l l c r c t i r l ' q i l e - s a d i r c c t a c t i o n o r p o , s i t i l c l ) r e s - c r t r e i,r r c i n g f s l a s s a n d t r a v e l n r o r c s l o ul f i n t h e l i c l r i r l n r c r c u r l ' , r v i l l t l t c n r c r r : t r l va r ia \ ' , t h c r e a c t i o l l a t t h e r : o n r e r g i l i n g t h c n t o s t 'l'hus p u s h t l r a t l i r l t r i c l r l a v r i i t h a p o s i t i v e I ) r e s s l r r c- f y ' . c l e c i r l c r 'r l o u n l a r c l l ) r c s s u r c . l thc lclel of the llliri is 'l'ircr (lr) r c s u l t i s t l b r c i n g o f t h c l l n i c l r l o s n l - a r r 1 , b 1 ' l o r i c r c c l , r r l r c t l r c r t l r c s z r v e sc l c - s c c n ro r i r s c c n d ; a n c l , a s t h c l r c ' b o u n 1 1o n t h c ) c l i ; a n r l f o r c i n q o f i t f o r r v a r r l l ; r ' c r l u a ) \ \ ' a l c s ( o n r c I r o n r c r c r 1 ' r l j r c c t i o n , t h c a 1 t ; r a r c n t e p L r l s i o no I , r direct prcssurc on thc rieht. ln lroth cascs thcrcforc thc thc nrcrctrrl ll.onr thc qlass is slnrntctrical, as fonncl lx. 'l'hc l l l e r c L l r v i s y r r c s s c ru l : r v l l - o n rt h c g 1 a s s . n r c r r : r r r lt h c r c l o r c o l r s c r l u t i o n . 'l s c e n ) st o a t t r i r c t i t , c c l ln r o r c t h a l r i t c l o c st l r c q l a s s * l r i c h i s l r c r : l r r n g c r ; l ' l c v c l i n t h e r : a s eo f a c o l u n r n o f : .j. t h e u s t r a l c x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e n e e a t i v ec a p i l l a r i t i 'o f n l c r c l r r \ ' . l ) r c r ( ' u r \ , c i t ' J r r c s s cn l a t u l r c j s d u e t o t h e a l t o v e c n t r s e s ic ' l J r r t r r ' e r l u s t : r l s o c o n s i r l c ru h y t l r e t u b e o { ' n r c r c r r r tj s l r c l o s ' n l s o . l i o r w l t c n t h c n r c r r : u r l j s u r : t c c l p o n l t o u ' e r f u l l l ' o r r u t h e n o r n l r l l c v c l o 1 - t h c J i r l r r i d ,a n r l h c n c c u c p r o r : e c c ll r > : r 1 ls i c i c s ,t l r c a c t i o n < : o n l o r r l r t o / . n f , | t t r ' s i n t c e r a l ( l ' l t l c a n i r l u c s ( J e t i e s t c.,i r ' . - \ . s u I p l c n r c n tz ) v i c r v t h c e t : t i o n o f a s t : c n d i n qu ' a v c s . i 'h)lijl:1f (r,:) .\. :' l, / /,1.1cll r1.r, t, ( t + p:!'+ ii)r + a [ / ( t + / 4 ) - r q 2 ) q:) {t I , 1 1r r : o s a

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u h c r e r : r i c n o t t : s h c r : i r t : r r r r l i ' r c n c c - t i r c t r r l r c .e r t r l t l r c l t n { l c a t i s a c o n s l l n t l b u n < l l r y o b s c r v a t i o n . t ol , 'l'o , c r p l u i n t l r i s l i r r n r r r l : lrc r c r r . r : utk r l r ti I z - - / ( r , ' , : , ) l r c t h c c ' r l r r a t i o t o f t l r e s p i r c r i c a l s u r f a c c o f r a c l i r : s f c r r r l r o l v l t u r c / - t o t t c l r i r r gl r c :< : : r l r i l l r rs r r r J l r r ac : r r r t 1 ' , , i r r l , rv :t '",1t, , 1 , '. l, (6:) i t i ' t t ? . r ' ) r +{ i z i ' . r ) t ' + ( ? , ? : ' \ " t (/ ?tr?::: I'ltc :-lxis is vcltical, ancl r; i';,i.r'. . (o+) : r : r i ' . 1: f '': '' | i'ri?:: ;.t-+/\': ./)\ I r - c 1 i 7 z , ' i . ' 1 r - - \ t? t t \ t ] t. l6.s ) ',.?,, ':t, ?,-l?\, ?.r.(r-+1:)-+qt\ (6r,) [r r(tz/i:r.)!-+(['uz.i'r):j : J : ? t , ? - 1 ' ( r + - ( l z z / D r ' )+ ( ? z z i t - 1 ' ) : j '? " , l ? . t ' - ( t - r y ' ) + ( J 2 ) ' ' ' q . tt (at) A c c o r d i n g l \ ' , i f , q ,l r c t h c a t : c c l c r i r t i o n c l u c t o q r a v i t i ' , i,et us now rccur to the theory of the .rainbos',and . t t h e d e n s i t ) ' o f t l r c l l L r i c l a n r l / - t h e r . o l L r n r c l c v a t c c lb 1 ' n o t e t i r e s h o r t c n i r r g o f t h e w a v e s r v i t h i n t h e d r o p s h o r v ni r r , t h e f o r r : e o 1 - c l l r i l J r r r i t r -\,\ ' e g c t / . o 1 | a r t ' s c r l u ; r t i o n , f o u n c l e c l t l r c f o r c g o i n q f i q u r c 4 . A s t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e a e t h e r r v a v e s j s r : h a n q c c ls u c i r l e n l ya t t h e b o u n d a r l . , b o t h o n e n t e r i n g a n d on tlre alroveintcgr:rl c n t c r q i n q l l - o r n t l r c c l r o p , t h e l ) r e s s u r ee x e r t e d a t t b e l t o r r n rr / -- 1 .. / / r cost;i (6s) ,,' f . \ l t c r t l c r i v i n g t h e a l i o v c r l o u i r l e i n t e q r a l a n d t h i s f b r - c l r t r l .i s o l n i o u s . ( ; i i ) l l c t h o d o f ' c a l c u l a t i n et h c k i n e t i c p r e s s u r er r ' h e n n t v l ' t / . t t f , / t t 'a r c r ] r l l l i s : > ' l l r u s t l r c n n s s o 1 -t h c J l r r i dc l c r ' : t t c r l llrc rlrrr(i ;il(' r'csistc(1. a l r o v c t h c l c v c r li r l t h c r : a p i l i r r r a c t i o n i s l ) r o l ) o r t i o n ntlo t l r c v , , \ n l r s s o 1 - r v l t c r z z r ,i n u ' h i c h \ v a v e s a r c a d v a n c i n g < : i r r : u n r f c r e nrc> lc' t l r c c c t i o r r f t l t c i n n c r s u r f e c co f - t h c t u b c . < : s o '['irat r ' c 1 o c i t 17 r , h a s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n q k i n e t i c e n e r g y ' i s , t h c l i l t i n q { b r < : ci s l ) r o l ) o r t i o n a l t o t h c c \ t c n t o f r r ' i t h t h r : 1 l i . r \ f t c r a c e r t n i n a m o u n t o f r c s i s t a n c,e s u p p o s e 1) : f2ttt t h c q l a s s s t t r l u < : er : t i n g o n t l t t : l l u i c l , l rvhir:lt aqairt vcry v c l o t i t l ' o l t l r c w a l c s b e c o r n c s2 u,, t h c n t h c k i n e t i c c n e r g y s t r o n g l \ ' p o i n t s t o u ' : r v c - l t t i r ' n ,c - r t r t i n q s c n s i l r l c i n l l L t c n c c t h e 'l'hc l r c c o n r e l c s s , a s u 1< u , a n d n ' e l r a v e: s o n l ) ' a t i n s c n s i b l cd i s l a n c c s . t u b e o f s l a s si s s o l i c la n r l lf,n t,12 (0S) /i, : c a n n o t l r c r a i s c d , r n c l t h e r c a c t i o r -s i r l p l y s i n k s t h c c c n t r a l r '['hcrcfore thc loss of cncrqy due to retardation of c o l u ! n n o f u r c r r : u 1 1 ' a sf r e p c ) i e r il r y . t h e g 1 a s s . F l e r r c et h e i lelocity of Nlve motion lrcconrcs: m a r g i n a i c l c p r c s s i o n f t h e l l u i r l i s a l s o r c c o n r p a n i e cb 1 ' a o l lo*'cring of the ccntral colunur bclol'that in the exterior ( zo ) basin ol nrercury. r\ccorclingly, sincc a decrease oi depth delays the 4. Itronr these sketchcs of the rvave fronts taken by liquids of various pou'er of resistrnce, rrnder rvave action f r o n r a l l d i r e c t i o n s , w e I ) e r c e i v et l r a t t l r c f r r n c l a m e n t af a c t s l ' o f c a p i l ) a r i t 1e s t a b l i s h e d y o b s e r v a t i o n a g r e e q u a l i t a t i l e l y b s,ith tire l'ave-theory.. A better concordanceprolrably cou)rl l l o t l , e e \ p e c t e r l , a n d i t i s d i f f r c u l t t o i r - r - r a . q is u c h c o n f o r n t i t ) ' ne i n t h e o r y * ' i t h o u t a t r u e p h ) ' s i c a lc a u s eL r n d e r l y i n gt h e o b s e r v c d larvs of nature. p r o l ) a g a t i o no f s e a r v a v e s ,a n d c o n s t a n t l yr e d u c e st h e v e l o c i t y , rve infer thxt so Jong as the n'a'r'eof the sea beat upon the s o s h a l l o s ' - s h o r e ,t h c r e i s c l e c r e a s e f e n e r g y i n t h e r v a y e s . I ' a r t o f t h e e r r e r s v i s l o s t l ; y t h e d a s h i n g o f t h e w a t e r a g a i n s tt h e shorc. llut any action rvhich delays the speed of the rvater i s e c l u i v a l e n tt o l r o l d i n g i t b a c k ; a n d r v h e n t h e r u s h o f t h e rvater is hold bacl< it exerts rr steadJ'pressurcagainst the rcsisting sirore.

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A l o n g r v i t h t l r e .l o s s o l - e n e r g y a s t h c ra),cntcrs tl)e d r o l t , t h e r e i s r e f r i r c t i o n ,c l i s l l e r s i o r r , ' c t c . , u lrrrrrrtiou {. thc t\\,o otlrer ."".,,r",i.r o s'(ilt as *,e scc i' ri t h e r a i n b o r v . I n h i s c e l c b r a t e c la r t i c l e tbrrnLrie oi /.r1,hrc t.bo"e L i r h r , I , ) n c y c l .I I e t r . , exptainerj. i;^,_'jt^..:']".^.rrlriliary r r y trloreover for sl.nrnic \ 56r, Sir Jo/ttt IIcrsc/te/ cl*,ells o^ tf,. i,.., tlrat ri,,,1rt;.:iir'",r"'1",,, tire lbrccs ",,o produci'g refraction or tris'ersio' *rc or''r.ctrcally infr'itc f : 4 . . i ' . t , , / - i . :',/ D r . . intensity. lior the light not onlv is y - lt-,iir':, s : d.:,?.r'i,v, r e t : r r c l e r li n i t s f o r r v a r c l (ZS) Dr5t,,._, , n r o t i o n ,b u t a l s o t u r n e d o u t o t - i i s r e c : t i l i n a " , .ourra, and tlrc 1' : (r +I2_t- (/t) '|i (r_ _ , / , , , ). r v a v e s a v e i n c r e a s i n gd i s p e r s i o n* , i t h h !., h O) r l c c r c a s i r r {r v a v c _ l e n g t l r . t , ' . 1 ( ,r 1 i - + (r-,l.r +-,1,),i,t-+,1r) _r A'Ioreover, ince on leaving tlre litlLrirl s ' ' r rirop lirr the air ' )/,,t s-(, (ll) a . . g a i nt,h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e r v a v e si n . . e " s c - 1 , ' )/ ' 1 itorn about J to +, - 7 7r .t (r -+-,or : t l r i s ,i n c r e a s e st h e e n e r g y j n t h e a e t l i c r .i a,,:y,, \ \ , i r . \ , cls) i l l e r l r t l o o l l (lS) \ - / : J - , s o i l l x t t h e r v a v e s u t s i d e ,i n v i r t u e o i - s l . r e e d i n g o | 1'-,t'(t+-'12-+r'.tj', ll,ay rvith an energy measured by ,re, -+-12 11t)'1". -+ cl.S: (r l,u"e ,,I, ,r,o." energy ,1. ,y,,, \7 g) than those u'ithin the drop. Hence t h e r e c e c l i n s, u " r , . , . . , , i i ^t: r+y'2-r-rl1'l.d:r rl',,,. on the itoundaryof the liquid drop rvith (so) J'J'( an encrgy alltountlng I n t l r i s c l o u b l ei n t e g r a l t l ) e i n t e g r e t i o n to 7/e o1'that they have in liee soace. 1or tlrc srirlace 'l'aking l s t o i ) e c x t e n r l c r lt o a l l i t s e l e . r e n t s . the refractive index as thc nrost Lt;ricr r'csc su';r.sirio.s . certain of rve h a v c t l r e c l i l i t , r e ^ t i ac t l u u t i o . t o r l r J a t a , r v e h a v e : g l a s s , r , r: ti,e 'r,ri,,rel sLrr.iuce r . 6 o g ; \ \ r a rr , r . 3 : j 6 ; e f]1fsrcat alr, I.OOO. ( 0 i 1 0 ' , - - + - ? t : 1 0 11 r . d 1 , t ' ( r , ! - . ,) : r l i t + - , , t t i . , ) c i . \ .- : d J 'l'hus (sr) t h e r v a v e d i s t u r b a n c e st r a v e l r . 6 o l i tinres fustcr of rvhich the integruj becorncs: in, air than in glass;and r.336 r a s t e r i n , u a t e rt h a r r i ' r L i r . z . s : J ' J ' 2 , ( r if, - +r Z i r ) t t ^ S - - J ' ( 1t : u - r . . l y , ) l The ltrogress in rvater, horue"u!., t . (Sr) is also f,,.tc. tlra,r i. glass 'I'he by the differences: doulrjc integrrrl is to lrc cxrrnded over the entire surface consiclercri,rid ,i,a slngle Air-Glass intcgriLl over all elemcnts o.6o8 -- u-u), o f t h e b o u n d a r yt a k e n i n t h e s e n s ei n d i c l t e d Air-\Vater o.13f by the clerivation of the fornrull. \ V a t e r - ( ] l a s s . 2 72 : o )) S c / t t t . , t t t ' :r - c n l r r k s . t h a t i l - r v e a p p l 1 , A c c o r d i n g i y , f r o u r t h c s e c l a t ao n t h e t ) t e l o r n t r . r l a t h r , r sg i v e n rcfractiveinclices, . _ 7et!1t.in rli53, (Suria surfrce,lo,rir,,.,o,,.t,,,." srconsrante, a n d t b e e a s i l y v e r i f i e dp h e n o n r e n a e l p r e s e n t e cb y s e l r v a v e s r v es c c Lyi o u v i l l c ' s l , ; d clearly that the inwarcl pressure J o L r r . n a le M a t h . .p u r . e t , , 1 , 1,, 1l : , r , , . t t i . r 6 3 _ r 6 7 ) o f t l r e a e t h e r s , a v e sa t t h c t o m i n i n r e l s u r l u c e s t h e t h e o r c t ni n , l i . , , t " , i , boundaries of iiquids and solicls i n c r l u e t i o n( g z ) cannot be rlcnied. ,l.his rvill h o l d t r u e. y e t a n o t h e r p r o c . r i r n l v p r e s s u r ei s e a s i l y s h o w n t o be dcrir.ed by the b e i n d y n e s l ) c r s ( 1 .c n t . : lbllorving l)rocess.

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l i r . t t ' y - +t l A ' " : = o , u ' h i c l r i s t h c r : o n r l i t i o nt h a t t h c / curraturcs on the opyrositcsidcs rrc criull rncl oppositc, ' cqtratiorr (3f,) eitcs ,\r:/ttlnt;'s critcrion li>r thc arer ol- a n r i n i r r a l s u r l h r : c( p . r 7 S ) . I n l c s s r i q o r o u s l b r r n t h i s c r i t c r i o n unrl .Srlrlar-.:lr:rvc was first indir:atecllty lit/l'. ltttt IIi'itt.s/ra.r.r ' g r c a t i f i r n p r o v c r l t l r c r l c n r o n s t r a t i o r t .\ l o r c o v c r . S r / i z z , r z rh:a s > > \ ' 1 . , \ t : / t t t t o t 'n l ) u r c a l i s e r e x p i r i n r c n t a l c m n t c c t t c r c v d i s c o v e r c c l l ' r o r r rt l r c o r v : r n c r v s L l r l - i r ca l - t c r l ' u r r l s c r i l r r : r 'l lr y < s u r f a t : ct 1 ' t i r l u i l i i r r c . a e x p c r i n r e n t , s , s l r o \ \ ' ni r c i o \ \ ' . > lr' o l t r c c l n , i l t c n c l u n f i l s r r i v l n t I ' a r c - , 1 / Jd u r r r , l . l i n r l r e s I l i n i n r : r l S r t r l - : r r : co l ' s p c c i a l p h 1 ' s i c a l i n t c r c s t . c l c l c r r c : l l l l l l o l o n r i c r l c t r xl i l s r r r c t l l l i r l r r c L . f ) e t - 1 t 1s ' a p p r r y a n t s 'l'hc r. slrhcrc, s r r r l c s l r r : r ' s t l r t c v l i n r l r c . ( - c s r l c u x f i l s c t a n t l l a r a l l e l e - sl, i ..4_f r ( s s ) '1 ,-lo r n r cr r r cl l r r c l r 1 a n c- s ' : r l ) l ) u l a nstr r r l e s t r o i s f r l s z 1 | ) , C ' D , I , ) 1 ; , t.l l.a* Lt : I n 'l'he t o r r r r t e r t t ' l ) , l t l a t r c - s cd t l l b r n r c e t c n g e n d r c u n e s n r f a c e C spheroi<i, 2. l i C ' D l ; l ) l s s l l r t p t r , ' l | i c t c o r r p a n t n o r n t a l c n r e n tl a s u r f a c c 1. ( s q ) rlu cy'lintirc. Ccttc surface est un hclicoide.<< . r t fa t - + ( 1 2 - + - r 2 )l f 2 ( r - r : ) ] : a 'l i r c s p h c r i c a ls o a p i r r r l r l r ) e , l r l r r ro f l i r l u i d i r o t t n r l c t l a 3. r r \ r ' c r : r l u c l t i u c s P r t i c a u t i o n so n p c u t o b t e n i r a i n s i u n e : l i v t s ' o t : o t r c e r t t r i cs l r i r c r c ' s : s u r f u c e i p l u s i c u r s s p i r e s . S i o n s u p p r i n r el c f i l l e r t i c a l , , / . / i , surlircc .r'l +-l : f :: .: 7'r, 611{g1 n ' c l r r c s t e l l a s n r o i n s u n e s u r l l < : ed ' c r l u i l i b r c , n r a i s (qo) l'lrrilir:oiric 1 1' - r - i ' l - ' t - : , : : l,:, i1nc6u;n,... e p a i o r s i ' t r r q L r i l i l r rn ' e - s t l u s s t : r i r l cc t i l e s t i n r p o s s i b l cd ' o b t c n i r 1 s 4 . S u r [ r c c s s i t ] r c r l u a l b u t o p l ) o s i t c c u r v i l t u r c a t c x l r c r i n r c n t a l c u r e n t1 n e u r f a c c i p l u s i c u r s, s p i r e s .I I . , S t h u . ' o r z e ' e r 1 'l r o i r r t , ( q r ) a m0nre constatc rlrre si, aprcs aloir formc une telle surfircc ,f lir-+rili.: o. i I a i t i c d L t f i l c c n t r a ) ,o n c o u p e c e f i 1 , l a l a m e h e l i c o i d a l c ( s c c f i g u r c r 4 , r 5 o r 1p l a t e 3 . ) c l i s p a r a i t c t s c t r a n s f o r r r l ce n c l e u x l a m e s p l a n e s f e r m a n t l c s 5 . S u r f a c e s s t r e t c h e c lf r o l l l f i x e c l 1 l ' l l l l c . r ' r , l l r n n d i r r o b a s e s c l u c y l i n c l r c r i e v e r r e . ( 't r r u n d e g r a v i t y ( s e e f i g L r r cr 6 ) , (;i) tri' t1'pcsof nrininral iurfaces rvhichrvouldresult (t. Sr/tu'ar:'s tlreoretically predictccl surface afterrvards from rvavesconring fronr all dircctions. 'l'hese e x p c r i r n e n t r l l yv c r i f r c d . nrir-rinral surfaces obviously would be classed 'fhe accornpanyine figure r 7, f rom Poinmr/'s Capil- a s f o l l o r v s : r . S p h e r e s u r f a c e s ,a r o u n d l i q u i d d r o p s o f a n y a n d laritc, Paris, r 39 5, p. 66, exhibits to the e1'e the forrn of o n e o f P r o l . S r hu , o t ' : ' sh e l i c o i d a l s L r r f a c e s , h i c h h e r v a s a b l e e v e r y d e s c r i p t i o n , i n a c c o r d a n c e n i t h o b s e r v a t i o n , f o r a l l rv tn rlrlizn Fvr'nr;rrr^nfalll'. natural liquids knorvn in nature, or produced artificiallyfrorr
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f s o l i d s b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f h i g h t e r D p e r a t u r c . s' . h e l t e r f e c t 8 . F o r t h e d i s p o s i t i o no f t h e m o l e c u l e s n t h e r e t l u i r e c i i s l t h e r i c i t y o f f i g u r e f o r t h e g l o b r . r l e sn i p l i e s t h a t t h e l , a v e s f i l ' i s i n ' o l ' c s t h e l r r a n g e ' r e n t o f a ' i r r i n i t e , u ' b e r i oi-these c o m e a n d g o i n e v e r y d i r e c t i o r - r , h a t t h e p r e s s u r e o l t h e r t o l e c u l e s i n p e r f e c t o r c l c . r ,i ' t h r e e c l i n t e ' s i o n s , t a n d t h L r st h e entering and the reaction of the departing u,aves on the observcd coi.cide'rce of the lirluid tll.rs *'ith the geo'retrical average is exactly central. r r r i ' i r u a l s u r f l r : e s ,b e c o ' t e s x t l e a s t a ' i ' l l n i t v . i ' t h e third 2 . H o l l o r v s p h e r i c a l g l o b u l e s , s u c i r a s s o r l r l l L r b [ . r l e s ,o r c l e r( c : ' j ) t o o l l e , t h a t t h c o l r s e r v e ccl o i n c i d e n c e r e s r so n . r t n l e r v h i c h h a r . et h e l i t l u i d e n c l o s e db e t r v e e nt w o c o r l c e n t r i cs p l r e r e p i r y s i c a lc r r u s cr,v l r i c l r h c r c l b ' c c . i r i r e ' o t h i n q b u t t *'ur.c-action. 'l'hese 'I'irc surfaces. l l u i d f i l m s a r e p : r l e c t l y s y n r n r c t r i c a la b o u t i i L c t n t e n r i o n e ( i1 ; y / 1 , i t ; o t . , t( C r 1 ; i l l a r i t e ,p . 6 6 , 9. t h e c e n t r e a n d t e n d t o b e c o u r e t h i n n e r b y t h e c \ t e r n : r l u n c l r t i g 5 ) t h a t , s t l t t , i t t : < : o n c l r r r l e 1ll ' o t n e o n t c t t r . i c a l g r consiclc,rations i n t e r n a l w a \ r e p r e s s u r e a t t h c b o r . r n d r r i e s . ' I ' i r c c o r r r p r e s s i o n r v h u t l b r u r a c e r t e i r ri r e l i c : o i d atl v l ) c o i ' s u r l a c e s h o L r i ct ia k e , o f ' t h e l i c l u i d l a y c r o n t h e t r v o s u r l t c c s o l - t h c b L r l r L l e n i : r e a s c s e n c l o r - rt h e l ' r s i s o t ' t h i s g c o u r c t r i c a l i irrciiir:tio' it *,ns shorvn t h e e l a s t i c p o r v e r o f t i r e a e t h e r u n d r n a t t c r c n c l o s e c lb c t * . c c r . r b y e x p e r i r r r c . tt . r c a l l l , e x i s t , i s a ' e r v r e r r i u r k l r L l c cxlr*r1tle t h e c o n c e n t r i c s L r r f a c eo f l l L r i d ,a n d t h c r c b y . g i r , c st h c l i l r n o l ' t l r c l u r v s o i ' r { c o n r e t r y i,r c i n g L r s e t ti o l i r l t r l l s t ) r eP r o c e s s f o a c e r t a i n t e n s i i e s t r e n g t l r , r s o l - l s c r . r . ci.n s o a l r i r u l r b l t s . l p h y s i c . l r l i s , : . r ' r r r ' . l t i s o r l v c s t a l r l i s l r c c a r ' s , l i r L r . r i r . ,o .l li c 'fhe n e . x t u r o s t n a t u r a l c l n s s o f u r i i r i r n r r ls u r f r r t : e s t h e t r u e o r ( l c r o l ' r r r t u r c , * ' l r i t : ) r' a 1 ' t l r L r si r e L r s e i i :j. tO.#rcie rvould be those rvhi<:hfulflll the condirion r i.lir +- ,,i1i, - 6, t l r c c - x p l o l c ro l ' t h e p i r r s i r : r r u n i v e r s e . l 'l'irere as {lrst given by ll,;fltfiot/]ioLt:rts (l,ioLrvillc'sJorrrnrLl \latlr. rlc r o. e r e r ) l u . l l e\ l r n ) l ) l c s t ' t l r c o r c t i i . : r ll i . , : r , r . , : r r . v o c e i l ) r r r . t l l ) l ) . , I I . 3 o o - 3 r z ) . J l o / , t r t s ' p : r 1 r crro r e t l r t : t i t l e: S u r l r a n t l c i lt l o l n i n t l r c l t i s t o r v 1 ' s r : j c t r c : Icn u l ] t l r c , . . l . , l , n L r r , i o . l e s s u r t a c e s d o n t l c s r a ) ' o n s d c c : o u r l r L r r c o l l t r i { l r . l x , n t a i s c i l ) i e s t l l e v r e s t o l l t l i c r i l : L t j t c n r . L t i r .: lrL l, ; t l i i . : L t i O r r s 1 O i ' t r - L r c: r w s l d i r i g i s e n s e n s o p p o s i s . , \ t t h e t i r n e o f ' h i s i n v e s t i g i r t i o nn o . l - ' r L t r l r e . L a / l t t i : t , * ' h o t r s . t l l l i i s , t c r l r o i l tr> rlisco'tr tlre o n e h a d t h e s l i g h t e s ti d e a r v i t y t h e c u r \ . i r t u r er : r , lt r , 1 1 u . , , , , 1 1 c e u s c r > 1 t- h e g r e : r t i n c i l u u l i t y i n t i r e r D c l r r r l rrrotionof' JLrliitcr but oltltosite at every point. a'(l sirturr, r 7 s 5, rcealrictl the conlir'ratio. ,1 rr'rtlrcrrratical 4 . N o r v , u n c l e r t h e r v a v c - t h c o r y ,w e s e e t l t a t i f r v n v e s t l r c o r y l r y o i r s c r ' a t i . r - r a s t h c s u b l i r ' c s t o r - t r i L r r r p ) r s . S i ' i l a r c o m e f r o m e v e r y t l i r e c t i o n , a n r l t h c r c l b r e r r l s or l c l i l r t i n e v e r v ' i e * ' s h a v e L r c e n h e l t l l r y t h e s ' c . c s s o r s oi' tlre illustrio.s direction, after trlversing the lryer of ilLrirl,n tlrr r,rinirlll luuthor ol-tlrc tr[ecaniilrrccclestr..,lrs irr t]rt: i t ] r e o r c t i c l L ic l i s s u r fa c e , i t r v o u l c lb e n ec es s u r y l b r t l r e c u r v i t t r l r e t o l . r eer a r : t ) 1 , c o l e r v o f - N e ..utrl /.rt,,.t.t i , . t, I S - 1 6 , e r r r i o 1 lttunc lt,t, ..lt/tutts c r l L u t la n d o l l p o s i t e a t e v e r ) ' l ) o i n t , o t h r r u i . e u r j r r r r sl\r r - t r t e r n r L l t ' o r r i r : l l r r r l r i r ( . t i r ) n i r v 5 i l ' l l - . l t ' . 1 / t t i t l r , T r i l / ,I S . l l . r n e t r i c a l t c n ( l , 3 n c yn t h e l i r l r r i r lt l l r n l o r r l r l r r : s L L , ltr, o i r i t i r e i l i r t t : , r r r t . i L r , l c(i :i r L L : t . l t i r c r . i . i r r : r i s r r r i l L t : u s iiiil d i r e c t l t r e s s r t r e l - t h e e n t e r i l ) ql n r i t i r c r e i l c r i ( ) t o l t i r c i l e - ( ) i ) 5 c r ( ! i i r i l l , t i , i l r c . o \ ) partint waves. I r O l r t l i t r , . L i , , rc t i i : r . l t : : : o r rO i t i r c r r r i r r i r n : L r t r l r i r . e sc . r 0 n c l .l l 'l'his t y J t c o f m i n i m a l s u r l u c e s s a c t L r u l i v i r , . e r r . q , c li n n r t L i f c , \c ( ( ) i ) L r l u ( l e i r l i t t l r e i o , 5. t o l i s c r r . r d s r r r . r l L c crs l l l L r l t i l l r anii es the rultheurltical criteria are riiorously tirltiilcrl,rlrc- . ( o r o . s . . r l ' c r l r t r ' u r k . L r l e . r r t h c r r ' r t i r . a lc r i t c r i : r . ' l ' h e y ( l u e s t i o n r r i s e s . r v h e t h e r l l y o t h e r c l L r r s e x c c l r l \ \ , i r v cl l ( t i ( ) l l a c I ) r e s e r ) t c i L I r t ' r t l r c r r r i n i r n u lc l o s e t l s u r l . r . c l i r r u g i v e n ' o l u n r c , , t : o u l d f u l l i l l t h e s e g e o n t e t r i c a l I a r v so f r n i n i r n a l s r r , l l ' , r c c s .\ r e . s i n t h e { l o b u l c s o f r r r i . , \ ricrr,, rlLricksilver, rr,rl <,itlrerlrritis l u r a y h o l d t h a t I o c a u s e o t h e r t h : l n r v a v ea c t i o n c r . r L r lc o ' f o r r n cl rvhich co.{l-olrt us o. all siclcs, or irl urclose rl surl:rt:e of t o t h e s e r i g o r o L r sc r i t e r i u , b e c l u s e o f t h c i n i j n i t e o r r l e r o f d o L r b l c b n t o l r P o s i t c c u r v r r t u r e l l i l l l l l l i l t g t h c g c c _ r r n c t r i c ac o n _ a c c u r a c y i n v o l v e d i n t l i e t h e o r y a n d f b u n d l r y o l ) s e r v r t i o n c l i t i o r i r / - / 1 1- r r 1 ( " o. f to be lulfilled by litluid tllms in lcrurl pmcricc. I t i s c e s 1 .t o s l ) o \ v t l i r r t i i ' t l i r r u i r r i r r i l Ls u r - l r L c lc e c ) o s e d , l r 'lhr.rs 6. r v e c o n c i t r d e t h a t L t n d c rr v i l v c r r t : t i o t r h e o n l 1 . t likc tllat ()l'e gloirulc ol'tlc*., l.itlr rL singic spherical t r v o c h i e f t y l ) e s o f s u r f u c e sr v h i c h c o L r l d r e s u l t a r e: s l t r l - i r c e , o r t l r e s o . p l r L r l r l r l c , r i i r i r t * t . r c o n c e , t r i c s p l r er i c a l (a) Solid spheres or drops ot' litluid, l.ith the rnodi- surieces, the action of l'rves l'rorrr all dircctions rvill lication (b). g e n er i r t c a c t i o n s u n d r e a c t i o n s i r t t h e l r O u n c i a r i c s h i c h N i l l $ ( b ) J 3 u b b l e ss, y r n m e t r i c a a b o u t l r c e n t r e ,o r o r h e r c i o u l r l e p h y s i c r r l l y r o u ' r l r r P t h c l lls.rc of'the iluicl, ancl rcnricr tlrc s h e e t e df i l m s s y m m e t r i c a l a b o u t a n a x i s , o n r v h i c h t l r e s u r l a c e s r . r r l a c e s t r u e r r r i n i n r a l s u r l a < : e s . i s e x t e n d e d , S y m m e t r y i s a f u n d a r n e n t a lc o n c l i t i o no f s t a b i l i t y , O f a l l t b c p o s s i b l e i i r r - r n sr i , l r i r : h r u u s s o i ' l l r r i c l r u e v t a k e , a s r v h e n a s h e e t o f s o a p s u d s i s s t r c t c h e r l o n a p l a n e r i n g , t h c s P l r c r c l s u r i n i n r a s u r l u c el i l r g i ' c r r h l r o l u r r r c ,o r u r , \ l ' l r - l ' r symmetrical on the trvo sides. v o l u n r c . l b r g i v c n s r . r r f r c c . I t i s r r o t b y r L c c i r i c n tt l t r r t i n a i l ( c ) \ l i n i m a l s u r f a c e sf u i I l l i n g t h e g e o n r c r r i c a lc r i t e r i o r . r I i r l u i d d r o p s n a t r l r c r J ) r e s c n t sr s r i , i t h l L r r e ' c r - i r i l i n g r e c u r r e n c e o f e c l u a l a n d p l t o s i t e u r v a t u r e i ( t e v e r y p o i n t ,i / 1 1 , - + t f / ( , : o . o 1 ' t h i s b c a u t i l i r l u n d r y o n t l e r . l i r l o c s 1 . n r u r r r r 1 ,l t r g u r c . - - \ c c o r o l 7 . A p r o fo u n c la r g u u r e n tc o L r l cb e c l r a r v n i o r n t h e t h c o r y t l i n g l y r v c n l l u r a l l y c o n c l u t l c t l r : r r t i r c o b s e r v e c l a r v c r r n r e s t l o f p r o b a b i l i t y t o t h e f o l l o r v i n g e f fe c t : OI) llO CittlsJ Otlrer IlItn \\'il\'(.-ir(.tiOr], 'f (a) h e r i g o r o u sc o n f o r r u i t yo f t h e c o n r l t l i r : a tc l s u r f a c e s e l"or the clrrnccs:rrc inlrnitl. to olte thlt iln inllnite rvhich tvould theoreticallyresult lrom wa\/e action tr,ith thc nrultitucle l'drolrs o1'one lluid rvoulri o n o t r r t t a i nt h i s h g u r e s u r f a c e sf u l l i l l e d b y l i q u i d s i n a c t u a i n l t u r c , c a n n o t l r o s s i b l y e . \ c c p t i ) ) . t l r c s t c u d y t c t i o t ) o 1 ' a t r L r ep h y s i c i r lc r r u s e . , \ n . l be due to utere coincidence. as the surne lu*, holds lor au unlinritecl series ot-nrturiil ( b ) I n r . i e r v o f t h e e x t r e r n e r i s o r o f t h e s e g e ol l le tr i c a l l i r l u i c i s t l t e i : h r L r r c e t h a t s a true cause is at ri.ork rre aglin c r i t e r i a , a s a p p l i e d t o a c t u a l l i q u i d s , t h e c h a n c e sa u a i n s t a n y i n d e l i n i t e l yi u c r e a s e d . 1 , - i n a l l ya s , the globular lbrnr tbr liquid t i r e o r y o f n e r e a c c i d e n t a l c o i n c i d e n c e i s r n o r c t h a n i n h n i t y c l r o p s i s o b s e r r - e ctl o i r o l d f o r every soliri rock, nretal, and ro one. o t h e r s o l i d c o r n p o u n do f t h e c r u s t o f t h e u i o b e , r v h e nr e n d e r e d

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t ) r o l t e n b v a n i n f i n i t e s e r i e so f c h a n g i n qt e n r p e r a t u r ea n d J , s, Survey of the I{esearches of f. ilistorical \, l ) r c s s t l r c s \ ' e s c c n r l o t h e ri n d e p c n d e n ti n f i n i t e p r o b a b i l i t yt h a t i G e o n r e t e r s o r r t i . r e C a u s e o f C a p i l l a r i t v . t h e r s s r r r n l ) t i o no l ' t h e q l o l ) l t ] a r f i q t l r e d e p e n d s o n a t r t t e ( i ) R c f c r e , r c c s o t h e o l d e r s c i e n t i f i cl i t e r a t u r e o i c a p i l t p l r r - s i c ac e r r s c ,r ' i r i r : h c a n l r c n o t h i n g l n r t l ' a r , c - a c t i o r r . l laritv, r5oo_lSo4, A.l) 'l'he ,\ccordinsll the conrpottnd pro)ralrilitl of all these l i t e r a t u r e o f t h i s s L r b j e c ti s s o e x t e n s i v e t h a t a s e v e r a l e v e n t s , e l e r l t v h c r c r e c u r r i n g r : o n s t a n t l ) ' ,i s n o t I c s s b r i c f d e s c r i p t i v e s u n t n t a r y a l o n e r v i l l e n a b l e t h e r e a d e r t o t h a n t h e t t t a r i n r t t t t ti n l i n i t l ' o f t h c t h i r t l o r r l c r , c r l u i v a l c n t t o a p p r e c i r t c t h c s u c c e s s i v cs t e l ) s i n o r r r p r o g r e s s I all the points in sl)acc to onc, natncll': I n a 1 c x t e n s i y ec x a r t r i n a t i o n f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e s u l l j e c t , o
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o y r l r e n o r r r c n r rf r r a t r t r c . \ \ ' i r c n w e c o n l c l o t h c n r i r r i n r r L lu r f a c c so f ' c r l u l l l r r r t s ( o l r l r r r s i t c u r v i r t r r r c ,t , / i r - + , l t r ' , - = o , \ \ ' c s c c t l r i r t t h c ' r o l r l c r r

i s p h r . s i r : l l i v l c s s s i n r 1 r 1 c ,r c t t l ) c r l l r r s c i r . r r . o l v c r il s o l ' t 6 c s r l r e g c l r c r : 1 1t v p c , l r c c a u s c t l r c s u r f ; r c c i s l : c p t t r r r r ( h t l , f

s t r e t r : h r . q ,j u s t l i k c t h c r t r l r l r c rl . v c r o l e t . , v ' l , r l l o . , ] , , \ . ; r t r t l t h t t s i r c l r l t l r r t o n l v t h o s c p l r r t i c l e so f e l a s s r v h i c h a r e t t , t l t c s r r r l l L r . cc n r i s i r t r : c s s a n t l \ t o ( . o l t t r a ( . t ,i t i b l l o r u s t i r e t i t Y C r y l l c l r r t l l c ' l sh l r l i l c c h : r v e a n y s e n s i l ; l c i n f l t t e n c c o n t h c ' is cerl1' obscrvation ol I{aru/tsbu thus laid r r r r s t l r c : r r : t c r ir p o r r l r l l i r r c c s t c n r i i n g t o n r : r k c i t s c x t c n t . ; P h e n o n r c n o n . t l l i t r i t l l t t t t t , a s i l i t l l c r . : r s t . r l f g 1 c l 1 l t t ) i l s o | l i , 1 r r i . l t t r -l r l c r t l t e t l l c | o r r l r r l a t i o n o 1 . t l l e c c ] c l l r a t c c l h 1 ' 1 l o t l r c s i s , a f t

s r r r . l r r c ct f r ] , s i o l ) t l . i , t , \ \ , l r \( , r r . t l o ) r . 'l'hrrs as tlrc tcnsion, in thc surlar:cs lirlf:))ing tlrc gc,,' ' t -l r l)c t rtirc : r:'llI r : o ntrt l i t i o : r r t '/ t ' r - r 1 , ' 1 r , ,: rc ic ' o, is sirlilar- to tirat i' lir;uid qlolrrrlcs, it follorvs that in tltis r:usc also tlrc cilt r:t is rlle to \.it\'.--.r1tiolt. llorcolcr, l t y / ' o y ' / r r r zt l r l t I n r r l c t : t t l a r f o r c c s a r c s c n s i b l c o n l l ' a t i n s c n s i l r l e rlistrrtt<:cs' , t ' ' ) ' t t t ' r t t i,r i c l ' h - ' l ' ( i l ) l ) r . - ) l' u ' / ) tn lt t htc P h irl l . l ' r a n s . ,r 7 t S , n o . 3 . 5 5 , 7 3 g , l) j : r t t t l t 7 l q , l l o 3 6 . 1 ,I ) . r o , S, c x t e n c l c ctlh c o b s e v a t i o n s o n r

\\'ccll \\'iltcl'ltrltl tlrc glass tttbes or pJate; and observed thitt thc, cl1cct sltrlc, $'hether thc. ttlbes Ie,tlrick.or_ thirt, ,'t, ltt:,

r . / / t t t r ' / : . r l t r r',h y s i c o - m c c h a n i c aI l' ) x p e r i n r e n t sL o n d o n , i , l 7 o 9 ' . I r J )r 3 9 - I 6 g : a l s o l ' ] h i l " l ' r a t l s ' I { . S o c ' , I 7 o 9 - r i . , ( " ) / / t t t r ' / " s / ' t r s c r i l ; e d . c a p i l l a r i t yt o a n a bet-attraction

t:epilllritr', an,l rlist:ovcrcd thc l:r*' that thc heieht to q.hic[ c t h c t ' a v e s < : o r r r c r l r r : r l l r - - r - o na l l r l i r c c t i o n s , t i l c s a t l l c ) i r l r r i t l , s r r c h r s \ \ ' 'i lr'th irs, r i s c s i n t L r b c s i s i n v c r s e l v c l r is easily 'eri6ed Irt'the anri thrrs thc oppositc cur\':rturcsol'tlrc surlaccs ncr:cssrrilr' ProPortiorral to tlrcir rrriii r ttrvc talicll lrt' thc sttrllt<:e of \\'atcr llettveen tu'o vertical grlrral. ,\nrl l,r,:li of perlcr:t s\.r)rllclr\., in tlrc rli:trilrrrtion x19 of- titc u'llc-

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irl tlte t:clclrrrttt'rl clt-sc ol- tlrc plrrrrct NoIttrre , rliscovcrccl l>r' lIdolttsanr|/lt,tl.l'it'l-,rS.16;ortlrccic1lcrrtllr1lilitr'oftllcrr'ar'c. theorl' of 1ig1rt,u llic)l cnrtlrlcrl ^\jr // . A'. //tutri/lott to prcrii<:t

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l \ | l ! L l L i L . l l \ - J I L J

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thc oltiniort that f - c t v t n o r c u s c f j r ] r c s r r l t - .l t : r v c l r c e l o l r t a i t r e r i Irr tltc cesc of

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s i t r c et h e l b t t n d : r t i o no 1 ' t t r o c l c r n r a t h e t r r t t i r : o - p h v s i r sa li c n r : e ; a n g l e r r : n :c oo, cosrz: r , a n r l 5 1 ' o L r s c r v i n g/ 2 , a n c l z . * . c a n d t h t r si t t v i e w o l -t l ) c i r t t s c f u l t r c sts e s er e s c r r r : ' i r c sn n r i n i n r a i n r a y c a l < : u l l t c 7 ' c i i r e t l r ' . h o c s t t r f a c e sd e s c r v e t o r a r t k u - i t h t h e ) r ) o s t( : c l e l ) r a t c c ll i s c o l c r i c s c 1 n t h c . 5 t l 'c c i i t i o n o f t h e P r o p c r t i e s o I I I a t r c r , r q o 7 , in astronotitl' and rtattlral philosopity. Jl.t/t/t:t glve the followinc taSlc i) l). 2(i-5, I)rofcssors 7'tt.i/ :.t'rcl
'lt\'illlrr'ncltict'r]Lhlil()ltut:l'

g r a l i t a t i v c a c t i o n , n c a r t h c t i n r c o f l r r n a r e c l i l r s q 5 . ( c f . I . l l c c t . \ \ ' a r c - ' l ' h c o r y , o f ) ' h y . s .J r o r c . , r , o ) . l ,

r9r7].

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of 7' from observations by 1'rofessor Quincle'.
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399 unit here'erlplol'ed is one d1'ne I)cr'(line.rr,) centirrretre. Nlore elaborate trrbles o[ Qttittt/tt's c]ete u'ill be l o r r n d i r i , 4 , 1 o r u e / / ' s e l e b r a t e da r t i c l e C a p i l l a r y r \ c t i o n , S c i e n t . c P r p . , v c - ' I . 2 l.) . 5 E g . 'fhe le z. L-lairdu/1,'l'hcorieclelaIiiguredl'I'errc, l'uris, r 74 i. \ u ) C l o i r o u b u ' a s t h e i l r s t t o a t t e n ) l ) t t o r c r l u c ec a y r i l i a r i t y t o t h e l a r v s o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u n r o f l l r . r i c i si,r y a n c x r c t a n a l y s i s o f t h e l b r c e s c o n c u r r i n g t o e l c v x t e t h c l i r l u i c li n a g l a s s t u b e . H e e x p l a i n e d t h e e l c v e t i o n r L st h e r c - s u l o l - t l o t l b r c e s , o n e d u e t o t h e a t t r a c t i o no f t h e n ) e n i s c r . lrs r 1 ' t l r lc t l L r i r i , i a n d t h e o t h e r d u e t o t h e d i r c c t a t t r a c t i o no l ' t l r e t u L c i t s c l i ' on the nioleculesof tlre Iirluid.

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oi the'-surfnce tension of ascribeci this surface tension to attractii,e lorces, the sphere ofrvhose tction is taken to be so sutall as heretofore not to be pcrceivecl by the senses. (U) 5i1g"rr thris laid the ibundation o1' the theory of surface tellsiou, irrocluccd by rttractive lbrces sensible only i r t i n s en s i b l e c l i s t u n r : c s , us in the theory oI Lol/ace; ttnd h c u s e d t h i s n e r i ' t h c r - r r 1 'o 1 ' s u r f a c e t e n s i o l t t o c a l c u l a t e t h e nrericlional section o'f a tlrolr of lirluid, but did not investigrte thc curveturc in a lrlene at right angles t o t h c n r e r i d i a n . l t i s P r o l . r a b l e t h l L t . S r ; q , r r r ' r ' r e { r r t i e rtj l ) c t e n s e curvature of'u nrcurllrane of the sLirllicc ol' thc liilLrici ls srrrt( llc(i erlually i n a l l c l i r e r : t i o n s ,u n l e s s t h c c o n t r a r y l l L s s l r o l t r i r v t h e c u r iaturc oi- tlre slrrllr;e clbscrvccl. ( . ) S , . q , r , ' r ' st l r c r > r r ' l o r r n c l c o n f i r n r l r t i O D i r ) o L 5 e f\ l t i ( ) i i s ol- Ltitltt/t lsl oi' l)Lrislrurq,r 7 56, on the corrtrlrtiun ol :t).r1, b r . r l r b l c s ,i r l u l i i c h i t l r r s s h o u n t l r a t t i t e a i r i n t l r e I - r L r i - , i - r l e l i s e x p el l e c i 1 , 1 't h c ( o r r t r i L ( : t i o l o l ' t h e n t e r u l r r a n c o f t h c s o u l r

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( b ) B u t C l u l r a u / l e r r e c l i n r e g a r d i n g t h e a t t r r t c t i o no 1 . l r t r l r l r l .e l r r t h t . \ l t r n . c l r l . \ t r L r l . 1 . S i : . , r 7 S T , l ) . 5 o 6 , ' l / o t g t t i u r a g i r t i r r gi t s p o * ' c r t o the tube as the principle force :rdulrts tirc vict tlirLt tire urilrurt:rrt:c l- thc llrrticics ol-llLrid o u'hicli is ( or)trrlry to extend as far as the central axis i n t : l p i l l e r i t y ' I r a l c r n l l t i c n t : c t . r r r l l u t t h r : s r r r l ; L < :i es e l i a n c i i n t o t l r e c a r c f r r l r e s e a r c h e s l I a ! l a r t , r v l r o s t t b s e t l t t c t r t l ls' l t o u ' c c l , t l r c d i r e c t i o n o l - t i r c s u l l r r r c l l r i c l r t l i L i s l i r l l o u ' s ^ \ i l g z r r ' r ' 'ts e o r y h ( r B o 6 - r 8 o 7 ) , t l r a t r r ) o l e c u l i r lrb r c e s a r c t o b e s l r a r p ) y l i s t i n r f t r c r f s r r r a c c t c n s i o n . , l 1 r t t , \ , r L 1 , 1 , i i t t i . t l trlc t o r v o l ' s u r l l r c c t e n s i o n l o n g r a n g e f o r c e s ,s t t c h a s g r l v i t y l u r t l t n r g n e t i s r n , guishcdliom ti t o c x l i l a i r t t l r c l p p u r r : n t l r ' . t r r r r( . , n s : L n , l l r l r u l s i o n s b e t l r ' c e n l u b e c l r . r s c o l t s e r v a t i o n sJ ) r o v c t h i r t t l t c s c t r t o l e t : t t l i t ri r r < : e s r c l r o c i i r ' sl l o l t i r r g o n a ) i r 1 t t i r l . s e n s i b l eo n l y r t i n s e n s i b l ed i s t a r t c c s . l 4 . ) ? t t t . q ' s t l r c o r ' 1 'o l c r r l , i i l r L r i t r 'r, S . - 1 , i t , u r r r l r . t o n t h c Lallort's thcory thus becotnes a stror)g argttrncnt lor , t l r e r v a v e - t h e o r yL e c l u s e o f t h c n r i n t i t c r l n g r ' o l ' u c l i o r t o l ' a c t i o r l o i s u r l u c e t e n s i o r . rl i k c t l i l r t o l ' ^ \ ' , , q z , / . r ; 5 l . , v t h e n r o l r ' c u l a rf o r c e s , l . i u t u s t l t e r t n d r t l r t t c i r t ' t l r c o ro l l i g l i t l n l r i s c s s l y o n t i i c C o l r e s i o n o 1 ' l J l u i t l s ,i l ' i r r i . l r l n . . r v a s r e j c c t e d b y - 1 . a 7 1 l o t ltr, e I r a t t t r a l l l ' t l i t l r r o t s u : l r r t : t t l r a t r S o ; , 1 i . 6 - 5 ) l l r . 7 ' / t o t n a s) a i z z . g c l e v e i o p c r i u t l r c o r l o l c r L l r i l r v a v e sc o u l d u n c l e r i i ct h e a c t i o n o f n t o l e c u l l r ' l i r r c c s . ) a l i t 1 ' l s S r l g i r r ' z ' h l i r lc l o n c h a l i l r c e n t u r l ' b c l o l e , l i t u n c l r r l o n (c) Orving to these de fective hypothcscs, L'lttit,tt// l'trilccl t h e p r i n c i P l e o f s u r l a c e l e r ) s i o l ) . I l e o i r s c r v c d t l t c c o r ) s t a l t c y f t o d e r n o n s t r a t e r o m h i s t h e o r y t h a t t h e a s c e n to l - t h e l i r l u i d o f t h e a n g l e o f c o n t a c t o f t b e l i t l u i c l s u r l r r c e s i t h t h c ' s o l i d , s h o u l d b e i n v e r s e l y y r r o p o r t i o n a lt o t h e d i a m c t e r c f t h e t u L c a l l ( l s h o \ \ , c d h o r v t h e c o n s t r r ) c ) ' o f ' t l r c a n g l c a n r l t l r c t c n s j o n e as note(l by observers s ince the tine of- Jttrt:t, r 7 r li. o f ' t h e s r . r r f a c c n u l ) l e t l r e l l u i c l t o e r h i l r i t c e l r i i l u r v 1 r ) r c n o n r e : r a . A n r i a l t l r o r r g h C l a i r o r l t a r r i v e c i a t a n u t r l r c r o i ' l r v p o t ) t e s c - s , \ \ t l r i l s t t l r e t l r c o l v o 1 ' ) i , u r i z i,r\ r' v o l r t s l r o t h c o l r c : i o n a n d s L r r i i r c e s , h i c h u , o u l d a c c o L l n t f o r t h e o b s e r v e d c l c v a t i o r to l - t h e l l u i r l , t r n s i o n l i r r r - r l , J l i n r r r g c l r l , i l i u r i t v , i t a r o j r l s a s l u r u s l r o s s i L r ) e nonc \\,cre based on trolccnlar forces scnsible ortly at irt- tlrc rrse oi rrutlterrlLticirl :r'trrLois, )'('t it is hclcl |ty tllt.ttt,r'// r , s e n s i b l ec i i s t a n c e sa n d t h u s i t s u b s c r l u e n t l ye , l u i r e t la l l t l r c t o l r e e s s r l l t i l L l l l ' t : o r r c t t . 't'f,e rrratherraticalingenuity of Lalloct to clccjttcetront Clairatr//'s (ii) n r o r c r e c r n t r c s e u r < : h c so n c l p i l l a r i t l , l t T ,L 2 n 7 , , , , ' , (itrttss, theo.ryan exl)lanrtioll of the elevatiortin tttlles. .1'ttissott, Qrtitttl't, )Iu:cu,r//, Jit/uitt. (cf) Clarrau/1, however, shol'ctl tlirt i1' thc attrrrction / . Q l a c L , ; \ l e r i r o i r o t r c l i p i l l r r l , i t t t ra c t i o r , S L i p p l e n r e n t 5. of the ruatter of the tube ditl'ersonly by its intensity or to thc tenth booh of the trlccaniqLle Cclestt:, r fio6, rrntl c o e f h c i e n t , i i o m t h a t o f t h e f l u i c l o n i t s c l l , t l r e n t h e i l L r i t i S r r p p l e m e n t t o t h c t h c o r y o f c e p i l l i r r - ) ' u t t r r r c t i o l l ,r S o 7 . r v i l l r i s e x b o v c t h e s u r r o n n d i n g i e v e l l h c r t t l t e a t : t i o no l -t l t e 'I'lrc thcory ol' ,[.uy'/ort is ,.o l i:ll krtoivn, rLut] so rrruclr a rctnarkable h t r . r b ee x c : c c c l s a l f t h a t o f t l r e l l u i d o n i t s c l l ' uscd by all stutlcnts oi tlic strlrjcct tillt \rc siuili not herr gr-r theorenr aftcrrvards urore fuily developtd by La1,/ttccrn his j n t o i t i n c l c t l i l , e\ c e l ) t t o n o t e ( r r t i r i n r l i l t l c r . r l t i c t o r v h i c h s theory of capillary iictlort. I t t e n t i o r r s h o u l d l r c c u l l c r i . l n l r i s e r r l , i l l : r r i t c ' ,I ' a r i s , r 3 g 5 , 3 . S t . g t t r ,C o u r n e n t . S o c .l l e g . C o t t i n g . I , t 7 5 t , l ) . 3 o I . jnto r ltl' leading I ) . r - 3 , I ) o / / / i t t tt ; c o n c l c n s c s | , t t ! / t t t t s t i r c o r ' \ ' (*) l)ight ye.ars al'ter tlie pLrlrlicxtion ol' Cloirutr/t's the ettrutctior) to l)rve t'iresenerel lbrnr lbrnrulae, Lry taking 'l'heory o f t h e F i g u r e o f t h e E a r t h , t 7 . 1' 1 , c o n t a i n i n g t h e D 1.'17r (q4,,) .l : ttt ttt'J Q) : o u t l i n e o f h i s t h e o r y o f c r p i l l a r i t y a b o v e d e s c r i l r c c i t, h c r e a p p e a r e d i n t h e c o n u r e r l t a r i e s o f t l r e I { o y r L l S o t : i c t y o f t r ' l t e r e r , r i l L n c l r r i ' i l r c t l t e l l ) i l s s e s o l ' t l r c r n o l c c t t l r ' - . ,r - t i r e i r ( i o t t i n g e n a n i n r p o r t a n t l ' o r k b y S e . q t t r , r v i r o i t t t l o c l u c c dt h c c l i s t a r r c e a p u r t , u n d / ( r ) m l t l t k r t o \ \ ' n l l t n c t j r r n o t ' t h e r l i s t r L r r c e .
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L a y ' / o t t ' sc e l c l r r : r t e ch v p o t h e s i st l r n t t i r e c a p i l l a r y f o r c e s o f t i r e l r o r r n d i : - r g u r f a c e . T h i s i s u s u a l l y k n o l ' n a s , L a f l a c e ' s l s a r e s e n s i l r l e n l l ' a t i n s e n s i l r l c l i s t a n c e si,e a c l s o t h e f o r r r u l a l i ' . L a f l a c c ' s o l v n e s t i m a t e o f i t s v a l u e i n s ' a t e r i s g i v e n r o t ( l ' i t h t h c c a r r t i o n , [ J r r e a u s s i p r o c l i g i c u s ev a l e u r n e I ) e u t p a s f o r z c r o I b r c c s a t l l l r l i s t e n r : c sq r c n t c r t l r e n r ' : a 0 t r e i r c l n r i s ca v e c v r a i s e n r b l a n c e ' ) s t h e r v e i g h t o f t h e r v a t e r s'hich s'oulrl fill a tube of unit section rvhose length is : : ,7Q.) .ff {,),s,. o \q7l roooo tinrcs thc distance of the earth front the sun: i. e. 'l-his rvas u ' h c r e l i s t h c r a r ' l i L r s f n r o l c r : u l e ra r : t i v i t ) ' , s h o r i ' n l r 1 ' g r - s o n r c t h i n s l i k c r o 1 : t o n s * ' e i g h t p e r s q l t a r c i n c h . o b e s c c l o : . r t l r c c o r p r r s c r r l a t h e o r y o f l i g h t , t h c n u r n e r i c a ld a t a r n lrcrinre t r.tl()ttitttl't, r 869, to l)c /'< -5o/r//,5o nril)ionths o1' i r c i n q t h c r c l l ' a c t i r , ci n d e x o f r v a t e r a n d t h c s p e e d o f I i e h t . ( a nrillinrctrc. I t l o u l c l b e c a s l t o s h o r vf r o n t p r a c t i c a l c x p c r i c n c c , I n c o n s c ( l r c r r c c f t l r c l l r s t h 1 ' p o t h c s iis c i l u a t i o n( o 6 ) n o a s i n i r u r l a r r r l i v i n g , a n c l f r o r n t h e s u r v i v a l o f f r c s h r v a t e ra n r l t h e r l o l c c r r l a r { ' o r c c sa d n r i t o l - a p o t i : n t i a l nrarilrc iilc, in sur:h dclicate animals as fish, rvhich have l r l a d d e r sf r l l c t l s ' i t h a i r , e t c . , - t h a t t h c v i e r v o f a n c n o r n t o u s \-] , :; 1 / tf \ t ' ) ( q 8 ) internal l ) r e s s r l r cf o r * ' a t c r i s n o t v a l i c l . I f t h e s e v i e n ' s r v c r e tnlc $'c r:oulcl not tlive *'ithorrt havine our lnngs crushecl, l l i t h t h c c o u r ] ) o n c n t s f o r r r n i t l l r a s s a t r r , . . t 't, L r u d c r h e a c t i o n a n c l t h e b l r r i d e r s o I t h e f i s h c o u l d n o t o l ) e r a t e a s t h c y a c t o1-tire nrnss rz: t u a l l y r l o ; f o r t h e f i s h n o t n r e r c l ys u r v i v e , b u t a r e n o t i n j u r e d ( q q ) rr'hen tnkerr 1-ronrtlre \\':rtcr a short time. s':?r-i?r, L':Ar1?!, Z:AI'?: If the u'hole of thc lttractinq nrolcctrlcs ornr l volurrie f , t h e c x p r c s s i o n o f t h c p o t c r r t i : r )b c c o n r c s , f o r t h c c i c n s i t y o : t' : L o t ' l t r r ' s f i n a l c x p r c s s i o nf o r t h e l ) r e s s u r e n t h e i n t e r i o r i of a lluid has tlrc fornr ( ' o.s) f : lt'-+1,'rIt(t,' Iir-+tf lir)

,1, ) rl r. ri l rl: . (r ( r oo) ,f.i.j'o i l e r c - / i i s t l r e a - s , s u m ccco n s t l r n tp r e s s r l r e i,n t h a t t h e o r y i O r v i n g t o t l r c h i s h i n c o n r p r c s s i l r i l i t v f 1 i r 1 u i r 1 so f l o r r I, o v e r . v i r r q e , l l ' h i c h l r o u ' e v c rc j o e sn o t i n f l L r e n c e l r s c r v c t lc a p i l o a t l o p t si n c l i t c t t h c h v p o t h c s i st h a t t i r c d e n s i t yo i s c o n s t x n t . larr. phcnor.entt, If is enothe constlnt on rvhich ail capiln r I n h i s N o r r v c ' l l c ' l ' h r : o r ic l e I ' r \ c t i o n O a p i l l a i r c ,t 8 7 r , . / ' o i . r s o n c l a r i t y p h c n o n r e n a r l e p c n c l ,a n d - R 1 a n d 1 ? " a r e t h e r a d i i o f reje<:ts/.of ltrrr's lr1'pothesis; likes.ise f 'oittcot rcnrarks tirirt / c u r v a t u r e o f a n y t r v o n o r m a l s e c t i o n s o f t h e s u r f a c ea t r i g h t L a l l t r c ' s a s s u n r p t i o n i s i l l c g i t i n r a t c , l r e c n u s ei t i s y r r o l r a l r l c r n o l c q t o n r c l r n t h n r _ '_"b _' t h a t t h e r l e n s i t y i s n o t t h c s a n r c : r t a t l i s t a n c e e s st h a n t h c l lf irr the above formula rve pnt tf Rr+-rf R,: o in r a d i u s o l - : n o l c r : u l u ra r : t i v i t t ' l l - o n r t h c s u r f a t : ca s a t a c l i s t a n c c t h e s ec o n r i t c r n r o f t h e r i s h t n r e u r b e r ,a s i n m i n i r n a l s u r f a c e s , th:rn this raclins. greatcr '|\'e sce thrt rvithin such fiir-llsthe prcssure rvould ire equal T llut u'hateverlrc thc crectitudc ol /.allort's hypotlrcsis, to -/r- on11',rvhici-r shorvs the connection ltetrvecn such filrns i t l c r , j s t o t l r ( : c r l ) r c s s i o n[ o r t l r c p o t c r r t i r r ] i t s s o l l ) l r u l r b l c s , s ' i t h c l o u l t l es u r f a c c t u r s i o n , a n c l c a p i l l a r i t y . l ' : p ) f ) f 1 f , nt , ') r l . r l l r l : \ror) \. . . r ' 6 . ( / a i r . s . Ii ',r i n c i p i a g c n c r a l i a t h c o r i a c f i g u r a e f l L r i c l o r r r r n t\nd if g: r in tlre litluicl considcrcci s t a t u a t ' r l r t i l i l r r i ir, 3 , j o , ( \ \ - c r k e ,\ ' . 1 r . z 9 ) . ( ; ( 7 1 l . i orn r s t h c f o r c e - f L r n c t i o no r t h e p o t e n t i a l so f a i l r. f '1 (r) tlt <l.r'rl. /- : : \ro2l ,f.['.[ t h c p l i r s o f p a r t i r - - ) e i-n t i r e i r n r u t u a l a c t i o n . \ V i t h t h e s i g n s 'l'hc o n l l ' o t ) r e r p o i n t i n t h i s t h c o r , vt o i r ' h i c h s ' c s h r l l rclcrscrl lrc thrrs olrtrins tlrc polerrtialenergy of tlrc s1'stent. ( c a l l s l r c < : i r r lt t c r r t i o nr c l i r t c st o / . a f l o r r ' s , z r - , \ l c , c . C i l . , L i r ' . - \ , (,'rzrr.rs a trt:ats the problcnr of the forccs ureing tlte J1,uid rvith S u p p l .i l r ' l ' h r o r i c c l c l ' . \ c t i r , n e r p i l l e i r c ) , r ' l r i c h i n r p l i e st h a t h i s r r , s u a l) u c i d i t y , i r r t l - r r c e p a r t s : t h e f i r s t c i c p e n d i n e o n grcat jtrtcrnal J)rcss11rc.car thc in clerv li,lrrirl thcrc is a N qravity; thc sccond, on the rrutual attraction betl'een the e n d o f t h i s s u p p l c n r a n t/ . o | \ o t c t l e r i v c s t h c f o r n t u l l e f o r t h i s lrarticleso{- tlre lluid; and the third, on the action bctu'eerr jnternal l)rcssurc, 21)_1 : .t/{il.: s t h c p a r t i < : ) c o f t h c f l u i c l a n d t h c p a r t i c l e so 1 ' t h c s o l i d o r \r03/ ( t o . l ) l l u i d i n c o n t : r c tn ' i t h i t . .t: r(/q - (,,t- t) /r:,,'4,q' i ,.,, thc rcfmctilc 1/'////.irnttrics tlris ngqrCqntc cxpression a ntirrinrrrnr: t ' n'here // : r , c l o c i t ) ' o f l i q h t , 1 r- 1 : (t: ( ' - , 1 . r - r t f . c r . [ . [ . 1 r , 1 s ., l, s . c l s ' ) a c t i o t l , l t n c l , q ' : a c c c l c r a t i o l t o f g r a ' i t 1 ' , . r - l c l t q t ' o 1 -t h c ( , ',\ ,I. ' r 2 t .\ c o l u n r n o f u ' a t c r o f e r y u a l ) r e s s l l r ci,n u n i i s o f t h c s u i t ' sc l i s t : r n c e . l ( r ooJ 'l'his qilcs * , C , [ j : , t , r t . r 'r l r ( . 1 ,6 5 1 . : .r r 2 o o o , a l t l l r o x i r l a t c l \ - ,o r a c o l u l n n o f s . r t c r o v e r i o o o o t i m e s l o n g c r t h a r r t h e c l i s t a n c ef r o n t t i t e c a r t h t o In this lornrttll .g: the force of grayity, z - ele'ation t h e s t r n .L o f l o r r h i n r s e fl a d d s t h a t > r L r n:e u s s l t r o c l i q i e L r s ei c L t r e l r o v e t i r c l r a s e p ) a n e I I , c : c l c r - r s i t v , k e n a s r r n i f o r r ni n r i vr ta n c I ) e t l t y r a s 0 t r c a d n r i - s ea v e c v r r i s e n r l r l r n c c < r , o t h u t h c t h c s p l c c s . s a n r i . r ' , C ' : s c i e n s i t ] 'o f t h e s o l i d , o r f l u i c l o f a l r p a r e n t l l c l i c l n o t r c q a r c l t h c v a l L r e 1 ', A -: . gs a s p r o l r a b l e . c l i l l c r c n t l < i r r r; l a n r l t h c s y r e c c ss a n d s ' a r e f i l l e c l b v t h e o r \ c c o r r l i n q l v i t $ ' i i l n o t s u r p r i s c u s t o f i n d n r o c l c r n p h 1 ' s i c i s t s n r o l r i l c f l u i r l , a n c l . S l r 1 . t h c s o l i c l o r f l u i d o f c l i f f e r e n tk i n d . r e j e c t i r l ei t . l n h i s l ) r o ; r e r t i c s f \ l a t t e r , r 3 q g , p . z q 4 , 7 ' a i / s e . y s : \ \ : i t h t h i s c x ; r l a n n t i o n o f G a t t . t s ' f n n d a n r e n t ae q n a t i o n , r n a d c o l >I n s o m e s t a t i r : atll r c o r i e s f m o l c c u l l r a c t i o n ,e s p c c i a l l y r u p o f t h r c e t c r n r s , i l o n l i ' r e n r e i n st o a d d t h a t t h e p o t c n t i a l o t h t t o f / . a ! / a r c , o n e o f t i r e n r o s t s t r i k i n g c l c d u c t i o n si s t h r t s o c o n s t i t n t c c li s a n r i n i r n u r n ,a r r d t h e r e f o r e f o r s n c h a l c v e l t h e r e m u s l b e a v e r t ' q r c . i r t i n t c r n r L I , r c s s u r ci n e v e r y l i r l u i d s u r f a c e , t h c s u n r o f t h e s p a c e d i f f e r e n t i a l s v a n i s h e s : : (l-(.1 (e_(tia.r)d.r-+-(a_r.l/ar,; mass: a l ) r e s s u r el ' h o l l f i n c l c l t c n d c r r o f t h c f o r r - n n c l s i z e t a d.1,-r-(a9la|) : 6 . 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In deriving more generalconditions1br the ll'ce slrrflce 8 . t l ' f a r u ' e / / ' s a r t i c l e o n c a P i l l a r y a c t i o n , I , ) n c y c l .B r i t . tlt than Laflocr had done, Gazzss thus iutl;roved thc thcorr'. i\t e c l . ,r 8 7 5 . 9 t h e c l o s e o f h i s p a p c r h e r e c o r n m e n c l sh e n r c t h o c lo l ^ \ r . g t t t t ' t l n c o n c l t t r l i n gt h i s s e c t i o l t i t o n J l ' r e r n a i r r s t o l ) o i r t r and Go1,-f.4ssar, rvhich Quittc/tehas since extellsivel)' lppliccl, o u t t h e l a s t g r e a t c o n t r i l i u t i c t r t o t l t e l r l r o l e t h e o r y o f c n l r i l b y m e a s u r i r " r gh e d i n r e n s i o n s f l l r g e d r o p s o f ' n r e r c L r r ro n u l n r i t l ' , i n r e r : c n t t i n r e s , t l t c a r t i c l e o n c l l r i l ) e r y l c t i o l b 1 ' t l [ r t r t t ' t / / , t o . h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e , a n d t h o s e o f l a r g e l - r u b b l c so f i r i r o r o r h e r I i n c l ' c r . l 3 r i t . , g t l ' e c l . , r e l r r i n t e r l i n l l u : r u ' t / l ' s S c r c n t i t r < :P a p e r s , g a s e s , i n t r a n s p a r e n t l i c p r i d sr e s t i n g a g a i n s t t h c -u n c i c r s i r l e o 1 - l o l , l l , l ) l ) . 5 . 1l - 5 9 r . ' - l ' h o u g h l r i t r e n r L l r c ; u lt r a l f a c e l l t u r y . a h o r i z o n t a l p l u t e o l - a s u b s t a n c e* ' e t t c c i l r y t h e l i i l u i t l . a g o , i t i s s t i l i t l t e l ) t o s t e x t e l t s i ! e l i n c l : r c c L r r l t t cs l t r v e ) ' o f t h e N suirjcct 1'ct avlillbie. On pLrte .5ig he qivc-s a table ol' l 7. ? o i s s o u ' s o u v e l l c t h c o r i e d e I ' a c t i o nc l p i l l a i r c , l ' l l i s , r8rr, pp. r-3oo. ( ) t t i t t t / t t ' s c r p c r i n r c n t a l r e s u l t s n t u r h n ) ( - r r ce l l r l ) o r l t e t ] ) t n t h x t I ' o i s s o n ' sn e r v t h e o r y o f c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n i s t l c v c l o p c t l ( l L l o t c ( i a l ) o Y c . 'l'lrc r v i t h s u c h g e o n r e t r i c a le l e e a n c e ,t h L l t i t n r u s t a l l a v s ( ) c c u l ) \ ' r u o l e r c c c n t c o n t r i l r L r t i o n s l ; 1 ' L o r c l / ' , ' t/ t ' i n , | . o r t l a p r o u r i n e n t p l a c e i n a n y s r . l r \ r e y f t h c s u l r j c t : t . l l t r t i t i s L ' u . t / , i , ; , / t ,n c l - o r l r r r i n v c s t i g u t o r s , h u v e e t l d c c i t o t i l c e \ t r r ) s i \ c o u j t r s t l y r c r n a r k e dt i r a t a l t h o L r g l? o i s s o t : r c l o p t s) r o c r c s s e i i l l i , r c r r r l r t c n L t r r r e r r l r c - e r l r '< i t e r l ; l t u t ( ) t t t n r / : t 's r e s c u r c h c s s i l i l o n g l t sr l l r c r r r t l i o , s c n r P l o l ' e cb y L o l l a r t , y e t i n r l c n r u r i t h c ( ( r r ) ( u 5 i ( ) r s r t ' u l L i n t i r c c l t i t l - s o r . t rc o f - c x l t c r i r t r c n t l l t i l r t a . c l l ( 'l'htorv a r e i d e n t i c a l , e \ c c l ) t i n r c s p e c t t o u r ) i l i ) r r ) ) i lo 1 t l r t . i n r . r l r L L l I0. \cl o { ' C o l r e s i o r r r i n c l , \ r ih e s i o r r . < i t ' n s i t o l ' t h e l i r l u i d ,e x p l a i n e ci ln c r l r . r r t i r . ( r o o i r r n t t i r o r ) y rn-s l i c l l - l L tri o n l i n ( l ( l j 5 i ) ( . r s i o r t 1 ' u l r r s o li) rit tltt surllLt.c a b o v e . r \ t t h e c l o s e o 1 -p a r l g r e p h - 5 l i l r o r e l c l u r r t , i r r t l i c l l e c l o 1 s o 1 i , i s , r l t i { \ ' t , r o ( l L tr( l n r d r r r . . . r e a s o r t sl b r a d o p t i n u , [ . a / , l t t t l sl i c r t ' t ] l L t g I r u l i , r t i r l i u n I r ( ' r r i [ 1 r t o t i ; i : l r r r i n t u t . i r l r \ c ' t t r ' i r t ( ] l(t1 i r s l r r ' r i l t l t t t c r r t i o n t ( , , i / , r . I . r , .r , i r . r r ' , t t t t d c r l l r t ' i r r t c t 1 r i L q n si r t ( , l u i r t i u n r c c sil r , t l r c r l L r : t t i n t i t . r J I i n g s l r r l l L C r c n , . i O Dl L n c lr l r l r i l l : r r i t 1 ' l, t c , c t r r r s c t a c c o r c l s v i t h t h i s v i c i i ' a J s o l, r s \ \ c s r e l r 1 . 1 r ils l i n r : i 1 / rrL L u l r l i ( ) l l r (l r r r c l n r e l r l t t l r r r t i i t l r c . s c< : a u s c s o u l r l b e < i t l r n i t e l y a s s i g n e c l , c lbr JJ aboyc. it uoultl not l)c icrt rlilllcult to l)uss o\.cr to rhc rclutcci /'rtis-roti t:ritit:isur tltat .l,u!/tttt's theor)' ntiikr s tlrr tons cartse o1' cohcsion alttl lrllrt,siorr. s t i l n t I ) r ( ' s s u r e { - r ' e r 1 ' l a r g e , l ' } r e r e l s i t r n r r s tb c i r r l l c t r , c r y z l n l i r c t i r d h c s i o n i s < l i r e c t l r .r c l r t c r l t o c u p i i l l r i t r ' , l i r r s n r a l l , s r r n d o u i r t c c i l l ' r ' a l i1 r,' o rc o n s i ( l r i r t i o n s l r c a t l l l r o i n t r c l i d n e a rvlrcn licluids risc in trrlrcs tlrt. lluirl tLlulLr.s\'rts tlrr tul)e, \ or.rt in trerrting ol' [.oflorc's thcory. 'l'hrrs 1'zrrr.rrrri rcut'lrrr] s o u s 1 o a t l l r c . r ' eo i t , a n t l l i l t r l r t r o l u r r r r r l 1 , u r r r i i r v t j r e t r c s t t l t s i r r g e n c r e l i r c c o r c ir v i t h t l r o s c < t l ' / . t t 1 , 1 a ; 1r,r r t t l i t l r r o t l l r t r c c o l - s r t r i u c c t e l : i r r n . - \ r r r l r r l i t n t l r e ) r , 1 r r i i l o t . : r r r , tr i r t , i t : o n l l m r t l r e g r e a t c o l l s t a l l tI ) r c s s r . l r,c r -i n l i r l u t r l s , : L n i l r r r l t l t . r l / l , t r t i s t l r l , r t - s : r ' t li t r t i r c t L i lt . . . : , . i n i l t t t . r - r r , l r r t r r t r l r r . , t h c c l l i r n o l ' a r u l r i c lv a r i u t i o n o { - t l e n s i t v n ( . i n t l i r , : l l i i . (1 . , t i r u l . tt r n o l l r l l r t . i rl , i , L ; ir i r l l i ! . l r r l r u ] : i ( r l l ( r l . i l s i s c o r l l t t o n l y , r v l r i c h c l o t s n o t t d u l i t o l ' e x l t c r i r l e n t i t l( l c t t r t r r u t r r i t L . n . : : r j i i , l , ! : ( i r l u t : , i t r . i t t i ( r t r l t i t c i t t l L L i tlio r i t s e l l ' t i r : r n b r t h e '-['hc o l t h e o r l ' d e v c i o l t c c il t t t ] r e l r r c s c l r il r r r ] j c r ,t i r u t t i r e 'i :olirl. i t u s t l r e i l , ( ) i ( ( l u r i o r t c s i r r a t l l r e s i o ne r . e t l r c s n r l e u w l t v e s t r e s su n d er g r . r e s u t l t l c n c h a r r g e u t t l ) r , 5 u rl l i Le o l i i , l r i l t i " ris in t rrlri)iuritl'; untl r.oire iorr is sirrrilar to thc lrttmction s a l ) l ) e a r s o r e c o n c i l et l r c s c s c v c r u l t l i l l r c u l t i c . , l i , r ' \ i r i l . r i t t o l ) i , 1 L r i r p : r r t i tl r : s l b r o r r e u r r o t l r c r , e \ c r c l ) t t i ) i t t t l t e c o l r c s i r . c , i a s s i g n st o t h i s s u r l i r c ct c n s i o r tt h c g l o l - , u l a rl o rr r r o t t i r o l r s , lort c tltlrttttis grt'lrtiv ()t) tctll)('rirttrrc,lrnrl tltrrs liec.onres anci the elasticitl'of'the lllrrrof soalr Lulrirlts,it tiocs not trrttt r rrorr 1;rtlcrlLrlin solirls. ] g i v c a g r r : a ti n t e r n e l [ ) r c s s u r eb r l i t l u i d s , l ; u t o n l y r l ] c s o l l ) c l 'l'rro < t t l t t r r r i e s l g o , i r r t l r r ; " 1 e t l i t i o r r , , 1 1 i 1 a( ) 1 , t i s , wlrat lecble surlace strcssnoticrclin ost:iiletinglrc)ps ncl r a r i 2 t , p . . 3 6 < , - \ , , / 1 ' r ' , ( l i 5 (u 5 : c t l t l t r r r t r . s t c r . r ' Oilr c r D o l c c r r l a r / t elastit: lrlrns. l o r t : c s l t s l o i l r - r us : In clealing u,ith the Stgntr- \'outt.g cctntt iirutiorr to tlte rr\nrl hou srrt:ii rclt lrLrcl - I 8 o 4 , r v e n o t c c lt l r c l r L c t ) r r r t l r t ' y lrrrticlcs (in so)itls) l'hir.)r t h c o r y o 1 '( ' a l ) i l i a r i t y , 7 5 r r l L l c o n l l ' l u i c l t o . g e t l r c ra n r i t o r r c l r o n l i ' i n l l c u , l i o i r r t s , c l r r s n c c e s s i i l l l ye x p l a i n e d c a p i l l a r i t y l . r ys L r r l u c ee n s i o n , a n r l t h r r s t stick togcther, and tI)rrt s() lrrnrly'as thcy do, *,itlrout tlre it is approprjate fol us to draw attention to the rltlicr li,cblc lssistance of sontethitrg l,hic:h cllrses thenl to lre irttrat.tctl i n t e n s i t y o f ' t h e s u r l ' a c e e n s i o n o f v a r i o u s ) i t l u i c l s l, s d c t c r t o r l ) r e s s c d t o r v a r d s < . r n e n o t l t e r , i s v c r y d i l l i c u l t t o c o l t c c i \ . c .( a mined by Quitr/tt, end given briefly in the abovc tablc. ..\ccordingly, i t a p P e a r s 1 1 ) , r L, i Y t/ 1 , / 0 / t * u s v c r l ' n r u c l r 'l' : l i o r r v a t e r i n a i r , t h e s u r f a c et e n s i o r . r , Sr, liy tlre b l l - 1 l c c il n h i s c f l ' o r t st o c o n c e i y c o l ' t h c c u u s c r v l r i r : ] r n i l c r i i c s u forn-rula 'l'lrc . "7' - /11'gg1' 21.6s1v . c o h c s i o n r n c l N d l l c s i o l ) ,n r o r e e s p c c i u l l y 'i n s o l i t l s . \q 5l diltrcultv H e r e a i s t h e a n g l e o f c o n t a c t r ec k o n L . d l j o n i t h c i D l i t l u i d s \ \ ' a s n o d o r . l b t a l l r t o s t c r l L i a l l t ' { r r i i t , l ) l l t o u r t r e a t v d o r v n r v a r d e r t i c a l . F o r \ \ ' a t c r i n c o n t a c t r v i t h g l a s s ,c ( ) s . ( : r , n ) e l ) t o 1 i t i s a l r e u d y o u t l i n e r l , a n r l u c s l r l l l t h c r c l b r e t i c l l and T is lbund from the radius of' the tube /') lu(i observccl c h i e l ' i y u i t i r c o h e s i o n a n c l a t l h e s i o n a s e x l r i b i t e t i b y s o l i t l s . height of column h. t"or mercuryin air the value ol' 7':540, l n t h e l v a v e - t h c o r ) .\ ' e h o l ( i t l l i r t n o r e f r a c t i o n o f t h e b u t i n t h i s c a s e s : 1 2 9 o 5 z ' , s o t h a t t h e c o s i n ei s n c g a t i v c \ v r v c l i o n t c a n o c c l l r r v i t l i o u t t h e e r p e n r i i t u r e o f e n c r g ) ' , and the column depressed. i l r a l ' n l i o n r t h e u e n er r r l r e s e r v o i r o l ' t h e l c t l i c r ; t h e r c f o r e i r s T h e d y n e i s t h e f o r c e p r o d u c i n g a n r c c e l e r a t i o n o f ' \ \ ' l r \ ' c sn r o v e n t o r e s l o r v l y i n s o l i c l s t h a n i r r l r - c es 1 ; a c c ,t h e r c one centilnetre per second iD a graDr lnass,rnd in vierv of ncccssarily is lrve cnerljy exerted against thc solici orlins the feebleness of these forces of surface tension, u'e sc.ervhy t o d e r a r ) g e n ) e n t i ' t h e r y a r " ef r o n t a t t h e L o u n d r r i c , so f s u c h o w e c a n n o t e x p l a i n c a p i l l a r i t y b y s u c l i a f ' e e b l e o r c e , a n d a t t h e lltasses. f same tinle admit the enormous constant fluid ltressr,rre [buDd t r l o r e o v e r , t h e r e f i a c t i o n o f \ \ ' x v e su s u r l l y i s l s s o c i r r i c c l by Lay'lacc's theory. r v i t h d i s p e r s i o n , o r s e p a r a t i o no l ' \ \ ' : . r v c so s i n g t o t h e u n e t l u u l ,

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po\\:ersot diamond; hence the extraordin:rr;' 116l1"nce the of qcrlr, l;ot1rrs le(ar(ls rvhite light and prismatic light.< l/'tttdoll's remark that all the light incident fronr tn'o conrplctc rluadrants,or r8o", ir-r the case of the diamoncl, i s < : o n c l c n s c crl v r c f r a c t i o n t o a n a n g u l a r s p a c e o f 4 7 " 2 2 ' , l 4 1 ? 3 i l r g 6 o . _ r / : . 3 , c o n t a i n s t h e g e r r r ro f t h e s e c r e to f t h e nrost Ilo\\'crfirl nroleculnr forces, srrch as tlrose lvhich produce hitrclncss. Iior jLrst as the rays in a plane angle are thus r : o n c l c n s c r s,o t h e r l 1 ' s f r o m t h c s o l i d a n q l e o f a s ' ' l r o l eh e n - r i l s p h c r c : r l c c o n r l c n s c d n t o r / - l . 8 o f t h c i r o r i g i n a ld i s t r i b u t i o n ; i s o t h : 1 1o 1 r t l l l \ - a r c : r t h c c o n c e n t r a t i o r - rf e n e r g f i n c r c a s c sn s o t h c s r l u n r c o 1 -1 . 3 r n t i b c c o m c s t 4 . 4 4 t i m e s g r e n t e r . . ' \ s t h e r . \ \ ' h c n t r a ) : o l - l i g l r t e n t c r s l l d r o l ) o f -u ' a t e , r v i t h r i c l i s p c r s i o ns j n : r l r o u tt h c s a n r cp r o p o r t i o n , t h e c o m b i n e d c f l c c t r c f r a c t i v c i r r r l c r . , 2 : ' , ' ' , , , t h c s o - c e l l e c lr c [ r a c t i r . cl l c t i o l t i s 'l o f r c l l l r : t i o n ^ l t ( l ( 1 i s l ) c r - s i oi tsr n t a g n i f i e c is o n r e z o o t i n t c s .- ) ' : ttt r v r v c r c l o c i t y i s d i n r i n i s l r c r lo r a t : < : c l c r a t c d r :,. hc t C o n s i c l c r r n g h c t e n r l c r r r ; r ' t or u p t u r e t h e a e t h e r b y t h i s s u d r l e n 1 a t t h c b o u n r i a r r ' 1 r 1 '1 / . ; n n c l 7 / r , o l t l r c c n c r g l i s c x c r t c d 'l'his r l i s c o r r t i n r r i t v t t l r c l r o u n r l r r y o f t h e d i a r n o n c l ,i t i s n o t r e l ' n i l r a slosing clou'n a . q n i n s tt h c s r r r f i r c cl a v c r o f t h c c l r o p . kalrle that thc actions anrl rcactions of the niorc porverful t o f t b c r r ' a v c s l r c c r l o r i t s a c < : c l c r a t i o n h t t s c \ c r t , si l l ) r c s . c u r c i r r v i s i l r l cr : r v g s g i r c t i r c c o h e s i o n u n c l c r l v i . n g h c l r a r d n e s s t ' a q e i n s t t h c l r o u r r c l r r - jo l - t h c ( l r o l ) : l b r l o n q t . g o , 1 f o . r ; r l r i l o l ' d i : r n r o r r r lI.t i s c l i d c n t t h a t t l r e h a r d n c s so f r l i a n r o n ca n c l l -l qr) l' l l \, r t , o , l r r i z c , ( , l ' r c r L t i s c oinc c t r i c i t v : r n r\ il : r g n t ' t i s n r ( i ; S r othcr crlstrls, tirc grt;rt tcnacity ol steel ancl othcr s'ires, t h a t p e r t i a l s t o l ) l ) i r q o 1 ' r i : r l c n r o t i o n l c a r ' l so t h c c x c r t i o n o f t r d c p c n r l o r r l r r v t - u c t i o ra n d - r c a c t i o n a t t h e s r r r l a c c ; a n c l o t{ o l ) r c s s u r c n t h c s u r l l c c o l r s t r r r < : t j nh c l r r o g r c s s f t h c r r ' a v c s . t l r c r c . f r r r c l r c - s t r t n q i i r t o f s u c h a s o l i d d e p e n r l so n s o n t c s u c h I f l ' u v c ' s l c a v c t b c c l r o y rf o r l - r c cs l r t r : c , t l r c r c i s r : o r r c s p o n c l i n r l c o n r l r i r r r t i o ra s t j r r : l i r l l o l i n q : r , r c a r : t i o no 1 - t h cf r c c : r c t l ) c r: 1 tt h c l r o u n r l a r r 'u n r i t l r r r s s i r n i l a r a r . I i . c l la r t i l c a c t i o n , ( n 2- r ) , r v l - r i c hc l c p c n c l so r - rt b c c l c v e l o p n r c r r o f r : r ' r r t n r ll ) r ( ' s - c r l r c . t r d e n s i t v o l ' t l r e s o l i c l , r , a n r l t h c c h a n q i n gn ' a v e - l c n q t7 . a n d h z . I l o r c o v c r ' , j t i s ev i d c r r t t h a t i n p r o p o r t i o na s t h e s c t h r t s o n s o n r c u n k n o r r n f t r n c t i o n ,t ( o , ) . ) ; 'l u n v c a c t i o n s u n r l r c l c t i o n s : r r c s u r l r i c na n r i v i o l c n t a t t h c 2. l r c r i o l c n c c o l ' t h c i n c c s s a n lt r c n d i n go f t h e s ' a v e b o u n r l n r l ' o l ' l l r o t l r ' , s o t l u t t i r c r c l i a < : t i v cu < : t i o n. r r : r i s l l c r n t ,1 o r l : r r c s c o r r i l r g l i o r r r e l l r l i r c c t i o n sq \ B ) ; , i a r q c , i n t l r c s r r r c p r o p o r t i o n t l r c r c l a t c r l r l i s 1 ' t r . i 1 , '' , , 1 , , ' , l l 1 1 r j o i c n rc o f t l r e i n r : e s s a nc l i s p c r s i o n f t h c s e t o .l , a l s o i s l a r g c . . \ r ' r : o l r l i n g l r 'a s r l i a n r o n t lh a s t h c g r c l t ( ' s t ( ) l ' i n t ' i r l c r t tl l r v c ' s , / ' t ,rlJ. = : 2 . . + ( ) ,a n d i s s o I o u ' t r l i r l i n 'l / k n o r l r r r c l l - a c t i v cr r r r l i r : c s , / . l. i r c c o : n l . r i n a t i o n f s 1 . s t e r . n : r ts cr e s s e s r r e t o t h e o it d lr t h c r l i s p c r s i o no l - r ' o l o r s a s t o r - i c - l ttll r c r u r a p p r o a < : h cu ls t r t ' < ' r 1 - s t : r 1 ) i in cn l n g c n ) c n to 1 ' t h e a t o n r i c p l a n c s rr s'ith thc effects r v h i r : l rq i l c s t l r r : q r r ' : r tr ' ; r l l r cl o t l r i s c r 1 ' s t a l i,t o r r g i r lt l r c o r t ' t i o [ - t l r c t r v o l : r t t c ' r v i o l r r n t t c n c l c n c i c s ,t h u s l e a r l i n g a l n r o s t t o c : r ) l y t o l r c t l r c i l r r r l c s t o l l r o r l i c s ,l r r c l i s s o l i ) l u r ( ll r l c r - t ) r c r l i s r r r p t i o n l - t h c n r c d i u n r ,1 ( z ) ; o 'l'lrc pcrinrcnt. c n o r r r r o u sI ) o \ v c r o f r e l l e c t i o n s ' i t h v e r y s l i g h t 5. I n i r i s t S i r L c c t r r r c so n L i g h t < , s c c o n r i c d i t i o n , N c s ' a i r - s o r l r t i o ro l - c n c r e r . , : r t t h e s u r f r c e , 6 ( o ' e - " ) ; r 'l'ltc grc:rt York, r 336, p. zo, 7 t'nio// lrrcjclll cxplains total rcllcction, r:cntrrl l)rcssurc clur to the intesration 6. t h c i i n r i t i n s a n s l c l b r i v h i r : h i n \ \ ' a t c r i s ' t 8 " : l o ' ; l b r l l i n t - o l t i r c s t t , r r r l r:'r c t i o n o l ' t l r c s h c a t h o i ltertia)ly disrrrlltccl l s l a s s : l l i " 4 r ' ; f o r r l i a n r o r r cz . i " - t r ' ; t h u s r i r p i t l l l ' r i i n r i n i s i r i n . q \ ' : t \ r ' sl l \ \ ' ; r \ .c r t r ,l , , l ' i t t gr l t r -s r ' l i ' i ., ; ( r ' l ) . \ i u ' i t h i n r : r c - a s e f t l r c r e l - r a r ; t i v cn c l c x . i o r \ c : r ' o r c l i n g l vl - t i r c c o n d i t i o r l l r e i r n p o s e d t b a t t h e i > ' l ' h r r s l l t h c l i c h t r n c i d c n t f r o n rt u ' o c o n r l ) l c t c l u a ( l r a n t s , n o n r i l l c l l s t i c p o u c r o t - t h c a c t l l c r i s n o t g r e a t e rt h a n r r n i t v , ( a ( ; g q 3 : r 6 o o o o o t i n r e st h a t o f o u r a i r i n p r o it , o r r 8 o o , i n t h e c n s c o f c l i a r n o n c il s < ; o n r l c n s c ni t o a n a n g u l l r w h i r : h i s r . thcn \\'c shall havc (cf. Toihttn/u's s p a c e o f 4 j " , 2 ' ( t r . , i c c z 3 " 4 t ' ) b y r e f r a c t i o n . C o r r p l c cs ' i t h lrortion to its clc'rr,.itr-, l i t s q r c a t r c l l e c t i o n : r rc t h e q r c t t c l i s p c r s i v e n c lq r c a t r e l l c ( ' t i \ - c I n t c g r r l ( l a l c u l u s , c c i i t i o n r 9 r o , \ z 7 7 , 1 ' t .z 6 z ) : a
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11ut althorrgh tlte natttre of the u'ave functiorl prodtlcirrg and rigidity is thns recoqtrizecl, )'et \\'e crrlrlot rt integral, bccaLlse thc' llresent evaluate the resLrlting sextrtple part cor.rtributed bi' each variable is ill clellned' 't'ite (il) assigned cause of the hardness iIt tlirimond solidity suggests a sinrilar origin of tenrtcitl'. 'l'he theory of the hardrless of dianrorlcl herr: oLrtlirrccl l ill also explain tenacity, or the grcrrt l-ircaking slrcrrqth olsuch substances as stecll), rvhich attains lllrl\ilrltrlrr I'()\\'cr in pianoforte r. rvire. It is a rernarkabie fect of olrservatir>n,tirrittrl ll otrl c x l r c r i e n c e f r o n t t h e e a r l y a g e s o l ' h i s t o r y . t l r r t t ' . t ' r i r t t ' i t 1 t' s incrcased through clras'irrg and rollilli{, lry l lrich tllt trtttal t lior i s g i v e n a s n ) o o t l l e r a n d t t r o r e c o t t t l - r r c s s t t l s t t r l - r L .t rve urake strclnq u'ire lolles L1' lrrst tlrlruirlg tile exlnrple, nretal itrto fitre rvire, cliclt strlnd bein( givcrl lt (r()llll)llct ancl cotlrpressecl srtrlacc large cottlllareil to tlle t:r'iirltlrical content of the solid u'irr', atttl thcn tl'isting tile u ilc irltcr a rope, rvhich thus becottrcsItot or)l)'stror)g, Irttt also llexilrlc. 'l'he fact that itt llne u'irc therr: is rltpitl itlr:rclrsc 2. of surfacc,comparecl to the cylinclricltl colltcltt, l'llclt tlte rvirc 'is snlll, shows that the large lrlllotlllt ol' stttootir sttritce is t l r e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t o 1 -s t r e n g t l l , a l l d p o i n t s t o r t ' l t v c s i r l t h c 'l'lie tclrrtioil ol sttrlrtcc :rether as giving the force of cohesion. t o v o l u n r c i n a c i r c t t i a r c y l i n d c r o f ' l e r l g t l r / a t l c l r r t t l i t t sr -

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C L t r l c t r t t l r e r . r t i o o i t l r c : L r r i r r c et r r r ' o l u n t c , i t t a r l r i r r t n t : _ i l j u , l r j c r r lu i l e o l r r u l i r r - r . / \ s i t i s r r l O l r s c r Y r ' , 1r r c t t l r i r t t l r e . t r c l g t l r ( ) l i l g r ! e l l r ) l r 5 s l o l r r t c t r i li . i r r c r t r s r ' , I l r ; r l n i r v i r r g i t i r r t , , s i r t , t l i i s c r r r v c s l ) o \ \ ' s t ] ) l r t t c l n c i t y r l r ' l r c r x l so r r t l r c r t ' l l r t i v c i n c r t ' r r s t o f s r r r l i r c c c o r r r l r a , r et o r o l r u r r e , ,l l u t r l t l t t r t l i r r c o r t r t r t v c - l r c l i o nl i t t l r t . L r r l u c eo l t l t c r r i r t . I. n c r t r L s c o l r i . r r l c iIti y l, r 1 1 , . \ ' / - , r . , 1 r r . r , , r t l , t g i l ' t o l r r i l l r ; . l r o r t \ 1r r \( ' l ( l g 1 l r \ l l l , l r r o l r ' e r r l , r r , l r r rrr' ,i , r r r . r r r t .r r l , l , r o . L c l r c r l . t l v r , l t r i i i l r n L t t r i r i t r L l lt i r r c , . i n I i r , / / - t t i t ' u s 1t ,t ' .\''' tlrc 1o,Ll )clil- r lrs in rirrtiler :ltcct: cortrirlirrris elso ol tlrc * cre lltvorltblc forces

1 rr o ) a s r - d i n r i r t i s h e st l r e r a t i u r , l l l r i r l i y r n r\ccordingly, l c r e a s e s ,a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u r v e f o r a ' r e c t a l ) g t l l a l 'h 1 ' l r e r i rIo rel'erred to its asylnptotes. o 3 . O n a c c o u n t o f t h e f r n i t ec l i m e u s i o n s l ' t h e r r t o l e c t t l c s the lirrht of the rvire, and the finite but greater lengtlr c.rf' \ v a l e s , i t i s o f c o u r s e n o t p o s s i l l l e t o d e c r e i l s ct h c r a d i u s o I t h e r v i r e b e l o r v a c e r t a i n l i n r i t , u ' i t h o u t t l - r ct r t c t a l l o s i i r g t h e p o r v e r o f c o h e s i o n a r - r db r e a k i n g . A i o r l g u ' i t l r t l i i s l ) r o l ) e r t l r , b y r v h i c h a f i r ' r i t er a d i u s i s r e q u i r e d f o r s t r c n s t l t i r t r t t r l e t r t l , v . q o e s a l s o t h e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d l ) r o b l e r l l so f r n a l l c r r l . r i l i t a n t l 1, . ductility. ( a ) G o l d i s t h e m o s t r r i r l l e a l ) l e o f u r e t a l s , g c - r ) dl e l f 'tn having been redrtced to a thickness of I,/iooooo'l' of inch, or r/r r 8oo of a n'riliiutetre. (b) I'latinuni is the tnost ductiie oi'tnetrtls.Ii1' <:oating a l)latinurDtvire o.or inch in diarletcr ri itlr silvcr till tile thickness oi the rvhole was o.2 inclt, l)r. II'h/loslt,tt cllerv the c y l i n d e r o u t i n t o a r v i r e a s l l n e a s p o s s i b l e ,a n d l r y b o i l i n g rvith dilute nitric acid, he removed tbe silver coatills xnd obtained the platinum rvire alone rvitir a tliamcter of ap' proximately r/roooo mu nearly the santc thickness as the thin gold leaf described in (a) above. 'l'he n t e t a l l i c c o a t i n g u s e d t o d r r t r vt h c p l r t i r t t r l t l r v i r e 4. i n t o s u c h f i n e n e s sr v a s o f s i l v e r , t v l r i c h i s t l t e n r o s t p e r l ' c c t of all electrical conductors, and tirLts the rvttve-actiotl s'as

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hoiding tlre sold lerl-tosctlrer. N o t * i t h s t a n r l i n g t h es c l a v o r a l ; l e t ; o n d i t i o n s i t i s a l i t t l e rcurarlilblc tliat gold antl platinunr, rvith their very high atornic rveights, slroulcl I)rove illnolrg tlle nrost colltilttlousl\' 'i'his g r u c l u t l y i c l r l i n g o 1 ' t n c t r r l si s c l i r c c t l v f i c l c l i r r go l - m e t a l s . opposecl to hurclrtess, rvhiclr lelils t() rtll)trtrc (]lass threacis clluu'rt lr1' I )r. /r'rrll lier e irccn rccittced to a tlilrnctcr < r l 'a i r o t t t r : I o o o o o o l - u t t i t t c l r , o r t i t r c e t i l l t e s that of the diaurctc'r' ol tlre trtinirttttni lrletinltttt wire above n r e n l i o n c r l , r v i t h s t r c n < r i t l r o r tc r ' , : r r i l r p r o a t : h r n g t h a t o l - s t e e l rvire, rvirich slrol's tliat sttrlrrce *rtve'actiotr increased tlte strcnqtir grcetly. l)robalrly has

5. It is noticcLl in nroclcrtr ntetlllurgv tlret thc lntrc n r e t a l s g e n e r u L I l r ' ' r r - es o l i c r t i t a n t h e i r a l l o t ' s . l j o t h l r e r d c n i n g n n t l i n c r c a s e o f s t r en g t l t t n a y b e e l l l t : t c d , l t o l e v c r , b l t b e sruull l)crccltttsL- of curtrtirt otilcr Il)etals. adnrixtltre ol-l o N i c k c l u n t l r i t n e c l i t u l i l l r c u s eL l i n t h c t t . t l t t t t t l i t ( ' t t t r c l - l r a r c i steel : and suclr courpounds as phosphol lrronzc, arttl altttrtitrittttl brouze, hrve glertly irtcreascd tcrtacitt'. \\-e Inav cxplain all lr thcse cllccts l-ry the u'ar,c-tltcor)', thc ntoltt:r.r1rLbrces beirlg : u . l g n r e n t e c ll r o t m e r c l ) ' r t t h e b o t t r t t l e r l ' , l r t r t t h r o u g h o L r t t h c '.1'his slme relsouint altplies also to thc itttt'rnel strel)gtll nrrss. a r - r ds t r t i c l u r e o f c r y s t a l s , s t t c l t e s t l i l n t o n t l , ( l L l r r t z r I n ( l o t l ) ( ' r substances.

') Steel is a m e c h a n i c a l m i x t u r e o f r v e r y l r n c n l i r t r i x o f c a r b o n i n i r o n , a n d a s t l i l t t r o r t c l i s c r i r t t l l i z c t l p r t r c c t r i r o t t . i l $ ( ) u l ( i 5 e ( ' r r i that the great strength of steel, over iron, tlust tlclrertrl in sornc \yny or) such rvave-translbrtnatiotts as rciirctiotr, tlispersioll, ('tc., to \rllicll tlrc n o n - c o n t l u c t i n gc a r b o n c o n t r i b u l e s a t t h c b o u n t l a r y o f t h c u i r e . l t s u r e l y i s n o L a c c i d e n l a l t l r a t t l r c s t r c n g t l r ( ) f s t c e l , l c l , t r t , L t o r l t l r c s i i r l ) c elernent,carbon, rvhich in crystallizcd forrn givcs tliarnoutl its tit.tltlrallclctl hardtless.

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'l'hc i m c t a l s i t r c r e a s ei n h a r d n e s s s o r l r e r v h a t n t h e 6. f o l l o w i n g o r c l c r : 1 c a c l t, i n , a l t t n r i n i u n r ,g o l c l , s i l y c r , p l a t i n t t n r , 'l'hese r e s t t l t s m a 1 ' b e e x p l a i n c c ll l y zinc, copper,iron, stccl. p t h e a s s u n r p t i o no i n t o l e < : u l a r r o p e r t i e s v i r r fi n g i r o m t - t l e t a l t o m e t a l , l x r t o n t h c r v h o l e d c p c n c l i n r ro n t h c g r i p o f t h e l s ' a v c s a b o u t t h e a t o t r s a r - r c n r o l e c r t i c s ,t t n d c r t h e i r s t a t c o f c o n r l c n s a t i o n ,l r t c l c l c c t t ' i c a l c o n d t t c t i v i t l 'o r l l o l l - c o l i d u c t i v i t y . c Lcad, for exnnrplc,is loosell'hclcltogetltcr, alrcl ,r'ieltls asil.v p t o p o s ' e r f u l f o r c e s . I t s o t r t e l ' h e tr c s e n t b l e s i t c h , n ' l i i c h i s a , v i s r : o u s1 1 u i r 1o r s o i i d f o r c l L r i c ka c t i n t r l o r c e - < r v h i l c t h c l c a c l , is an easily f ielding solid. l In the sanrc l'av hardness is l)teastlrccby the foll o r l i n g s c al e . 'l'al<; 6. FcJclspal r. z. Iiock Salt 7 . Q_uartz 'l'opaz 8. j . ( l r L l cS p a r g. Coruncltttn 4 . I f lu o r s p a r ro. I)ianronrl. .5. '\petite ( i i i ) t Y tt t ' t o t t ' P r o b l e n r o f c o h c s i o n t r r e l l r c s o l l c d l r y s r r o t i c i n g t l r a t s ' : r v c s * ' h i c i - r h a v c c l i l - l i c r r l tifr t p r t s s i n gt h r o t r g l l b c t r v e e n t \ \ ' o c o n r l ) a c t n ) a s s c sr v i l l n a t L r r a l l l 't l k c t h c p e t h o I t L c r s t , \ c : t i o r r a r o t t n t l t l t c t n , a n r l t l r L t s1 - o r c c l l c t l t t o g c t l t c r . t h e r n . . ' l ' h c r e s u l t i s a f u l l p r e s s u r eo f t h e r v a v e sr v i t h o u t , n o t p p e r f c c t l y l n l l n c c r l b y t h c c l i n r i n i s i r e d r e s s t t r er v i t h i n , s o t l t a t the floats rrre cirarvn together as if by an attractive force. 4. Norv it is verl' renrarkable that natttre should be f i i l e d n ' i t h s u c h a r l u l t i t u c l e o f r r i i n i r n a ls t t r f a c e s :r a i n d r o p s , c l r o p s o 1 ' c l c * ' , { l o l i L r l e so f t l e r c t t r y , i o d i n e , o r a n y c b e m i c a l l i r l u i c l r r ' h i c h c l o c s t t o t a c l h c r e t o t h e s r r p p o r t i n gs t r r f a c e . A l l n r e i t e t i n r c t a ' ! s ,- " u c l t a s l c a c l e n s h o t , t a k e t l r e s a n r e f i g l t r e , l u n c ls o a l s o o f n r o l t c r r r r . , c k o f a n y a n d e v e r y d e s c r i p t i o n . , o , \ c c o r r i i n q ) 1 'g l o i r t r l c s I l i r l u i c i ,* ' i t h n r i n i n r a ls t r r f a c e sa c t r r a l l y , a r c u n i y c . r s a ii n n n t r r r c . \ \ ' h a t i s t h e c a u s e o f t h i s u n i v c r s a l I t c n ( l c n c J ' t o n r i n i n r e l - s u r f a c e s ?t n t i t s t b e r e l a t e t i t o t h e s coalcsc'cncc f conti.quotrs trtail clrops into larger ones, as o b in thc phoronrcnaol- rain, accotupanied y lightning.

5. It has lons bcen held, first lry .flfat/erhis, Ettltr by a.wl Lo.qron.qr',anrl -rulrserlLrently I[ani/lon, Jacobi, Ktluitt, Jhlttlo11:, 7'tril, /'oittt:ttt/, Lorlto/', and nrany other eminent e n r a t h c r r a t i r : i a n s t h a t ; . t i t . t t t ra l t l a y s f o l l o r v s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f , L c a s t A c t i o n. J , l t l t a l ' s p r i n r : i I l c u ' a s o f e a r l i e s t d a t c , a n c i g a l c t h e l l r s t i r r r l j c : r t i o no f t h c r l o r c { c n e r a l t h e o r e m o f Lc:rst r\ctiorr dcviscd \>y '1fartfrt /tte.iatltl confirrned l:y Iirhr t n t l / . a . q t ' , u t . g rI,t i s k n o u n t l r a t t l t c f o r r : e sq o v er n i n g t h e i o n r c ' r : l r a n i co p c r a t i o t r s f I t t a t c r i a s l s t e n ) so b c v t h c p l i n c i p l e al r . S o l o n t t r s t w o l l o r l i c se r c I l o t l l c e r t o g c t h c r t h c l a t t t : l s s ,: 1 sl c l l : r s f r o l t l t l t c r c s t o l l , r ' u s t . ' \ t : t i o n ,n t l c o r r e s p o n ttl o t h e s ' a r " c - t l i c o ro l ' l r l l l s i c r t l rvavcsfronr thc ltotrts oI car:]t ( l : u r i t l r c p o s s i l r l c h a t t h c f i g u r e so f g l o l r t r J co f i l L r i ' . 1 s t i r o l t h c t t n i v c r s c ,r v i l l c a s i l 1 ' p : r sis c t r v c c t r l l l ( l i l r o L l l l (tll l c t u r r l o r c c s . n r i r s s c s: u r r 1c l a s t i c s t t r l h c c s s ' o r r l c lc x h i b i t n t i n i r r t a l s t l r f l t r : c s , n r i l s s c s . l " , a r ; ht t t a s s w i l l h : r v c i t s o r r ' r l s ' l t y c f r e J r l ,a r r r i t l r c v l i l l n o t s c n s i l r l t ' i n l c l l c r c . l l L r t l r ' h e n t h c t u ' o l r o t i i c s : r r c s i t l r o t t t r l s o r l c J r c n d i l r go l l \ \ ' a l c s l v h i c l r a r c r c s i s t c c ii n t i l c i r irlio l t r o u g h t l c r ] ' n c ' u ' t o g c t h c r , c t c h o b s t r t t r : t st h c u ' a v c s l r o l t t l ) r o q r c s sr r t t h c l r o r c l c r ,a n d t h u s t r a t r s l o t m t h c ) i , 1 t r i r 1 l \ \ ' h c n t h c y r n i r t i r n r t ls u r l - l t r : r ' s t h c o t l r c r , a n r l t l r c w e v c f i c l c l sl r e < : o l t tc n t : r n g l c c l . 6 . l r r t h i s r ra v c - t l r c o r l ' , r l ' e f i n c l a d i r c c t a n d s i r t t p l c a r e b r o L l q h t v c r v n c a r , s o a s t o f b tt t t a s t t t o o t l lc o n t a c t , t h c t ' h o l e u ' a v e r r r : t i o n i s s o l t r t t t : h l c s s , u ' h e n t h c l ' a r c l l r c s s c c l c x p l r n r r t i o n o l ' a t l h c s i o n ,c o h c s i o t t , c a p i l l a r i t y , s u r f a c et e n s i o n , 'l'he rvaves t i g h t l y t o g c t l r c r , t h a t n a t L t r c a d o p t s t h i s I l c t h o d f o r L c a s t c h c n r i c a l a{ - h n i t ya t r d c l c n o t ' c x p l o s i v e f o r c e s . '['his c u n n o t l r r r t o f l b r c l i f t c r e n tr c s i s t a n c ci n t h e i r p e n e t r a t i n ( l ) o \ \ ' c r l i r r r : c st l t c t r a s s o l i r l l l ' t o s c t l t t : r a s p o s s i l r l c . Action, arrrl g i y e s r t s a q c n c r l l i t i e a o f t h c c a t t - s to l - c o l t c s i o t l , s h i r ' l l s o w h c r r r l i l - l i ' r c r r t u l r s t a r r r : ca r c i t . t c o n t a ( t t ; a n c l t n o r c o v e r t h c y l s s i . \'1 r r r r t c l r1 r t t z z . 1 c,r . r , ' r ' l o t t h : r t h c l t e t l c r t r t ' t l l c t l i f l r r r r r l t vt r r : o t t - r r c r r ' f r L t t ' r l u n r ' r l t t a l l yi n I r t s s i n q t h r o L t g l tJ i r l n i r l ,s h c n c c . a ; \ \ ' c n r r v t ' r 1 , i : r i n r t ( ) n ( ' c l r l l t e s i o t r n c l c : a p i l i r r r i t r 'C o h c s i o t l c e i v i n g t h c r : a t t s ca t l ' o r l < . o : r i s s o n r c 'lu r t r l i l t t ' r ' t ' n t t l r c l r e r ' , i r ' 1 o-ls s o l i i l l r o r l i c s f f e r l c a s t . t c 2 . I n o r t l c r t o t l a k c t h c c o t r t a r : t l l i r c t i v ca t r c ll l o r v c r l i t l , r:lo,scst gethcr. to l r l i t n r L r s tl r c v c r l ' r : l o s c i n c l c c r l , s o t h e t t h c t r r o l c r : t t l elsr e l l o t r c s i s t u r t ', r l r c n t l t c ' ] , e r t i ( t l c sr c 'l'lrc s l'rr:t tlrltt ollscrvltiotl shou's s'hole l'rvc-lenqtlrs altert. i . I l ' t h c p r r t i r ' l c s a r c s c l t a r a t c da p p r c c i a b l y o r n e o f t h a t t h c c o n t a c t l t ) 1 1 slt) c r : l o s c , a p l r c a r s t o l l o i n t c l i r e c t l yt o t l r c u l v c s I ) l s s l ) c t \ \ ' c c r tt h c t r r , a t r d o n t h e l ' l ' r o l c t i l c t w o t \ t h e r v a v e - t h c o r ) ' . \ ' h a t e x l t l l t n r t i o r lo t h c r t h l n t ) t e u ' a v c - t h c o r l ' s e p : r r a t cl r o d i e s o f l e r g r c a t c r r c s i s t a n c e o l l a s s i n g\ \ ' a v c st l l a l l 'lhe n u p r o l r l c r n i s l i k c t h c i t r ' p o t h c s i s n d c r l l i n * r r , o u l r ll r c o l l c r c r l l r y o n c t t t a , s s t a c l cb y a s o l i d r t n i o l l o f t l r e ? is possible 'l'his o f i ' c r sa s i r n p l ct h c o r y o f lr I . t r r n l a t r 'tsh e o r y o f c a P i l l a r i t l ' ,t h a t t h c I t ' , o l c c r t l l t b r c c s l r c c o t l l c t l r ' o p a r t i c i c s h r r n l y t o o c t h c r . lry ' s e n s i b l eo n 1 1a t i n s c n s i b l e( l i s t r t t c c - sr,t h i < : ha s l ' c h a i ' e s h o r i ' r l , thc ercrrt clifficult,v cljsr:trssccl tVn,/ott it'r t7 z r. Strrlace t t c r . r s i o rh e s : r l r c a d l ' b c e t t e x l t l a i n e d i r r r l e s c r i l . i i n g l r e r a v o f r can point to rrothinq bttt rvave-action. 'l'hc l l ; r v et o i n c l t r c i e t n c a s t t r e t r t c n to f J i i i r / t r t s h o s ' t l l a t t h e r r l t r a - l i g h t c n t c r i n q r d r o p o f s ' a t e r ; b t r t s ' c t r t r l ' s 3. of light, to corllcn l v i o l e t u ' a v c s a r c o f t h c r c q r t i r e c o r d c r o l t r t a g n i t r . t c la, t l r v c s , a v c s l r o t h l o n q c r a n r i s h o r t e r t h a n t h o s c plctc thc gencral tltcorr'. Iixpcrinlcnt shol's th;rt r:hernical k n o r v t h a t t h c i r s ' o r k i n g a t s n r a l l c l i s t a n c c s ,i n i r u t c c l i r t t n lly ultra'r'iolet li1;ht, and this 6 8 g 3 2 r 6 o o o o o t i n r c s r - n o r cc l a s t i c t h a r r a i r i r l p r o p o r t i o nt o a f f i n i t l , i s t r e l t l y I ) r o r n o t c c l 'l'lltrs, it only of phl'sical forces. its density, shoultl protluce vcr), great power of attraction, confirrls thc u'at'c-thcory reurains to sav a $ord aborrt cxplosive forccs, rvhich are s i n c e t h c p a t h o l ' L e t s t A c t i o n r t s u r l l y i s a r o t t n c lt h e o r t t s i d e a n c l o f l ' h i c h n o s u i t a b l ct h c o r . v , o f s o l i d l n a s , s c sa n r l t h t t s t i r c l ' a r c f o r c e d t o g e t h c r b y r c a c t i o l r r e l a t c d t o r : l r c r n i c a la f h n i t y , has been put lbrtli heretofore. the s'lrole l'ave field. of 'l'his E . i t n p p e a r s t o t n e t h a t i n t h e m o l e c l l l e so f e x p l o s i v e e i v c s u s a v e r y t a n g i l r l e c o n c e l t t i o no f t h e p r a c t i c a l r v o r k i n g o f t h e l ' a v e - t h c o r y s ' h c n a p p l i c d t o m o l e c n l a r f o r c e s . b o d i e s t h c r c i s a c e r t a i n r e s i s t a n c et o t h e p a s s i n g \ \ ' a v e s 'a s \ \ ' e m a y v e r i f y t h e c o n c l u s i o n i r c r e c l r a r v nb y o b s e r v a t i o r l s t h c a t o m s a r e t h e n a r r x n g e d ; b u t i i t h e a t o m s m t l t u a l l y a r e rei on the clashing of n'ater 1\'a\:estlpon trvo floats anchored so s o r e a d j u s t e c l t s t o c o r t t e c l o s e r t o s e t h e r s t l d ( l e r l l ) ' , 3 n d m a x i t l u n l s y l n t r e t r ) 'a n d c o n d e n ' c l o s e t o g e t h e r t h a t t b e w a v e s d o n o t p a s s f r e e l y b e t r v e e n a r r a n g e d i r r t o a r n o l e c t t l eo f
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sation of its parts, there will suddenly be ntucir less resistance i t r v i l l e x p e r i e n c e * ' i t h t h e c o n d e n s a t i o n o f d r o p s a l t a c t o t h e p a s s i n g w a v e s . T h e g r e a t e n e r g y o f t l i e r v a v e sa l r v a y s cunrulttirlg stress on tlre surflce of the globules. 'l'he rvaves passing through the aether, is thus reieasecl or set free by u'ill llorv fronr the earth and celestial sl)acesat the old rate, t h e r e a d j u s t n r e n to f t h e a t o m s i n t h e u r o l e c u l e ; a n c l t h i s b r . t t t h e r e s i s t i r n c e t o t h e i r p l s s a g e a t t h e s u r i a c e s o f t h e s u d d e n l y a v a i l a b l e e r l e r g y i s s o 1 ; o w e r f u l ,i n v i e r v o l ' t h e e n l a r g e d d r o p s i s c l e c r e a s e r l ' i t l i t h e c o n d e n s a t i o n o f t h e u a e t l l e r ' s e n o r l ) t o u se l a s t i c p o w e r , - t r ' h i c h i s 6 8 g 3 : r 6 o o o o o d r o l r s . A p o s i t i v e s t a t e o f t h e r a i n c l o r . r dr e s u l t s , a n d a u g t i n r e s t h a t o f o u r a i r i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s c i e n s i t l ' ,a n c l t h u s n r e n t s r a y t i d l y a s t h e r a i n d r o p s g r o l ' . 'I'he much nrore powerful than our air irr nny rcadjr-rstnrent the of (c) result is accunrulrtion of' such a strain in the wave lield, t h a t * ' h e n t l t e r e l e a s l o c c r . r r s 1 , a s u d c l e r - r e l c < : t r i cu r e d i u n t , o r t h e a e t h c r , t h a t l i g h t n i n g b develops for r e a d j u s t u r e n t , v i o l e n t o s c i l l a t i o n o f t h e r n o l e c u l a rs t n r c t u r e r c s t o r i n g t h e e l e c t r i c e c l u i l i l r r i L r n r . a - i n r v h i c h d i s r u l > t i o n: r n r l n c r v c o m b i n a t i o n o I t h e results, i1-so terrihc a l)o\\'er as liglttnine can result from the oscillating atoms takes ltlace. c l i a n s i n g c l e c t r i c s t r e i s o r r e s i s t a l ) c eo l t h c e n l a r g i n g c l r o p s 'I'his g. n e r v t h e o r y c l e r i r . et h e s t o r eo f e x l r J o s i v e n e r { y t o t ] 1 c \ \ , a v c s r l v c r s i r r g t h c u n i v e r s e , i t n a t u r a l l l . r i . i l l b e e a s v s c t from the elastic porver of the aether. 'l'his lrol'cr is shorr,n t o i r n e q i n et h a t c - r p l o s i v e b r c e s a n d s i u t i l a r u t o r r t i r . f l,o\\erj t o e . r i s t b y t h e e n o r n t o u so b s e r v e d s p e e r l o t ' t l t e p r . o p e g l t i o r r o 1 - i n r : r c t i i b l e r l a g n i t u t l e n r L y l r a r , e t h c i r s e a t i n t h e ell.rjc o f l i g h t a n d e l e c t r i c i t y , 3 o o o o o k u t p e r s e c o n r l . \ \ ' c r : a n u o t l i o u ' e r o 1 - t h e a e t h e r , a n c l t l r c r : ] t u n g e si n t h e c r l u i l i i r r i u n r ot' d e n y t h e o b s e r v e c lf l c t o f s u c h u v e l o c i t r ' l o r u . u v c si n t l i c t l r i ' n r c c l i u r n . a e t h e r .A c c o r d i n g ly , t h e e n o r n r o l r e l a s t i rp o * c r . 6 S9 . 3 r 6 o o o o o s : : I I . ( l c o r n c r r i c l l C r . r n i l i t i o r ri s r l l ' i l l e d . r a n l n _ r 1 1, t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t l r a t o f ' a i r i t i l t r o p o r t i o nt o i t s ( l e i t s i t v , l ' i n i t e S l . s t c r no l \ \ ' r t v c s( i o r r i i r r g r o r n t L l Il ) i r e c t i o n s l n e c c s s a r i l l ' f b l l o r v s .A n d i i t h e u n i v r r - . c L c l r l l r r i r v i r i r l ' a r . c s , e n r l p u s s i n g t h r o L r g i ru L i , l r i i t l S l r l r r r e u n c le r L e a s t o f v a r i o u s I e n g t h s , l i o m t h e s i r o r t * ; . i v c s , l l r ( J 5 t( l t c L l i \ c i n ' \ r : t i o n . c h e r n i c a l a f h n i t y , t o t h c l o n g e r r rr i v t s o t l j g i r r , l r t . r t t , u n t l i i I ( ; ! . o t l ) c t r i ( . i r ii : O n i i i t i o n - s l r D i l t i l i l t r r r r L ( i I i ( r t t . o i r a d i o - t e l e g r a J ) h yi , n t t u r a l l y s i l l i b l l < . r *r' l l r t s L t t l t l r . t l i r u r q i t t n r. \\'e tc.rri:irlcri:l,itcrt i o l l l u i L l , * l r o s r s u r l l L c ei s i n t h e p o i v e r o f ' r e s i s t a n c e o f b o d i e s i n r . i r l t . n tl ( , r l i e r c ,t) arrangelnent of tlie aton)s into lr nct, lrrrrl ltlorc (tolltl)irct, ,lr (r,r) 1 r ' - - , r 1 r - i - l , tl ' t ! : - ; l e s s r e s i s t i n g l l t o l c c u l a r s t n l c t u r e , r v o t r l d g c n c r l r t cv l s t s t o r c s ' l ' i r e l l l L r t . o l ' i L . r i t { h t l i n e i n t c r r : c l r t u rl l, t . l i r c t . r r . r r rt ,r.r , r l r o ; t , l of encrgy hitherto Ittent. t n t i r e : p l i c r c : t i rl r Le, i s c , 1 i r , L ) t , r 1'(r',_y',::'), p"(t",-r",:") r 'l'his r o. i s b c s t i l l u s t r a t e d b y t l r e u e r v t l r c o r y , o { -t } r e t h c l e n g t h o l - t h c c h o r r i : c r u s e o f l i g h t n i n q , a p h e n o n r e n o nr v h i c h h r r s l r e r : n c r 1 u a l l 1 , : l"ll.t' i!//)r+(1' "_v")r+-l:' :"),, . (r r :J Z nrysterious nd bcu'ilclet'ingo tiatural plrilosoplrers. IIcre is a t N o * , r v u v e s l r a s s i r r g t l r r o u g l r t h e l l L r i c ls p h c , r c , a l i e r r c what occursin liuhtning: 1l'rLctior ..d ( a ) I . ' i r s t , r v a t e r e x i s t s i n t h e a t u t o s l r h e r ei n t i r c l b r n r s ) r s t c l n s o l - c : ] r o r c l s i l o r r r c v c r l ' l t o i n t of tlte strriucc in evcry o f i n v i s i b l e v a p o r . L o r v e r i n gt e r n p e l t u r e , u s r r a l l l r v i t l rt : r r r r e t s l r . r s s i l r l e t i i r e c t i o r r ; s o t l l u t t l r e r . n l n t l r s o l ' r . i n i r r r r r r r ra t ; t i o n o f c o l d e r a i r , p r o d u c c sa c l o n d , r v l r i c h i s v i s i l r l c , l r c i : r L u : t l r e * , i t l r i ' t l r c e suriitt't'rrrr: ul.'.g tlre itrllrrite s].stclll .l t:hords l i g h t d o c s n o t l ) a s s t h r o u g h i t . 1 \ t l l r s t t h e r : l o L r rils r r r u r l cL r l r t l r l t u r r l l ' . . r t :\ e r ' i ) o i . t o t t l r r - -- s r t r l r r . ,e . r t l t l r t . r c i b r e r i o r r l - r 1 y o t ' r ' e r y r . n i n u t el t a r t i c l e s o f . * ' u t e r - r n i t : r o s t . , r 1 r i n > i z c , i r r l l r r i t r :i n r r r : r r r l , r . r . b u t i 1 ' t h e c o o l i n q a n d t e n d e n c y t o l r r e r : i p i t r i r i r ,rr 1 , 1 1 1 j 1 , , ' . . , r l. l o r i l r l e s l t l r ] r ( r \ (\ \ ' . r \ ( . \ 1 , , r , 1 ! i 1 : r t r l i t l t i r r t l r e t h e p e r t i t : l e so f u , t t e r g r o i v i n s i z e , a n r i t l c c r t u . e i r r r r r r r r r l r e r . s1r)rcre,t is , it-irl tlrrrt tlrtv l rll i,e i s l r r o p r L g : r r r , r il r l r c r i t . a ) l y , (U) fVncn the selraratervater globulcs coirluscc,utto rLlon{ tlrcsc r:liortis, unLi rio tic'iution il-orrr rct:tilincur urotiorr l-es,er br:t largcr globules, their rcsistancc to I)ussrng \\,uves r v i l l o c t ; u r t i l l t l r c r v i l v c l l - o n t r c u t . i r c s t h c b o u n c i a r l , of'the is dccreased. Anti i1'the region of the earth lnd utr)tosl)llere litluid sltlrere. i{efraction anrl riispersion uill trkc placc at p r e v i o u s l y r v a s i n e l e c t r o d y n a r u i c r l u i i i b r i u r n - t h c i l e t h e r t l t c l r o u n r l a r ) ' \ \ ' h en t h e r r . a v e i s g o i n g o u t r v a r r l , x e c t l y c e tiie w r y e s o l ' t h i s r e g i o n d e p a r t i n g a t t h e s a n r e r a t c t l ) r t t h e y re\/erse of' rvltat occnrs ilt corning inrvlrcl so tllrrt il.orrr one ; arrive, so as to eive rise to no accurnulating cthcr strain a of these ntotions tlic other can lte calcLrlltcrl. , 3 . I n A N 5 o 4 8 , p . I 6 5 - 6 , i t i s s h o i v n t h e t t h c r v a v e l i r n c t i o n - Q( r v1 , , : , l ) h a s t h e v e l o c i t v l ) o r e r ) r i ad ) : l
d i s l r c r s i r ) ' a t t i r c l r o u r r t l r L r l ' ,i i r i l o * ' s o r ' c o l ' t t r e

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.^,^ - + - \ r l L , r, r ) \ d l 0 / a . l l \ , r t - u l c o s 6 , ) , - + ( t t s i ' d s i n , , , : * t t t s i n | ) ) ) o o (t

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'I-hese i n t e g r a l s a r e r i g o r o L t sf b r t h c l ' r r v e c l i s t L r r b a n c e r o r r r a n y p o i n t , s o l o n g a s t h e p r o r . e r n r . l tr c r l a i l s * , i t h i ' fs 5. t h e l i q u i d s p h e r e , a n d t h e y r v i l l h o l d t r u e r i g h t u p t o t h e b o u n c l a r y . L i t h e f b u r t h p a p e r , s e c t i o p6 , ( , \ N 5og5) *,e have e)itended the integration so as to in<:lrrdethe t'aves fiom every aton-r rvititin the boundary ol the spSere lr-, d,'.,).

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6. .As the rvavc distrrrltilncesel)terging from all atonrs rviil yielcl a Ielfect reverse inrage of those coming in from all directions, it suifices to find the geometrical condition under rvhich thc vclocity potential yiclds nrininrunr action. 'l'his condition oblioLrslf is attained rvhen thc mass of fluid i s p e r f e r : t l ys p h c r i c a l ; f o r i t m a y l ; e s h o r v nt h a t a n 1 ' c l e l r a r t u r e from pcrft'ct sphcricity yiclds a rcsultinq action by all the 1\'alcsgrcatcr than the nrinimrlr. If thc totrrl s'ale action irc given lrv (rr6) , l , l 0 t o , ' -s i r r d t l l t l d , l a thcn it *'ill follos' that lbr a sphcrc onlv is thc action a nrinimum: : ?lllh.rir:-re-r)/8,r,.dr'-+-lJl,r?3.6i^ 6 (t t;) r ) - ( l: JJ:,l
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: rvhere cl.r:/cll rr, d,r,/d/ : J,1, are equations of condition. e a c i r i n i o l v i n g t r v o v a r i a b l e s ,a s r a n d 1 , . I i o r t l r c n t i n i n t a l s u r f a c c s ,t h e n , s ' e h a v e n o t a s i n g l e l r r t t a c l o r r l r l ei n t c g r a l o f t h e f o r n t :

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Xduch,. (rrS) ( c f . I ) r . / / r r t t t o t / t ' s L c r : t u r e s o n t h e C e l c L r l u so f V a r i a t i o n s , C i n c i n n a t i ,r g o - 1 ,1 , . r o g . )

\ \ r e n r a y r c a c h a s i n r i l a r c o n c l u s i o t ra l s o f r o n r t h e * ' a v c Irr the prolr)cnr of utolccularforces norv before ns rve t h c o r y o f c r a l i t a t i o n , i r v n o t i n q t h a t t h c f o r c c o f s r a v i t l i s a r e c o n (( ' r n e d c h i c l - l l r v i t h t h e s p h e r e , r v h i c h f o r a g i v e n 'l'ire 'fhe clue to s'avcs rcccrling fronr tire ccntrc of nrlss. etlbr:t loiunre has the mininral surface. problenrof the sphere o f t h c a c t : u n i r l l t i n q e e t h c r s t r e s s i s t h c c e n t r a l f o r c e , l r ' h i c h i s t h c r e f o r e o n e i n n r a x i r n aa n d m i n i m a , c o r r c s l ) o n c l i n go t h a t t 'l'his o f t h c c i r < ; l e , o r i g i n a l l y < l r r et o Z u t o r l o r u - r ( r 5 o l l . C . ) , l . h o , s i v e s a l r o d l ' J i k c o r l r s u r l a s c n s i l r l ys p h c r i c a l f i g n r e . c o n r : l r r s i o nf r o n r t h c l ' a v c - t h c o r f i s c o n f i r n r c r ll r y o l r s c r v a t i o n , s o u g h t t h c p l a n e f i e u r e \ \ ' i t h n r i n i r t r u ml ) e r i u t c t c r . r \ t r e a t r n e n t t s s ' l r i r : h h o u ' s h : r t t h c ) r c a v e n l yl r r > d i e r v o u l r ll r c p e r f c c t l l ' s p h c r i - o f i t \ \ ' i l l l r c f o u n r i i n 1 ) r . J l o t t r o r l ' s L c c t u r c s o n \ l a x i n r a a n d s 'l'hc o l r l l t c . n c s s l - t h c l \ l i n i n r : r ,p . 9 z . l n t h c s a n r c s ' o r k , p . 7 5 , t h e r e i s a s o l r r r i o n < : ; rc x c c p t l i r r r o t a t i o n s a l r o u t t h c i r a x c s . l o 'l'o s r r n i s l b u n r l t o l r c s ' h o l l y . i n s c n s i l r l c l, r n r l t l r c o l r l a t c n c s s c s o f t h c p r o l r ) c n t : d c t c r n i i r r e t h c g r c a t e s ta n d s n r a l l c s tc u r l o l ' t l r e r l i f J c r c n tp l a n c t s c o r r c s p o n c s c l c r r l l y ' t o t h c i r r c s l t c r : t i v e v a t u r e : l t a r e g u ) a r l r o i n t o f a s n r f a c e I i ( . r , 1 , , z ) : o. 'l'hat rotator'' rnotions. t h c s 1 ; i r e r ci s a n r i n i m a l s r t r f a c ci s f a i r l y o b v i o u s A c c o r c l i n g l ) ' i n t h e c a s c o f i n r n r c n s cl n a s s c s h c r c c c d i n q s'ithout enl' clairorate r"natheruatical , t trcatment. In the ntore t c g r l ' r ' i t a t i o n a l l \ ' a v c s { J C n c r a t ch c c e r r t n r la c t l r c r s t r c s s c s v h i c h g c r r c r a ls r r r l a . co f d o u b l c c u r v a t r l r c , h e f n n d a r n c n t a lc o n d i t i o n t r l)roduccqlolrulur Iigurcs of thc sun and plancts; u lrilst in Qr+Q: :- o rr'ill llrvals hold truc. Iior in thc casc of trvisted l t h e c a s c o f s n r a l l l i r l r r i cc l r o p st h c q l o l r L l i a lri g u r c sa r e n r a i n - s r r r l l < s i t i s o l r v i o r r st h : r t t h c c u r v i l t r l r cn . t u s t t e o l t l r o s i t eo n c I thc t\\'o :i'ics: unrl cvcrr' Ioirrt of thc sLtrface tust be about taincd lr1'tirc nrininruir ectior.r i thc passin{r \'avcs. o \ n r r ( i i ) ( l e o n r c t r i c a l c r i t c r i a f o r t h c t l r c o r l o f n r i n i n r a l a c c l t t r c o l r : r rv r t t r rc l v i n g i n t h e y r r i n c i l t a l p J a n e s . \ c r v i n r r q i r r c l p h v s i c l l s u r f a c c ,l i k c a f i l r n o f l i q u i d , s u r f a c c sr s a p p l i c d t o l i r l u i d r ) l a s s c s n < l l l l n r s . a to rlcpai't l'rortr t'itc nrininrel surfacc; thcn obviously onr In our lrreliorts ciisr:rission'c fonncl that irr qcncral u -q2 -f rr. contlition u'oulrl lre gl -l-1lt : .., so that gr : a r r i n i n r a l s t t r l a c c i s a s u r l h c eo f d o u l t l c c r l r v a t u r e )s u c h t i t a t r\ntl tlrcrc{brc thc (:ur\'aturc in different plancs rvouid not t h c f u n c l u n r c n t a l< : o n t l i t i o n f u l 6 l l c d i s t h a t 'l-he l r c t h c s : u ) l c o n o p p o s i t es i d c s a t t h c s a m e p o i n t . result rililt-rf /i": (q,) Q r - 1 - q :r . 2 o o{' this condition tr'orrltlbc tliat the fi1nr could not irc of s'herc gr anrl qr: arc thc radii e c l u n 1t h i c k r r c s s o r e r l u a l t e n s i o n i n d i f f e r e n t < l i r c c t i o n s a t \t 'l'his o 1 ' t h e c u n , a t u r co f t h e t s ' o p r i n any poir-rt. obviously rvould not 1)e a nrinirral surfacc; cipal sectionsat an1'poirrt of f o r i t c o r r l d b e s t r e t c h e d a n d s o m e r v i r a tt h i n n c d o u t a t t h e 'l'he radii of curthc surfa<:e. l r o i n t , s ' i t h o n t a l t e r i n g t h e c r r r v a t u r co n o n e s i d e . t l t u r e f l r c c 'l u : r l l r l l t o f o I p o s i l c In fact the mathematical conclition si(n, rs slrol n in sttch figrrres -Q:r-Frv (rzo) 9t: a ; t h o s eo f n s ; r d d l e : r r t r o r r n l r i n . wotllcl inrl)ly a s\\'elling in thc physical surface, or a sheet nrqs the srrrfrce nf r olnte lretof unerlual thickness. If this inequality existed, it rvould rveen thun)l) and forefinger, etc. 'l'he e r a d u a l l y a u s m e n t ,t t n d e r r v a v e a c t i o n , a n d t h e l u m p o f l i q u i d I"ig. t 9 . S l i e t c h o f t l r c r a r l i i o f t\\'o principal secl'orrld tcncl to increase to a drop. But this rvould disrupt cllrvirtrlrc for a mittintal t i o n s l i e i r r c l i f i e r e n tp l a n e s , b u t nray be projected ls shou'n in r i A ' , - + 1 f 7 , ' , - r ' t, ?r +?:figure rg. 'i'he theorl' of nrinir-nalsurfaces involves the treatment of functions of three quantities I;(.r',1,,:) rvhich may be
surfacc,
tho li.r'irl.rr.f..p

the condition of physical stability is : o Qr-f 92 and a li,luicl sheet fulfilling this condition is stableso long

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).r a s t h e t e n d e n c y t o a d r o p d o e s n o t d e v e l o pu n d e r g r a v i t a t i o n a l A v _2 \-r ,,,,f11r) a, )"<r C rI,.l Ad y : ] f o i e t u l : t rl b r c e s : action on the fluid. S A drop is a load, and may be slightly unsl'n)metrical, C h e n r i c r t l a i ' f r n i t y , u r l r r c e e n s i o n ,C r p i l l a r i t y , t i,, 'I'cnacitl', r\clhesion. s o t h a t i t l e a d s t o i n s t a b i l i t y ; t h e m o r e i t i s a t t g m e n t e dt h e Coltesion, i: i more rinstable it becomes till the litpid filnr is disrtrpted. i., -+-)rr,, ['/(r') F o r i n p a s s i n g t h e r v a v e st e n d t o m a k e t h e c l r o p r o u n d b y A ffDt : Lislt ancl ]reat -) everyrvhere decreasing its surface, and thus the]' ol)erate to f'l t-l 'l'hese disrupt the lilm, by drarvingin the liquid on all sides. /" r i n f e r e n c e sa r e e a s i l y v e r i l l e d b y a c t u a l e x p e r i n r e n t s v i t h s o a p . \ I l g n e t i s m ,( ) r a i i - + - \ - ,.t ! t i t . , r , ' t C l Cr : l l\t) bubbles and other filnrs of soal) \r'ater containing cnouglr ixilol1, eIC. = i . g l y c e r i n e t o m a k e t h e s u r f a c e se l a s t i c . /-/ )., Norv in vierv of the abor-e reasoning \\'e sec u''hy ii l " 1 L \ I, ' c r: I , .l c ( rt r [ ) ( l Y n a l r )i r ] * \ 1 , , ", ' . t{ '' , i' , ') , t , ( ) ' ' litluid surface of sollp rvater nrrl'stretch rncl holcl tnut, rs -) actlon. \ < /.r./ tt:rl c a m i n i n r a l s u r f a c e , e v e n r v l t e n i t i s a s u r l h c : eo f c l o L r b l e u r )' i:t a vature. It nxty take the fornr of a sacldle, nd yet lrc lrcrfe'ctl1' 'I'his tlLlrl.'givcs rts un rnspinng victy o1-lrn irnntcn,rc o, s t a l . r l e ,b e c a i l s e o n t h e t r v o s i d e s o f t h e l l l n r 0 r * Q . : : s t r l r j c c t , l r r r r l n r r v r ^ n l r l , l et t s t o t t n < l c r s t a n t t l r t : t r l l r s o l l l t r r s l t e n a b l e s t h e p a s s i n u u ' i l v c s1 r ' o n ra l l c l i r c r : t i o n so t n r r er s c t i i e 'l'lre t : l l c c t i i c i r r t l r c r ; r ri o u s o p c r a t i o r t s o l ' n i [ t L r r c . llrst rcgiorr l i r l u i d f i l r u r v i t h m i n i r n u n r r e s i s t a n c c .I f , l r o u ' c v e r 'Q r - 1g j : ( / , , c r l ' r l r r r c l r n g t ) i l r e r e o r r t l i r r c r l , ) , , , l t t ) . r , i s r r r r r l r : r L r l r t c t l itti 'r e the integral for the action of the lrlssing rravcs ll-ornall r c g i o l t o l r c r r ' - s l i o r t r l r r r g c r t r o l et : r t l l i r l i t l r : c s . I t t : o t r l d L c ; d i r e c t i o n si s n o t a r n i r . t i t u n u ta n d t l i . ' l , r i n c i i , l t 'o i - I c u s t u r : t i o n I r r r t l r c r s r : 1 , t l iirr i c d , i n t l r e o r c l c l i n t l i r ' a t e r l o n t l r e r i s h t : is violatecl.

o'(^a';',)

* (:l;:,)

Accordingly rve conclucle: |(ilrcrlit:ui lil-lrnitv, 'fhat r. r n i r r i r n a l s u r f a c e sc o r r c s p c - , n r o t i i c l , r i n c i l r i c tl l I I . - r 1 , ) o s i l eo r c e s . = l u o i l c l L s ta c t i r - r nb r r r l l t r : r s s i t t g : r v r ' . . 2 . r \ n y d c p l r t r r r c l i o n r m i n i n r a l s t r r i r . r c cr er ) r l ! ' r s t l r e s : (l1lit.:irp. I rnlrcjtr'. ,,,; I (,)a, r v a v e a c t i o r . rg r e a t e r t h e n t h e I e a s t p o s s i b l e , a n c l t l r c l e l b r e i s )' ),u n o t n r l t h en r a t i c a l J ya c l m i s s i b l e , o r u i l l i t o c c r . r r n 1 r h 1 ' s i c a l n i natLtre. Ll 'l'he relbre drops of Iiquid aln'nys talic rL iirrnr us -+-\r t t i | t/. . -\r) clr (".';0,) b l ' l ( ; / : ' \ d l r e s i o . 3. -:,) nearly globular as possible; and litluid lllrns lbllol' the r,r m a t h e n r a t i c a l l a r v o f n t i r t i m a l s r t r f a c e ss o i r . s t o r r i a k c t l r c l'l p h y s i c a l a c t i o n o f t h e l x L s s i n gw u \ / e s u r n i n i n r r . r u r . i 1 )", ).)\ , . t . ; . , ._ _ _[ t ' : r 1 , r l l r r r St r r,r l ; r r ' c I ' , \r 'l'he 1( r . )d r ( // instant a licprid film dcparts rrntlrcrrrrrtically 4. Itcrr-i,,rr tr: ;) ),.t, o, rs lry the lrrrtirl rlcvclr>pf i o n r t h c m i n i u r a lf o r r n g L * q , : 'gtlterrtl r u e n t o 1 ' a c l r o p , t h e i n e r l u a l i t y r a p i d l y u u g r r ) e n t s:,r r r r i t l r c Itt rL s c l i t ' t r r c o l ' t l r i s l i i r r i l , i t i s o l r i i r . r r i .t j r r L t surfece is clisrupted. il tlrt li,r,c. prrintt'tl ()ut irc ritit' to rrlLrrs sinrii;rr itr tylte ( i i i ) i i x a r n i n a t i o n o f t h e u a l e - l e n e t l r s r r 1 r 1 r r or1 ,t 1' t u L L r t o l t i i l l c r c r r t ) c n g t i r : , t l r c r o r r t - s l r o r r t l i r r g r , t i r r l t ; i n r r x t r . t y i r t l the severlrl forces. i l r l r c r r o n r c n l i r v i l l s O r r r t rh l i t o ! c r i l L p , I L D L i l r c r r r c l r e o r i c s s F r o r n t h e t h e o r y o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e s r e s L r l t i n gr o n r t l r e r n c r g c t l t c i q e l r er . ' l ' l r t t s t l r c r n i r : i L 1 l l r n i t y i s l L r r r t . r i r r r u r rirr r l t u neiv theory of the rether it lbllol's that u'uves ol'tlilierent tlrc ultnLviolct sl)cctrurn, ri'lriclr is vcry sliehtly visible as i e n g t h s g i v e r i s e t o d i f i c r e n t p h y s i c a l e l f e c t s . l n a g e n e r r r l l i g h t . r \ n d i n t h c s a r r r cl ' a y t h e i n { i u - r e i l s l ) c c t r u l l t i n v e s t i g e t c c l w a y w e k n o r v t h a t t h e c h e n ' r i c a ll b r c e s c o r r c s p o n d t o t h e b y L a n . g / t 1 , i s o f - s u c l r i u r n r c n s e c \ t c r ) t t h i r t i n l l l p r o l r l b i l i t l . u l t r a - v i o l e t r e g i o n o f t h e s 1 ; e c t m r n ;t h c r e a l s o p r o b l b l y r v i l l t h e n r a g n e t i c a n c l g r a v i t i r t i o n u l r i ' e v e s * , i l l o v r r ' ) u p r r t l c i i s t be found the rvaves producing surface tension, ca1>illarity, part of this region. i:]ut these (luestior)s rnrrst lrr lt:lt to tl)e cohesion,adhesion,etc. Next in order of incrcasin( rylle l i t t t l r e , i n t h e h o l l c t l t l t . g r e r r t c rc . r 1 , r l i r r r . c r v i l i c r : L i r l r u s t o l e n g t h c o m e s l i g h t , t h e n h e a t , r v i t l i t h e i n l r a - r ' e c l r a y s i n - i l l t t m i n a t e p r o b l c ' n r su ' h i c l r s t i l l r c r n : r i n ( l u i t e ( ) l , s ( r e . l i o r t h e u vestigated by Latryky, twenty tinres longer than tlrc space I ) r e s c n t , s L r l l l t : ci t t o s u \ ' l l l u t n ) r l g n t t i c a D t i g r l t v i t t L t i c , n r l N l r I L ' s covered by the visual ray's knorvn Io i\teutlott. utust be long, otherl ise tircl rvould be lrrcking in pol'er of I n a n e a r l i e r s e c t i o nl b o v e , r v e l r a v e f o u n d t h e g e n e r r l r . l r e 's r r n s a c t i o u o n t h c m o o n r v o u l c l b e I)enctrirtion; so that e x p r e s s i o nf o r t h e p o t e n t i a i o f t h e r n o l e c u l a r f o r c e s : alrlost u'holl). cut otf at the tirnc of lunar cclipses, rvhich is

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t /U) ar-r

\--t

contrury to obscrvation in the lLrneriiuctuations ( i v ) N c * ' t h e o r y o f r c o u s t i c a t t r a c t i o nu n d r e p L r l s i o n : ' C o n l l r n r l t i o u r - r lt h c * ' i r v c ' t h c o l y o f g r a v i t u t i c , n . I n t l r e N e s ' ' l ' l r e o r y o f ' t h c A e t h e r , - ' \ . \ 5 o . 1 - 1- 5 o - 1 E , , 5 o 7 g , 5 o 3 5 , r r ' eh a v e t r e a t e do f t h c u ' a v e sb t t * c c n t u o b o c l i e s r r n c i s h o r v l - t h l t i n t h e p r o c e s so f r n L r t t r ai ln t t r l , r r r t r n r t i o n b y t h e i t r c l c ' p c n t i c n t ' l t v e si o r u c u c l t c c n t r e t l r c n r c t l i t r n r s t h i n n e d \\ l i o r - ru r o s t i n t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e j o i n i n g t h c b o d i e s . r \ s t h e k i n e t i c t

ui

(r:r) ) /Q') d r '

t h e s e c o n d i n t e g r a l o f u , h i c h b e c o m e s z e f o rvhcn th e clistance r e x c e e d s t h e r a d i u s o f a c t i v i t y o f tlie r u o l e c na r f o r c e s l at work. Accordingly, rve conld make a table of rvave lengths with their corresponding forces somewhat as lbllorvs:

3t
J+r xchange tcnds to keep the aether qf rrniforrr dens i t l ' , t h e t c r r s i o n i s t h r r s a n r a x i u . r r r u i' n t h i s l i n c , r o r v h i l et l r c . i r r c r c i r c cf s t r e s s r I ) r c s s u r cs a r n r r i r n r r n r i o 'l'his beyond tire tu'o lr):rsses. could lrc ot'ltcru'isc l e x l ) r e s s e dr y s a y i n r t h a t u n d e r t l r c u ' a v e - a c t i o n o u t e s o f t h c a c t h c r o n s a r e r v o r k c d o u t f r o l ) ) l r c t r v c c nt l r c l ; o c i i c s a n c lt r a n s l c r r c cb e y o n c lt h c r n ,a s l ' i l l l ; c r c : r ( ' l i l y , l t u r c l c r s t o o c f l ' o r u t h c < l o r r l r l c s ' a v c l r c l c l s l t o l lr r u t l I r i g . 8 , , \ N . 5 o 4 3 ,p . r 6 3 . In ordcr to illuutinatethis subject stili frrrthcr l r y s ' c l l c s t a l r l i s h c dp i r l ' s i t : a ) l a t a f r o r n .k n o l ' n ( i r s c s ,c \ \ ' e n o \ \ ' 1 )t r c ' t t l e r y l r r i c l i y o f a c o u s t i c a t t r i r t ; t i o n a n d r c p u ) s i o n , * h i < : h h : r s l r c e n e x l t c r i r n c n t u l Jiln v e s t i g a t c r l l ) r r t n o t c o r r c c t l ) rc x p J n i n c r l r 1 ' t h c f o l , I o ui n q a u t h o r i t i c s . 'l'ire r. l ' h i ) o s o p h i c a lt r l a s a z i n c ,l b r . , \ 1 r r i 1 , r . S 7r , 1 r . z 8 - i , r i ' l r c r cl ' r o l . C / t a | l t s i t c s t l r c C x | g 1 i 1 1 1 " n 1 c o f C l tl t t t tl a r r r l c o n s i c l c r s i ' 1 r n , 1 ' r ' tn,ri c e l c o r r l i tj o n s . h ] , 'l'lrc 2. l ' h i l o s o p h i c aX T I t r l z i n tl'o r . fr r n c ,t 8 7 r , l r v i t h c x J r c r i n r e l r to n l c o u s t i c a t t r e c t i o n : r n r Ir c y r r r l s i o r . r s 1ry' Ou-ro/, Sthr///,ar/t, Otr/ht ir, :rnri Sir Il'. 7'horrsott ) \Lorrl ,/.''r/r'in). 'l'hcse c r p c r i r ) r c n t s l, sr r n r l c r s t o olrriy p h y s i c i s t s , {
h a v c l c d t o t h c r : o n < : l u s i o nl r a t t h c l i l r l a t i o n s o f x n t clastic nrccliunr ilttr;lct lrodics l hir:h erc spccilrr:ailv h e a l i c r t h a r r i t s c l l l n r l r c 1 i c 1t l r o s c l l r i r : h : r r c s 1 ' c ,i ficall1' liglrter. (r:f. (;dti()/'s I'irlsir'-s. r.1tr' I,.rr{lish erlition, lty f',.,1/Iitsott, rSgq, p. :7.1). In prool-o1'tlris vics' it is pointccl orrt tlrat :r lralloon ol' qolcllrcatcr''s liirr llllcrl s ith s carlronic acicl gas is attrar:tcrl tol artls tirc olrcrring oi' :r rcsonan<:c lror, ltcering :r viirrating trrning 1,rr1i; r'lriic e s i m i l a r b a l l o o n f i l l c d l ' i t h h y d r o g c n q a s : r n r l t i c r i r l o r rn l r l a s t r i n g i s r e l r c l l c c l . 1 , ) r l r c r i n r e n t c . r sh a l c l - o L r n rtl l r : r t t h i s r t s u l t a l u a i ' s f o l l o s ' s , ev c n t h e n t h c h y r l r o g e n i r a l l o o n i s r r r i l c h c a i i i : r than air lrv loarlinq it rvith \\'nx, ol'othcr sulrstlnr:cs. 'l'his l a s t r c r r r r r l < l e r r l s n i e t o s e e i n t h c s c c x l r c r i n l c l t t s Jl t o t a l r n ' b a s c t i o n t l r c r c l r t i v c s p c r : i 1 r d c n s i t i e so f t l t c l r o r l i c s l n t o n c c , b a s c c l o n t h c i r r u t t ' o f c o n c l r t c t i l i t y 'r , ; , t , " s o u n t l l i i r m t i o n s . J n s t u c l v i n g t h c p h c r r o m e r , ao f a t t r ^ c t i o n r n c l r c l ) u l s i o l t , ))>+> dtrc to electroclynanrir: ar:tiorr, \\'c rre p)ar:cd at grcat disacllantage lr_v he enornrorts spcerl of-strch action, s'hi<:h conccnls t thcrcforc chicfly It fronr ottr lieu'tlrc nature of tlrc pror:css involvccl. It is l'cll to r:or.rsitlcrthc slol'cr l)ro('csscs r'lrich nral' l r e t r o r c a c c e s s i l ) l ct o i n v c s t i q a t i o n l ) \ ' l a l ) o r a t o r v c r l r c r i n t e n t s , in soun<1. is tvcli ktros'lt that lelocity ol- any a s h 1 ' 6 1 1 6 o q vh a s t l r c g r c a t c s t 1 of the gasc-s, it conducts sound 'l'hc vilrrations nrorc rapiclll'than anl'otllcr g:rs. follori'inc

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of tlrc l'ayc-Jront shcrr sorrrtrl avcs ;rrlvancc ' I , a n i l t l r r o r r g l ra b a l l o o n conhining carbon Ant' plrasc of thc sorrrtrl rvar-c thus rcaclrcs t'oing rrorrnrl throrrglr tlrc air qrricl<cr lhan

molecular data

are taken fionr the talrle tn ll,'ir//nrt's I,,xperinrcntalPhvsik, Leipz-ie,r332, \''ol. I, p.8o4,
traS

I)cnsi t1' I

\rclocity of Sound in ' r'lg.2I.

_ .1 r \ Oxygen Fl l'd.n*.t.t Carbonic oxide Carbon dioxidc A ninroni a

t; in thc lcar

r.ro56 g o.o6 z6 o:9678 r..52go o . 5 g i6 7

o . g5 24 3.8r23 r.or5E !'7Etz 1 . 25 3 4

Illustration of thc enormously rapirl aclvancc of the sound s'alc-front in a balloon 6lled s'ith hydrogen, 7:3.8I. The intcrnal advance of the sound s'ave is so rapid that the ryave front revcrscs itself beforc thc centre of the balloon is rcached, antl tlrc elastic reaction against thc surrouncling air thus repels 'I'his accorrnts for the balloon from thc source of the souncl. tlrc olrscrved 1;henomenon of acoustic rcpulsion. dioxide and hycirogen, s'as developed

'l'his crplanation, based on the l'avc,thcory, rlith the follol'ing r916, lrrrt publication has bcen dcfcrrcd till thc present tinre.

platcs for balloons ofcarbon

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givetr tlrat in the It appears fron"r the numl-rers here the velocity light'gas hydrogen sound has 3'8r tiures very a gas u'ith relirtive denni.; ro."hil.amrllorrin, irr"i i,"r*r'in atmosphere' o . 6 o , h a s a v e l o c i t yo f t ' 2 5 t i m e s t h a t . i n sr,y 'fhe " ifacts thtls suPport tiie vierv that a balloc.rnfriled rvith by the sound Imnronia rvonld also be noticeably rcllciled & resollance box bearing a vilrratirlg s rvave emitted 1rom tuning lork. to tlic sntlilcr o l f t l i i s p h e n o t r t e n o n i r c p t r l s i o nl v er e c l u e rfter tlrt: lrelit.ron rvlls rvoLrlclrlot 1'rersist averrtge clensity, it l>cen tirttrltl Ii1' loacled ri'ith rvax, or othcr tttrtterial, as ltlts l't t l r t r c f t - r r c t t t r t s t l r c o b s e r v a t i o ni n t h e t : n s e o l - h 1 ' t l r c . r g e l l r l r o c l y i l t > r t t i r r ig t t l t c a u " n o t t o t h e r e l a t i v e l i g l r t u c s s o 1 -t h e ttt tlte t o t h e g r c r t l t t l o c i t l ' o i t l t c s r r t t n t lv i l ; r r L t i o r l s r L i r ,b t ' t t tlic thrr-'Liglr l;Odr' the }t1'11.o*"r',, rvavcs ol- *'liit:ll rre contltlt:tccl tliirn tllrouglt -tlrt' rLir rilrotlt lt' of the balloon lllore rlliitlly s o t l r ' t iu r t v c s I l i s o b v i o n st l i a t f h c r r l r i t l r c l v a t l e co i - t l l t

direction of aethel rs ol' clecrersine density in the as t}re sut-t, irntl rv}retr rr body like the a t:entrai rlass srtch densitl' torvards its carth is also introclltced, rvith clecreasing - - t h u s e i v i n g t u o i n d e l l e n r i e n t t l e c r c a s es o 1 -d e n s i t y ..,t r., it follou's that incidcnt to the waves frottl eacir celltre if the density betu'cetl thc botlies is Iess than the actutl -I'here ittcrer'se of stress or is also other bo<1y rvcre ailstttt 'l'he result is t6e irtressa.t pulling beyond t5e 5orlies. ;;.;;r.,_ * ' ] r i t : h r t e < : a l lp l a l l e t a r y i D t h e r i g h t I i n e l ) et \ \ ' ee l l t h c t t t r t s s e s ol)eratirlg llf its rvale1 b 1 , , , j , . i.V e c o t t l t l v i c * ' e i t h c r b o t i y a s ,...iontoagitatelrrltiexllclsonleoi-t}reactlrt:roltsl.rorrltile tlrcrtr lrtl'ond :o rcgiotr lretrveen tltc lllltsses' and itrcrcirse the lille sttll-carth' rt,,,t tlt" clelrsity is a triirlitrtrttl l"lottg tlre \\-avcoIl Corrsitlerations 12. (lelreral (lttarlttttl'I'heorv' 'l'licor'f lo J'li/1'/i's irl lielltion rr;t3' r r , i t l i r t n e x t e n s i o t ' t o 1 ' J ) i t t t t r i i sv i e r v s , 't'enclent:y to gcorrrrtlit rLl lbrnts crplaine c1 by tirc (i) e \ \ ' l L v c - t l lo r v 'l'he tlrc c o pirrLr-silrility t- tltc rr'rtr 'the orf ill)l)tars liortl tirKe r solirl unLl lltllt it, lyc gct ir glou'ing I'irct tllrt rl \vc (ll' hcet, lclLvillg tlle lctlon r n l s s w i t h p r c c i o t t t i l t l t t r t n ' l r rc s t r t O i c t : r l l ' t rt t ' t c t ' s I t e k c D c c l ' l l r t t ot' tlre slrortcr \\'lIves Ol- tlte stilllargelyilrtact.Ii.u,estilliirrtilt,rillt:r.'ltsttllelrelLt,t.Ire t5c ittr:re,ritrg aqitrLti.rr oi the solid fiiies i.to a Iiil.itl Iltr ovcrt ottlc tllt 'lt"ltcr l ltvcs i o n g h e a t r t ' l t te s I t l t r ' ( : s c t Irct olrlc rclta-tcd , u t , f . i r fi ' i n g t t t o l e r : l t l a r l i r r t ' e s t l t a t l l r c t t t o l c c L l i c s Still lriglrcr tctttantl tlie ii,ritl is tlrtt:; lrc'c lo ilou ti'rot'tt' tlre lit1rriti atlci cc>nlcrt tt ttrto rt !ris' l)craturc rvill YlrpOrizc plrti<:ies llying abotrt *'ith higli vclocittes' l,ith Norvrvitcttt'ccolisitlersuchtrarlsitiollsol-tllestlttc atrcl c rttt:ial states' o[' llritttcr throttgh variotts tclllJ)el'atures e et i r c r \ \ ' l l v e s o f v a r i o t ' t s l t l l g t i r s ' \ v h l t t c ' \ l i t h l r r et l o n r i n l n t tlle tiisr:orrtinrrity in lrlri'sit:rrl t:r>tlditiolls is so 1 , 1 " , , , , t i , . , to 1 ' , u l l - . r r l c r i l , v t l r L ' r ' l L tc - t l t c . r ' i l i i s i l t g t e l l r l ) e l l t t l r e i , l l L L r s i i r ll.L st l r r t : tcllll)erlture and l i , l L r i l r c :l L t i t i r : r 1 r oll/ . r : l L l l l ' L ' L i i c Is t l c c r e e s i t l g l l r l - i u t t r r l ' l c t l t l i c c x l r c r t l l ) e 1 ) t t rt < l l i r l t r i t l ' r , ] ,r " , l ' . i t , g i r l ( ' : : t l l t ' t t l t ' t s tI ) c r l u l l l l e l l t g x s c s ' eDti ,.oiitlitv lrii iro,lie-', rll,:lti,iili{ 'tllc l itc rreve-tltcorfis directll' i l v t l r t ' g c t i .l t t l t t l t t t s r t t : 1u s o \ \ g c t l , t t r i ' e I t l v e s i t t - r rn i n v o l r ec l i t r l L l l t e u l l r c r a t t t r e 1 ' r o i r l c t t t s , t t n d O t t S ] ) O l ' t$ ' l t v c s t l e v e l o P a t l d hori,ruOlccrrli|r lorr:cs tleIcntiillg \ \ ' r t Y e s r t r e r i ' i ' t h d r a $D ' L r c c o t D e e t l e c t i e $ l t en t l t c l o n g h e a t of the s r t c l t a g e t t e r i t l i l l d i c a t i r - . r ni t r t l a t r t r e s i g l l i t l c a n t Is ncit

gir ts a rtrl(:tloll rigillll-st t l r r o r , r g ht h e l r c t t e r c o n d r ' r c t i n g l t v r l r o g e n tllis etlveloIillg grrs is l!itrLteil i)l' ih" ,rir.uu,,.lillg irir bef'orc rc rtlolrc; tire elli't t the rva'es .oniing tliror.rgh the atttt'slrlte liytlroq'crt is rttt elrtsttt:. of this ndvance agitatirln thrortgh thc l t g a i n ' s t t h t ' q r c r t t t r l ' : L tt . ' ) l reactiol) of the hyclrogcn balloon lrllillnst tl)e yet undistuilrccl envelolrc' lt thus rclrortl-ttis its as box' lLs iottticl ettd is rcpclled fronr the rcsol)ltrlct: i,tar, "i., by observatiolr. is thc ortll'orlc Irt the light of tlris exlllrtllatiolr, s'lrich lry tlrc alrovc tllilc rvlrl'rt a c l r n i s s i l r l c ,r v e r e a t l i l l ' s e e r t l s o bc:rttractccl to thr: balloon hlled s'ith cariron dioxide should r e s o n a n c e l r o x . l " o r t l t c c l e n s i t l ' o t ' c n r l r o t r t l i c ' r x i t l e i s l '5' z c ' l hq o ; S tlrlt of lir' and its condr.rctivitv of souutl onll' *ili l't rt1'1'rtcill'i1' soltnd tvirves otr etrtering sttt:ll ir l,lllloon tilr'ls tlle by those in the srtrrottttditlg attrrtlsl'lrilrt: outrttn elastic rc:tt;troll rlq:llllst !lle outsi(le air rvill give alt adviitlce dioriclc' enclosed sluggish bailoon of t;rtrbotr ol ti.rc liglrtcr V i e r v e d k i n e t i c a l i y i t i s o b v i o r ' r st h x t s o n r e nrolcctle s of the air' tttttltr stitltttt ancl urore rapidly moving heavy tuass ol'C'()'; agitirtion, are thrrs trrtnsteired beyorltl thc tltc soltnrlitrg Lox is ancl as the air betrvcclt the bllloon alitl the increasc of c'xtcrrlrl llrcsstlrc thtts somes'hat thinned ottt, trallslbr of st''trtc ancl internal tensloll incitlent to this kinctic t h e b a l l o o n ' c a t t s es of the air particles to the space llel'oncl

it to be attracted to the sounding box' tt I h n d o n e x a t n i r l i r t i o t - h r t a l l t h e o t h e r l r l t e t l o t r l e t l-l o f lry the , a t t r a c t i o n a n d r e p u l s i c l r lr v h i c h a r e r c l r o r t c c l aconstic nauled, catr l'c srttislxctorily s e m i n e n t e x p e r i n - r e n t e ra b o l ' e it- is neturltl to inler explained in the sanle wly; so that of tratrtre As rve have here a rerrarkabie general larv that decisive, it rvoultl sccrll tl)lt itra a*parln',.nts are clefinite and and tilc resuiting there is no escape frour this conclrtsiot.t' therefore be taken as fitnclanlcntirl law must 'fhese o e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d x p e r i n r e n t s n a c o r l s t i (l:i t t r a c t i o n r v h i c h w e c a n e x p c r i r r r t t t tl i t h . i n and repulsion, in the air', ltttrat:tion c o u r l a b o r a t o r i e s , o n f i r m so t l r t h e o r y o f g r r l ' i t a t i o n a l s fxstcr I t h r o u g h t h e a e t h e r , r v i t h p i t r t i c l e s n t o v i n g , 57 . t i n ) e foirrtlt pape', (^'\N5otj5)' *e hu'e ii,"" Tigfr,. For in the reseerches' ho*' shown frorn the coufirtnation of '/ltissotis theorir:s of light intimate is the connection betrveen the illttstrious georneter and sound, as correctly heid by that a century ago.

e undcrlf ing crtttsl ere I t h " t i o n g b e e n r e c : o g r l i z c dt h i t t t i r e r r i r l d r o p s t o o l i t t l c a t t e r l t i o l l l t e s l - l c e t ld i r e r : t e d t o spherical, lrtrt tai hori tt tl"",yu.r,io,, oi this exact sphcricirvol'lrgtrrt' flolectrlar li.rrccs indeed ,,rir., *n.t hr-,rv it is maintrinecl bttt as nothing rs d are tlte rLssrgrlecltlse of the s1r'hericitl', act' tlte as to the lnu's of thcse forces, or ltol' the-y kno*'n irl deilult of x better o a current assttttilltions re aclulissible rlli' it bccouresaclvisable e*1,l"n"tion. Unctcr thc circlttrtstlLtlces i r l t o t h e d e g l e e o t ' s l r h e r i c , i t yo f t r g u r e a c t u i l l i ) ' to'ir-,,1,ti." on the cluse of , r r r i u t " l , t . . i ,r r ' i t h a v i e i ' o i t h r o w i n g l i g h t nrolecltlarforces. ol the rrrinr . I t i s g e n e r a l l y a g r e e c it h a t t h e c o l o r s for the c-rvcrlrp of iurages' &ttpt bow are Nell sel)ilrated, uhich renders the d u e t o t h e l l n i t e c l i m e n s i o n so f t h e s t t n , tl)ereiore' the drops ,1ra.,ruut itrllr'tre. So far as one can see,

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'fo years. the rnodern natural philosophers it will appear x s $ ' o n d e r f i l la s i t d i d t o t h e ( l r e c k s t h a t n a t u r c a p p r o x i r n a t e s these vcrl' beautiful geonrctrjcalfigures. Thus the cause of s u c h o l ) s e r v e dp h e n o n r e n as h o u l d e n g a g e t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e .r . n . s b -- c o 2 . N o r i s t h e r e a n y e . i c i c n c e i n c l i c a t i n e n o t i r : e a l r l c l-o . .d i_ .o -Dn n-r-n e .t . -r s f o u r o \ \ ' n x g c . I n v i c r v o f t h e f o r e e o i n s d i s c u s s i o n ,i t a p p e a r st h a t t h e o s c i l l a t i o n o f f i s t t r c i r r t h e d r o y r ss ' h i c h p r o d u c e t h e r a i n l r o r v . ( ) s c i i l n t i o n s f l r g u r cu ' o u l c r c n r l t r t h c r c f r a c t i o n n d r c l l c c t i o n y r l r l ' s i c a lc : r u s c o f t h c r a i n b o r v i s a t l ' o - f o l d o n e . l o a 'l'hc irrcqular arrrl r-arinlrle -sothat thc anqle of thc r:oncof' thc r. i exact sphericitl'of the raindrops, the spherical r i r i r r l r o w f r o n r t h e a r r t i - s o l a ry r o i n t s ' o u l c l l ; c v a r i a b l c . I t i s f i t t u r c s o f s h i r : h a r e I n a i n t a i t r c d b y p a s s i n t l ' a v e s s h o r t e r t n l c t i r : l t t h c r l r p i r i i t l ' o f t h c o s r : i l l l t i o r rr r ' o u l r lr c r t r l e r t h c t h l n t l r o s c o { ' l i g h t . ' l ' h c c a u s e o f t h c s c n r i n i n r a ls p h e r i c a l t l r h e n o n r e n o n c l i l ' l l t : r r lo f d e t e r : t i o n ; 1 ' c t i l ' a g r c a t n u n r l r e r o f s u r l : r r : c si s n o r v a s s i e n c d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e a n r i s h o r v n t o c l r o p s , e n o u g h o f t h e n r t o c o n s t i t u t e e r : o n s i d c r a l t l e r a c t i o n accorri witlr tlrc II-rin slr'ass-.\c/tutarz f ntathcnratical tlrcorl' oI o f t h e r v h o l e ,s ' c r c i n c e s s a n t l vi n o s c i l l a t i o n , i t s c c n r s c c r t e i n I r i n i n r l l s t t r l a c : c s . 'l t h a t t h c s e p a r a t i o r .o f c o l o r s a l o n g t h c c o t r i c a l o r r t l i n c u ' o u l r ' l r z. l r c r l i s p e r s i o ro f t h c I i g l r t i s d u e t o t h e s p h e r i c a l r i r c b l u r r c c i , a n c l t h e r a i n b o l ' x l ) l ) c a ra s r n o l c r l r p p i n q h n z i ' f i s u r c s o 1 ' t h c r l r o p s u i t h t h c r e f r a c t i o n o f t h e i n c i c l c n tl i s h t a r c h o f l i g h t , d c v o i d o l - c l i s t i n c tr : o 1 o r s . lo1)orving thc lll' r>f ,\nc/1it,s,ls Dtsftu'/(,t founcl ltr. ar:tLrai 'l r l i c t r u c t h c o r y u ' a s o r i q i n a l l r .d r s < : o v e r c c l 3 . N o * ' t h i s h a z l ' a r r : hi s n o t o l r s c r c r l i n t h c s k v l h c n c a l r u l a t i o n ,. r 6 . 1 . 7 n a t u r a l r a i n i s f e l l i n q . \ \ ' c c a n r r o t s a v t h r t t h i s a l r s c n r : c l ' l , ] ' Tl r o r l r t t r / t , t b o r t r 3 r r A . I ) . , b L r t h i s c x p l a n a t i o n l a s o i : r n o t i c c r l r l l h a z t ' l r o r < i c rt o t h c r a i r r l r o \ \ ' l ) r o v ctsl t t n o r i r o p s n o t l r u l r l i s l r c d i l l r 3 r 4 . t r [ c a n n ] r i l c i t l ' a s i n d c J r c n c l c n t l y l t d e l ) a r t f r o r ) ) t h c t n r c s p h < ' r i r : alll g r : r c ; l r r r t o n l v t h a t s u c h c l i s c o v c r c r1 5 , t l t t / o t t i r s d / ) o t t r i t t i s , , , \ r < r i s ) r o p f S p a ) a t o a b o u t i r hl o , t l e l ) a r t u r c f r o r n v c r r ' p c r f c c t s p i r c r i c i t r ' ,i I t h c l c r i s t , e r c c r r 5 g t . A - r , l o z z6 r s t c l c v e l o l t c rtl l r c c o n rl ) l c t c t h c o r v o 1 - l t e c t r a l t s c c c d i n g l , vf c s ' o r o l ' c x c c s s i l c l v s h o r t r l r r r r t i o r .frb r a n y i n d i - t : o l o r s t h r o u g l r t i r c ' d c r : o n r p o s i t i o n r r r i r c c o n r I o s i t i o no { u h i t e r v i t l t t a l c l r o p , a n r l t h u s t h c c o r r c s l r o n r l i n o s c i l l a t i o n s 1 - l r g r r r c 1 i { l 1 r ti ,r r a s c r i c s o l ' c x p c r i n r c n t s l r c g u n j n t 6 6 ( t , u r r r l l ' L i l l r q o o c - x c r tn o s c n s i l r l cr l i i l i r s i o t r f c o l o n r t i o n ,i n c o n t ; i : r r i s o lr ti t l r l r r r l r l i s l r c r n h i s ' l ' r ' c a t i s c n ( ) p t i c s , r 7 o . 1 il o . t h c i n t c s r a l c l l - c c to f t h c l i g i r t 1 l - o n r l l t l r c s P h c r i < : a i1 o I s . a r r I r r r i c u ' o 1 -t l rj s r l c v c l o p n r c n ti,t i s l ' c l i t o r i l c i i o n ' , : r . . I n t h c l ' r o r : .I i o r ' .S o c . , J l a r . i , r S ; ( ) , n o . r o 6 , t h c l e t c r c u l r o I , l r v s i , r l s i q r r i l r c a n c c I t h c r a i n b o u ' . \ \ r c s h o r r l dr c r . n c n rt r l , o r c l / i o , r / r i , g h r s r l c v i s c c a n r c l n s o l r l c t c r n t i n i n qt h c t i r l c t l t : r t t l t c r l r r . c r i s t c n c c o 1 ' t h i s ( r c a t l t a t u r a l / i lthcnontcrtr':t o f v i l r r a t i o n o 1 - a r l c s ' c i r o p . L o r r l / t - r / t ' i t tl - o r r n rtll t c f o r r r r r r l u i n ; p 1 : c .: r r r i n l - : r r i l tr : r r i c t l o f ' u l v c s . O t h c r r v i s c h i s s p l c n r i : ' : t for the pcriorl of lilrr:rtion to lrc 6 1 r ( ) \ \ '( ) l r . 1 r . 1 1 1 , 1 1 1 l,t1 \ c r sj ) : u ) t h c h c a \ ' c n s . J t r s t a s t l t c c ( r r + ) t : o l o r s i t r t l r c s k v : t r c a l ) c r J ) c t t t l lr c n t i n r l e -trh a t s o n t e 5 o o 7:lirn"l, scr:onrl l ' h e r e r z i s t h e r a c l i u s o f t h e s p h c r c o f l ' a t e r n r e a s u r c d i l r t r r l l i o n \ r u v c s c n t c r t h c c l c c v c r v s c (o n ( 1 , s o a l s o d o t h e y c e n t i n r c t r e , s .l r o r a r r r d i u s 1 / r r r t h e l ) c r i o ( l i s l / . 3 "s c < : o n c i ; t a c i t ) y i n r p ) 1 ' n o t n r c r c l ) r\ \ ' a l e s l - r o n rt h c r c q i o n o f t h c v i s i i r l e f sl)cctnll)r,lrut also invisilrle l'aves from thc region of'the and hcncc thc talrlc: u l t r a -r , i ol c t . 1, /l , ; r l. (ill) I t r l - o r r l r lb c i r r t h e h i g i r e s t d e g r c e i n r p r o l r a i r l c t h a t SCCOtl(l 1 l i n r\-rl\'cs onrc onlr' lronr the visiiric sl)cctrunr;lbr thc longcr c I , I l t c : t t l a r t ' s : r l l l v s : l ( ' c o l t ) I l a n vl t c - s r u t ' l i g l t t , a r r r i a r c k n o l . n t s - :)+ I ) ) t o c o n l ( - l r o r n t l t c t . c r ll t n r l i n l r a - r c r lr c . q i o n s i ' t h e s p c c t r u l l ; o .l 2 ' ) l L t t t il t s r l t t t t t i c a l l ) r o (c s s c s r t l t r t v s a r c q o i n q o t r i p n e t r t r c , t r(r t 6 ) lunrl rrrc knorln trr rlcpcnri on thc shortcr violct and rritr:r36 Z(t v i o l c t l : t v t s . i t l o l l o r v s l - r ' o n trh c c h c n r i c a l p r o c e s s e s f t h e )) r407 I7,2OO o i l o r l r l a l o n c , t i r a t r r l t r r r -r ) l c t r a ] ' s a l s o f i l l t h e s k y . ,t h o u g h r \ c c o r d i n q l l ' , r i ' h o r t l r c t l r o p i s o n e i n c h i n c l i a n r c tre 2 . . 5 c n r , , 4 a s ' h o l e s c c o r l c ii s r c r l u i r c r l f o r t h c l i l r r e t i o n . I t i s o n l v f o r r l u i t c i n l i s i i r l c o n t i r c l r l r r c l ; o r r l c r o f t h e r a i n b o r v . '\r:r:orriinglrn lrcn l'c bchold thc gloriousarch of the ', s s n r a l ld r o p s t h a t t h c l i b r a t i o r r i s r a p i c J a n d t h c { b r < : c p o l ' c r l i r l . , ( )rcck qcollrcters ha(l r a i n l r o r ' , \ \ ' c l l r c e t t l l c s a r n c t i n r e r c r n i n c l c do f r l r r a c l r i l ) i o n s l'|eforc thc tirnc of /'/o/o thc n o t i c e d t h e s p h c r i c a l f i g u r c s o l - t h e s u n a n r l m o o n , a n d i n - o l u ' a v e s lt o o s l r o r t t o b e l i s i b l c , 1 ' c t e n t c r i n q t h e c 1 ' ce v c r y ' f e r r e d a l i k c s p h e r i c a l f i s u r e l b r t h c c n r t h , f r o r n t h c c : i r < : u l a r 's c c o r r r l . l l o r t o o f i l l e v e r y p a r t o l - t h c s k y a n d t r a v c r s e (lrr)l) ol rajn just as thc walcs of the visible sl)cctrunt section of the eerth'sshaclorv t the tinre ol'ltrnar cc)ipses. cvcr)' a ] c l t t er t h ( ' r ' o r r c s p o t t c l i n g ls'n t a l l p u p i l o f t h e c y e , t o t h c n u r n b e r A s t h e o r l r i t s o f t h c p l a r r c t sa l s o n p p c a r c d t o l r c e s s o i a l l y o l ' a l ) o u t h a l f a r l u a d r i l l i o n . U n d c r t h c s c c i r c u n r s t e n c c .i ,t c i r c u l a r ,a n c l t h c ( l r c c k n a t u r : r lp h i l o s o p h e r s o t e c lt h e . t e n c l c n < : y n o f r l r o p s o 1 - c l c s 'o i l , a n c l o t h c r l i r l L r i r l so : r s s r l n t el r c s p l r c r i c e l i s s t r a n { c t h a t w e h a l ' c n o t S o o n c rr e c o g n i z e dh o r v t h c $ ' a l e s t t , fornr, s'hich was then hcld to lrc a perfcctfiqurc, it is norv give t)rc raindrops sllch nttthenratically perfect sphericitr', a n ( l l ) \ ' t h c ' r e s u l t i n g d i s p e r s i 6 na c l c lt o t h e b e a u t l ' o f t h e r i ' o r l r i . l r o s s i l r l et o u r r r i e r s t e n d/ ' / a l o ' s c l o c t r i n et h a t t h e d c i t v a l u ' a y s 'I'heor1', - ,i eric riri yct,rlt{t.gtt. (ii) (leneral outline ol-?/ancI's Quantun.r u'itlr ceometrizes, o f r a i n a r c e x c e e c l i n e l ys p h e r i c a l ; a n d n o d e p a r t u r e f r o m perfect sphericit,v cln lrc inl'crrc<i fronr tlrc obscrvcd t:olors of the rainLrou', or fronr the conical fornr of that splcndicl arch of lieht. r \ p p a r e n t i l ' t h i s c o n r : l u s i o n\ \ ' a s n o t a n i d l e r e t n a r k , b u t r e p r e s e n t e d a g e n u i n e p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n c l u c t i o n f r o n - rt h e o b served ordel of nature, u'hich rvc arc only beginning to i n t e r p r e t a l t e r t h c l a u s e o f s o n r et w o t h o u s a n d t h r e e h u n d r e d i n f t ' r c n c c s l r g g e s t e (l r y t l : e l ' : r v s - 1 i l g 9 r - 1 ' . lirom the l,ave-theor)' thus briefiy outlined it follorvs t h a t a l l t h e p h e n o n . r e n a f t h e p h y s i c a ln n i v e r s es h o u l d d e p e n d o a on the mutual interaction of s'a'r,es nd the corresponding

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'I'his lorces of nature. relationship is shorvn in the theory t h e e n e r g y i n a c c r t l i n t v a y , b e c a u s e e a c h a t o m r e p r e s e n t s of the correlation of forces, and the doctrine oi' the conser- a deterrninate quantity of rnatter, rvirich can nrove onll' x5 v a t i o n o f e n e r g y , r v h i c h h a v e b e c o n t ef u n d a n r e n t a l i n r l o d e r n a r v h o l e . A l s o i n t h e l i g h t a n d h e a r r i r d i a t i o n , a l t h o u s h i t science. But there are soure difficulties to be oi crcorrre, untl i s t l L t i t e i m n t a t e r i u l i n i t s n a t L t r e , t h e r e n t u s t i ) e c e r t a i n p r o h e r e t o f o r ea r n e t h o d o f a t t a c k i n gt h e n t h a s t r o t b e c n d e v e l o p e d , c e s s e s i n l c t i o r ] t h a t r e t a i n t l i e e n e r g ] ' i n c l e t e r u t i n e t e ( l u a n t i t i e s even by the nrost eminent authorities. It seentslikely that and retain theur tlte ntore pori'elfullv as tlie l'aves are shorter n r o s t o f t h e s u p y r o s e dd i f f i c u l t i e s o f t i r e \ \ ' a v e - t i r e o r y\ y i l l a n c l t h c v i b r i L t i o n s r n o r c r a p i c i . < 'l'his d i s a p p e a r t h e r n o m e n t r v e a t t r i b L r t e t h e i b r c e s o 1 -n a t u r e t o o u t l i n c o l , 1 ' / t t t t t f t ' tsh e o r y e s s t r r c s u s t h a t t h e t r a n s 'wave action; for then we ltrny use the lbrces o1'nature to lblnurtion ol enelgl' u,avcs itrto shortrr and sitorter rvaves t u d y t h e r v a v e s b y r v h i c h t h e f o r c e s a r e p r o d L t c e d ,a n c l e l s o l e n g t l t r v o u l c l l c e r l o n c t o e x l ) e c t ) ) t l l i r t r l l c * ' h o l e c n e r g y , o f i n v e s t i g e t c t h e f o r c e s o b s e r i ' e d r v i t h a v i e r v o f i n i e r r i n g t l r e t h e r e d i r r t i o n r r o u l , l i r n a i l l ' b e c o n i i n c d t o t l l e u l t f r r - \ , i o l e tp a r t type of *'aves fiom rvhich they might arise'. o 1 ' t l r c s l ) ec t r u l ) t . \ c ) \ \ ' , n o t t h e s i i g h t c s t t , r a t : c o l ' e n 1 . s t r c h A c c o r c l i n e l y , a l i e r t h i s s k e t c h o l - t h e s , r r v c - t h c o r ) '\,\ ' c l r l r e n o n r e n o n( ' l r ) L c . l i s c o v e r c c l i l t n a t t r r e . ' l ' h c t r . . u t s f b r r r t : r t i o r r lrirve nol'to c o n s i d e r t h e y i e r v s l n n o u n c e c l l r v I t r o l c s s o r r c u c l r c s , s o o r r er o r l u t c r , r r l r c r f ec t l y c l e a r l L r r r i l ' c l l r l r : l r n c t i J ' l t t u c l t . I n h i s a d d r e s sa s l { e c t o r o f t h c U u i v e r s i t v o i - l i e r l i n , l i r n i t , r r n r i a i ' r e r t h i : r i r c s t u t c o l - t h c r a d i a t i o t r i s s t a b l e i n O c t . r 5 , r g r S , r e l ) o r t e d i n t h e l i e v u c S r . i r n r i i i , l u c ,I , r L r . j s , L i l r r : 1 . r c r : t s . . l l i e b . r . 1 , r g r 4 , P l a n c l g i v c s a s u r n l t ) i r r )o l - l r i s r j r i r l i o n I t : l r O L r l , l i r c l ) o i l l r ( , ( l o u t t l i i t t r l ] o l c i : u l a rl o r c c s l i r r n i s l r c l u s i o n s ,t o t h e c l f e c t t h a t n e i t h e r r r r o t i o n o r ' l r i r r ' , . i t : lriL r r . c c r i t i c r r r : t o l 5 L l ( l : l r o r t c r l t r ) i l s l i ( ) r t u r $ l i V c s , a t l c a s t u 1 t r o n rl i i s s t r i c t l y c o n t i n t r o r . li s c ' l t r r r r r c t t - r r r t c r i r I r o l t i r r r r i r u l r l c l i r ' r r t u i r r l i r r l t l r i t l r c l t o r l r r i t c u n k n r . r *l l . , \ r t r i i t i s { - o r r n df r o r n n l , r . r 1 tl s n r a l l j r t n r l ro r s t r r l d c nL l t c r r r t i o nrs I r L l r r . .' l i ) i s ( . L r L i l r l t u u ll r c o i r s er v c t l t l r i t k n c s s o l ' s c t u p l ; r r l r i r l s , j L r s t l r c l b r e . t h e i r o s t i r t e t h e o r y p r o b a b l v i s n o t i r i c r ) t i ( i l lr v i t i r t l r c * a r c . t l r e t _ r r \ , c t r u l ) t u r c , t l l t t t l r r s I L l l ! t l t c o r r e s l r o i r t i s t o t l r c r i ' u v c - l e n g t h o l ' 1, i t h l L s c n o r . r g i r l e n r t n t s i n t : o r r r n r o r tro i - r cr v o r t i r l . o l ' c a r c l - L r l t l r c u i t n r - r , i o l c t s l r c c t r l r t n u n c l L l c y o n r l . , \ t : t : o r t i i n g i y . , i t s e e n r s c c x r n r i n : L t i o no n t h e l r r o l r r L i l i t l ' t l t a t t l r e t r r ' o t h e o r . i e s n a y t o r u c t h : t t J ' / t u t t / : i r e s r r o t d r a * ' n l r l l t l r c a c l n r i s - . i b l e c o n , r b e r c c o n c i l e t l l r r ' { i r t L r r cr.l e v c l o P n r e n t s . c l u s i o r r s . l i o r i l ' n t t : r ) r r t c r l rt h l L t r n o l c r . r L I r Lirt r c e s l r c t l n c t o i J ' l u t r , 4 ' s t l r e o r i ' i s d c s c r i b e d v e r y l i r i t f ' l v i n t h r l i r l l o - * ' l r v r s , t l r c c v i t l r n t : e i s t l t l r t s i r r i r t t . r l n r l : l r r t r t t : r r v i r v e sr c l l l v \\'illg accour)t: c r i s t , l r t l c t L s t t o l r t o r r r i , l i r r r i l t e r i r : t 1 r .c l t r i r . o n i , i l i r n c n s i c n t s . ) S u p p o s c l r l : l s s o 1 - \ ' l t er i n u l r i t : l r v i o l t . r r t* i r r r i s 1 r : r v t : \ \ i t l t l l - ( ' t i l c l c l r t r c l , r , - \ ' l r l i t Lr , ' . , t r r t r k 9 l t r t t . s t c r i c s l r r o r l u c e ca t r a i n c l f ' r , e r y h i g i r u ' a i ' r s . , \ l t e r t l r r w j r r , l i r r r s l c c a s c c l ,t h e * ' a v c s s t i l l r u a i n t a i n t h r n r s e l v c si u i , l ! ( ) l l r . r r ro r i t t 'l'hen shore to anotirer. t t l i e s l . r l l r c c r j l t r r r l trc rt . i r ( i r . i l ) < c . t c n : r c i l . r ' , ( ' t c . , \ \ ' c ( r u t r i o ' . r r t t r u t . i i l i t l l ) ' 5 i r . ) .\ ' l l a t i s t l t e l i n t i t a r 'l'he e n e r g y o f n t o t i o t t o t ' t l t e l o n g c r - n t i l e r g c r * u r c s g n r r i t l l l l l ' r . r t 't i r e s l r o r t n ( r s s ( ) t r i t c * . l t e s , u n l c s s t h i s i s l r n a l l y s c t b y u c i r a n g e s , s p e c i r L l l r 'r , l r c n h e v u r e e t t l l e s h o r c o r ' o t l r e rs o l i c l t h e r i i u t c D s i c l l ) s O l t l ) ( j l L t r > n r sa n c l c l e c t r o n s . e l t o l ) j e c t s ,i n t o t h l t o l s l i o r t r : r a n r l s n l r l l er l ' a v c s , r r n t i l l i n r l l y lrr the last lrirragrapir o1'tlic alrove tluotalion l)/anrl t h c r v a v e sb e c o r n e s o s n i a l l a s t o b e r l u i t e i n v i s i l r l c . ' l ' i r i s i s d c s r : r i i r e s t h e s u r a l l n c s s . J l ' t l l c l l l s s e s r L s l l x i n g l i r n i t s t o t h e t h e r v e l l - k n o * ' nc h u n g e o l - v i s i b l c u t o t i o l )i n t o h c e t , o l ' l l l a s s s h o r t n e s s o l ' l ' l v c s , l l c r : e t r s c s t t c l t s r n l L l l l l r : r s s c s c : r n c l n l v r r r o v e l r o y c n ) c 1 1 t n t o n t o l e c r . t l t rl D o V e t l ) e l ) t . ( i l s r u l r o l r . I i c t l o c s r r c l ts l r o r v l r o l , t l r c s c c i r n r c n t a r r ' ( l u : r n t t > > l J utth i s l ) r o c e s sd o e s n o t g o o n i r r t l c l r n i t c l r 'i;t l l n t l s o l ' I l l a t t e r r i l ; r i r t i r r g r t s r L r v l t o l e i L r e r ( . 1 ' r c s c n t t t r li ,r t r t thc ini r n a t u m l I i n r i t i n t h c s i z e o 1 ' t I ) et i t o n ) s . ' l ' l r c l l t r g c r .t l r c l L t o u r s l c r e r t r : t 'i s t l t r r t t ) ( ) s o u l i c i : r L l , l et o l r i t . o t i t c l t u r q ) ' t i l l t h e e r c , t h e s o o n e r c o n i e s t l l c e r ) ( l o 1 ' t l r i s s t r l r c i i v i s i o o 1 ' t h e c n e r g v l r i L s r c l L c l r , . , il L c c r t : L i r r r : L l r r c , l r r ' t ) l t r l r i t l s t ' r t r P a t h l o f n , totlLl cnergy of rnoveurent.< t l r e v i l r r r i t i n g s \ ' , \ t c n r o l o t i r c r r v i s c , . t s j n / 1 , 1 1 t / t o r : , ' sr c s o l t a t o r s , ) N o w s u l ) p o s ea s i n r i l a r l ) r o c c s s l ' i t i r L r r r t l L r l i L t i oo r 's * , i t l t t r ' l r i t : i r l r c l L t o t r i sl n i r u r r r : r r 1 \ ' rl t r J ) r ( ) l r c r I i ( jis t c C , u t t t r O I r . l i g h t a n d h ea t ; s L r l t l t o ste a t t l ) e r a 1 ' se r u i t t c r i l r v r Ll r o l e r f i r l l y h ( i i i ) l ) i s t : o r r r i n r L i r i c s n t h c ( l u x n t u u ) - t l r c o r - yr r a t L t r a l l l i i n c a n d e s c e n tb o c l y a r e c o n c e n t r a t c ( li n t o u c l o s e t i c e v i t l ' L i y a t : c r ) t i i r t e t l l o r L v t l l c \ v l v e - t i l c o r \ ' . r n i r r o r s l n d t h c r e c o n t i n u a l l y r e l ' l e c t e .tl o e n r l l r - o . i l c r c l l s c r It is t:lrirl'lv irv tire cliflcrcncesol'l'tLvc-lengthsin thc u ' i l l t a k e p l a c e u l ) r o g r e s s i v et r a n s f o r t l a t i o n o l t ) r e r r L r l i r r r r t i n t c ( r l l s l i r r t l r e r r r o l c c u l l L r i r r t : e st h a t r i . c c - r p l a i n t l r e r l i t l c r e n t l er)ergy into shorter and shorter tvaves. -,\ccorclirtg o cllssi<: lorccs rri-llitturc. 'l'hc boiortrcter-resclrL.ilesol' /.utt,g,lLolt the L 1 t h e o r l ' u ' e s h o u l d e x p e c tt h a t t h e r v h o l ec l t e r . q )o f - t l i c r r r c l i a t i o n s c ) l l r r s l ) e c t f L r n t , s h o r v e d t h l t t h c \ \ . a v e - l c r ) g t l l 5 . r r u { l r L i t r i n . e . s h o u l dl r n a l l yb e c o n f r n c ctlo t h e r - L l t r l - v i o l etta r t o l t l r c s p r t cr L t r u< g u l a r l l ' d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t l ) c i n l ' n r - r c c l r c g i o n . l l t h e r . e i b r c t h e t . l ) ) o w , l l o t t h e s l i q h t e s tt n r c e o f a n 1 ' s u c h j ) ( ) t r t c u o l t o l ) c r a t i o n s o 1 ' h e a t i n g , a t d i l l t r c n t t L . i l t l ) e r i r r r l r e/s r r n r l / , s h o u l d N , i)llc c a n b e d i s c o v e r e c li n n a t u r e . ' I ' h e t r a n s f o r n t a t i r . i ne a c h e s , b r i n g i n t o p r o u . r i n e n c e t l r e p u l r cl lr1'ri ar cs of lcngths 1ria1'e s o o n e r o r l a t e r , a p e r f e c t l y c l e a r a n d r v e i l - d e t e r u r i n e di n t i t , b e t u e e n 1 . 1 a n d l " ' , i t n r i g l r t i r c p o s s i b l c t o ; l c ( r o u n r l b r t h e l a n d a f t e r t h i s t h e s t a t eo f t h c r a d i a t i o n i s s t a b l ei n a l l r c s p e c t s . < d i s c o r r t i r r u i t i e s n o t e d b y I ' l t u t t / t . > T o r n a l < et h i s t ' a c t a g r e e s , i t h . t h e c l a s s i , .t l r c o r y t h e I i o r a s c h a n g i n t l r e s i s t e n c e b r e a k s r . r p el ec t r i c l l i i r L r . e - s m o s t d i v e r s e a t t e r n l ) t s a v e b e e n r n a d e ; b u t i t h e s i r t ' r . n l r o r v r r l r o r n l o n g e r t o s h o r t e r r v r L v e - l e n g t h , a n c l l l t t h e s l L r r r et i n t e h s that the contradiction penetratestoo deeltly into the roots heat rvlves al)l)ear lroru thrs clisintecrrttion, it is r cil' l)roi)rble o f t h e t h e o r y t o l e a . r ' et i r e r n i n r a c t . S o t l r e o n l l , r h i n g t o d - o t h a t i n s u n r u r i n g r - r p t h e e l l - e c t s o f w t v c s o V e r u g r c x t r a n g e is to overhaul the foundations of the theory.c, o f r v a v e - l e n q t h sn t a n y s p e c i a l p h e n o u l e u i t w o L t l d a l ) l ) e a r s u d d e n l y > I n t h e c a s e o f t h e r v a t e r - r v a y ets e s L r b d i v i s i o n f t i r e i r a t c e r t l i n t e m p e r a t u r e s . ' l ' h i s p r o b a b l e c o n l ) e c t i o n h o betrveen e n e r g y o f r n o t i o n c a n e t o a n e n d b e c a u s et h e a t o n r sr e t a i n e d t h e t l u a n t u r n - t h e o r y a n d t h e w a v e - t h e o r ) ' s e e l ) t s t o r n a k e i n -

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telligible a sreat body of phcnornena invollinq sudclen transition, s'hich herctoforc have becn rlttite obst:rtrcto thc tlatrtrai It is necess:rry to have soure ttlental pictLlrc of philosophcr. the cause of thc lpparent (liscotttitruity, anrl at prcscnt this

t h a t i t c a n r l o t f t i i l t o b e c o n t e a n o b j e c t o f r e s e a r c ha m o n g l r h i l o s o p h e r s ,a s t o n ' l r y t h c s e p h y s i c a l l a r v s e x i s t . sarv in the nearly circular orbits It :rppears that ?1a.10 o f t h c p l l n e t s , a n c ' ii n t h e s p l r c r i c a l f i g r r r c s o f t i r e s r r n a n d rnoon :rnrl all fiuicl slobules the geomctrizins of tbc I)eity can onl1. be srrppliccl lry thc rveve-dhcorl'. ,i 0tic ri.ci yeolr(roer.. l)rofessor I'ltttt/t clescrilrcs tlie altparentll' discontirrrrotrs TluL t|ru,lott, C'loiraul, and Laflacr sho*'ecl that the i'irlr;rctcr ol- t:crtaittnrtttral llhcnottlcna as follo\\'s: :rnd explosivc f t h c o r ' 1 'o l ' u n i v c r s a l g r a v i t a t i o n f i r l l v a c c o L t n t s o r t h e f i g r t r e s ) jl n e n J ' ( ' l s c t h c h y ' p o t h es i s o f r l r t a n t a h n s l c r i t o t l r e r c c e r t t l fi t h a s i r c c n r e c o q n i z c r l , idea that thcrc arrt in ttatttrcchlrnges thltt lrc ttot rotttitrtlott<, of.thc hcelenll'bodics. And idCosnroqonv r go3- r o, that lrut cxIlosivc. lncccl on11't'crttintl i-orr that this rellrcsct.t- froni thc n'ritcr's Iicsearchcs o the oririts of the plancts and a t u t i o l l i s n r a r l c r t c c c p t l l r l c l r v t l r c < l i s < : o v c r 1 'r l r l c l o s c s t t t r l v tlrc olrscrvcd rottnclness f 'l'ltc r t l r i ' p o t l l c s i s o { r l t t ; r t l t : h : r s s r r s r r t c l l i t c s , v h i < : hi r a r l s o p r o f o t t n c l i y i n t p r c s s e c lb o l h . \ V t r ' / o t t r r { r : r r l i o : t r : t i v t1 , 1 r < ' r r o t t r t t r ; t . ' lrtrl /,of/orr, is cluc to the sccrtlar action of thc nclrLrlar itr bettcr at'corti rvitir cxistirlq llrr crralrlcrl us to olrteitr resttlt-s l c s i s t i r r l n r c c i i t t t nf b r m c r l y l t c r v a d i n q t h c s o l a r s J ' s t c l t l . . l l r e r s r r r c n l c l l t s o { - n r r l i l t i o r t t h t t r t h o s e o 1 -l r ) l l l r c t l c t l i l l q t h e o r i e - s ( 'l'lrrrs, t to conryrlete he solution of the probienr of tlte ) .l l u t t h c r c i s s o n - r c t l r i n q l i t r t h c r . I f i t i s I P o i n t i n ( l r c c k p l r i l o s o p h c r s i t r c l r a i n c c l t o a c c o t l l r tf o r t h e p e r f c c t , f - r r r - o o l - : r n c u i t r ' p o t h c s i st l r r t i t i s v c r i i l c d c l r ' t . t i l l t c { i o t t s r 'l'his o p r o r l u c t i o n l -p e r i c c t o o s l r l r c r i c i t v [ -l r q r r r c f ' 1 i r 1 u irri lr o p s . to llrir'h it sus ttot cxper:tcrl to alrplr', at thc otttsct, tlrc * c h : t v ct t o l ' c x p l a i n c d l r l t h c * ' a l c i h v l r n t h c s i s o l r l t t a t r t at l r y ' s t t r c l 1 'c l a i t n : r t t a c l v r r l t a g c , I r l c s i r c l i r l u i c ls l , l r c r c st r n r t t t r c t h c o r r ' , r l r i r h v i c l c i s t n i n i n r l l s t t r f r c c sl i t h l c r l r t n r a r k a i r l e c t o c l l l l t t c n t j o n h c r c o n l v t o : t s i t t { l t t s t r i k i n r : , i r c t : t t l s t ; r t r ,. ito l r l o c l r c l r i ,r l l r r r ' l r c r t i c s . 'h c p r o o f c l e d t r r : c r l t n t h e t t / t i t t t t d e t r t a in 1i,1rri1't'irtgir, lllrlrogc'tt lttld Sinr:c ri'c ir:rvc stt<'t'ccrlcrl "l . { , t l t a t s p h c r i c a lc l r o p so 1 - ) i t l r r i a r c d I , t l r t ' l i u n r , l n a i r r r t r c l l t t r a r r r l t r t ' l l r c l r l o l c x ; l c r i t l l t ' t l t l t t j r , t l l l t s 1 ] 1 1 ' o r r : n irg . S , s c ( ' t i o n f, o o p c n c r l t o r c s c : t r r : h i n t l r c r l o r r t ; t i t t l - t h c l r l u c r t c l r r p c ' r l l t L ) r t s , t r u c n r i r i n r : r l s L : r l - r c c so r t h e l ' h o l e o f t h e r v a t e st r a v c r s i n q jr d i r e c t i o n , c l o u b t ) c s sr v i i l l r c o f t l l o r e l r n t i n i r c l t r ' l vr L l l t o l c s c r i e s o l - t i c r l a t t r l L r t r t t t t c l v r l i t l , l i : l l l ' J t h c r i n t ' r s c i n e v c r l ' r t h a n o r r j i n a r . vi n t e r c s t t o g e o n t e t e r s l t ( l n a t l r r a l p h i l o s o l l h c r s . rcsrrlts llt|t' ( olnc to li{llt.'l l t I : r r n n o t a r i ' a r co f a n y p r c ' r ' i o r t s t s c o f t l l i s l r c l t r t i f L r t h c o r c ' r t r , :-l(.)', :.;o'to o "'l'o ht':rt :t lrit-'tt: i-r'o|lrcr ltottt i n l r h l s i c e l i n v c s t i q a t i o n s ,s i t t c c t h c d e l s o l ' , l t t i t , ' t t " t r l t s . l t l r l t i s , l r t ' o t t t ' t l c g r t : t t c c t l t i g r l L t i t : , l o t t i l c s a r r l cr l t l l t n t i t l ' o l o s r I n t h i s p a p e n o r : o n j d c r a l r l co r r t l i t r c i ' t i t e s a v c ' ll l c r r r \ t ; h c a t i s r g r l t t i r t ' r 1 t s t o ] t c n t i t l - r - r , ro l' t o t ' , l l t r t a b o L r t t h i r t y r l e o l c h c n r i < l a f l l n i t v ,r t r t i o f c r 1 l l o s i l cl o r c c sh a ' s r e e nl t t l t ' t l l | i t l . tinrcs lcss. Il- \rc stxrtcri with art irtitiel tcnlllcrettrrc still 'l'hat i s r c s c r v c r ll o r : t s i r t l r p : r p c r .i t t r r h i c h I h o p t t o c i r e l l o n ' c r , l c s l t o r t l t l l i n t i t l r r t t h c r : o r r c s p o t r d i n gr l r r l r l t i t y o f h c a t 'l 'l'his o i r c s c r i t a l I ) r o c e s s cIs l r q h a v c t is ciircctl-v also s itlr thc ljring ic:-i 's, l'as still snmilcr', r'itiroLrt assignalrlc lirrlit. j r l t ' r t ' r lt . r r t r j c ; t l i n c h a r a c t e r ,a n c l y et b c 1 ' o n d h e t lrecn co:rs ( ' o l l t r r r l n o t o n l y t o a l l c t t s t o t ) t a r y s t i l t c t l ) c r - r t s ,l r t t t a l s o t o (j r c l r c h o l ' r r ' : c 1 1 rr s o l o n g a s m o l e c u l a r l b r c e s c o u l d n o t b e t h e r e r l u i r c n r c n t so f t h c c l a s s i c t h c o r l ' , f o r a l t h o u g h r v c l c l t r n c r l 'fhe p r o l ) l c m so f c r y s t a l i o io rieve-action. i nrorc thrlr iI ccntllrv aqo to clis{inqrrisllstri<:tl,vrctu ccll tt'llr- clcllnitcll rt'l't'rretl and promising,and I have left grnlrill' ,ikcsisc lrre Itranv r t t t r l r l t t l r r t t i t ) ' o l l r r - ' r t l ,r i t : l l l v c t r c v t ' r t l l c l c s s l r c t ' l l l c r l l)cr:rtltrc o t h c u a r t ' - t i r e r l o i t h e h a r d n e s so f d i a m o n c li n c o n l p l c t c , r ' c t lo tltc conr:lttsiotr tltlt cvt'tt il' thcsc tll:lgtlitttrlt's :1rr' llot t s u f t l c i c n t l l o u t l i n c d t o l r e s t r g g e s t i v co o t h c r s . in sonlc llarallclllr'.n c x r c t l v p r o p o r t r o n e l ,t l t c r - r l t r l l r t l c e s t It crrrll rcnr:rins to add thal 'l/attlrll, liol/:ttann, tnd , ' l ' h c h ) l r o t l r c s i - s i ( l t l r t l ) l t l l t i i s c o l l r ' l l i c t t ' 1 r '' l c r r r c t i t t l r r o s, o t i r e r c n r i n c n tn i r t u r a lp h i l o - - . o p h c rh a l c t a k c r tt h e n r o l e c u l a r , t h i s r 1 i l ' t r c r r l t rr' t n d n r o r c o l c r h r t s f r r r n i s l r e r ia l l o t h e r r e s t t l t o l 'lrigh lbrccs lo lary invcrsell' as the fottrtlt or fil-thpon'er oI the iurportlncc, nanrcl\', thrrt thc forccs s hich provokc hcati'','r.:, r.hich rvill be foLrnd c l i s t a n r ;.c ( , r ) : I t ' l r ' t , o r / ( , ) : / viirrations in l solirl ltrc prccisciv thc satrte as thosc thllt l t o a r : < : o r rs el l s ' i t l t t l r c l a v c - t h e o r t . A c c o r d i n s l o I ' a l / a r t s \\'c ntitl thtls tlorv calcttlatc frotll prorlur:e clasttc liirrations. h l . p o t b c s i st h c s e f o r c c s a r c s c n s j l r l co n l v a t i n s c n s i b l er i i s the eirstie prolrrrtics oi :r tnottrttontjc lroclv its hcat cllcrqJ' c t a n r : c s e n i l t h u s n r a r r i { c st th e t r t s c l l c s h i e f l f i n t h e i n l n r c c l i a t e , tileorl' at rlillcrcnt tcrlll)crlltlrcs a scrYir:c that the classi<; t , n p r o r i r r r i t l 'o l ' p h v s i t : e 1 r a t t c r , r r ' h e r c h e r c l - r a c t i o n sd i s p c r s i o n s , lrclcr lrccn altlc to llcrlirrtll.n hrs sr 'l'he : n c l i l f r e r : t i o r r si , t c r l - ec l t t : c s ,c t c . { 1 1 ) } ) e a c l l a r l t c l l ' o r c o r l j o i n t l , v a rcscarr:'hcsheretofore ttta,:1c re too inconlpJete for r t r r r ii r r r t t t k : t , ,trtr i t t t c t t . i t r ' . trs to :rl'firnr that thcsc lrheltotrtetl:l of rltlnlrta r:atr all lle Il', on thc avcragc, abottt trvo or three of these il-rt h e i n t l i r : a t i o r r so f a h i t h e r t o c x p l r r i n e d l > ' r 't h e s ' a v e - t h e o r y ; I e t the intensity fluenccs lrc at solk near physical bodies, c r u n s u s p c < : t c c io t r n ec t i o n a r e s o p l a i n t h a t t h e < : a t l s ct r r r d e r ) fi n g - the o f c l r : h l , c i n g a s t h e i n v e r s e s q t t a r e o f t h e d i s t a n c er ' , the olrservcrl phenotnena rvill necessarilv llecolnc arl ol)ject c o n r p o r r n c c l - f c c to f t h c i r j o i n t a c t i o t r r v o t t l d b e a p p r o x i n r a t e l y l of attcntion in luturc invcstigatiolrs. Llerctofore the phcnolletra - l g t r f, ' t : . ( t ' s ) / t - fr t , t l - r ( r ) : / i ' 1 r " , o r 7 Q ) hale appcared as cieep nrysterics. of quanta r,(,): 'l'his b conclusion accords well with observatiotls, rtt as (ir') Conclrrsion to the fifth papr-r on the neu' tlteory a the r'listances t rvhich phengmena are noted are near)f ir-roI the rrctircr. s c n s i l ; ) e , $ ' e m t l s t n o t e \ l ) e c t g r e a t o b s e r v a t i o n a la c c t l r a c l i , I''ronr the loregoing cornprehensi'e but necessarily innor attach mttch importance to the theoretical agreet-nent r:omplctc srtrr'cy of an extellsi|c sul)jcct, it trppenrs that thc rvith the rvave-theorl'. f o r c e s i s o v e r r v l l e l t . l l i t r g l yi n d i c a t e c l u,ave-theon' of nrolecttlar 'l'he r\tier outlining this nes' theory of molecular forces,it tendency to lry the nrininral surfrrces pervadin{ ltattlre. t r e r " n a i n so c a l l a t t c n t i o n t o c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e s t e p si n t h e only ligrrre is so rcnlarkallle a phenotlenou yrerfect sphericitl'of
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theory of the rainbori', the study of rvhich, under the undulatory theory of light, has norv enabled .us to assign the cause of molecular forces.

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r. About the year r3rr A. I). the llrstanalysis f the o c o l o r s o f t h e r a i n b o * ' , i v i t h c o r r e c t e x p l a n a t i o no f t h c r e f r a c t i o n s producing the priniary and secondary borvs, *,es rnade by Tleodorich (cl. Vet/uri, Comruentarii sopra Ia storia e le tcrcrie dell'ottica, llologna, r 8 r 4), l'ho rva.sa conrer)tl)orary o l D a n / e , a n d t h u s f l o L r r i s h e d n t h e < l a r k e s tp c r i o t - l o f t l r c i Xlidclle Ages. IlLrt 7'htotlorich's rcsearchcs \\,ere not pnblislred u n t i l r 8 1 4 , - a f t e r a d e l a y o f 5 o 3 ) , e r sI a so tliat tlrcy flrst became knorvn early in the rgtl' centur),. 2. I{eanrvhile abont tlie yc'lr r 59 r, the cclelrrtterl ,1tlottitts de Dotninis, Archbishop of Spelato, inrlelrenrlentl;, t i i s c o v e r e da n d e x l t e r i u r e n t a l l l ' d e r n o n s t r l t t h c o r r q i n o i t l r e ed t:olors of the rainlrorv. In iris '.1'rcatisc n ()lrtics, r o+, o 7 1 ' t .r z 6 , A b u l o n s a y s : >'I'his borv never tl)peltrs l.iut *.hcre it ruius in rlre s u n s h i n e , l u l d n i u ) . i t e r n n c l ea r t i l r c i a l l y b y s p r _ r r i r r n . l l )\ \ , l r t c r rv s ' h i c l t r n a y b r e a k a l o l i , a n r l s c a t t c r i n t o c l r o p s ,u n i l l a i l d o * . n like rain. Iior the sun shinin.q upon thesc clrops certeirrly \ r < u ( l r , z r , . y ) - t , o u t t) ) ' t \ i : , tt , 6 i ; .l)t,gri,Ltttt c u r l s c s t h e l t o r v t o l r l ) l ) e r r t o a s l ) e c t a t o rs t a n r l i n g i n a c l u e l l t , i ' t , t' z . ) - , , . t r t i t t t , . ) , t \ t d , i . , , z , c ) . , , : t t 7 t , t 1 ; positio. t. the rain u.cl su.. IIe'cc it is rorv agrccil upo' Ilti.r;t,: 1 1 . ,i1 t t z r t i 19,,t,,i: ,rrt.i tt.. .4,,ig,,. t h e t t h i s l r o r v i s n r : r r l c l r 1 .r e f i e c t i o n o l ' t l r c s u r r ' s l i g i r t i n l'r, rr. \-rr,,L lo(/. 'l'lris t l r o l ; s o f l - : r l l i l r <: r i l r . r r v a s u r r t l c r . t o c i rl ir t . s o r n co l ' t h c >l lrrottght tO eartlr ti)e jlJ:rrli ol itt.lLr(.litv rlf(,, r r n L ) r n t s ,t r r t r l o l l : r t c n ) o r L ' l ' L r i l vt l i s c O er . c r l : 1 . , 1 c x l r l a i r r e c l r Conccalecl at lrrst, arrti srnuil, l)ut :l)rci!rlir).q :ool) l - r 1 . ' t l rfe r r l o t $ . . l t / o t t t t t s . / ) r ) D t / / / / J , , \ ritr i , i . ) r , 1 ro r S l l t l l i t o , i r r r J r\nrorrg tire sons of'tnen, rncl i.rurrring c,,rr, l r i s b o o k I ) c l i l d i i s \ r r s u se t L u c i s , p L l , : i r l i t t i I v l t i s l l i r r r . i 'l'clLchcr o1' art arrrl use, lLntl lirrrnt ol l)o\\.rr., / t ' t r l o / t t s a t \ r c . i c c , i r t t i t e \ . c r r r 6 r r , : L r r r ir r . i t t c r r : r , r . r r t V r r v g r ; r t t ' i ' u l e r : l i n o r v l e c l g c n ) e n t sr i r e c l u e t o ] i r . / / , . t \ v c 1 1 t 1'' e i L r s c i b r c . l i o r h e t e i L c l r c s l r c re i r , * . t l r c i r r t r .ir, r ) J. b t / t,t,t;,, ir,r. i:i,:ii:t:rtirrglre cornlrlction ol- this t borv is'racle i'rou'd c l r o p so f r . a i , l ) \ ' t \ v o r r . l l . : L . r i r i r s , i ' lrepcr. t l r e s u t r ' s l i g l t t , t r n c l o n e r e l l e _ r i o nl r c t u . c e n t l r c l n , l n i i t h c 5 t : t r i i s i r l o r r I - r r L r t r c , l o n t g o r r r c r l , C i t l ,I ,I i s s o L t r i ,r g : o I ) e c . t o . -\ 't'. r x t e r i o r b y t i v o r e l l ' a c t i o n sa n d t u , o s o r t s o l ' r c l i c r i o r i s i r e t j. /. Stt. u ' e e n t l r e r r ii n e a c h c l r o p o f r v a t c r , l r r r l l r r o ' e s l i i s c - r P l i c r L t i o n s I . l ' O s t s ( . r ) l ) t . : j n t c t r r t r : i t i n g l r e t L l r o Yp u l r t r i t l t u s t c l r y c x p c r i n r c n t sr u a d e r v i t h a l t h i a l l i r i l o { ' * , l L t c r , a n c l l , i t h g l o l . r c so l - g l a s s l l l l e d r v i t h r v a t c r , u r r L i p l r L t : e cilr r t l r c s u n t o 0 t : t : t t r r e t l t o l r r c l i i : r t t ] r r . r r r r l r i l t .0 l t i r r \ , l L V ci r ( ] u o r ) l n l l ) i I l n t e i r r i r r gt l r c c . r : r : i l l l L t i . r(l r r l r l i t r i , i r i e t r l l i , l L r i r r r r r g i r t t c r l u u i r r c - r i s i b r n l L k c t h e c o l o u r s o 1 ' t l r c t r v o l t o r v s u p l r c l r r i n t l r er r r . n sorrre$rrLt il)orc ( riririril\'. \\')r.ri u ,lr,,1i is tlisturLrtl li.onr ] I t i s r i ' c l l k r r o * , n l l t . t t - \ : it r , / , t t t ' sr , \ l ) r l i t i l ( n I s r ) r ) 3. r tlrc spircricui lirrrrr its lrgLrrc.stillrrtcs lrrrrr rr Irolute to a. < . l o r s , r v i t h t h e c i c r : o . t 1 t r s i t i o .l L . d r c r : , r . l r c l s i r i r r ro i ' * , l r i t c oi,lutc ellipsoid, or vicc ycrsu. 'l'lrus it rrlry Le u,orth rvhile l i t h t l r y r n e a n s o l - p r i s n r s , u , c r e L eg r r n i n r 6 6 6 , l l r t n o t 'l'r'r:atise to <:orsidcr thesc cxtre'rc s1-lheroid.l rorr's of'the globulc1 ^ r i i l i s l r c cil' i i r l l r i n t i l r 7 o 4 , * ' h e . r l r r c c l el r r r i r t ' t l 'l'he '1'ltc r. ProlatcS1_rlreroid. c i l u r L t i o to f t h e ' t e r i d i o ' r r l r o n O l r t i c s a y r l i e a r e c l .S i . t : e r \ i r z r , / a z zr' ls L vt i r c r c l r a s l r e c . u o r I u a t e r i r l c h a r g c i . t h e t l r c o r . y. l t l r c , , , 1 , , , s l ' t l r e r l L i n b o r v . s e a u o i l l s o ( , ,) 1 . I l l L v i n e l r a c i o c c a s i o n t o e r l r r r r i r r cl i e t h c o r y o l - * ' l r i t : h g i v e s t (1,!itt2)(rr.,,rr) . ,,.t: t h c r a i n b o n ' r v i t l t r r t u c h a t t c n t i o n i n t i t , : \ . r i L r I c ;r t i , I r v a s 'l'lrc c l i i i er e n t i a l c l c r r r e t o l t h e r o l u r r r t i . n l e d t o c o n < : e i v et l t : r t t h c \ v r \ . c s u r r t c l n { i r n ( l l c u v i r r g t h c i l z r . : ; , 1l l , ! ; u ) ) l l t ! _ . r . r J 1 . r c d r o p s r v o u l d c x e r t i l I ) r e s s r l r ct o \ \ ' a r c l st h e t : e r r t r . el,r n c l t l i u s t o l b r r n a n e w t h e o r y o f l ) ) o l e c u l a r f o r r : t : s t l t l r c n r l i n g o n r v h i c h I r y i r r t c { r a t i o r r u r v c s: w l v e - a c t i o n . A t l e n g t h , a f t e r s e v e r a l) , c u r so l ' r t : s e r L r t : l I ,h l v e t _.vrl tl r u : jt (t,,1,,,1 (,)) ,1'qrz: l r c c n a b l e t o o u t l i n e a p r o o l ' t h a t h e r c t o l b r e r v c l r a r . cr c c o g : r r ( l , r i u 2( u r - r - t / , , . r . r '-)i ) , n i z e d o n l y a s m a l l I ) r r t o f t h e r l ' l v c s e c l . e t so l - r r r r t r r r . u . \r/ I I ri'c ciLlcrrllLtethc voiurne l'rotl the lilrtne pessing 5 . A c c o r d i n g l y , i t a l t p c a r s t h a t t h c s t u r l l ,o l ' t l i c n r i n o, u : o, uncl thereb o r v h a s l r n a l l y l e d t o t l l e c a u s co t ' ' r . l e t : u l a r l b r c c s , i r r c l . < l i . g t h r o u g h t h i : c c r r t r c , r v e h e v c l b r . . : : o . l { e l c c l r et q . e c 1 t l r e ] i r l i t s . r : (1, o, .!. : t h e p l t e n o m e n o no f l i g h t n i n g , r v h i c h s o l o n g y r r o v c ctl e r r i f y i n g lbre alscr . 'f ',, : 2f.;n b2a t o n i a n k i n c l , a n d u t t e r l y b e l , i l d e r i n g e v e n t o t h e r u o s t l e a r n e J rve have 'u-tf1;rcbra. n a t n r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s .' - [ ' h er a i n b o r v i t s e ] f i s b e a u t i l u l , b u t i t s rvave origin was suggestive o[ deel)er secrets of' ntture. ln A s n / , J i s t h e a r e a o f t h e c i r c l e c l e s c r i b e do n t h e fact, if our new theory of molecular forces be admissible, c o n j u g a t e axis, and 24 is the transverse xis, ancl the volunre r

tfrrs great arch of light so splendidly spanning the hea.i,ens during rains lncl thu'derstor'ls no\\, beco'es n'thin{r less than a triumphal arch of cliscovery. l3y the stLrdl,of the i l l u ' i n a t i o n o f t h i s g l o r i o u s a r c h \ \ , ea r e e ' a b l e c i t o I)enetrate the nruch deeper ntystery of'atrnosl;hcric electricitv and o1' t h e l i g h t n i n g , r v h i c h i n a l l r L s c s h a s s l . r r e a cfie a r a n c , it e r r o r i n t h o s e r v h o r c j o i c e d t o b e h o l d t h e s p l e n c l o ro f t h e r a i n b o s . . 6. Accortlinglt', if nranhind shoulcl hereafier be ablet o ' i e w t h c . r i r l r o r v , r L r - rt c le l i g h t n i n ( s o l r - c r 1 u c ' t lu s s o c i u t e c i h y r v i t h i t , i ' c a l r n r c i r s s r l r { n c e h a t l > o r l rp l r e n o n r e r l c l e p e . d t o . r t h e a l l - p c r - r ' a t l i ' g et l . r r a n d r c l ) r c s et t l r e s a ' e u a r . c - o r c l c r a e . i n n u t u r e , i t < ; L r s htto a l l b r c i s o r u e c o l t s o l a t i o l tt o l t i t i l o s o/l,r h e r s t o r e e l i z e t l r r r t t i i ei r r e s e u r c h c s ,l r e g i n n i n g * . t t h , j , / t t o , t . i c / t ' s lriorrccrcliorr in tlle uge ot'1)otlt, sLrl.rsetluently.extendcd br ,.ltt/ottitrs /)ouutis, /)L,s(dt./(.s rlt a.nd, Ai,u,/ott i1 the r 6ri,, , -r, a n c i t S t r 'c c n t u r i r s , h a v e h n a l l y b r o u g h t t o I i g i r t e n e v c n grcrrtcr sccl'et or tlre tt'i'ersc. U'cier tlre circttarstJaLcs li t . r c i r - i r c r r r c ro l - t i i r ( l r c e k s , r v h o h a c l b r o u g l r t d o * . n t l r c l r g l r t n i n q , r L s t i r c n r o s t c i r r z z l i n gl l a s h o l ' t l t e a e t h e r o l ' t h c skii.s, rloulrtlc:i \i ould hlr.c exclrLirne rvitir ,,ltsr/n,itts: cl

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perceive that there is not only an alterationof figure, from a llrolatc spheroicl to a s;rhere,and from a sphere to rn o b l a t c s p l r c r o i d , o r v i c e v e r s a , b u t a l s o t h a t a n a l t e r a t i o no f volulrc s'oLrld l;c cxpectcd to o('cur e\cept for thc incor-np l c s s i l ) i l i t ] .o f t l r c l l u i d u n d c r t h e s l i g h t f o r c e o f s u r f a c et e n s i o n . 'l'ire i n f o n r p r e s s i l r i l i to f l i q u i d s ,h o l ' e r , e r , n r p o s e sh e c o n d i t i o n : i y t Sphere O l r l . S y r h c r .- P r o l . S p i r c r .: '1 - tf llsn r3 un b'! a' f : t r ra r 6 : : 7. t(a,b,2) f"(62 t,) or \t,) 'l'h i s r c c l u i r e st b a t f o r a n o s c i l l a t i n g g l o b u l e t h e a x e s a and 1, in thc ts'o spheroidal fornrs nrusttake successively a p p r o 1 r r i ;c t l a l u c s , 1 ' e t r v h e n t h c f o r r n o f t h e s p h e r o i d h a s tr el t c l r n t c r l , t h c a r c s a r e n o t i d c n t i r : a l i n t h e t * ' o c a s c s , a n d s l r o u l r ll r c * ' r i t t c n a s i n e r l u a t i o n ( r ' ) . . 1 . I f u ' e c o n s i ( l c r t h c r c s i s t a n c et o t h e * ' a v e s , c i u e t o t h c l l u i r i s i n t l r c p r o l a t c a n d o b l a t e s p h c r o i r l s ,n ' h e n t h c a x i s s o f t h c r : i r r : u n r s c r i i r i nc y l i n d e r s c o i r r c i c i e s ' i t h t h e n r a j o r a r i s of tlrc lrrollte encl thc minor axis of thc oblatc spheroid, it is cvirlcrrt 1l'orrr tlrc above equations thrt the Arthiutdean t thcorcnr will holrl riqoroLrsly rue for thcse trvo orthogonally' ' ' r i r r r . l . r r t ; ' r i : r l I , n s i t i o r l sj . t s t a s i n t h e c x s c o f t h e s p h e r e r i t r c u t c r l i n l ; i g , . 5 : r l r o v c . I n t h c s ec r s c s t h e r e s i s t a n c e o t h e t l r i v r . s r l L r t 't o t l r c l l r r i r l s 1 r ' h c r o i c i s e x a c t l , v : / : 1 o f t h a t c l u e t o t i r t ' r i r , , l t 'r v l r t t , l c r o l - l l t r i r l . ljig. z:. l lrcorl ol rvalc'irction orr o.r;illrtirtI ilro1r rrl l i r l t r i , l l l t c r r r r l c l r ' l r r o l r l c r t t t r lo l r J r t e ,t l t c c t r c L t r r r , l l r : u l r t . n t l r ( ' : r \ c s o l - t h c l l u i d s p h e r o i d sa r c o b l i r l u e , : c r i 1 , i r g c r ' l i r t r l c r t r r i r t g l x i s o l r J i t l r r ca t t , l i r c i r l q l o r i r r r : , i n . , ,l it i l l r \ . l rn g t c t o t l r e a r i s o f t h c r : i r c u t l s c r i i r c d r o r r r c r v l r r lr ; r r i r l r l r : i r r f i r r t n ; t t r r lr l i t n c t r s i o r r r l, l t i c l r o o c r ' l i n , l t ' r ,t l r . t l r r ' , r i t r r r i t i r c r r r t i o 1 , , f o r t h e r e s i s t a n c c l ' lroucltr lor tlrc sllir: of siruplicitv i. ttL'trLp o t l r c p t s . i n g s a v ts u r l i n o t i r o l jr. I n t h c o l r l i , l u e o s i t i o n i i n 1 1 r cl r g r r r c . 1rrr,.,,ntcrl o t t h c r x c s t h c s c < : t i o n f - t h c c v l i n r i c ri s n o t c i r c u l a r , L r t t r e i r l l l ' ( unlscril)('(1 ( vlin(icr thr:rclbrc 2it lJa., il follorvs thtt ol tirc r:ir c , c ) l i p t i < : u l . \ n c l c v c n i l ' t h e r ; i r c u n i s c r i b i n gy l i n d e rb c c l l i p thc lolunrc ot- tlrc l)rolrLte cJlipsoirl is to tlrat of the circttttrt i r : a l , t h c s r v c r c s i s t a n c ed u c t o t h e e n c l o s e d o b l i q u e J yt i l t e d s c r i l ) c c l c \ - l i n ( l c r : r s : : - i , r r l r i ,h i s : r r c r ) ] a r k a l ) l cc x t c l t s i o t l s l r l r c r o i d su ' i l l l r c l c s s t h n r r : / , o f t h a t d u e t o t h e r v h o l ec y l i r - r c l e r . i o 1 - t h e c e l c l ) r a t c ( l t l r c o r c r n o l - . l tt / r i r t r t l t ' . r l l t t s t n r t c r l a l r o v c 'l'lrc (r) \\'xvcl)ressure t the trvo cnds of the sphcroids, a 'in liis..5. 'l'hc( parel)cl to tlic pollr arcs, is relatilcly greatcr than from thc ) b l a t eS p h c r o i c l I n t l t i s r : r L s \cv c h i t v c o b v i o t t s l r ' . 2. v u r i o r r so l r ) i r l t t cr i i r c r : t i o n , s . (r,) i7,: 1 . r ' l c l t '. c l l , l \ \ ' h i 1 ' t t l r t ' u x c s o t - t i r c s p h c r o i r ' lrs r n a i n f i x c c li n A n c l o n s u l ) s t i t u t i n qf o r . r ' r i t s l a l u c f r o r t r t h c c r l t t a t i o no l l ) o : i t i o n t l r e s i r i t ' s ( ) l t h c l - r g l l r ea r c t h u s f o r r : c c li n o r o u t , the cllipsc,n:uncl\': r r s t i r c r r . t ' r r ; r r ' l ' e, t i i l t l r c n r o t t o n i s c h c r : k c d b y ' i n e r t i a (fi) (a:/1li) . (1,,_,, ,) .,j.r: , l n l r r n c r i n rn r o n r c n t r l n )a s t h c g l o l r u l cr l a i n t a i n si t s v i b r a t i o n ; { 'trc qet in likc ln:lnlrSr: , a : u r d t h i s o s r : i l J l t i o r rh c r c t o i - o r c t t r i b t r t e ctlo t t n k n o r v nm o l c c u l a r ,: f 1 - 7 p( a ' ) t , 2 )( t , J . r - 1 / . , - 1 - +r-)r . ( r ) f o r c c s , i s r e a l l r . t i u c t o t h c r t n c i l u a l l ' a v e p r e s s u r e x c c t l t n u t, : ; t \ o ' t ; ' 1. f ( 1 , ' - . , ' ) 1 1 , t l a t i n q a t t l r c l r o u n r j a r r - o l -i ) e l l u i d i n t h e d i f f e r c n t c l i r e c t i o n s . c A n d b e t l ' e c n t h e l r r o p e r l i n r i t s ,t h i s c x l ) r e s s i o l lf o r l l > e o r u c s : 'l'nc (c) a l r o v c l l g u r e r r ' i l l c o n v c y s o r n e i l l ) p r c s s i o n so t ' p,:tj. ;ra'tl (r) t h i s o s c i l l a t i o n i n r t r ' p i c r L c a s e , b t t t t h e e n c l o s i n gc 1 ' l i n d e r o f t h c c e l c l t r a t e d n r r r s t b e c o n r : c i l c r l a s s o m c r v h a tv a r i a b l e i n f i q u r c l n c l d i n'hich is allothcr rcnrnrkalrlc c\tcnsion 'l l theorerr of /rrhintdrs illu-stratcrin lrie.5 above. s n r c n s i o n s . h c s c a d d i t i o n a l c o n s i d e r n t i o n s h o r vt h a t t l r e r l ' a l c I f s ' c c o n r p n r t t h c l o l u r u c s o l - t l r c t \ \ ' o s p l i e r o i d s h c r c t h c o r l n r a l l r c a c l r p t c c lt o t l i e b c h a v i o r o f c l r o p si n o s c i l i a t i o n c o n s i d e r c r l ,\ \ ' c f i n d : N S \ v c l l r r s t o t l ) o s c * ' h i c h h a v e s e t t l c d d o s ' n t o t h e f i g r r r eo f I ' .1 t. O l r l . S p l r e r o i d: P r o l a t e S p h c r o i t i : e r l u i l i l r r i r r r r , i l ' h i < : hs ' h e n f r c e f r o t n e x t e r n x l f o r c e s , i s t h a t I t t h u s a l ) l ) e a r st h a t t h e l o l u l r e s o f ' t l t e t \ \ ' o s l ) h e r o i ( 1 s o f a s p h c r c . a r e a s t h e i r g r c a t c r a n d l e s s e ra \ e s r c s l ) c c t i r e l \ ' . A c c o r c l i n g l l ' , T. j. j..Src. r q : r l i c l r .r g . r cb o t h e l o l u m e s o f t h c c 1 ' l i n d e r s r t h o . q o n a l l v: i r c t t u r s c r i b ea l o u t z. l'ostscript. thcrr u'orrld also bc irr the ratio ol a:|t. ,'\nd the tirchinrietut 'l'hcor1. of tire lilorv of \1/alcs in Right I-ines throug)r t h e o r e u r o n t h c r a t i o o f t h e v o l u n r e s o f t h e s p h c r o i d st o t i r c is :/i. any Corrical Spacc ro, and of the Change of the l)oublc i orthogonallv circurnscribcd c1')inciersrr cach case 3 . N o n ' l ' h c n r v e c o n s i d e r a d r o p o f w a t e r o r o t h e r lntegral of the \\taves over an)r Cloqed Surface S, rvhen 1{etlt trcan figrtre, r'hich is spherical, rvc f r a c t i o n o c c r r r s, r ' i l h i r rt l i e I i n c l o s e r lS l t a c e r ) tltl!r.!l -l "llo_ut

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srrrrouncling the sotrrr:c. Ilent:e l'e verii-1'tlre alrovc 1-orntttla (7 ), that li.'r all tirc intcrntl sotlrccs thc integral is the sr.rtrr q:r ).,r. ol'the scvcral sourcr'sc,i rltlirttion L;, ancl thtts cciual to

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, t ' , (.tl \ N o r v c o n s r c i c r l i g l r t r i l t t e s l l r i t i ' i n g i n c r . r n i r : r t ls t r e l L l t t s t' u r r t l ) ' - I ' r ' ,) ' l t ' : r . 1 1 1 ) \r1t't) i l ' o r n t l r e o L r j c c t s o t - t i t e t r l t t t r i u l t t r r i rr : r s e i t t t ' t c r v t l i r t c t i t . r r t . i n p r a c t i c e t l r i s e x p r e s s i o ni s l l r t i t e r L n d I e s s t l t r t r t t l t c It is easiiy secn thut tlre lrqirt rt'r t'iveil ll'ortt lL r.rrritbrnrll r l , . r r i g h t n e so f t h e s u n ' s d i s c , a n c l t h u s e i t h c r t i r e r t n i v e s e i s s illunrinated pllne sttrlrtcc, *'lrcrr tltc ttorttral is inclinecl at hnite, or an absorption oi liglit by costuical clltst itr syrirce the ansle d, is rcprescnteti by thc tlouble integral: is considered probable. (s) d rt Lct l, be the {lorv of Iig}rt in straight iincs, 1'r'orrr J ' ) 'I ' l r ) t : o s c l s ' . , ,.t l u n r i n o t t s p o i n t , u n d c r c o n s t i l n t r v a v e I ' c l o c i t y ; t h en i l ' i - l r e I t u r a y l - , c s l t o r r ' n t h a t 1 < l ra c l o s e < ls t r r l r t c c ,u ' h i c h h a s t l l c ( l i s t : l n ( o l t l r e l t l t r r i r t o tl t s i t t t ,t l r e i r r t t ' r r t i t )t ,r l , l l l : t l l ( i t y n o i n s i c l es o r l r ( r c 1 l i g l r t , t i r i s i n t t ' r r r a v a n i s l r t s ,l r e c l t t t ste c e h l o ro t' s o l ' l i g i r t * ' l r i c l r p a s s e t h r o L r g i rt t n i t o l - s L l r l - r t t l r c r p t ' t l t i i t : t t l r r r o r i g i n l r l l r L v t r l i s t r i l r r . t t i o ir tt r t l t c c < i t t t s c t l s l r l t tc i s t i t t t ' l t l L t l g t t l . t t o t h e r a y i n r . t n i t o l ' t i r t t e , u i i l i - r cl ) r o l ) o r l i o r l r r io t l l c ' i l - . \ n r l l o r : r l l - . l r c L l s( ) i c r L L l i t lt L l l i l i rtrt t l r r i g i l I l t c : r \ ] ) o : c r ( l g t s t ( l u n r i n a t i o n o f s t e a d y i n t c n s i t ; d et l n c d l - , 1 - l r c u , l r . L , rrtri): i : , : o l t t i r c : : l l r l r ' ( ( ) l l t ' i l . r l L l L L ci , s t o l l s l . ' t l l t . 'Iiris r ) ,.: (:r lir.,tuitctt it) riglrt lines, tilc

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h b l f ' t h e s u r f e c ei l l L r n r i n a t e d e i l l c l i n c c l r t t a t l r t t t s i c , j c \ l ) r r s 5 i ( ) r I I ( ) r l l r u , i l i ; t i , r r s - l l i g t i l r < - r L l g t l r ' : c l o s e c l s t l r f ' l t t : e o to the ray, we irave for the intensit)' ol'the ilitrnrirrrttiotll l u n i s l r c s i - o r a l l c r t c r n r t i : o r i r t c s , i s o f t h e h i q h c s t s i g n i l r t a n c t : i t a f t o r d s a n e s l . r c r i t r t c n t u t t tc r u c i s a s t o t h e l l o r v o f l i e h t s r r c hn t i l t e d a r e a ' . I , : ( r f r 2 ) ) . c o s 6 . \4/ 1l'onr all sourccs in slrherical concs in rvhich the light clistri'l'oil In tlie article Light, !)ncycl. 13rit.,9'l' ed., ltoints b u t i o n r e u t a i r r s h o n r o g e l l e o t l s - f i e ' e f r o l r t r e l r u r : t i n g o r o u t t h a t t h e s e t r v o i n t e n s i t i e s a r e e x a < : t l 1 ' s i n r i l l rt o t l r c f b l - r l i s p c r s i n g t . l i s t u r b i t n c c s - - r t n r i l t n v o t h e r k i r r t l o l ' i i o * ' . q i v c s l o r v i n g e x p r e s s i o n s : I i t l u a t i o n ( : ) i s t h e c x p r e s s i o l i I i r r t l r t : t l r i s i n t c q r u l a l l n i t e v l l t r e r l i i l t ' r r n t i r o t t t z c to . I l t t t t c i t t 7 g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e e x e r t e d b y a l l a r t i c l e o l ' t t t r t s s - , , t ' r Lt t l l i t g e n c r a l l e l r a v e l l t d i s t a r t c ee - ; a n d ( a ) i o r t h e r e s o l v e c ( r o r r r l ) ( ) r l e r l t of natter 'l'his =v r l . \-'' r,i,' I r ).,, .1. (s) is ln rrtltlitional of this lbrce on a gii'en direction. J ' . f ' , r l . l , l , r ' , 1. \ ' . 1 ' : 'l'o rrrc lrotlt tittt:Io \\'rl\'('s. indication that gravitatiorrantl light l l r p l y t ] ) c i i l ) ( ) \ c t l t c o r t u i s t o t r a p i l l l i r i t l ': r t r t l o t i t e r

s A c c o r d i n g l y , i f t h e r e b e a n y n u t t t b e r o f ' s e l ) l t r l l t e o l L r ( r e s r n o l e c r L l l L lr o r t : c s , i t : t t l l i c e s t o c l t c l o s c t h e l l L r i d a t t h e p o i n t o f l i g h t , w e m a y e n r p i o y , f o r c a l c r t l a t i o n o l - t h c e t t c t : t , a r r u n t i e r i n v c s t r r - l e t i o r t l . r , - r ' ,; ) , I ' i t h a s l i h e r i c a l s t t r l i t r : e o f c o t l e x p r e s s i o ne x a c t l y a t t a l o g o t t st o t h a t o l ' t h e g r a v i t r t t i o n e l o r v c r r i c n t r r L r l r u s , s c - rt l i l t t l t c r t l t v e s l r o t t r e x t c r n a i s o t t r c e s t t r e rcdistributed lr1' rclr.action, ciisliersion, etc., ri'ithin tlrc slrhere electric potential, trrttnelY:
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f a i l u r e .o f t h c i n t c g r a l o v e r t l r e c l o s c r l s u r f a c c t o v n n i s h , i m p i i e s t h a t t h c a c t h c r e n ln r e d i u r t r s s t r c s s c db y t h e l c f r a c t i o n s , i d i s p e r s i o n s ,e t c . , a l o n . q t h c p a t h s o f c e r t a i n c o n c s , t l ) l r s c l e v c l o p i n g f o r < : c s , ' h i c i r r l a v l r c c o r . n r ' l r r i t c a r t t ci n c c r t n i n c e s c s . u c ) I t i s u p o n t l r i s i r r t c g r a l ( r z ) t h a t t h c n t o l e r : u l a rf o r < : c s d e p c n d : a n c l a s t h e i n t c s r a l f o r t h e c f f c c t so f t i r c r c c i i s t r i l r u t c d \ \ ' A l c s o v e r t h c c l o s c d s L r r f : r c its n o t z c r o , t l r c u ' a l c - p r i n c i p ) c : o f L e a s t r \ c t i o n a l s ' a l s r l a k c s t h c i n t c g r a l l b t ' t h c s u r t rt o t r t l o f t h e a c t i o n o 1 ' t h c r v a v c sa l o n e a l l t h c i r a c t u a l p r t h s a 'l']rus nrinimtttr. t i r c r c s i c l r r e/ i n ( r z ) i s r n a r i c e s s r n a l l ' possiir)e. as A < : c o r r l i n g l l t I c r e a r e p l r l ' s i c : alli n r j t a t i o n si p r l t o s e d b y n a t t l r e u l ) o r t t h e g c o n r e t r i r : n ic o l r i i t i o n s l n c l e r l ] ' i n O a u s s ' s g t h c o r e n r st h a t i n t h e t h c o r y o f t l t c p o t c n t i e l :

'l'hcse r. c e l c l r r a t e dt h e o r e n r s ( A l l g e m e i n e L e h r s i i t z e , \\ s z z , G z z r z . r . r' c r k c , t t d . V , p . z z 4 ) a r e b a s e d u p o n r e c t i l i n e a r \ a r : t i o n s i n n a t u r c * ' h i c h f o l l o r vt h e l a r v o f t h e i n v e r s es q u a r e s , as slrecificaliy pointccl out by Gauss in his introductory rclr)irrlis\ ', r. \, z . I l , t h c r c f o r e ,t h c r e b c i n n a t u r e f o r c c sd u e t o w a v e s ,s ' h i c h s u l l - c rr c f r a r : t i o n o r d i s p e r s i o n r r ' h c n t h e r v a v c p a t h i s t h r o u g h h c t c r o g c n c o u sn l a t t c r , a s u ' b c n a f l u i c l i s i n c o n t a c t r i i t h a s o l i r l o r o f s r r c l i s h a p c n s t o c a u s cr e f r a c t i o no r c l i s -r l r c r - s i o n , t h e s ct h c o r c n t so f G a u s ,c e a s et o h o l d r i g o r o u s l yt n r e . r . I t i s r r l r o n s r r r : hp r i n c i y r l c s t h a t t h e f l u c t n a t i o n s o f t h e r r o o n r l c p c n r i . , \ n c l i n : r d i f f c r e n t r v a y , t h c s t r e s sa r i s i n q fronr *'alc action givcs rise to lloiccular anclatomic forccs (cf. scction j alrovc). r sz r .fuly 4. T. J. J. Src.

f )f ) ( ' / , ' ) c o s d d s : o .

e P h o t o g r a p h i s c h e O p p o s i t i o n s h e l l i g kit des Neptun 1920. Von 1( Sc/.riitlc.

stclrcrrrlcI'nrcscyrcinr Iirclrs gc\\,iihlt, fiir rvclchc clie S'rlu,arrI n d c n - l l h r c n I g 2 o - 2 r r t t a t : l t t ci t : h l u f A n r c q t t l l g v o t l ( . c , - / u r ' l r 1 . slrr'h o tn q r a p h i s r ' h c nl r i i f l c n a n g c l l o n n r c r tr i - r r r c l e n l ) . hc o l I ' r o { ' . I l ' i / l ' r t t s u n r l i t r I i o r t s c t z . t t t t qv o t l c i c s s c t . c i q c l l c n , 'c I ) i c I r l t o t o ( r r r l r l r i s c iI r ) r t i n k t i o ni s t q l c i r ' ) t r l c r : . . i - f r L r : 1 rv ir-t c bishcr nic:lrt vcriill'cntlichtcrt llcobar:lltlllrqcll. crtrrlbkrlc -'\ut: c l t n a h n r c n d c r , 1 l r c l l c r c n . f t r p i t c r t r a l ) e 1 l t c l lz, w c r : k s I l r n r i t t c l t r r l q s r r c l i c n( ( ' : ! l r t . I t i t S c l r u : i r z r r njg r i c s S c h e i l r r : l t e nrs r c l c
Hcrrn ihrcr photogrlplrisr:lrctr IIelliekcitsschtrttlkttttgcn .I)a i n r l i c l r r r u r rr r n d \ [ r i r z , r o : o . T t t l , i t c r t t t r r l \ c I t t t n z t t r Zcit dcr ( )pposition schr trrirc atrcittltlticr vorl>ciqingcn, so l)la'.tcn attr:h rlcr Neptttn, s'otltit belinclet sich lul'ntchrcrcn h i e r u n l r e a l - , . s i c h t i gt l i e ( l c i c e c n h c i t g c g c l ) c r ) u ' a r , s c i t r e p h o t o graphische Helligkcit ztt Incssclt. I )a clic Utttersttchttngen [ilrer die Jupitermondc rroclr Irir:ht abqcschlosscrr sincl, sci hicr -eine spritcre ausfiilrrlichcr;c Vcri)ffcntlichrtng vorlrchaltolri

ge : - . 1 t l l : t l t i : - , lt'll t : i t l q i ( r ' . t l e i l ' t : t t l r j C r s r : h l i t zttt t t r lc l a t r nq c r n i t t c l t . i , S \ l c h r l e n t . \ ' , :r t , - r : . . r j , ' i ' , , / . c i t c nl h l : i r z u n g s ( c s c t z f i i r q i c i r ) t r : l ' , x l , o s i t i o r . z c i t c itrb ) g tr ) : _ :1 1 \ 1 11 1 . ( - r , _ - r ) r r . . _ r , r

rvolrci rr - Skalcnl'ert der bcnutzten Skala, nach cler tr'lcthocle dcr klcinstcrr (]urclrate atts den Praesepesternen estinrrr-rt; b - S c h \ \ ' i i r z r u r . q s r n i t r ce r \ r e r g l e i c l r s t e r n c ( r t : tl l photoeraI J, p h i s c l r c I , , x t i n k t i o nr l c r \ - c r g l c i r : i r s t c m c r , r . : l ) ' h o t o g r a p h .i c h t : ; clcti Ncptttrl lrctriffi, s das Iirgclrnis cier -\ttsnrcrssttng, ol'cit r:s ' I , , r t i n l t t i o nr l r . sJ u p i t c r u n t l N c p t t t r . rs - S c l r l ' : i r z u n g s z i f f c ri c s < n r i t g c t c il t . ' \ c p t r r n , l i o r r - i g i t ' r rtv c q c n l , a q c a u f r l c r l ) l : r t t cu n d S k a l a , u n c i I )cr S-z0lligc Ii.cfraktor clicnte als Iiichtfcrnrohr, l'ri.hrctrti r ) r z r i r c , r r r r l r r sl l r t t c i , l / , t i c r p h o t o g n r p h i s c h c n l c l l i { r l i c i t I dic ..\u[nalrnrcn sc]lrst trit cincm dcr Stcrtrl artc lor-r clcrrZci[' < l t - r V c r g l c ' i < . ] r s t c n(rrc o r r [ r r t i n k t i o n l r c l i c i t ) a n z u l r r i n g c n c l c \ \ ' c r k e n z r rr \ l c r f i i q u n q g e s t e ll t c r - r4 - z i ) ll i q e r r p h o t o t r a p h i s c l r c : r r ( l r i i l l c n < l i f tr c n z r i c s N e p t u n i s t . I n L r n s e rn r l i a l l e , s ' o r o i e O l , j c k t i v v o n c t \ \ ' a r . g o n r R r c n n r v c i t c a t l s g c l - t i h r ts r l r d c n . l ) i c r l c r i r c l l s t c nI ' n r c s c p c s t c r n b e r t u t z lt ' u r d c t t , i s t , I f n : 7 T r 4 . e 2 - I - 1l l l l l l c x t r a l b k l r l t r n t l i)lattcn (o x r z cnr) lrcflncicrtt sit:it t I)ic Irntl'icliclrrns clcr l)latten geschah urit lloclinal r : r -5 z e i g e n k l c i r r e S t e r r r s < : h c i l r c h c lvro n c a . o . 6 l n m l ) L t r c h t r l e s s c r ; : L r ' h tJ l i n r r t c n l a n q b c i Z i n r m e r t e n t p e r a t u r . gcschl'ltrzt
r t t l c lI l a l r c t t t t r t r dicsellrcn sind irr rlcr )litte irotnogetr anr ll.ancle cincn nreltr otlcr s'ctriger <lrtnklcn st:hrtralen liinq. A l s \ r e r g i c i c l r s t o r n cw L t r r l c t l i c i n t l c r N i l r c < l c s . f r r p i t c r 'I)a (a (t /,r 1,, I'l . tunr n. L. (ir . o ' l ' r S o " ;z z 24'r' 24'' ,16 rgzo llCrz ro.463 ) o r2 o'I .5 z'l 21 22':i9o 1q

l)ic l)aten 6 lrrauchbarerPlatten (r\e[r.Isolar-l')rtten 'I-alrclle: r l c r l , l n r u l s i o n z ( t 7z ) c n t h : i l t f o l s e n c i c

r\ttt )lrp Sk. s d d ./ttt .t' o ' l ' 2 4 4 - l - t ' 1 1 - 1 o- f o l ' o 6 3 ' l ' 6 o 2.2 f .r 3.r \2 -f r.:3 -Fo.os 8.5f r.j 3.6 7.3 o.25r 52 -+-o.o.5 8.SS > o.3 6 . 1 o . z ( : 5 - + -r . : 6 o.:lo o.4o ro,24 2.1 24.467 3.j 52 50 - l _r . z 8 -+o.o4 8.+6 o o.z6t o oq o'oq 2.2 3.j ro, t 6 t6 2 5 ' 3 . ir l.r 52 . 5I - + _. 4 4 -+o.o4 8,62 > I 0.46 2.4 :.8 3..1 0.258 o.:1 Io,?:+ 21 2-\.474 54 52 5 -f o.o2 -F l.io 8.+6 o.8 o.z8 o.r3 to, 16 16 April r7.136 :1.3 5.3 o.z6(t 58 59 r p d i e z u g e h c i r i s e np h o t o g r a p h i s c h e nE x t i n k t i o n e n ; S p n ) t e 7 Spalte r gilrt die n. L. C,r. der Reobachtung, d. h. die S g c l i e N r . d c r z L r rA u s n r e s - s u nb e n u t z - t e n k a l e n p l a t t e ; S p a l t e E N'Iitte der I,)xpositionszeit; Spnlte z gibt die Nr. der Platte; e c l i e S c h r v r i r z u n q s z i f f s rd e s N e p t u n ( k o r r i g i e r t ); S p a l t e 9 A b ' /o und l.r ciie ztrr r\ttstressltt-tg benrttzten I'lxSpaite 3,4 p o s i t i o n s z e i t c n l o n I ) r a e s e p e r l n d N c p t u n ; S p a l t e 5 , 6 r . u n c l s t a n d l d e s N e p t u n v o r r d e r P l a t t e n m i t t ei n c n ' r ; S p a l t e I o , t t
r) I'trblikation dcr lirrffnerschcn Stcrns'arte, Bd. V p. Cl99. )) . 1 . I l ' i 1 i ; t t t . , ,I ' h o t o q r a p h i s c h - p h o t o r n c t r i s c l r eU n t e r s t r c h u n g e n . A N 4t24-.5 l). f i5.

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> > I n h e s t r r d y , o f t b e , s o - c a l l e d, a b n o r m a l 'v a p o . r d e n t 'I'he I. La.rvsof Nature indicate that che.,ri."l | ... s i t i e sw e h a v e a l r e a d yf o t r n dt h r . t! sv ' 'm e nrrro lr e L u r s Jf' ,u r i nrs a au cc e era r o e r v cc les or r. l t , n r ^ - d E.x p-l r ^ ^v . . ^ F .o.r^c-e s ^ d)e^p_ .n d , o n- " ' \, \i ':^ ^"--' . : ' I r ., osi :e r ^^ . ^. 'r y A f f i n iit+ , , a nr e ^_ | : l, o . " , o ; ^a :m :r^ :o n'i.u . n1 " 1 :l : j r . i d e , a r e t ^:: ^ f : - n .. : t: ch o ," split up into two (or more)
Action I

'!7'ave-Theory Part L The of Chemical, Explosive, and Vital Forces.

iWith

eleven Plates.)

dissociation,Lectures TheoreticalChemistry, on I phenomenaof Universitl' of California, r9o4t p. 146: I

o f f i n d i n g p r i n c i p l e sc l e d u c e d r o m p h e n o m " l " , f i m l n e . o t r a l a r e d i s s o c i a t e ro,n e o f t h e r n o s te f f e c t i v e o d e s o f u n i t i n g m e a s t l r e m e n os s m a l ld i s t a n c e sa s i n t h e t h i c k l l , l sts lfcs ora PI t h e n r i n t o n r o l c c u l c n r a d eu p tf , s o f m o r e t h a n a s i n g l ea t o mi s I b u b b l e s , s ' h i c h m i g h t c n a b l e 1 1 st o p e n e t r a t e

on the nerv theory of the aether (AN 5 r3o) we heve treated studiecl by St. Claire Dtuillc. I)issociation is a so-calledreverI of the principal nlolecularforces s t t c h a s s u r f a c e . t e n s i o n s i b l e p r o c e s s ,i . e . o n l o r v e r i n g l h e t e m p e r a t . r e t h e p r o d u c t s ] ( w h i c h g i v e s t h e g l o b r r l a rf i g r r r e s o a l l l i t l r i d d r o p s . ) ,a c l h c s i o n _ ,o f d i s s o c i a t i o n r e - c o l T r b i n e . t j A chemical equilibrium exists c a p i l l a r i t y ,c o h e s i o n ,t h e t e n a c i t y o f s o l i d s ,e t c . - . L u t _ r e s c n e d I bets,een the original molecules and the pioclucts of their f o r t h c s i x t h p a p e r a n l o r e d c t n i l c d s t u d l ' o f t h c . . t l r t ' o . r y .l ' r l c t . o m p o s i t i o n , o t h e s t u d y o f t h e I a r v so f t h i s e q u i l i b r i u m "nd chemical affinity, explosive forces, and the so-callcrl )ivinq mry be eff'ecteclbJ, the help of thermoclynamics. 'l"his study forces, which depend principally rrpon chemicrl action. It 1.,n, bee., r,ery fruitfirl fbr tieoretical chlmistry, and rve will, has long been believed by.chemists tbat chemical affinity is therefore, consider the phe'ornenon of dissociation a little an electrical phenornenon1) Accordingly, if this coultl bc rrorc in detail.< . proved it rvould follow also that explosive forces and the >.lhe simplest case lof dissociation is that presented c h i e f v i t a l f o r c e s a r e e l e c t r i c a l i n c h a r a c t e r , d ^ e p c n d i n gi n 6 , t h e r n o l e c . l e s o f i o d i n e , r v h i c h a t l o r v t e m p e r a t u r e sa r e s o m e w a y t t p o n t h e a c t i o n o f r v a v e si n t h e a e t h c r ' i "^..,16.gd of t*,o iodine atonrs and at higher temperatures O n a c c o t t t t t o f t h e g r e a t i t r p o r t a n c e o f t h e p r o b l e m o f i a r e . s p l i tu p i n t o s i n r p l e a t o m s , a s t h e m o l e c | l a r r v e i g h tc l e t e r atomic forces and the profound obscurity in u'hich it has nrinaiions Iry I,trlol ,4[tt,rr (Rer. rggo, IJ.39+) ancl Crafls, been veiled, rve have labored first to make out.the natnre (Compt. rend., rggo, ! o . r g 4 ) , h a . , , en . ' o A " . u i , l " . , t . u ] 'l'his of the nrolecular forces. course rvas chosen in the hope | lt.r.htttirts thus distinctly points out that $,hen elenrents , l

Generar introductory remarks..rn nfth the n.0.. I ijT;:J":i::::;:,,::

rai'ing,:i:t:Iff:::H;"TT"::T::

smallerd r r L r r*ores i'visible mechanisml thc n,ol,r."' I a.d r r t ' / r r r r v t s r u r c l t t c c l r i l l r r s l l l of t l l c z t t u l l l s ' u

illto the still ]r^ """

l^..,.. rlrn rnrrrrrprrrrrre

Without elaborate argttment it rvould seern fairll' obvious ] t h a t i f w e c o u l d d e f i n i t e l i r e f e r s t t c h n r o l e c u l a r f o r ce s a s j s t t r f a c et e n s i o n , c a p i l l a r i t y , c o h e s i o n , t o r v a v c - a c t i o n , n o t h c r a i s t e p i n t h e s a m e c h a i n o f r e a s o n i n gs h o u l d e n e b l e u s t o g r a s l ) | t h e s t i l l f i n e r r n e c h a n i s m o n . w h i c h t h e a t o m i c f o r c e sd e p e n d . ] For experienceshows that nature is moderately con- t t i n t t o t t s i n h e r p r o c e s s e s ; a n d , j u d g e d b y t h e r l i s t a n c e sa t I rvhich they act, it is but a step from th.e molecular forces t o t h e a t o m i c f o r c e s . A c c o r d i n g l y t h e b e s t p r e p a r a t i o n f < r rI a study of the forces operative in the structure of the atoms ] is the u'ave-theory of the nrolecular forces already orrtlined I in the fifth paper. Admitting the prolrabilit;' that thc proofs I there given of the rvave-theoryof molecular forces are perbaps I yet to be somewhat perfected, we hoid nevertheless that so I powerfui an array of evidence as rve have presentedjustifies our adoption of the rvave-theory as a rvorking hypothesis. ] So porverful an argument drawn fiom sncl.r a variety of I p h e n o m e n a , a l l m u t u a l l y c o n f i r m a t o r y , i n c h a r a c t e r ,i t s e e m s I t o m e , c a n o n l y r e s t u p o n t h e b a s i s o f s u b s t a n t i a lp h y s i c a l I truth. But in order to strengthen the evidence already adduced I we cite the sreat authority o( Arrhnius, in the chemjcai I
,-_...-,--.

]s,aves

::^.1::'t^:^t':,.fll]l':.Tt".,,:^ m i c f o r c e s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e l1-'^:.f]:'::]]^''"h::-t]l.1lonc:'h.:u' arc rvithclrarvn, the ato

shorter- rvaves, become powerful enolgh to group iire atoms i n t o p " i r s o r h i g h e r c o n r b i n a t i o n sa s m o l e c u l e s . p o l l o r v i n g i h e , n , r " p i n c i p l e s ,a l l t h e s o - c a l l e cp e r m a n e n t l g.... have been liquifiert or solidifiedunder combi'nations f o u " . y h i e h t e m p e r a t u i e s y i t h v e r y g r e a t p r e s s u r e s .A i r , o x 1 , g e n , r hydrogen, and finally helium have been reduced to the liquid or so'lid state, by a process similar to that above outlined by Arrfienirs as applicable to chemical bodies generally. I r r v i e r vo f t h e s ec o n s i d e r a t i o n s i, t i s e v i d e n t , o n p h y s i c a l grounds, thnt the great processes of nature are essentially uniform and continuor:s. If therefore, rve rvithdrarv heat rvhich is a phenonrenonof long u'ave-action to enable the atomic forces to assert thernselves for the formation of nrolectiles of t*'o br more atoms, it is natural to infer that the cause of the molecular.and atomic forces is sir.nilar to the heat l\'aves by u'hich they are overcome. It rvoulcl be renrarkable if heat-waves ghould release forces not due to rvavesof any kind. A c c o r d i n g ) y , w e a r e l e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e w a v e - t h e o r yo f molecular and atomic forces. And it is verv difficult to see horv so obvious and simple an argument cin be evadcd,
J

(--

_ a

' ) V o l t a i c o r d y n a m i c e l e c t r i c i t y r v a s e x c i t e r l b y t h e f o r c e o f c h e m i c a l a c t i o n i n t h e p r i r n i t i v e e x p e r i m e n t so f G n b a n i , at Roir:gna, t 7 9 o , a n d t h e i r i r n m e t l i a t c d e v e l o p m e n ta t P a v i a , b y l ' o / / a , u ' h o m a d c u s e o f p l a t c s o f z i n c a n d c o p p e r ; a s i r r m c , , l c r nb a t t e r i e s .

t:';r cjl .;:T

,'5I 5I40
< t

As Mossotti says at the close of the introduction to his celebrated memdir Sur les forces qui rdgissent la constitution 'Iurin, r836: intdrieure des corps, >>C'estun argument qui me parait rndriter begucottp d'intdrdt, parce que Ia ddcouverte des lois de l'action rnoldculaire doit conduire les gdorn'dtresa construire sur ttn seul principe la rndcanique moldculaire, comme fa ddcouverte de la loi de I'attraction universelle les a conduits ir eriger sur une seule base le plus beau monulnent de I'intelligcnce humaine, Ia mdcanique cCleste.<

owing chiefly to the finite size of the atoms of rnatter. Have we not here an indication of the short rvaves which act to prevent conrpression of solidsl

r . A s r v e h a v e s e e n i n A N 5 o 4 8 , 1 ) .r 4 o - 4 r , r e s i s t a n c e breaks up long waves into shorter ones. Now if the process of n'ave disintegration finally stops, as ?lanch says it does, there must be an influence at work to counteract the breaking up of the waves. 'l'his 2. can only be the lirniting rvlve lengths corres'l'o ponding to the dimensions of the atonrs. rnake the waves In alluding thus to Mossotti's theory of molecular and shorter would tend to disrupt the aether betrveen the atoms. atomic forces; published 85 years ago, rve think it rvell to A n d a s t h e f o r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f a m e d i u m point out that this theory has some similarity to the rvave- 6 8 9 3 2 r 6 o o o o o n r o r e e l a s t i c t h a n a i r i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s theory, but also very notable differences rvhich rve cannot density, rvould be nearly infinite in magnitude, vast stresses altvay's are at rvork betrveen the atoms and rnolecules, both now go into, except very briefiy, As the particles of nraterial bodies are not in actual a t t r r c t i v e a n d r e p u l s i v e . 'I'he contact, Mossotti supposes that each is surrounded by an central stressyields enornlous porver of cohesion, 3. atmosphere of the aethereal medium, which he conceives to a n d t b u s t h e h a r d n c s s o f d i a m o n d a n d t i r e t e n a c i t y o f s t e e l be electricity. 1) IIe assurnesthat the atoms of the mediurn b e c o r u ei n t e l l i g i b l e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e f i n i t e d i m e n s i o n s repel one another, that the particles of rnatter also repel one of the atoms lirnit the redLction of thc rvave lengths, by another, but with less intensity; and thus there is a mutual forces etlually porverful, and hence the incompressibility of attraction between the particles of matter and the atoms of s o l i d s a n d l i q u i d s . the medium, under forces which vary inversely as the square t\s Lallace was careful to point out, these molecular of the distance.2) and atornic forces are sensible only at insensible distances, Frorn this theory it follows that rvl.ren the material w h i c h s u g g e s t s h a t w a v e - a c t i o n u n d e r t h e e n o r r n o u se l a s t i c i t y t molecules of a body are inappreciably near to one another, o f t h e a e t h e r a s t h e s o u r c e o f t h e p o r v e r . they mutually repel each other with a force rvhich diminishes (i) As chenrical affinity is shorvn by laboratory exrapidly as the infinitely small distances between the rnolecules p e r i m e n t s t o b e p r o r l o t e d a n d i n c r e a s e d b y t h e a c t i o n o I augment and at last vanishes. When the nroleculesare still u l t r a - r ' i o l e t l i g h t , t h i s f a c t o f o b s e r v a t i o nm u s t b e h e l d t o b e farther apart, the force becornesattractive. -A,tan intermediary a p r o o f t h a t i t d e p e n d s o f r v a v e - a c t i o n . distance the repulsive and attractive forces balance, so that \\/e cite the follorving experirnentsas well calcrrlated to if we try to press the particles nearer the repulsive forces illustrate this subject. In each case the interpretation rrlrpears resist our attempt, rvhile if we try to break the body, the to be simple and unique, and thus the experiments are l'ell attractive forces predominate and hold them together. adapted for disclosing the nature of the chernical changes The rvave-theory presents to our conterlrplation cluite i n v o lv e d . a different picture of the physica! world. r\ll forces are (a) 1)econposition of chloride of silver or nitrate of' attributed to stressesin the aether due to lvave-action, and siiver by light in photography. 'fhis is a very familiar phewe seek to inquire under rvhat conditions the stresses or nornenon and has been known since the day; of Daguerre, forces arise; and we find that boundary conditions exercise Tal\ol, and Eerschcd rvho first developed photography over the largest influence in changing the velocity and direction 8 o y e a r s a g o . I n t h i s e x p e r i n e n t , t h e c h l o r i d e o f s i l v e r , e i t h e r of waves, and thus give rise to adhesion, cohesion, capillarity, recently formed or carefully protected lrom the shorter waves chemical affinity, and the other molecular and atomic forces. o f l i g h t , i s e x p o s e d t o t h e a c t i o n o f c o m m o n i i g h t , r v h i c h In his address as rector o[ the university of Berlin, contains the rvaves of the rvhole visible spectrurr"r.As is well ( i , O c t . r5 , r 9 r r , q u o t e d n t h e f i f t hp a p e rs e c t i o n l z i i ) ,( A N 5 r 3 o ) , known a partial decorriposition of the silver chloride results ProfessorPlanck points out that in the breaking up of the f r o u r t h e a c t i o n o f t h e l i g h t ; a n d t h e a c r i o n o f t h e s h o r t aether rvavesa limit of smallness leneth is finallv attained. rvaves is so uruch more porverful than that of the long rvaves, or
') ,lt has long been an hypothesis aurong philosopltcrs thlt elcctricit; is Ilre agcrrt rv]rich binds thc particlcs ofnratter together. We aretotaIIyignorantofthenatureofelectricity'butitis every particle of matter( I \ { r s . . S o r t t t t t t i / / e ,C o r r n e x i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i r , t r c t ' s , ( i t l ' t ' , l i I i o r r . t S - 1 : , p . r z o . Sir fsaac Ntulou held somervhirt silniltr vicrvs, but corrlrl not rvorh orrt tlrr ctuscs involvcrl to his entirc satistlction; yet hc ditl mediurn. As rve norv are able definitely to establish the cause of universal gravitirtion, by lbllos,irrg thc sagacious suggestions of Ntu.,tott rve deeur it onIyjustto'.includetheportraitofthisrnostillustriousphiI<rso1lhcr ') uI'rofessor lfossotti has recently shorvn by a very able analysis, tlrat therc arc stronfa grounds for belicving tlrirt not only the rnolecular forces rvhich unite the particles of material bodies depenrl on the electric fluid, but that even gravitation itself, rvhich binds rvorlcl to rvorld'ancl sun to sun, can no longer be regarded as an ultiurate prirrciple, but tlre rcsirlurl portion of t far more porverful force gcnerated by lhat energetic agent rvhich pervades crcation.< lIrs. Sotttctuillt, Conncxion of thc physicitl scicnccs, 6th cdition, t8.12, 1r. Izt. It rvill be noted that itr these l)al)crs, we llave not, treated of the reprrlsivc forces of the particles of rnrttcr in liqrrids and solids, as Mossotti has attempted to dor except to inrply that the resistance to compression probably depends on short rvave rnotions of the sarne type to which molecular forces are due.

5r40

54

t h a t w h e n a p l a t e h a s b e e n e x p o s e d a n d i s n o t y e t d e v e l o p e d alkaline earths, in the first decade of the rgth century. Wd or fixed by the action of the hyposulphite of soda rve may shall attempt to shorv the relationship of these experinrents examine the plate under a light transmitted through recl glasi, to the rvave-theory, and thus make somewhat clearer the which allorvs only the longer rvavesto pass. .fhe hyposul"phite nattrre of the chemical forces, rvhich Dau1, 6ysyp^me in these o f s o d a d i s s o l v e s r e a d i i y c h l o r i d e , b r o r n i c l e ,a n d i o d i d e o f discoveries, by neans of the action of ,the electric silver, and has been generally used in photography since the ::i:::ij., days of Daguu're, t84o. \Yhen Dau1, began his career, the discovery of the By the action of the shorter rvavesof light on the film decomposition o f c h e r n i c a l s u b s t a n c e sb y v o l t a i c e l e c t r i c i t y containing the salt, AgCl, the chlorine is separated and the had already begun to excite the interest of nten of science; s i l v e r p a r t i a l l y p r e c i p i t a t e d , s o t h a t a c h a n g e o f c o l o r f r o m brrt althotrgh l)au1, flsys1.ped the method rnosr powerfully, white to blue occurs in the film; and as tlrs change over the ancl achieved b r i l l i a n t d i s c o v e r i e s ,a n c l m o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y plate is proportional to the action of the light on that part, has since e l a p s e d , w e s t i l l h a v e n o m e c h a n i c a lo r d y n a r n i , : a i photography gives the sbades, or aspects of crbjectsaboLrtas theory of Daults process of electrolysis. they appear to the eye in cornmon vision. In tbe third paper on the nerv theory of the aether 1'he very clrernical change rvhich we use in photocraphy ' w e h a l c p r o l e d t h a t a n e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t c o n s i s t si n a s e r i e s w e u t i l i z e i n o u r v i s i o n ; b u t t h e r e t i n a o f t h e e y e , b c i n g a of $'aves,usually qllite long in charactcr. Norv if such u,aves l i v i n g 6 l m , h a s i t s p o r v e r o f r e a c t i o nr e n e r v e d y c e r t a i n n a t u r a l b e i n t e n s e , t h e b r e s u l t i n g r a p i d a n d v i o l e n t a g . i t a t i o ns h o u l c l p r o c e s s e s , n d o n l y t h e i n r a g e s a r e t r a n s r n i t t e dt o t h e l r r a i n , o b v i o u s l y b e u ' e l l a srrited to separating or bretrking up the r v i t h t h e c h e m i c a l c h a n g e s c o n t i n u a l l y i n p r o g r e s s . T . h u si f n r o l c c u l c s o f a c o n r p o n n d i n t o i t s c o n s t i t u e n te l c m c n t s . l . h i s c h e m i c a l a c t i o n b e e l e c t r i c a l , j t i s u n d o u b t e c l l y t r u e , a s S i r is exactly rvhat Sir l{uut!/trcl'I)auy, did. Oliutr lod,ge remarks, (r\ether of Space, r9o9, p. z5) that Ile had at his command a battery of 4oo five inch > S i g h t i s p r o b a b l y a c h e r n i c a ls e n s e ( . H e n c e t h e e y e i s sen- platcs, ancl one of 4o plates a foot in cliameter. With these s i t i l e t o a e t h e r r v a v e s o f a c e r t a i n l e n g t h , n n d c a p a b l e o f b a t t e . i c s* ' c r c c o n c i u c t e c l h i s e x p e r i m e n t s n t h c a l k a l i n ee a r t h s . o t r a n s m i t t i n gt h e i r c h e m i c a l o r m e c h a n i c a l e f f c c t s ,i n p r o c l u q i n g r v h i c h r c s u l t c d i n the discovery o[ potassiunran.l socliu'r. images, to the brain. In r3o5 I)otS,began to uscalso very hieh tenrl)cr.atures, (b) A considerablevariety of chernical solutions are and in r8o6 f o u n d t h a t e l e c t r o - c h e m i c a lp h e n o n r e n a r v e r e rusedin photography, but the general effect is alrvaysthe same, e x p l i c a b l e l ; y o n e g e n e r a l latr', the acids appearing at the a n d h e n c e w e c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e sr v i t h t h e s i m p l e s to u t l i n e o f p o s i t i v e , t h e b a s c s a t t h e n c c a t i v c p o l e . H e g c n e r a i i z e ch i s l t h e c h a n g e s , v i t h o u tg o i n g i n t o ,h r r t h e r d e t a i l s .I n h i s t h o u e h t f u l c o n c l n s i o n s b v s t a t i n g t h a t r hyclrogcn, the alkalies, earths, r v o r k o n t h e C o r r e l a t i o n a n d C o n s e r v a t i o no f I ' h t , s i c a lI i o r c e s . n t e t a l s a n d c e r t a i n o x i d e s n r c a t t r a c t e d b y n e g a t i r . e l y ,a n d p. r r 5, (Nerv York, r883) the linglish physicist I'rofr:ssor repelled by positively electrified metallic surfaces. W, R. Groue, of the I{oval Institution, Lonclon, gives thc FIe then proceeded to investigate the larv of electrofollorving account of the effects of light upon lroclies: c h e n t i c a l a c t i o n , a n d c o n c l u d e d t h a t e l e c t r o - c h e m i c a lc o r n > ' I ' h e e f f e c t o i l i g h t o n c h e n r i c a lc o n r p o u n c i s f l o r t j s u s b i n a t i o n s a a n d d e c o m p o s i t i o n sd e y t e n d o n e l e c t r i c a t t r a c t i o n s a s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c eo f t h e e x t e n t t o r v h i c h a f o r c c , e v e r a c t i v e , a n d r e p u l s i o n s ; a n d t h a t l b o t h > > c h e m i c aa n d e l e c t r i c a l a t _ m a y b e i g n o r e d t h r o u g h s u c c e s s i v ea g e s o f p h i l o s o p . h v . l i t r a c t i o n s a r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e s a m e c a u s ea c t i n g i n t h e o n e rve sllppose the rvalls of a large rootn covered s,itlr l)hoto- c a s e o n t h c p a r t i c l e s , i n t h e o t b e r o n t h e m a s s e s< < T h e . g r a p h i c a p p a r a t u s ,t h e s m a l l a m o u n t o f l i e h t r e l l c c t e c i f i o n t d i s c o v c r y o f p o t a s s i u m a n d sodium *'as made by clectrical t h e f a c eo f a p e r s o ' s i t r r a t c r i n i t s c c n t r e r ' o i r l t l s i ' r u r t n r c . u s l y d c c o r l p o s i t i o n , i n l October, r8o7. i m p r i n t h i s p o r t r a i t o n a n r u l t i t n d eo f r e c . i p i e n t u r f a c c s . \ \ r c r e s Since rve have alrcady shou,n that an electric current t h e c a m e r a s a b s e n t , b u t t h e r o o m c o a t e d s , i t h p h o t o t r a p h i c consists of an ordcrecl system of rvaves of various lengths, p a p e r , a c h a n g e w o u l d e q u a l l y t a k e p l a c e i n c l e r y p o r t i o n \ve nray norv be able to throrv some nerv light on the comr;f it, thor,rghnot a rel)rocluction of fornr and figure. A.s other p o s i t i o n a n d d e c o n r p o s i t i o no f b o d i e s . s u b s t a n c e sn o t c o n ) n ) o n l y c a l l e d p h o t o g r a p h i c a r e k n o r v n t o r. \\/hen the long electric waves are porverful and be affected by light, the list of which might be inciefinitely aided by partial breaking u p i n t o t h e s h o r t e r r v a v e so f h e a t . e x t e n d e d , i t b e c o n r e s a c u r i o u s o b j c c t o f c o n t e m p l a t i o n t o the rvave asitation of appropriate length nray become great c o n s i d e r h o n ' f a r l i g h t i s d a i l y o p e r a t i n gc h a n g e si n p o n d e r a b l e enoush to eject parts of a compound rnolecule to such distance matter, hotv lar a force, for a long time recognlzecl only in t h a t t h e a t o m i c f o r c e s n o l o n g e r can retain it in stability; in i t s v i s u a l e f f e c t s , m a y l ; e c o n s t a n t l yp r o d u c i n g c h a n g e si n t h e t h e r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n s f t h e o o s c i l l a t i o n s ,s o m e o f t h e a t o m s e a r t h a n d a t m o s p h e r e i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c h a n g e si t p r o d u c e s fly arval', anyrvhere along the line of the electrolysis, but in organised stmctures rvhich are norv beginning to be exten- rvith opposite elements appearing at the poies for the reason s i v e l y 5 1 1 1 f l i 6 6T h u s e v e r y p o r t i o n o f l i g h t n r a y b e s u p p o s c d set forth in paragraph 6 belorv. . to rvrite its orvn history by a change o, less perrnancnt 2. The atonrs which are of one type, by their perio_ fror" in ponderable nratter< . dicities bearing a certain resonanceto the rvaves,will naturallv (ii) The . experinrents of Sir Eunefirq, Day1, in the c o l i e c t a t o n e ' p o l e of the battery; those o[ r,ery different d e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e a l k a l i n e e a r t h s u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f periodicities and having a different resonance, rvill naturally electric currents elplained by the rvave-theory. gather at .the opposite pole, in accordance with observation. A g r e a t e p o c h i n t h e h i s t o r y o f e x p e r i m e n t a lc h e m i s t r y 3. It is only when the electric rvaves,whiph are ordered rvas made by Sir lfirnphrey Dauy's decomposition of the in a certain lvay along the line of the current, become of a
i

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certain intensity, aided by the shorter haphazard agitations called heat, that electrical decompositions can be expected waves to occur. Otherwise the shorter and more porverfttl are predominant' which cause chemical forces tbe electrolyte 4. It is to be observed that in electrolysis wire acts as a conductor, the circuit being completed by the wire the amplitude of the connecting the poles. Around the electric waves follow Biot and Sauart's law

trickles down, the alnount being exactly ecluivalent to that by the original current. decor.rtposed Accordingly, by this experiment rve Iearn that violent long rvave agitation due to a curreDt, lnay produce decomposition of water into its elements hydrogen and oxygen' And when the gases are carefully collected, and mixed, an eiectric spark, by the action of its'short waves lray again unite them into water. lightIf any free hydrogen is present in the atn'rosphere y'I: (') t/(Kilr). I: -Kilr A: free oxygen a srnall quantity ning operates to fornr from it rvith greatest next to the rvire, 5. This n.rakesthe amplitude of iuure. vnpo.. It is supposed that by the cornbustion of and as the poles are terminals of the rvire, it naturally follows t e l e s c o p i c m e t e o r i t e s , b i l l i o n s o f r v h i c h a r e b u r n t u p d a i l y is a that decomposition occurs where the wave agitation i n t h e h i g h e r p a r t s o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e ,s o n i e l r e e h y d r o g e n i s maximum, at the poles of the battery' ciillirsedin the air; and the action of ligbtning thus replenishes 6. Ancl as the rvaves lie flat in the planes through the to sol'ne extelit tlle Nater lost by peruralent absorption in the to the axis of the rvire, the separation will go on according r o c k s o f t i r e e a r t h ' sc r u s t . \ V h e t h e r t h e n e r v w a t e r f o r m e d b y one pole erlitting thc rvrves' I i g h t n i n g i s e q u a l t o t h x t l o s t f r o m o t l r o c e a n s b y a b s o r p t i o n florv rotation in the lvave - and thus the elellrents are sifted the other receiving thenr a n < i c r y s t a l l i s a t i o ni n t h e r o c k s o f t h e e a r t i r ' sc r u s t i s n o t y e t ln tire k n o r v n ; b u t i t i s s r : p p o s e dt h a t d u r i n e t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d by the movement of the rvaves, accorcling to poles fiith paper, section Io, rve have expleined tenacity by irlcreased t h e t w o t e n d e n c i c sa p p r o x i n t a t e l yb a l a n c e e a c h o t h e r , s o a s t o su.face-effectsduetorvave-actionattheboLrnclary''I.hLrsrve n'raintain a nearly collstallt quantity of lvater on the earth' ttt (iv) h'i$lltt's experitrents for producing mercuric oxideh a v e a l s o s o l v e d t h e p r o b l e r n o f c o h e s i o no f I i k e e l e t n e t r t s e l e c t r o - p l a t i n g , h e r e t o f o r e s o d i f 6 c u l t t o n a t t t r a l l l l r i l o s o l l h e r s(ttgO) and the separltion of these elemetrts by tlte use of . ( i i i ) t l e . o - p o s i t i o n o f w a t e r i n t o o x y g e n a n d h y d r o g e n higher tetnPerature illttstrates the rvave-theory' (}rr Artg. r, r77 4, Priest/t1 discovered that the red oxide gasesbytlrcactionofarrelectriccurrent;theseeletrterrts by the action of short rvaves' again united of rrrercury(ttgO) evolvcd a gas when heated to a i:onsiderable 'l'he gas was oxygen and the rr:sidtteIeft behind lf rve put the trvo poles of a battery arranged to ter- telnperattlre. into rvater slightly acidul.ted rninate in plaiinurn rvire or sheet, was metallic tt)erctlrY. i with sulphuric acid (II2SO), so as to render the iitluid a l n t h e s e c e l c b r a t e de x l ) e r i n l e n t s t r v a s f o u n d t h a t r v h e n good conductor; and.let the battery act we shall irnDredizrtely m e t a l l i c l r l e r c u r y i n c o l l t a c t l ' i t h a i r i s h e a t e d t o a t e n l p e r a t u r e accun.rulating at each pole' j u s t b e l o r v i t s b o i l i n g y r o i n t ,i t g r a d u a i l y b e c o m e sc o v e r e d r v i t h ie..eirre snrall bubbles of gas fuhen the experinrent is arranged as shorvn tn firgnault's a red scale of tnercuric oxide. And when this red scale is Elements of Chernistry, (Philadelphia, r 86o, collected and subjectedto considerably higher temperature, p. rro), each pole being inserted in a the result is the separation of the oxide into its constituent collects the liberated gas, it tube which elenients, oxygen gas, and metallic mercLlry. is found that the volumes of the gases Nou' this exPcriurent in the composition and decomreleased by electrolysis are in the ratio of position of a rvell ktrorvn rnetallic oxide is typical of many 2 to r, two volumesof hydrogen to one of o x i c l e s ,a n d s i r n i l a r c o t n P o u n d s . r. When heat or molecular rvave agitationis applied oxygen, as sliorvn in the cut. in not too violertt a fornt, chemical combinatiorl results' It is found that the gas disengaged 2. llut rvlien the rnolecular agitation is made much at the positive pole, is oxygen, that at the - the volumes of more extreme, by the use of higher tetnperatures, the comnegative pole hydrogen 'fhis is because the cherrlical aflinity, pound is broken up. gas developing in the precise ratio of z short rvave action, is able to fortn coutbinatious, rvhen irncler to r, as shown in th,e figure. Thus one the heat agitation due to the longer rvavesis not too violent' volume ofoxygen serves fortwo ofhydrogen Ilut the morDent the longer rvave agitation becomes more in the forrnation of water, I{2O. extrelre, the atouric hold is released, and the elements fly If now when the battery has de' Irig. r . l)ecornliositiotr asunder, to form val)ors and gases. its trvo concomposed the water into of \\,rter into It is difficuit to irnagine a nrore convincing illustration gases,we collect the separatedgases air,l hYoxy{ert stituent of the rvave-theory than that here presented to our contemdrogerr lry the in one vessel, withotlt any admixture of 'l'he action of an chernical processes appear to be simple, and plation. air or other foreign gases, the separate clectric current. we can see the conrbination taking place, by moderate wave and oxygen wiil molecules of hydrogen the more violent fonn of molecular be present in just the proportion to torm water. And rvhen agitation, but released by agitation incident to higher temperature. the gases have become equably diffused, after mixing, an 'I'his rule, for using changes of temperature for effecting eiectric spark generated within the vessel as from the wire resolutions, has been so widely terminals of a battery, not quite in contact, where the gases chemical cornbinations and of recognized by chemists that it may be said to be the most are freely tnixed, yields the sudden irnpulse for the union science. When a chemical body is the atoms of hydrogen with those of oxygen to form water geneial process of that first try change of temperature. If that vapor. It collects as drops on the walls of the vessel, and io be broken up, we

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does not sncceed, we try the electric current. And freouentlv stages: first, the molecule Os is converted into Oz-+_O; and 1ve use both high temperature, and the electric current, or second, the ttvo free atoms of oxygen form trvo molecules some fornr of electric furnace, as developed about 3o1,sn15 o f o z o n e , t h u s : Ot+Ol.: ago by the celebrated French chemist Moisson. o o) x ' 2( ^ (+) o ' - Fo i : Of late years electro-chernistry has become a distinct Oxygen has considerable affinity for itself in the form b r a n c h o f p r a c t i c a l s c i e n c e , o f t h e g r e a t e s ti m p o r t a n c e i n t h e a r t s , a n d i n d u s t r y . I f t h e a b o v e l i n e o f r e a s o n i n gb e a d m i s s i b l e , of common ox)'gen, O2, but relatively little for the third atom it follorvs that electro-chernistry depends on rvave-action, bv of oxygen, in the form of ozone. Hence ozone is a great 'I'he which artificial combinations of metals are effectecl usually oxidizer. separation of the atoms of the oxygen moleiulei from each other involves zg6oo heat units forunder the joint action of a porverful current and a hieil .jz grammes telnperature. 'l'he rnolecular structure of thc atorus is .so of ox1'gen;but in the breaking up of ozone e inti Or_rO interrvoven that rvhen such mixtures as phosphor-l;ronzc, o n l y a s r r a l l a m o u n t o f e n e r g y i s r e q u i r e d . 'fhis a l u m i n i u m - b r o n z e , i c k e l - s t e e l ,o r ' a n a d i u r t r - s t e e la r e e f f e c t e d , use of heat for the formation of new bodies n .3. t h e y a r e f o u n d o n c o o l i n g t o h a v e e x t r a o r d i n a r y s t r e n e t h , rvas 6rst recornmended by Robert Boyle, in the Sceptical Chenrist, r 66 r. 'f he rnodern science illustrates this tireorv and therefore becorne extrenrely useful in the rrechanical ,rts. by hundreds, yea, thousands of exarrples, of rvhich *" .ite ( v ) O t l e r e x a m p l e so f c h e r n i c a lc o m b i n a t i o n s u n c j c r t h e a c t i o n o f s l ) o n g y p l a t i n u r . n ,o r o f u l t r a - v i o l e tl i c h t , w h i c h h a s rnerely simple types. Rut it is only since the erroch of Lauoisier t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f c o r n b u s t i o na n d t h e p a r t p l a y e c lb y o x y g e n short n'ave lcngth. r. It is rvell known that metallic platinum, especiallv has been understood. It follorvs frorn the modern doctrine of energy, that if t h e - b l a c ko r s l ) o n g yp l a t i n u n t ,c o n d e n s e s a s e su p o n i t s . s u r f h c e , g and furthern-rore the condensation is attencled by the clcvclop- w e c l n d c t e r r n i n e t h e h e a t e v o l v e d i n c o r n b u s t i o n o r a n y n r e n to f h e a t . ' I ' h i s n t a t e r i a li s c e l e b r a t e df o r o c c l u d i n g h y r l r o g e n sirnilar l)rocess, rve have a nuurerical lneasure of the energy o r o x y g e n ; a n d i t h a s b e e n i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e d e v e l o p n r c n t rvhich nrust bc expended to cffect tlre corresponclingdecoiiof heat noted, that the spongy platinum by its cavernous position of the elements previously unitecl. yet sometirnes structure acts to cause partial cornbination of hydrogen .rnd this energy may be mnde effective in one rval,, sontetimes oxygen similar to that noted in flarre or ordinary combustion: in unothcr. .+. -,\s far back as 1775 Torbent Ilergttan of Upsala th:rt the sponsy platinum probably does not itself directly produce the chernical combination, but that as the nrolecules wrote a disscrtation on elcctive attractions, as he calletl o f t h e g a , " e s r e a b s o r b c d i n t h e c a v e r n o u s r r r e t a l l i cs t r u c t u r c , affinity, ancl set forth that the compounds forrned by the ada l t h e i r m u t u a l r e a c t i o n s a r e c o n r p l c x a n c l c o n c l e n s a t i o n f t h c m i x t u r c o f r ea s e n t s c i e P c n d c c o n t h c s n m o f t h e i r a t i r a c t i o n s . o horvever,rvho gave a new e l e m e n t so f t h e g a s r c s u l t s . P r o b a b l y t h i s r a i s c st h e t c n r p e r a t u r c I t r v a s f , a t , o i s i u ( t j + 3 - t 7 g a ) , someu'hat,nerv t h e r e s u l t o f t h e c o n f i n e < lr n o l c c u l a ra g i t a t i o n spirit to chcnristry, by clevising methocls for thiolins l rvhen the inrush of gases is 6rst effectecl, - and then the l i g h t o n p r o c c s s e s o n g k n o w n , b u t n e v e r b e f o r e c l e a r l y u n d e . _ power of absorption of the platinutn increases rvith the rise s t o o d . I l i s t h e o r l ' o f o x y g e n w a s n o t i n d e e d a c l o n t e d b v Iitrtho/ltl (r7 48-r8zz), yet it finally prevailecl of temDeratrlre. th; 'I'he e s t a b l i s h m e n to f t h e m e c h a n i c a l t h e o r y o f l r c a t . "it., 2. experirnents in thermo-chemistry by lltriltlot 'I'he d i s c o v e r y b y F a r a d a 1 , ,i n r g 3 4 , t h a t t h e d e 5. show that heat usrrallydevelops in chemical combinations. c o m p o s i t i o n se f f e c t e db y t h e v o l t a i cc u r r e n ti n d i c a t e t h e o u a n t i t v It is found that ozone is formecl in small ouantities when rvater is decomposed by the electric current. It is forrned b y r v c i g h t i n w h i c h t h e e l e n r e n t sc o m b i n e , o r t h e r v e i g h t so f i n t h e a i r b y l i g h t n i n e d i s c h a r g e , o r n e a r a f r i c t i o n a l e l e c t r i c t h e a t o m s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a t o m i c t h e o r y , z r to n c e i n c l e a s e d m a c h i n e . I n t h e c o n v e r s i o no f o x y g e n i n t o o z o n e , t h e v o l u m e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e h y p o t h e s i st h a t t h e s a r r e o p e r a t i o n sa r e of gas contracts by one-third, three molecules of oxyeen fur- a t w o r k i n b o t h c h e m i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l p h e n o m e n a . O u t o f t h i s t h e o r y o f e l e c t r o l l ' s i s g r e r v i n r p o r t a n t c l e v e l o p m e n t sn nishing two molecules of ozone thus: i electro-chemistry. And rvhen it rvas shorvn by Lourent that Oxygen Ozone h1'drogen rnay be substituted by an equivalent of chlorine (") 3 O 2 : z O s . o r b r o r l i n e , a n d t h e d u a l i s t i ct h e o r y o f p o s i t i v ea n d n e s a t i v e When the ozone is again converted into oxygen, u,hich elements n'as shaken, Berztlius and others tried to reconcile m a y b e d o n e b y h e a t , - t h e d e c o m p o s i t i o na t z o o o C . b e i n g t h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n o f a n e l e c t r o - p o s i t i v eo r a n e l e c t r o . n e g a t i v e f very rapid the originai volume is restored. .l'he use oi e l e m e n t ,b y c e r t a i n m o d i f i c a t i o n so f t h e d u a l i s t i c t h e o r y , s o r n e heat to break up ozone into oxygen, perfect decomposition c o m p o u n d so f o x y g e n a s a f o u r t h e l e m e n t b e i n g b o t h a n o x i d e occtrring before iooo C. is reached, shows that the triple and a chloride. The prirnitive distinctions for iimple elements molecule 03 is rerrt asunder by the long wave agitation due thus become modified for comoounds. to high temperature. (vi) Chernical affinity under rvave-actionrelated to exAccording to Ru.lhclol no less than z96oo units of plosive forces. heat are evolved fronr ?z grammes of oxygen in the reaction: We norv consider the chemical action of light and heat, zOs:3a2. ( : ) which represent shorter rvaves than are present in the electric And a corresponding amount of energy mnst be exlended current. in the formation of ozone from ordinary oxygen. Thb conr. It is noted that hydrogen does not spontaneously version of ozone into oxygen, however, takes place in trvo enter into reaction with any of the elements, though it has

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a powerful affinity for some of then:, such as oxygen. Accordingly when hydrogen and oxygen, are rnixed nothing occurs; but if a burning taper or a heated wire be applied, or still better an electric spark, a violent explosion follows, and the zI{zO, gases are united to produce water, 2I{z-rOr: z. As energy is thus given out in the formation of water, it will naturally follow that energy must be expended on water to dissociate it into its constituent gases, whether by violent heat or the wave agitations of an electric current. This composition and decomposition of water thus beautitully illustrates the rvave-theory. 3. Again, chlorine gas C/2, and hydrogen gas l/2, are each biatomic, and without action upon each other in the dark. But if the mixed gases be exposed to a bright light, especially a beam of ultra'violet light, or violently agitated by the passage of an electric spark, the gases unite rvith explosive violence to fonn hydrochloric acid. l'he reaction is shown to be:

It has long been recognized by chemists that the atoms in certain molecules occupy definite relative positions. This is inferred partly from the chemical formulae of the substances, partly from the forms of the corresponding crystals, the study of their symmetry and the isomorphisms, both of special and ofgenerai physical properties,as tested by optical and magnetic methods. Indeed the study of crystallography is a very extensive branch of science, and nruch improvetnent has become possible of late years, since the Swiss physicist Iarc began the use of X-rays for exploration of the internal structure of crystals. 'I'his subject is now so extensive that only a general outline of results is pernissible in a paper on the aether. We shall give therefore merely a sketch of the method by rvhich the problem is attacked.

In the fifth paper on the new theory of the aether rve rvere enabled to throw light on the porverfitl refractions, dispersions, and other disturbances experienced by tbe aether o at the borrndaries f bodies, by which this uredium is placed CI. If Cl-rIf 4-rClr: runderextraordinary stress, and we made it probable that the Evidently the forrnation of hydrochloric acid grs is and tenacity resulting reactions produce the observed harlCrtess prececled by the separation of the two atoms of the chlorine of boclies. m o l e c u l e s ,a n d o f t h e t $ ' o a t o m s o f h y d r o g e n i n t h e h y d r o g e n 1. lt rvas shorvn in the first I)aper tl)at the aether is molecule, from each other; rvhich calls for the expenditure 68932r 6ooooo more elastic than air in prol,ortion to its of som energy; then follorvs a greater evolution ofenergy A c t : o r d i n g l y , i f t h e r v a v e st r a v e r s i n g t h e t t n i v e r s eb e in the fqrmation of IfCl, or of H2O in the case of rvater d c n s i t y ' . concertcdll' tlistributed,by a systenatic arrangctllcntol' tlle considered above. atonrs u itirin the trolecules, and of the ntolccttlds rvithin 'l'he general resttlt is that more energy is given out 4. s u c h a u r e t l i u t n i s s ' e l l c a l c t t l a t e dt o 'fhe crystalline [rodies, ator-ns in the forr-nation of tlie more stable cor-r'rportr"rds' g i v e c r y ' s t l l s n o t o t r l y s p e c i a l a n d g e o t n e t r i cl o r n t s , b u t a l s o of hydrogen ira'r'eless affinity for.thernselvesthan for chloriue, a g r e a t h a r c l n e s s n d o t h e r p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e sw h i c h h a v e l o n g and the chlorine has less affinity for itself than for hydrogen. c a u s e d c r y s t a l s t o b e a s s o c i a t e dr v i t h n t a g n e t i s u i ,a s o h e r i n g Hence under wave agitation the rnixed gases undergo the e x t r a o r d i n a r l ' n r o l e c u l a r ,o p t i c a l , n r a g n e t i c i i l r d o t h e r p h y s i c a l changes shorvn by the fonnttla: properties. (O) z EI Cl' H2-+- C/2 : z . \ \ ' e h a v e a l s o s c e n t h a t t n a g t r e t i s r rd c p e n d s u p o n t) As soon as this change is started in a ferv ruolecnles, the concerted u ave-actiot.t, ancl s'lto*'n tlre 1lh1'sicaland geoagitation thus set up spreads to the rvhole ntass, atld all n r e t r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i l t o f t h e w a v e s t o t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t . the molecules are translonned into new chetlrical bodies, A n d i t i s e v i d c n t t h a t i t ' s t r c h p o r v e r l i t la c t i o n s a n d r e a c t i o l t s , n a m e l y w a t e r v a p o r , a s d e s c r i b e d i n p a r a g r a p l i z a b o v e , o r rvlri<:hs'c t:an <:ontrolin ntagnetisnt atrd electrocll'llatllics, are hydrocliloric acicl gas, paragraph 3. dtre to r:oncertctl l'zrve-at:tiort;tlrct.tat cot'reslrolrtling,though In the wave-theory of physical forces it is believed that difl'erently arrangeri, stress of the aether shor.rld exist about the energy exhibited in chemical reactions is drarvt.tfionr the c r y s t a l s , i n v i e l o f t h e a t o m i d a r r a n g e u e t r t l o n g r e c o g n i z e d X-ray unlimited storehouse of the aether everyrvhele pervacling the to exist, and ntacie evident to the senses b1' /-zztre's universe. The chemical reactions therefore involve sinrply an p h o t o g r a p h s o f c r y s t a l l i n e s t r u c t u r e . exertion of this unseen power when the atomic rearrangement 3. We may say that crystals, so far as olrtical and occurs, and the resistance to the passinll lvaves is suddenly p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e sa r e c o n c e r n e d , s h o u l d p r e s e l l t t o o u r c o n 'l'lie result is the exertion of unseen and rtnsttspected t e m p l a t i o n a k i n d o f g e n e r a l i z e d m a g n e t i s r u . A n d t h i s r v e changed. forces which frequently are explosive in charactcr and often find to be a fact, as shorvn by the elaborate researches of extremely terrible, as in dynamite, and other lbrrls of nitro- crystailographerssuch a.s l/oigt, Laue, and others. The crystals glycerine, the tri-nitrotoltlenes, and other high explosives. h a v e v a r i o u s a x e s o f s ) ' l n m e t r y , a n d p h y s i c a l , o p t i c a l a n d 2 . G e o m e t r i c a l A r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e A t o t l t s a s magnetic properties corresponding to tlre geonretrical fortlr of the crystals. conceived by Regnaultand others for explaining Crystals. 4. lt is true that crystals of different substances,with (i) fne forces underlying the cr1'stallineforn.rsreferred the sarne geometrical form, have different ph1'sical, optical, and rragnetic properties. This diflbrence doubtless depends to the aether.

(s)

r) anrl electro-dynllttics, i\N 5c'44, p.73-74, we refer to the collapse or expansion of In the outline of the wave-theoryofmagnetisrn, of the kinctic equilibrium of the mediunr at the salne tirile involves vast exchange the mecliurn when the waves interpenetrate. The-balnnce try those rvho may be of the. aetherons. This essential condition of the kinctic equilibriurn is there assurned, but it should be borne in urind inclined to overlook the foundations of the kinetic theory, rvhich rest on iltcessant rnolecular exchange.

6t

5r40

6z

on the molecules which make up the crystalline structure. Iays the foundations of_ physical chemistry since more fully I\{olecules in which the atoms are held together by powerful developed by Bertltelat, Moissan, Ostwald, tr/an't Eqf, Arrhe nius affinities rvill naturally give rise to hard irystals; ond thu., and others. as some substances have great affinities betrveentheir atoms 'fhis is not the place to go into the details of chemical and molecules, strong resistance by the crystalline rnass does th-eory, but we may properly reproduce the sagacious outline not surprise us. of crystalline structure conceived by Rcgnault, and since 5 . If the crystal is easily dissolved by heat, we should elaborated, from different points of vierv, by Voigt and his infer that increased agitation by these long rvaves tend to followers, arrd_recently_ confirnred by the photographic X_ray throrv the atoms and molecules beyond the range of the researches of Lauc ancl the nulrerous investigators rvho ha'e s h o r t e r w a v e s h o l d i n g t h e a t o m s t o t h e m o l e c u l e s ,a n d t h e taken up his nerv methods for exploring crystalline structtlre. molecules to one another, for the n-rake up of the crystal. Ilt,gnault begins his theory of crystals by the discussion Ifthe crystal be difficult to dissolve by heat, then the opposite of divisibility, and shorvs that horvever fine the mechanical conclusion rnay be assumed. division n.raybe carried, it falrs short of molecnrar and atomic 6. Accordingly, the study of the physical properties of sizcs. In this connection it is well to recall Ntu,ton,s remarks crystals will throrv light on the properties of the molecules, i n t h e Optics,.r7zr, p. 365, )that ir is diffrcult to conceive a n d v i c e v e r s a . O p t i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c p r o p e r t i e sb e a r s i n r i i l i of the agency by rvhich attraction is produced, rvhen two relationships, but as yet they are little understood. smooth bodies are in very close cotrtact,yet really touch or approxinrately ouch only in a few points(. In the hfth t rr"rr", on the new theory of the aether rve built up a theory of molecul:rr forces based on wave-action sensible only ai insensibledist:rnces, ecausethe'rvaves are very minute. b After exarrlining very profoundly the six systems of crystals and working out the numerical relations, often ex_ tremely simple, rvhich exist between the faces, axes. and dinrensions of the crystals, Repnault comes finally to the h y p o t h e s i s o f m o l e c u l a r d e c r e m e n t s ,( p . + + ) . Rtgnauh's rcasoning quoted in detail: >'lhe larvs of syrnmetry rvhich exist bet*ieen all the crystalline forms of the sante substance, are very easilv explained by starting rvith certain hypotheses on ih"t form o[ t h e c r y s t a l l i n em o l e c u l c s a n d t h e i r m o d e o f g r o u p i n g . I t i s useful to study, at this time, these hypotheses,not only-tecause they give us, as it rvere, material explanation of these laws. but also because, under their guidance, I{ail, f,js2syered, by induction, the larvs of crystallography, which he afterwards verified by rneasurement. Let us take a mineral snbstance. as galena, rvhich crystallizes according to the regular syste-j and assurnes many forms of this system. Let us, in the first case, examine .a cubic crystal of galena (fi-g. 3", plate r). If qe endeavour to fracture it by violence, o_r by-applying a cutting edge, in various directions, we sha1l soon find that the crystal cleaves, very readily, in three directions narallel to the laces of the cube, rvhilst it resists all otheri. The fragnrents thus detached from the cubic crystal, as well as the remaining nucleus, have all the forms of rectangular Fig. z. Illustration of the L,aue Ra<liograph of the arranparallelopipedons. 'Ihis mechanical division may be cairied g c m c n t o [ m o l c c u l a r s t r u c t u r c i n c a l c i t e( l c e l a n t l very .far, for the little fragments may be fnrtber divided, and spar), frorn an arricle by Il. Lt/. G. fi\rcftoll', 6rn"r. J o u r . o f S c i c n c e ,N o v . r 9 z o , p . 3 z r . the microscope rvill show the most minute dust to be con.rposed of rectangular parallelopipedons. We are naturally.led, (ii) nxlitritlon of the theory of crystalline structure by induction, to infer that the ultimate crystalline p*.ii.l"., conceived by Rtgnault. that is, those which resist cleavage, will affect the same fo.,r.,. The celebrated French chemist l{cnryt [2167p, Re.qnaull These particlesare thereforecalied integral crystallinemolecules, was one of the most careful and exact investigators of tne each one of which is formed of a great number of chernicai middle of the rgth century. His Elements of Chemistrv. in molecnles, separable, perchance by other mechanical means, two volumes,(English translation by Betton, philadelphia, r g6o), and grouped together by means of forces hitherto unexplained.< not only is a model treatise on chemistry, but also contains )Let us now take an octahedral crystal of galena (fig. Sb, very. profound and sagacious remarks on the physical pro- plate r). If we endeavour to cleave it in a diriction p"iutt.i perties of all elements and their compounds, so that it to its faces,rve shall not succeed, We obtain, on the contrary,

63

5 r4 0

64

a very ready cleavage in the direction of planes equally inclined toward the four faces comprising the solid angles of the octahgdron. By effecting these successive cleavages at all the solid angles, we shall soon destroy its octahedral form and obtain a nucleus in the forni of a rectangular p a r a l l e l o p i p e d o n ,w h i c h c o n t i n r r e dc l e a v a g er v i l l d i m i n i s h , b u t not alter its cubical form. We therefore conclttde that the crystalline molecules of the octahedric crysta), as well as those ,of. the cubic grystals, are small rectangrilar parallelo< pipedons.

nBy supposing the cubic molecr.tles to be infinitely small, the asperities arising from the subtraction of the rows r v i l l d i s a p p e a r ,a n d t h e f a c e s o f t h e d o d e c a h c d r o nw i l l l r e c o m e perfectly plane. 1Ve may therefore say, tbat the rhoml;ic dodecahedron is derived from a cuLe Ly theVecrement, on t h e f a c e so f t h e c u b e , o f a r o r v i n l e n g t h a n d a r o r v i n h e i g h t . < Itii) Iicgnaull's theory of the renioval of rows of elementary particles. ))Let us now suppose tltat front each new stratum we r e m o Y e 2 , 3 , o r 4 r o w s o f e l e m e n t a r yp a r t i c l e s ; i t i s e v i d e n t > L e t u s s e l e c t , . i n t h e . l a s t p l a c e , a c r y s t a l o f g a l e n a that r,r'c shall produce, on each face of the cube, 4-sided o f r v h i c h t h e e l e v a t i o n s w i l l b e tl r , t l u , o r 1 / 1 o f p r e s e n t i n gt h e f o r m o f r h o n r b i c d o d e c a h e d r o n( f i g . 3 c , p l a t e r ) . l r y r a n r i d s , the axis ol' the cube, and that we shall obtain the r-arious We shall again find that this crystal does not cleave in a , ( f i g .: d , p l r t e I ) m e n t i o n e d i r r t h e p a r a g r a p h 'l'be only natural cleavages t e t r a h e d r o n s direction parallel to its faces. above. \Ve shall thus have ellected a decrement of r row a r e i n t h e : d i r e c t i o n o f p l a n e s e q t r a l l y i n c l i n e . t lt o w a r d t h e in height, and z, 3, or 4 rorvs in length.< f a c e s: o f t h e 4 - s i d e d s o l i d a n g l e s , 4 . I f w e e l l e c t s t t c c e s s i v e ))Let us now take a large cubic crystal (fig.4c), and, '4't1,i.6 solid angles, we shall destroy c l e a v a g e so n t h e s i x s t a r t i n g f r o n r t h e c e n t r e o f o n e o f i t s e d g e s ,a n d s y r n m e t r i c a l l y t h e f a c e s o f t h e d o d e c a h e d r o n ,a n d o b t a i n n u c l e i h a v i n g t h e r g r f o r m o f r e c t a r r g u l a p a r a l l e l o p i p e d o n s ,e s e n r b l i r r i n a l r p c a r a n c e a s r e g a r d s i t s c o n f o r n r a t i o n , r e n r o v e a m o l e c u l e f r o n r t h e z fronr the second,3 from the third, a n d t h e p h y s i c a l . p r o p e r t i e so f t h e i r f a c e s t h e n u c l e i s ' e o b - l i r s t u y r p e r s t r a t u m , rve shall obtain a tangent truncation of thc solid angle of tained from the cubic and octahedriccrystals. \\'e are thereprocess on each of the angles, we f o r e l e d t o c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e c r y s t a l l i n e m o l e c t t l e sc o r t r p o s i n g t h e c u b e . l i e p e a t i n g t h e shall have a regular octahedron (hg. +d) Ibrnred by the the dodecahedric crystal lrave the same forur of rectangular p a r a l l e l o p i p e d o n sa s t h o s e o f c u b i c a n d e c t a h e d r i c c r y s t a l s . < d e c r e r n e n t o f ' a r o r v i n l e n g t h , a n d a r o w i n h e i g h t o n t h e angles ol' tlte cube.<< >But rvhat is the ratio of the lengths of the sides ))Let us now return to our cube a lt c d e/ (fig. .{e), o f t h i s p r i m i t i v e p a r a l l e l o p i p e d o n ? W e r v i l l o b s e r v et h a t t h e a n d a d d t o i t s f a c e s a d d i t i o n a l s t r a t a o f c u b i c r n o l e c u l e s ; t h r e e d i r e c t i o n so f c l e a v a g ew h i c h l e a d t o t h i s p a r a l l e l o p i p e d o n b u t l c t u s u r i i k e , l b l l o r v i n g t h e e d g e y ' , a d e c r e n r e n t o i present no feature distinguishing theut from each other: they 2 r o \ v s i n l e n g t h a n d r i n h e i g l r t , a n d , l b l l o l ' i n g t h e e d g e are equally easy, and the faces they produce ltave tlte sanre ,/, a decrenrentof r rou' in length a:rd z in height, rve lustre. lVe are therefore induced to admit tlrat the three s h a l l o l r t a i n t l ) e p e n t a g o D a lc l o d e c a h e d r o n f i g . ( 4e). $'e haue d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e p a r a l l e l o p i p e d o n a r e e q u a l , a n d t h a t i t i s o l n i t t e d i n t h i s t i g r . r r et h e I i n e s o f s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e s n r a l l consequently a cube. il'he crystalline particles of galena are e l e n r e n t a r y u b e s ; b u t t h e s e l i n e s a r q s e e n i n t h e f i g . 4 f , c therefore cubes, and, if induction has not deceived trs, we can r v h i c h r c p r e s e n t s ,o n a l a r g e r s c a l e , t h e a n t e r i o r p o r t i o n o f reproduce, by the juxtaposition of these snrall eleurentrry cubes, f i g . q . . - l h c p e n t a g o n a l d o d e c a h e d r o ni s a h e r n i h e d r a lf o r n r , the cube, the octahedron, the rhonibic dodecahedron, and, a h c n r i - t e t r a h e x a h e d r o ( I r i g . n 3d): the other hemihedralfornis in short, all the crystailine fornrs of galcna. We are about tcr o f t h e r c g u l a r s ) ' s t e m a r e o b t a i n e d i n t h e s a m e n r a n n e r , b y show that this can be readily effected.< i r u n s y n r n trre c a l r l c c r e n i e n t so n s i t n i l a r e c l g e s< . >>Irvill be easily seen, rvithout multiplying examples, t <In order to render the fact more apparent, we shall greatly exaggerate the dirnensions of !he stnall elementary t h a t r v e c a n r e p r o d u c e ,b 1 ' a n r l o g o u s a d d i t i o n s o r s u b f r a c t i o n s , cubes. This lve may do lvithout invalidating the accuracy of a l l t h e f i g u r e s o f t h e r e g u l a r s y s t e u r . ( ) lt can be shorvn that all the forms of the second the. denronstration, for rve only consider the tangent planes, the directions of which renrain the same, whate'r'ernay be tlre s y s t e n r o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n m a y b e c o r ) s t r u c t e t lr v i t h c r y s t a l l i n e dimensions of the integral crystalline molecules, prolided nrolcculcshaving the figure of a right panllelopipedon, rvith 'l'he r s(luare base, but of rvhich the elevation is not e(iual to that their forms and mode of grouping be the sanre. c u b i c ' c r y s t a l . w i l l b e d i r e c t l y f o r m e d b y t h e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t h e l en g t h o f ' t h e s i d e s o f t h e t r a s e ; t h e r a t i o b e t u , e e n t h i s the elmentary cubes. Let us place, on the several faces e l e v a t i o n a n d t h e s i d e s o f t l r e b a s e b e i n g a l r v a l ' s i d e n t i c a l o f t h e c u b e a b c d c / , ( f i g . + o , p l a t e z ) , s t r a t a o f c u b i c in tlre sanre substance, but difl'ering in diff'erent substances.< ) I - c t u s t a k e a c r y s t a l h a v i n g t h e f o r n . ro f a r i g h t p r i s m m o l e c t l l e s i, a r r a n g e d a s t h e y a r e i n . t h e c u b i c c r y s t a l i t s e l f ; but suppressing,in each stratum, a ,rorvparallel to ear:h side of w i t h a s r l u a r e b a s e , a n d a d d t o i t s b a s e s t r a t a o f c r y s t a l l i n e the face of the cnbe, so that each nerv stratunr shall contain, m o l e < u l e s ,r v i t h a d e c r e r n e n t o f a r o l i n l e n g t h a n d a r o w on each Side, one rou'less than the preceding. It rvill be in height in the direction ofthe sidesofthe base: we shall p readily seen that we thus obtain the rhombic dodecahedron obtain a scluare-basedyramid, of rvhich the elevation rvill ( f i g . : . , p l a t e r ) . F i g . 4 a p r o v e s t h i s f a c t : i n o r d e r n o t t o l ) r e s e n t ,t o t h e s i d e s o f t h e b a s e , t h e s a m e r a t i o a s t h e b o r l o complicate this figure and destroy its general aspect, rve have l o g o u s l e n g t h s o f t h e c r y s t a l l i n e m o l e c u l e . 1 ' r e a t i n g t h e i n s u p p r e s s e dh e l i n e s w h i c h m a r k t h e s e p a r a t i o n f t h e j u x t a p o s e d ferior base of the prisrn in tlre sane manner, rve shall obtain t o e l e m e n t a r y c u b e s ; b u t w e h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h e m o n f i g . 4 b , a r i g h t s q u a r e - b a s e dp r i s m , t e r m i n a t e d b y t r l o p o i n t i n g s , plate 2, which represents, on a greater sr:ale, one of the w h i c h , u n i t e d b y t h e i r b a s e s ,f o r m a s q u a r e - b a s e d c t a h e d r o n . o Assuming this octahedron as the prinritive octahedron of the solid angles of the new formation.<

/\stronoln. Nnchrir'hten Ii,l. 2I5.

Tafel t.

T.J.J. See. New Theory

of the Aether.

(l

Fig. 3. a' b, c, rl, e. firgnault's theory of the gcometricalarra ngcrnent by rvhich the atonrs give the moleculcs the property of infinitesimalelementsfor lruilding up crystals.

C. Schaidt, lnhaber Gcorg Oheim,

Kiel.

Astronorrr. clrrichton ll'1.z r -q. \n

Tafel z.

T.J. J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

o Fig. 4. a,.b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i. I'urthcr rlctails of /t'tgtratt//'s thcttry ol

ll crvstal lririlrlirrg, by

i thc adrlition of molecules l'ith gcornctrical atomic structure.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheirn, Kiel.

Astronom.Nachrichtcn lld. zr(.

Tafel 3.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

.\ I

., a,
/ / / / r : v g \

Fig.7.

Construction

of crystals by thc gcometrical

arrangement

of small elements as described by ltcddtc.

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim, Kigl

A s t r o l r o r nN a c h r i c l r t e nt J d . 2 r 5 . .

I arel 4.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

I
I
I
a.'I'hc ()ctahcrlron.

Natural Crystal.

c.'l'rial<isoctalrerlrorr

I.'lorcntine Crystal.

d.,4 *"".i!
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Star of thc Sorrtlr 'l'lrc I'ash:r of I.){rl)1. 'l'lrc Iiohirrrrr.

f r

I
I

'l'he

licgent or l)itt.

'l'lrc ( )rloff.

'l'he ()rcnt NIogul.

I I

Irig. 8.

'I'he gcornetrical f o r r n s t a l < c n l , ) r l i i r r n o r r r lr y s t a l s ,r ' i t h i l l r r s t r r l i o r r o f t h e r l o s t c c l e l r r a t t ' r< l i a r n o r r r l s . c s l

C. Schaidt, Inhnber Georg Oheim,

Kiel.

A s t r o n o m .N a c h r i c h t e n B d . z r < .

Talel 5.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

1
il
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Fig. to.

r. |l[ayer's stable forms of groups of floating magnets. z. Geometrical forms taken by crystals of snorv.

C. Schaidt, Inhabcr Gcorg Ohcim, Kiel.

A s t r o n o n r N a c h r i c h t e nI t d . z r ( .

'fafel

6.

T.J. J. St:c. New Theory

of the Aether.

l?t2 .

180'

t00
S..aie

c< entauri C

Fig. tl.

The apparent orbit ofAllthn Cerrtauri, s,ith crtrcrnt'11' vrriable rarlius vcctor, yct rrrrrlcr the central force 6f uniyersal g r a v i t a t i o n s r v e e p i n g o v e r e q u a l n r e a s i n c q u a l r , i r n c s . . I ' - r 0 r n l i e s e a r c h c s o n t h c e r , o i[ t i o n o f t h e s t c l l a r s y s t c m s , r ' o l . I , r 8 9 6 .

C.Schaidt,

lohabcr

Georg Oheim,

Kiel.

Astronom.Nachrichten Bd. zr(.

Tafel 7.

T.J. I. See. New Theory of the Aether.

o 5

---.---------....-. -\ I f=--=-_
\..

tr
o

o A c e 4 (J o

\a'.
\

g._--...--.-------_\ \-"
\

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o o Ft

Fig. tz.

Graphical illustration of the progress.of the wlve-fr9yt, in the case of sound, propagated thruogh the arr and through the carbon dioxide (COr) of the balloon. This gives acoustic attraction, owing fo the advance wave-mbtion rvorking some of the air particles out from between the source of the sound and the balloon, and transferring them beyond the balloon, so as to give a vis a tergo, a shove from behind,

C. Schaidt,lohabcrGcorgOhcim,Kiel,

A s t r o n o r n .N r c h r i c h t e n R t l . z r 5 .

Tafel 8

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

l6terpretation
l'ig. r5.

"f

thl r.bove Sun;caces.

Diagram of thc equipotential srrrfirces about t\t,o equal masses, !r and p, originally given in Tfionsott ancl 7,ait,s Treatise on Natural I'hilosophy, lst e(I..I873. \vithout regard to the causc involvcd this diagrain r"p.ir"nt. the actual surfaces g.hich exist under the potentill of gravitatim;- antl the light of thc nerr thcory of the acthei lve now interpret the mcaning of the distortiors sho*n _in rvhich lere first_published about half a century ago.

C Schaidt,

lohaber Gcorg Oheim,

Kiel.

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. zr (.

Tafel 9

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether. 180

--,/2?-:------:

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. I

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./ ./'

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10

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')Yr13',,,t - I l{r76
Irig. r8. cqual arcas in cqual times for the cllipsc, paralrola, hyperbola in Gcomctrical illnstrations of the opcration <tf A-t1/tr's las'of rvhich conic sections alone planets an<l conets nray rn()\'e untlcr the forcc of gravitation dirccted to thc srrn in the focus. On the areas arnong thc rlotrblc stars, right, the orlrit of i \-irginis, rvhich illrrstratcs /r','y'/t/s las'of

C, Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Oheim,

Kiel.

A s t r o n o m .N a c h r i c h t e n I l d . z 1 5 .

'l'afel

to

See. r.J.J.

New Theory of the Aether.

'l'hc rvavc-rtnrPliturlesincreasc asyrnptotically torvards l-ig. r9. Gcometrical illustration of thc rvirvc-hcl<l alrout tryo cqual stars. in concentric spllcres, rvhcn vz', s'hilc thc lnvc'motion eithcr bo<ly, rvhich rentlers the actlrer of variable tlensity o: reflectc{ fiom the surfaces of thc confocal cllipsoids, yiclds strcsscs along the tangents to the hylrcrboloids, rrhich interscct the ellipsoids at right anglcs and sith thcm constitutc the systcm of cotlfocal conics. In natuie the aethei .vates from the ts,o centrcs arc not reflcctctl by thc cllipsoidal surfaces, but proceed cxactly onrvartl into in6nite space; yet the rcaction of the medirrm gives stresses along the tangents to tlre hypcrboloids rcntlcred perpetutrl. perfcctly reflcctctl by the confocal ellipsoids, and thc statc ofl'al'cmotion thcsameasifthe.uut".*"ra

,
C. Schaidt, lnhaber Georg Oheim, Kicl

r?pF'l|Fft|G1{

Asronom. Nachrichten Bd. zl5.

Tafel t r.

T.J.J. See. New Theory

of the Aether.

'6A v

stars: Fig. zo. Double plate showing the aether strcsscs in the rvavefield about twQ equal r . T h e t q u i p o t e n t i a l ' s r , . i u c c s , l i s t o r t eb y g r a v i t a t i o n t o t $ ' o c e n t r e s , i m p l y i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g d tension and pressure in the aether. either z. The double wavefield showing the decrease of density of the aether towards centre, and the stresses from'infinite spacc acting along the hyperbolas for rendering the state of the medium PerPetual. GeorsOhcim,Kiel. C. Schaidt,Inhabcr

'

'{1'\ti

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--

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'I-.1'q

^ir:\I{1;'\

65
substance, its dimension will immediately indicate those of the integral crystalline molecule.< >We may construct on the 'same base other a-sided pyramids by making decrements of r row in length, and 2, 3, or 4 rows in height. lVe shall thus have octahedrons with square bases, more and more acute, of which the elevations will be 2, 3, or 4 times as great as that of the prinritive octahedron. It, on the contrary, we rrake a decrenrent of only r rorv in height, and z, 3, or 4 in length rve shail obtain octahedrons more and more obtuse, of whiih the elevations will be tlr, tlr, or rfa of that of the nrinritive octahedron. We can therefloreconstruct, with the same integral molecule, an indefinite series of obtuse and acute octahedrons of the same class, but whjch will all possess this property, that, when referred to the'same base, their elevationi rvrll be to each other as the very simple nuntbers r : 2 : 4. . . 3: o r r : r f 2 : r s : r fn . . . . o f (iv) Rc.gnault shows that other forms result i n a s i m i l a r manndr.

40

66' >If we effecta decrement r row in breadth of

ul'lIvERSI
oF

0F t'llli

Rcgnault next considers a right prism, with a sqrlare b a s e , a n d f i n a l l y s h o r v s t h a t a s i m i l a r . m o d e o f g e n e r a t i o ni s applicable to the hexagonal and even the m o s t c o m p l e x systems of crystallization. >Starting from a point in one of its vertical e d g e s ,a n d symmetrically as regards this edge, let us subtra.i , ,olu from the first stratum,. z from the secopd, 3 from the thircl, and so on; in short, let us operate on lhis p.isrn, as rve did upon the cube to obtain the regrrlar octahedron. \Ve shall t h u s o b t a i n a n o c t a h e d r o n w h i c h r v i l l b e t h e o c t a h e d r o no f the second class of the primitive octahedron,and of which the faces rvill have the direction of the edges of the latter. By subtracting a row in length and z, 3, or i rorvs in height, we shall have the series of acute octaheclrons fthe secJnd o class. Lastly, we will obtain a series of obtuse octaheclrons of the second class, by srrbtracting r rorv in height and z, 3, or 4 rows in length.< >In the entire, or holohedral forms, of the hcxasonal system, we must take the regular 6-sided prism as the integral crystalline molecule. By rneans of this iame prisrn, *." .on, by suppressing the decrements according to a certain larv, construct the hemihedral forms of the same syslem. It is, perhaps, more easy to consider these last forms as constituted by integral molecules, hemihedral themselves, and having, for exanrple, the forrn of the prinritive rhonrbohedron. \\ie shall nrerely show horv scalenohedrons nlay be derived: in this manner, from the primitive rhombohedron hnling thc same lateral edges. Fig..4g represents this mode of genciatior5 of the scalenohedron (fig. 3e) of carbonate of lime: thisscalenohedron asa principal axis treble of that of the primitive h rhombohedron having the sarne lateral edges, and is fiequently of a crystal. found in this substance. It is enough to place; on each lace Norv in the theory of the grating rve have first, seconrl, of the primitive rhomltohedron a b c d e, strat^ of molcculcs and higher order spectra, and in each spectrum the maximum sirnilar itr form to this rhombohedron, by effecting on its and minintum for the different wave-lengths are arranged as lateral edges a decrement of z rows in breaclth , .o,u s h o u ' n i n t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n s( f i g . S, p. 6Z). "nd i n h e i g h t . T h e l i n e s o f s e p a r a t i o no f t h e e l e n r e n t a r y h o m b o r r. In the upper illustration, apertures are used instead hedrons are not seen in frg. qg, but they are clearly exhibited of reflection from firrrows in the grating. The imag6 formed in fig. 4h, which shorvs, on a larger scale, the upper courses rvhen the lorver telescope is directed normally upon the of fig. 4g.< g r a t i n g g i v e s t h e > c e n t r a li m a g e < .

in height, rve should obtain a scalenohedron which, rvith "oo"rt'ni,r1,9:r1.'' the same secondary axes, rvould have a principal axis double of that of the primitive rhombohedron. >>Inthe fourth, fifth, and sixth systems of crystallization, the integral molecule will be a.parallelopipedon, of rvhich the elements may be detern.rined,from those of the octahedron, ch.osen a.: the principal. At one time, the small generating solids rvill be the integral molecule itself; at otlers, the] rvill be formed by definite aggregation of these molecules. Fig. a i is an exanrple of the angnlar decrement of one o[ the complex generatins solids a b c d cf g. 'fhe faces thus either . on the edges or o" it e angles, will have l9r-1"d, different inclinations, rvhich may be inclefiniiely varied, by varying thc mode of composition of the generative solids themselves: but all these faces will present this common c h a r a c t e r _h a t t h e l e n g t h s i n c l u d e d b y t h e m o n t h e h o n r o l o g o u s t, axes rvill be proyrortionalto whole nunrbers. 'I'his is the gerieral law proved by observation, and to l,hich rve have ilready frequently re[errcdo . ( v ) f ' n e s ' a v e - t h e o r y o f c r y s t a l l i n es t r u c t u r ea n d f o r c e s illustrated by thc phenonrenaexhibited by a grating. The above reasoning of Rcgnoult has been d.,ue unon lt at length, becauseit seemed iimple and rr.ellcaiculatej to bring to light the nolecular conditions and forcesoperati'e in crystalline arrangen)ent. 'I'here is another familiar illustration which may now be u-"ed to .illunrinate tbe effect of crystalline structure. lVe refer to the grating. It is to be bornc in mind that crystals are productive of the 'rost beautiful exhibitions of ontical phenomena. Thus it is, desirable to point out the analogy with the grating, by n'hich classi6ed \\,ave arrangementis p r o d u c e d , a c c o r c l i n g t o s p e c i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a n t l , u a " u ee n g t h , I b e c a u s e t h i s , r v i r h t h e m o l e c r r r a rs t ^ l c t u r e a l r e a d y d e s c r i t e d j w i l l c x J r l r i n t h e c o l o r p h e n o m e n : ri n c r l . s t a l s . g r a t i n g c o n s i s t so f a m e t a l l i c s u r f a c c r u l e d i n p a r a l l e l lines by means of a very fine engine, rvhich rvill enJle the l i n c s t o b e d r a r v n e x a c t l y J t a r a l l e a n d o n e q u a l d i s t a n c ea p a r t . l 'I'hc finest gratings hcretofore rnade are those constmcte-dby Jlou,land at }laltimore and, Mirhelsorz at Chicago. To car.y out this rvork *'ith the dcsired accuracy lloiland had to produce a very perfect screw, for use in setting the diamond point for nraking the fine lines, from roooo ro 2oooo to the inch. 'I'he grating is thus modeled on the principle of parallel groves, ruled by a fine point, If the metal srtrface *er" ."t tup at the proper angle, it u'ould present the aspect of a side o f a p y r a m i d a s conceived by Rc,qnault, for thc theory of c r y s t a l s u t l i n e dabove. There is thus a close analogy betrveen o t h e g r a t i n g a n d its diffraction phenomena, and the structure

/ {.

r67
\----_-_/ a"o"r;:l'*o

5r40

68

the nrolecular structure is so arranged as to make the rulings - are extremely complex. It is no wonder that a variety of optical, and physical phenomena develop, and give the crystalsmany wonderful properties.This necessarily results from the wave-theory. 'fhe Wave-Theory explains the 3. Hardness of Diamond and the Growth of Crystals by Accretion along Axes. 'l'he V iervs of Eeddleand other Crystallographers cited in some detail. 'f (i) he extraordinary hardnessof diamond due to extremely violent wave-refractions and r v a v e - d i s p e r s i o na t t h e b o u n d a r y , r v h i c h t e n d s to disrupt the meliunr, but there'uyresult in 'I'hc maximum powers of cohesion for the hardest a) The diffraction grating. b-l rellcction grating. of knorvn crystalline bodies. A s w e e x a m i n e t h e p r o b l e n r so f c r y s t a l lography rvith sonre care, we first call attention to the extraordinary refraction and dispersion 'I'his of light in diamond. violent wave action tends to disrupt the medium at the boundary, but only drarvs around the crystal such an e l a s t i c s h e a t h o f s t r e s s c da e t h e r a s t o g i v e r i s e t o t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r l 'h a r d n c s so f t h e d i a r n o n d . In the lifth paper, sectjon I O, rve have c) .l)rfiiaction I'attcrn. dealt rvith this question in some detail, and !-ig. 5. Illustration of thc formation of the diffraction l)anerrl by refracriorr *'hilst lre have not fully solved the probierr, or by rcflection, the rvave arrangcln('nt of rvhiclt l)rcselrls ccrtxin *'e did separate the elernents on rvhich the ana,logies rvith crystalline strrrcture. hardness depends, so as to lay bare the causes 2 . A s t h e t e l e s c o p e a x i s P m o v e s t o l e f t ( o r t o r i g h t ) at rvork. \Ve have there pointed out that in the case of we encounter other secondary maxima of light. 'Ihe first diamond all the light incident frorn two conrplete rluirdrants, intense illunrination on either side will occur when DE is or r8oo, is condensed by refraction into an angular space equal to as many wave lengths as there are spaces on the o f o n l y 4 i " : r / 3 . 8 . I t a p p e a r st h a t t h i s 47?37 fioo : f "r' grating, for then C.B rvill be eclual to one rvave length, and enonnous concentration of lvave energy is the secret of the the light from each aperture rvill reach the surlace zl I) tn n)ost powerful ruolecular forces r). lior on any area of the precisely the same phase. The light concentratcd at 1" gives c r y s t a l t h c c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f w a v e e n e r g y i s a s t i r e s c l u a r e f o the rspectrurn o[ the first orderc. r.8, or r4.44; and if the dispersiveeffect be about equally 3. On either side, at greater angular distance from the pou'erfirl, the combined ef1-ect the refraction and dispersion of centre, higher orders of spectra occur. The forntulae are: beconres nragnified 2oo tirnes. For bright band (a-rd) sinl : zn 7lz Norv the effect of such extremely violent concentrations For dark band (a-+ d) sin d : (zn-+- r) ),f z , and dispersions of wave energy is a tendency to disrupt the where an-d denote thd distance between the slits, a being m e d i u m , b u t a s t h i s c a n n o t b e d o n e , o w i n g t o t h e n o r e r a p i d the width of slit, and d of the bar, and z is the order of m o t i o r l o f t h e a e t h e r o n s ,7 : 1 f 2n. It, thi resultis the devethe spectrum. lopnrent about the crystal of a stressed envelope or sheath, 4 . W h e n t h e l i g h t i s n o t n o r m a l t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e which binds the diamond like a shell of steel. As the rvaves grating, but inclined at an angle z, rve have the correspon- g o i n t o t h e d i a n i o n d t h e n r o v e m e n ti s c o n c c n t r a t e d ;a s t h e y g o ding formulae: but an equally violent reaction, scattering, and diffusion occrlrs. (a-+d)(sind-r-sini) 2 7 1 ) 2f . From a study of this stressing of the aether about the ( a - + d )( s i n d - r s i n) : ( z t - r t ) ) . 1 , i z d i t u r o n d , r v ec o n c l u d e dt h a t a s t h e a e t h e ri s r : 6 8 9 3 z r 6 o o o o o This brief discussionshows rhat the phenomenaof nrore elastii than air in proportion to its density, the tendency refraction, in a crystal - rvhere to the disruption of such a medium would develop forces gg"j::ftry:_""d

ll----r_)--, r.

I ", I ",

1) It will be noted that our theory of the harclness of diarnonrl rests largcly upon the cause of the tenacity of rvirc, shoryn to be traceable to stresses in the sheath of aether about the wire by the equation il I::'/4r, which indicates that the ten(lcncy to rupture the n: aether at the boundary must be the source of the porver when the rneirl is drarvn into rvire rvith relatively nrore surface. If thc cause oi tenucity in- drau'n rvire is correctly leferred- to boundary stress in tlre aether a conclusion frorn rvhich I curi see no escape, rn vrew of the results of observation agreeing with the above formula then the cause of the hardness of diarnond also follows incontestably. This conclusion is to be taken in connection lvith the above considerations on the wave oscillations and the resulting forces which resist iompression in liquids and solids.

69

5 I40

7o

correspondingly larger than worrld arise in the air. In nrany physical experiments and natural phenonrena, such as cyclones, 'I'hese ohenomena leave no doubt as to the Dossible the porver of the air forces are impressiveiy exhibited to our senses. concentration of power in natttre. Thus rve concluded that the strength of a solid stlch as diamond would depend on the sextttple integral: o/I I D x?e-da

e:
where the

o o o o elernents involved

(d)r(,) {s.'-")ot(ot)d(ol).)a1dddzd(q.c-")da (z) 6 S : S : S 5,.@2--r)n(ol)")y(p)qr

o o may be described as follorvs.

In the Optics, r72r, p. 365, Neutott pointed out that great power of adhesion is obtained rvhen two solid plane Fig.6. Stresses in the aether at surfaces fit with extreme closeness. In this sixth paper, our the boundary, olving to refraction and dispersiline of argument is to show that this same wave-pon'er, based on of s'aves by diarnond, on the enormous elasticity of the aether, operates above all r. As ihe $aves enter they in chemical combinations, rvhere the distances are ultra-miare cdndenscd into about croscopic in smallness | '. | 4.44 of their fornrer rlistrilrtrtion, s1'hericrl In thc cnsc of carbolr 1ve have the srnall molecular which is equivalent to rveight of rz, and the elenrent moreover crystallizinginto an intense contraction d i a m o n d , p r o b a b l y u n d e r v e r y h i g h p r e s s u r e ,a s i n t h e e x of the enclosed aetlrcr. periments of ,4[oissottand others in the production of artiz. When the$'aves ernergc, they undergo an equally ficial diamoncls, - and thus rvith sttch stlallness of molectllar pou'erful sprcarling otrt, weight, and crystallization under conditions of the closest a n d t h i s e x p a n s i o no f t h e possilrlemolecular contact, the resulting solid crystal ought rvave-front lcads to a rcto be thc hardest of known sttbstances. action in tlre lrteditttn 'I'his t h e o r y o f t h e h a r d n e s so f d i a m o n d f o l l o t l ' sa t o r ) c e also cqrrivalent to a contraction of the envelope front )\:rplott's remarks, all knorvn experience, and the resulting about the tliarnond. wave-theory of nrolecttlar and atomic forces. In ottr discttssion, 3. Thrrs rvhethcr tlre rvavcs to be sure, \\'e usllally refer to the refractile index approentcr or lcave the diapriate to light, but this is only for the sake of cle6niteness. nronrl, there is violent strcss in thc envclope of \ \ t e h o l r l t l r e c l r i e f a t o m i c f o r c e st o d e p c n d o n w a v e s s h o r t e r aether at the borrn<lary, t h a n t h e r r l t r a - v i o l e t ,: r n d t h r t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a lc o h c s i v ep o * ' e r and s'hen the rloleculcs is all'ay's rluch greater than rvottld follorv from the theory have crystallinc arran2)0' gement in a solirl, the of lieht u'avcs of tbe vistral sl)ectrttln. , (ii) \ricrvs of l'rofessor tl[. ?'. Ilrtldle, on the growth of harclncss rcsrrlts. s (u'-t), r v h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e ( l l ' J , s t a lb , v n c c r e t i o n a l O n g a x e s . r. Refractive action, T n t l r c r : c l c l r r a t e da r t i c l e o n \ { i n e r a l o g y , I i n c y c l . I } r i t . , d e n s i t y o f t h e s o l i d , 4 a n d t h e c h a n g i n g w a v e ' l e n g t h, . a n d 9tr' erl., I'r'ofi'ssor t1f. ,1i.f {rdr//e siyes an interesting outline thtrs on some tlnknown function, n(ol)"); 'l'he 'l incessant bendirrg oi the lvave- o f t l r c s , r l , i ' o s r : r u r o c l e o f g r o r v t h o f c r , v s t a l sb y d o m i n a n t 2. violence of the lccrcti^n rlorr- lrc". Ikdr/lt's arqulttcnt rttns thrts: front, for waves coming from all directions, f (f ); 'I'he r , \ , 1 , ' , . , 1 l s l l c r c g e o l n e t r i c n r e l s t t r e m e n t ,t h e r e a r e ; violence of the incessant dispersion of thcsc 3. s c v t , r r ' lr l l r r r t i o n s i n s ' h i c h a x e s n r a ) ' u ' i t h n e a r l y e q u a l a d incident weves, V/(d); 'lhe (fig. f b, combination of systematic stressesdue to the v n n t r q c i r t ' 1 , r ^ j e c t e r l . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e c r r b e 4. plirtc i) tlr-\' nrr)' be drarvn frorn the centres of opposite crystalline arrangement of the atonric planes with the effects l r l r ' i 1 , ' r t ' r O ; o r f r o r n o p p o s i t es o l i d a n q l e s ,a s l e t t e r e d o f t h e t w o l a t t e r v i o l e n t t e n d e n c i e s ,t h u s l e a d i n g a l m o s t t o f a r : c s , s 'I'here o C ; o r i - , , r r l l r r ' r ' r ' : r l r c s f o p p o s i t ee d g e s ,n s l e t t e r e t l- 1 ) . the disruption of the medium, I(t) I o i s a l r r n r l r r r r r : c I c v i t l c n c e t h a t e a c h o f t h e s e d i r e c t i o n sm t l s t 5. The enortnous power of reflection rvith very slight b e r o l : r r r l r ' , 1l s l i n r : s o f d o r t t i n a n t a c c r e t i o n o f n r o l e c u l e s < < . a b s o r p t i o no I e n e r g y , a t t h e s u r f a c e , 6 ( q ' e - " ) ; >T l u t t h e a c c r e t i o n ,m a y b e n o t o l l l , v t l o t t l i n e n tb t l t o v e r ' > 6, Tbe great central presstrre due to the integration srt r 1 ' h r ' l r r r i r r { t 1 1i't r o n e o n l y o f t h e s e d i r e c t i o n s i n c e r t r i n c a s e s ' of the steady action of the sheath of partially disrupted rvaves 6 1 s r i . . { rr-r i i L i o i r g o n e s e t o f a x e s a l o n e i n c e r t a i n o t h e r s ' selifl, a({'r). always enveloping ths (fig' Z Accordingly, although we recognize the validity of the I n a s 1 , , . t i rt, r r o l - I r a t i l e s i l v e r f r o m A I v a i n S c o t l a n d "), t l r i , ; i s : o t t r t t c h t h e c a s e t h a t t h e c o n c r e t i n gm o l e above integral, in the present state of our knowledge, 1ve can a l o n g O the fon'n of an evaluate it only very approximately. If the other variable c u l e s h r rr l i l , r i r r l i t t l e m o r e t h a n d e l i n e a t e by lr in about the same proportion as the energ)' o r : t a h r , ,r . , r , ,: i ; i i l i l r i s t h e y h a v e o n l y b e e n a b l e t o d o elements increase i n l i n e s o f r r i n r t t e c r y s t a l so f t h e v e r y in refraction and dispersion, rvhich we cAn calculate, the result a g r | ' t ' g r r t i r i lL l ' r ' r ' s t l v r : s i s h l p c c . ' 1 ' u ) r i r :t)l r c 1 ' \ \ ' e r ep r o j e c t i n g t h e s k e l e t o n l b r m . N { o r e ' o l v o u l d b e a n i n c r e a s eo f s t r e s s f t h e o r d e r o f z o o X z o o X 2 o o : v a l u e o t h e r w i s ee f f e c t i v e . I n v i e w o f t h e o v e i , A i ) ( ) l , r l i r l l g r ! ' g a t i o na t t h e t e r m i n a l e n d s o f t h e s e o c t a ' 8oooooo times the a t l l o r t n to f c o n c r e t i n g a n d s u d c t e n d i s c o n t i n t r i t i e si n t h e p h y s i c a l s t ^ t e o f b o d i e s , a s i r r h c r l r a l : r r t s i r l t . t c s l t o l ' t t b y t h e l ; the rvave-theory is c r y s t r r l l i ; , . i r i' r , r r l L , t - il;rte i n g l a r g c r a t t h e t e r m i n a t i o n so f t h e s e solidification. etc., it seeurs certain that the hollorv-faced cubetagain (fig' 7 b), ample to accottnt for the hardness of diarnond ancl other axesrtlrarr L'l'j"1,,)!'e. In of tlolecules in the direction of the Iines 'D crystals, as well as the tenacity of steel and similar substances' an aggr,:gati,Jtr

, : ' 7|

5r40

.74

and C has filled the edges and solid angles, rvhile none have been deposited along O. This occurs in crystals of salt. In the hollorv-faced ocrahedron again (frg. Z.), there has been no deposition of matter along the line C. Cuprite oftcn shorvs this fornr; and it as frequently occurs in hollorv-faced dodecahedra, rvherein the vacuity is in the direction of D.< ))In the specimen of pyrite from lilba (fig.7d), a de. position along D and C would ultinrateiy have erected the scaffolding of a hollorv cube, in twelve lines of nrinute combinations of the cube and octahedron. Such diret:tional arrangements lnay, moreover, not only be intermittent but 'I'he 'lraversella often alternate. pyrite frorn (fig. 7 e) is an illustration of the first. A large pentagonal dodecahedron having been cornpleted, a nerv accession of nraterial has been attached, not uniiormly spread over the lire-existent crystal, to enlarge it, but locally arrangecl, in equal anrount, lt the poles of O. But here the special method of the arrangeuient has deterrnined the forrnation of a nuutber of snrall t:rystals of the same form as that originally projected.< > A n a l t e r n a t i o n , a s i t r v e r e , i n p l a n i s s h o r y ni n s u c h a crystal of calcite as rhat in lig. 7 f. I{ere a scalenohedron is seep in the centre of the irgure; then a rhombohedron has been perched upon its surnmit, and Iastly both have been sheathed in a six-sidedprism rvith trihedral surnrnits. Different as these three forms are, it is found that thcy all here stand in a definite position, one to the other; that definite position is the relation which they bear to one o[ t h e s e t s o f a x e s , a n d t h i s s e t r n a y b e a s s i g n e d ,n o t o u l y t o ail the three crystals here combined, but also to all the c r y s t a l s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e s a r n e r n i n e r a l , i v h c r e v e ro c c u r r i n g . T h i s g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y c o n s t i t u t e s o n e o f t h e r e s u e , : t si l n rvhich one special set of axes is, in each of the systenrs, preferred to the others.< (iii) Coherence of particles not equal in all directions. Having indicated by the reasoning of Rc,gnault and Heddle hol crystals are built up by molecular arrangenrent, ernbodying various geometrical forrns along certain axes-, will it not surprise us to learn that the coherence of the particles is not equal in all directions, The contacts of the particles are closer in some directions than in others, and ihus the forces depending on rvave action yield rnore readily in some directions than in others. Crystals thus have planes oiclcavage, and sometimes may be easily split along these planes, becatise the contact of the particles is not close, and the coherence of the particles not powerful. ProfessorI{eddle'sdiscussionof this subject is as follows: . >Another respectis the intensity rvith rvhich the rnolecules cohere in the different parts of the crystal, as referrecl to these axes, and the resultant different hardness of certain parts of crystals. It will be afterwards found that this obtains in a very limited manner in the crystals whicli belong to the first of the following systems, on account of its regulaiity and sameness as a whole. It may be laid down as a general rule that the edges of crystals are harder than the ientres of their faces, and the solid angles harder than the edges. This is markedly the case in the diamond. Ilut, apart fionr this, there is no distinctive hardness in any one part, side, or end of the crystais of the first system. It is otherwise

with the crystals which fall to be considered in all the other systents. So different is the hardness of the various portions of these, so diverse the appearance of their parts in lustre, colour, polish, etc., so varying the anrount of the recoil of tliesc rvhen struck, so unerlual their power of conducting heat, s o d i s s i r n i l a r t h e i r p o w e r o f r e s i s t i n g t h e a g e n c i e so f d e c a y , a n d s o i r r e < : o n c i l a b l eh e i r a c t i o n u p o n t r a n s n r i t t e dl i g h t , t h a t t w e c a n n o t b u t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e m o l e c u l e sr v h i c h b u i l d t h e m up are packed rvith greater force, i[ not in greater nunrber, in certain directions in preference to others. There thus rernains no rluestion that these nature-indicated sets of axes a r e t h o s e a l o n g r v h i c h t i r e r e h a s b e e n a s p e c i a l l y .s e l e c t i v e o r , p o l a r ' a r r e l ) g e r n e n( . t (iv) In crystals, as in s,ire, the relative increase of s u r f a c e sg i v e s u r r x i m u u r h a r d n e s s . Iirorn tire above quotation it rvill be seen tha.rI{cddle,s vrews on crystals coincidc rvith those reached in the fifth paper on the nerv tlteory of tlre aether. As rve had not exarnined I{tdllc's article *'}ren that paper was finished, rve nray regard the concurrence of viervs as renrarkable. When ,/{tdd/t says: ) lt may be laid dorvn as a general rule that tlre edges of crystals are harder thar.rthe centres of their faces,and the solid angles harder than the ecises. .l.his is rnarkedly the case in the dianrond.< - it alrnost seenrs s a if he is outlining the wave-theory as treated in the tOrh section of the 6fth paper. lior it rvill be rememltered that we explainedthe hardncss of diaurond and sirnilar bodies as due to wave actron at the boundary, rvhere there is enor[lous and violent refraction a n c l d i s p e r s i o n , r v i t h v a r i o u s t e n d e n c i e st o d i s r u p t t h e a e t h e r . A n d n a t u r a l l y t h e s e t e n c l e n c i e st o e n o r l n o u s s t r e s s i n t h e aether ivould be a rlaxinruln at the edees and corners o[ crystrls, rvhere there is nrinirnr.lsolid content of the crystal i n p r o P o r t i o ' t o i t s s u r f a c e , s o t h e s u r l a c ee f f e c t i s i t r c r e a s e d as ntuclr as possil;le. \\re found from the study of drawn rvire that the curve for the relltive increase of sr.rrface,rl : SlZ, defined by the etlurrrio., ,l : S I l-: trlr (S) shorvs that the strength of rvire will increase with the decrease of the radius of the rvire r, so long as the diarneter of the r v i r e i s n o t m a d e s o s m a l l a s t o a p p r o a c h t h e d i a m e t e r so f the molecules, From this law of the asyntptotic increase of strength, with decreasingr, rve justly inferred that tvave action at the l-roundaryof the rvire nrust be the secret of the strensth of drurvn rvire. Norv likervise for crystals, in the aLrove general rule, I{eddle lays it dorvn that the edges and corners offer maximum hardness evidently because the surface effect is there a maximunr.

Hence rve have tht following remarkable induction relative to larvs of nature not heretofore suspected. r. Wire attainsmaxirnum strengih or tenacity rvhenso drarvn as to make the ratio of the surface to the volume a maxirnum, as lollg as rnolecular dimensions are not approached. ' 2. Cr1'51o1r likewise present maximur-nhardnessat edges and corners, tvhere the ratio of the amount of surface to volunre is a maximum - just as in the case of drawn wire,

/ J

5r40

74

I i t h erefi rr rneretore wave action at the boundary rvill acti explain paper. These properties were knorvn over two centuries ago, t l r e t e n ac i itty o f r v i r e , i t r v i l l a l s o e x p l a i n t h c c y rvi h a r d n c s s o f and Sir lsaac Ncntlott himself conjectured that diamond is a crystals.. ,,\ny other conclusion ..e*, luholly r l s ,,\r v I rrsi excludecl. Th.s srrbstance of peculiar nature. sir Dauid Breusrcr,s the observed propcrties ofr crystals confirm tlre discovery b s erve( o ivavc-theory that rnany dianronds shorv traces of double refraction rn"y U! r of physical forces. /si explained by the extreme internal pressure or stress due to (") S t u d y o I t h e c rystr a l l i z a t i o no f t h e d i a m o n d , (v) rys r v h i c h the n'ave action at the boundary, which gives the diamond nrost strikingly confirms the rvave-theory. such extraordinary hardness. 'fhe Investigation shorvs that diamonrl alwal.s numerous internal reflections of the light, total occurs in when crystals belon.qing to the tesseral or cubical systern, usuallv t h c . . a n g l e s a b o v e 2 3 " 4 r ' , m a k e s t h e c l i a r n o n d i lxt..ordinariiy in the octahedron, or double four-sided pyramid (fi*. brilliant, and fills the r:rystal u,ith nraximum S.:"1;;;;i.i ! -, dispersion of t h e r h o r n b i c d o d e c a h e d r o n ,w i t h t , u e i u l f a c e s ' G * . i i , i , prismatic light, rvhcnce the value of the crystal as a gem. tria.kisoctaheriron, 3-sided pyramids superposecl In vierv of nrodcrn studies on radio-actiuity, on the octait iJ .e_ hedron form (fig. 8c) ; or hexakis-octal.,.d.on, 6-sided pl,ramids nrarkable that as early as r664 .Robert,/)01,/c noticed that rvhen superposed on the octahedron fornr (fig. gd). e-rposed the licht of the sun diamoni has the property .to of T h e . c r y s t a l l o g r a p h y o f t h e d i a r n o i r di s i h u s i e r n a r k a b l e s h i n i n g i n t h e d a r k , o r p h o s p h o r e s c i n g . T h i s r v a sb e f o r e the t o r t h e s y r n m e t r ya n d c o m p a c t n e s s [ t h e f o r n r s o take'. Incleed cornbustibilityof diarnond rvas establirn"a Uy the Florentine i t i s n o t e d t h a t t h e f a c e so f i h e s e s y m r - u c t r i c t l c r y s t a l sp f t e n a c a , d c n r i c i a n s , -r694-s, rry means of a series of experirnents are cnrved, and many of the crystalsthus l;econre witlr a porvefful burning- glass, in the presence so rou'd of CosntolII, ,.r t: a l m o s t l i k e , s p h e r e s , r v h i c h r v c n r a y r e a d i l y u n c l e r - Grand.l)uke of 'l'uscany. !" _Lauaisitrfound by similar experirnents stand fronr the above figures gb ancl d. tlrat the chemical product of the corntustion rvas carbon . Norv it is rcrnarkable that carbon as an elcrnent has d i o x i d e , C 0 2 . extraordinary )properties,r as follows:b . _ _---_- r.vrlvr\rL qr rv,ruw .fhe , , I)evelopment o[ Heat in Chemical 4.. r ' I n t h e c a s eo f e l e m e n t s t h e r t h a n c a r b o . nh - e . n u n r l r e r o t ] Reactions a proof oi tt \vavc-.I,heory. of atoms directly associated ogetherin a molecule t " of the corn_i r , r IIeat appliecl (') r r ^ ^ ! - , r . ,

j:1":;; ;,""T"'tJ atoms irr ;iliit:J;*Liil-:i*{:.:::r.r;tjtl,li'il* ";::..ii,r{riJ;Hii]jt;:i"r,riiii carbon are direcr jJ,Jl;_# :::,ii]l;l{r.]i:!,;ir;#l::;:,,".#,: ".;i;l;;.;i;i, :*r,,.:,r:x:.
fhA;n^1".1^l ^^-r-^-

;i;;,i;",;il;;;:;:;.'.':,:;J,iil,",.';,':. carr,oncompounds the ntr,.. r,"ia ;;,;;.;;;; on

to certain mixccl atorns iviu rcq'e'try I ,._,_ alrottt rrrtng heatreads i.stabirity. to ,,]1...:',::':'::^,1,:1.,*.i:l:.',

: -Yi'ix#:";ili"' :;jli:'ff-;';ili':,il"*:ilJ":: I::T[J;::fiiii'',,13''l,l',,:"oT:,ff" ;iTl.T;"' ;;:l [:"!:.T::""intx,,L'::ffiii*f li*:{:lIfti-Kt-';il'i.T:,:;j".1...l;'"'"1,:l':,T

that o[ combining wiih r,yd.og.nin ,-,unr"ro,'lt;::Jff:l:. I -"t

i,.",;r;,

it is 4' whercrore concluded .,.t J" has o',- ,"u.^"i{',iJ'1f,';,,1::'l;}:: tr'"t trvo | :fllt,ff;::{i$,:l ri;:,::.Hri: 'ilfi' .;,.rae forthe energy ,rpin chemicar given l,'l;ffi:':n'ff';,t::';[1;:'il:iiiil:'l:i::]ij: "n"i"'o,,i changes

f o nd b y c h miqts i s c o r-+ t e b y t h e h u n c i r e d s . f o uu n d l l v c h ee m i c t s i c n n r u n ^ , i d ] . - , r L ^ L - - - - r

I H'rcat

sclellce.

f,ns, rhereby developing special branch of thar

a:[l'J ',l:;:,"i#*,j***':{ mg.-'::*: .l;;r:n*r$::'J:] I::::;[::niljlilTiii\i:J:,ii]l'T

':,t".::1 to .r.*."ff;,:111''l"t;"":1,J.::: th.f"I.t J]iljl"ii;.il"JJi,' :l;:Jf^:'JT:-il:fJ:."".1u:nra'er l c o o r d i n a t e s #",i r : . r v h i c h s h o r v sI thrt rhc hrrr,,oc" ^r ,_^r. ,^-^^ ^r ^, I actua
*:::: T:::1.::"1r1rather T::;r ;;i;l;; | 2't,,,,,t-_2r,:2,t,,,,n,_2ro: jlryl.";f JJi::il.:::.,ar, b;;;;"il;;ill_r#g.,:,,n" #,,",', fr"r:|"*,,ft",'u;:^.,:;:
.
has already been dealt with in'the
s--r

,r#:":ll l'?illLl",l:':f":"',r:;"::J,:"'-T[r';,:H:,il:::"1'x f*n"."J-r: #l;;; ,0.'in',""o,,ru,o

6. In vierv of these remarkable'ch"-l;;l';;||.tie. it I or ener8r qi'err rrp in anothertransfbrmation, shourd rve have

'.;; ;fi l, ,".i.1:il,,i:,::l:: :1";iii"i",-'i,i'' I :l':*

be rvritten

__ tf ,,,,,,2) >'; :)r lf.n,,,02_

(s)

:':ilf,:T:the

," J ona tr,...ro ?, ;:r;#r:":,::';: : : : : . ] ] : . l . 9tesseral i l I y | r o 1 a i l . d i r e c t i o n s , a n d l , u i l . , i , u i | " . . " \ l . , ^ s - t J : i : : . fortn, I"

;:ll.:::"::",:';;:::':,,:ll.:l'::1: .h;:.ri ili;; ; I :l '"'b;;;.i;"iI;"i;f nearest apyrroaching of ttresphere.Th. that

often curved with t"..')."r"';ii'"i |

u12-'\f >2, :>( 'r2,,, ,,, u2)

;;

(,o)
. (r,)

2'lr,,, rr,- )'f

,,,,,0,:l

rr-)a

that the hardnessof-coherence of the atoms is leastin the

,; j;. yr,,:i' i;;::::#

c (,,)

The highrefractive dispersive and power.or,1?,]l-""'"":l """L;: ,oih section oi the fifth I grorg,
I
-

in the usual rectangular coordinates: -'--o --'

F"J"T.I-ation

of' dynamics rvasgiven by LaI

)llx-,,,.a2rlat!)dr-+(y_nt.drf

d t 2 ) 6 1 , _ + ( Z _ n t . d 22 ) 6 2 ) o r zf _

(rs)

75
or in the more common form

5I40

76
dx:- y 61,t-Z6z) .

dtr.6d :)(x )r,@r*lat2.dr-rdzyf dtz.61,-rdzzf

Now rthe lelt member of this equation yields: 'the left

( '+ )

: (a/a4) n(axfd,7:^i;T;i;:^i?!i'li":,,if,1,',u!)i,-+(a1'tat,-+(d ('s)

When we put

r :

tlrZntf(arf at)r-+(ary,lat)r-r(azla4'1 uz and : rf2tt U,:)tx6x-+y61t-+Zdz)

a4 1al ) * @xlat.dr -+dy dt.b -+- dt. 6z): dzl f 6T-r Ul
Forrrtula I12'S2O;; I{2.SeOs 82. Plcltt

we get from (r4)

(' 6)

('z)
Units of heatdeveloped in lhereaction (z NaOilz1q, e.t(/) 27ojo z7o2o 27220

whence we derive Eaniltott's principle for a conservativesystem:

i',"^.,,,, l\dTt-U,):s

Narne of Acid

(,s)

But molecular and atomic systems undergoing change are not conservative, since invariably there is development o[ heat due to chemical combination. parts 6f the system pass from the free state to the bound state, and in the raltid adjustment o[ the velocities of the molecules and atoms, there is such rearrangement of their moving rvave-fielcls, that heat is developed. The work done thus naturally has largely the fornr of aether rvaves, which tend to cliffuse the heat of conrbination. Accordingly, in chemicalsystemsthe principle of l{anillon will not hold, and equation (r8) takes the forrn:

! {ar*u'): o

tr

(I9J

w h e r e @ i s t h e n u n r b e r o f h e a t u n i t s d e v e l o l r e do r a b s o r b e - d by the chenrical combinations taking place in the sysrern r J . . , 1, ^ , . . . . , , . i , , during the interval 4-to, 'lr}rr.suo) If the change of ternperature be imrnense ancl violent, Stannic 4?so tltvrr.Sio) a s b y t l r e a p p l i c a t i o n o f e x t e r n a l h e a t , n r o l e c u l a rs t r u c t u r e s , Silicit: 2 7r o s t e l r l c a t l o r v e r t e r n y t e r a t u r em a y b e c o n t e u n s t a b l e a n d t h e , 'l'his t a b l e i s f r o n r t h c a r t i c l e C h e r n i s t r y ,I . ) n c y c l .B r i t . , corrrlrinrrrions reak up, becanse the agitation due to the b g ' h e d . ' l h e c x l r l a n a t i o n o l ' t h e t a b l e b y p r o f e s s o rI { . l i . Arnr l o r r g c r r v r Lci s p r c < l o r u i n a t e v e r t h e s h o r t e r , r v a v e s n w h i c h o o strot.g is of interest: 'I'his c h e r r r i i,r l a f l r r r i t y n t a i n l y d e p e n d s . f a c t c o n . h r n r st h e >I i r o n r t h t s e t a i r l e si t n , i l l b e e r . i c l e n t ( r rvuvc-tireorl', ), that rvhen 'l'lrr, a nrolccule ol' sodium hydroxide in aqueoussolution enters lirllon'ing tables include sonre of tlre prin<:ipal i n t o r c a c t i o n u ' i t h a n a c i d , t h e h e a t d e v e l o p e di s v e r y n e a r l y resnlls fr;rrrrrl l;y the researches ol lltriltlo1, 7'hoiltstn ind 'l'lrc proportion.l to the quantity of acid othcr:i. l L r s t t a l > l e g i v e s t h e a n r o u n t so l ' h e a t r l e v c l o p e d l ) r e s e n tu n t i l t h i s a r n o u n t s r/e,'lr,or tl+ nrolecule, accordingas the acid is mono-, o r r t l r c i r r l . l i r i o n o f s o d i u n . rh y d r o x i d e ( z A r a O L l , 1 , t , , a d . t o r , e di-, tri-, or tetrabasic; but that rvhen the an)oultt of acid added U n i t s o f h er t d e v e l o l t e d exceeds that rerluisite to fornr the normaI sa.lt, the clirl'erent Nr,rrc of Acid Formula in the reacrron a c i d s b e h a v e d i f i b r e n t l y , h e a t b e i n g i n s o n t e c a s e sd e v e l o D e d , \z Na)il..t(1, Q.tq) F I 1 ' r l r lou o r i c l z I{..1,-l a n d i n o t h e r s a b s o r b e d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o no f t h e 32540 S r r l r l rr rr i c I I-12. s 04 acid; and (z), that mostly rvhen a nroleculeof an acid in 1ri8o St'lr'rrir: l/.r.Se Oa aqueous solution enters iDto reaction rvith sodium hyclroxicie. :lo:190 l l 1 ' , ' l 1 r l r o s p h o r o u s z (r{. .l'rr2 oy) t h e a m o u n t o f h e a t d e v e l o p e d i n c r e a s e sa l n r o s ti n p r o p o r t i o n jo-j30 S r r l l i rr o u s HzSO, to tlre anrount of the latter, and until r, 2, z8g7 o 3, or 4 nrolecules . l \ fr - r ,rrl r o . l r h r i c o are.arlded, accorcling as the acid is ntono-, di-, tri-, or tetra. z (I{. I'Q) 2875o P l r r , . , , l 1n ,,trt 1 o R " ' ^ .FI).PI{Ots basic; the further addition of sodiunr hyclroxideis not then Os;rli,: a t t e n d e d r v i t h a n y c o n s i d e r a b l e c l e v e l o p m e r - otf h e a t . < ff2. c2ot z8z8o r H r ' , 1 , r ' , ,i :o r i c l zII .Cl z7 48o ))Ver), clifterent amountf, of heat, it rvill be observed, F l v rI r o l, r o r n i c z tf .Ilr 2 75 o o are develol>ed on neutralizing the different acids, but theie Flv,l'io,lic zE.f 2 73 5 0 is mostly a rernarkablesirnilarity in the resultsobtained in t_!|nr)c z I{. ClO" 2 75 2 o the case of acids which fronr chemical evidence are knoln Nitrit: z I{.NOg z7 36o to be closely allied.<
' r J u r v r l q r r r e

I)ithionic Selenious Chloroltlatinic l t l u o s il i c i c Sulphovinic Fornric Acetic l'yrophosphoric Phosphoric Arsenic Citric 'l'l rt a ri c Suct:inic Cltrouric Carbonic l l o r ic l l l ' p o ch l o r o u s l - ly d r o s uI l r h u r i c

I4.Si1',. z(tt.SOrCr4) z lII. C[IO2) z(fI.Cr14O) tf ) 2 ( H t . 1 , .O 7 ) I{2. /'Ot Il I{r. AsOrI.t , l o ( r r , , .c , )F r 50 7 ) I{2.CtI{rOti
jlz.CtlItOt ,/f2.CtOt II2.L'OB II2.IIOI z(I{.OL'/) z(II.Sh) z .\f!. CAt)

z66zo z6g3o z64oo z63ro 2637 o z 7o8o z 75 8 o 2547o 253ro

zqr6o 2 4 72 0 zor8o ?ooro tgsjo r548o s 5 :l o

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Professor Arntstrongthen adds a more detailed discnssion, which for lack of space we are obliged to omit, proving the general theory here outlined. Several other tables are cited by Professor Arnsh'ottg, those derived from the chernical investigations o( Thonsen of l(openhagen being highly important; but the results are too eiaborate to be cited here. The related chemical problern of lhe number of nnits of heat developecl or absorbed per molecule rvhen salts are dissolved in rvatcr could l-le discussed with profit. And rve might go into thc problerr"r atomic heat, rvith average value of of airout 6.3; but it involves too much cher-r-rical detail for a discussion of the cause underlying physical 1'orces. I t m u s t s u f f i c e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e h e a t d e v e l o p e do r absorbed is proof positive of the vast stores of energy drarvn u p o n i n t l - r e c o r n l r i n a t i o n so f l r a t t e r i l t t o n r o l c c u l a r b o d i e s familiar to chenrists. Free or temporari)y frec atoms are c o m b i n e d i n t o n - r o l e c u l e s f g r e a t e r ' o r l e s ss t a l r i l i t y ; a n d i n o t h e c o m r n o t i o n i n c i d e n t t o t h e c h a n g e o f s t a t c , en e r g f i s s e t free, mainly in the forrn of heat. ' I t r v o u l d b e l t o s s i b l et o i m a g i n e t h a t t h e e n e r g v c o m e s from within the ator-ns thernselves; but such a vierv lras grcat improbability for three reasons: r. \Ve cannot conceive how the energy can be stored in tbe atoms, since it is characteristic of energy to cxpend itself rvith vcry great rapidity. 'l-here z. is no apparent rcason rvhy diffcrcnt atorns should have snch different enerqy, in respcct to other atorns o r m o i e c u l e s ,i f e n e r g y b e i n h e r e n t i n n r a t t e r . 3. This theory n'ould placeall the enersyin the r:omrnon m z r t t e ra n d I e a v e n o n e i n t h e a e t h e r , - s r h i c h i s i n f i n i t c l y i m p r o b a b l e , s i n c e t h e a e t h e r i s p e r f e c t l y e l a s t i c a n c l t h L r st h c v e h i c l e o f a l l e n e r g y . ' l ' h e r e f o r ei t i s i m p r o b a b l e , a l n r o s ti n c o n c e i v a b l e ,t h a t e n e r g y c a n r e a l l y r e s i d e i n n t a t t c r a s s u c h . Accordingly, rve reach the conclusion that so far fron-r residing in matter, the energy resides in the aether itself, but only exhibits its porver in connection rvith matter, because matter operates to transform the rvaves, orving to sudden changes of movenrcnt at the boundaries. Hence the rnain function of mattcr is the transforrnation of rvave enerqy; and naturally the effccts are different rvith different substun<:es. No other theory will explain the chemical energies evolvcd in combinations rvhich often are so extremely porverful. (ii) Heat developed by chemical affinity attrilxrted to transformation of molecular and atornic motion, but rvhen the liberated energy is confined, and nerv gases formed in the disturbance of the system, their expansive porver riray give motion to projectiles, The main distinction between chemical affinitv and the physical attraction seen in molecular forces, consists in the fact that the action of chernical affinity is accompanied by chemical changes, whereas purely molecular forces do not change the internal structure of the molecules. Agitation of the molecules selterates heat, by the rearrangement of the surrounding rvave-field, and rvhen the parts of molecules .or atoms are violently agitated and reconnected, as in chemical changes,it is natural that heat should be evolved. This rearrangement of the parts of the molecule, with dissociation and regrouping of atoms, under the lvave energies of the universe, thus leads to heat, and iies at the foundation of thermo-

chenristry as developed by Bcrtlelot, Thonsen, and other modern investigators, In discussingchemical changes, W. R. Grouc (Correlation a n d c o n s e r v a t i o no f f o r c e s , p . r 5 r ) s a y s : )It may be a question rvhether in this case, the force rvhich occasions the motion of the nrass is a conversion of the force o[ chemical af6nity, or rvhether it is not, rather, a l i b e r a t i o n o f o t h e r f o r c e se x i s t i n gi n a s t a t eo f s t a t i ce q u i l i b r i u m , a n d h a v i n e b e e n b r o u g h t i n t o s u c h s t a t e b y p r e v i o u sc h e m i c a l a c t i o n s ; l r u t , a t a l l e v e n t s , t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u n - ro f e l e c t r i c i t y c h e n r i c a la f t i n i t y r n a y b e d i r e c t l y a n d q u a n t i t a t i v e l yc o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e o t h e r r n o d e so f f o r c e . B y c h e m i c a l a f f i n i t y , t h e n , r v e c i r n d i r e c t l r . p r o d u c e e l e c t r i c i t y ; t h i s l a t t e r f o r c e r v a s ,i n d e e d , said lry I)aut, to be chemical affinity acting on masses: ir appears rather to be chemical affinity acting in a definite direction throush a chain of particles; but by no definition c a n t h e e x a c t r e i a t i o n o f c h e n r i c a la f { i n i t y a n d e l e c t r i c i t y b e expressed; for the latter, hou'ever closely related to the former, yet exists rvhere tlie forrner does not, as in rnetallic rvire, rvhich rvhen electri6ed, or conducting electricity, is nevertheless, not chernicalll' alterecl, or, at least, not knorvn to be chemically altered.( > I.o//a, the anfitype of Prontl/tctts, first enabled us deEnitely to relate the forces of chemistry and electricity. \\/hen trvo dissirnilar rnetals in contact are immersed in a Iirluid lrclonging to a certain class, and capable of acting chemically on one of thenr what is termed a voltaic circuit i s f o r r n e d ,a n < 1 ,b y t h e c h e m i c a l a c t i o n , t h a t p e c u l i a r m o d e o f force called an electric current is generated, rvhich circulates from metal to metal, across the liquid, and through the points of contact.( ) Let us take, as an instance of the conversion of chemical force into elcctrical, the follorving, rvhich I made knorvn some years ago. Ii gold be immersed in hydrochloric acid, no c h e r n i c a l a c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e . I f g o l d b e i r n r n e r s e di n n i t r i c a c i d , n o c h e n - r i c aa c t i o n t a k e s p l a c e ; b u t m i x t h e t r v o a c i d s , l a n d t h e i n r n r e r s e rg o l d i s c h e n t i c a l l ya t t a c k e d a n d d i s s o l v e d : l this is an ordinary chcmical action, the result of a double c h e n . r i c aa f f i n i t y . I n h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d , w h i c h i s c o m p o s e do f l chlorine anclhydrogen, the affinity of chlorinc for gold being less than its affinity for hydrogen no change takes place; but when the nitric acid is added, this latter containing a great quarrtity of oxygen in a state of feeble combination, the affinity of oxygen for hydrogen opposes that of hydrogen lor chlorine, and then the affinity of the latter for gold is enabled to act, the gold combines 'rvith the chlorine, and chloride of gold remains in solution in the liquid. Norv, in order to exhibit this, chemical force in the form of electrical force, instead of mixing the liquids, place them in separate vesselsor compartments, bnt so. that they may be in contact, which rnay be effectedby having a porous material, such as unglazed porcelain, amianthus,etc., between them. Immerse in each of these liquids a strip or rvire of gold: as long as these pieces of gold remain separated,no chemical or electrical effect takes place; but the instant they are brought into metallic contact, either immediately or by connecting each with the same metallic wire, chernical action takes place - the gold in $e hydrochloric acid is dissolved, electrical action also takes place, the nitric acid is deoxidised by the transferred hydrogen, and a current

/Y of electricity may be detected in the metals or connecting metal by the application of a galvanometer or any instrument appropriate for detecting such effect.<< >'fhere' are few, if any, chemical actions rvhich cannot be experimentally made to produce electricity: the oxidation of metals, the burning of combustibles, the combination of oxygen and hydrogen etc., may all be made sourcesof electricity. The common mode in rvhich the electricity of the voltaic battery is generated is by the cher-rricalaction of rvater upon zinc; this action is increased by adding certain acids to the rvater, which enable it to act more pou'erfully ulton the zinc, or in some cases act themselves upolt it; and one of the nrost p o w e r f u l c h e n r i c a la c t i o n s k n o w n , - t h a t o f n i t r i c a c i d r r p o n oxidable metals - is that rvhich producesthe ntost polr,erful voltaic battery, a cornbination rvhich I nracle knorvn in the y e a r r 8 3 9 ; i n d e e d , l y e m a y s a f e l ys a y , t h a t . r v h e n h e c h e n r i c a l t force is utilised, or not wasted, but all converted into electr.ical force, the more porverful the chemical action, the more l)o\.\'erful is the electrical action rvhich results.< Again, in describing the voltaic battery, Groue s,.rys: > N o r v a v o l t a i c b a t t e r y , w h i c h c o n s i s t su s u a l l y o f a l t e r n a t i o n s o f t w o n r e t a l s , n d a l i q u i d c a p a b l eo f a c t i n g c h e n r i c a l l y a u p o n o n e o f t h e n r , h a s , a s w e h i v e s c e n ,t h e l t o u ' e ro f p r o d u c i n g chemical action in a liquid coltnected rvith it by rletals upon which this liquid is incapable of acting; in .such c^sc rhe c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e l i q u i d w i l l b e e l i r n i n a t e d a t t i r c s u r f a c e so I t b e i m n r e r s e d n e t a l s , a n d a t a d i s t a n c e o n c l l . o n rt h e o t h e r . F o r e x a m p l e ,i i t h e t u , o p l a t i n u n r t e r r r i n a l s o f a v o l t a i c b a t t e r y be imnrersed in water, ox)'gen rvill be et'olvecl at one and h y d r o g e n a t t h e o t h e r t e r m i n a l , e x a c t l y i n t h e p r o l r o r t i o n si n which they form water; while, to the most niinute exantination, no action is perceptible in the stratum of liquid. lt was knorvn before Farada-y's time that, while this chemical action was going on in the subjected liquid, a chemical action rlas g o i n g o n i n t h e c e l l s o f t h e v o l t a i c b a t t e r y ; b u t i t r v a ss c a r c e l y if at all knorvn that the amount of chemical action in the one bore a constant relation to the amount of action in the other. Faradal, proved that it bore a direct erluivalent relation: that i s , s u p p o s i n gt h e b a t t e r y t o b e f o r n r e d o f z i n c , p l a t i n u m , a n d water, the amount of oxygen which rrnited with the zinc in each cell of the battery was exactiy equal to the amount evolved at the one platinum terminal, rvhile the hydrogen evolved frorn each platinum plate of the battery was eclual to the hydrogen evolved fron'r the other platinum terminal.< >Supposing the battery to be charged rvith hydrochloric acid, instead of water, rvltile the terminals are separated by water, then for every 36 parts by weight of chlorine which united rvitli each plate of zinc, eight 1;arts of oxygen rvould be evolved frorn one of the platinulu ternrinals: that is, tlie weights rvould be precisely in the sanre relation tt,l-ttcb Da/lon proved to exist in their chemical conrbining rveights. 'fhis may be extended to all liquids capable of being decornposed by the voltaic force, thence called electrolytes: and as no voltaic effect is produced by liquids incapablc of being thus decomposed, it follorvs that voltaic action is chcn'rical action taking place at a distance, or transferred through a chain of m e d i a , a n d t h a t t h e c h e r n i c a le q u i v a l e n t n u n r b e r sa r e t h e e x ponents of the amount of voltaic action for corresponding < chemical substances.

4o

8o

>As heat, light, magnetisrn, or motion, can be produced by the requisite ap;ilication of the electric current, and as this is definitely produced by chernical action, we get these forces very definitely, though not imnrediateiy, produced by chernical action. < \iii) AdoQ/ie Wurlz's theory of chemical aftinity. In his well knorvn Histoly of cheruical theory., fron-rthe a g e o f l a u o i s i r t o t h e p r e s e n tt i r n e , ( i 8 6 9 ) , t h e c e l e b r a t e d lirenclr chemist ldolple Wut'lz retcllcd the conclusion that c i r e n i i c a l p h e n o n r e n ad e p e n d f o r t h e i r c a u s e o n t h e d i v e r s i t y o f n r r t t e r . A s s t a t e c l i n t h e w o r k a b o . r ' e i t e d ( t r a n s l a t i o nb y c lJ'u/ls, London, r86g) pp. r9J-r g4, lVurtz's theory is as follon's: > > \ \ r e a v e s e e n t h e p r o s r e s s o f i d e a s f o l l o r v i n gc l o s e l v h o n t l r en r i i r c ho f d i s c o v e r l ' , n d a r - r i v i n gt,h r o u g h n r a n yv a r i a t i o n s , a a t t h e s a u r el u n d a n t e n t a li d e a , t h a t , n a r n e l l ' r v h i c h c o n s i s t si n s e c k i n g t h e l l r s t c a n s e o f c h e n r i c a lp h c n c r n e n a i n t h e d i v e r s i t y o f n i a t t e r , e a c h p r i r u o r d i a l s u b s t a n c eb e i n g f o r n e d o f a t o m s endorved rvith a certain energ)', and rvirh a peculiar aptitude fbr expending that energy. These two properties of atoms, distinct lionr one another, rencler an account of all chenrical p h c n o u r e n a ,t h e f o n l e r m e a s u r i n q t h e i r j n t e n s i t y , t h e l a t t e r d e n o t i n g t h e i r n t a n n e r . A l - h n i t y a n d a t o n r i c i t ya r e , t h e r e f o r e , the tu'o nrarrilestrtionsof the forcc 'rvbich resides in the atonrs, a n d t h i s h 1 ' p o t h e s i s f a t o m s f o r m s a t l ) r L . s e ntth c f o u n d a t i o n o o l - a l l o u r t i t e o r i e s , h e s o l i d b a s e o f o u r s ) ' s t c uo l - c h e n r i c a l t r k n o s ' l c d s e . I t g i v e s a s t r i k i n es i n r p J i c i t i ' t o h e l t \ \ ' sr e l a t i n g t t o t h c <o n r 1 > o s i t i oo f b o d i e s ; i t e r r a b l e r r s t o l o o k i n t o t h e i r n s i n t i n r L r t es t r u c t u r e ; i t i n t e r v e n e s i n t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o no i t h e i r a I ) r o p e r t i e s ,r e a c t i o n s , a n d t r a n s f o r n r a t i o n s ; n d r v i l l d o u b t l e s s at sonte firture time lurnish points of sul)port for the science of rnolecular mechanics.< >lt rvas, therefore, a grand idea that rvas originated by Dtt/tort, and it ruay rvith goocl reuson be asserted,that amongst a l l t h e a d v a n c e st l t a t c h er n i c a l d o c t r i n e s h a v e m a d e , s i n c e t h e t i r n e o f L a u o i s i r t, t h i s i s t h e n ) o s r i r n J ) o r t a n ( . t It thrrs al)pears that lLlrlz attributed all ciremical r n a n i f c s t a t i o n s f f o r c e t o a f f i n i t y a n d a t o n r i c i t y ,a n d h e l d t h r t o the srrlrp<-rrt f-or a science of nrolecular ntechanics urust bLb a s e c l t l r e r c o n . l l e c o n s i c l e r e de v c r y p r i m o r . d i a ls u b s t a n c et o be >formed of atotrs endowed rvith a certain energy, and rvith a pcculiar aptitude for expending that cnergy(. 'l'he rvave-theory differs frorn Wur/s's vicrv chiefiy in a t t r i b u t i n g a l l e n e r g y t o t h e a e t h e r , l ' h i l e t h e a t o n t sr e c e i r . e , transforrr, and entit lvave energy suitable to their atonric p r o p r e r t i e s n d 1 ; e r i o d i c i t i e s'.I - h i s i s a s i r n p l e rc o l t c e p t i o nt h a n a I,l4u'/s'sand it gives to tlle atouts the propcrties of resonators, - a l l e n e r g ! b c i n g i n h e . r e n ti n t h e a e t h e r i t s e l l , rvhich has a n e l a s t i c i t y, 6 8 g i z r 6 o o o o o g r e a t e r t h a n t l r a t o f a i r i n l)rol)ortion to its dr'rrsity'. 'I'he p h e r . r o m e no f r a d i o - a c t i v i t ya n d t h e k i n d r e d p h e n o a n r e n a o f p h o s p h o r e s c e n c ee n a b l e u s t o s e e t h a t t h e r v a v e t h e o r y o l i - e r st h e s i n r p l e s t a n d m o s t g e n e r a l c x p l a n a t i o n o f radiirtion, rvhatevcrbe its forr-u. In r 66,1, -liol'le observed that a dianrontl glorvs in the dark afier having been exposedto t h e d i r e c t a c t i o n o f s u n l i g h t . ' 1 ' h i sw a s p r o b a l r l y t h e e a r l i e s t observation of the persistenceof luminor.rsvibrations after the exciting cause tvas rernoved. If the carbon atoms crystallized in diamond nray persist in their vibrations it is after all not

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In the caseof diamond, we havenoted that the tendency is to form crystals as nearly spherical as possible; and we b a v e p o i n t e d o u t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e h a r d n e s so f d i a m o n d d e p e n d s u p o n t h e i n d e f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n r b i n a t i o n so f c a r b o n . r v i t hc a r b o n , j u s t a s t h e m u l t i t u d i n o u sc o m b i n a t i o n so f carbon rvith hydrogen give rise to the .inrnrensegroups of hydrocarbons,and thus form the principal basis oi organic c h e m i s t r y . O n t h i s p o i n t , d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p r o p e r t i e so f c a i b o n , 'r'e quote the impression of the eminent French chentist Ar/o/tt/tt I.l,'ur/2,(Itistory of chenrical theory, r 86g, pp. r 5 9-r 6o) : > > \ \ ' h y ,i n d e e d , d o t h e a t o m s o f c a r b o n e x h i b i t t h i s s i n _ gular tenclencyto accumulate in large numirers irr organic n r o l e c u l e s l B e c a u s e t h e y p o s s e s st h e p r o p e r t y o f c o m b i n i n g t o g c t h e r , o f r i v e t i n g t h e m s e l v e so n e t o t h e o t h e r . T h i s i m o o r l tant prol)ertygives to the innumerable compounds of carbon a p e c u l i a r s t a n r p , a n d t o o r g a n i c c h e n - r i s t r iyt s p h y s i o g n o m y , i t s m o d e o f b e i n g . N o o t h e r e l e m e n t p o s s e s s ets i s p o w e r i n h t h e s a m e d e g r e e . D o u b t l e s sh y d r o g e n c a n c o m b i n e w i t h i t s e l l , as recognized by Gerlar.dt; blt, as an atom of this body e x h a u s t si t s c o m b i n i n g c a p a c i t l . b y i t s u n i o n u . i t h a s e c o n c l a t o n r , n o o t h e r e l e m e n t c a n b e a d d c d t o t h i s c o L r o l e .t h e saturated molecule of which is reduced, as it u,ere, to its F r o m r e s e a r c h e sc o v e r i n g a v e r y l , i d e f i c l d i t s e e n r s s i n r p l e s t e x l r r e s s i o n , c i n g f o n n e d o f t r v o a t o m s . ( b absolutely certain that electrical forces control the > ' l ' h e p o l y a t o m i c e l e m e n t sa l o n e , a f t e r h a v i n g e x p e n d e d Jrb;,sical rvorld, and that both magnetisnrand gravitation arc rvave- part of the conrbining capacity which resides in them in p h e n o m e n a , d e p e n d i n g o n s t r e s s e s i n t h c a e t h e r , a n e w r i v e t i n g t h e n t s e l v e so n e t o t h e o t h e r , can retain anotherpart m a t h e m a t i c a l - p h y s i c a lt h e o r y o f w h i c h r v e h a r . e c l e v e l o p e d t o f i x o t h e r e l e m e n t s . T h i s p o w e r i s p o s s e s s e d by the atoms cluring the past seven years. of carbon, and likewise by the atoms of oxygen.( I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e g e o m e t r i c a l m e c h a n i s mu n d e r l y i n g 5. The Geometric Basis of the AtornicArrant [ J e m e n t i n t h e W a v e - T h e o r y o f M o l e c u l a r S t r u c t u r . e m o l e c u l a r a n d a t o m i c f o r c e s i s s o n r e r v h ao b s c u r e , y e t t h e r i . a l s o p o i n t s t o t h e S o u r c e o f P o w e r i n F I i c h I i x - c a n b e n o d o n b t t h a t d i f f e r e n t a r r a n g e n t e n to f t h e c o m p o n e n t plosives. part may l.reniade so as to give greatly different degrees of 'I'he ( i ) f n e r e s i s t a n c e o f . - a g i v e n m o l e c u l a r s t m c t u r e t o c o m p a c t n e s sa n c l t h e r e f o r e o f s t a b i l i t y . subject of the g e o n t e t r i c a l f i g u r e s a n d t h e i r p o s s i b l e c o n l b i n a t i o n sh a s b e e n p a s s i n e r v a v e sd e p e n d s u p o n t h e a t o n - r i c r r a n g e m e n t . l t m a y a vary betrveen forrrs rvhich yield nraximunr to minirnnrn treatecl of lry nrany authors, beeinning virh l{ejtler's Mysterium C o s m o g r a p h i c u n t ,r 5 9 6 . A m o n r r e c e n t r v o r k s w e s h a l l o n l y resistan ce. allude to trvo: I n o u r r v a v e - t h e o r yo f t h e h a r d n e s s a n d t c n a c i t y o f r. (lrowth and Forrr, by D'Arr1, I,V, Thoatfson, Cambodies, in the fifth paper on the nerv theory of the aether, rve bridgc University Press,rgr7. f o u n d o v e r s ' h e l n t i n g e v i d e n c c t h a t t h e s e p r o p e r t i e so f b o r l i e s , b y w h i c h t h e y h a t , e e n o n r ) o u sp h y s i c a l s t r e n g t h , d c p c n d o n rvave transformations and the resulting stressesin the aethcr a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h c s e b o c l i e s . I l o u n c l a r yc o n d i t i o n s a r e a l l - i m p o r t a n t i n f i x i n g t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e so f g r o s s b o c i i e s , because the transforntation of rvaveswith the resultine stresses in the aether occur at the boundaries. Now just as the bonndary transformations f wavesntay o generate enormous stressesabout and throtrghout a large body n r a d e u p o f a n i n 6 n i t e n u m b e r o f a t o r n s ,s o a l s o t h i s b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n , w h e n r e d u c e d t o t h e p r o b l e m o f g e o m e t r i c a lf i g u r e s , may give molecules and atoms properties of grerter or less strength and stability. .
') 1'his section slightly rervritten on IIay r6.

such a long step to radio-activity, wbere the radiation continues almost indefinitely. Thus radiurn differs from diamoncl chieily in the rnuch greater duration of the radiation er.nitted and the violence of the waves given out. Ilut carbon h:rs an atomic weight of only rz, rvhileradium has an atonricrveight of zo5, over l7 tintesgreater. As bearing upon world-radio-active phenonrena, we may cite the Aurora Borealis, rvhich occasionally adds to the Iuminosity of our atnrosphere by rvavesemitted from sunspots, and so transformed in the earth's atmosphere as to give light. On May 14, rg2r, tve witnessed at Mare Island the most b r i l l i a n t a u r o r a e v c r n o t e d i n C a l i f o r n i a .1 ) r \ t g l ' 3 o - p . n r . i Pacific Stnndald Time, the. auroral streamers extencled from the northcrn horizon to the zenith and beyoncl; the colors displayed included rcd, orange, yellol,, green, ancl bluish 'I'he purple. s t r e a m e r ss h o w e dr a p i d f o r m a t i o r ra n d d i s s o l u t i o n , and at abont ro o'clock a canopy of light, like that often reportcd in Norrvay and Lapland, formcd near the zenith, sixtl' dcgrees rvide. It aftertvards scattered, ancl appeared as luminous clouds in many parts of the sky. Iior many ycars the arlrora has been known to be p e r i o d i c , a n d t o f o l l o r v t h e c u r v c o f t h e s u n - s p o td e v e l 6 1 l n r e n t . A s a n u n u s u a l l yl a r g e s p o t w a s n e a r t h e c e n t r a l m e r i d i a n o f t h e s u n , t h i s d i s p l a y v e r i f i c st h e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c v a v e - t h e o r y r published by the rr'riter in rgr7, and frrrther verified in a p a p e r c o r n n t r r n i c a t e dt o t h e t \ s t r o n o n r i c a l S o c i e t y o f l , r a n c e i n N o v e m b e r .r o r 8 .

In fact there is no doubt that there is in general one a r r a n g e n r e n tr v h i c h w i l l g i v e n r i n i m u m s t a b i l i t y a n d a n o t h e r rvill give maximum stability of the atornic arrangen)ent. It is upon tliis strength that the stability of the stmcture of the molecule depends.

2. l,'undamentalsof lbe Cosmos,by Colonel Joln Millis, , U . S . A . , r g r 8 , ( S c i e n c eO c t . r r , r g r 8 ) . 'fhe rvork l>y Tlottfson has reference to the development of orsanic bociies, and thus is of interest in biolo.gy. T'he rvork by ,4[i/lis is of wider application, and involves ra simple geornetricalprinciple and its possible significancein connection with general physical theory.< 'l'he principle stated by ll[illis is that: )In any agsregation of an indefinite nun.rber of equal spherical bodies a n a r r a n g e m e n t g i . r ' i n gm i n i r r u n r t o t a l v o l u m e o c c u p i e d a n d perfect symmetry throughout is inrpossible tl{i//is recognizes <. that in every case there is an arrangerrent giving maiimum

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stable geometrical figures found by -trfaycr

sDaces, as in the ytt tl,t U"":til condensationand geometricalsymmetry' l]11 for groups of floating magnets' He summartzes --- ' 't'h"." figure ro' ii" .pt.."t in contact is not a maximum' floating ^ugttets are illustrated in the us as good an outline of convey to his conciusions'thus: ofequal plate 5,';-hl;h fto[oury as any known models' or rThe only possiblearrangement grouping ihe rnolecules or atoms -"- u fixed con'fhe chief difference we suggest in the model molecule l.'-"ot,,o.i tbat gives p";lttt tl:T:::l spheres "t is of an indefinitenur.nber the dition throughoutlor u-g'oup edonot vemag density; rvhile i s t h a t i n n a t t l r e w waves,h a waves n e t s s u r r o u n d e d b y not but of I"uii^r ty".'tt, and this d"oes giveruaxirnunr p"r"rir.a g."ups ltiiq :l:-11':T^ti":,:: molecule givestnaxinitm densityas that arrangement the onty'possible ,i;uiornt ftoto every directiorl' so that the 'group is the rhombic #;.'t* - ! - : ^ ^ r ut"t'gement o f l e n q t r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e ^,,6--omenr resistance to the such a of least a fixed condition throtighout tr'"th. ".t;;";iri."t gi'r'e universal symnretry' loJ."^U"J."1, but this does not passing waves. ;fhi, involves a different cause for the forces known possiblegiving both tnaxiurutnden- i There is no arrangement forrns which result will sitv and universalsymmetry'( to U" ui work, but the geometrical

conditions of temperature -agitatio,t ;; ;;.y similar; and under certain the forms are stable' Yet under other ;; ;. stability, and the rnoleconditions i1,e.e is a rupttlre of the rearrangernent of the atoms .ui" Jt.^Lt up, rvith inevitable compared which in their n'rutual relations may be ;; ;il, to ihe lrarts o( -tr[a1'tr'sfloating magnets' 'Illt" pictttre i,cre given is the sirnplest and nlost direct and atomic structure' outlirte of ihe ,rat'e-theoiy of rnolecular a good rnany geon.retrical irii,.,., ,r," nu'rber of atonrs is large properties to the forms utay be assurned; but, with diverse ";;; stable conrbinations frequentlv are- unstable' or ;;;;;, -i'it'i above inodel floating it narrow lirnits, ai in the ""it rr)agrletsdeviscd bY tltal'cr' 'I'he symuret.y of ihese rnsgnets and their analogy with to escape the notice cross sections of crystals is too obvior'ls n)agnets r8a and observer' In fact '11[a1cr's of-ii" .ogu.iotts by resenrblc the form of crystallization taken ,'aJ'r,rir.?"gly rvhere the rnolecular and ai^r."t"ta,- th'e'purest fornr of carbon, unrestricted freedom oto*i" fo..".,- due to rvave'action have in a.ranging the parts to give the best symnretry of operation and tnaximrttnherdness' floating ln conterr.rplatingthe above ligures of tl[a1'er's at'e ln lve should remember that all the elements lrasnets, .- thc leYel surface of the rvater' - which we may ;;; tri"ti. molecn'lar structtlre .^fl tr'. IJut in tlte theory of atomic and t5e atons or parts of the molecule as lying io *.'f*ir. 'I:htls "i.,u n-rany more geometrical in tridin",".r.ional space, 'rr:.t'z' in the structure of the molecu\e possible'for atoms f;.;;-;." than is shown above in Mayer's figures' (iit) Instability of the geoutetrical arrangetnent in moleunder disturbance' .ulu. .iru.ture rnay lead to rearrangement, o[ explosive forces finds explanation in and thus the tlystery porver of the aether' the release of energy due to the elastic molecular and atomic structure here spltcrcs tu From the theory of Fig. 9. F-orms of :.1:1.n$"*"nt for conrPact of stability outlined, it follows that very different degrees contact' \lutItts). shouldexist.IngeneralmolecularStructureisbrokenupby regarding syrnmetry and I of the heat waves' There are other suggestions excessiveheat, be-ause under the agitation of arrangement forms foiJpheres .or,particles^ll!"^O]:l:^]i I *f,i.ft *.. of greater length, the atoms are likely to be driven conveyed *e sfrutlnot go into thembeyondthe sugge-'tions of uiion of the atomic forces due to the Millis' fr""""a the ringe "Thus (nig' 9.) from the paperof Colonel heat or electric current may lead to uy ,i-r"iiru.,tations *ou.r. ;;;;; the molecules like the air.o"iut;on,'Dauy's the separation of the elements' as in Sir and (ii) ff,e atoms are separated in celebiated experiments on the alkaline ;f";;irtl parts of MaYr's floating magnets' the e a r t h s , a b o u t r 8 o 7 . 'No,u "-'It now remains to point out that in the- rvave-theory just as heat and the electric current may produce of other groupings' ' groupings above represenied,and an infinity the constituent atoms beyond the rangemaking up the dissociationi by driving i.. iotiiUf. for the atoms, but the atoms so also when the form of forces, relatively large of action of the atomic molecule are to be conceived as separated by

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atomic arrangenrentis not very stable, a quick disturbance r n a y s o d e r a n g e t h e g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e a s t o c a u s er n o l e c u l a r collapse of the existing structure of the aton-rs,and rearrangement into other figures,usually more but sometimeslessstable. This gives us a clue to the secret of explosive forces, which heretofore has challenged the ingenuity oI natural philosophers. If we consider the great body of high explosives, u'e recall the well known fact that many of them are highly unstable, and will not bear any violent shock. Thus nitroglycerine is exceedingly unstable, and the sante is true of nearly all the latest and nost porverful explosives, such as the trinitrotoluenes. In fact, we might almost stateas a generai principle, that in proportion as an explosive is porverful, and its destructive effect great, in the same proportion is it unstable, so that its stability has to be increased by mixture rvith an inert substance,as rvhen dynamite i s m a d e f r o m n i t r o g l y c e r i n eb y t h e a d d i t i o n o f s i l i c o n m a t e r i a l . Now the only rvay we can conceive this explosi'r'e power to ariseis from the aether. It cannot come from the substance o [ t h e e x p l o s i v ei t s c l f . I ] u t i f t h e a e t h e r b e 6 8 g 3 z r 6 o o o o o rnore elastic than air in proportion to its density, and the nniverse be 6lled rvith waves of all lengths, - then obviously a release of stress, in the rearrangement of structure rvhich gives less resistance to the passing l'aves, rvill yield such s o u r c e s o f p o r v e r a s p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e s e l d o m d r e a r n e c lo f ' . In his familiar lectures on scienti6c subjects, r867, 1tp. z8z-286, Sir /ohn .(ferstltclrecalls this trenrendous power of tbe aether and aclds: >I)o what rve rvill - adopt rvhatever hypothesis we p l e a s e - t h e r e i s n o e s c a p e ,i n d e a l i n g r v i t h t h e p h e n o m e n a of light, from these gigantic nurnbers; or from the conception of enormous physicai force in perpetuai exertion at every point, through all the immensityof space.<.. . > I f f r e e t o e x p a n d i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s ,i t ( t h e a e t h e r )r v o u l d require a bounding envelope of srrfficient strength to resist its outrvard pressure. And to evade this by supposing it infinite in extent, is to solve a difficulty by rvords rvithout ideas - to take refuge from it in the simple neeation of that rvhich constitutes the difficulty. On the other hand, such r ,crystalline orb' or ,firmament' of solid matter conceived a s a h o l l o w s h e l l o f s u f f i c i e n ts t r e n g t h t o s u s t a i nt h e i n t e r n a l t e n s i o n , a n d f i l l e d r v i t h a n r e d i u r na t t r a c t i v c l y , a n r l n o t r c l x r l s i v e l y e l a s t i c ,m i g h t r e a l i z e ( r v i t h o u ts u p p o s i n ga s o l i d s t r u c t u r e i n t h e c o n t a i n e da e t h e r ) t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t r a n s v e r s e i b r a t i o n . < v 'I'his penetrating reasoning of Sir John l[rrsrhtl shorvs clearly that the porver of the aether everyrvhele about us is great enough, if made effective by molecular rearrangelrent, to call forth unlirnited explosive forces. It is therelbre Iogical to assign explosive forces to the porver of the aether - just ts rve assign the porver of the lightning to the release of a e t h e r s t r e s s e sa t t h e b o u n d a r i e so f c o n d e n s i n gd r o p s o I r a i n when the aether rvaves come from every direction in this all-pervadingmedium. . That rvhich explains the power of the thunderbolt will also explain the power of dynamite, the trinitrotoluenes, and other terrific explosive forces, which so long has challengedthe ingenuity of the most eminent natural philosopbers. It is impossible to consider the problem of explosive forces,

after a study of the wave-theory of Iightning, without reaching t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s o u r c e o f p o r v e r i n t h e t r v o c a s e si s one and the same. And as lightning, with all the destructive power of the thunderbolt, is definitely referred to rvavE-action i n c i d e n t t o t h e r e l e a s eo f a e t h e r s t r e s s a t t h e s u r f a c eo f r a i n drops, we must also hold that explosive forces derive their stupendous power from the release of stresses tbe aether in i n c i d e n t t o r e a r r a n g e m e n to f m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e . H e n c e t h e instability of all high explosi'r'es. It only remains to point out that as there is yielding and collapse of the molecular structure in an explosion, it follows that such collapse of the original stmcturervill lead to the atoms being carried not only into a state of greater c o m p a c t n e s s ,b u t a l s o t o a r e b o u n d f r o m t h i s u n n a t n r a l s t a t e 'Ihis of compression. i s t h e m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r a lo s c i l ) a t i o n , under the stress of the passing aether waves, rvhich calls forth the terrific exertion of force rvitnessed in explosions. The aether is almost infinitely elastic, and nearly in'Iherefore compressible. rvhen the stressesincident to the w a v e s b i n d i n g t o g e t h e r t h e p a r t s o f t h e m o l e c u l ea r e r e l e a s e d , t h e y i e l d i n g c a r r i e s w i t h i t a c o m p r e s s i o no f t h e d i s c o n n e c t e d atoms, and in the oscillation the most tremendous forces inevitably are exerted. I t i s h i g h l y u n p h i l o s o p h i c a l t o a t t r i b u t e t h e s ee x p l o s i v e forces to the substances themselves. They arise from the aether (,1fir)g) which Sophotlcs (Oedipus Coloneus, r 47 o) makes the seat of a terri6c thunderstorrn; and of tvhich ( Acsrlt-ylus l'ronr. Vinct., r ro3-r r zo) speaks propbetically: > > Y c an o w i n v e r y d e e d , , No nrore in rvord alone, 'l'he cartl-r shakes to and fro, And the loud thunder's voice R e l l o r l ' sh a r d b y , a n r l b l x r s 'l'he flashing levin-fires; 'is'th" Su.t-, , t o r r n f r o , r - r2 . u , l'hat comes as rvorking fear, In terrors n-ranifest. O llother venerable! O Aether! rolling round The common light of all.( 6. Radio-Activity and Organic Growth and I)ecay furnishes I)irect Evidence of the Wave'I'heory. ( i ) R a d i o - a c t i v e s u b s t a n c e sa r e t h o s e s ' h i c h t r a n s f o r m l r a v e s u n s u s p e c t e da n d i n s e n s i b l e t o o u r p e r c e p t i o n s , i n t o others rvhich may be observed, and thus such substances appear to radiate almost unlimited quantities of energy. 'I'he rnystery attaching to radio-activity has excited the interest of many ingenious experinrenters,and during the past 25 years an extensive literature has been developed dealing with this subject. But notwithstanding the labor and ingenuity o f m a n y e r n i n e n t n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s ,i t c a n h a r d l y b e s a i d that we yet have any satislactory theory oI radio-activity. It is recognized that radio-activity involves the expenditure of large amounts of energy; and great emphasis has been laid upon the enormous amount of energy inherent in the atoms of matter. In the article on the Sun,'Encycl. Amer,, r904, Professor Newconb dwells on the modification of 6.

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through the field, and frnally traverse a layer E[clmholtz's contraction-theory of the sun's heat by the dis- X-rays are sent shorv of tungstate of calciurn, objects in the field becotne illuminated ; covery oI radio-activity, and says that l'ecent researches along the path of the X-rays. that there is'a vast amount of energy inherent in matter, and and rve can see distinctly The writer's theory of the X-rays is that thev are fairly that its release prolongs the radiation of the sun and stars much beyond the periods fornrerly calculated. Thus instead long rvaves, which thus penetrate various objects. And under of zo million years of solar radiation, we have energy available the agitation these long waves are either broken . up into - corresponding to the visible spectrttm, 'rvith for periods to be reckoned in corresponding billions of years' shorter ones, increased a the ultra-violet part, which gives the photographic power to The available energy of the universe has been the'X-rays, - or shorter waves are called forth in the atonrs thousand fold. places the source a l l a l o n g t h e l i n e . It rvill be noticed that this reasoning \\Ie knorv that atoms are oscillating systelrs and hai'e of energy in matter, rvhereasthe wave-theory places the source a high power of resonance;and this theory of longer *aves of energy in the aether itself, which {rlls the tlniverse, and up into shorter oscillationsor calling forth shorter has an elastic porver 68932r6ooooo tines greater than that breaking '-fhe is in accorclancervith modern researclteson the structure rvaves, anottnt oi energy in of air in proportion to its density. of the atoms. the aether is rrnlirnited, but only a part of it is available, a n d p e r i o d i c i t y I f t h e s e v i e w s b e a d r n i s s i b l e ,i t r v i l l f o l l o r v t h a t j u s t a s for converting it into depending on our material mechanism X'ray field visible b v i s i b l e e n e r g y ,a s i n t h e e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t g e n e r i r t e d y a d y n a m o , calciun-r tungstelte renders the waves in an so also ntay other radio-active matter in iike o r t h e m o l e c u l a re n e r g y i n c a p i l l a r i t y ,c o h e s i o na n d i n c h e r n i c a l t o t h e e y e ; m a n n e r t r a n s f o r n r i n v i s i b l e r v a v e sa l r v a y s p e r v a d i n g t h e u n i affinity, so porverfully exhibited in explosive forces. '|lte r v a v e s b u s r e n d e r e ds e n s i b l e t r v e r s ei n t o l ) e r c e p t i b l e v a v e s . 1?uthetford Sir f. |. 7-Ionson, Sir Oliuer Lod.gt, Sir Iirnest rvould give a field of research like that charachave made rough attetnpts to elaluate the illnount to experir:rent and others teristic of radio-activesubstatrces. of these so-called atomic energies. Corlclusions have been I l y w a y o f i l l u s t r a t i n g t l i i s t h eo r y o f r l a t u r a l w a v e t r a n s of radittt-n rcached that the amount of energy in a rnilligratn a t t e r l t i o nn o t o n l y t o p l r o - t p h o r e s c e n c e , be capable of doing an ellorll)ous anloulrt of tne- f o r m a t i o n w e l t t a y c a l l salt rvould i n o r g a n i c b o d i e s u n d e r d e c a y , a n d i n l i v i n g o b j e c t sl i k e t h e chanical work, such as propelling a large ship involving the the glow-rvorm; but also to ntanl' 1;)renotllenaof expenditure of a vast nurnber of horseporverhours, or lllonths' lire-fly lnd I u m i n e s c e n c ci n t l i e p h y s i c a l u n i v e r s e , s u c h l s t l l e I u m i n o l t s But although I differ frotn these etninent authorities n i { - t h tc l o u d s , r v h i c h h a v e b e e n e s p e c i a l l ys t u d i e c li n G e r t n a n r ' , reluctantly, I must add that it appears to ne probable, if not t h e g c n c r a l p r e v a l e n c eo f t h e A u r o r a B o r e a l i s i n a l l l a t i t u d e s , certain, that the fgundation of thcir argument is of doubtful rvhicir S/zralrr has investigated photographically (cf. I-orr'ell validity. Having reached the conclusion that rvavesexist oI o O b s e r v . l l u l l . , N o . 7 g , a n d t h e a u t h o r ' sB l e c t r . r v a v e - t h e o r y I all possible length, frotn many lretres or kilornetres, down to p h y s .f o r c . , r ' o l . t , t q r 7 , p . . + 8 ) . atomic dirnensions; and having lound that the waves tlndergo 'fhen a g a i n t h e r e i s s i n t i l r r re v i c l e l l c e o f l u t n i n e s c e n c e transformation in passirtg through certain substances, I hal'e r t t t t s tb e i n t e n s e l y c o l d , not look ttporl i n t h e n e i - , u l e e .) l a n 1 ' o f t h e s e o L i j e c t s ventured to raise the question whether we nray because\\'c c:lrt see ver)' faint stars through thern; and lve radio-active substancesas those which transtbrtn and render k n o r v s u c h t r a n s l ) t r e n tn e b u l a ec i l n n o n ) o r e r e t a i n h e a t t h a n sensible to observation waves otherrvise unsuspected to per< : r n t l r c t : r i l so l ' ( : o l u c t s , r v h i c h a r e k n o r v n t o l l e a t t h e t e n r vade the rvorld. o ol' spuce, yet shine with a glorv strggestive f lihoslI that idea be adrnissible, it rvill follow that the energy I ) e r a t u r e or the Gcissler-tube. noted in radio-activity does not really reside in the ator.us 1-rhorescence, A s e l e c t r i c d i s c h a r g e s i n t h e G e i s s l e r - t u b em a y c a l l which are radio-actir',e,but is rnerely rnade manifest by the r) lt is pro- fdrth anrple light, though no sensible ternperature is evolved, transformations of rvaves traversing these atotrts. and an electric ctlrrent is recognized to consist of ordered bable, perhaps certain, that some atoms have the porver of r v a v e s ,i n t h e a e t h e r , w e s e e a t o n c e w h y t h e t a i l o f a c o m e t rendering sensible waves which otherwise are insensible. '['he rvavemight gloiv in the electro-nagt-tcticfield ol the sun. Phosphorescence is a farniliar illustration of this tendency. f i e l d o f t h e s u n i s s o f i l l e d r v i t h r v a v e so f a l l p o s s i b l ei e n g t h Again rve see evidences of a similar tendency when X-rays that if the particles of a cotnet's tail had any porver of repass through a thin layer of tungstate of calcirtm, rvhereby s o n a n c e ,l u r n i n o s i t yo u g h t t o d e v e l o p n e a r p e r i h e l i o n p a s s a g e . visual rays are produced in the field traversed by the X-rays, N o r v t h e t a i l s o f c o m e t s d o b e c o r n ee n o r m o u s l y b r i l l i a n t so that the l'hole field of operations t.nay be explored by at the nearest approach to the sun; and the iuminosity of the eye. tail dies dorvn as the cotnet recedes away into space. \Vith the X-rays alone in free space tbe field is rvithout the 'lhc amplitude ol'all rvavesfrotn the strn follows the law: material resistanceand so quiescent that light wavesof sufficient |\20/ A:hlr intensity to give distinct vision do not arise. Yet rvhen the
rvave t) the absorption of light by colouretl media,,, Sir /oht Jlersc/ttl hrs outlined the effects of aether In a profound papepOn urotion through material bodies so clearly that rte r;ttote it: ,N]orv, as rcgards only the geireral fact of thc obstruction arr(l ultirr)rte cxtinction of Iight in its plssage tlrrougir gross.rnedia, if rve ignorance, the lattcr to our knowledge, for its cornpare the corltuscula-i and untlulatory theories, rvc slrall Ilnd tlrat tlte forttrcr al)l)eals to our explanation of the absorptive phenomena.o ' of ;;.;,;es The questiou',\d-! principles, is, that it continues forever.n ligf,f for llertc/tel is convcrtetl into ,What bccotnes of motion'. 'Antl the answer' on dynaurical

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a n d t h e e n e r g y o f . t h e waves varies as the square of the amplitude E : , Q 2: t r l r t , (,,) Accordingly the power of the ryaves to develop lumi. n o s i t y o u g h t t o i n c r e a s e a n d d i m i n i s h a l n r o s td i r e c t l y as the power of the sun's radiation, when the comet approaches and recedes. This conclusion is in general accord rviih obsenation. In. much the sarre rvay the permanent luntinosity of the nebulae may depend on the transformation of rvaves othcrrvise Iargely invisible. 'l-he evidence of cejestial radio.activity is therefore ample, but not exactly of the type noted unclcr experirnental conditions in our laboratories. ( i i ) A n i m a l a n d p l a n t g r o w t h a n d d e c a yr e p r e s e n t ransformations of enerey, and thus point to rvave_action. After the foregoing development of the wave_theory t h i s s u b j e c t i s s o o b v i o u s t h a t a n e x t e r r d e da r g u m e n t seenrs superflnous. We thercfore merely call attentiin to certain leading facts. r. Animal and plant nutrition go on under the action o[ chemical affinity and the moleculai forces. Ancl if tlresc two types of physical forces be due to rvave-action, it n,ill follow that the nutrition due to chemical alfinity and nrolc_ cular forccs are also due to rvave-action. 1 ' h e p r o c e s s e s f n u t r i t i o n c o n s i s ti n t h c p r e p a r a t i o n , o for. the. breaking up of nrolecules of the food, in ordcr to m a k e t h e c o n s t i t u e n ta t o n r sa v a i l a b l e a s b u i l c l i n g material for t h e r e n e r v a lo f o r g a n i c n t o l e c u l e sr v h i c h a r e u n d e r g o i n g <lecay, d e c o r n p o s i t i o no r c o m b u s t i o n b y o x i d n t i o n i n t l r e oiganisnr. 'I'hus the support of organic life requires a coltstant renen,al of nrolecular and atorni.cenergy, in the form oI food preparerl for such nutrition, rvhich gives bodily energy and strength to the animal or plant.

rupon which chemical transformation mainly depends, so that without light plants cannot grow and flourish. 'I'he 6. finished plant structure is largely hydrocarbon, rvith certain mineral sarts and water of nutiition. cut off the rvat.r, and the plant rvithers, because the circulation and n u t r i t i o n t h r o u g h c a p i l l a r i t y a n d t h e c h e r n i c a lt r a n s f o r m a t i o n by rvave-action, in the forrn of light and heat, all come to. an end. In the same \vay, if rve intercept the main florvof capillarity, cutting off the bark and Iaying trare the rvood .by o f a t r e e , i t r v i l l s o o n d i e . . l . h i s p r o c e s so i r d e a c l e n i n g n is nruch nsed by Arnerican farmers when they rvish to t<ltl tne t r c c s o n u n c l e a r e dl a n d . A n d n o w w e s e e t h a t i t all clepends o n i n t e r c e l t t i n gt h e c a p i l l a r y f l o w , r v h i c h i s c l u et o r v a v e _ a c t i o n . 7. \\/hat applies to treesappliesto almost all forms of . plant life. 'fhus rve see that if ilie capillarity, due to rvave_ a c t i o n , a n d t h e c h e m i c a la f f i n i t y f o r n u t r i t i o n , under the action o f h c a t a n d I i g h t r v a v e s ,b e s e r i o u s l y i n t e r c e p t e d , the result i s e s s e n t i a l l yf a t a l . H e n c e r v e h o l d t h a t all uit"l ph.r,or"n" plant and vegetable l.orld rlepend on wave-action. il. .,h: l'his is the deeply mysterious po\\,er for renerval so long hirlden fr:T- oltr sight, but operating everyrvhere for the sul)l)ortof Iife in organic naturc. 'fhe 8. life of animalsis nrore complex and varied, lrut t h e c a u s _ eu n d . e r l y i n g i t s m a i n t e n a n . " n . " s in the rnain the 'l'lre sarne. t1'pical animal lives largely on plants, ir_r one fornr o r a n o t h e r . F I e n c c r v a v e - a c t i o nd e v e l o p s ' p l a n t s , and their d i g e s t i o n o r d e c o r n p o s i t i o nu n d e r v a . i o u s c h e r n i c a r reactions, f u r n i s l t e sf o o d o r n u t r i t i o n , r v h i c h i s m a d e to nourish and s.l)port the strength of aninral borlics, and alr their varied a c u v lIl e s .

g . t r I o s t o f o u r c o n t n t o n a n i n r a l sh a v e animal heat, and hence the che'rical combustion of their food is n-raintained r . I n t h e c a s e o f l i l a n t I i f e , t h e n r a t e r i a lt a k e n i n as by oxygen breathed i' through the lungs. \Ve shall not here f o o d i s l a r g e l y i n o r g a n i c , r r i t r o g e n o u sa n d o t h e r e l c n r c n t s treat of fisit ancl other fornts of life w.-ith low temperature, from the ground, czrrrieri up into the plant stnlcttlrc by the rvhich have ciiffcrent vital processes, as these are treated o[ force of capillarity, rvhich is a pheno,nenon of rvar.c-actior.r. i n r v o r k s o n b i o r o g y . I t i s evident therefore that a'irnar These elements from the earth are ttorne in the sup, anrl, nutrition dcpenrls on rvave-action quite as much as plant thus distributedthroughout the plant structure. I l u t t h c p ) a n t n u t r i t i o n . I , - o o di s t a k e n i n t o s t o n r a c h s ,a n c l s u b j e c t e dt o t h e leaves act as lungs, and absorb certain gases. .fhesc learl c h e r - n i c a r e a c t i o n o f j u i c e s , a t a p p r o p r i a t e l t e m p e r a t u r e ,a n d to the fixation of oxide,s and potash prociucts in the plant t h u s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n sa r e connccted rvith rvave_action. structure. Alrove all, carbon dioxide (COr) taXen frorn the air t o . . 1 ' h e l o n g e r r y a v e so f t h e w o r l d g o t h r o u g h is effective in building up the organic siru.tu.e animal o f t h c n l a n t . , _o , ,l r e s tr , c qurte unperceived, and stiurulate the shorier waves, 1'he carbon frorn the CO2 is built into the 4. o l a n t o n r v h i c h c h e m i c a l a c t i o n c l e p e n d s .l . h u s our theory of tte structure, so as to rnake ftlrre, rvhile most of the oxygen is X - r a y s b e i n g s h o r t r v a v e sm a i n t a i n e d by the action of lonser l i b e r a t e d a g a i n t o r et u r n t o t h e a i r . T h u s g r o l i n g ' ' p l a n t s a n d r n o r e p e n e t r a t i n g r v a v e s( < : f .A N pnrify the air of carbon dioxide. 'l.heir grorvth 5o79, p. 2g2), n"a, .3.c o n s t i t u t e s f i r r n a t i o - n r - r t h e p r o c e s s e so f o n i n r a i i anJ plant nutrition. a chemical process or reaction, rvhereby o.ganic stnlctures We have been unaccustomedo vie* ihe vital t processes having carbon as the main body of plant stntcture are built of the u'orld as due to rvave-action; but if molecular and up, and rvhen dried out may be burned, again proclucing chernica-l forces depend on the energy of rvaves rn the aether, heat and CO2. rve shall obviously have to cbange tur old way of thinking. t 5 . I t i i r v e l l k r . r o r v n h a t p l a n t s c a n n o t I i v e r v i t h o u ta i r r r . O u r n e w t h e o r y o f m a g n e t i s r na n d electrodl,nanric and sunlight. The sunlight, in concert with the l o n g e r h e a t action, under rvhicb aether rvaveJ penetrate all objecis, has lvaves, aids the chemical changes, lvhereby inorganic atoms le-da learned thinker, Rev,.paulCatil,oul,5. .Iananarive, are united and built up into organic molecules. in J., of d a r k n e s s , xladagascar, to suggest that love a,d other ernotionar influa s r v e h a v e o f t e n o b s e r v e d , a p l a n t l a n g u i s h e s ,t u r n s p a l e a n d e n c e si n a n i r n a l s , n d i n m a n , d e p e n d a o n a e t h e rr v a v e s m a n a t i n g e finally dies: the chemical transformattns of its life corneto directed by bodily senses and orgais, a . s t a n d s t i l l ,a s d e c a y o f o r g a n i c c i r c u l a t i o n a n d forl 1nd n u t r i t i o n f a i l s . tlre in-fluencesof nagnetism in inorganic n"utur.."ot ""iif.E In fact I This failure is due to the cutting off of the shorter l,aves. have held somewhat similar vie*s foi soixe years, including
I

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ceme le vs ftern other u'orlds; while some hold that it doubtless 1l1gr'4nvirlion lhet thouy,ht is an electric pr()'e$s sustained -7:::-=--:: ttt:-'1 -':i:or=' '':'' ;:*:: ta7.:-2'-?: :--'- :-7 tir'te /-''f/"2"/ ::'ti'2' h1 vzvtt, tul hzrc 1.tr1,{fl114t oa tb:r cbiei 2. I-iie ce4ezis ;cr i'* rc:il:er:cce 6r'rnz;n t'f dz''t' tilepatl,i,' tttygirtiu,:+ a'4 Lotttin!1ttnder tr't: 'rn" with rt'ental processes: connectionof these thectries ;;;;;,-;rr;ti." but we lea'e is ( u ) N u t r i t i o n , o r t h e a b s o r p t i o nf o r c h e m i c a l a s s i m i l a t i o n toitii"^r'and psychicphenomena obvious' Iri to those who make a specialty of uarious eiements useful in body builCing' ii" a'.".f"pt"ent of-the suU.lect are pre(U) Digestive processes,by rvhich the elements of psychic Phenomena. absorption and nutrition sensesand oared for nutritive processes,making rz. It is of course recognizedthat bodily are largely under :;;;, J;h;; uooiri strength and functions can be maintained' the natureof our nervoussystem' orsans,by (c) External chemical elements such as oxygen required orin. *irr. But even so, the power of suggestion ;i:-;;;;i by u'ave influencesdirected by different for animal heat, and carbon dioxide for plants; rvhich aid conveyed -i-nd'ividuals; ;;y-;; is seen heat' elimination' und tt* a great domain of,wave-action ifr. ,t.,o;nt"nance of life, by maintaining but little understood' o r b o d y b u i l d i n g . and social i1fe, heretofore in aesthetics vibrations of its If one magnet can by the concerted. piece of meta.l into harmoniotts atoms draw thoJe of another piece of metal responds to the so that the second u..-a, porver of. response for. the waves from the first, a similar living beings' o f e m o t i o n a lh a r m o n y n r a y e x i s t i n i".]"tp*.", is. very great' but we the field for speculation if.." law"s, and leave t6e _uri' .o-n,.rrt ourselves wittr, the physical "glt, clualified to deal rvith uooii.o,ion, of the larvs to those best psychic and emotional influences' to note the immensity It is, however, of some interest

chemicai action' as these processes {d) Regulation of on wave-action' l g o o n . - ' A . t d a s t h e . c h e n . r i c aa c t i o n d e p e n d s waves pervading the rvorld are the we see that the aether in regulating the progress of growth' .l,i.f "l.nl.nt 'I'hese four elements are the chief sources of vitaiity' 3. effrciency of these sources ,\nd ii t e krreu' horv to sustain the shor'rlchave the means of new l uni.1,"i,.c, rve ;;';;;; $ e a r e r e c l u c e dt o t h e p l o b l e m o f s t u d y i n g vitality. ln practrce . i n r p r o v i n g t h e p r o c e s s e so f t h e n t o s t a d v a n t a g e o u sn u t r i t i o n , cirses electricitl' may aid medilal .iinlinu,ion, but in sonre artificial the nerv stiuiultts thereby aflbrded by o r t n e a o r n u i n s o f , . i . , , . " o p e n e d u p b y t h e n e w t h e drarvnf ih.rop"u,i.r, byf h i s oryo ; has co'sider.bly now impression last use of electricity ,r,,r"'^.,io". ii"--u",t,..' ' Indeed the unexpected us to reliect tbat the i n c r c a s e d i n n i o d e r n r n e d i c a l p r a c t i c e ; . b u t t h e p r o c e s s e so f most obscure subjects will lead from have local i l l u r n i n a t i n gt l r e o r g a n i c a s ; ; ; syntnetrical, and iiving beings may aether is the bearer oi tlgttt for " ; " t,tore easily than general renen'al' ,ii,"ri",;o" well as the PhYsical world' action on electrodynamic action and (iii) All vital phenomena depend .on.chemical 4. In the third paper p horv'4rn irc's AN 5 o 7 9, p1t'z'6 r' "-62, we have shown a n d t h u s o n w a v e . a c t i o n , w l r i c l r a l s o b u i l d s c r y s t a l s a n d,,l, gr,",i r,-,t, about circulating currents electric Jr.l.ni*tury lriiirr.i ,r-r."ty deposits ores bY electrolYsis' 'l't In fact rvith the rvave'theory' Lotb' then the atorus rtlry be Sonre frfteen years ago l'rofessor Jacqucs are "tontil"d zln(tire's theory in many respects more -recently of the l{ocke- ,ir" ,_."".-rr'"oiy the University of Caiilornia, Uut "nd c o i r c e i v el , a v e s c o r n i n g t o a b o d y f r o m me that New York' told iJ.n,i."t. -l.nO ii ,ue i.r.-f., inrri,u,e for lr'{eclicali{esearch' a n a l y s i s ii"-',,,or.,rI; of ar-rothcr body, rvl-roseatou)ic planes have a a l l v i t a l p r o c e s s e sd e p e n d a t l a s t i " ' f r'.ft"itti*f . m e n t i. ;tag of the h a y r h a z a r co r i e n t a t i o t t , t h e t * ' o . s y s t e n r so f o s c i l l a t i o n s ' a t o n ) l action' fte ciied the fact that susl)ension ." a n d t h r r t for atotl, rvill corresPond, as in the.theory r e q u i r e d l o r n u t r i t i o n i s l a t a l; "t F,tiltt.1t:.:l of nreterial ",rrrnlv elenrents'attraction. l'lach atour is to be conceiverl to oscillate in such and mixing ir," .,'p1'rv, ;;"";";;s ]:^:l:].'"l"''"rtsthe great i**^V 1ft^, revolving contact occurs between its parts' or the by e.v-erywhere a varied growth ,.'u't', as shown the periphery thus giving cirsystem circulates penodically, and their rnodification in nature' ;";;;y Thi result of the revolving "i"rganisnrs the most eminent ex- culation rvith the oscillation' or {iat in the atomic Norv Profess Loeb is perhaps or periodic circttlation is a wave parthenogenesrs il;;;biologist in the rvorld' He produced :rirrs A''plra's theorv of r8zz' and the wave-theorv p.ri*.ni"i elements ;.i;;;;;. certain .cheurical bv the use oi solutrons containing thus-artificiallv developed rvere a r e t h e s a n t e . the frogs ;;; ;l ;;;*-;;s;; ioss of any of their natttral found to be norntal, nuitnolotthe us to and the 'llttrfire-xave-theory enables .,r..,rr.iIf animal Powers. "n,,iytit, itt o'comparatively simple wav' i,--,tt!.r,*.'ittilv, ;;*t;;; Pt?f::::t-,-!i:t|.,'^ the high authority unimpaired Accordinglv, "f, be altnost decisive the rvaves fronr the atoms can be mair-rtained oplnion in a bloiogical p'iutttn :'91t":o is steady as in permanent magnets' ctiefly and at last analysis i i . , l i . . l . . , r i . a l v i t a l i t y that all biological p,otesses]depend the work oi nutritiorr has to go on' of life and vital phenourena llut in vital 1;rocesses and on .t,.n i.uf i.tio,,. But the uoti"ty rvork done by anirual organis'is; fi pny,icat conclusion more ;;",;;. that perhaps rve shall consider this in the physical ;.'* ;;;", porver of the atoms upon which vitality depends: thereby the vibrational the p."fr^il. ff rve note the elements be inrpaired, pu'tiv bv clogging -electrical shall not go into'the il;";,;; short circuit and bysteresis r' We take life as existing' and conductivity, ancl partly'f'y ltte lhe centuries as to the origin waste of electric energy' discussion handed dorvn through it may have .ff".,t, witl' natural and others think the germs o[ Arrlunius ;flif* in p:I:L:

t r a n s m i t t i n gp o l v e r ' S o a l s o t r " i g i v" t h e b e s t r e c e i v i n g a n d ' 'o a r e s e e l n sv e r y s u g g e s t l v e ' 1) In radio'telegraPhY our aDparatus has to be carefully attuned . ' "i" t e l e p a t h i cl n e s s a g e s T h e w a v e - a n a l o g y and .f"t" psychic accord, nray send #i onlY those en raPPort' phenomena

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6. Thus vital phenomena depend on wave-action largely in the form of electric energy, - the wave energy of the aether pervading the entire universe. And just as battery action is not perfect and involves a certain arnount of rvaste frorn physical deterioration - so also vital energy may decline under poor bodily nutrition and rvaste, which are inseparable from the work of life. A permanent ,magnet does not deteriorate, because the energy given out equals that received, when the atomic planes remain fixed. Yet in the electrolysis of the rvorld, the electric action js not so unhindered, but constantly modified by chemical affinity due to other elements, as in vital processes, that conductivity is constantly changing. so 7. These remarks throw some light upon the processes of mineralogy and crystallization. Some twenty five years ago I heard that an eminent investigator of crystals had r e a c h e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n r h a t t h e y a r e l i v i n g o r g a n i s r n s ,n o t very unlike certain primitive types of plants and animals. Such a view then seemed very startling, but it now seems plausible if not demonstrated. It is certain that the building of crystals is an electrolytic action due to rvaves, and made effective when certain solutions are available for facilitating the electrolysis.Wave-action therefore underlies crystal-building just as it does all vital processes. 8. In spite of all our researcheson nrinerals and metallurgical processes, we are still much in the dark as to the origin of ores in veins, and nuggets. Just rvhy silver and gold, nickel and platinurn, copper and iron should be deposited as they are in the earth's crust has never been satisfactorily explained. We shall not here so into the rluestion e x t e n s i v e l y ,b u t i t m a y n o t b e o u t o f p l a c e t o r c m a r k t h a t e l e c t r o l y t i c a c t i o n i s t h e o n l y e x p l a n a t i o nl ' o r t i r c o n s i d e r i n g . g. Electrolytic action, in the form oi clectro-plating, explains the plating of silver on silver, gold on gold, copper o n c o p p e r . S u c h e l e c t r o - p l a t i n gr e q u i r e s t h e m e t a l l i c e l e m e n t s to be in solution, and a current to be rnaintained capable of effecting the deposits. Norv the earth is.a vast and varied laboratory, in lvhich the chemical elententsare variously mixed, a n d o f t e n d i s s o l v e d i n b a t h s o t l i q u i d . A n d t h e r e f o r ei f c u r r e n t action could be maintained it is more than probable that electrolysis analogons to electro-plating would go on; and even i[ the process be very slow, it would finally give us just such a variety of nretallurgical phenomena as we actually observe in nature.

Conclusion of the Wave-Theory of Chenrical Forcest The wave-theory of chemical forces follows from the wave-theory of molecular forces, as will be perceived by those who study this whole series of papers; and it appears that the present argument is not only strong in itself, but also gathers immense power from the argument developed in'the preceding wave-theory of the larger physical phenomena. A satisfactory theory of the phenomena of nature will not be viewed with indifference by discerning natural philosophers. Accordingly, we add merely a ferv suggestiveconsiderations which may be o[ interest in the future development of this subject. (a) Fouricr's rernark that heat travels incessantly equally suggestive in regard to other forms of energy. It is well knorvn that chemical processesare always at work, but it is well to examine this fact more closely, in hope of confirming the cause rrnderlying this ceaseless law of change. 'IhCorie In his celebrated analytique de la chaleur, r8zz, .Fouricr exclairrs : >La chalenr pe.ndtre, comme la graviti, toutes les substancesde I'univers; ses rayons occupent toutes les parties de I'espace.. . . Iin effet, le rayon du soleil dans lequel cette plandteest incessamment longie pdndtreI'air, la terre et les p eaux; ses ildments se divisent, changent de direction dans tous les sens; et, pdnetrant dans la masse du globe, ils en d l d v e r a i e n td e p l u s e n p l u s l a t e m p C r a t u r e o y e n n e , s i c e t t e m chaleur ajoutde n'dtait pas exactement compensde par celle qui s'ichappe en rayons de tous les points de la superficie, ct se rcpand dans Ics cieux.< 'fhrorrghout this great tyork Fouriet' drvells on the inc e s s a n t n r o v c r r ) e n to f h e a t , a n d g i v e s t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l l a w s for this propagation. As heat is notv knorvn to be a rvavenrotion, ?outitr's argument becomes of gcneral application to the rrniverse.

( B ) 1 ' h e r v a v e - t h e o r yo f t h e g r o r v t h o f c r y s t a l s a n d o f m e t a l l i c d e p o s i t so f o r e s a n d r n i n e r a l si n t h e c r u s t o f t h e e a r t h natr.rrally follorvs frorn the rvave-theory of chemical affinity. l - h e e v i d e n c e a d d u c e d a b o v e f o r t h i s c o n c l u s i o nc o u l d be much extended, but rve deem it rvell to leave this disc u s s i o n t o c h e m i s t sa n d m i n e r a l o g i s t s . I t o n l y r e m a i n s t o a d d t h a t i f o u r t h e o r ] ' o f t e n a c i t y b e a d m i s s i b l e ,a s s h o w n i n t b e fifth paper, then it follorvs that the wave-theory of electrolytic 'fhe .aether p r o c e s s e ss b e y o n d d i s p u t e . i i s s o s t r e s s e da t t h e bounclary of solid bodies that not only adhcsionoccurs, but 'l'his s u f f i c e st o b u i l d u p s o l i d c r y s t a l s , a n d r o . I n p r o o f o f t h i s e l e c t r o l y t i ca c t i o n , u n d c r t h e r v a v e - a l s o c o h e s i o n . furnish the porverful forces operative in electro-plating and action pervading the rvorld, we need only cite the collection of gold nuggets in matrixes of quartz, and silver in corre- i n r n e t a l l u r g i c a l p r o c e s s e s . Whether these *'orld processes yield ores, nu{gets,or sponding characteristic rocks. The conditions which permitted these rocks to form, often rvith partial crystallization, have rnetallic lnasses of larger size, I can not doubt that this also permitted the earth's electrolytic action to deposit the wonderful process for producing in nature pure crystals, and gold and silver, dissolved in the solution of sea rvater, from prlre ores, rvith nuggets of the precious metals, as of gold, silver, and platinnm, are due to molecular separation and the baths of the ocean overlying these rock formations. It is well known that sea water contains practically all elernents ordering under rvave-action, as in our familiar process of a in solution; and the processes of electro-plating under the a l a n t . n - n l P ' .o. r, i, n 6 . , wave-action of a current, is the only explanation of mineralogical Considered from the point of view of its history through phenomena suggestedby chemical experience. All these pheno- rnillions of years, the earth, with all the metals in solution mena are more closely related to vital phenomena than might in the sea, is an immense collection or bath of, solvent eleat first sight seem probable. rnents,under the electric waves and other oscillations pervadilg

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the universe 1), and exhibited to us .daily in the fluctuations of the magnetism, electrical disturbances and earth currents. (y) The doctrine of the conservation of energy and cjf the correlation o[ forces finds its best support in the wavetheory of physical forces. But this conservation should be understood to apply to all the energies of the universe - mental, spiritual, and subconscious, as weli as pureiy physical. All ordinary vital phenomena must be referred to cheniical processes,and thus to wave-action, on which the chernical forces depend. It has long been believed that electrical energy underlies vital phenomena, and now we have endeavoured to give valid physical grounds for this doctrine. ( d ) I f o u r w a v e - t h e o r y o f m a g n e t i s m b e a d n r i s s i b l e ,i t will follow that each individual carries a mental and spiritual of wave-field with hirn, and hence the ,magnetic 1>ower' certlin p e r s o n s . I t i s n o t o u r p u r p o s et o g o i n t o p s y c h i c o r r e l a t e d phenomena, as this rnust be left to specialists in that Iarge and important field of research. We merely I)oint out that i f n r a g n e t i s ma n d e l e c t r o d y n a m i c a c t i o n b e r e l ' e r r e dt o w a v e s from atoms, which under certain cond.itions act ir-r concert, we shall have to adnrit that each person may be able to exert , p e r s o n a lm a g n e t i s m 'a n d e n o t i o n a l i n f l u e n c e s ,d e p e n d i n g o n wavesin the aether, somewhat analogous to pbysical rnagnetism. The subtile psychic influences operating through the all-pervading aether are as yet but imperfectly understood; and until the field is more fully expiored we nrust l)reserve an open mind, as the first duty in scientific researclt, rvhich aims not at popularity, but at truth, rvhich endures unto all generations. Part II. Discovery of the Cause of Universal Gravitation.

trvo cases is so close as to be truly remarkable. It appears from geornetrical criteria, that such wave-action alone will explain universal gravitation; and thus we deduce the cause involved, and bring out the necessaryand sufficient conditions based on physical and geometrical larvsof unrluestionedvalidity. l. Recognized Geometrical and Physical Cliteria Analysed by the Method o f Keller and Neulon. l - o u n d a t i o n s f o r t h e D i s c o v e r y o f t h e C a u s eo f U n i versal Gravitation thus incontestably estabiished. (i) Brief statement of Ktpler's laws and o[ Neu'ton's deductions therefrom. It is rvell knorvn tha.t l{t/ler used the observations of /)ra/te to deduce the observed lalvs of the planetary' 71,c/io rrrotions; and that Arcuton subserprently deduced the larv of gravitation nathernaticallyfronr the physical facts fornrulated in Kty'ler's la,ws. \Yhen -l\tewloz had thus deduced the larv of attraction for the force of universal gravitation, he uas alrle in turn to show that l{eflct's larvs follorv from the larv o f t h i s f o r c e v a r y i n g i n v e r s e l y a s t h e s c l u a r eo f t h e d i s t a n c e s , and even to correct l{eflcr's third larv, u'hich was not quite accurate as originally given, - Iiep/cr's form being 72;x'2: aB i a'1t. lvbereas it should read (""\ t2 (r -*ut) : t'2(r -rd) : a3 ' A':l After the course of reasoning laid down by l{c!/u', Areutou derived geonietrical criteria, to supplemenl Krfhr's p h 1 ' s i c a lc r i t e r i a , r v h i c h p r o ' r ' e d . b o t hn e c c s s a r y a n d s u l f r c i e n t to establish rigorously the larv of the lbrces governing the planetary motions. On account of the historical inrportance o f t h i s d e v e l o p n r c n t ,a n d i t s b e a r i n g o n t h e r e l a t e d p r o p l e m o f t h e c a u s eo f g r a v i t a t i o n , r v h i c h w e d e d u c e l r y a n a n a l o g o u s rrretlrod,r'e shall exanrine the reasonittg of -Kepltr and A'cu,lott rvith some clre. In the rvork on the l\'Iotion of mars, t6og, Iitller announced, in substance, the follorving larvs as bbserved physical facts: 'l'he orbit of the planet is an ellipse, with the sun L in the focrrs. 'fhe lI. radius vector of the planet drarvnto the sun's centre describes e<1ualtireas in eqr.ral times. lll. Ancl in the work De Harnronicer\{undi, r6rg, the 'l'he squares of the periodic times third or harrronic larv: < l f t h e p l a n e t s a r e a s t h e c u b e s o f t h e i r m e a n d i s t a n c e s ,o r t2 ' l'2 : AJ : a'i\ - the slightly correctecl r-nodernforr-nbeing
t) (r-+-nt): /'2 (t-+-d) : I'i '.,rril

In concluding the new theory of the aether it only r e m a i n s t o d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d i s c o v e r ya n d d e m o n s t r a t i o n of the cause of gravitation, which results from this new theory, p a n d t h e s i m i l a r r e s e a r c h e s u b l i s h e d d u r i n g r g r 7 , i n v o l u n r er of the Electrodynanric wave-theory of physical forces. 1'he new theory of the aether affords the necessary and sufficient conditions for a definite proof that wave-action underlies the chief operations of nature. First, rve analyse the facts of planetary obsen'ation in accordance with the inductive method which enabled l{t!/tr to discover the larvs of planetary motion, r6og-r6rg. Second, we point out the steps and the physical and geonetrical criteria by rvhich lYcalon deduced frorr these facts o f o b s e r v a t i o n t h e I a r v o l ' a t t r a c t i o n l o r u n i v e r s a lg r a v i t a t i o n . Third, the phenonrenon of acoustic attraction, lbr rvaves of air traveling past a balloon of CO2, is simple and easiiy understood, frorn nreasuresof velocity in the theory of sound; o a n d t h u s w e n a t u r a l l y a p p l y a s i m i l a r a e t h e r - w a v e - t h e o rty the observed attraction of universal gravitation. The inductive method, applicable to terrestrial gases rvhich may be experimented upon in our laboratories, thus may be extended to the aether, in which the rvaVe-actionof universal gravitation in takes place; and the similarity of the wave-processes the

|.r3)

l c 7 1 , c / t o ' s l r s e r v a t i o r r s f n r a r s , a n r l t l r e < : o n s i < l c r e b ee o o centricity of the orbit of that planet had enablecl tVflr ro r e j e c t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I ' t o l e r n a i ct h e o r y o f e c c e n t r i c s , a n d s u b stitute therelbr the theory of planetarynotion in an ellipse. So daring an innovation cost Keller great labor, because it c involved very tedior.rs alculations. As his work was done before the invention of iogarithms, these calculaticrns could not then be abbreviated, as they have been for later investigators. Accordingly, -Key'lerdeclared that Napicr's invention of logarithn'rs had trebled the lives of the astronomers.
absorption, sorne to investigators. Accorof r)ature, with the to see)

t) When rve observe the phenornena of nature and note the irrfinitc varicty of exquisite colors, sorne due to refraction and dispersion, and others to interference, we wontler intleed that the rvin'e-tbeory was not long ago suggested to dingly, if there be those who hesitate to grant the truth of the theory, we need rnake but orte rernark: Behold the ortler inhnite varieties of colors in the heavens and in the earth! Has this beautiful order no ureaning to those who have eyes

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The recent speculations of Einstcin may be disregarded, because they are totally lacking in physical basis 1). Nctulon the areas described would still continue to be equal, but tbe based his reasoning on the foundation of facts laid down by form of the curve in rvhich the planet moved would undergo -Kcplcr, which rvas as solid as granite; and hence the past r, a change rvith the change in the law. Thus rvhen ,r: three centuries have witnessed an unprecedented development the curve is an ellipse, with the sun in the centre, but rvith celestial mechanics. Since the time of La/latc the Arcutlonian fl: 2 , t h e c u r v e i s a n e l l i p s e w i t h t h e s u n i n t h e f o c u s , of larv has been regularly used as a means of discovery as corresponding to the planetary motions observed in natnre. certain as observation itself. Finally, after the second law showed that the force is If we contrast this careful procedure, with correct central and directed to the focus, the third larv of A'c!/cr enabled Nculon to deduce the law of this force. A'tu,lon reasoning on valid premises, and compare its logical results proved that it must vary inversely as the square of the di- rvith the reckless course of Einstein in proposing to do away - as if the planetary forces rvere not renl, stance. On the observed facts of l{cplcr's laws no other larv rvith the aether, - a n d a m e d i u m c a p a b l e o f s u s t a i n i n g s t u p e n d o u ss t r e s s e s of force is adr.nissible. B u t i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e l a r v o f g r a v i t a t i o n , ( P r i n c i p i a , w e r e n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r t r a n s r n i s s i o na c r o s s s p a c e , 1686) tVtatorz proceeded with his usual caution and philo- r v e s h a l l p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e r v h o l e t h e o r v o f r e l a t i v i t y i s n o t h i n g s o p h i c a c u t e n e s s .F o r h e n o t o n l y s h o w e d t h a t i f t h e p l a n e t b u t a f l i m s y f o u n d a t i o n l a i c l i n q u i c k s a n d . I n t h i s w h o l e nrove in an ellipse with the sun in the focus, the force of t h e o r y o f r e l a t i v i t y t h e r e i s n o t a t r a c e o [ s u b s t a n t i a l p h y attraction will conform to the law o[ universal gravitation; s i c a l t r u t h . but also investigated the effect of a slight departure from the law of the inverse squares (cf. AN 5048, pp. r44*r53). Thus if we take (ii) In acoustic attraction the air particles under tlre wave agitation work out from between the balloon of carbon dioxide and the source of the sound, so that there is tension between, while the pressure is increased behind the balloon. In the same way the aether waves from each of two heavenly bodies expel aetherons from betrveen the masses, thereby g e n e r a t i n e t e n s i o n , a t t h e s a m e t i m e i n c r e a s i n gt h e p r e s s u r e t b e y o n c i , h u s g i v i n g r i s e t o t h e a t t r a c t i o no f u n i v e r s a lg r a v i t a t i o n . 'l'he mechanism of attraction, in the case of acoustic attraction, has been clearly made out in the fifth paper on the. nerv theory of the aether (AN 5r3o), and we have illus t r a t e d t h i s m e c h a n i s mb y m e a n s o f a c h a r t o f t b e w a v e f r o n t rvhich is so clear and distinct that no doubt can arise as t o t h e n a t u r e o [ t h e c a u s ea s s i g n e d .T h e f i g u r e i s h e r e r e p e a t e d , in order that the image of the rvave front may be recalled t o o u r m i n d s r v i t h e n t i r e t l i s t i n c t n e s s( ! ' i g . r z , p l a t e 7 ) . It is evident that as the sound traveis faster in air, than in the balloon filledwith CO2, I/: o.?8, l/:1.66, the rvave asitation in the air will outrun that through the
formuln for the potential, which underlics Einslein's theory' (a)

We see therefore that l{c!/cr's first larv is mainly concerned rvith getting away from the Ptolemaic hypothesis of eccentrics and epicycles, which the discoveries of Coy'crnicus had largely but not entirely swept away. 'fhe second larv of Kcllcr has a very different import, namely, the equal areas desiribed in equal times points to a centrai force acting on the planet and directed to the sun's centre. It is rvell known and easily demonstrated that horvever the larv of force may vary with the distance, so long as it is central, the areas described by the radius 'r'ectorrvill be equal in eqnal times. This larv of areas would hold for any law of attraction, ("q) -f : hlrn. If the larv should change, as from tz -- | to ,t: 2,

Neuton's geometrical criteria weie necessary and sufficient to show that the force of attraction obeys the law of the' inverse sqllares, and no other. During the past three centuriesthe historical development here traced always has been regarded as the best and most rigorous example of the true processesof scientifc discovery. 'fye/to's The facts being given, as found by I{ePIr from ob: servations,the question was: What las' of attraction will explain these facts, and is this the only admissible larv of attraction? Ncutlon answered both of these questions in the af6rm a t i v e , a n d n o o n e e v e r h a s b e e n a b l e s u c c e s s f u l lt o c h a l l e n g e y the results of his mathematical researches.

.f

/r'1r''+n

( ,s )

rvhere the gravitational exponent is changed by adding z, a very small quantity, Ncutlon pointed out that the result rvonld be a forward motion of the perihelion. Hence already in r 6 8 6 h e f o r e s a r vt h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s h i f t i n g p e r i h e l i o n , such as Ltun"r'icr discovered for the planet mercury in r859, which has since led to many unprofitablespecrllations relativity. on Yet as tbe observations in Ncutlon's time pointed to the fixity of the perihelia (Principia, Lib. III, Prop.XIV), this great philosopher believed the larv of attraction to be rigorously as the inverse squares. Accordingly, it rvill be seen that the investigations of 7j,c/to's observations led l{e|/cr to the laws of planetary nrotion, as facts of nature; and upon the basis of l{epler's laws further geometrical researches led 'Ihe Ncuton directly to the larv of universal gravitation. physical facts of nature. being as .stated in Kr!/er's laws,
r) In AN SoZg, p.257, we havc shorvn the inadrnissibility

of Gctltr's

an<lmagneti.-, ,r;::."til,tln(';r;!,'r:i::::),has rn the Treatiseon erectricity y: w h i c h t h e p o t e n t i ailt ( 1 ,n i l ) , j - r l c ! . ( ( l , . l d t ) 2 ) ,

derended the varidityor u/tter'srarv,or successruny (B)

T h e s e c o n d t e r m g i v c s t h e e f f e c t d u e t o r n o t i o n i n a r v a v e - f i e l d ,t h e * ' o r l i o f t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y c h a n g i n g , l i k e t h e o, as in circular orbits, ine Ntutonian larv follorvs; but kinetic energy, \rith the square of thc planet's velocity relative to the sun. lf rlrldt: m o r e g e n e r a l i y t h e v c l o c i t y i n t h e d i r e i t i o n o f t h e r a t l i u s v c c t o r d z ' / d zy i e l d s a t c r r n f o r t h e e f f e c t o f t h e i n d u c t i o n , a n d d , " r l i l t ' g i v e s t h e t e r m

under or ror thr change theinduction, T,yl;');0,::"ri",j;,;;:;,:i';'r;l;)i::[,iTli;;ij"""*

(e) or nature, and'rrom rvehave:

(r)

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roo

balloon. Thus for every phase of the waves, the agitations We may easily convince ourselves of the validity of reach the back of the balloon through the air before they this figure by the following considerations. 'l'he arrive straigh! through that denser and less rapidly conducting r. refraction of the sun's gravitational waves in 'fhe medium. effect is to bend the rvave front into opltositely passing through the earth, as illustrated above, is postulated d i r e c t e d e d d i e s b e h i n d t h e b a l l o o n , a n d t h e i n c e s s a n t a d - on the increase in the density of the layers of the globe as vance irnpulses of the waves, - thus turned out of the ir- we approach the centre, rvhich is a well established physical rectilinear course, and stopped by the mutual impact of the f a c t , - s i n c e t h e s u r f a c e d e n s i t y i s o n l y a b o u t 2 . 5 5 , r v h i l e eddies, - give such agitation or increase of pressure behind the average density for the rvhole globe, according to the that the balloon is shoved forward toivards the source of l n o s t c a r e f u l e x p e r i m e n t s i s a b o u t 5.5o. the sound. z . B u t q u i t e a s i d e f r o m t h e i n c r e a s eo f d e n s i t y i n t h e A s t h e p a r t i c l e st e n d t o r v o r k a r o u n d b e h i n d t h e b a l l o o n , l a y e r s a s w e a p p r o a c h t h e c e n t r e , i t i s w e l l k n o w n t h a t i n it may be said that the air is thinned out betrveen, rvhen the all cases rvaves travel faster in free sltace thar-rthrough any p a r t i c l e s a r e c a r r i e d a r o u n d b e h i n d ; s o t h a t t h e r e i s t e n s i o n solid nrass rvhatever. 'fhus the rvave front on either side nrust in the medium between the balloon and the source of the be refracted torvards the axis of the shado\y,not only rvithin sound. On the other hand the crorvdingof particlcsin behind the globe, but nlso outside of the earth, very much as in the balloon, by the constant bending of the front as the the case ot'tire sound rvaves about the balloon of carbon waves florv steadily around it, and the impulses are destroyed, d i o x i d e t r e a t e d a i r o v e . has the effect of an increase of pressure on the back of the i\ccordingly, we see that the explanation of' acoustic balloon. It is shoved forward by the kinetic energy of these attraction allbrds a tangibie explanation of the devclopnrent i n r p u l s e s . A n d t h u s i t u r a y b e s a i d t h a t a t l a s r r v e h a v e o f t e n s i o n b e t u ' e e n t r v o i r e a v e n l l ' b o d i e s , i r n d t h e i n c r e a s eo f 'l'he experimental proof that nttraction is due to a vis a tergo b air is a kinetic mediunr, like the J ) r e s s u r e e 1 ' o n dt h e m . a shove frorn behind, which is a very old doctrine in natural aether, only the aether'is 68g32r6ooooo nrore elasticin p h i l o s o p h y , u t h e r e t o f o r e o t c a p a b l eo f o b v i o u s d e u r o n s r r a t i o r r , p r o l ) o r t i o n t o i t s d e n s i t y . H e n c e t h e a e t h e r i s c a p a b l e o f b n i n s i n r p l e p h e n o m e n aa d n i i t t i n e o f b u t o n e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . exerting tremendorrs stresses, for governing the nrotions of N o r v i n t h e c a s e o f t h e a e t h e r r v a v e s r e c : c r i i n gf r o m t h e l l l a n e t s . t w o h e a v e n l yb o d i e s , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e r v a v e sf ' r o me a c h Iiinally, it only reurains to add that in light the oscentre will aid in expelling the aetherons fronr betiveen the c i l l a t i o n s o f t h e a e t h e r o n s a r e i n t l t e n o r n r a l t o t h e \ \ ' . r \ . c m a s s e s . I n A N 5 0 4 8 , p . r 5 6 , r v e h a v e g i v e n t h e f o l l o r v i n g front, arrd thus sinrilar to those o1-sound as held bv Poissort. figure to illustrate the refraction of the sun's gravitation rvaves r 8 3 o , ( c f - . . \ N 5 o S 5 ) , l r r r tt l r u w i r \ e s u r r i l e t o n l y i n t i r e p l a , r e s in traversing the solid globe of the earth. o f t h e i r e q u a t o r s ,a n d u n d e r l i a p l r a z a r d a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e r / , r oi n t h e d i r e c t r o n atouric planesonly the l)art Q: of the radius, while the rirrio of AII is excessively small, nraking the longitudinal component evanescent ,l : (rO) Q.AllL: r : (664zo.roG); so that the longitudinal cornponent is utterly inscnsible to observation. As the displacernents f the o a e t h e r o n s a r e s i u t i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e u a r t i c l e so f a i r in srruntl it follorvs that the bending ol'.the aether r v a v el i - o n t i s s i n t i l a r t o t h a t s h o i v n i n t h e a b o v e diagram of the rvave-front for sound waves bending about the carbon dioxide balloon. ln all theseaetherwaves there is true radial displacement of the aetherons, as of the particles of the air, when sound is traveling outrvardly from a source; and thus the analogy between sound and gravitation is complete in every respect. Accordingly, we perceive that t[e aetherons are so worked out from between the iwo heavenly bodies, that tension exists along the right line connecting thenr, rvhile beyond them there is increase of pressure, as correctly held in the Electr. rvave-theoryof phys. forc. vol. r, p. r36.

i n F i g . r z , p l a t e7 . It wilt be noticed that the waves fronr either side are refracted towards the axis of the earth's shadorv, just as in the case of the acoustic attraction illustrated above, This is a very remarkable analogy which deserves careful study.

F i g . r 3 . I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e r e f r a c t i o n o f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a lr v a v e so f t h e s u n i n passing through the globe of the earth, frorn the Electrodynamic r v a v e - t h e o r yo f p h y s i c a l f o r c e s , v o l , r , r 9 r 7 , p . t t 8 . ' l ' h e r c f r a c t e d w a v e - f r o n t i s h e r e i n d i c a t e d b y p o i n t e d l i n e s , t o c o r n p l e t et h e a n a l o g y rvith sound, refracted around the ballood filled rvith CO.,,and shown

8. The Inductive Method of Discovery as applied to the Aether leads to WaveAction as the Sole Cause of Universal Gravitation. (i) The Keller-Ncutol, method applied to the nerv theory of the aether. We have now traced the procedure of Kcfler ar,d Neaton

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and shorvn that from certain rvell established facts of nature they deduced definite lalvs of the planetary nrotion, all depending on the attraction of gravitation. 'Ihe question norv is: Can this l{t/lrr-A'cu.,toz method be applied to the kinetic theory of the aether, to deduce rigorously the canse of universal gravitationi For as Arcu,fon rnade rigorous use of the facts stated in ,Kty'lcr's larvs to establish the larv ol' gravitation, it is natural to inquire if the lt'c11/tr-Neuttonprocess can be so e x t e n d e d i n t h e t h e o r y o f t h e a e t h e r a s t o e n a b l eu s t o d e d n c e rigorously tlre cause trnderlying universal gravitation. \\1e rpproach this problem by successive stepsas follotvs: r . I t h a s b e e n s h o r v ni n A N 5 o 4 4 , p . 5 3 , t h a t t h e d e n sity of the aether is not uniform throughout slrxce, but increasesaway from a heavenly body, becausethe amplitude of the u'aves receding from any spherical body such as the sun follows the larv:

A:Ilr

Qt)

z. r\ccorclingly, if the rnediunr lte agitated lly rvaves, t l r e i r a m p l i t u d e s i n c r e a s e t o r v a r c l st h e c e n t r e i n v e r s e l y a s t h e r a d i n s , s o t h a t u n d e r l h e a e i t a t i o n so f t h e w a v e s t h e d e n s i t y t d e c r e a s e s o r v a r d st h e c e n t r e , a n d i n c r e a s e sa s w e g o o r r t w a r d into space, directly as the radius: o: ,rr

( ,s )

3. The follorving figure shorvs the curves lbr the u'ave anrplitude, rvhich are rectangularhyperbolas referred to their asvrnDtotes.

4. Apparently the only way we can deny the heterogen e i t y o f t h e a e t h e r i s t o r e j e c t t h i s d i a g r a n rb y d e n y i n g t h a t rvavesexist; yet this is increasingly difficult becauseof the following phenomena: (a) Light and heat rvavescertainly radiate from the sun, and these lvaves follow the larv shorvn irr the diagram. Thus i f t h e a e t h e r w e r e a g i t a t e db y n ' a v e s o f l i g h t a n d h e a t a l o n e , i t c o u l d n o t b e h o m o g e n e o u s ,b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s e da m plitude of the u'aves towards the sun's surface. ( b ) I t i s s h o $ , n i n o u r t h e o r y o f m a g n e t i s n rt h a t m a g netic forcesdcpend on waves, and obel' the law of amplitude 'l-hus indicated abole. cosmical magnetism also is a wavephenomenon, and observation shotvs that ,magnetic storms' a r e d u e t o m a s s e so f m a g n e t i c w a v e s p r o c e e d i n g f r o m t h e s u n , a n d t h u s v e r v c o n s p i c u o u sr v h e n c e r t a i n s o l a r a r e a s a r e tuncovered, s by sunspot development. a (c) i\ paper by Professor Il,'. Gr1'//sAdatns in rhe phil. f - r a n s a c t . o f t h e R o y . S o c . f o r t 8 g z , A , p l a t e 8 , s e e m st o s h o r v t h a t t h e s e m a g n e t i c d i s t u r b a n c e s c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l yh r o u g h o t out the terrestrial globe, as if the disturbances epended on d 'Ihese commotions in the sun. d i s t u r b a n c e sa r e a c c o m p a n i e d by aurorae alld arth currents,u'hich can only be explained by a solar origin. (d) l'he connection between sunspots and masnetic s t o r m s i s s h o r v n o v e r a p e r i o d o f t r v o o r t h r e e c e n t u r i e s ,a n d emphasizedby our latestresearches 'ith modern data, as by n t h e s ' r i t e r ' s p a p c r b r i n e i ng l I / o / / ' s c u r v e s d o s n t o r g r 6 , B u l l . o f t h e a s t r o n .s o c . o f I ' r a n c e , N o v e m b e r r 9 r 8 , p p . 3 g 7 - 4 o 2 . (e) During the year r g zo mnch discussion arose in t h e r a d i o - t e l e g r a p h i cc i r c l e s o f L o n d o n a s t o t h e o r i g i n o f very delicate but incessant electric commotions sensibleto our lnodern apparatus, In an interview with the public press t I e x p r e s s e d h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e r e p o r t e dd i s t u r b a n c e s e p e n d e d d prirnarily on comnrotions in the sun, rvhich caused corres l i o n d i n g o s c i l l a t i o n si n o u r t e r r e s t r i a l m a g n e t i c f i e l d . W i t h i n about trvo rveeks of this discussion in America, press dispatches from I'aris and London stated that the French and English men of science concurred in the .r,iervthat these clisturbances of our wireless receivcrs depcnd principally on the commotions always going on in the sun. 5. Thus we are driven by a greatbody ofknowledge to a d n r i t t h a t e l e c t r o d y n a m i cw a v e s m u s t c o m e t o n s f r o m t h e s u n . (a) lf so, the aethercannot be hontogeneons, ut nrust b follorv the larv of density (r8) 6 : t,r because of the increasing anplitudes of these waves towards the sun, (b) Waves offer the only known explanation of magnetism and electrodynamic actions, with the law of amplitude,

A:rtlr
Fig. t4, Diagram showing graphically the increase of amplitude torvards the sun, and thus a corresponding dccrcaseof i the density of the aether, orving to the asyrnptoticncrease in rvave amplitude as \\'e approach the centrc, curves foilow from the nature of rvave expansion the asymptotic law of the anr-

('z) ( ,s )

and the law of force, Jr-A)-A2fr2.

These

in tridimensional

space, and

plitude thus holds rigorously true.

(c) In the same rvay the wave-theory explains Biot and Sauart'slaw, Ohn's law, and the mechanicai cause underlying the pointing of the needleto the north pole, - rvhilst no other theory supplies this obvious defect, involving so many electrodynamic phenomena.
7'

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(d) I;[/cbcr's electrodynamic law implying waves traveling with the velocity of light, explains the magnetic tides oI the earth, rvhilst no other law meets thi,s rigorous requirement. 6, Accordingly, we see that the rvave-field traced in the above diagram gives us an accurate picture of the ar' rangement of the aether about suclt a central body as the directly as r, rvhen sun. The density of the aether inc.reases we go outwardly from the centre. It will follow a similar larv about a spherical mass such as another star; and hence these curves of wave arnplitude may be made to yield valuable criteria. For exarnple the ecluipotential surfaces about a hornogeneous sphere or a heterogeneous sphere made up of con' centric layers of uniform density, are sphere surfaces, yet for a second body the rvave-fieldsinterpenetrate and tlie surltLces are changed in a significant way. 'fhe (ii) geornetry of the equipotential surfaces based on the Jarv of gravitation points directly to the cause o1'this great force, and indicates its nrode of operation for producing the chief phenomena of nature. r. Now when rve caiculate the equipotential surfaces about trvo equal stars, p and pr,,we find that they have the forrn shorvn in fig. r5, plate 8. 'fhus it will be seen that tbe surfaces closed about each centre in a pair of equal stars are not spherical, but actually distorted as shorvn in the figure. Each body stresses the aether so as to pLrll the surfaces enclosing the other body into egg-shaped surfaces, set end on, and rvhere the t\.o surfaces join we have an hourglass figure. z. Thus the disturbing influence generrtes egg-shaped equipotential surfaces enclosed about either centre, and they h a v e c e a s e dt o b e s p h e r i c a l , a n d b e c o m e s o d i s t o r t e d i n t h e direction of the other body that the radius vector is very appreciably longer than rvhen either body acted alone; rvhereas, beyond, on the side opposite to the other body, the radius vector is shorter than it would be if the other body rvere absent, In other words the gravitational forces are conrpounded as shown in the following figure, and the equipotential surfaces thus increasingly separated between the bodies, and drarvn nearer together outside of them.

(cr) Between the bodies the successive equipotential surfaces are further apart than they are beyond them. (,8) Ar the spaces dr indicate the distance we have to traverse for a given change in the force of gravity, which in turn corresponds to a given change in the density of the aether, rve perceive that the aether has its density thinned out (or the rnedium made more honrogeneous) between the l n a s s e s w h i l e t h e d e n s i t y i s s o m e w h a t i n c r e a s e db e y o n d t h e m , , or rendered more heterogeneous for a given value of dr. 0) It thus appears that the waves trom each mass operate to expel the aetherons beyond the other nrass; so t h a t t h e r n e d i u m i s p u t u n d e r t e n s i o n b e t r v e e nt h e b o d i e s , a n d e x p e r i e n c e si n c r e a s e o f p r e s s n r e b e y o n d t h e n r . ( d ) ' l ' h e k i n e t i c s t a t e o f t h e a e t h e r i s t h e r e f o r es i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e a i r u n d e r a c o u s t i ca t t r a c t i o n - t h e r e i s t e n s i o n b e t r v e e na n d i n c r e a s e dp r e s s n r eb e y o n d , r v h i c h t h u s g e n e r a t e s the central force for holding the planets in their orbits. ( e ) l n c l o s i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n i t s e e n r sw e l l t o r e c o r d a s a g a c i o u s r e m a r k o n g r a v i t a t i o n b y t h e l a t e P r o f e s s o rS . W. Burnian, the celebrated discoverer of double stars. It i s r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e a l ) I r l r r e n to r b i t o f a b i n a r y i s a n e l l i p s e , a n d t h a t t h e r a d i u s v e c t o r s w e e l ) so v e r e r l u a l a r e a s i n e q u a l tinres, as in the case of ,Kt|lcr's larv for the planets, which shorvsthat the force is central. lt is pointed out that one. b i n a r y , 4 z C o m a e B e r e n i c e sr e v o i v e si n g p l a n e p a s s i n gt h r o u g h , the sun; and another binary, 1\/irginis, has an inclination so small that it may be taken to be zero, so that the real orbit practically coincides with the apparent orbit rvhich rve observe; and in this case the central star is in the focus o f t h e e l l i p s e a s r e c l u i r e db y t h e N e u t o n i a n l a w ( 6 9 . r 8 , t a b . 9 ) . (f) When such criteria for rr.rotion in a plane under central forces directed to the focus o[ the ellipse were not sufllcient to'convince an astronomer who visited bis office, in r894, that the law of gravitation is really universal,and he insisted that furthcr proof rvas desirable - though Nculon had not required it for the solar systetn - Prol-essor Burniant renrarked: >\\rhen equal areas are described in equal tinres, by the radius r"ector, so that the forces are knorvn to be central, and directed to the focus of the ellipse, is not the discussion about the universality of - h\the law of gravitation like debating t . ' \ whether n, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter o[ a circle, is the same in Jupiter as it is herelq (.7) This suggested bate rvas de P _ F - _:.r,' ' ' 7 q R > enough to settle the question then and there; and it rvas agreed that the central force which governs the rnotions of double stars in their elliptic orbits can be nothing but universal gravitation. Fig. t6. General theory of the composition of the vectors rcpresenting the gravitational forces Burnhan was renrarkable for directed to two equal masses, such as a double star rvith cqual components. It s'ill be his practical turn of rnind, and for noticed that betrveen the masses, the cornposition largely destroys the oppositely directcd the depth of his understanding of separate forces, rvhereas outside the two rnasses, the separate forces are but little reduced i n c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e r e s u l t i s t h a t b e t w e e n t h e b o r l i e s t h e a e t h e r i s u r r d c r t c n s i o n , r v b e r e a s the Ncutlonitn natural philosophy, outside of them it is under incrcaserl pressure r v h i c h i s e s p e c i a l l y r n p h a s i z e dn t h e e i both of which tcndcncies oJ)erate to ,balance the centrifugal force of orbital rnotion. first and secondrules of reasoning: I. >We are to admit no more causes of natural things 3. In general the vector conrposition gives numericai increase beyond the other body, and numerical decrease than such as are both true and sufficient to explain their ( between the bodies. Hence we see that: appearances.
\ l \Y

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sina: sinB : r (:l:) {h,f ,)z:(Llr), These forces may be calculated for any point distant r ? and y' from the two stars of masses u and.1/, or hrt and En', where /a is the Gaussian constant. 5. In tbe case oI trvo equal stars the positions between within the above circle, make the resultant _ztless 1a and 1.r,, than V[(/tl r)+ -r (tt I r,)al, becausecos d is negative. For positions p . R i g o r o u s G e o n r e t r i c A n a l y s i s c o n f i . r n r s t h e outside the above circle, the resultant is relatively larger, T e n s i o n i n t h e A e t h e r b e t w e e n t w o S t a r s a n d i n - becausecosd is positive, 6 < nlr. It attains the maxim*um c r e a s e dS t r e s sb e y o n d t h e m , a n d t h u s i n c o n t e s t a b l y r e l a t i v e v a l u e i n t h e r e g i o n o u t s i d e t h e t r v o s t a r s , o n t h e l i n e e s t a b l i s h e st h e C a u s e o f U n i v e r s a l ( ] r a v i t a t i o n . p 1 a 1 a r o l o n e e d ; a n d t h e r n i n i r n u f nr e l a t i v e v a l u e b e t r v e e n t h e (i) Geometrical conrposition of the attraction to two t w o s t a r s , o n t h e l i n e p . 1 t : l ) . T h i s i s o b v i o u s g e o m e t r icentres from any point in space rigorously confirms the theory cally fronr the above figure. 'l'he 6. general theory of the composition of forces of tension between the stars and the increaseof stressor here set forth showsthat the aether is under tension between p r e s s r r r eb e y o n d t h e n r . r. Imagine the trvo stars to be distant r and r, front t h e t w o s t a r s , w h e r e t h e g e o m e t r i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n t e n d s t o any point y' in space, and let the angle between r and r, a m i n i m u m r e l a t i v e v a l u e o I z ? . I 3 e y o n d t h e t w o s t a r s , t h e 'l-hcn g e o m e t r i c a lc o m p o s i t i o no f f o r c e s t e n d s t o a r e l a t i v em a x i m u m , be 6. by :r rvell known theorem and there is greatest increase in the stressof the aether. cosd: (rx,-+1,y,-+zz,)frr, (So) 'I'he analysis here given explains rigorously the arranthe origin of coordinates being at the point p. gement of the equipotentiai surfaces about the two equal 'I'he stars /. and 1a. above figure shows that the minimuni distances betrveen the surfaces are outside the stars, rvhere t h e s t r e s s i s i n c r e a s e d ; a n d m a x i m u m d i s t a n c e sa r e b e t w e e n the stars, lhere the tension is developed, and the density o f t h e a e t h e r i n c r e a s e ss l o r v l y a s w e g o o u t w a r d f r o r n e i t h e r star as a centre. 'l'ension (ii) between two stars and increase of stress beyond them the only possible explanation of gravitation. 'fhe r. law of centrifugal force shows thaiphysically there ought to be tension in the aether between two-revolvini stars; for the centrifugal force actually is overcome and ba-_ lanced, rvhich can be done most effectively by tension between, and increase of stress or pressure beyond. z . B y n o p o s s i b i l i t y c a n a p a i r o f s t a r sr e v o l v e w i t h o u t l'ig. 17. Geometrical composition of the s o m e p h y s i c a l a g e n c y o p e r a t i n g t o g i v e t e n s i o n b e t l v e e nt h e m , attractlon to trvo cerrtres invc. s o t h a t t h e s t r c s s e si n t h e m e d i u m b a l a n c e t h e c e n t r i f u e a i s t i g a t e ( 1a n d s i r r r p l i 6 e r fl o r p o i n t s , force. .4nd tve ntay colrpl.lte the enormous tension ,equi.ed, i n t e r n r s o f t h e [ r r e a k i n gs t r e n g t h o f i m m e n s e c a b l e s o i s t e e l , extremitics of a diameter. (cf. AN 5o44, p. 5r). 3. Norv the equipotential surfaces show the effects of having the distance -D,between the centres of the stars as tension in the aether, since the surfaces are symmetrical in .diameter,the angle d rvill be a right angle, and all directions about a single spherical mass, but pulled further 665/:6. But this condition is special and in general rvill not hold. apart between two spherical bodies. This distortion of the I! ! b9 beyond the circurnference described on D as dianreter, equipotential surfaces, - which are drarvn to corresrrond to equal changes in the force of gravity, - cannot be explained e < n f z ; i f w i t h i n t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e ,d , n l r . . 3. Now rvhatever be the position of l), we may ahvays e x c e p t o n t h e t h e o r y o f t e n s i o n , t v h i c h g i v e s t h e a e t h e r l e s s 'compound the attractive forces directed to the trvo centres increase of density betrveen, for given values of dr, and thus according to the parallelogranr of forces. Let the trvo forces puts the successive surlaces further aoart. y'z; then by the theorem of the parallelogram be h.2f and,rt'2f r2, 4. Since mechanical necessitv, calculated frorn the theory of centrifugal force, thus agrees with the facts of w have for the resultant r? : observation in regard to the actual positions of the surfaces, (hfr)a-+(A'fr,)a-+ (/elr),(t,fr,)z cosl 2z : z (:r) it follorvs that the cause of the observed d,istorted form of R 1t [(tlr)a-+(h,lr,)o* z (ilr), (t,lr,)rcosd] . (s") the surfaces mnst be tension or stretching of the medium. . 4. The angular direction of the resultant rvill always No other possible cause except tension or pulling, which . p a s sb e t w e e n t h e t r v o s t a r s . A n d i l 0 : n - r B , the two angles thins out the aether and makes it tend to contract rvith .a and B may easily be computed when the magnitude and stupendous power, rvill explain the knorvn facts. direction o[ the forces which make up the trvo iiaes, (*fr)2 5. If we knerv the observed fonns of the surfaces rve ,and (k'ft')z are given, by the formula could from them predict the tension which yields such dis-

II. >Therefore to the same natural effects rve must, as far as possible, assign the same causes.< In the sagacious natural philosophy of Netuton the phenomenon of refraction is viewed as a simple physical problem, and does not lead to the discussion of such vague and chirnerical doctrines as the ctlrvature of space, timespace-manifolds, etc.

"['"''l::i" ;:' ;'1"; ;:,1:; i:. :

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tortion:;' if we knew the mechanical power of the centrifugal force we could predict the distortion of the equipotential surfaces required to balance the stressesexerted' Both conditions lead to the same result, and no other is possible' 6. If 'rve did not know that the density of the aether increases as we go out from a centre like the sun, we should have to discover it before rve could form a correct theory 'lhus the distortion of tlie of the equipotential surfaces' surfaces shoivs the heterogeneity of the aether. And as all known facts are thus reconciled, it follorvs that no other possible theory of the aethbr can reconcile the facts of observation except the larv for increase of density as l'e recede r'r" *'hich Sir Isaac Ncu/oti suspected from the centre d : could not establish to his satislurction' tn r7zr, but s'ave-llelds 7 . l f w e d i d n o t s u s p e c tt h e n n s y u r n r e t r i c a l about the separate nrasses,and rve rvere retlLtireclto assign a n a d e q u a t e c a u s e f o r t h e i n c r e a s e dd i s t a n c e so f ' t h e s u r f a c e s b c t w e e n t h e t w o I r A S S e s',r v e s h o r r l d h a v e t o c o r l c l t t d e l s ( a ) l l e t r v e e n t b e b o d i e s t h e e c l r . r i p o t e n t i a lr r r l a c c sa r c r e l a t i v e l y s e p a r a t e d , b y t h e p r e s e n c e o l ' t h e s e < : o n dt t l a s s ' ( U ) l l e y o n d e i t h e r m a s s t h e e t p r i p o t e n t i a ls t t r f a c e sa r e rclatively drarvlt nearer together' 'l'hese (c) effects are as if they depended on gcometrical s , s t r e s s e s u p e r p o s e d b u t o p p o s i t e l yd i r e c t e d ; t h u s o n t h e l l l a n e ?z norrnal to the line p,p', and lrp prolonged, rve ltave:

the elernentary solid angle do of the two cones of matter extending to the centre of the earth being the same in any dzt', betrveen the limits of tbe radius two elements, dttt : and y' to r'-tdr', corresponding to the depth of r to r*d,r isostatic collpellsation, 'l'his (F) theorem wqs first proposed by Pratt tbont i t o & c c o u n tf o r c e r t a i n a p p a r e n t a n o r n a l i e s n { h e a t t r a c r85o, tion of mountains and plateausin India, but it has now had extensive ttse in ttre researches made by lfal'ford for the U . S . C o a s t a n d G e o d e t i c S u r v e y ,i n r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n t i n e n t a l rrass of the Unitecl States,and in Eeluert's geodetics researches 'I'hu it is rvell as appliecl to variotts parts oI our globe. thut isostasy is approxirnately a lbct of obscrestalilished v a t i o n , i t n d t o t h e d e p t h o f i s o s t a t i cc o m p e 4 s a t i o ni 2 1 : f i a " .tIaly'ord lbund this depth about 76 nriles for the conlineniai United States. (;,) \\:e shall norv show that a llerfectly aualog<-rus theorenr holds for the ntass of the aetirer l)etweenany t\\'o d s c o n c e n t r i ce t l u i p o t e n t i a ) t t r f a c e s r a r v n a b o u t a l t y c e n t r e , e v e n r v h e n t h e l i g n r e s o f t h e e t l u i p o t e n t i a l s u r l a c e sa r e d i s t t r r b e d b y a n e i g h b o r i n g b o d y , a s i n t h e c a s e a L r o v ed i s c u s s e d o f d t*'o equal stars, rvitlr the sttrla<:es istorted between theni' (')) ' I ' h u s l e t d o d e n o t e t h e e l e m e n t a r y s o l i d a n g l e 'l'hcn, as in the above integrals, arL,itrarily fixed ttpon. n'e have:
/.+-d/- 0 -Fd() {) -f (lq)

trY: P+-?'
rvithout the masses;

: SSr" araz-r !a'y d1, dz !

(s+)

d n t:
:

do S
,

,v-

P-P'

j .!o' : S S r" d t,cl z- ,' d1r dz ( ss)

6 J ' o r ' s i n d r d dd 1 t
: J' o' r''tsilrd' dr'' dd' d@' ' (:; )

,-'*,1r: $'-;ilQ' <D'+ 4tP'

between the rnasses. 'fherefore, rve perceive that the increased distance 8. of the concentric surfaces between the nrasses, ttrcans that we must go a grelter distance lbr a given change in l/' Now tlre aether density increasesas we go outrvard,for a single mass; and in the case of trvo masses the increase beGeen thenr is less rapid for given dz', but relatively rtrore rapid externally for both bodies. Hence betrveeu the bodies the aether is thinned out by the proximity of the trvo llrasses p u l l i n g i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . I t i s t h u s u n d e r t e n s i o n ,i n c i d e n t io tttis thinning ottt. And as the increase in o is gradual but sloler than usual with dr, the concentric surfaces are further apart. In general their figure depends on the masses of the two bodies, whose stressesare here combined' (lli) Ctose analogy between density of matter in the earth's crust under isostasy,, and density of aether between equipotential surfaces. (") In the theory of the equilibrium of the earth's crust, the modern doctrine of isostasy plays a prorninent part' If we imagine a solid conical angle dar, which rnay be generated by revolving a radius about a fixed snrall circle, in the strrface y'(r'-+!'-+t'), at constant distance oi r sphere of radirls r: from the centre, the principai theordm of isostasy reduces to the expressions: ' r-+dr 0-rd0 Q+"dilr y' -* dr' 0'-r d0' { ' -r dO'

dttt' :

d. .f
r'

0'

O'

(e) I'or we see that rvhen the eqtlipotential surfaces are further apart than usual it nreans that there is lessrapid inc r e a s e i n t h e d e n s i t y o f t l r e a e t h e r a s w e g o o u t r v a r df r o t l r the centre. In this case the density of the aether increases as \\,e go outrvard,Lntt lelst rapidly towards the other body, r v h e r e t h e s u r f a c e sa r e l a r t h e r e s t a p a r t . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e earth's crust, on the other hand, the density of the matter i n c r e a s e sa s w e g o d o w n w a r d , b u t l e a s t r a p i d l y u n d e r t h e m o u n t a i n s u n d p l a t e a u s ,o w i n g t o t h e p u f f r n g u p o r i n t u t r t e s ' cence, as Str jo/tn ,ffersclcl calls it, of the matter just beneath the cntst. (() Accordingly, it appears that we have a theorem for the aether tlensity quite analogous to that for isostasy in the crust of the globe, but nlathematically mrrch tltore rigorously 'lhe aether theorem exact than that of isostasy. 0-t-d0Q-+-d<Ir r-+clr

.i,J r

'

J 0

J6t"stnadrd'adw: o

d, J
r'

,"46r: $'4{0'<D'-+dO' ( P P ' . '

(J'

!D'

' ' ' J 0d ( D ' J o '/ r s i n 6d r '

[:8)

dn': d' I -or,f

d d .forrsind rdd rD

obviously fulfills rigorously the conservation of energy, since it applies to the aether in the conical space dro betrveen trvo equipotential surfaces concentric about a fixed centre o[ mass p:

(ss) qdsdydz :[: I o ' r ' ' s i n d ' d r ' d d ' d @ ' ( 3 6 )disturbed by the aether stresses due to another mass yet '

ro9

5 4o

IIO

( + o ) bodies whatsoever are endowed with a principle of mutual (7) 1.n;s formulation of the theorem for the rigorous g r a v it l t i o n . A g a i n , i n t h e G e n e r a lS c h o l i u m t o t h e p r i n c i p i a , ( r 7 r conservationof energy in the aether makes the corrclusion 3), tVrulon adds: i n c o n t e s t a b l et h a t t h e a e t h e r i s u n d e r t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e 'lhe >I{itherto rve have explained the phenomena of the nrasses. i n c r e a s eo f s t r e s so r p r e s s u r eb e y o n d t h e m a s s e s , . s'ith more rapidly changing density, is equally obvious, since heavens and of our sea by the power of gravity, but have in .these parts the space dr. required to be traversed is so n o t y e t a s s i g n e d t h e c a u s e o f t h i s p o w e r . T h i s i s c e r t a i n , vcry small. that it ntust proceed frorn a cause that penetrates to tbe ( i t ) C o n c l u s i o n s d r a w n f r o r n t h e a p p ) i c a t i o n o f t h e very centres of the snn and planets, rvithout suffering the l e a s t d i n t i n u t i o n o f i t s f o r c e ; t h a t ' o p e r a t e sn o t a c c o r d i n g t o It'ef /t r- lYc utlozz methocl. 'fhe t h e q u a n t i t y o f t h e s u r f a c e so f t h e p a r t i c l e s u p o n r v h i c h i t 6nal question norv arises: J)oes not the form of a c t s ( a s n r e c h a n i c a lc a u s e s u s e t o d o ) , b u t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h e e q u i p o t e n t i a ls u r f a c e sp o i n t s t r a i g h t t o t h c c a u s e o f g r a v i q u a n t i t y o f t i r e s o l i d r n a t t e r* ' h i c h t h e y c o n t a i n , a n d p r o p a g a t e s t a t i o n i I s a n y o t h e r i n t c r p r e t a t i o r rt l i a n t h c o n e \ \ , e h a v e g i v e n i t s v i r t u e o n a l l s i d e s t o i m r n e n s ed i s t a n c e s ,d e c r e a s i n ga l r v a y s really possiblel Obviously notl We have here a criterion in the duplicate ylroportion of the distances. (iravitation s'hich rnay be applied poillt by point to the surfaces; anci torvards the sun is ntade up out of the gravitations torvards as the surlhces here dras'n are fonnd lry calculation frorn the t h e s e v e r a l y r a r t i c l e so f r v h i c h t h e b o d y o [ t h e s u n i s c o m Inrv, of gravitation, rvithout regard to the cause involvecl, p o s e d ; a n d i n r e c c d i n g f r o m t h e s u n d e c r e a s e sa c c u r a t e l y v e t t h e r e i s c v e r y r v h e r e x a c t c o i n c i d e n c eo f t h e o b s e r v e df a c t s e in the dupiicate l)roportion of the distances as far as the s'ith the requirements of the rvave-theory, it follorvs exactly o r b o f s a t u r n , a s e v i d c n t l y a l ) l ) e a r sf r o m t h e q u i e s c e n c e o f as in the l{eflcrt\rtutfoz n-rethodthat one and only one con- n a n r e l y : g r a v i t a t i o ni s d u e t o r v a v e - a c t i o n t h e a p h e l i a o I t h e p l a n e t s ; n a y , a n d e v e n t o t h e r e m o t e s t clusion is possible aphelia of the comets, if those aphelia are also quiescent. rcceding frorn the trvo bodies 1a and 1a. Rut hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of Accordingly, just as Keler's larvs made the rigorous t h e s e y r r o p c r t i e so f g r a v i t y f r o m p h e n o m e n a , a n d I f r a m e n o d e d u c t i o n s o f . A ' c u l o n p o s s i b l e ,- p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e n c c c s s a r y h y p o t l r e c s ; f o r n ' h a t e v e ri s n o t d e d u c : d f r o r n t h e p i r e n o n r e n a s a n d s u f f i c i e n tc o n d i t i o n s o f v a l i d r e a s o n i n g ,- s o a l s o t h e f o r n r i s t o b e c a l l e d a n h v p o t h e s i s ; a n d h y p o t h e s e s ,r v h e t h e r m e t a a n d a r r a n g c r n e n t o f t h e e r l u i p o t c n t i a l s u r f a c e sa b o u t a s i n q l c p l r l ' s i c ao r p h y s i c a l , ' h e t h e ro f o c c u l t r l u a l i t i e s r m e c h a n i c a l , l u o s p h e r i c a l r l a s s , a n d a b o u t a p a i r o f e q u a l s p h e r i c a ln r a s s c s , h a v e n o p l a c e i n e r p e r i n r e n t a lp h i l o s o p h y . I n t h i s p h i l o s o p h y c o n s i d e r e di n c o n n e c t i o nr v i t h t h e s p h e r i c a le x p a n s i o no f r v a v e s p a r t i c u l a r p r o p o s i t i o n sa r e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e p h e n o m e n a , a n d i n f r e e s J r a c e ,l e a d s i n c o n t e s t a b l y t o t h e c a u s e o f u n i v e r s a l afterrvards rendered general by induction. Thus it rvas.that gravitirtion. The argunrent is based on rigorous geontetrical the impenetrability,the mobility, and the impulsive force of criteria, cornbined rvith observecl physical facts of \\raveexbodies, and thc larvs of motion and of gravitation, wcre dispansion, and it affords the necessarvand sufficient conditions covered. And to us it is enough that gravity does really exist, to shorv that this cause and no other can underlie universal and act accordine to the larvs rvhich rve have explained, and sravitation. abundantly serves to account for all the motions of the In conclusion, it only remains to add that just as Ktf /r's celestial bodies, and of our sea.( 'fhe larvs, deduced from TJ'cho's observations of the planets, lead g r e a t p e n c t r a t i n gp o n ' e r o f g r a v i t a t i o n h e r e p o i n t e d inevitably to the Ntulottian law of gravitation,-- so also thc out, rvoulclbe naturally explained by the excessive mallness s observed larv of attraction thus found by Ntutlon leads ino[ the aetheron, r'. z6zo of the diarneter of a hydrogen contestably to waves in the aether as the cause of universal r n o l e c u l e ,a n d i t s h i g h v e l o c i t y , 4 T r o o o k m s . p e r s e c o n d ; s o gravitation. In the Principia, r686, Ncuton resolveshe severnl t thrt even $'aves in the aether, if moderately long, could attractive forces separately, at tvhatever distance the boclies pcnetrate to the very centres of the sun and planets, as Ncruton are situated, - thus implying thrt the forces from the bodies says is true of gravitation, Nctoton here expressly declares of one system penetrate through the bodies o[ any other h i s i n a b i l i t y t o d i s c o v e r t h e c a u s eo f g r a v i t a t i o n ; y e t i n t h e neighboring system, - as if the influence rvere due to $,avcs authentic Account of Sir fsaac Nerulon's philosophical disin the free aether, capable of freely penetrating all parts coveries,prrblished by his pupil Colin,4faclaurin,L,ondon,t7 4g, of space. rve learn (p. III): In the remarks follorving the third rule of reasoning >He \Neruton) has plainly signified that he thought that i n p h i l o s o p h y ,N e a t o n s a y s ( P r i n c i p i a , L i b . I I I ) : those powers arose from the impulses of a subtile aetheri.al 'rLastly, if it univqrsaliy appears, by experiments and medium tl.ratis diffused over the universe, and penetrates the astronomical observations, that all bodies about the earth pores of grosser bodies. lt appears from his letters to I\{r. gravitate towards the earth, and that in proportion to the Roltle, rhat this was his opinion early; and if he did not' quantity of matter wbich they severally contain; that the moon publish it sooner, it proceeded from hence only, that he found Iikewise, according to the quantity of its matter, gravitates he rvas not able, from experiment and observation, to give torvards the earth; that on the other hand, our sea gravitates a satisfactory account of this nredium, and the manner of its torvards the moon; and all the planets mutually one towards o p e r a t i o n , i n p r o d u c i n g t h e c h i e f p h e n o m e n a . o fn a t u r e . ( another; and the comets in like manner torvards the sun; we The impulses of the aetherial medium'imagined by must, in consequence of .this rule, universally allow that all Neutlon to be the cause of gri.vitation are now explained.byr

,,': SSSs'dx'd1/f,;,

,/

.I I I

5I40

rr2

wave-action, in accordance with the kinetic theory, which -lVcatton had somewhat developed two centuries ago, in the last edition of his Optics, t72r. Thus, in the New theory of the aether,l and the Electr. wave-theory of phys. forc', we have merely striven to complete the unfinished labors of Sir fsaac Ncwton. Io. Summary of the Chief Results of the New Theory of the Aether' (i) Although 2 4 5 years had elapsed since Roctner's discovery of the velocity'of light, 1675, a valid theory of the mechanisrn underlying this enormous velocity was not available until the appearance of the new kinetic theory of the aether, which treats this medium as a monatomic gas, rfrn'I/. i w i t h m e a n v e l o c i t y o f t h e a e t h e r o . n ,: In the first paper, (AN 5044), we have pointed out the valid erounds on which the new kinetic theory of the aether s r n a i n l y ' r e s t s ; l n d s u b s e q u e n t l y o m e w h a ts t r e n g t h e n e d i,n t h e first section of the third paper, (AN 5o79), the foundations of this remarkable tbeory. lt is undeniable that all the indications of nature point to a kinetic theory of the aether, And now that it is developed, any otber vierv than that set forth would strike us as too improbable to be given serious

point of space, where the absolute or relative fo,rceof gravity is known compared to that at the earth's surface. In view of the consideratioris here cited it will be obvious that the first step in a valid theory of the aether is to give an explanation of the enormous velocity of rvave propagation. No theory except the kinetic theory of the aether, in which the aetherons obeY the law:

i -

rf2n Ir

(+t)

wili be adequate to explain the enormous velocity o[ the wave n)ovement. I n t h e f i r s t a n d t h i r d p a p e r s , A N 5 o , 1 4 ,5 o 7 9 , w e h a v e shown that the above law holds for the follorving gases, when reduced to a monatomic condition: r. Air 4' Carbon dioxide, CO1 z. Hydrogen 5. OxYgen m o n o x i d e , C O 6 . N i t r o u s o x i d e , - A ' O 2. ( + + ) 3. Carbon 'fhe kinetic theory of the aether must therefote be a s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . O b s e r v a t i o ni n d i c a t e s t h a t i n a regarded monatomic gas the above forntula is accttrately fulfilled; and as the aether is not knorvn to be capable of any conrbinations we naturally take its aetheron to hale the propertygf a mon' atonric gas. consideration, I n v i e w o f t h e s i m p l i c i t y a n d d i r ec t n e s so f t h e s e c o n It can scarcely fail to impress natttral philosophers that s i d e r a t i o n s ,i t a p p e a r s t o b e t r u l y r e n r a r k a b l et h a t n e a r l y t w o sound is found by experiment to travel four times faster in and a half centuries should elapse betrveen Ilot'ntr's discovery h y d r o g e n t h a n i n o x y g e n . A n d w h e n w e c o n n e c tt h i s r e l a t i v e l y o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t , a n d t h e d e v e i o p t l e n t o f a k i n e t i c r a p i d s p e e d o f s o u n d i n h y d r o g e n w i t h t h e s ( l u i l r e r o o t o f t h e o r y o f t l i i s r v a v e - t n o t i o n ,r 9 z o . I t t t r u s t b e f a i r l y o b v i o u s - the density Lcing the reciprocal of its relative density, t h e f o r e m o s tp r o b l e r n o f t h e a e t h e r - w e p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e t o n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p l i e r st h a t 16 times less than that of oxygen' i s t h e e - r p l a n a t i o no f t h e e n o r m o u s v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t . A n d a s d y n a m i c a l b a s i s o f t h e h i g h w a v e v e l o c i t y i n h y d r o g e n r e s u l t s e l e c t r o d l ' n a u r i c c t i o n a n d w a v e si n r a d i o - t c l e g r a p h y a k e p l a c e t a from the Nculonian formula: rvith the sanre velocitl', the underlying rapid urotion of the ( a' ) a e t h e r o i r i s o f t h e d e e p e s t i n t e r e s t , a n d r v i l l h a v e t h e ' r v i d e s t r: r'(E l o ). at once explains why the speed ought to be a p p l i c a t i o n s i n a l l b r a n c h e s o f p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e . This formula four times less in oxygen than in hydrogen, since the density ( i i ) E i n s t i n a s s i g n s n o c a u s eo f g r a v i t a t i o n , a n d a s h e d occurs in the divisor of the right member under the radical' r e j e c t s t h e a e t h e r , w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d f o r c o n v e y i n g s t r e s s e s Proceeding on the hasis ofthese dependable experiments, a c r o s s s p a c e , h i s g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f r e l a t i v i t y i s n r i s l e a d i n g . which are confirmed by researcheson many gases, we necesln the 6rst paper on the nervtheory of the aether we s a r i l y a r e l e d t o a s c r i b e t h e h i g h v e l o c i t y o f u ' a v e so f l i g h t have explained rhat Ii i n s/ ci tt rejects the aether enti rely. tl[icltc/ son and electrodynanlic action to the excessivelysmall density of a n d o t h e r e m i n e n t a t t t h o r i t i e sh a v e t ' e m a r k e do n t h e i n a d m i s the aether. For if the waves of sound in hydrogen so greatly s i b i l i t y o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e ; a n d n o t a f e w - e x p e r i e n c e d i n general theory of relativity outrun similar waves in oxygen, owing to the r6-fold greater vestigators have rejected .ltinstcirt's density of oxygen, it follows that for waves of aether to have a because he has no nredium for conveying light, heat and large velocity, the aether must have an excessivelysmall density' natura! forces across sPace. 'llre F r o m t h i s c o n c l u s i o nt h e r e a p p e a r st o b e a b s o l u t e l yn o argttrnenrs of Michelson and others drawn from the on the velocity of sound in gases t h e o r y o f l i g h t a r e q u i t e u n a n s w e r a b l e . Y e t i t n r a y b e w o r t h escape. For the experinrents are essentially very accurate, and the data well detertnined, rvhile to intluire why, if there be tro aether, light and electric with an excessively small if not insensible uncertainty in the w a v e s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d a c r o s s s p a c e r v i t h t h e v e l o c i t y o f 'Ihe ratio of the observed velocity of sottnd I / small observed results. 3 . r o 1 0 c m s . I f t h e r e b e n o a e t h e r e a lm e d i u m o f in hydrogen to that in oxygen, with their relative densities, density and great elasticity, it rvould be much rnore logical thus becomes of the highest significance, and Ieads directly to assume that action at a distance is instantaneous. Yet this to the most fundanrental laws of wave phenomena in nature' is contrary to observation. ' In very much the same way, we have found the velocity And although Einstcitt assunes as the basis of his system of light to be 217839 times greater than that of sound in that ))nothing travels faster than light<, he nowhere explains t h e o r e t i c a lm o n a t o m i c h y d r o g e n , ( e N 5 " 7 9 ) , w h e n c e i t f o l l o w s why light should have a finite instead of an infinite velocity. 'l'he that the absolute density of the aether at the earth's surface is s'ave'theory,on the other harld, lays dorvn no dogma ( + r ) whatever. It takes light and electric $'aves to travel with the . r888.r5.ro-18 o: 3'lo10 cms., and then inquires what '. A c c o r d i n g l y i n t h e t h i r d p a p e r , A N 5 o ? 9 , a g e n e r a l o b s e r v e dv e l o c i t y , l ' ' : By the well established given for finding the density of the aether at any is the mean velocity of the aetheron' rnethod is

l t 1 ^ ' J

5r40

I14

facts of the kinetic theory of gases, this remarkal;le theorern (iii) Final table of the physical constants oI the aether. is deduced for the aether:. In the conrse of the development of the new theory rlznl, i : t , 5 2 . . 3 .r o l 0 c m s : 4 7 r 2 3 9 k n r s ( + S ) of the aetlrer t'e have been led to a few changes, but the o where tr/ is the wave velocity, and J the mean velocity of t a b l e o f c o n s t a n t s f t h e a e t h e r g i v e n i n A N 5 o 4 4 , p . 6 5 - 6 6 , s t i l l r e m a i n s e s s e n t i a l l yc o r r e c t , e x c e p t a s i n d i c a t e d b e l o w , the aetheron. It is found that the aetheronmoves r oooo tirres faster r . T h e n r e t h o d f o r c a l c u l a t i n gt h e d e n s i t y o f t h e a e t h e r than our srviftestplanets, anri for bodies nroving rvith uniform from the constant of solar radiation devised by Lord I{tluin v e l o c i t y , a s i n o r b i t s e s s e n t i a l l yc i r c u l a r , o f f e r s n o r e s i s t a n c e i n r 8 5 4 , a n d m o < l e r n i z e id A N n 5 o 4 4 , p . 6 3 _ 6 4 , i s n o r vr e c o g rvhatever to the nrotions of the planets. 1'his corresponds to n i z e d t o b e d e f e c t i v e , o r v i n g t o t h e d e c r e a s eo f d e n s i t y ; f the knorvn facts of the solar systern,rvhich gives no inciication t h c a e t h e r n e a r t h e e a r t h . I i o r r e a s o n si n d i c a t c d i n r \ N 5o7g, o f a e t h e r e a l r c s i s t a n c : ct o t h e m o t i o n s o f t h e p l a n e t s a n d p . 2 1 3 - 2 1 9 , 1 v e r n u s t f i r s t f i n c l t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e a e t h e r a t satellitcs. If the orbits are sensibly elliptical, there rvill be the earth's surface, and then calculate the density at the a l t e r n n t e a c c e l e r a t i o n a n d r e t a r d a t i o n , b u t t h e c f f e c t i s v e r y s u r f a c e o f t h e s u n a n d p l a n e t s , b y t h e p r o c e s s e se x p l a i n e d slight and in fact insensible to observation. o n y t ,z z 6 - z 3 7 . When trvo bodies which are magnetic are in relative r\t the earth's surface the density of the aether is found motion, thcre is an inductive effect, orving to the change in tobe d3s:r8gg.rJ.16-18 (+O) t h e w a v e f i e l d s ; a n d t h i s i s o b s e r v e di n t h e e a r t h ' s n r a s n e t i s m , and found to dcpend on thc sun and lroon, as first notcd *hile at the sun's surface the density is b y I { r c i l a t P r a g u e , r 8 4 r , a n c l a f t e r l ' a r d s i n d c p c n d e n t l y d i s - o ' o: , ( r 3 3 E .r g . r o - 1 8 2 19 ) 4 r . 4 8 6 8: 3 5 7 . 6 8 6 5 'r o - l s . ( + Z ) f covered b5, Joln Allm l)rorn, 1845. .,\ccordingly, the density of the aether at the earth's T h e c x i s t e n c eo f a s e m i - d i u r n a lt i d e i n t h e e a r t h ' s r n a g - s r r r f a c ei s 4 . 3 r t i m e s t h a t g i v e n b y , K r h . , i t i sm o d i f i e d m e t h o d , netism obeying the larv of the inverse cube of the distance rvhile at the snrface of the sun the density is about r 7g . g 4 of the nroon rvas firlly established by llroun and confirnrccl tinres that dccluced frorn Jt't/uitis metho(1. \Ve norv recognizg by Rafurr Slcuart and tlit't,, rvho pointecl out that the ticlc that Jt'rluitis rletlrod is defcctir.e and the results given in the a c t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e l i o n r t l r e l L e c l S e a t o H r r c l s o n ' sl a y ( t h c f i r s t p a p e r , p . 6 . 1 , a r e t o b e s u p e r s e d e db 1 ' t h c t n c t h o d l for m a g n e t i c p o i e ) . I n A N 5 o 7 g , p . 2 6 3 , r v e h a l e s h o s ' n t h a t f i n d i n g t h e a b s o l u t ed e n s i t y o u t l i n e d i n A N 5o79, p.236. Llold mistnterpreted his equations, in r858, and thc error has z. In the first paper the ratio of anrplitude to wavebeen repeated in many later rvriters. L/o-yr/ retainecl in his length n'as assumed to be z1f . ) r f r o r . z 3 , u . i r e r e a sn t h e i analysr's f 1858 the angle d instcad of the ansle zd used o f o u r t hp a p e r , N 5 o 8 5 , i t r v a s f c r u n t o b e A I I : A d r : r66o5ogooo i n t h e t i d e - g e n e r a t i n gp o t e n t i a l . , , \ l l t h e p h c n o m c n a o f t h e which is eouivalent to e a r t h ' s m a g n e t i s m , i n c l r r d i n e t h e p e r i o d i c i t i c s c l e p e n d i n go n Al)": rf tor.z3.rf 163o45 (as) the heavenly boclies, are fully explainerl l;y tlre rvave-thcory. A c c o r d i n g l y , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r v a v e - t h e o r y c c o u n t s o r o v e r r 6 l o o o t i r n e ss n r a l l e rt h a n t h e v a l u e f i r s t u s e d , w h i c h a f o r t h e n r a g n e t i s n to f t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , a n c l c o n n e c t sc o s - accorded rvith the exlterienced judgement of I{ehtin, llfaxut/l m i c a l m a g n e t ' i s m v i t h n n i v e r s a l g r a v i t a t i o n ,* ' h i c h n o p r e v i o u s and Larnor. Accorclingly r theory has been alrle to do. : ,ll znf tot.22,'rl163o45 o.oooooo-i3o6827; Dinsletis theory, on the othcr hancl, gives no such cor.rlog(tl7): 1.5305632-10. (+S) 'l nection. In lact as Jiinsfuin even l)roposcd to do au,n1, s,ith l r c c l t c r g ) ' l t e r c u l r i c c c n t i n r c t r cl t t h e s u n ' s s u r f a c e r. t h e a e t h e r , h e h a s n o m e c h a n i s mf o r c o n v e y i n g a c t i o n i r r : r o s s i s s n t a l l , o s i n g t o t h e s r - n a l lc i e n s i t y o f t h e a e t h e r , a n d t h e s p a c e . J u s t h o r v e r n l r t y s p a c e i s t o b e c o n c e i v e da s c a p n b ) e sr.nall valtre ol Ap, where Ap : 2n rlf 7, and Af )" is the ratio of transmitting forces equivalentto the breaking strength of of the amplitude to the rvave-length. The formula for the millions of immense cables of steel is not appareltt. kinetic energy Accordingly it is recognized that Einstuiu's reasonins 2 : ( o . 6j 6 6 z ) o I z 2( A 7 ) 2 is totally devoid of physical basis. He treatshis problem as : ( o . 6 3 6 6z ) ( 35 7 . 6 8 6 . t o ' t t ) ( 3 . r o 1 0 ) ( o . o o o o o o 3 8 o 6 8 : z 7) 5 i f i t r e l a t e d t o p u r e m a t h e m a t i c s ,a n d a s i f h i s r e a s o n i l t s\ v e r e : o . o o o o o o o z9 6 8 7 e r g s . 58 not required to conform to recognized physical contlitions. 'I'his value of the energy at the sun's surface seems 'be And since e l e n i n t r o d u c e s t h e c r r r v a t u r eo f s l r a c c , t o e x 1'er]' insignificant colnpared to the valuc 4.4 I 4 55 ergs, calplain a mere Dlienomenon of refraction, l'hich r\-rzz,/a,,2 u,oulcl c u l a t e d i n t h e f i r s t p a p e r , A N 5 0 4 4 , p . 6 4 ; b u t i t f o l l o r v sf r o r n not have sanctioned, n'e perceive that the doctrir-rcsol-J,,itts/e in t h e c h a n g e i n d e n s i t y , a n d a l r o v ea l l , t h e v e r y s m a l l a n r p l i t u d e are chiefly remarkable for the lack of understancling f thc o j u s t d i s c u s s e da b o v e , i n p a r n s r a p h r . A c c o r d i n g l y , g r e a t a s p h y s i c a l u n i r , e r s er v h i c h t h e y d i s p l a y . t h e c h a n g e s i n o n r o l d c o n c e p t i o n sa r e , w e b e l i e v e t h i s n e r v 'lhe k i n e t i c t h e o r y o f t h e a e t h e r l ) e r f e c t l ) 'a c c o u n t sf o r r e s n l t t o b e v a l i d , a n d e n t i t l e d t o a d o y t t i o ni n o u r f i n a l r e s u l t s . the phenomenon of aberration, the Michelsotr,lfo;.1r1, expcri nrcn t, 4 . ( ' l r e a t e s tt a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s p e r s q u a r e c e n t i m e t r e a t the motion of the perihelion of -NIercuryand all othcr pheno, t h e s t r n ' s s u r f a c e : 6 V ' ( A1 ) : mena treated of in the theory of relativity. A.ccorrlingly, Ilitto. r z z 5z dynes, ( sr J sle.in'stheory of relativity is as superfluous as it is rnisleaciins. T h i s v a l u e l i k e x ' i s ei s v e r y s m a l l c o m p a r e dt o t h e v a l u e I n a l l h i s s p e c u l a t i o n st h e r e i s n o t o n e t r u t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g r r r . 1 7 r i d y n e sf o u n d i n A N 5 o 4 4 ,p . 6 4 ; b u t , a s b e f o r e , to the actual phenonlena of nature. thc differenceis explained by the change in the densityand

(s " )

,i

I 15

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I16

ratio of amplitude to wave'length,which latter factor is decreased b y t h e d i v i s o r r 6 3 o 5 4 .

l: 3 t / ' 2 f a : 5 7 2 9 5 g o o o o oc m s ( 6 o ) i z " r fo z t : z o V z l o a : t h e s a m e a s i n A N 5 o 4 4 ,p . 6 6 . r r. Number of corpuscular collisions per second at the ) . Cgefficient of rigidity (or viscosity)of the aether (0t) i l f/ : o.82, as in AN 5o44,p.66. s u n ' s s u r f a c e: by the formula: volumes of all - x : rz. Ac<:ording to Auogadro's law equal 6 t r / l - ( 3 5 7 . 6 8 6 5 .t o - t t ) ( 3 . r o t o ) t gases under the same conditions contain an equal number of vields xos: 32rgr7.8 at the sun'ssurface rnolecules. And as hydrogen is 4745388oooo titnes denser than aether, we ma)' equate the masses of two . spherical 2 ? 3:s J o J o o o o a t t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e. The rigidity of the aether thus turns out to be rnuch larger r n o l e c u l e st h u s : af (Or) 4 7 4 5 3 8 8 o o o o a fn d r ' 3 , 3 ,rnor3: t h a n t h e v a i u e sf o u n d i n A N 5 o 4 4 , p . 6 4 , w h i c h r v a so n l y r 8 o o . And if we take the internal densities of the two molecules 6. Density ofl the aether at the sun's surface: d, rve have to be equal, d: (SS) dos:.j57.6865.ro-18. (01) r: f 4 7 4 5 3 8 8 o o o o . 7 , . :3 6 z o . 4 0 S . / ' 7. At the earth's surface the density of the aether is t h a t i s , t h e h y d r o g e n m o l e c t t l e h a s 3 6 z o t i m e s g r e a t e r r a d i u s found to be : ( S 0 ) than the aetheron. r888.r!'ro-18. d3s We may form a very usefui picture of these relative planets the absolute densities At the surfaces of the other sizes by' imagining the hydrogen molecule magnifred to the are as given in the table, in AN 5o79, pp. 237-238. 637o.5 kms. On size of the earth, rvith nrean radius r : 8. Mean velocity of the aetheron this scale the aetlteron will have a radius of r.7 596 kms, (SZ) or r.ogt.1 tniles. i : r.S7 I/: 4 7 r 2 3 g o o o o o c n ) s. a Accordingly,if the earthrepresents hydrogenmolecule, 9. The molecular weight of the aetheron, calculated by Maxtucll's theorem on the equality of the kinetic energies in a s p h e r i c a l m o u n t l i n a l i t t l e o v e r t \ v o m i l e s i n d i a t n e t e r ( m o r e all gases e x a c t l y r r 5 o o f e e t ) r v o u l d r e p r e s e n ta n a e t h e r o n . T h i s i s v e r y rf2n'u'z rl (SS) f2nu2 : nearly the height of )lt. Aetna (roS7z); irut as the base of this volcano is very much extended, *'e nrust consider the aetheron to correspond only to the central part of the cone, about a nrile in radius. surface or at the earth's surlace:

(s') (ss) (s+)

,i,;iJ ,. o".;*" "lir.';lliiJ'r;,r, ,:'.:] ",,n"

^ uas Mean velocitv of molecule Molecular rvt.

Table for comparing t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e a e t h e r r v i t h * e l l k n o r v n t e r r e s t r i a l g a s e s .

lI{:

r)
_tt)

9::l!:::".: :l
1 vtscocortv at ' o- c'

Aether

47 r 239ooooo cms 498oo t 85goo | 3 2 1 r3 46roo 492oo 41527 497 oo 396oo 3rz6z 6zooo )) )) )) ' ) )) ) )) )

r 2 . 9 2 .r O - | 4.43
I

Air Hydrogen Helium Oxygen Nitrogen Argon CO CO, Chlorine SteamH2O

-8 pe.cent, ir. ::f^":j'-,1:P:::"^'_: '-tlft,rlit .ollision rebountl "'"i;":"t" o.8z i.7ot'ro-r2 ?o5oooo 5Z2g5goooooclns (: t I s6zo of r{) - R r.60'ro" o.ooooo5g o.ooorT 21 7765'ro6 -k r . 3 4 'r o " r4743'to6 o.ooooIr6 o.oooo867 1--- 1-ld" "
o.ooorE8q o.ooor8g6 o.ooo r 66o o.ooo2 I o o.ooor6z6 o.ooor4ro o.ooor 287 o.oooo9 r 2 o.oooolTr o.ooooo63 o.ooooo 5z o.ooooo6.j o.ooooo58 o,ooooo4o o,ooooo2g o.ooooo4o
- r, v^v e . , v^ 6 r
/

trrcan patrr riee

5:ll';::t"7

i**::i:*i:::"

r.g8 r6 r4 r9.96 r4
22

67 3z' ro' 794r.rod 6o64.roo

-aI . I I ' I O -t ^

)
D

35 . 3 6 9

))

Tgor'roo 9ro8.rot; g874'roc r4z6o.ro6

r . 6 r .r o ' _e r.go'ro " r . 6 r .r o " r.b6.ro'

2 . 2 6 ' t O -c 2 . 0 6 ' r o "

-t 2.27'ro '

'1'he I I. C e n t r a l I - o r L e s o f P l a n e t a r y I \ l o t i o n plate g, for the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola, and thus applies alike to planets and conrets, and also to the double stars. explained by the Wave-'fheory. (i) In the problem of gravitation the force is central, z. Since it is a fact, that under a centrai force varying and equal areas are described'in equal times. according to any larv of distance, equal areas rvill be described r. The celebrated laws discovered by .Kcpler, 16o9, in equal times, Ncurlozzcorrectly concluded that the planets 1618, - that the paths of the planets are ellipses, rvith the and comets are drarvn to the centre of the sun by powerful sun in their foci; and that the radii vectores of any planet centrai forces, And Sir fsaac Ncwton demonstrated that, with describe equal areas in equal times; and finally, that the the sun in the focus of the conic section, the law would be squares of their periodic tirnes are as the cubes of the niean that of the inverse squares given above, since shown to hold distances or maior axes - led Newton to the law of universal true in all the actions of universal gravitation. (o+) gravrtatron: Jr- lrtnn'frz, 3. It is rvell known lhat .(*r1'g/tcns, I{oo/ec, LVrcn, Newton equal areas and.Ifallcy were practical investigators and experitnenters,artd law that the radiusvectordescribes Kepler's figures on thus had very clear ideas on the action of central forces. in equal times is illustratedby the geornetrical

rr7

5I40

I I8

They recognized fully tbat curvature of the path of the planet can not take place at every instantof time without the constant action of accelerative forces directed to the focus of the conic section. Eulu, Lagrange, Laflace and the later illustrious successors of Ncuton have fully confirmed the validity of the Neutonian argument; so that no one ever seriously thought of questioning the Nctotonian dynamrcs till Einslcin'smisleading speculations began to be developed 4. Accordingly, the scientific world read rvith astonishment in the Monthly Noticcs of the Royal Astronomical S o c i e t y , ( O c t . r 9 r 6 , ' 1 6 , p . 7 o 2 ) D e S i / t c r ' sc l a i r n t h a t ) G r a v i t y is not a force, but a property of space.< By actual calculations carried out in the first paper we found that the utmost strength of five million million cables o[ steel, each a foot in diameter, rvhen the steel has the breaking strength of .jo tons to the square inch, are required to curve the path of the moon in its orbit about t h e e a r t h . A n d t o c n r v e t h e p a t h o f t h e e a r t h ' sm o t i o n a b o u t t h e s u n a n e l e v e n i n c h c a b l e o f s t e e l o f t h e s a n r es t r e n g t h , o n e a c h s q u a r e f o o t o f a h e m i s p h e r i c a lc r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e earth, would be stretched to its trtmost limits by the force of the sun's gravity, constantly acting on our planet for governing its nrotion. After having, made thesecalculations I had no more doubt that gravity is a real force than had ll/ren, Nttulon and Ha//ct, in 1686. As we have shorvn that the lether has an elasticity68g3zr6ooooo tinresgreaterthan our air in proportion to its density, it is evident from the natnre of the triple integral for the potential, that the mediurn is capable of sustaining these stupendousfbrccs. 5. 1'he action of centrifugal forces in driving boclies f r o m t h e c e n t r e , i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e t a n g e n t ,n n d e x p r c s s e c l by the formula: : nr'lQ (6s) -. where a, is the velocity and p is the radius of curvature has been fully nnderstood since the time of Ifit1,.qficrs,(cf. De horologio oscillatorio, r673) about 250 years ago. As the planets do not recede from the sun, but curve their paths about the centre of the snn, it follou,s, as Abu,lon pointed out, not only that there is a central lorce incessantly balancingthe centrifugalforce, but also that it is proportional to mass, and thus grar.itation is not a property of space, but of matter, in the focus of the conic section. In the scholirrm to Proposition lV, I-ib. II of the Principia, Ncu/on says: >>By. such propositions, trIr. /{ut,g./ttnr, in his excellcnt book, I)e horologio oscillatorio, has compared the IbrcB of gravity rvith the centrifugal forcesof the revolving bodies.< 6 . I n v i e r v o f t h e o b s e r v e dp h e n o m e n ao f t h e h c a v e n s it is not lrossible to deparr from this conclusion of I*tygfiens and Arcuttott. Einsfuin's theory therefore is unconclitionally rejected as rvholly contrary to dynamical Iarvs adn.ritting of e a s y v e r i f i c a t i o n . A n d i t r e r n a i n st o c o n s i d e r r v h a t o t h e r c o n ceptions of gravitationare admissible. We have seenthat the gravitational potential introduced by Laplact, r782, has the form:

(ii) The geometrical and physical interpretation of the potential leads inevitably to the rvave-theory. We ha.r'e already .pointed out geometrical and physical properties of the nredium rvhich lead inevitably to the wave'I'here theory. is not only evidence of the wave-field about all bodies - whence the forces they exert - but also proof that the rvave field travels as the bodies move, and thus carries along the field of force which shorvs itself near bodies. r, \\/e conclude tberefore that every body has about it a n i n f i n i t e l y e x t e n d e d w a v e f i e l d , t h e a m p l i t u d e sv a r y i n g i n versely as the distance, A : hf r, and,the forces inl,eisei-yns t h e s q u a r e o f t h e d i s t a n c e s ;w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s x a c t l y t o t h e e knorvn lacts of universal gravitation. And since it is shorvn m a t h e n r a t i c a l l yt h a t r v a v e s i n t b e a e t h e r e x p a n d i n g f r e e l y i n ctrbical space, rvould follorv the larv o[ amplitude: A: Ilr, it cannot lre accidental that La.11|acc's expressionfor the potential h a s t h i s f o r n t . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t f o l l o r v st h a t t h c e x p r e s s i o n for the potential of gravitation is determined by the amp)ittldes of the rvaves receding from each atonr; and thus we n e c e s s a r i l ya r e l e d t o t h e w a v e - t h e o r y f g r a v i t a t i o n . F o r t h e o potential of a mass M is derived lrom the triple integration o f a l l t h e e l e m e n t s ,f l 2 2 7 : 6 d r ' d y d z , a t t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t ed i s y'l("-x')2+(y-tt12-+(ztances,r: z,)21and this corres; ponds to the arnplitude of the wave from any atom, and the m e a n r e s u l t t o t h e s u n r m a t i o n o l ' t h e s t r e s s e sd u e t o t h e separateatoms o[ the whole mass. z. Notv there must be some. simple interpretation of the formula d l/ - d tilf ,. : [ (r - r'), -r (;, * tt)z -+ (z - z,)z)-' tz* xodxdl,dz (02) w h i c h b y i n t e g r a t i o n I e a d st o

,:5d,,,1,.::[: [(r

r')' -+ $' - /)2'+ (z* "')zl*'h y x o d x d 1d z . ( 6 8 ) r

T h e a e t h e r t r a n s m i t s e a c h w a v e i n d e p e n d e n t l yo f a l l t h e r e s t and the effect of their superposition is a mean state o[ stress This triple integral corresponds to the summation of the stress depending on the average wave anrplitude, and on the whole in the aether due to the superposition of rvaves,rvith amplitude m a s s ! ooo M:J))odxdydz A : klr fronr each atorn of the attracting mass. ( zo ) 8.
' a

v:

Mlr

: ,f ,fra "')' (r- /,)* a;:)1i!ir, ,f - -r . (6) 6

And as the rvaves when expanding freely in cubical space follorv this same law, the anrplitude being A : hfr, ov ' i n t e r p r c t a t i o no f t h e p o t e n t i a l l b l l o n ' s both geometrical and p h y s i c a l ) a r v s ,a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e c h a n c e s a r e i n f i n i t y t o o n e t h a t t h e r v a v e - t h e o r yy i e l d s t h e c o r r e c t . i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . '-fhe curves for the amplitudes of the waves receding 3. from a centre are as shown in the figrrre r4, sectionS above. These amplitudes show horv the agitation of the waves thins o u t t h e d c n s i t y o f t h e r n e d i u m , t o r v a r < l sh e c e n t r e , a n d a l l o w s t it to increase. directly as /, so that its final density is inversely as the average wave amplitude, or directly as the distance, rvhich corresponds rvith the undefined heterogeneity of the aether imagined by Areulon, r7zt. o 4 . A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e r v a v e . t h e o r y f u n i v e r s a lg r a v i t a t i o n is indicated by the amplitude of the aetherwave freely expanding in cubical space,and by the nature ofthe observedforce of gravitation jf : h2 ,il n'f 12, whicb leads to A : y'f : 7f ,, ot -+ (1,- y')2-r (z - r'l)z]-1h x It : tu l r : [@ /)2 "{'"{,"f xodxdl'is. (OS)

,. T

I9

4o

r20

'I'his which is included under the triple integral in the above forr.nula explanation, tvithout llarhematical formulae, is perfor the potential. f e c t l y s i r n p l e a n c l s a t i s f a c t o r y ;a n d r v e h a v e a l s o t r e a t e d b y 5 . I n t h e f o u r t h p a p e r ( A N 5 o 8 5 , p . 4 4 t i ) r v e h a v e g i v e n the saure metliocl, of depicting the progress of the rvave-front, a d i a g r a m o f t h c w a v e f i e l d a b o u t a p a i r o f e q u a l s t a r s the inrltulses rvhich cause repulsion rvhen the balloon is fille<l ( r e p r o d u c e do n a l a r g e r s c a l e i n f i g . r g o n p l a t e r o ) , a l i d s h o r v n rvitb hy<1rogell.In this latter case the sound rvave travels so t h a t a t t i r e b o n n d a r y o f t h e c o n c e n t r i c e l l i p s o i d s , t h e r v h o l e fast in hydrogen that it quickly turns its front, and reenters of the wave stress in the aether due to the tl,o stars is the air on the side next to the sorlrce of the sound. Thus d i r e c t e d a l o n g t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s y s t e m o f c o n f o c a l h y p e r - repulsior-r resLrits from accentuation of agitation, the wave b o l a s . A c c o r d i n g l y , i f i n t h e d i a g r a m r v e i r n a g i n e t h e d e n s i t y n r o t i o n b e i n g s o d i r e c t e d t b a t t h e a i r i s n o t d e c r e a s e di n o f t h e a e t h e r t o d e c r e a s e a s y m p t o t i c a l l ya s t h e t r v o s t a r s a r e c l a s t i c p r e s s u r e o n t h e s i d e n e x t t o t h e s o u r c e o f t h e s o u n c l , 'lhe kinetic equilibriunrof the atmoa p p r o a c h e d , r v e s h a l l h a v e n o t o n l y a n a c c u r a t ei n r a g e o f t h e b t r t a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e d . rvave field, but of that stressofthe aether towards these centres s 1 ; h e r i c r n e d i u n i t l i u s r e c i L r i r e s h a t t h e b a l l o o n h l l e d r v i t h t which is the cause of gravitation. 'lhe indiviclual aetherons hydroeen bc repelled from the source of the sound. 1f 'l'lre'l'ension h a v e a m e a n v e l o c i t y z 12rtll: 47 r239 knrs per sccond, Iz. of the Aether is a trIaxirnunr ar-rd thus they ltress incessantly torvarclsthe centres s,hcre thc a l o n g t l i c l { i { h t L i n e connecting the Sun arrd ir density is srnrll, lrut thc aurplitude large. I ) l a n c t , a n d t h L r st l i c \ \ 1 a v e - ' l ' h e o r y o n f o r m s t o t h e c 6 . I t f o l l o r v s t h e r e f o r e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l c o n c e p t i o n s N e r u l o n i a n' I ' h e o r 1 ' o l - a C e n t r a l l i o r c e d i r e c t e d t o t h e otrtlined sornervhat vaguely by Sir [saac Neulott in r 7 z r, Itut F o c u s o f t h e C o r r i c S e < : t i o n . not heretofore considered susceptible of proof, are really truc,', ( i ) I t l a x i r n u n r r v a i , e - a c t i o nn s t r a i g h t l i n e s c o n n e c t i n s i and norv established rvith all the rigor that niay be clrari,rr t l r e b o d i e s tnd g. 1r, from modern mathematical and pliysical research. 'l'lie larv It hus long been remarked by' eurinent philosophers o f t h e r v a v e a m p l i t u d e a b o u t a n y c e n t r e o f d i s t u r b a n c ea d u r i t s t l ) a t t l t e c h i e [ ' f o r c e s o f n a t u r e a p l ) e a rt o a c t i n s t r a i g h t l i n e s , of verification; and rve know that the density of the mec.lium as along the radius vector drawn lrom the centre ot' a planet is arranged inversely as the anrplitude as the rvaves r.ececle to tlle cclltre of the sun. And the question nlttrrrlly ariscs from that centre. And that such rvavesdo recede fr-onrbodies a s t o \ v h ) ' t h e s t r e s s e si n t h e a e t h e r s h o u l d l t e t h u s e x e r t e d . i s a m p l y s h o r v n b y t h e r v a v e so f r n a g n e t i cp h e n o n r e n u ,w h i c h \ \ ' e s i r a l l s l i o r v t h a t s u r : hr e c t i l i n e a r a c t i o n i n n r i n i n r u r l p a t l t s follorv laws of amplitude similirr to those of gravitation. n e c e s s a r i l l 'h a p p c n s * ' h e n r v a v e s a r e t r a n s n r i t t e di n a n e l a s t i c ( ; i i ) ' t ' n e r v a v e - t h e o r i , f a c o u s r i cx r r r a c r i o na n d r e p u l s i o n n i e t i i u n r l i k e t l r e l e t h e r . o s h o w s t h a t i n t h e a e t h e r a l s o t h e a e t h e r o n sa r e s o d i s t r i l r L r t c d I l u t b e f o r e r l o r n g s o r i . es h a l l r e c a l l f r o n r t h e f i r s t p a p e r , as to be in kinetic ctluilibrium, and thus under the rapid A N 5 o . 1 . 1p . 5 r , t h a t i n t h e c a s e o f t h e n r o o n r e v o l v i n s a l ; o u t , nrotions of the aetherons the aether is of clecreaseddensity t h e e a r t h , t h e c e n t r a l f o r c e r e r q u i r e di s e t l u i v a l e n t t o t h e l i r l l betrveen trvo bodies. b r e a k i n g s t r e n g t ho f 5 o o o o o o o o o o o o c a b l e s o f s t e e l o n e f o o t In the fifth paper on the nerv theory of the aether i n d i a m e t e r , t v h e n t h e s t e e l h a s . the enorntous tenacity of (AN 5 r 3o) rve have applied the wave-theory to acoustic irrtrac3o tons to the s(luare inch. In case o[ the earth revolving tion and repulsion, rvhich heretofore has not been satisfactorily about the sun, tlie cnrvature of the ,orbit requires ttre exertion explained. As sound is a s'ave phenomenon, and the velocities of a central force equivalent to the full breaking strengrh of transmission in various media well rrnclerstood, rve u,ere o f a r r r r - i n c h c a b l e o f s t e e l o f t h e a b o . r ' e tenacity on each e n a b l e d t o s t u d y t h e p r o g r e s so f t h e r v a v e - l r o n ti n a i r a n d i n s ( l u u r e l i r o t o f ' a l r e n r i s p h e r i c a lc r o s s section of the earth. b a l l o o n sf i l l e d r v i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e a n d h y d r o g e n r c s p e c t i v e l y . ' l ' h u s t o h o l d t h e e a r t h i n i t s o r b i t it rvoultl ire necessary I n t h e c a s e o f a c a r b o n d i o x i d e b a l l o o n , r v e f o u n d t h a t a l n t o s t t o c o v e r t h e i l l u m i n a t e d h e m i s p h e r er v i t h a s o l i d f o r e s t if the waves travel through the air rvith the velocity r, the of steel cables. speed through the carbon dioxide rvill be o.78 only; ancl N o r v t h e s e s t u l ) e n d o u s o r c e s a r e s u s t a i n c db y t i r c e l a s t i c f therefore every phase of thc rvave reacltes the opyiositeside m e d i u r n o f t l i e a e t h e r , a n d t h e u t c r e c o n t c n r y r l a t i o n of the o f t h e b a l l o o n t h r o u g h t h e a i r i n a d v a n c e o f t h a t c o n r i n s x l ) o v et e n s i o n ,t v h i c h n r u s t b e b a l a n c e c l ,s h o * ' s t h e a l r s u r d i t y of directly through the balloon. '-['heresult is a series of a,jvance t l r e v i c r v s o l ' l i i t t s t t t : t t. n d D t . S / / a . t l r l t > g r l v i r l , i s n o t a f o r c e , nrolecular impulses on the elastic men-rbrane constituting the b u t a l r r o l r e r t y f s p e c e ( . ( i \ I o n t h l yN o t i c e s7 6 , t g r 6 , p . 7 o z ) . o r e a r r v a l l o f t h e b a l l o o n . ' l h e i m p u l s e sg e n e r a t es l i g h t o s c i l - I n t h e a c t h e r , h o w e v e r , t h e s t r e s s e sa r e n o t c o n f i n e d to thc lations in the whole balloon by which a part of the surrounding l l a r r o w s p a c e s o c c u l t i e d b y t h e a b o v e n a u l e d c a b l e s o f steel, air thus agitated is transferred gradually to the rear side of b u t a r e g e n e r a l t h r o u g h o u t t h i s m e d i u r n , t h e r v a v e n l o t i o n the balloon. being directed from the atorns in the sun and the reaction As the density of the air is thus decreased on the side torvards the sun's centre. n e x t t o t h e s o u r c eo f t h e s o u n d , a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g l yi n c r e a s e d It follorvs fronr the kinetic theory of the aether that o n t h e r e a r s i d e o f t h e b a l l o o n , t h e k i n e t i c e q u i l i b r i u n r o f t h e each body carries its rvave-field with it, without regard to atrnosphericmedium can otrly be rnaintained when the balloon the wave-field carried by any other body. Accordingly, the containing'CO2 tends to allproach the source of the sound. wave-fields fronr the trvo bodies interpenetrate, irnd in the In other words, the air is rvorked out sonrervhatfrom betrveen i r r r a n g c l ) l e l t to f k i n c t i c e r l r r i l i b r i u m , t h e a c t h e r < l e n s i t y t h u s the sources of the sound and the balloon, and tbrced in behind b e c o r n c s a r n i u i m u m i n t h e r i g h t l i n e c o n n e c t i n g t h e t w o the balloon; so that we have what is called acoustic attraction. bodies, rvhich is the direction of the stress observed in the

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.planetary forces. For we have seen that tou,ards either bocly t h e d e n s i t y d e c r e a s e s ; . a n da l o n g t h e s h o r t e s t p a t h , o r r i g h t line connecting the centres oI the bodies, the independcnt thinning out due to the trvo rvave-fieldsrvill be a maxirrnrn. 'I'he density of tbe aether is therefore a minirnum alorrs the line S,/i rvhich connccts tire sun ancl c:rrtlr. We may look at this problem in a slightly diffcrent rvay as follows: the rvavesfrom S tend to thin out the aether to a degree 6 : t,t', at the distance r; the rvaves frorl _6 on the other hand yield a density 6t : 1 t t 1 ra t t h e d i s t a n c e r'' frorrr the centre of .E. \Vhcn the lines r and / lie in the right line SE they represent the shortest possible corlnection of any third point rvith the trvo chief bodies S and Z. I-et us inragine a set of rotating axcs, as in the restricted p r o b l e r n o f t h e t h r e e l r o d i e s ( R e s e a r c h e so n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s t e l l a rs v s t e n r sr,' o l . z , r g r o , c h a p . 8 ) ; t h e n t h e d i s t a n c e s frorrr cither centre rvill be, for rnotion in the plane ol r1,: -1/(52-+J,2); 7.r,: /l(tr ) 2 - r J , 2.l s : 7 . - r 7 . , . ( Z , )

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p and F,', where p,'f l.r,may be any proper fraction whatever, t h e e q u a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e sr v o u l d b e : ci: r f r - + ( y t , f 1 t )rf, . (zq) And the closed surlace around the smaller mass \\,ould be contracteciin proportion to the size of the rtrass brrt 10,/1a, otherrvisc crluipotcntial surfaces rvould be of the sarne general type as the above.

Figure zo therefore conveys a good inrpression of the effect of the interpenetration of the wave-fields in decreasing t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e a e t h e r b e t r v e e n h e m a s s e s ,a n d i n c r e a s i n [ t it beyond. \\/hereever the surlaces are close together therf i s r a p i d c h a - n g ei n t h e s t r e s so r d e n s i t y ; a n d r v h e r e t h e y a r e far apart, th'ere is little change .in the clensity. 'fhe ctrange o f d e n s i t y i s t h u s l e a s t r a p i d L r e t n , e etn e b o d i e s w h e . e e a i h h mass tends to expel some of tbe aetherons. The result is t r e m e n d o u st e n s i o n a l o n g t h e l i n c 1 aa n d 1 r , ,r v i t h i n c r e a s eo f l)ressure rvhere the surfaces are clenser, beyond either mass. Norv tension in the mediur.n bctrveen the bodies, and Ac<:ordingly, increased pressure beyond them is exactly the mechanical - n2 : action required to'give the central attraction for balancing 72-t2r2 - 2r.r, cos(r, r,) . , ,SIi2 h.) the centrifttsal force of revolving bodies. The rvave-theory And nsing the above values lor r and / rve have: t h u s c o r r e s p o n d se x a c t l y w i t h t h e p h c n o m e n a o f n a t n r e , a n c l yr: 6: y,Vl(:u- ,)r-FJ,t] (73) t,y'(s2-+-)'t) 1/:ry'7': i t i s i n r p o s s i b l et o d o u b t t h e a s s i g n e dc a u s e o I t h e s t u p e n d o u s ( o f v ) 2 - + ( , t l t , , 1 t- z ( o l t , ) ( d l u , ) c o s ( , . , , ) . gz : r 0 q) forces rvhich hold the planets in their orbits. 'l'hcse Non' rs S-1tis a straiglit line it is the ntitrinrurn ath f o r c e sa r e s o i m m e n s et h e t n o t h i n g l r u t a r t r e c l i u m f p o b e t w e e n t h e t n ' o b o d i e s , a n < lb 1 ' t h e e r l u n t i o n( l r ) t t . t " n t i r r i r r t u n r e n o r n t o u se l a s t i r : i t t u ' o L r l d e a d e r l u a t et o s u s t a i nt h e r e r l t r i r e d ' b density throushout crn bc fulfilled only rvhen tlie point y'(.r.,-r,) s t r e s s , I l u t s i n c e t h e a c t h e r h a s a n e l a s t i c i t y S g 3 z r 6 o o o o o 6 lies on the line SZ', so that the double integral is a rrininrunt: times greater than air in proportion to its density, an of f , elasticity alntost infinite - anq n)oreoverthe triple integral o)'t dsdo': for the potential shorvs that thb stress increases directly as .f P, t | : dJ.ldotl(ol \ q-r ,(dl r')'- z(ol (o'v,)cos(r., r)2 u) I r.,)l'r, the mass, we see that all required dynamical conclitions are :odJao:o. ( z S )fulfilled, and thLrs the rvave-theory assigns the true cause of universal gravitation. For g is knon'n to be the rtrinirnum path, (ii) Final rernarks on the new theory of the aether. ds:r)(t.-+-/):s (zo) 'I'he .rvave-theory as developed in the nerv theory of the a n d a s r t a n d d i n c r e a s ef o r : i n y d e p a r t u r eo f t h e p o i n t 16,:,) aether has lreen found adequate to explein all the forces from the rnininrunr path q corresponding to ds : o, it follou,s operating in l.tature.trlore stresshas been laid upon the exfrom the crluation (75) that the condition of minirnuur for planation of solne of these forces than upon others, but this the double intesral is is only by rvay of illuminatine the suliects most obscure r f f ' , f' " oJJ drdd: qdJ do: o ( l Z ) and Iteretofore very bervildering to geometers and natural philosoph rs. e rvhich requires the point to lie orr the line .tZ : Q. 'lhe \\/e need not here drvell on the theory of n.rolecular aether therefore has minirnurn density alone the f o r c e s - - s u r f a c et e n s i o n ,c a p i l l a r i t y ,c o h e s i o n , d h e s i o n ,e t c . a line joining the sun ancl planet. It is denseron either side becauserr'e have shol'n that all theseyrhenomena epend on d o f t h i s l i n e , b e c a u s eu n d e r t h e r v a v ea c t i o n s o f t h e t r v o c c n t r e s r v a v e - a c t i o n .r \ n d r v e h a v e e v e n e x p l a i n e d t h e t e n a c i t y a n d the :retherons are rvorkcd out frorn betrveen thc lroclics, arrrl h a r d n c s s o f l r o c l i c s b y t h e w t v c s t r c s s c si n t h e s h e a t h o f t i l r c r e a s e h e p r e s s u r eo r s t r e s sb e y o n d t h e n t ,a s c o r r e c t l y h c l d i n aether at the boundaries of bodies. t h e E l e c t r o d y n a m i c r r ' a v e - t h e o r o f p h y s i c a l f o r c e s , v o l .r , r g r 7 . y In the sarne 1r'ay chemical affinity and vital forces, For two equal masses p, and p, we have the foregoing d e p e n d i n g o n c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e sn c o n n e c t i o nw i t h c a p i l l a r i t y , i figure for the equipotential surlaces: o s m o s i s ,e t c . , a r e n a t u r a l l y e x p l a i n e d b y w a v e - a c t i o n . T h e 6;: ( Z S ) rvave-tlreory is shown to be identical with Anplre's theory, 1 t fr _ + 1 t ,rf, . , And beneath it, for. cornparison, rve have added, in fig. zo, proposed about a century ago to account for magnetism, by plate r r, the rvave-field for trvo equal stars, thus ntaldng a t h e h y p o t h e s i so f e l e m e n t a r ye l e c t r i cc u r r e n t sc i r c u l a t i n ga b 6 u t double plate, as explained below. l'he tendencyto form an tlre atonrs. hour-glass figure, with symrnetrical neck bettveen the equal Norv rve see all atoms vibrating and emitting lvaveswhich masses is due to the potential or average amplitude of the are {lat in the planes of their equators. And ad this simple waves proceeding frorn either rnass. If the massesrvere uneqnal, theory is useful in magnetism, so also in chemical phenomena

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of researches that this law of areas is a funclamental larv'of utilized .by Marzuell in his attempt to explain gravitationai nature. Not only is it verified minuteiy in the morions of stresses (Treatise on electricity and nragnetism, r g 7 3, chapter V, the planets and satellites of the solar system, .by the most s e c t i o n r o j - r r r ) . s refined comparisons of theory with the most precise obserg. As Maxutl/ was misled into the conception of pressure v a t i o n a l c r i t e r i a w h i c h t h e s t a t e o f m o d e r n a s t r o n o l n ya f f o r d s ; in the direction of gravitational force, and tension .igt,t b u t a l s o b y r e s e a r c h e so n t h e o r b i t s o f n e a r l y r o o v i s u a l angles thereto, instead of the reverse arrangement, the"tmathe_ d o u b l e s t a r s , a n d o n t h e m o t i o n s o f a n e v e n g r e a t e r n u u r b e r n-ratical theory of this subject was given an unfortunate start: o f s p e c t r o s c o p i cb i n a r i e s . and the errors thus bceun have been handed dorvn by English 4 . F o r n r o r e t h a n a c e n t u r y t h e o r b i t s o f d o u b l e s t a r s rr'riters,and the rvhole scientific world thus misled in a mitter justly have been regarded as affording the clesirecloirjectir,e e s s e n t i a l l y s i r n p l e . N o r i s t h e d i f f i c L r l t yd i m i n i s h e d , b u t o n d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e l a r v o f g r a v i t a t i o n i n t h e c o n t r a r y n o t a h ) y i n c r e n s e d ,b y t h e recent exp)oitation of s i d e r e a l s y s t e m s . F l a v i n g m y s e l f c a l c u l a t e d a b o u t 6 o o r l ; i t s t h e t h e o r y o f r e ) a t i v i t y . l ) e r h a p si n tirnc the vaiid riy,namical o f k n o w n d o u b l e s t a r sa n d c o r n p a r e dt h c r e s u l t so f s r a v i t a t i o n a l t h e o r y o f t h e l , r i n c i p i a r v i l l a s a i n r c s t o r e llritish science to t h e o r y w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f t i r n e , I h a v e , a positiorr rvorthv of the countrv-llclt ol Areruton. 'l'hat not been able to detect the srnallest deviation fronr the r.o. gravitrttion is propasxted rvith the I,elocity KQlcian law of areas or lhe Akruloian larv of attraction o f l i g h t i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n s c q u e n c e o f t h i s u , a v e - t h e o r yo [ in the motions of these stellar systerns. physical forccs. Under the vision of the physical world thus 5 . I n t w o c a s e s , i n d e e d , n a m e l y : 7 o O p h i u c h i a n d u n f o l d e c l t o o u r c o n t e r n p l a t i o n ,t h e b e a u t y a n d o r d e r o f t h e { Herculis, there is some evidence of disturbance of the r u n i v e r s e p p e a r s t r u l y r e r n a r k a b l e ; a n c l w e s e e t h a t t h e a new tYcplcrian law of areas, as if due to a third body not yet t h c o r y o f t h e a e t h e r i s a n e c e s s a r y path of exploration in detected by telescopic obsen'ation. Yet just as in the past a t t a i n i n g o n e o f t h o s e s u r n m i t s n e a r the stars. This sublimest history of astronomy, rve had two analogons cases in the rvcll p o r t i o n o f h u r n a n k n o r v l e d g e s t i l l is only partly explored, knorvn disturbed proper motions oI Sirius and procy,on,b u t j n r e n d e r i n g i t r n o r e a c c e s s i b l et o t h o s e r v h o h a v e l o n g the companions of rvhich have since bccn discovcred by a d n r i r e d t h e r n a r v e l o u s g e o n t e t r y of the heavcns,.ve have Clarh and Sriacbtrlt; - so also in this crse thc indication.s lalrorcd to extcnd the researches of Sir Isaac tVut/ott. point to the triurrph of the larv of Arcu,/on.'I'hus tirc unir r. It is n'cll knorvn t|nt ).la,t-tt'r//rvas thc first natural versality of the larv of gravitationcontinues to be nrinutclr. philosol;her to attril)ute phvsir:al f o r c c s t o s t r e s s e si n t l r e v e r i f i e d b y t h e m o s t r e f i n e d r e s e a r c h e s f m o d e r n a s t r o n o n r r j . a e t h e r e a ln r e d i u n r , b u t a s h e h a c l o noi deyelopcd a theorv of 6 . I n m o r e t h a n t w o c e n t u r i e s o f t h e n r o s t r e c o n r l i i e s a v e - a c t i o n ,a s t h e m o c l e o f p r o p a t a t i o n for these forcesl.,e researchesof astronomers and geometers not the siichtest left the origin of the aether s t r e s s e sl u i t e o b s c u r e , a s l v e s e e r doubt has arisen that gravitation is a central lorce accuratcly b y t h e c l i s c u s s i o ni n t h e c l o s i n g section of his celebrated directed to the centres of the revolving bodics. In the case ' f r e a t i s e o n e l e c t r i c i t y a n d m a g n e t i s m , 1873. of the motion of the moon about the earth, and of the earth >We have seen that the mathematical expressions for about the sun we have calculated the strength of the stupcndous electrodynamic action led, in the mind of Gauss, to the concables of steel that would be required to hold thesc lrodies viction that a theory of the propa.qation of electric action in their orbits. All these calculationsare easily verified. in tinte rvould be found to be the very keystone of electro7 . T h e c a u s e o f u n i v c r s a lg r a v i t a t i o n i s n o r v c l e f i n i t e l y d y n a r n i c s . N o r v w e a r e r r n a b l c t o c o n c e i v e o f p r o p a g a t i o n t r a c e d t o w a v e - a c t i o ni n t h e a e t h e r , r v h i c h i s 6 8 g 3 2 r 6 o o o o o in tinre, except either as the flieht of a material substance m o r e e l a s t i c t h a n a i r i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s d e n s i t y . \ \ r a v c - a c t i o n t h r o u g h s p a c e ,o r a s t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of a condition of rnotion d i r e c t c d t o t h e s n n i n t h e f o c i o f t h e c o n i c s e c t i o n sd c s c r i l r c r l o r s t r e s si n a m e d i u r - n l r e a d y a e x i s t i n gi n s p a c e . I n t h e t h e o r y b y t h e p l a n e t s a n d c o r n e t s .a l o n e r v i l l e x p l a i n t h e c c n t r a l of Aluatann, the mathematical conccption called potentiai, f o r c e s w h i c h h o l d t h e s e b o d i e s i n t h e i r o r b i i s . A n d i n s t e l l a r rvhich we are unable to conceive as a material substance, is systems everywhere tve see the same rvave-action at l.ork to supposed to be projected from one particle to another, in fulfill l{e!/r's larv o[ areas and Ne uton's Iarv of force directed a m a n n e r r v h i c h i s q r r i t e i n d e p e n d e n to [ a m e d i u m , a n d r v h i c h . to the foci of the ellipses described by the stars. f'hus rve a s N t u n a n n h a s h i m s e l f p o i n t e d out, is extremely different have 'developed a definite and absolute proof of the cause from that of the propagarion of light. In the theories of of gravitation, rvhich is referreri to waves in tbe aether, Rienanrz and lJclli it rvould appear that rhe action is supposed traveling rvith the velocity of li$ht. to be propagated in a manner sorrervhat more similar to 8. lVe have found that the geometrical theory of the t h a t o f l i g h t . < equipotential surfaces, about trvo attracting masses, points >But in all of these theories the question naturally u n m i s t a k a b l y t o t h e c a u s e o f g r a v i t a t i o n . V e c t o r c o m p o s i t i o n occurs: If something is transmitted from one particle to another for the forces observed to exist in the gravitational field about at a distance, what is its condition after it has left the one two equal stars shorvsthat the aether is under tension bet*.een p a r t i c l e a n d b e f o r e i t h a s r e a c h e d t h e otheri Ifthis something the bodies, and under increased pressurebeyonclthern. Nothing is the potential energy of the trvo particles, as in Artunannis but the rvave-theory, rvith forces directed to the trvo centrei theory, horv are we to conceive this energy as existing in occupied by the stars, will account for the observed form a p o i n t o f s p a c e , c o i n c i d i n g n e i t h e r r v i t h the one particle' of the equipotential surlaces as shorvn in figure r5, l,hich nor rvith the other? In fact, rvhenever energy is transmitted originally was drarvn by Thonson and Tait for their celebrated frorn one body to another in time, there must be a medium Treatise on natural philosophy, r873, yet unfortrlnately not or substance in rvhich the energy exists after it leaves one

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body and before it reaches the other, for energy,'as Torrirtllt r e m a r k e d , , i s A q u i n t e s s e n c eo f s o s u b t i l e a n a t u r e t h a t i t cdnnot be contained in any vessgl except the inrrost substance of material tbings'. Hence all tlresc theories lead to the conception of a medinrrl in rvbich the propagation talies p l a c e , a n d i f r v e a d m i t t h i s m e d i u m a s a n h y p o t b e s i s ,I t h i n k it ought to occupy a prominent place in our invcstigations, and tbat we ought to endear,ourto construct a mental representation of all the cletails of its action, and this has been nry constant ajm in this treatisc.< rz. Accorclingly, ,41aru,t// held tirat \ve ought to end e a v o u r t o c o n s t n l ( : tu m e n t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o no f ' a l l t h c c l e t a i l s o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h c a e t h e r i a l u r e d i u r n i n p r o c l u c i n gt i r e c h i c f p h e n o n r e n a o f n a t u r c . I n t h c l i ) l e c t r o c l y n u u r irc a v e - t h c o r y f ' v o p h y s i c a l f b r c e s , d e v e l o p e d b y t h e r v r i t e rs i n c e r 9 r 4 , u , e h u v e a t t e n r p t e d t o c o n s t n r c t t h i s r c p r e s e n t a t i o n ,l b r p i o b l e r t r sl r e r c t o f o r e u t t e r l y b e r v i l t i c r i n g t o p h i l o s o p h e r s ,a n d \ \ ' e v e i r t r r r rt:o hope, with no inconsiclerable uccess. s N e v e r t h e l e s s ,i n s J r i t e o f o u r u t t n o s t ellbrt, tnd thc unexpe ted illumination thrown upon sotne of the grettcst c p r o b l e m s o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a lp h y s i c s , i t i s o f c o u r s e r e a l i z c d that the nerv theory of tbc aether rernair.rsi n a v e r y c o n siderable degree incornplete. I n c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s a g r e a t p l e a s u r et o r e c o r c lt l r c s t e a t i f a s t s u p p o r t l e n t t o t h e s e r e s e a r c h e sl r y I \ l r s . 5 u z ' , a n r i [ , 1 ' I t I r . L V .S . T r a n / t l e r v h o h a v e s o l y a l l y s e c o n d e co u r b e s t e l r o r t s , l , rvhich only too often seentetl -eeble nd unetlualto so tiaring a l r n e n t e r y r r i s e .I t i s o n l y b y d e p a r t i n g f r o n r t l l e b e a t c n p a t h s , in the pursuit of a valid theory of the lunrinil'erous rrhcr, a that we hope to fincl the rvay torvardslight, ntore lightI ' In this sustained effort, which has norv extended ovcr. seven years, the author's labors often have beer-r relieved by the sympathetic reception accorded the results by several bminent colleagues rvho have confiru'red the steps in this .developnrent. Conrrnander Lconard M. Cot, Civil Iingineer, U.S.N., Captain Edtuord L. /)toc/r, U.S. N., Cor-umandantat iVlare Island, and X,lr. O//o uoir Gtltfunr, the enrincnt Civil E n g i n e e r , V i c e - P r e s i c l e n t f t h e C a l i f o n r i aA c a d e r t r yo f S c i c n c e , o s S a n F r a n c i s c o , h a v e e a c h s h o r v ns u c l t c l e a r g r a s p o f t h e n e u , p o i n t s o f v i e t v a s t h e r v o r k a r l v a n c e d ,t h a t i t t ' o u l t l b e d i l l l c u i t t o o v e r r a t e t h e e x t e n t t o r v h i c h t h e i r e n l i e h t e n e di n t e r . e sh a s t contributed to the final results.

gravitational property of a body depends upon its state of electric charge, and that up to the present tinre we knorv n e x t t o n o t h i n g o f t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e e a r t h ' s r n a g n e t i cf i e l d . I n a p o s t s c r i pt o t b e ' f h i r d p a p e r , ( A N 5 o 7 9 , p . 3 o r - z ) I have clirectedattention to Majorota's reuiarliable exlterirnents -l'urin, at r q r g , s h o r v i n g l o s s o f g r a l i t a t i o n a l p o r v e rr v h e n u Lrocly is screened by a layer of rnercury. 'l'he t h r e e ' e x y r e r i m e n th e r e c i t e d n r a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d i n s the liuht of the rvave-theorybut I cannot see any other way , o l r e c o n c i l i n g s u c h u n e x p e c t e de x p e r i n r e n t a r e s u l t s ,t v h i c h r u n l c o u r ) t e rt o a l l t h e o l c l t h e o r i e s ,a r r d y e t u l u s t b e a c k n o r v l e d g e d a s l i r r n i s h i n g p r o o l - . . t h ag r a v i t a t i o n i s a p l i e n o u r e n o nr v h i c h t nxry lre cxperirrler\tiillrnociified, s by absorption, aplrarently y a o [ - r v a v e - a c t i o nb y e l e c t r i c c h a r g e s o r o t h e r p h 1 ' s i c a la g e n c ] , . , 'r\ccordirrvly'all tlresenerv researches confirnrthe *.ar.et h e o r l ' e x p e r i r n e n t a l l i 'a n d o l t e n u p g r a t ' i t a t i o n t o p h y s i c a i i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d e x y t e r i n r e n t a t i o r . lrl.L r t i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n n e r v l i g h t o n t l t i s d i l f i c u l t s u b j c c t i t i s n e c e s s a r yt o d e v i s e extreriurents i,hich are conclusive. r
r . J. J. Jcc.

I i i r s t p o s t s c r i p t . I n o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s ht h e e r r o r o f : r n e w t h e o r y i t o f t e n i s s u f f i c i e n tt o s h o l v t h a t i t c o n t r a d i c t s i l l l l o r e g e n e r a l a n d f u n d a n r e n t a lt h e o r y . I t r t h e p r c s e n t c a s e ric shall adopt in ordcr to denionstrate the error of the J ' . i t t s l t i t tt l r e o r l ' t h c c i o c t r i n e o f t h e c o l t s e r v a t i o no f c n e r g y as tlie nrost gcncral ancl llnclantental lrrincilrle of nrodern l r h v s i c a ls c i t n e e . r . l i . t c e n t l i ' ,i n . A , s t r o n . a c h r . N o . 5 t r 5 , D r . G r o s s n a n n N of Ilunich hes exrnrined anerv the rvhole question of the rnotion of the perihelion of trIercury, according to Arctucottb's - + .4 1 " p e r w o r k , a n d f i n d s t h a t t h e a s s u m e dv a l u e o f 6 A : c e n t u r y l b r t l r e o b s e r v e do u t s t a n d i n gd i l l ' e r e n c e s n o t j u s t i f i e d . i C o r r e c t i n g t h e r e s u l t b y t h e e ( p t a t i o n sf o r t h e m e r i d i a n o b s e r v a t i o n s , t h e p r e c i s i o n o 1 ' r v h i c h A r t u t c o u b d i s t r u s t e d ,a n d bringine his result into accord rvith tlre dcfinitive elements o f t l r c s u n , b y r a i s i n g i t 7 ! 3 5 , G r o s s t t t t t r tc o n c l u d e st h a t t h e n o b s c r v e d o u t s t a n d i n gn t o t i o n o f I \ l e r c u r y ' sp c r i h e l i o n l i e s b e t*cen zg" ancl 38', ancl tltus in no case would attain the value of .{r" dernanded, by Einstein,

l n h i s r e s e a r c h e so n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l m a t e r i a l , D r . Orassnann takes no account of the theoretical reduction, by IJ'?htr's l-arv, L'o : +- t 4! !, rvhich rvould make the outS t a r l i g h to n L o u t r e , N l o n t g o r n e r y i t y , M i s s o u r i , r g z r N I a y 6 . C s t a n c l i n g n r o t i o n s t i l l s n r a l l e r ,a n d n r o r e o u t o f h a r n t o n y r v i t h r'. J. J.Src. tbe ]iitts/titt recluirernents. 'fhus rvhen tcsted by the best availelrlc data lbr the nrotion of I\lercury tl-teEinstcin-theory Addition. S i n c e c o n c l u d i n gt h e a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n o m y a t t e n t i o n h a s b e e n d i r e c t e d t o a p a p e r o n c e r t a i n p h y s i c a l d o c s n o t s a t i s l y r n o d e r n a s t r o r . r o t r r i c a lb s e r v a t i o n s . z . I n t h e , ' I ' r e a t i s e n e l e c t r i c i t ya n c lu t a g n e t i s m ' , e c t i o n o s e x p e r i m e n t sd e s c r i b e d a t t h e C ' i e n e r an r e e t i n go f t l r e A n r e r i c i r n l P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , P h i l a d e l p h i a , A p r i l r 9 - 2 3 , | 9 z t , b y 3 56, tl[arrutl/ has successfullydefended the validit.yol tr4/eber's Dr. Chas.-F.Bruslt of Cleveland, in rvhich dill'erentgravitational l a u ' , o f r v h i c h t h e p o t e n t i a l i s

effects were found for dift'erent substances. Jinrs/is carelirl m e a s u r e m e n t sa r e i l ) r n a r k e d c o n t r a s t r v i t h t h o s e o f I l a r o n EiifuAs of Budapest rvho found alnrost no variation of eff-ects for difl'erent substances. ln this connection I call attentionto the extraordinary negative gravitational measurementsmade by lrrofessorJ,-t.atcis E. Mphcr of Washington University, St. Louis, abour rwo years ago. From his careful experiments M1thcr concluded that the

f -

second term gives the efl'ect due to nrotion in a rvale-fielcl, the u'ork of translbrnring the potential energy changing likc the kinetic energy, rvitir the s(luarc of the planet's velocity relatively to the sun. U drldt: o, as in circrrlar orbits, the Neulonian law follolvs; but rnore generally tlre velocity in the direction of the radius vector dr/dt yields a tenn for the effect of induction, and d2rfdtz gives the term

'I'lre

tr2 n'. t fr. lr -j n

. lc,)(clrlat)r\

(')

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4. Returning nolv to lhe Gerber forrnula, in comparison rvith the Ll/tfur formula, for the potential, ,"e perceive that lhe lllrlttr formula is correct, rvhile the Ger.bcr forn-rula is incorrect. In the work of transfornation the potentialenergy -f : _0Izf07 : . -r :,pz 27 . t f 12 I r - ft I c,)(arI at)z (zr f c2) r f cltr\ (") c h a n g e sl i k e t h c k i n e t i c e n e r g y , r v i t h t h e s q u a r eo f t h e p l a n e i ' s ttt' d2 For it'is rvell known in the theory of crrcrgl',that a velocity, relatively to the sun. Unless rve adrnit this to be planet rnay nrove liom perihelion to aphelion, and vice versa, trtle \1'e have to denl' 16" conservation o[ energy; for no yet the whole energy in the conservatir.e systent rcnrair.rs o t h c r r e s u l t i s p o s s i b l e b y t h e 6 r s t e r l u a t i o n o f ( 3 ) . 'lhus .Accorclingly, the fornrnla for the potential, under absolutely constant. rve alrvayshave: II-rltttls latt, T-+ l/: T-Mnf r: C (a1,lat)rt-(aslar),)tI/ - 2znu/'(tlr)ft-(rlcr)(arlat)r] or T-+ v:tf ,n [(O'/ar)z+(s) - tlf n - *')z -+ (y -+ (t,- t')tl-' t" : C. ( [(r /)' 3) i s v a l i d a n d u n t l e n i a b l y a d m i s s i l ; l e . O n t h e o t l r e r h a n c l , A s t h e s u n m o v e s , a s r v e l l a s t h e p l a n e t , r v h e n t h e r n a s s Gerbn)s formnla for the potential of the planet is sensible, we may rvrite the nrore gcncral v : (,trlr) , /[ , - (t lc) (arlat)1,] (oI { e x p r e s s i o nf o r t h e k i n c t i c e n e r g y o I o r b i t a l r r o t i o n a b o u t t h c i s i n v a l i d a n d r v h o l l y , i n a d m i s s i b l e ,b e c a u s e i t v i o l a t e s t h e centre of gravity of the systent: principle of the conservationof energ1,. llrM[nrlQlr-+n)]2 !)2-r1f 'I'he ll, ,tn I,lrrf (,lr+ rtr)1, : r. (a) Grrber formula being thus inadrnissible, Einslcitt's I n e q u a t i o n ( r ) t h e n e g a t i v et c r r n i s t h c p o t c n t i a l c n c r s y . t h c o r y , b u i l t u p o n i t , n e c e s s a r i l yf a l l s t o t h e e r o u n r l . T h u s W h e n k i n c t i c e n e r g y c h a n g e s , i n a r v a y d e p e n d i n g o n 2 2 , j t i s c l e h n i t e l yd i s p r o v e d , a n d c a n n o l o n g e r b e m a i n t a i n e d a c o r r e s p o n d i n gc h a n s e m u s t o c c u r i n ( t h e p o t e n t i a l c n c r g y , b1' those rvho adnrit the conservation of energy. o t h e r w i s et h e s u m o f t l r e t t v o e n e r g i e s o u l d n o t r em a i n c o n s t a n t . c 5. lf u,e scck to inqnire into the nature ofthe wave'I'he f o l l o l ' i n g d i a g r a n tr e p r c s e n t s h e e n e r g y c h a n s e s f i e l c l s a l t o u t t r v o a t t r a c t i n g b o d i e s , r v e s h a l l n e e d r. t to have i n t h e p l a n e t a r y m o t i o n , s u b s t a n t i a l l ya s s i v e n b y P r o f c s s o r r e c o u r s e t o t h e d i s c u s s i o ni n p a r t I I o f t h c s i . r t h paper on 'l'heory I{undl, in his lectures on physics at the universityof llcrlin, the Nerv of the Aether, rvhere the l.hole problem according lo IJrlnhol/z's doctrine of thc conscrvation of r s t r e a t e c l i n s o n r e c l e t a i l , a n d i l l L r s t r a t e tb 1 , h g u r e s l showing e n e r g y ,r 8 4 7 . t h e t e n s i o n b e t r r c e n t h e n t a s s e s a n c l . i n c r e a s eo f p r e s s u r e 'l'his bcyond thenr. argumentis established ! ner:essary b l a n c l s u f f i c i e n tc o n d i t i o n s . S u c h u a v e - f i e l d s ) a n d n o t h i n g else will cxplain the straiglrt line action of the forces w h i c t r g o v e r n t h e m o t i o n s o I t h e p l a n e t si n t h e i r o r b i t s . I t i s n e e d l e s st o p o i n t o u t t h a t a s t h e a e t h e r i s bT.-t a kinetic medium, the physical basis of all forces,and n o t h i n g f i n e r u n d e r l i e s i t , i t i s t h e s o u r c ea n c i u l t i m a t e reservoir of all energy. Flencelvc see the physical basis \r,.,^1417 of the conservation ol energy. 'I'he kinetic theory of the aether thus lcads to the conservation of energy, ancl any result in violation of this great principle must +y b e u n r e s e r v e c l ) r e j e c t e d . . , \ c c o r d i n g l yw e h a v e a d e 6 n i t e Fig. a. rlenronstration of the erroneorls character of the Einstein W e s e eb y t h i s d i a g r a r nt h a t t h e t i m e f l o w s o n c o n t i n u o u s l y theory. as the planet oscillatesIrom perihelion to aphelion, and the rgzr Oct.28. 7'. J. J. Scc. t curve extends along the axis (t). I\{eanrvhile tvhen the potential energy is a maxir.nurnat S e c o n d P o s t s c r i p t . S i n c e f i n i s h i n gt h e b o d y o f t h i s aphelion, l/' : l/1 ,1 I/, the kinetic energy is a minilrum, paper, in NIay, I have been impressecl rvith the dc,sirability 7-' : 7'- / Z, because .4T is negative rt aphelion, ancl o f o b t a i n i n g a d d i t i o n a l l i g h t o n t h e f o r c e s r v h i c h s u s t a i nt h e n u m e r i c a l l y j u s t e q u a l t o / l I / , r v h i c h i s t h e n p o s i t i v e , a s c q u i l i b r i u n r o f t h e r n o l e c u l e so f a n e l a s t i cs o l i d . H e r e t o f o r e shorvn in the diagrarn. t h i s p r o b l e m h a s n o t o f f e r e d t o i n v e s t i g a t o r sa n y v e r y a c c e s A t p e r i h e l i o n , o n t b e o t h e r h a n d , t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y i s s i b l e p o i n t o f a t t a c k . O n l ) e c e m b e r r o , h o t v e v e r ,i t occurred a r n a x i m u m ,t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g v a r n i n i m u n r ,f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o n r e h o r v t h i s p r o b l e m c o u l d b e s o l v e d , b y a n r e t h o d of 'fhe reasons. d i a g r a m , w i t h . t r v o s u p e r p o s e d s i n e c l l r v e s , t h e r e q r i r e d m a t h e m a t i c a l r i g o r , v h i c ha t t h e s a m et i m e c o n f o r m s r - r(sin @, and ,l 7l f I/ : K sin(O-+n), everyrvhereexactly t o t h e p r e s e n ts t a t e o f o u r k n o w l e d g e o f e x p e r i m e n t a lp h y s i c s . neutralizing each other, because differing in phase by rr:, rvill Flence rve add a brief outline of this new method in therefore correctly represent the oscillations of kinetic ancl the hope that it rvill be of interest to the readers of this p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y i n p l a n e t a r y n r o t i o n , u n d e r a c o n s e r v a t i v e series of papers on the nerv theory of the aether. system, free from collisions. Ry rvay of extending the argument given in the fifth
') S i n c e f i n i s h i n g t h e s i x t h p a p e r , I h a v e o b t a i n e d n c r v a n d m o s t a b u n d a n t o b s e r v a t i o n a lp r o o f t h a t m a s s l n o v e m e n t si n t h e s u r i d o send powerful rvave rlisturbances to the earth, a n d b y i h e r e s u l t i n g i n r l u c t i o n s t h u s p r o d u c e t h e a u r o r a c , e a r t h c u r r e n t sa n d s i m i l a r d i s t u r b a n c e s in the earth's s'avc-fieltl.

for.the change of th'e induction, under motion in the wave'fhus field. l[/cber's ]aw is the fundamental law of nature, and from (r) rve have:

I3I
{

5r+v

r32

prp.r, AN 5 r3o, p. 330, and in the sixth paper above, equation ( 7 ) , * " n o t i c e: r . T h e r e f r a c t i v ea c t i o n ( z r 2 - r ) d e p e n d s o n t h e d e n s i t y of the solid o, and the changing rvave-length 1,, and thus or.r sorne unknown function n (oll). But in a fixed ruass the density varies inversely as the cube of the distance of the molecules, as in the formula for a sphere: (") il-af,rnorr 6-3f nmfnt's: Clrt. Hence we may take rr (oll) as a function of the rnolecular distance rDy(r) : Cf rs : zr. z . A s r e g a r d s t h e v i o l e n c e o f t h e i n c e s s a n tb e n d i n g o f the wave-front,for rvavescoming from all directions, y,(d), we notice that this effect likewise is a function of the density', and of the elasticity or rigidity, and thus of the atonricdist a n c e sr ; y e t a s r v e d o n o t k n o w t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s d e p e n c l e n c e y. we sirrrply write for E(fi) a" unknown function 4t"(r):

persion of these incident rvaves, {r (d), it appears that fronr the action of diarnond on light this effect must depend mainly on tlie rigidity or hardness, and thus on sonle, function of the radius of atomic action, tDr(r) : u. 4. The crystalline arrangement lrnd the forces involved in giving compactness to atorns cornbined in a rvay tO be most effective, depend also on the atonric distances, or radii of molecular activity, and hence on some fnnction of the disrarrce Q),lt') - u,. 5. The porver of reflection of waves depends on the s r n o o t h n e s sa n d r i g i d i t y o f t h e r e f l e c t i n g m a s s , a n d t h u s o n the atomic distances and the forces by rvhich the structure i s r e n d e r e d r i g i d a n d i r n p e n e t r a b l et o t h e w a v e a g i t a t i o n . \ \ ' e y'. rnay take this unknorvn function as ()5(r'):

6. Accordingly, it appears thlt the first five elenrents o 1 ' t h e i n t e g r a l f o r J J , i n e r l u a t i o n( r o 8 ) o f t h e f i l i h p a p e r , 3. In reference to the violence of the incessantclis- or etluation (7) above, reduce to

y : ( " ' - ' ) r c ( o l l ) y @ ) 1 p ( 6 ) x Q ) 6 ( g . e - " ) : ( D , ( r ) . t p , ( r ) - a t , ( , . ) . a t r Q . ) . r D t ? ) : u . u . 1 0 . , , ' . ( ,' r . F) 'llre partial differentiation o I t h i s l i r n c t i o no f l l v e v a l i l b l e s r e ] a t i v et o t h e t h r e e c o o r d i n a t e s r , ) , , t ) y i e l d s : ( ' ( 0 t / f 7 u . 0 u f h - + 0 U l 1 u . A r 1 3 . t - r 0 L / i ? , , , ' ??tt,+ - A ( . ' , ? t / . ? u ' f 0 r - r 0 U f D u ' . 0 u ' f ? r ) d r t d tt: -y + ( A U l A u . 0 uA 1 , - t 0 f A u . 0 u l A , y - r -'D p , . A , ' [ : _+ DL - , ? / . ? / i ? . t , - + u l 0 u '. ? t f A 1 ,d 1 , f U u 1 fD ) 0 - r ( ? u l 1 u ' 0 u f 0 z - + D ( l i ? r . 00 : - + a U f 0 u . D t t , , t ? : - + - O L ' , t ? , , ' . ? u ' i c r t - O U l A u " ? t / f A z ) d t . ,, lr)
r o . I n r E 6 6 , 1 . [ o . t u c lc o n c l u d e d f r o n i c e r t a i n r e s e a r c h c s l 7 . T o e f f e c tt l r e r e q u i r e d q u i n t u p l e i n t e g r a t i o n r v e s h o u l c l h a v e t o d e r i v e s u c c e s s i v e l y 2 U , d z L I , d t L r , d 5 t r ; a n d i f t h e j i n t h c d y n a u r i c r l t h e o r y o f g a s e s , ( S c i e n t i f r c a p e r s2 . 3 z ) , d P last function, or any one of them, rvas knorvn, rve could then, t h a t i n t h e c o l l i s i o n s o f r - u o l e c u l e s h e n t o l e c u l a r f i ; r c e s , a t t by the reverse process of integration, calculate 7, and frnally v e r y s h o r t r a n g e o f a c t i o n , a r e r e p u l s i v e , a n c l v a r y i n v e r s e l y !). Unfortunately the finite expressions of these successir,e a s t l r c 5 t r ' y t o r v e ro f t h e d i s t a n c e , : p , fr 5 . I n t h e p r e s e n t f d i f f e r e n t i a l s a r e q u i t e u n k n o r v n ; a n d t h u s i t i s u s e l e s s t o r v r i t c r ' s r e s e a r c h e so n t h e p h y s i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e s u n develop these differential coefficients. ( a n d p l a n e t s , A N 3 9 9 e , 4 o S 3 , 4 t o 4 , 4 t 5 z ) , i t i s s h o w nt h a t Apparently the only way we can attack this problem gases and solids are closely related, througb internal heat successfully is to deduce the function U, for the action of developing high elasticity and great effective rigidity, under I the molecular {orces, direct frorn the data sLrpplied by the I the enornious l)ressure to whicli nratter is slbiected in the dynamical theory of gases. i n t e r i o r o f t h e l r e a v e n l yb o d i e s . 'I'his h a p p e n s t o y i e l d a n i n t e g r a l e x p r e s s i o n ,t h e l a * , r r . l n s p e t r k i n go f t h e c f f e c t o f i n c r e a s i n g t e u r l ) e r a t u r e o I m o l e c u i a r r e p t r l s i o n b e i n g s e n s i b l v- f : p / r ' 5 , a n d h e n c e a s t e d e s c e n d i n t o t h e s u n ' s i q t e r i o r , N c t u c o l n l ,l o n g a g < , w e h a v e a t a n g i b l e m o d e o f a p p r o . r c h ; a n d f o l t u n a t e l y t l r e I r e m a r k e d ( l l n c 1 ' c l . A m c r . ,a r t i c l e S r . l nr,9 o 4 ) t h a t t r v o o p p o s i t e l y t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s a r e c o n 6 r m e d b y e x p e r i n r e n t s , r v h i ca r e d i r c c t e d a n d v c r y p o r v e r f u l l b r c e s r v e r e a t r v o r k : > a n i n c o n h I a d o p t e d b y t h e b e s t a u t h o r i t i e si n t h e d y n a m i c a l t h e o r y o f g a s e s . c e i v a b l e c i e g r e e o f h e a t , s u c h t h n t w e r e r n a t t e r e x p o s e d t o I B . A c c o r d i n g l y , o u r n r o d e o f i n t e g r a t i o n r e d u c e s t o i t o n t h e s u r l a c eo f t h e e a r t h , i t r v o u l d e x p l o d e w i t h a v i o l e n c c I t'oPt'o ' f' al<:t)dto _ ( .:1 r , / \ | t o w h i c h n o r l t i n g w i t h i n o u r e x p e r i e u c ec a n b e c o r n p a r e d < ; , d"Udrd.rd.rdrdr \e 1 |t ^ - r r ^h a + Ld ^ ) Le -t L e. - r r re n - ,o u- s p r e s s u r e d u e t o t h e JJJJJd ) _ n ^t h ^ r n L d " ' ' ' I a n d o n t h o h e , , t _ r t , : u ( r ) s u p e r i n c u m b e n tl a y e r s , c o n f i n i n g t h e n r a t t e rr v h i c h o t h e r w i s e )Eu\a)ua ]

:
-

--tz,^ ,^ L.,^,,t.l ^.,,,,,.-,r .,,:,L ,......^-.r^--^ --- r- : clllosive,riolence. orving ro u J\cetou.du1-o6ldy.du-r0ef},y,.du,-+0ef0u,.d/ I lf..'1.1-:"lr:l^1,:i:1,:j1r.tle1clou;

t o 6 o o o t i r u e s t h r t o f n i c k e l - s t e e l ,- u ' e h a v e a v a l i d p o i n t ] where r:68932 r6ooooo the atnount by rvhich the elasticity j of attack lor solids, as rve shall now proceed to sho' irr o f t h e r e t h e r e x c e e d st h a t o f t h e a i r i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s d e n s i t y . I s o n r e d e t a i l . tz. It rvas long ago recognizecl by Mossotti, (Sur les 9. It rvill be shown below how tlie function [/'for thc I first five integrations may be obtained, in the integrrl fornr, forccs rlui rdgisscnt la constitution interiegre des corps, Turin, I c o r r e s p o r . r d i ntg t h e r e p u l s i v ef o r c e s a c t u a l l y o b s e r v e d i n t h e I r 8 3 6 ) t h a t a t s n i a l l d i s t a n c e s t h s r e p u l s i v s f o r c c s b e c o m e o theory of gases f: plru, and the terrns giving attraction ntor" porverful than the attractive forces. Helce, in order ] at greater distances rnay be added, 'I'he sixth integral, for ito deal satisfactorily with rnirlecular forces, rve nusr have a the central pressure due to the integration for the stearJy function cornposed of several terms rvhic6 becorpeslcgative I a c t i o n o f t h e e n c l o s i n g s h e a t h o f p a r t i a l l y d i s r u p t e d r v a ' t ' e s a t v c r y s r l a l l d i s t a n c e s ,p o s i t i v e a t g r e a t e r c l i s t a ' c c s , - a l l i o f t h e a e t h e r , l e a d s t o t h e e l a s t i c c o n s t a n t o f t l r e a e t h e r , t h e d i s t a n c e s r e n r a i n i n g i r l a l l . a b s o l u " r t e l y ,b o u t t h e o r d e r o f a i 'lihis and thus presents no difficulty. function, rvhei integrated relatively I rvavc-lengthsof light.
)u.

rr f s. u

- + A r 'a r , . d u , - r 1 i e f l0.,.dutl

ur tr -

r u a ( ( ) i , h " h i g h e f f e c t i v ei g i d i t y a c q u i r e db yc o n t i n e d . g a s e on )s t t e r -- the sun having an average eft-ective rigidity frorn zooo ):i |
t ' /./ \r l

r33
to the distances, should bring into play both attractive ancl repulsive forces, mutnally balancing each other, and thns yielding the rigidity noticed in an elastic solid. ' r:. We therefore take the molecular forces.to be re presentcd by a potential of the forrn:

4o

r3+

U/:

l(n-r)z- tlrrlii .

(s)

Hence at such'snrall distancesthe forces become

07 (,) -f : 0142f - lr_ n_rf f)ii rl-rn];i : Lr4-h : l(r -- r) (, - rr){[r - (a-r ; b)][, - (" - i tl]ilf, . Q)
r4. We are concerned only rvith very small distances, and therefore tve introduce the condition that rvhen 7:7'r.:)., - o; then we have to investigate the biquadratic betrveen Jf the distancest1 to r4i r.a- /t rs-+h --

Thb nature of the curve to be integrated in fig. a depends on the value of Z, a coefficient of hardness or rigidiiy. If this constant ,/z is small, but not below a certain limit Zs, corresponding to fluidity, the body will have slight tenacity, and tend to crunrble, like stone, chalk or similar substances. If belorv /0, the body is fluid, and not solid at all. As Z increases above hs, we get a series of bodies of i n c r e a s i n g h a r d n e s s ,a s s h o w n i n F i g . b .

(r'-4)V-,r)

{ l r - - ( a - + ib ) l [ r - ( a - i b ) ] ] :

I [ a n y o f t h e r o o t s a r e r e a l , r v h i c h r v e h e r e a s s u m e ,i t c a n b e s h o w n t h a t t h e e q u a t i o n h a s t r v o r e a l r o o t s , n a n r e l y ,r i , a . m a x i m u n r , a t u , h i c h t h e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e s v a n i s h ,i f - o , t n d r i a s m a l l e r v a l u e a t l v h i c h t h e a t t r a c t i v ef o r c e s a r e a n r a x i n r u m , a s s h o w n b y t h e f o l l o r v i n g d i a g r a n r . T h e c o n s t a n t/ i s t o b c 'l'hc so adjusted that 11 falls on the axis (r) making,/: o. condition for these ttvo roots is the maximunt and minintunr of the potential IIt in (0), 0ffllr: o, as in equation (i").

"

(r")

Fig. b. r 7 . I n h i s c e l e b r a t e dm e m o i r o n t h e d y n a m i c a l t h e o r v o f g a s e s ,r 8 6 6 , ( S c i e n t . l , a p . 2 . 3 2 ) - l l f a r u r l / r e m a r k s t h a t t h e coefficient of rigiclity : jt, the pressure. IIe designates the clasticity by /. ancl thc densitl' by o. > ' l ' h i s r i g i r l i t v , h o * . s 1 ' s 1 ,c a n n o t b e d i r e c t l y o b s e r v e d , b e c a u s e t h e r n o l e c u l e sc o n t i n u a l l y d e f l e c t e a c h o t h e r f r o m I,'ig. a. Illrrstration of the ctrrvc of molecrrlar forccs fi If,l?r:1, t h e i r r e c t i l i n e a r c o u r s e s ,a n d s o c q u a l i z - et h e p r e s s u r ei n a l l 'l'he the rrnessential parts. outsirlc thc linrits r., r., bcing dircctions. rate at lr'hichthis erlualization akesplace is t indicatc<l by pointerl lines. great, lrut not infinite; and thereforethere remainsa certain r 5 . A s a s o l i d b o c l y i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h c c c r u i l i l ) r i u m i n c r l u a l i t y o f y t r c s s u r es h i c h c o n s t i t u t c s t h e p h e n o m c n o n o f established between attractive and rellrlsivc forccs, rvc lurvt_. v i s < : o s i t y . < to get the efl'ectof these equilibriited forces lry intccrrtinrl >l havc founri bv experinrcnt that the cocfficient of the equation (r.) betrvcen1;roper linrits: v i s c o s i t y i n a q i v e n g a s i s i n d e p e n c l e n to f t h c c l e n s i t y ,a n c i p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h c a l r s o l u t e t e n i p ' e r a t u r es o t h a t i f l l T l t e ll , Ir : _f, : [ 0 fff|r. ctr.-r-6 ! t o- t, rt -+I) clt.-rl : o . (lr) t h c v i s c o s i t v , | i ' 1 " - r , p f o . < <Ilnt ./1 : 1, tirerefore ,?],thc tin-reof rclaxation, varies 7'l 'I'he i n v e r s e l y a s t h e c l e n s i t ya n d i s i n d e p e n d e n to f t h e t e r r p e r a t u r e . nature oI this integrationis indicated by the above fie. n. 'lhis F l e n c e t h e n u m l r c r o f c o l l i s i o n sp r o d u c i n e a s i v e n d e f l e c t i o n r6. e q u a t i o n ( 1 a )c o n t a i n s t h e r v h o l e t h e o r y o I t l r c i v h i c h t a k c p l r r c e i n u n i t o f t i r n e i s i n d e p c n d e n to f t h e t e m p e equilibrated forces in a solid body. 'fhe inteeral is r i r t u l e , t h a t . i s , o f t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e r - n o l e c u l e s ,n d i s p r o a ,'l : Dfizf\r.dr -r c - lrI 615 |f nhrt -+- r]ii+, : o (,,) p o r t i o n a l t o t h e n u n t b e r o f m o l e c u l e s i n u n i t o f v o l u m e . I f /t /" I \ r e s r l p p o s et h e n t o l e c r r l e s a r d e l a s t i c b o d i e s , t h e n u m b e r o f h c o l l i s i o n s o f a g i v e n k i n d r v i l l b e p r o p o r t i o n a lt o t h e v e l o c i t y , rvhich is an equatiorl o[ the fitth degree in z-, the variable but if rve suppose thcm ccntres of force, the angle of deflection distance over rvhich the nrolecular forces act. rvill be smaller rvhenthe velocity is greater; and if the force

r35

5I40

r36

In order to perceive why there is both attraction and is inversely as the fifth power of the distance, the nunrber r of deflections of a given kind will be independent o f t h e r e p u l s i o n , . v e d i v i d e \ v ) b y r r o n l y , a n d t h e n w e h a v e : velocity. Hence I have adopted this law in making m y c a l (o) r2-rcf i)ii: . Itlur'-rf nhr-+kf " culations.c 'llrisfunction i s p o s i t i v e b e t r v e e n" 1 a o d 1 3 ,b r . r t e g a t i v eb e t w e e n n r 8 , T h e p r o b l e m o f a t t r a c t i v ea n d r e p u l s i v e f o r c e s h a s r3 and /r4, ?s we see by the form of the curve in Fig. a. been ably discussed by .Boltznanz (Vorlesungen tiber Gas'fhe l a s t t e r m o f ( o ) c o r r e s p o n d st o t h e d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n lvho concurs in Mctrruell's Theorie, r896, p. r6o-r6r), in equation (a) above, reasoning. ,Boltzatannfinds his equations rnuch simplified by z o . I n m y r e s e a r c h e so n t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f taking rz : 4, and then the repulsion betrveen trvo nrolecules : 1 S f v n l ' , b e c o m e s o f t h e i n v e r s e 5 t hp o w e r . H e a d d s t h a t t h e l r e a v e n l y b o d i e s , ( e , N 3 9 9 2 , 4 0 5 3 , 4 r o 4 , 4 1 5 z ) I h a u e if his law appears to hold accurately for cornpound gases, (rvirter s h o r v n t h a t t h e s u n ' s r n a t t e r i n t e r n a l l y i s u n d e r t r e m e n d o u s vapor, E2O, carbonic acid, CO), but not so satisfactorily for e x p l o s i v e f o r c e s , y e t h e l d i n e q u i l i b r i u n r b y t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l o c o r n m o n g a s e s ( o x y g e n , h y d r o g e n , n i t r o g e n ) . E x p e r i e n c e i s l ) r e s s u r e f t h e o u t e r l a y e r s . I f t h e p r e s s u r ec o u l d b e r e l i e v e d , fronr this m.atterat the temperature of millions of degrees, too lirnited, he thinks, to nrake known the exact Iarv in it rvorrld, (as Ntuconb remarked in r go4) explode rvith a most cases. t >Wir sind daher weit entfernt, behaupten zu rvollen, violencesurpassinghat o[ dynamite or any known substance. L l e n c e i n c o n f i n e r n e n tt h e m a t t e r i s k e p t r i g i d b y p r e s s u r e ; da0 sich die Gasmoleki.ile wirklich wie I\{assenpur1ktevera n d i n A N 4 r o 4 , I h a v e c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e a v e r a g er i g i d i t y halten, zrvischen denen eine der fiiuften Potenz der lintfbrnung of the solirr matter lnay be frorn zooo to 6ooo tirnes that v e r k e h r t p r o p o r t i o n a l eA b s t o 0 u n g r v i r k s a mi s t . l ) a es s i c h h i er ' of nickel-steel. M aber blo8 um ein mechanisches odell handelt, so nehnren Norv the property of rigidity acquired by the sun's rvil jerres zuerst von Matrutll eingefi-ihrteWirkunesgesetL rn, l n r r t t e r , a s t l i u s c o n f i n e d u n d e r t r e m e n d o u sp r e s s r r r e , s a n a i f[ir welches die l{echnung am einfachsten ist.( losous to thc riuidity of an ordinary solid, - with this diffeJn a footnote he adds: r c n c e , t h l t i n t h e o r d i n a r y s o l i d h e a t i s l a r g e l ya b s e n t a n d >Auch die Annahme einer der ftinften l)otcnz clcr l,lnt- tlre rrrolecules irr.rs ome so close togetherthirt collisions t c are Y f e r n u n g l ) r o l ) o r t i o n x l n A n z i e h u n g g e s t a t t e tc i n e : i . h n l i c h e e r - i n c : e : s : i n tt ,r n t l c r t h e s h o r t r v a v e sp e r v a t l i n g n a t u r e , a n d t h e e . e i n f a c h u n gd e r l { e c h n u n g ( v g l . \ V i e n . S i t z u n g s b e r8 9 . 7 r . 1 ,\ t a i \ l e x n c i l i r r nr c p u l s i v el b r c e st h u s a r i s i n gl ; : r l a n c e n d o v e r c o n t e a r 8 8 a ) . D o c h m u B u r l n d a n n a n n e h r - r r c n ,a { } l i i r E n t t c r n u n g c n , t i r c e t t r . r c t i v c l b r c e s . ' f h e s e t r v c - o p p o s i t c l y d i r e c t e d f o r c e s , d r d i e n o c h k l e i n g e g c n d i e I ) i s t a n zs i n d , l r e i d e r s c h o n s t a r k e b o t h v c r y 1 > o r v c r f u a t t h e s n r a l l ( l i s t a n c e s ,r r - r . , b i n d t h e l W i r k u n g s t a t t 6 n C e t ,d i e I ( r a f t e i n a n d e r e s ( l e s e t z b e l ' o l g t , n r o l c t : u l c s t o g e t h e r i n t o a s o l i d , r v i t h h a r d n e s s o r r i g i d i t y n a c h r v e l c h e n r i e . ' \ n z i e h u n g n c l l i c hb l e i b t o d e r i n r \ l r s t o f ] u n s c l e p e n d i n go n t h e c o e l - f l c i e n / . l f r v e h e a t a s o l i d , t h e l o n g d e t i i b e r g e h t , r v e i l s o n s t d i e t r { o l e k i i l e b e i m Z u s r n r u r e n s t o B i c h h c a t r v a v c s c a u s e t h e m o l e c u l e st o o s c i l l a t e b e y o n d t h e r a n g e s 'lexte nicht rnehr in endlicher Zeit trennen. Im r v o l l e n i v i r of action /y-)'1, nnd Iiquefaction and valtorization takes place. 'l'lris jedoch irnmer eine der ftinften Potenz verkehrt l)roportionale t r a n s f o r r n a t i o no f t h e e q u a t i o n ( r o 8 ) o f t h e f i f t h > AbstoBung annehmen. p r r p e r ,e c p a t i o n ( { ) a b o v e , m a k e s i t c o n f o r r n t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e 'I'he latest researchesbv C/mfuon utd Jrans (l)yrrenri,'ul ol )'faxuel/, Iiol/zuann, Jeans, anrl others in the dynamical t h e o r y o f g a s e s , r g r 6 , 1 t .2 3 5 - 2 2 7 , 2 5 6 ) l e a v e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h e o r y o f g a s e s ; a n d r s w e p a s s d i r e c t l y f r o r n t h e t h e o r y o f ol .4/aruc// and J.io//zuatzzurrchangeci, nanrely, in nroleculirr l s a s t o t h e t o f a s o l i d , b y v i r t u e o f t h e r e s e a ' r c h e s n t h e o collision the repu)siveforce is -f : Flrt. \Ve are thcrelirre constitution of the sun, we now have a theory of molecular j u s t i f i e d i n h o l d i n g t h a t t h e w a v e - t h e o r y g i v e s l i s e t o b o t h l b r c e s r v h i c h i s c o n c r e t e , a n d e x p e r i u r e n t a l l yv a l i d , n a r n e l y ; attractive and repulsiveforces, rvhich are intelligiirly united _ ( l: I r l r r o - r f n r t r 4 - + / t r - + - r ) i i . r . (o\ into a continuous rnode of action onlv lrv e lirnctionof tlre In virtue of the changes in /, the elastic force of the kind dealt rvith above aether may be positive or negative and has the variation By means of the above function, however, rve have an u'hich generates the observed forces, or wave.stresses exerted a d e q u a t et h e o r y o f n o l e c u l a r forces. It acceunts for solids of by the aether upon matter, which usually is most powerful various degrees of hardness, r v i t h t h e o t h e r p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a t t h e b o u n d a r y o w i n g t o t h e c h a n g e so f r v a v e - a c t i o n e f i n e d d relating to molecular action and stmctnre. by Poisson'sequation r9. In the above equation (r) we r)tay divide through . 0t rD 0tz : a2(A2 lAf +- Dtrpf ?tt +02 @f 0 z2), @ f by z5 and obtain - ln conclusion it only remains to add that the present Now the arguments put forth by Moxrutll, Boltznatn, Jeaas, d e v e l o p m e n t s i n m a t h e r n a t i c a lt h e o r y a n d i n p h y s i c a l i n t e r and others that for gases the repulsive forces, when the p r e t a t i o n , a r e t h e o u t c o m e o f m a n y y e a r s o f r e s e a r c h ,i n w h i c h molecules are in collision, vary as 1o/r5, would lead us to I have labored to give both a true and a sufficient explanation select the .term cfrs as that rvhich becomes very large when o f t h e n r o s t v a r i e d n a t u r a l p h e n o m e n a . l ) o u b t l e s s u e . y , r , u c h ing relativelyinsensible remains to be done in the way of inrprovement, as shown rould also becorne a l s o b y t h e a d d i t i o n s a s t h e r v o r kp r o g r e s s e d ; u t t h i s r e f i n e m e n t b depending on the could not be entered upon till the rirst ourline of the new t h e o r y ' o f t h e a e t h e r \ r a s p r e s e n t e di n c c n r i n u o u sf o r m .

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In view of the vast extent o[ the field of research.thus opened up to investigators, rnay rve not hope that others rvill join in extending the discoveries here rnerely traversed in lrriefestoutline? The daring hope originally entertained by tlfossotti, r 8 3 6 , o f a n a l y t i c a l l y c o n n e c t i n g t h e r n o l e c u l a r f o r c e sd i r e c t l y rvith those of universal gravitation was,long ago attandonecl b y i n v e s t i g a t o r s ,c h i e f l y b e c a n s e , a s h a d b e e n s o s t r o n g l y emphasized by Laplau, the rnolecular forces are sensiblc only a t i n s e n s i b l ed i s t a n c e s r v h e r e a s h e g r a v i t a t i o n a lf o r c e sa c t r v i t h , t t u n b r o k e nc o n t i n u i t y o v c r t h e i m n r e n s i t yo f t h e c e l c s t i n ls p e c c s . Marruell was equally daring, and rnore fortunate ir-rhis p h y s i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s ,- r v h e n h e e m p h a s i z e d t h e t h e o r y o f the aether and concluded that all the forces observed in n a t u r e a r e d u e t o s t r e s s e si n t h i s m e d i u m - b u t t h e t h e o r y of stressesnever was completed, otving to the prerneture dealh rgzr l)ec. ro.

o f t h i s e m i n e n t m a t h e m a t i c i a na t t h e e a r l y a g e o i 4 8 . I n f a c t Maxatll had not forn.rulatedany modus operandi as to how s u c h s t r e s s e sn t h e m e d i u m c o u l d a r i s e ,n o r h i d h e e x a m i n e d i t h e e l a s t i cc o n s t a n to f t h e a e t h e r : 6 8 9 3 2 r 6 o o o o o . I n o u r n e r v t h e o r y o f t h e a e t h e r w e h a v e e x a r n i n e dt h e character of this r-nedium more critically than Nctaton aod '\[arutll had been able to do, and thus formulated a general theory of physicat forces due to rvave-action. 'l'nis reduces t h e t h e o r y o f a e t h e r - s t r e s s e o c o n c r e t ef o r r n , a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e ts h a s t h e r e c o m r n e n d a t i o no f s i r n p l i c i t y . I t a l s o c o n f o r r n s t o t h e u r r d u l a t o r yt h e o r y 'o f l i g h t a n d h e a t , a n d t h u s r s a n e c e s s a r y step in the doctrine of continuity as applied to the physical universe.'Ihe sullject is therefore inviting, and rvill appeal s t r o n c l y t o t h e g e o m e t e r a s w e l l ' a s t h e n a t u r a lp h i l o s o p h e r , r v h o r n a y n o v r ' p e r c e i v e n e r v p h y s i c a l b e s i sf o r t h e g e o r n e t r i c a l a forms observcd in nature.

T. J. J. Sec.

Uber die gr60te Phase von Sonnenfinsternissen.

Von P. -f{arzsr.

Die allgemein gebr:i.uchliche Formel zur Verbesserung A n f a n g n n d d a s E n d e e i n e r F i n s t e r n i se i n t r i t t , b e i d e r g r d B t e n eines Niiherungswertes r d,er Zeit / der grci{}ten Phase, rlie P h a s ez u s a m n r e n f a l l e n ) i e V e r b e s s e r u n g i c s e rZ e i t e ng e s c h i e h t I. d in der Ifanscnschen llezeichnung die Fornr n l i m l i c h b e i b c l i c b i g a n g e n o m m e n e rP h a s e n a c h d e n F o r m e l n - l5{nld)cos(l[-r,,1[') ( > > hf e o r i e < , S . + r g ) ' r: t-r: sinl' : Qnfu) sin(fut+ df,) hat, ist ungenau. \Venn der Fehler der Fonnel auch nur auf - r a: t-5: e t w a r 7 ' s t e i g e n k a n n , s o i s t g e g l n s i c d o c h c l a sc i r r z u l , e n d c n , 5Qtln/)cos(M-r,,v'1-rr5Qf ni)cosy,. d a f J s i e u n t e r d e m A n s c h c i n e d e r S t r e n g e a b g e l e i t e tz r r r r . e r c l c r r I ) a b e i q i l r t d a s l e t z t e G l i e d , d a d i e G r c i 8 e 1' nur durch einen p f l e g t . I ) i e g e h a u eI ' o r r n e l h a b e i c h , n a c h d e n r i c h s i e s e l l r s t S i n u s b e s t i r n r n t v i r d , c l u r c hd e n F a k t o r c o s l ' z w e i W e r t e v o n r a u l g e s t e l l t h a t t e , i n d e r r n i r h i e r z u e i n g l i c h c n L i t e r a t u r i i l r c r - c n t q c q e n g e s e t z t e n o r z e i < ; h c n ,< 1 i ef i i r d e n A n f a n g u n d d a s V haupt nur an einer Stelle (t{anser, Uber die Vcrfinstenrnqcn I'lnrlc der l,-insternis elten. \Ian schlieBt hieraus (2.B. tut g a u f d e r l i r d e i i b e r h a u p t , A s t r . N a c h r . I i . r 5 , N r . 3 3 9 - . 1 1 2 , S . e s d t R t / / i n s e i n e r nL e h r b u c h e c l c r s p h i r i s c h e n A s t r o n o m i e , 8 r , 8 2 , A l t o n a r 8 3 8 ) g e f u n d e n ; s e l b s t d a s F u n c l a u r e n t t l r v c r kS . : : 9 , L c i p z i g r 9 r z ) , d a l ! f t i r d i e b e i c l e r g r d l l t e n p h a s e d e s s e l b e nV e r f a s s e r s , i e > ' f h e o r i e d e r S o n n e n f i r r s t e r n i s s e r l z u s a m m e n f z r l l e n d e\n e r t e d e r i r e i d e n Z e t t e n c o s y ' . : 6 5 s i 6 d V un v e r w a n d t e n E r s c h e i n u n g e n u( R b h . d . I i . S . G e s .r l . W i s s . I ) . I V , r n i i s s e . I ) r s i s t a b e r u n r i c h t i g , u r r d z r v a r d e s h a l b , r v c i l d i e I - e i p z i g r 8 5 8 ) , v o n d e m m a n a u f d i e f r t i h e r eA b h a n d l u n g n i c h t G r o 0 e z z ,d i e i n d e r F o r m e l f L i r . t d i r e k t u n d t i b e r d i e si n d i r e k t , leicht zurtickgrcifen rvird, enihdlt nur die ungenaue Iiorrnel, n d . r n l i c hd u r c h d i e G r o 0 e 7' eingefiihrt, vorkontmt, von der u n d z r v a r l e i t e t s i e I { a n s t n d o r t ( S . 4 r 6 ) a r r s s e i n e n g e n a u e n Z e i t a b h r i n g t u n d d i e s c t \ b h r t n e i g k e i ti n c i n e r G l e i c h u n g b e F o r m e l n f i i r d i e n c i r d l i c h e u n d s i i d l i c b e G r e n z k u r v e a b , i n - rticksichtigt rverclen rnull, die iiir die Zeit eine Doppelwurzel d e m e r o h n e B e g r l i n d u n gu n d o h n e V e r r v e i s u n sa u f d i e g e i r a u e h a b e n s o l l u n d d e s h a l b a u c h n a c h d e r A b l e i t u n g n a c h dpr Formel der friiheren Abhandlung erklrtrt, >jetzt . . . abkiirzen<< Z e i t n o c h c t i l r i g b l e i b e n m u B . zu wollen. Die Erinnerung an die genane liormel ist atrI r n f o l g en d e n r v o l l e nw i r e i n c e i n f a c h ed i r e k t e A b ) e i t u n g scheinend verloren g.g"ng.n; selbst i/,.r. O2ynltn. kennt sie d e r F o r m e l n f i i r e i n E x t r e m u m - n i c h t n u r f i i r e i n M l x i m u r n n i c h t , d a c r i n s e i n e r n > C a n o n d e r F i n s t e r n i s s e (( l ) c n k s c h r . - d e r P h r s l g e b e n , d i e A r t d e s E x t r e r n r r r n s n t e r s u c h c n u n d u d . m a t h . - n a t u r r v i s s .I . d . K . A k . d . \ V i s s . R . L t l , S . X X I \ r , X X V , C Grenzen fiir clen liehler der ungenauen Forrnel aufstellt_.n. W i e n r 8 8 7 ) f i i r d i e g r < i R t eP h a s e z u n i t c h s tc i n e U m q e s t a l t u n g I . f ) L t r c hd e n I J e o b i r c h t u n s s o - B l e g t n r a n c l i e n a c h d e n r rt d e r u n g e n a u e n F o r m e l r n i t t e i l t , b e i d e r e i n r v e i t e r c rV e r l u s t P u n k t e Z d e r r t n l 7 L r e s c h r i e b e n e n i m m e l s k u c e l z e i g e n d e H a n G e n a u i g k e i t e i n g e t r e t e n i s t , s o d a n n a b e r a l s ) s t r el ) g e z - A c i r s e p a r a l i e l z u d e r l { i c h t u n g v o r n X l i t t e l p u n k t e l 1 d e s E[ansenscheForrnel< die ungenaue Formel angibt. N l o n d e s z u m N l i t t e l p u n k t eS d e r S o n n e . D e r S c h n i t t p u n k t C D i e Q u e l l e d e r u n s e n a u e n F o r m e l i s t r n e i s t e n sd i e u n - d e r A c h s e / 4 S c l e s S c h a t t e n k e g e l s r i t d e r s e n k r e c h t z u r z r richtige Bedingung, dafl sich der Beobachtungsort zrtr Zeit Achse durch ,8 gelegten r_y-llbene ist der Mittelpunkt des der grd8ten Phase in dcr geringsten Entfernung von der Achse l \ { o n d s c h a t t e n s n c l i e s e rE b e n e , u n d d i e s e r S c h a t t e nr v i r d e n t i d e s S c h a t t e n k e g e l b e f i n d e . l ) i c s e B e d i n g u n e h a b e i c h z u r t i c k - s p r e c h e n dd e r A n n a h m e , d a 8 d e r M o n d u n d d i e S o n n e I { u e e l n s greifend zuerst in der Inauguraldissertation von LIrsin (l)e s e i e n , a l s k r e i s [ < i r m i g a n g e s e h e n . I ) i e E n t f e r n u n e / ] C b e e c l i p s i s o l a r i V I I S e p t . X ' I D C C C X X S . r 4 , H a f n i a e r 8 z o ) g e - z e i c h n e n r v i r m i t z ' , d e n H a l b m e s s e rd e s S c h a t t e n sr n i t z z , u n d funden, in der Ursittmitteilt, daB er >Gau/Jischetr{ethoden< z r v a r s o l l z a l l g e m e i n n i c h t f i i r d e n r v i r k l i c h e nS c h a t t e ng e l t e n , m i t d e r Z u s t i r n m u n g s e i n e s g r o B e n L e h r e r s h a b e b e n u t z e n s o n d e r n f r i r d e n j e n i g e nS c h a t t e n , d e n e n t s p r e c h e n dd e r P h a s e diirfen. Daneben entsteht aber die ungenalre Formel auch z . n i c h t d i e g a n z e S o n n e e r z e u g t , s o n d e r n e i n e m i t i h r k o n d u r c h e i n e u n r i c h t i g e E i n k l e i d u n g d e r r i c h t i e e n B e d i n g u n g , zentriscl're I{u.qel erzeueen rvtirde, dcren Halbmesser sich zu da8 die beiden Zeiten, zu denen bei beliebiger Phase der dem der Sonnewie r-zi z l J r v e r h i e l t e . E s m c i g en u n d u r c h

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New Theory of the Aether.
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7 Plates ancl z Porraits.)

ft

I. I)iscovery of the Cause of Nlagnetism and of a Remarkable Connection betrveen Magnetism and Universal Gravitation. (i) Introductory remarks and definitions. In this seventh paper we demonstrate the cause of i a magnetism, nd outline certain remarkablediscoveriesn connection therewith, more especially a new physical las' notv finally established betrvecn the magnetism of the enrth and terrestrial gravitation. Sorne of these discoveries have lrecn known to me since rgr4, and are recognized in the thirrl paper (AN 5o79), and in volume I of the !)lectrodynamic W a v e - T h e o r yo f P h y s i c a l F o r c e s , r 9 r 7 , b u t t h e p r o o l s n o r v availableare made so tnuch more complete, that it is edvisable to re-examine the rvhole sr.rbjectsourerr'hatbricfly' The analytical expressions for the accelcrating fort:es tnder Netaloa's law of gravitation, and under ti-re neu' larv for the total intensity of the earth's magnctic forr:cs, are similar in fornr, except for the trvo poles in the case of the rnagneticaction, each of which is a centre of attraction, exerting its appropriate stress upon the aether in the s'alcfield of the globe: astron.trnits; (t) g - mm'frz; for the snn G : l2li, (") 1t1t'fs2*1tp'fs'2. Here the gravitational masses are n and rz', at the distance r, the radius of the earth, and the acceleration .g; p, is the pole strength of the earth's magnetistn, and 1a'that 1/, kilograr-r-r, as of a standard stcel bar nragnet oI rveight 'I'heorie des Iirdmaenetisnrrts, Gazzss(Allgemeine used by the total intensity of the earth's magnetisnt, p . 4 6 ) , - 1: s : the lcngth of the cttrved linc of maqnctic force,olrtainccl by integlating along the cttrvcd path d.r betu'cen the 1>lace 1o f o b s e r v a t i o na a n c l t h e p o l e1 , , of the earth, s' : : Jar, in the solid globe

A more exact value of this. constant probably is t7: rf t4o8.rz

lll.llvltl'isl'i:: ()F
(+) '
ll rrr+r-ii\''

indicated in deriving equation (4q), yet from the consiclerations t i t i s p o s s i b ) e h a t t h e v a l u e m a y b e a s s m a l l . a s? : r f r 4 r 4 . 2 t 3 , with the results shorvn in equation (I r5) below. From the above equations (I) and (z) rve obtain by division: (S) tl{:1t1t,'fmn'.(r2fs2-+-r2f.{2). It is shown in the first paper, AN-5o44, p. 54, that runder tri-dimensional expansion in free space, the rvave l t l r , a n d t h a t t b e e n e r g y o f t h e w a v e s ,f r o m amplitude A: /r2lr2, exactly as rvhich the forces arise, becomes -f : e2: in the equations (r) and (z) above. The potential is a state of stress of the aether clne to the integration for the waves of the several atoms at their respective distances r, s or s' as the case may be. Thus for gravitation rve have:

7,: ! ,lr. dnr_ -.'')'*b,-slz-+(z- z'\21-'t' d1, : dr 12. J,f,f"t(.

(o)

A n d f o r n r a g n e t i s u r ,h a v i n g r e g a r c lt o t h e t w o p o l e s , w e h a v e P likervise: (t:(, I - F J r /"r ' o l t : .J ls'olt

F *i

nnt : ; t - , \ - ) - r,l ' ' d . u d 7 dP -P J , , z +t J)ol':-dxdydz. : .fd,,, o

(z)

I
i
t:

This magnetic potential is subject to the Gaussian equation of condition for the whole earth as a magnet:

rL

(s)

fr
T

{
i; t

ir

as in equation (z) above. For in the rvave-theory not only gravitation, but also )ds', rragnetism is due to the energies of the atomic waves, which of magnetic force to the other Pole, yield appropriate forces proportional to the squares of the It is recognized that a magnetic bar rtpon the earth as fottnd above, the atoms the gravitational and amplitudes of the vibrations. Norv, is under a dual systern of forces ( p . + O ) t h a t t h e p o l e s t r e n g t h rvith rnagnetic properties, due to the concerted .way in which the magnetic. Gauss shorved p a r a l l c l p l a n e s ,a r e t o t h e w h o l e o f t h e a t o m s a n d h e c a l c u l a t e dt h a t o n t h e y o s c i l l a t ei n of the earth p,:8464'ro1s1o'; o f t h e e a r t h a s r : r 4 o 8 . r z . A n d t h e r e f o r et h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g the average, under uniforrn distribution oI these standard forces 1 and .g, resttlting from the integrals for the magnetic steel bar magnets, rvith parallel axes, each crtbic metre of tnasses respectively, must both invoive the the elobc rvould have rvithin it an atnortnt of and gravitational the matter of squaresof the amplitudes,since, as shown in AN 5o44, this m a g n e t i s me q u i v a l e n t t o 7 . 8 3 r o f t h e s e b a r s . 'rvith occurs for the gravitational force, The average cubic metre of the earth's ntatter, -dl/ldr. (to) gA':A2lr2: density 5.5, rveighs 55oo kilograms; and thus the ratio of since the complete differentiationof the the magnetic matter of the globe to the whole of it is: .N'Ioreover, b e i n g t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gc u r v e d l i n e rl:3.gr55/55oo :1114o4.674. (:)

because, on the trvo-fluid theory, there must be in the entire rnass exactly irs nruch positive as negative magnetism, so that 'l'he wave'theory leads to an identical result, the integral is zcro. Accordingly the magnetic forces acting on another magnet of pole strengths y,', pt' become in the integral form: - pt,y,'f (S) s'2 s2-+1t,1t'f f :/+f,

p r n a g n e t i c o t e n t i a l ,b y ( Z ) , l e a d s t o : r3

r95

Sondemummer

r96

. : d-rJ/ds ! ,ls2 ap-* rl#. dp : t u : 0s x -dt -r0e f0s.a1fay, ay-+ n ! SStu tus. l0 *0stlas'osl7z'dz), (") r,

.,0r .0s'f * I I ltaatas' 0r.dr-rlal0r 101,' -+-09f0s' 9y+ .?s'l0z.dz)

any two forms of the path betrveen o and p, provided one forrn of the path rnay be changed into the other by continuous motion rvithout passing out of this region. Accordingly, the difference of magnetic potential is given by the integral rlong the path ds:

we have for the integral of the forces between two rnagnets referred to their poles: As two forms of a.curve through two temrinal points f :1f -r-f' : 1t' t l t' . d 1u-rp,,' r f s' 2 . d p, : p p' f st -r ptp,'f s' 2.. ( t z) c a n b e c h a n g e d i n t o e a c h o t h e r u n d e r c o n t i n u o u s m o t i o n S ! rvhich < : h i e l l y b y r o t a t i o n d e p e n d i n g o n s y m u r e t r y , i t f o l l o w s t h a t The ratio 4J, thus necessarily involves the srluare of 17, is common to the two forces depending on rvave-action:r) the line of magnetic force admits of tbe integral in (r7) rvhen the force system is syrnmetrical about an axis. (rf ('
J

L :

? d ldr,U s : I

!Jo- Vp.

('z)

r12:

r4o8.rz)2.

:)

Accordingly equation (5) yields the harnionic larv conn e c t i n g t h e r n a g n e t i s mo f t h e g l o b e r v i t h t e r r e s t r i a lg r a v i t a t i o n : .)/ ,.)\ ,l t rl o | ,l I | ^ ^ | tl ' rr \ | \ -/ : I / I 9 d 2 b o 2 ' \ t - l s - - 1 - r - t- l \ I - 1 / Il{ : 4' \r'ls'-tr-lr l'his remarkable law holds true throughout the te rrestrial spheroid, so far as the rhagnetism is regular. It fulfills, for and in interexample, exact criteria at the poles, the e<1uator, mediate latitudes. And theretore, with an appropriate value for q, a similar larv will hold true for the sun, Jupiter or any other planet exhibiting cosmical rnagnetisrnadrnitting of measurement of the intensity. \\re shorv liereafter that in the rlt;1. caseof the sun tl:

In the barmonic larv and new theory here outlined thercfore we alrvays have in vierv a n)agnet possessing s ) ' r l ) n r e t r y .H e n c e t h e c o s r n i c a l g l o b e h e r e c o n s i d e r e di s n o t our actual earth, with its irregular distributionof magnetism, and unsyrnrnetricalxis, but a homogeneous uniformly a 'I'his rnagnetized sphere. restriction in our prerpises, horvever, is only for reasons of simplicity in establishing the rigorous validity of the harrnonic larv above forrnulated.

In dealing with such a compound heterogeneousmass as our actuai earth, it is necessary to have recourse to an expansion in spherical harmonics, arranged to converqe for i n t e r n a l y r o i n t s ,a s e m p l o y e d b y G a r z s s r E t 8 . Y e t e v e l ) h e r e , I t a p p e a r si n t h i s p a l ) e r t l ) a t t h e r r r a g n c t i cf o r c e s a l r v l l ' s t h e n c r v h a r m o n i c l a r v r v i l l g i v e a s u r p r i s i n g a l r p r o x i n r a t i o n act in curved lines, instead of in the strligl)t lines assunrecl to the nrcan laiv of the intensity oi terrestrial magnetisnr by Gauss and all previous investigators. Such a l-unclanrental ibr.rnri in our globe as a rvhole. us change in mathematico-physicaltheory re'cprires to investigate 'I'his It rvas hrst recognized by lluttltoldt tn r 8o4, frorn clusc is norv c a r e f u l l y t h e p h y s i c a l c a u s eo f r n a g n e t i s m . l n c r r s u rm e n t s o f i n t e n s i t y m a d e d u r i n e h i s A r r r e r i c a nv o y a g e e definitely assigned to wave-action, by an argunrcnt which (r 79ti-r8o4), that the total intensity is r.ooo at the rnagnetic appears to be so convincing as to be incontestable. c(luator, and increases sourervhat steadily torvardsthe rnagnetic (ii) Definition o[ magnetic lines of fcirce and of the lrcrles,wlrere Gouss afterwards nrade t)re average intensity to line integral. be r.9 77. The increase of intensity rvith higher latitudes As we have to deal very frequently rvith the lines of l)reser)ts many irregularities, and this nrakes it necessary to magnetic force, we rernark that the differential equation of rcsort to spherical ]ramronics to give the larv of intensity such a line, at any point (r, y, z), is over the globe. (iii) Xlethod for constructing Ydtlds: Zdzlds Xdr/ds: ' \ \ \'),r the lines of magnetic force. where X, Y, Z are the cornponents of the vector -1?,or total Ilefore preceeding with the directed force, parallel to the axes, and d-r, d1i da lre the theory of magnetism, rve shall projections on the axes of the spacial element ot'the curve ds. shorv holv to drarv the lines o[ Thus the line-integral betrveen the points o itnd ! beconres: force, as by the system of rulers ? devised by I)r. Rogtt near the r - , , r a 1 : P (.Yd.r/d 1 , , t ds-+-z ds)ds L s+- Ydltf dzf J n i d d l e o f t h e r g t r 'c e n t u r y . L e t ( r6 ) r e c t i l i n e a rr a d i i v e c t o r e s e d r a w n b Y d l , l d s - + Z d z l d s.) d!) : ' 1 x a r 7 a r * lionr any point on the line of force Now l e t t h e e x p r e s s i o nu n d e r t h e i n t e g r a l b e a n e x a c t t . I i . e s o l u t i o n o f t h e f o r c e s to the two magnetic poles r1land S, as shorvn in the ligure r. differential, r r s i n ( 1 6 ) , t h e n t h e v a l u e o f Z i s t h e s a r u e f o r to tlre two poles.
t) Rernembering the dual systcrn of forces lcting on a bar rnagnct at the earth's surface, rve have anothcr rvay of reaching the sanre

result, as follorvs: 'fhe S + 6 + l o r " p ' , r v l t c r e; r ' i s t h e p o l c s t r c r l g t h o f C r r r z r r ' u n i t b a r r n a g n e t . quantity of uratter r . T h e p o l e s t r e n g t ho f t h e e a r t h , p : g e n e r a t i n g t h e r n a g n e t i s r np i s l / t 4 o l 3 o f t l t e e a r t h ' s n r a s s . 'fhe g r a v i t a t i o n a l r n a s s o f t h e u n i t b a r r n a g n e t, r i : rllE+6+.ro'*) of t h e u l r t t e r p r o d u c i n g the rnnguetisru of tlrc carth, which z. mav be taken as unitv in the divisor. n 3 . ' I ' h e n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l r n a s s o f t h e e a r t1h2, : ( I 4 o 8 ) ( 8 4 6 . 1 . r o ' n ) , t h e r n a g n e t i c u n i t o f m a s s a g abi c i n g t h a t o f t h e G r r z s r i a n u n i t b a r . 4 . A c c o r d i n g l y , r e p l a c i n g t h e n u n r b e r s i n u n i t s o f r n a g n e t i s r " ( t " p ' ) r v i t h o t h e r s r e p r e s e n t i n gt l l e r n a t t e r r v h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e rve have: m a g n e t i s m ,i n o r d e r t o g d t t h e r a t i o p 1 t ' l u i ,

pp'fnru':

, [ ( 8 + 6 + ' r o 1 ' ) p ' p ' ] / [ ( r + o 8 ) ( 8 + 6 + . r o l s ) . p ' p ' / ( 8 4 6 4 . r ( r'/Ea]o 8 ) / r a o 8 o r 1 7 ? : r / ( r 4 o 8 ) : . o r) :

rg7

Sondernummer

rg8

Here the two points o r,nd o'are taken to be indefinitely near each other, and thus ap'is tansential to the curve,in the direction of the magnetic force.

Then obviously the sines of the angles ;, and d are r . I t i s n o r v s h o w n t h a t t h e s t r e s si n t h e a e t h e r a l o n g inversely as the forces erranating from the corresponclinepoles, flat and thercfore directly as the squares of the corresponcling the line of force directed to the pole is due to ,w'aves l:^+^-^^^ .L..^. in the plane of the equator of the rnagnet, parallel to rvhich u r J t d r fL c 5 ' L r r t r 5 ' ( ' s ) t h e e l e m e n t s o f a e t h e r o r a e t h e r o n sr o t a t e , a b o n t t h e l i n e s sinyf 12 : sin d/l''j . But by geonretry, of force, and thereby generate the tension along these lines ( ' s ) which lTarada.t' recognized as causing the lines to tend to s i n T- r d u f d s s i n d - r ' d B fd s 'I'orvards shorten themselves. the ends of the magnet there a n d t h e r e f o r e y s u b s t i t u t i n gn ( r 8 ) r v e g e t : b i is a gradual change in direction of the stress, due to the I " ^ \ absence of rvave-emitting atoms, all vibrating in concert; and dafr:aflr'. therefore the rvave movement tnrns around and the lines It is obvious from the figure r that reenter the masnetic poles, as illustrated in the following (r t) 7 5 i n 6 x: r ' s l n B ligure 3 front Aku'/on's Principia, r687, lib. II, section VIII, prop. XLI, theorem XXXII, where the curvature of the waves and on multiplying equation (zo) by (zr) the product ficlds to a new radius is exhibited after the movement from the sinrr da : sind d,8 centre A passes through the orifice r9C. which admits of integration in the sirnple f o r m : z. Norv in nragnetismeach atom emits its own waves, ( , " \ and as the rnotion spreads rvith increased facility along the : cosB_rC. cos.t axis o[ the rnagnet, orving to the increasedstressdue to To construct the lines of force by the mechanical rvaves crowding in that direction, the lines of force are means devised by I)r. Rogct, let two rulers of equal lcngth n e a r l y s t r a i g h t a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e n r a g n e t ,a n d c u r v e m o s t revolve around their ends fixed in z1l and S as ccntres, r a p i d l y a r o u n d a f t e r p a s s i n g t h e p o l e s . while the moveable vertical boundary, taken to bc thc side This simple vierv of the dynarnics of the magnetic of a right triangle A/lC, with base on i6 prolonged, slides Iines of force scarcely seems to require further explanation, along. a s I h a v e t r e a t e d i t b r i e f l y i n A N 5 o 4 E , y ' >r.6 z , i n c o n n e c t i o n with Dolbtat-'s experiment, based on an observable mechanical model shorvn in practice to give the ctlrvature and dynarnical properties of the lines of force. Nevertheless the accompanying figure will enable us to see more clearly why the lines have near the ends of the magnet the increased curvature r l \ actually observed. The extension of the Ncutonian figure is authorized by this example in vector composition. I 3. Accordingly rve shall illustrate the flatness of the lines of force near the centre of the bar magnet, compared {, to the rapid crlrvature torvards either end, by another 6gure ,-l dedrrced from that given by Nculort in the Principia, r687, I as follorvs: I a) Inrngine adjacent additional centres of disturbance, I A', A", A"'.,,, a r l d 4 1 , A z , A s . . ' , a l l i n v e r t i c a ll i n e w i t h ->l the centre ,,1. And make additional orifices above and below - -\t' liC, us B'C', R" C", Jjt'tC"t " ' , RtCt, RzC2, -IhCy. . . , through Fig. z. Dr. ./iagrl's mechanical method for constructirrg rvhich the rvave disturbances may pass. the rnagnetic Iines of force. 'fhen b) the waves in the same phase rvill everyrvhere T h e i n t e r s e c t i o no f t h e r u l e r s r e s t i n g a g a i n s t t h e s l i d i n g mutually support each other: the disturbing centres being in t r i a n g l e A B C w i l l f u l f i l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s s p e c i 6 e di n c q u a t i o n the same parallel line, the rvave fronts rvill become straightened (zz). nor zr-I} is the cosine of a to thc radius e', and s,/J by the mutual supltort of the separate independent disturin like manner is the cosine of B to the radius r', and bances. NS: C. c) Norv inrasine the orifices brought closer and closer Hence the point of a pencil, held at this intersection together, yet maintained as distinct ccntres of disturbances: a, will at once describe a line of the n-ragnetlc force, oo'. \\'e see that beyond the line 3C, prolonged in both directions, ln the present paper the lines of force for the earth's field the rvave fronts rvill become quite straight in the centre, but have not been drarvn by such mechanical magnetic line rvill curve around rapidly only near the end of the extreme apparatus,yet the accuracy is sufficient for all purposes here orifice B''C', R,,C,, above and belorv respectively. This is in view, which is chiefly the exposition of valid physical exactly rvhat occurs in magnetism: the lines of force curve theorv. around conspicuously as rve approach the ends of the magnet r3'
\ l

/ . \ ' l ' h e p h y s i c a l nature of the magnetic lines (iu) of force i n v e s t i g a t e d b y m e a n s of an experimentum cmcis, 'rvhich shows that tl-rese lines represent the axial rotations of the wave-elements.

r99
0) :fle poles, in fact, are the centres of the reacting stress in the medium rvhen agitated by all the atoms vibrating in concert, and emitting waves of the kind here de'fhe lines of force being axes of scribed. rotations for the aetherons, as the waves move along, there is a tendency in these as fines to shorten thenrselves, in J)olhnt's e x p e r i m e n t ;t h e r e s u l t i s t e n s i o n a l o n g t h e lines, and as they are of ninimunr length, they tend to keep straight near the centre of the magnet, and to curve sensibly only near the ends of the bar, just as in the water-wave experiment above described from Ncwton's diagram of r687. 4. The experirnents here described are accurate and can be verified by actual trial for water waves, which are sinrple and 'I-hey disclose to us the easily understood. true nature of magnetism, for the follorving reasons: a) The results conform to Dolbear's experinent, where the dynamical influences at work are easily understood, and admit of but one interpretation. b) They are verilied in the actual movement of water, the lvavesof which also have tension along their axes and tend to

Sonderuummer

200

ti.. .

'\/ *
v

--/ .-/ .-/

"-/

.1,
// '/

._/
* a-r/

t-

l;ig.3. Ntutoti s diagrarrr of llre sprea<lof u'aves to a new radius, aiie'r passing through an orilice B('; r v i t h , J r i - 1 , ' si l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r v a v e- r n o t i o n , b e l o r v ( c f f i d e s a n d W a v e s , r 8 4 5 ) .

straighten themselves to a minimum axis s : : principle of Least t\ction.

I CIJ On

tlle

5. By actual experiment, 1845, Furaday found that the plane of a beam of polarized light rvas rotated rvhen passed along the line of force, through heavy glass, carbon disulphide and sinrilar substances,and the r)rore rotated the 'I'his fact shorvsclearly that aether rvaves longer the path s. 'I'hey of the type here described underlie magnetism. are proved to exist by the practical experiments rvith water waves, by Dolbear's experiment, on tangible models, and by ,Faradoy's celebrated experiment on the rotati<.rn the plane of polarization of by magnetism 6. There is one other experinrent rvhich equally supporrs the above conclusion, nanrely the revolution of a flexible hoop set loosely on an axis, in the apparatus commonly used to show the effects of centrifugal force. When the hoop is spun rapidly about its axis, it becorles of oval shape, bulged out at the equator and drawn in at the poles of rotation, like the figures of the planets which it is used to illustrate. Now imagine a series of such hoops rnounted side by 'fhen, side, and tied together mutually along the axis. when the rotation develops, the whole line of connected hoops will shorten itsell, under the centrifugal force, jusr as in Faraday's lines of force. It is impossible to iniagine a more convincing proof than that here suggested.

"

F]i$

l1i:,:;Ii:l*jii*ff
' [t;/!, ] Lun Jttiii,!'/'rrr rst{tr,i i01I rr, hnu[]tuf, .i I rlu InLil4tul$il'!!t[L

t;;..r,.t .'i:#l j ., .":'f,r,,.

6
\
l'-ig +.

, t
!D

lllustration of the simultaneous cornpounding of wave rnotions frorn closely adjacent orifices, by extension ol Neutotis theory. As the rotations about the axes are parallel, the tension in each wavc disturbrnce tends to shortL'n tlie arc of the whole lvave {ilarnent, and rnake the rvave front a rninirnunr. We thus get rnagnetic lines of force nearly straight in the equatorial regions of 'I'his the lnagnct, rvith rapid curvature torvards the poles. diagram, in connection lvith Fig, ? above, cornpletely explains the observecl phenomena in rnagnetism, and assures us that the rvave theory 'f, assigns the true cause of nragnetism. Drawn lry F. Grcathcad.

201

Sondernummer

,(\a

2. New General Formulae for the Intensity of the PonderornotiveForce in every Part of thc N{agnetic Field: the New Theory rigororrslyverified by the Law of Biot for a Short I\{agnet deep irr the Interior of the Globe as the Simplest Basis of the narth's Magnetism, r8r6. (i) Larv of the aether stress along the line of nrrgnetic 'force from pole to pole. When we have a new theory of any phenomenon in nature nothing is rnore satisfactory than its expression in the form of a geometrical law which enables us to confrrm the mathematical rigor of the theory lor every part of space. Thus rve need the means for exploring the entire rnxgnctic field, from pole to pole, to see if ottr hartlonic larv is everywhere rigorously fulhlled. If this larv is found to be exact throughout the rvhole freld of the magnet, this property of mathematical accuracy .alonewill constitute an overrvhelming argument for the validity of the new ,theory. lndeed, unless a contradiction catr be established,we may safely conclttde that the larv as formulated is a true larv of nattlre. r. We begin rvith the magnetic equator, since in this , r e g i o nt h e t r v o e r l u a l p o l e s a r e e q u a l l y r e m o t e ; a n d a s s a n d s ' .are equal, the two terms for the aether stress are equal, and the oppositely dirccted forces perfectly balanced, thns: I-/-rf' :

where P is the ponderomotive force pulling tbe small magnet (rvith poles 1a'and 4,') boaity torvards the north pole of the large magnet, rvith poles 1aand 1a,which may be the earth. b ) I f r v e g o t o w a r d s t h e s o u t h . p o l e ,t h e f o r c e , / p u l l i n g torvards the north pole weakens, leaving the pull torvards the south pole correspondingly predominant. Hence as s2 f 1t1t'f decreases, whiie /'lr'p'ls'2 increases, we have the corresponding inequality of strqps:

12, :

pt,p,, - p,1t,sz . f f s,2

('s)

This is therefore the ponderomotive force pulling the small magnet towards the south pole of the large magnet, which nray be the earth. In vierv of these equations, the reader.may now advantageouslyrefer again to figure 4 above, which gives a connected representation o[ all the wave phenomena in the field about a magnet, together with the forces thereby generated. It is well also to refer to the photograph of magnetic action reproduced in plate z, fig. r, which places the nerv theory beyond controversy, becausethe effects of the ponderomotive forces are rendered directly visible to the eye of the reader. This is the first photograph of the kind ever taken for illustrating the mutual actions of two magnets, the srnaller magnets being shown in four leading positions. , 3 . I n v i e w o [ t h e a b o v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n so u r h a r m o n i c l a w : (r f s2-+ r f s,2) (16) Ile q2 12

: y.1t' f 7o' f ,'. dy,-+ 1t'I t f s'2' d1t 1t 1t' s2-+ f s'2 lz 3) may be rvritten for the earth's ma.qnetic and gravitational !, polcs of thc grenter actionsin the forrn: where 1a and 1a are the strengtbsof the magnet (the earth for instance), p,' and 1a' thc strcngths of nnl.(r2f s2-+r2fs'2): ,1"r2 (rf s2-+rf s'2). (rl) Il,c: 111t,'f the poles of the smaller magnet, or needle, rvhich rve may Here, in the right member of the equation, we have srrspended by a vertical thread attachcd to its regard as .centre of gravity, rvhile the ncedle itself assun.res the hori- m e r e l y r e p l a c e d / b y t h e a b o v e m a g n e t i c e x p r e s s i o n ( r 3 ) , and for g substituted the familiar gravitational formula, zontal position. q 2 2 / f7 ' 2 .l n f a c t e q u a t i o n ( 2 7 ) n r a y b e s a i d t o h a v e t h e g: This fact rvas first carefully observed by I{unboldt following meaning: when he crossed the earth's magnetic equator in northern Peru 7" r' sorrth latitude, 3r3o4r' east longitude, Lretrveen The action of the large magnet, such as the unilormly the silver rr-riningto\\'n of N{icuipampa and Caxamarca, rvhere magnetized sphere of the earth, upon the snrall magnet at the elevation is about r 2 ooo feet (Cosrnos, r'ol. r , Ilohn the distance of the trvo poles, from which its stresses are p t r e n s l a t i o n , . r 7 Z ) . 1 ' h e t r u e l a ' r v so [ t h e e a r t h ' s n r a s n c t i s m exertcd, is to the gravitative action of the earth towards its are so iu)portant that rve shall be justified in derivine ceneral centre, as f o r m u l a e a n d c o m p a r i n g t h e m r v i t h t h e r c s t l l t so f o b s c n ' a t i o n s pp'(rf s2-+rf s'2): (nnn'fr') : ,lt (r2fs2-rr2f s'2: t.) (rS) in both terrestrial hemisphercs. What is true of the crrrth's 'I-hus r, the magnetic force is to the at unit distance, /: r n a g n e t i s n ri s e v e n m o r e r i g o r o u s l y t r u e o f a s y n r n t c t r i c a l tlr4oo. magnetic bar, because a good artificial magnet is much t'nore g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e a s r t o 1 9 6 o o o o , t f 1 1: regular and exact in its laws of attraction than thc earth, In dealing rvith the actual earth elsewhere, we find w h i c h i s r n a d e u p o f m a n y l e s s e r m a g n e t s v e r y i r r c g u l a r l y from the total intensities at the poles calculated, by Gauss .arranged into one large globular magnet. that the theoretical ratio is slightly different, namely: r to 2. As rve go towards either pole the force pulling r g8z 8oz. We need not here inquire into the theoretical towards the other pole weakens, leaving unbalanced the trvo sources o[ this trifling difference, as that would raise too terms/ and /', rvhich are oppositely directed, thereby yielding many difficult analytical questions relative lo Gau.ss' theory. the aether tension d yet becoming more and more ttr.reqttal The difference itself, moreover, is very trifling, 'towards the poles. 4. Accordingly, if I denote the total force, or aether s2 in' a) If we go towards the north pole, f 1t1t'f p,1t'$f s2-+tf s'2), stress along the line of force, so that 7: .creases,because s steadily decreases: on the other hand,,/' 'rve have for any place on the globe: .decreases, because J' quite as steadily increases. llence in (rs) f Ilg: q 2 1 2 ( t fs 2 - + r s ' 2 ) rthe northern hemisrrhere the difference of stress rvill be:
,t1
^

t l ' ,

lt,lt ls'-

t l , , plb ls -

( ,+ )

s2-+ l1r,1.o'(rf tll')1)lfnnn'fr2l

(rzf r12 s2+-r'lt'') .

(:o)

203

Sondernummer

20+

5. This means that the earth's niagnetic part acting at the distance to the trvo foci, s and r'; is to the gravity of the whole mass //r, acting at the distance to the centre ,-, as q2 (r2f s2-+12fs'e) r : : r/r g6oooo .Q'tf s2-+-r2f s'2) : if 11 tf r4oo. a) As shown above in (23) the stressin the aether along the line of force is pert'ectly balanccd only at the 'l'he equator, because there . p,p,'f s2 pt,lt'f . s'2 unbalanced tension along the line of force at any yroint rvhatever is equivalent to the effect of each pole pulling unequnlly on its orvn end of the needle. The old doctrine of repulsion need not be considered at all. b) North or south of the equator therefore the stress is unbalanced,because we have: : py,'f s2- 1t1o'ls'2 f : ponderomotive force in the northern henrisphere pln'ls'2- lolt'fs2 : F': ponderomotive force in the southern nemlspnere .

a simple view o[ the earth's n.ragnetism. It had been somervhat outlined by Tobias Maltcr of Gcittingen about the middle of the l8ih century, butBiot gave it a form ofnruch greater mathen.raticai elegance and rigor. He imagines a single magne! rvhose axis passes through the centre of the earth, in a di,rection perpendicular to the magnetic equator, but of srnall length compared to the earth's radins.

t,(c ttt rL

T h i s u n b a l a n c i n g o f t h e s t r e s s e si n e i t l r e r h e n r i s p h e r e is easily confirmed by observation, A sniall nrasnet suspended by a thread easily is seen to be srvung bodily ancl end-on towards the nearest pole. lf the proper pole of the susp e n d e d m a g n e t b e n o t p r e s e n t e dt o t h a t o f t h e l a r g e r l n a g n e t , the snraller lnagnet rvill quickly re\/erseitself, and then srving over, deliecting the tlrread about its centre visibiy from the vertical direction of gravitation, as shown in plate z, |g. t. 6. lt is the increased power of the terut due to tire nearer pole, and decreased porver of tire tcrnt clue to the opposite pole which throrvs the aether stressalong the line of force out of balance; and this lack of ballnce gives therefore tbe difference, or visible ponderornotivc forces: p : p,p,,s2- plo,ls'? in the northern hemisphere , f / \ -F'- 1tp'fs'2-ttp'ls2, in the southern henrisphere, \3I/ At the poles it is obvious that rve shall have: North Pole, 1; : pp,'f sz , because pp,'f s'2 : 6 Sotrth Pole, F' : ppt'fs'2, because pp'f s2 : 6 . / \ \32)

5. lllustration of Jiiol's theory of a short magnet near tiie earth's centre.

The results here develol)ed contxin the rvlrole theory o f t h e m u t u a l a c t i o n s o [ t w o m a g n e t su p o n e a c h o t h e r . R u t as such a theory does not exist today in any Look in the world, we have felt authorized to explain the nerv theory in sufficient detail to assure the reader of its entire rigor. The following development by Biot, rvho reached sinrilar results from another point of view, rvill also prove of interest to the student of this subject. T h e p r o b l e m o f m a g n e t i s mh a s b e e n s o u n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y treated heretofore that it is highly advisable to examine it from several aspects. Thus Biot's fornrnla gives identical results at the two poles, yet no physical cause is assignable from his reasoning why such a result should follow, rvhilst on the wave-theory of magnetisrn we have a \/ery tangible physical cause always before our minds, and generating the ponderomotive force exactly as observed in nature. (ii) Outline of the simple theory of terrestriai magnetism proposed by Biot in 1816. I n h i s T r a i t d d e P h y s i q u e ,r 8 1 6 , t o m e I I I , p . . r 3 g , t b e celebrated J. B. Biot developed an hypothesis which gives

lrr orcler to give a distinct analysis of Biot's theory rve tlcrive hrst the exJ;ressions for tire force exerted by a Lrar lrrglet upon a unit pole, as ordinarily given. I-et the line zrs denote the distance z/ betn'eenthe trvo poles of a nragnet, each of pole strength 1a, acting upon a unit pole ttt tn of strength p'. If fl,' be austral (south seeking), the fcrrces exerted by the poles ,/ and s will become: -loto,lr, -+-1Lp,,f . r,2 (::) _f : f, 'I'hese forces nray be resolved into two, namely P in, tlre directiort uo, and Q in the dire<:tion zs, -- the former sourervlrasrnall, the latter much larger: t

"P: Q

p p . 'o ( t f / 3 - r f r t ' ) p t o 't ( t f / r + - r f r : t ) .

(rq)

Let np be the direction of the resultant ? of the trvo fbrces; then as the sides of the triangle no! are proportional to the fbrcbs in their directions we have: p; nto;o1: (:S) a(rt-r'u):ll(r3t-r'3)) Q: o.p: l(r3-+-/3)f(r3-r'3). (so) I3r.rtby trigonometry we have 72: s21!)-t-zalcos(D r'2 : 42972-zalcos(D . (SZ) Noiv / is taken to be snrall conrpared to a, and under these conditions rve nray expand these exltressionsin series, neglecting terms o[ lf a higher than the first. 7-r : o*t lt - 3 (ll a) costDl (:8) r ' - 3 : a - s [ r - i - 3 Q l a ) c o s r D ). \Vherefore, by addition and subtraction respectively,. we get: y'.-r_+-t.-ir : : 2s-8, t"-s_r-s 24-r, 3 (lla) cos@ , (SS),

205

Sondernummer

206

Substitutingthese expressions.in(:+) above, rve find, . on putting for zp'l the magnetic moment n : zlf,: l:y711,t3cosotfag, ?: Q-n1t,fa3 e . 3 c o s@ . / \ \4ol

3. Detailled Analysis of the Larv connecting the Mean'I'otal Intensity of the ilIagnetism oI the carth rvith'ferrestrial Gravitation. IIS: (i) Anall'sis and application of the harmonic larv, q2 (r2f s2-+12f s'2).

"1'hemagnitude of the resultant force r? is given by the equation for the composition of the vectors P and Q: Rz: : \r'nence P24-Q2-zPQcosrD Q 2 [ ( 3 c o s{ D ) 2 - + t - 2 . 3 c o s @ c o s r / r ] Rny"fan'(t-r-Scosz@)'/'. \4rl \,rzl

If therefore the point r,rris on the prolongation of thc axis of the magnet, s'e have'. Q) : oo, and: 1l (+:) 2n1t'f 3. a 3ut if the point zr is in the equator, @: R - n 1 t ' fa 3 . goo,and rve have: (++)

Let 1 denote the mean total intensity of magnetism at any point of the earth's surface; and let .g denote the acceleration of terrestrial gravity, orclinarily taken as gBr cm C. G. S. It is usual to designatethe value of the horizontal cornponent of thc earth's magnetisln by 1, and to express 'l'hus this force in ro-5 of a C. G. S.-unit. at Cheltenham, l\1d., the Ilasnctic Observatory of the U. S. CoastSurvey in r o o 6 f o r r n d t h c v a l u e o f 7 t o b e z o ( N e r v I n t e r n a t i o n a ll i n r y c l . , N c r v Y o r k , r g r 6 , r ' o l . z z , a r t i c l e ' l ' e r r e s t r i a t r , I a g n e t i s m ,. r 2 r : l p or L. ,4. Iloutr', Linited States Magnetic 1'ables and I\,{agnetic C h n r t s f o r I c 1 o 5 ,\ \ ' a s h i n g t o n , r g o 8 ) . o.ooo20 c. G. s. A s t h e m a g n e t i c d e c l i n a t i o n f o r 1 9 o 6 r v a s 7 o " z 7 ' , we find I: / 596/: o.ooozo'2.g8838: o.ooo5976Z6 : o.o006, nearly. But since the declination changes slowly, and also the value of 7 varies progressively from year to year, we need n o t d r v e l l o n t h e h i g h e r d e c i m a l p l a c e s ;f o r a l t h o u s h a c c u r a t e v n l u e s f o r t h e O b s e r v a t o r y a r e a v a i l a b l e , y e t o t h e r p l a c e si n t h e s a m e c o n - r m u n i t ys ' o u l d h a v e s l i g h t l y d i f f c r e n t v a l u e s . 'I'hus s'e use the round number 6 . r o-t as representing he t mean value of I at Cheltenham for the I'ear r9o6. Accordingly we have by obscrvation: rlg : 6/98Ioooo : t I 16r5ooo . (qo) It is to be oltserved that at the erluator the harmonic Iarv gives the ratio f 4t rf rg8z8oz, and at the mean t l g g r 4 o r , e x a c t l y d o u b l e t h e e q u a t o r i a lv a l u e , poles Iq2 : a s n n d e r R i o t ' s l a l . A n d s i m i l a r c o n l i r m a t i o n so [ t h e h a r m o n i c larv rvill be found at r.arious stations in nriddle latitude, so f a r , a s t h e e a r t h ' s m a g n e t i s m i s r e g u l a r ,i n u n d e r g o i n g s t e a d y increase to'r'ards the poles. In the applications of the harmonic law y:

The simple equations (a3) and (44) represent lliot's celebrated result, that if the earth's magnetism be due to a short magnet in the centre of the globe, the total nagnetic force at the poles ousht to be exactly trvicc as great as at the equator. According to the scale of intensity forrlrerly emplovccl Eumboldt found that at the magnetic equator, bctrvccn t r I i c u i p a m p a a n d C a x a m a r c a , P e r u , a t a n e l e v a t i o no f n e a r l y r 2 o o o f e e t i n t h c , , \ n < l c s ,- t h e i n t e n s i t y r v a s r . o o o ; a n d a t t h e p o l e s G a z z s s : a l c u l a t e dt h e a v e r a g e i n t e n s i t y t o b c < r.97 7. This confirms lJiot's larv quite accurately; for half of the mean polar intensity, found by Gazss' profbund theory, is o.9885, in perfect accord rvith the rrean oI rr.rany determinations along the rlagnetic equator, as-shorvn by thc follorving table: Sixteen rvidely separated determinations of the total intensity near the magnetic equator.
Narne of Place

(+ s)

Latitude

./- Total r,r st [r'lgncIlc L o n g i-t r r d c . lntcnslty ' r8oz6' t.ot4

Cape of Good Hopc l\lauritius -f X{adras Otaheite Galapagos Islands I\lagnetic equator near Caxarnarca -

34"rr
2 0 9 13 4 r7 29 o 5 0 7
v z )

rls :

(r2f r12 s2-r12f s'2)

Quito I ) l a t e a uo I A n t i s a n a Ilontevideo 3 4 5 3 3o3 Rio de Janeiro ." J5 3r6 Bahia t 2 5 9 32r llinimum of faint zone eastof Brazil - r 9 5 9 3 z z Pernanrbuco 8 4 325 T Porto Pra-va 14 54 336 Ascension 7 5 6 345 St. Helena r J ) ) 354 Mean value of total intensity fo Half of Gauss' mean value at the poles lf ,f": : Difference

57 8o 2ro 27o z8r z8r z8r

3r r7 30 23 tz r5 zo 47 5r 30 36 9 3o 36 r7

r.'r44 r.o3r r.og4 r.o(rg r,boo r.o(t7 r.o68 r.o6o o.878 o . 8 7r o . 7o 6 o.9r4 r.r56 o.873 o.836

it is to be noticed that at the magnetic pole in Boothia Felix the line of magnetic force J' running to the pole in the r\ntarctic becomes infinite, so that the secondterm in the above equation vanishes, and we must therefore use only the first term in our crlculations. In like lnanner, rvhen we apply the formula to the pole in the Antarctic, s becomes infinite, and the first term vanishes, so that only the second term remains for use in calculations. At the rnagnetic equator on the other hand, the two terms become of exactly equal value, and the curved lines y'z : to the poles attain maximum values s r.4r4z, y/2: r . 4 r 4 2 , s o t h a t t h e s t t m r 2 fs z - r r z f s ' 2 : s' : r.ooo. ,,Ilso, by observation, each of the equatorial terms is approxi? ? nrately 1/2, as rve find by actual integration s:Jdr, ,':Jdr'. Torvards the poles, on the other hand, the divisor s or s' of the chief term becomes small, augmenting the intensity

o.9863 o.g885 -+-*,

207

Sondernummer

208

at the poles according to the data of observation and Gauss' needles will shorv exactly the same tendency. The pondetheory. The harmonic larv therefore is extremely sirnple, and romotive force or unbalanced stress in the aether is along the force changes steadily, yielding the required increase the curved paths to the nearest pole. of intensity towards the poles, and only half of this nrean Hence in considering the earth's magnetism we have intensity at the equator., to take the integrals: Now it was shown by Gauss (Allgemeine'fheorie des 1 ? rt oE r d m a g n e t i s m u s ,r 8 3 8 , p . 4 6 ) , a s . m o r e f u l l y e x p l a i n e d b e l o w , sl d s - l l r -f (dr,/d')?-f(ar/a";r1v' 6, J .J' that on the average there are in each cubic metre of the o o (so) darth's matter the equivalent of ,7.83 r bar rnagnets each 1' I' . P O c, - 1 , i . , _ J r| | r +.(dj,/dr),-r. w e i g h i n g o n e G e r m a n p o u n d , a l l o f t h e n r r v e i g h i n g3 . 9 r 5 5 k g . (a'/a";11v' 6' " J"' And as the density ofthe earth is taken to be 5.5,theaverage o o c u b i c m e t r e o f t h e e a r t h ' sm a t t e r w i l l r v e i g h 5 5 o o k g , D i v i d i n g a s e x p l a i n e c l a b o v e . In general the curves of the magnetic lines of force 3.9155 by 55oo; we find from Gauss' figures that: ,tl: ( + r ) in the earth's 6eld are curves of double curvature; so that 3.gr55/55oo 1;14o4.674th part of the earth is nragnetic, like the perfectly saturatcd t h e r i g o r o u s i n t e g r a t i o n o f ( 5 o ) i s d i f n c u l t , b e c a u s ew e d o n o t knorv the erluations of the curves by rvhich rve might compute steel bars used in the Observatory at Gottingen, r833-38. 'fhus and d:/dr. rve have to consider the curvature T h e s e f i g u r e s i m p l y t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e b a r d-1,/cl:u r P ' magnets within the earth is uniform, whereas a n)ore nzrtural a l o n g a n 1 , p a t l i r v h a t e v e ri n f i n d i n g , : ,'hypothesis rvould be to take the density of the bars to be J'ar, J'dr'. proportional to the density of the matter in the dilierent In its nrost general forrn the erluation for the curvature spherical shells of rvhich the earth is made up. a)ong :rny liath in space has the form O n c a l c u l a t i n g t l r e w e i g b t o f t h e a v e r a g ec u l l i c n r e t r e tlQ : [(a'r/ar!)t-*(a7/a")r+-(d2zfdsz1z1'r' (s,) of the earth's nratter, on this hypothesis,we find it corues o u t 5 5 2 4 . r 3 k B , i n s t e a d o f 5 5 o o k g , a s p r e . r , i o u s ay s u n r e d r v h e r c 9 i s t h e v a r i a b l e r a d i u s o f c u r v a t u r e . l s 'I'he l l u t i n o u r p r e s e n t p r a c t i c a l c a l r : u l a t i o n s , t s u f f i c e st o on the theory of homogeneity. ratio of increase is i r.oo4387 to r. Since the external action of the eartir's take the curvecl line s as lying in tlre plane through the m a g n e t i s r n r v a s f o r , r n dt o c o r r e s p o n d t o 7 . E 3r s t a n d a r c lb r r s , u r a s r r c t i c y r o l e s o f t h e e a r t h , r v l i i c l r a r e f o L r n dt o b e a t d e p t h s i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n su s e d b y G a u s s , a n d t h i s o b s e r v e c c i a t u u r o I ' o . 7 6 6 r f o r t h e n o r t h p o l e , a n d o f o . 6 6 6 r f o r t h e s o u t h l c a n n o t b e i n c r e a s e d l - r y a n y a l t e r a t i o n o f o u r h y p o t l l e s i s ,r l ' e p o l e . \ \ ' i t h t h e s e s l i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n s r v e h a v e c a l c u l a t e d t h e can adjust the dift-erenceonly by taking sonrervhatferver bars I e n g t h o f s a n d s ' f o r C h e l t e n h a n r , t r l a r y l a n d , n a n r e l y , i n e a c h c u b i c n r e t r e , 7 . 8 3r f t . o o 4 3 8 7 : o . g r 3 t ' , s ' : 3 . 3 6t r , \ r f s 2 - + t fs ' 2 ) : r . z r 1 4 , w h e n c e 7 . 79 6 8 , i n p l a c e s : 'I'he we find the theoretical ratio to be: of 7.83r . result is : : (.lg) I l g : r . z t t 4 f r g S z S o z r / r 6 3 6 8 r o. 1l:g.898+/55oo: rfr4ro.837. . 'I'able of observed values of the total intensity at G i v i n g t h i s v a l u e a r v e i g h to f 3 , a n d t h e a b o v e v a l u e a r v e i g h t variorts places and oI the ltroduct It12: r: r96oooo, ef z, we get as our rnean result: '. r v h i c h i n c r e a s e st o w a r d s t h e p o l e s : (+s) q:tlr4o8.37z. The result is thus vcry near the value I: r: r4o8.rz previously indicated, equation (a), and thus rve adhere to that value as the nrost probable. , . It should be explainedthat the curved line of rnagnetic force,.along rvhich magnetic stresstowards either pole acts, is to be integrated betrveen the place of observation and tire pole properly locatcd in the earth. llere rve conreto a nerv property of uragnetisni as distinguished from gravitation. lior gravity acts in straight lines, rvhile rnagnetisnr cts in curved a lines, along the lines of nragnetic force directed to either pole. It is directed along the tangents of thesc curves towards the nearer pole, and always is positive, as I hiivc lbr.rnd by careful experinrents with soft iron, and also rvith Ircely suspended snrall. magnetic needles. The qmall suspended nragnetic needles are n)rgnets, free to turn.the appropriate end to the nearer pole; and i v h e n . s o s u s p e n d e db y a t h r e a d t h e y b e h a v e e x a c r l y a s s o f t ilon in rvhich magnetism is induced by the rvavcs in the field of the larger magnet. It is easy to find by trial of this simple experiment, that just as soft iron hlings rvhen laid upon a glass plate and jarred, will arrange themselves along the nragnetic line of force, so also freely suspended
l'lace , r'atrtude Dirst I l,ongitrrtle' 1rr2: r,t96oooo.'

(s,)'

-+-Zg"5o' tr"4o' r.562 r : rz548oz Spitzbergen Capc of Good Hope - 3 4 r r rB z6 r.or4 r : rgjog4o -F70 FIa rnnrerfest 23 46 r.5o6 r: 13o6575 40 -20 XI a u r i t i u s g 57 3r r.144 r: r7rr..3oo I i i n g ( i c o r g e ' sS o u n d - 3 5 z rrT 56 r.j09 r:tt46872 -42 Ilobartown 53 r47 24 r.tir7 r:ro787oo -33 Sydney 5r r5r r7 r.6ii5r: r r63zo5 -72 South nragn. pole 35 r52 30 2.253r: 86995r -35 r6 t7q o r.59r r:r23r93o New Zcaland - r7 zg 2ro io Otalreite r.og4 r : r79r6oo '1San Iirancisco 4 9 2 3 7 3 5 r . 5 gr r : r 2 3 r g 3 o 37 -f North nragn. pole ?3 35 264 zr r.7or r: tr5zz64 -1CheltenhamI\{d. 38 ++ 283 ro r.?38 t i rr27 4oo -36 Con<:eption 42 286 5o r.zr8 r: 16o9r95 Vallraraiso 33 z 288 tg t.t76 t : t666666 Falkllnd Isl. Sr 32 30r 53 r.367 r : r4r38oo -34 r \I o n t ev i c l e o 53 3o347 r.o6o r: 18473r3 -22 ltio de Janeiro SS 3r6 5r o.87Eri223233o - r St. Flelena 5 5 5 3 5 4 1 7 o . 8 3 6 r : 2 3 3 9r o s *) In this table r7 is taken as r: I4oo, but it is not worth wh'ile to recon)pute it.

209

Sorrderrnrmmer

2to

The close agreement of this ratio rvith the observed value given in (a6) above is so remarkable that the application of the nerv formula requires no cornrnent. It iS evidcnt that the new forrnulnc IIS - (r/rao8. tz)2[(r2fs2)-+?'lt'')]

s:.fds

r':.1 ds'

total intensity of the magnetic force is vertical, and there should be no curvature of this special path either above or below the earth's surface, except for local inequalities of magnetism, rvhich in this general theory of the mean total intensity of the total force is left out of account. According to Gauss, (p. +6), the total intensity oI the magnetism at the north pole is: t,7or , f \5J/

will hold for any part of the globe. lior rvhat rvill apply At the south pole likervise Ganss finds: at the equator, at the pole, and at a typical station in micldle (s ) I' 2 . 2 5 3, + latitude will apply generally to any part of the earth's snrRestrictins ourselves to the consideration of the mean face. But it is evident that rve must expect the test to be f u l f i l l e d o n l y f o r t h e m e a n v a l u e o f 1 , s i n c e t h c c a l c u l a t e d total force of the magnetic intensity, and disregarding Iocal action from the distant pole can take no account of local i n f l u e n c e s a l t o g e t h e r , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t i n t h e r e g i o n o f t h e rnagnetic attractions, l'hich often are e[ sensible nragnitude. poles, the curvcd line of magnetic force s becomes straight, rvhile s' : @, and therefore rve can rvrite the harmonic /"\ (ii) The magnetic lines of force are paths of least Iarv in the form; action for the aether stress. The unexpected result above brought out, that the stress in the aether which gives rise to the magnetic forces, is exerted along the curved line of magnetic force and thus is tangential to the line of force at every point, requires something more than passing notice. Such a result has h a r d l y b e e n c o n s i d e r e di n t h e s c i e n c e o f d y n a m i c s a s h a n c l e d such rs A:ru,lott, down by the great classic authorities, Yct we Eulcr, Lagrangc, Laflacc, Gauss, Jacobi, IIanilfott. must remember that these classic authorities rvcre occupiccl chiefly with gravitational forces, rvhich act in right lincs; and if they dealt with other forces occasionally, it rvas alrvays assumed that the stress from which the forces arise act in.right lines, like gravitation. When rve conreto rnag'duality netism, however, the case is different: we have a of powers', and stresses acting in curved lines. It is admitted by the most eminent matbenaticians, that in the operations of nature the changes take place according to the principle of l-east Action. r\lready Jirnat had established by rigorous test the fact of action in l,east Time for such forces as lieht:

rls:

tf ts8z8oz.(rfs)2

(ss)

rvhere z is the earth's radius, at rvhich .g is determined, arrd I also is expressed in rrnits of the earth's rariius. , :.f.lr,
o

Using the values found by Gauss, in (S:) and (5a) above, we find for the depths o[ the trvo poles as more fully d i s c u s s e dh e r e a f t c r : North pole, s - 0.766r South pole, s' - o.666 r .

(se)

The results here brought out are quite remarkable. As s at the poles is a straight line, rve find that the pole is located much ncarer the surface in the southern than in the northern hernisphere. Hence the mean total intensity at the south pole is a maximum, z.z 53, rvhile in the northern hcmisphere the pole is much deeper down and the total force 'fhis very sirnple deduction .[- r.7 o r. correspondingly rveaker, throrvs light upon the asymmetry of the earth's magnetic system, long recognized, bnt heretofore not understood.

l { e n c e w e n ) r r yb e s u r e t h a t t h e h a r m o n i c l a w w i l l h o l d for the entire arc, frorn the magnetic equator to the magnetic poles. It is certain that the nragnetic force or stressfrom either pole not only varies inversely as the square of the distance s, along the curved line of force, but also renders In applying the above formula (+S) to the magnetism the pole a true centre of attraction, as so long held in the of tlre earth, rve notice that as magnetism is a stress, and theory of magnetisrn. 'fhis is what Airy calls the >duality directed along the line of force, rve must assume this curved of prorvers ('f reatise on l'Iagnetism, r 8 o, p. r o). <, 7 path to be the path of least action for the operation of the 'I'he l ' h i s c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e l a w o f i n v e r s e s q u a r e s ,t h u s d i s t a n c es t h e r e s t r e s si n t h e a e t h e r c a l l e d m a g n e t i s m . verifies the rvave-theory of physical forces. It rvas noticed fore is a curved path by l,-ararlay that lines of force tend to shorten themselves, t 1 (Iixperin.rcntalILesearches Electricity, no. 3269), which led in (dr/ar;'1v' ,i, : Ja, : J[, -f (d.r/df,)2-+. hirn to the theory of tension along the lines of force. We o o have explained this mechanical tendency by rvaves rvith n' n' rotations about the lines of force. Hence these lines of force , / t ? r , I : . . t s . . \ J (dz/d*;2]'/'ir ,- , - JP.. ^ , -- J Ir- -+-(ri_1'/dr)=-f : - / : . . \ are nrinimum paths for the rvhirling filaments, with tension along then directed to the poles rvhere the tirriit, ,re lr," ptu.. of observation and the nearer ( i i i ) D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e p t h o f t h e magnetic poles. pole located at the proper depth in the globe of the earth. t. Gauss shows that for the two poles the mean value Let us examine into these lines of force, in the hope cases of straight lines, as at the two s,ur- of the total magnetic force is: of finding special , . 9 7 7, f : face magnetic poles of the globe, where the direction of the

f tfu.ds. In later time this geometric condition rvas generalizedfor the other forces of nature also.

.6:

(sz)

Bd,.zr7.

r4

2rl

Sondernummer
rf/ :
wnence r/ :

t l a

2. To get the depth of the mean pole rve have therefore to solve the equation:

rf88oo7z

(os)

rf n :
This

: r . g 77f r g S z S o z

t f t o o " g 3 5.

(s ) s

is the ratio of magnetic force at the pole to gravity.

'l'his is a very remarkable feature of the magnetism the globe, and so far as I can find or,rt it has scarcely ( 0 " ) of o.zrtzS r. b e e n c o n s i d c r e d b y p r e v i o r - r sn v e s t i g a t o r s . Y e t s u c h a l o p i 4. Accordingly, we find by a very siniple process s i d e d p o s i t i o n o f t h e t r v o m a g n e t i c p o l e s , the southern that the pole placed at a depth of o.7rrz8r', u'ill generate bein.g one-tenth of a terrestrial radius nearer the Antarctic the increase of force noticed at the pole above the part Continent, - must have sonre rneening in the physical contf r98z8oz, which would correspond to thc distance unity, stitution of our planet. in this case the radius of the earth. ro. I'erhaps the phenontenonofthis notable ntagnetic 5. Since the intensity of the total magnetic force is asyrnrnetryhere brought to light is too novel to justily as observed to increase fronr tl're e(luator to the pole, according yet any satislactory discussion. Ilut rve think it worth \yhile to the general larv of terrestriai rnagnetisnt discovered by to point out that the magnetic asytnn)erry orresponds losely c c I{anboldt rTgg-rEo4, and first announced by hinr to the t o t h e l a n d a n d w a t e r h e r n i s p h e r e st h e o r i g i n o f w h i c h I , P a r i s A c a d e r n y ,A n X l l l , z 6 t r ' l ' r i m a i r e ( J a n . r 6 , r 8 o 5 ) , i n have treatedin AN484-4.1 , r9r6. 5 a j o i n t p a p e r w i t h N l . l i i o t ( C o s m o s ,v o l . I , p p . r 7 9 - r 8 r , 'franslation), I f t h i s c o i n c i d e n c e i n p o s i t i o n i s a c c i d e n t a li t i s q u i t e -Bohn we naturally attribute this increase of the r e n r a r k a b l e . ( , ) n t h e o t h e r h i r n d , i f t h c . r e l . , ea r e a l p h y s i c a l magnetic force to the snraller distance at rvhich the stress connectiorrof the pole nearest the earth's surface with the is exerted, by the nearer Jtole, that to the otirer pole degreat l)rir))' occau rvhich overlies half the rvorld, rve ntight creasing correspondingll'. 6 . I t m u s t b e r e n i e m b e r e dt h a t i n n r a g n e t i s u t h e p o l e e x p l a i n i t i r y t i r e g r e : r t e r c o n d u c t i l ' i t y o f s a l t r v a t e r f o r t h e r l a v e - l L c t i o n , o n r v h i c h t h e n r a g u e t i s n ro f t h e e a r t h i s a r e a l c e n t r e o f a t t r a c t i o n , c o r r e s p o n d i n gt o t h e c e n t r e o f e l e c t r i c a l a g r a v i t y o f a h e a v e n l y b o d y , l b r p u r e l y g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c c s ; s o e s s e n t i i r l l yd t ' p e n d s . \ \ r h e t h e r s u c h a s e < : u l e r s y I r l n ) e t r y of the uragnetic system of the earth could develop rvith the and conseqnently our reference of magnetic forces nust be lapse of' the billions of years involved in the growrh of the to the poles by rvhich they are exerted. ,,,lzr7justly says earth is u rluestion which must be left to the future researches t h a t m a g n e t i s m i s c h a r a c t e r i z e db y a > D u a l i t y o f P o r v e r s < 'u'e rnust not of natural philosophers. (Treatise on Nlagnetism,r87o, p. ro); hence -,\t any rate I deem it desirable to direct attention on that account fail to refer the forces to their appropriate c e n t r e s . A n d r v h e n w e d o t h i s a l l t h e c h i e ( ' p h e n o n t e n a o f t o t h e o n l y k n o w n s u r l a c e c a u s c o f s u c h a s y r n u r e t r y ,a n d terrestrial rnagnetism lnay be explained by the larvs of t h e s i n g u l a r c o i n c i d e n c e i n t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t w o s y s t e m s * t h e n r a g n e t i cs y s t e r nb e i n g b o d i l y d i s p l a c e d o . o 5 r : zoo attractiorr lbr forces varying inversely as tlte srluare of the nriles toivards the ocean hentisphere. \\'hrtever conclusions distance, which is another nrost irrpressive proof of the connection of gravity rvith magnetism, and of magnctisnr rvith m a y i - r e d e v e l o p e d , t h e s e t w o r e n r a r k a b l e a s y n r n r e t r i e s , gravitation - both of these forces being due to rvave-action, o n e r e l a t i n s t o t h e o c e a n a n d t h e o t h e r t o t h e l r a g n e t i c -- are the greatest outstanding physical features of following the sanre laws, yet exerted along rectilinear and systelD, the globe. aud their essential coincidence therefore is the curvilinear paths respectively. m o r e e x t r : r o r d i n a r y . I t c e r t a i n l y m u s t a l ) l ) e a rt o p h i l o s o p h e r s 7. Having found the average depth of the rnean rnasn e t i c p o l e s , i t w i l l n o w b e i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h very surprising that srrch vast outstanding features have reof the actual north and south magnetic poles in the solid ceived little or no study in the researches heretofore made globe of the earth, At the northern magnetic pole Gauss' o n t h e o r i g i n o f t h e g l o b e , a n d t i r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e m a g n c t i s r r r i n r l r c t r v o h e m i s p h e r e sr.) theory gives the total intensity as It only renrains to add that as the difference of the I : r'7or depths of the uragnetic poles fronr the surlace of the earth wherefore rve find ( 0 r ) is o.ro of the radius or 637.8 knrs, about 4oo nriles, the t f r r 6 5 6 6 8. tfn: r.7or/r98z8oz north J)ole is displaced downward 3r8 kurs, or zoo rniles, And : (or) r: / ( r t 6 5 6 6 8 fr 9 8 z 8 o z ) ' / ' o . 7 6 6 7 4 r . rvhile the south pole is displaced uprvard, towards the Ant8. For the actual south pole, we have likewise arctic, by an equal amount. The absolute antount of this displacement thus is very large. I' 2.253 which gives: s : r (roozg35/r98z8oz)'l':
t) trIr. Z. F. Weslcy, of Il/heldon tnd. Il/cs/c,t,, London, rvas able to l)lace in rny hands a full set of the great series of mernoirs on 'lhey had been presentetl to Sir foln flcrst,tttt, as they successivelyappeared terrestrial megnetisnr by General Sir ,/',dptrd .ldtine . in the Philosophical Transactions, and finally purchased by }tr. lllts/ey, viih the Hcrscltl library. \Vithout this valuable l{crschcl c o l l e c t i o n m y l a b o r s w o u l d h a v e e n c o u n t e r e di l r c r e a s e dd i f 6 c u l t y ,

3. And rve then introduce the factor r/s2, rvith the condition that when the whole force is exerted from the pole at a certain depth .r<r, we have the observed ratio indicated in the second number: (Ss) r l r g S z S o z ' ( r f s ) ztftoozg35

(O+) o.666zz r . 9. The southern magnetic pole is quite appreciably nearer the surface than the .northern. In fact the dift'erence in the depth of the two poles amounts to almost exactly one-tenth of the terrestrial radius, or

( 8 8 o o 7z f r g S z S o z ) ' l '-

'
los : o J-J : o.too52r "

loJo

(os)

a f . . Ja

Sonclernummer

2r4

4. The Harnronic Law affords an Experimentum Crucis as to the Nature of Nlagnetism. (i) fne acther stressarising nnder the harmonic larv gives forces directed torvards the nearer pole. If rve exanrine the .secondrnemberof the equation for the harmonic larv connectingthe total intensityof the earth's n r a g n e t i s m$ ' i t h t e r r e s t r i a l g r a v i t a t i o n , n a m e l l ' :
' l Il.{ : o / , r -\) , t o -l e l , l \1''ls--f ,'-ls

(o o)

rve perceive that at the magnetic equator the two terms are exactly equal, while as \ve approach either pole, the tcrm becomes largest for the pole rvhich is nearest,rvhile the other 'fhis term vanishes. ecluation therefore l'el)rescnts a stress in the aether in thc form of an unbalanced tensiolt. A t t h e n r a g n e t i c e q L l a t o rt h e t r v o o p p o s i t e l y d i r e c t e d stresses xactly balance. Accorlingly at this place there is e no force, becausethe balanced tension acts in the tangent, and thercfore is precisely parallel to the axis of the magnet. Likerviseat any other point of the magnetic line of force the tension is in the direction of the tansent, yet on either s i d e o f t h e r n a g n e t i c e q u a t o r t h e t e r m c o r r e s p o n d i n gt o t h e remoterpole decreases, rvhilc that directcd to the ncarer p o l e i n c r e a s e s . A n d a s t l r e s t r e s st h c r e f o r e i s l t o l o n g c r exactly balanced, that directed to the ncarer pole bccanrcs p r e d o n r i n a n t . I t i s t h i s o u t s t a n d i n g u n b a l a n c c c l t r e s s* ' h i c h s appearsas a force directcd to the nenrcr polc, alonq tlrc c u r v e dl i n e J o r s ' a s t h e c a s e n r a y b e . l'his is the nrost rcrnarkabie phlsical characteristic f o m a g n e t i s m ,a n d h e r c t o f o r e i t h a s n o t b c c n r r e l l u n c l c r s t o o r l , 'Ihe theory of the action of a magnet upon a unit polc is e s s e n t i a l l yd e f e c t i v e a n d n t i s l e a d i n g . F o r i f o n e p o l e , s a y austral, is presentcd, it tends to move one \\'ay along the (ii) At cithcr pole of the earth, the magnet stands line of magnetic force; rvhile if the opposite pole, say thc . boreal,is presentcd,it tends to move the other rvay along vertical, bccause the tension to the other pole along the linc.r or s'r'anishes. the magnetic lines of force. Ily an exarninationof the above equation(66) rve perN o r v i n n a t u r e t h er e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s t h e s e p a r a t i o r r / of the trvo poles. As pointed out in AN.5o79, p. 247, one ceive that near the north pole of the earth,the line of force \ pole cannot exist and act separately, any morc than one s' rttnnins away to the other pole is of infinite lenqth, and s i d e o f t h e h u m a n b o d y . F l o u ' e v e r s h o r t b c t h e p i e c e si n t o t h e t e r m d e p c ' n d i n g o n r 2 f s ' 2 t h e r e f o r e v a n i s h e s . A c o r r e which a magnet is broken, the trvo poles still pcrsist, even sponciine result happens at the south pole of our globe, t o d u s t - l i k e o r m o l e c u l a r r i i n r e n s i o n s . H e n c e t h e c o n c l u s i o n rvhcrc thc tcrn-r clepending on r-:/s: disrrppears,orving to the t h a t m a g n e t i s mi s a p r o p c r t f i n h e r c n t i n t h e n r o l c c u l c s r a t o r n s . i n f i n i t c d i s t a n c c t o t h c n o r t h p o l e a l o n . g t h e c u r v e c l l i n e s . o About the ycar r8zo the celebratedFrench plrysicist I n f a c t t h i s p r o p e r t y o f n r a g n e t s ,b y w h i c h t h e l i n e s Anllrc reached the conclusion from the action of galvanic o f t h c e a r t h ' s t n a g n e t i c f o r c e a t t h e p o l e s b e c o m e v e r y s t r a i g h t c u r r e n t s i n p r o d u c i n e a r t i f i c i a l m a g n e t s t h a t m a g n e t i s r nc o n - corresponding to zr very flat field - offers very serious , s i s t e d e s s e n t i a l l y i n t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f e l e m e n t a r y e i e c t r i c p r a c t i c a l d i f ' f i c u l t yt o p o l a r e x p l o r e r s . A s f a r b a c k a s F e b . r 7, currents al;out the atonts. A very similar vierv rvas taken r 84 r, difficulty rvas experienced by Sir Janes Ross, vhen 'I'heorie he atteurpted to judge from the obsen'ed dip of 88o4o, horv by Gauss (Allgemeine des Erdmagnetismus,rSj3, p. 49i Gauss lVerke g.r6S) rvho reasonsas follorvs: far arvay the southern magnetic pole rvould be. His obserr I n u n s e r e r ' l ' h e o r i e i s t a n g e n o m m e n , d a f ! i n j e d e m vations shorved that the direction of the dip from the vertical mef\baren magnetisierten l'eile des l)rdkcirpers senau eben r v a s o n l y 8 o ' , o r d i n a r i l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 8 o m i l e s , y e t h e so viel positii'es wie negatives Fluidum enthalten sei. H:itten estirnated the distance to the pole as about r6o nautical die magnetischen Fliissigkeiten gar keine Realitit, sondern m i l e s - r n u l t i p l y i n g t h e n o r m a l c h a n g e o f d i p b y t r v o . wfrren sie nur ein fingiertes Substitut fiir galvanische Strrjrne \Yhen Shacfrltlon's party - Dr.llfacftay, Professor Dauid, i n d e n k l e i n s t e n T e i l e n d e r E r d e , s o i s t j e n e G l e i c h h e i t Sir Dou,glas Maruson - approached the south magnetic pole schon von selbst an die Befugnis zu dieser Substitution gc- in rgog, they found that the dip changed very slorvly, kniipft; legt man hingegen den magnetischen Fliissigkeiten evidently orving to the flatness of the magnetic field - and wirkliche Realitet bei, so kcinnte man ohne Ungereimtheit they rvere nearly at the end of their vital resources before die vollkommene Gleichbeit der Quantitiiten beider Fltissig- they came near the region of the pole. On the evening of r4r

keiten in Zrveifel ziehen. In Beziehung auf einzelne magnetische Korper (natiirliche oder ktinstliche Magnete) tiene sich die Frage, ob in ihnen ein merklicher Uberschu8 der einen oder der andern Fltissigkeit enthalten sei, oder nicht, leicht durch sehr scharfe Versuche entscheiden, da im erstern Iialle ein mit einem solchen Kcirper belasteter Lotfaden eine Abu'eichung von der vertikalen Lage zeigen mri0te (und zwar in der l{ichtung des magnetischen IMeridians). Wenn dergleichen Versuche, mit vielen kiinstlichen Magneten in einem von Iiisen hinl:tnglich entfernten Lokale angestellt,niemals die eeringste r\brveichung zer'gen sollten (wie rvohl zu vermuten steht), so rviirde allerdinss jene Gleichlreit auch fiir d i e q a n z e l , , r < i cm i t s r d B t e r \ V a h r s c h e i n l i c h k e i ta n z u n e h m e n sein, imnrer aber cioch die trloglichkeit einiger Ungleichheit < noch nicht ganz aus.geschlossen. I n t h e I i l e c t r . \ \ ' a v e - ' I ' h e o r yo f P h y s . F o r c . , r ' o l . I , r g r 7 , p . z o , a n d A N 5 o 7 9 , p p , 2 6 t - 2 6 2 , i t i s c l e a r l y s h o r v nt h a t ztnllre's theory of galvanic crlrrents about the atonts, - to rvlrich Grazzss strongly inclines in the above passage, - is identical rvith the wave-theory. Thus the trvo theories a,re 'l'he one ancl the same. existence of electric currents about the atonts inrplies rvaves emitted by the atoms which are { l a t i n t h c p l a n e s o f t h e i r e q u a t o r s . I t i s r v a v e sp r o p a g a t e d fronr thc rvire bearing a galvanic currcnt that calls forth thc nraqnetic propcrty in iron, steel, nickel or othcr subs t a n c e s s u l > j c c t c dt o s u c h a c t i o n . 'l'hus l r t ' t h c r l c r r o n s t r a t c cild e n t i t l o f e f f c c t st h e w a v e theory lras thc sanction of ,'lnlirt anrl Garss, though it n.as n o t d e l ' c l o p e r l i n t l r e i r t i n r e , n o r s t a t e c li n t h e r v a y r v h i c h h a s c l e v c ) o p c ds i n c e t h e m e m o r a b l e t r i u m p h o I t h e u n d u l a tory thcory undcr thc analysis of Forritr and ?ois-sott.

z t )

Sondernumnrer

2r6

J a n . r 5 , r g o g , t h e d i p u ' a s o b s e r v e d t o b e 8 g o 4 8 , , a n d S i r Thus it appears rvell to illustrate an eas), expcrinrent by a Dou,glos .lfaason, at that tinre somervhat inexperienced, esti. p h o t o g r a p h a d n r i t t i n g o f a c c u r a t e r e p r o d u c t l o n . mated that the pole was distant only r 2 or 13 miies. On . r . \ \ ' e s u s p e n db y t h r e a d s f o u r s m a i l u r r g n e t i c n e e d l e s , Jan. r 6, they reached the estimated spot, by forced marches, and so space thent about the large rtra{net as shown in yet the point of verticity probably was still quite a distance f i g . r , p l a t e z . I t w i l l b e s e e n from the photographthat in ali away, for reasons which now seem fairly obvious. cases tbe magnet exerts a very sensible pull on the small For in r 9 r z, Sir Douglas Matt,sltt again sought to n e e d l e s . T h e y a r e t h e r e f o r e b o d i ) 1 ' d r a r v n alvav from the reach the pole from Comrnonl'eaith Ba1', on tire other side l e r t i c a l a s s h o l ' n i n t h e I h o t o g r : r 1 , i rh e r c r c p r o d u c e d . 'I'he ( H o m e o f t h e B l i z z a r d , z v o l s . ,L i p p i n c o t t , I ' h i l . , r g r 4 ) , a n d z. stateutent so often ntacje that a lltagnet exerts found by measurement that when he was at dip 89.4315, only a directive action on a ntagnetic needle, therefore, is only 1615 from the vertical, the rate ofchange rvas so slow n o t g e n e r a l l y true. ln the case of the earth, rvith the poles that he had to travel three or four nautical miles to effect a l m o s t i n f i n i t e l y d i s t a n t ,t h e a c t i o n i s i n d e e d m a i n l y d i r e c r i v e ; a change of a single minute in the dip. Thus in this last effort y e t there is alu'aysa slight bodiiy pull on the needle, northhe did not reach the south magnetic pole, but got only within an ward in our hemisphere, and southward in the southern estimated distance of some 5o or 6o miles o[ it. probably it h e m i s p h e r e . was near Garss' calculatedplace,trvo or three times this distance. 3. \\tith the photograph of the effect of the forces It is a curious fact that Gauss' calculated position of a c t i n g o n t h e f o u r n e c d l e s , e r e u ' i t h e p r o d u c e di n f i g . r , p l a t e : , h r the pole lies alnrost half way betweertthe positions attained o u r t h e o r . v o f t h e n a t u r e o f m a g n e t i s mi s c o m p l e t c l y . e n r o n d b - v , 4 f a u ' s o nn r g o o , a n d r g r : , a s s h o l ' n o n t h e n r a p g i v e n i 'l'he strated. argunient uncierlyinqtlre harnronicl:rs,is seen irr platc :1, 1-ront Slacllt/otis report on the Geoiogy of the t o b e a f a c t . I t i s i n t p o s s i l l l et o c l a i n t t h a t a s i r n i l a r t h e o r r . A n t a r c t i c . H e n c c i n v i e s . o f . t l f a u , s o t t 'e x p e r i e n c e o f t g t z , s ever before was proposed lrr anl other invesrii::rtor. And l v h e n t h e n t a g n e t i ct l e l d l a s f o u n d t o l r e s o v e 1 . i l a t t h a t a s t h e \ \ ' a v e - t h c o r t ' n o r vi s d e h n i t c l r .l t r o v c r l f o r t l r e l r r s t t j n t e h e h a d t o g o t h r e e o r l b u r n a u t i r : a lr n i l c s t o e f l e c t a c h a n s e it n'ouid apl)ear that /lr/tttio//i \\'as not far s.rong u ltcn i:c in the dip of onlr a single rninure, I belier.ethe southein s a i d t h a t o u r f a i l u r e t o d j s c o v e rt h e c a u s e o f n t a q n c t i s n r r . a s i n t r g n c t i r ' p o l r h a s l t o t l e t l t e e n a t t r r i n e rl _ x ' a r t r . e r y t l o r e r . tlre disgrace of thc l gll' ccnturr.. I t r l r r l : ' , ii l l ) l r ( , l ttro i t c r . e r r . n c e r i t c l r o r i t i o ne s s i g n r d l . + . l t s t c n r , s i i k e l v t h a t t h c c u u s c n e i . c r t . o r r l r l l r : r rt , L r - ( ' ' u z i z . rl . r o l o u r r r i t h e o r r - , n a n t c l r . : ; 2 . l 5 ' s o L t t l tl a t i t u r l e , ir" b r c n d i - s c o l c r c dl ; r - r c l s o n i n g l l t s c c l o n t h c t h c o r r - o l l : , 'l'hc r 5 : ' ' i o ' c r L s tl c . n r ! i t L r r l r : . , \ ' t r r t ; i . / , / 1 r) : l r t \ . i r r r 9 o g t o t ]l e . t i o : r o n . L r r i i r . r t l r p o J c ' - l t h . 1 l '' r l r g . et l * h c r n o s r ) ( l l r v i t h i r r a l r o r r t E o n r i l e s o { r } r i s s i t c , a n d , l l t u t , s o t ti n r g r : t h i n g ex i : t s j n n : L t u rIe - e n t l l r t , n e I h r v c c x e n t i n e l t h e t c rr'asrvithin about r 3o Iniles of it; i'et the ulttra\,ersed outit s p r o b l e n r f r o r n t h e e r o u n d u 1 r . I n t h e u n p L r l r ) i s h r cIl) r e l j r r irnragnetic l)olar area of ellipticnl fornt, n.itlr ccntre near Gazzss' nary l'apcr rvhich I sent to thc ltoya) Socictl in rg14, it position, \\'as still at least r 6o ntilcs long and about r oo 'l'he u ' a s s h o r v n c o n c l u s i v e l i ' t h a t a n e c d l e s L r s p e n c l eb v a t h r c a c i d rnilcs u irlc. r:e tre of this cllilrticalarca has nclcr n i s l r o d i l l ' a t t r x c t c ( 1 o e u ' i r e l r e l r r i n qe s t c a d v g a l v a n i c c L l r r c n t . t l c t l ) c e n e - r p l o r c d ,a n d t h u s G a u s s ' c a l c u l a t e dp o s i t i o n s t i l l 'l-erra the ponderomotivt'1or-i. l,cinq L is in :L vcritll,lc Incosnita. / =: !l,zi,tt.t._ t,t,) (f,; Iicturrting no\\' to the aboye formula for the hal1o,ic l a n ' , l ' e s c e t h a t t h e l i n e s o f m a c n e t i c f o r c e a t t h e p o l e s a s s l ) o \ \ ' ni n s c c t i o n t : ( i i ) I ' e l o l . . l ; e c o n r e e x c e s - s i v c l s.t r a i g h t a n d p a r a l l e l . A n d h e n c e , j u s t \ T h e t r e e t i s e so n p h y s i c s , i n c l e e d , g i r c n o c l e a r s t a t e as t\\'o paraliel lines nreet only at inlinity, so also the re- m e n t a s t o r v h a t h a l t y t e n si n t h i s c a s e . ' _ l ' h e l , s i n r p l l evarle turnins branch of a very straight closed line can reach the the difficulty clevcrly', and sometinteslaguell'. I^,ten ,lfa.ru,rll o t h c r p o l e o n l l l ; r ' t r a l e r s i r . r ia n i n f i n i t e d i s t a n c ei n i t s c i r c u i t . d e c l a r e d i n h i s a d d r e s so n A c t i o n a t a I ) i s t a n c e ( S c i e n t . r Pap., A c c o r c i i n g l y ,i t i s t r u e . t h a t a t t h e p o l e s o f a m a g n e t v o l . 2 , p . 3 r 7 ) , t h a t ) ) t h e m o s t o b v i o u s < j e d u c t i o nf r o r n t i r i s the conjugate tern) in the harmonic law becomes rigorously new fact (Otrsttd's experiment) .rvasthat the action of the zero. The rnagnetic attraction on the vertical needle there- current on the magnet $'as not a push-and-pull Ibrce, but f o r e i s r v h o l l v d o u ' n r r a r d ,a n d t h e c u r l e d I i n e s o r s , t o t h e a rotatory force, and accordinglv nrany minds were set a p o l e b e c o n r e s r i s o r o u s l y a r i g h t l i n e , a s a s s u m e d i n t h e s p e c u l a t i n go n . r ' o r t i c e s n c l s t r e l n r s a of aether whirline round foregoing theory, for calculating the depths of the poles belorv t h e c u r r e n t . < the earth's surface. This mathenratical method for locating 5. Just before nraking this amazing announcentent, the depth of the poles in the earth is therefore entirely showing that he had never tried the experiment u,hich I rigorous; and the only uncertainty which can arise is from carried out in r gr4, Ma.rucl/ in this address said: some physical rnodification of magnetic wave action, such >We have now arrived at the great discovery by Ocrstrd as the absorption studied by -lfaiorana at 'l'urin, rgrg, in of the connection between electricity and magnetisn. Ocrslctl h i s r e s e a r c h e s n t h e a b s o r p t i o no f g r a v i t a t i o n ( c f i l r h i l . N l a g . , found that an electric current acts o on a magnetic pole, but J \ ' l a y ,r g z o ) . that it neitber attracts nor repels it, but causes it to revolve (iii) Photographic illustration of the directions of the round the current. He expresses this by sal,ing that 'the forces exerted in magnetism, electric conflict acts in a revolving manner'.., In vierv of flre considerable confusion of thought on 6. Evidently the great Maxtt,tll believed that the t h e s u l r j c c tn o l ' p r c r . r l e h t i t i s v c r y i m p o r t a n t to have a magnet is not bodili' attracted to a I'irc bearing a currcnt. c o n v i n c i n q d e n r o n s t r a t i o n f t h e t m e n a t u r e o f m a g n e t l s n l . An error authorized by so o entinent an authoritv as ,tL:[aru,t//

naturaily would be constantly copied by the less cautious iniestigators. And thus to this day there is no clear statement in any standard work issued prior to the Electr. Wave' f h e o r y o f P h y s . F o r c . , v o l . r , r 9 r 7 , i n w h i c h I e x p l a i n e dt h a t the needle is bodily attracted to the wire, by wave-action, just as it is also bodily attracted to the pole of another magnet, by stressesalong the lines of force, as above deduced from the harmonic law,

we perceive that the gravitational force attracting to the c e n t r e o f t h e e a r t h , i s a t t h a t d i s t a n c e r g 8 z S o z t i n r e sr n o r e pbrverful than the total magnetic' intensity d acting at such distance that (r!fs!-rrr/5'2) : r, rvhicfuis near the nragnetic equator.

These considerations show how tangible is the connection now establishedbetween magnetism representinga lraction of the rnass 7 attracting to two centres, and gravitation di: s2-+r2fr") rf tg8zSoz'(r2f s2-rr2f tt) (os) rected to a single centre. Gravitation is the mean action rls: r12(r2f rvhich is fundamental in the theory of cosmical magnetism. incident to the haphazard arrangement of the planes of the atorns in a non-magnetic body; while in a magnetic body r : r4o8 depends 7 . T h e n r a g n e t i cv e c t o r c o m p o n e n t7 : the planes of the atoms take on parallelism, and the attracg8r cm. on the earth's constitution, as does also g: tion a >Duality of Powersq, as if the forces come from the But if we pass to any other planet as Venus, Nlars,Jupiter two poles. or the sun, it is eviderlt that rvhilst the numerical value of 5. Norv as for applying these forrnulae to the sun, / and of -- rvill be changed, as rvell hs the vector conrponent .r7,yet another fornrula of the same type rvill hold. Thus we notice that the trIt. \Vilson observers found the sun's for the various planets we could rvrite the following series polarity similar to that of the earth's, yet the intensity of m a g n e t i z a t i o na b o u t 8 o t i m e s g r e a t e r . H e n c e i f 7 s d e n o t e of ecluations: 4 / J ra r t | | - l - t - 1 1r-/ , r \ t h e p a r t o I t h e s u n ' s u t a s s r v h i c h i s n r a g n e t i c ,r v e ] r a r . e b 1 ' : /t ..'l l ,r i / t I s1') o b s e r v a t i o nt h e f o l l o r v i n e e , t u a t i o n : (r22f 1',1{,: r1.2) s22-rrr'lst'')

(os)

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Sotlr!

rr,here .: r l l r + o S , a s d e d u c e d f r o m t h e r e s e a r c h eo f G a u s s , s 1 and used throughout our theory of the earth's magnetism. (iv) Calculation of the magnetic vector component for 6 . I t r v o u l d t h L r s . r p p e atrh e t g l o l r c f o r g l o b e t h e p a r t o f t h c s u n s h o r v st h a t l : r 5 7 t h p a r t o f t h e s o l a r n r e s s s n r e g n e t i c . i 'l'he t h e s u n ' su t a s s v h i c hi s n r a g n c t i cs r , ir . 1 o S . I 8 o : r i rf t57.4, r. f o r r n u l a r v h i c h c o n n e c t s t e r r e s t r i a ln r a g n e t i s r t r g e n e r e lv a l i - o f t h e i v h o l e o f t h a t i m m e n s e m a s s o f l l e r n i n g l l r l i d . $'ith eravitation upon the earth is therefore of 'l'he totai intcnsitv oi soilr nllsncrisut being as the dity. ( lravitational er:tion liorn the centre ot' a spherical - t h e i n t c g r a l a c t i o n o f a l l t h e p a r t i c l e su n d e r h a p - scluare of this fraction,. rve have planet, h a z a r d a r r a n g e n t e n t , r v h e t h e r t h e m a s s b e h o n t o g e n e o u so r ? t " : ( t f r 5 7 . a z ) ' ) r . ' z q ; Sr t7:ji n r a d e n p o f c o n c e n t r i c s h e l l s o f u n i f o r m d e n s i t y - r v o u l d A n d o u r e q u a t i o n f o r t h e h a r n r o n i r :I r r u ' : r s u l r p l i e d t o t h e have a mean value at the surface. And the vector conrpo- sttn lreconres: r e p . r e s c n t i n et h e t i e c t i o n a l p a r t o I t h e p l r r n c ts ncnt r| rl.s: r 1 t ( r )s 2 - + / l t ' t ) : , t l . + 7 s r ' ( r ' s ' - + r , s " ) . ( z + ) f mass rvhich is magnetic, - rvhen $.e take its s,lurre for Since the force of gravity at the solar surface is the composition, according to the larv for directed magnitudes. z73ot.6 cm (AN 3ggz, p.r34), rve find that at the part of r v o u l d l e e d t o e q L l a t i o n so f t h e f o r m s i l e n a b o v e . -t'l'he r, rvhich is near the solar f z. f o r c e . 9 -i s c o n p o u n d e d f o r t h e s i n g l e d i s t a n c e the strn rvhere (r2/sr ,'2 st)) . / , u p o n s , h i c h g r a v i t y c l e p e n d s ,r v h i l e t h e m a g n e t i c f o r c e I the value of ./ *'ould be : e(luator, [t.rorZcm. d e p e n d s o n t h e > l ) u a l i t y o f P o w e r s < , .a s A i r ! c a l l s t h e m , and therefore has to be calculated from both foci of the I t t h u s x p p e x r s t h l t a t t h e s r r n ' sc ( n l x t o r t h c l t e l a n r : e d 'i'his . ruraqnetic lrnet. p c x p l a i n s t h e t h e o r y i n a s i m p l e r v a v ; s t r e s s ,r c l ) r c s e n t e ( l ) v r r : r g r r e t i cl b r c e s , i f u n b a l a n c c d , c o u l d vct in practice lve can not find 7 by observation, e"xcept p r o d u c e a n a c c c l e r a t i o n o f o v c r o n e c e n t i l n e t r ep e r s e c o n d , p e r h a p s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e s u n , t h e m a g n e t i s m o f w h i c h i s a n d a t t h e s o l a r p o l e s o v e r t w o c e n t i n r e t r e s .' l h i s force is very porverful, about 8o times that of the earth's magnetism, n o t l a r g e a b s o l u t e l y , y e t o n r n x t t e r s u s l ) c n d e d by repulsive a c c o r d i n gt o t h e o b s e r v e r s t t h e I I t . \ V i l s o n S o l a r O b s e r v a t o r y . f o r c e s i t o p e r a t e s p o * ' e r f u l l y i n g c n t n i r i n g t h e l i n e s a of the 3. ln general if rve had any standard of force, as at c o r o n a l s t r e a m e r sl i s i b l e d u r i n g t o t : r i : o l a r e c l i p s e s ; a n d i n the surface of a spherical shell concentric with the centre cycles of the sun spot period produces stupendous electric of an ordinary magnet, like the surfacesof the above spheres luminosity effects somervhat analogous to a solar Aurora for the magnetic planets and sun, we could write similar Borealis and Aurora Australis, which become sensible in equations for the forces of magnets under experiment in our droughts and heat rvaves felt upon our globe. laboratories. Thus the assigned cause of magnetismis general, We pause here to recall Gauss' result, for the earth, and the harmonic larv of universal validitv, and our extension of it to the sun, in terms of other units. 4. The harmonic law In the AllgemeineTheorie des Erdmagnetismusr838, p. 46 , (r2f rl,s : t12 s2-rrzfs'2) (Gauss Werke 5. 165), Gazzssshows that the total number may be put in a somervhat different form: of magnets, each weighing one Gernran pound, which it g 1 2 2: I l G l s 2 - r r l ( ' ) 1 (zo) rvould be necessary to distribute thror,rghout the globe to . account for the observed magnetism of the earth is But since ' \ ' l " l ul I r ' . 4 - r - : ^ , r r g i t 2 5 0 2 rV: 8 4 6 4 .r o 1 s . I

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v a l u e s w h i c h I u s e are sligbtly different frorn r84r, and by Sir Douglas ,Afawson's observations of rgog, those employed by Gauss eighty four years ago. With my a n d r g r z . T h e s o u t h m a g n e t i c p o l e i s t h e m o r e i n s t r u c t i v e constantsthe value of .rV comes o u t : also because of the way Gauss' calculated position fits in rvith the recently observed places. N: 84Sq.q57.ro18
:845445Zooooooooooooooo. (Ze) T o e x p l a i n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c eo f t h i s i u r m e n s e n u m b e r of ma-snets for the entire earth, Garzss remarks that in order to oirtain a substitute for the action of the giobe in outer space, rve should have to assume,under unifornr clistribution with parallel magnetic axes, nearly eight such magnets to each cubic metre of the earth's nrass (rnore exactly l.8S t ). Such a result, 8.454457'ro!1 one.pound magnets, everywhere rvith parallel ntagnetic axes, is irnpressiveenough an il)ustration of the mrgnetisrn of our globe; yet for the s u n t h e n u n r b e r o f s u c h o n e p o u n d m a g n e t sw o u l d b e c n o r mousiy greater. In fact the magnetic part of tlre sun is I I I S1 oI the rvhole, and since the sun is .T3oooo ntore m a s s i v e t h a n t h e e a r t h , t h i s i s e q u i v a l e n tt o 2 r o z t i n r e st h e total rnass of our globe. Accordingly for the sun we should irave the hieher nunrber: N : 8 . + 5 4 + 5 7r o ' t - 2 r o z : . r7.,1Lz7. to2l 7 : rTTTr2Tooooooooooooooooooo. lll) 1 ' o c o n i ' e y a c l e a r i d r a o f t h i s c f l ' e c t\ \ , c n ) u ) , i u r u t l i n c o u r e a r t h t o h a v e t h e p r o p e r t y o f p e r f e c t n r a g n c [ i s r n .' l ' h e n i f a l l i t s r ) a r t i c l e s v e r e r e d u c e d t o n r a g n e t i cb a r s r v i r h p a r a ) l e l r axes, it rvould retluire :lo: s u c h p e r f e c t r n u g l ) e t i cg l o b e s , ' like tl n y p o t h e t i c a ls r . r b s r i t u tfe r t h e e a r t h , r v h e n u n i f o r n r i y , o d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s u n ' s n ) a s s ,t o g i v e t h e r n : r g n e t i c f i e l d r v h i c h a c t u a l l y s u r r o u n d so u r s u n a n d a c t s o n t h e p l a n e t s as they rer/olve in their orbits. Since the solar magnetic field is rendered variable by the outbursts of sunspots, with their increased emission of m a g n e t i c ' w a v e s , t v e n e e d n o t b e s u r'Stonilr'a t t h e e a r t l r prised currents (really ed<Jycurrents) 'l\lagnetic and Aurorae observed upon our globe. 5. Investigation of the Supposed [Iotion of the XlagneticPoles in rhe Earth. (i) Sir Janes Clu.l lloss ' a t t e m p t s t o r e a c h t h e s o u t h magnetio pole, r 84 r. I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a c l e a r v i e w o f t h e s u p p o s e dn r o t i o n of the nragnetic poles in the solid globe of the earth, we must first revierv the locations assigned to the poles by leading explorers at different epochs. \Ve shall then be able to judge if there is evidence of a progressive motion of the poles, and, if so, to fix its character as accurately as possible. O n J u n e r , r 8 3 r , t h e n o r t h r n a g n e t i cp o l e i v a s l o c a t e d by Sir Jants l(oss in 7o"5/ North Latitude, 263" r4l East L o n g i t u d e , r v h e r e t h e d i p . r v a s o b s e r v e dt o b e g 9 " 5 9 , . T h i s observation no doubt was as accurate as could be expectecl, but since the north nragnetic pole does not seern to have been located by actual observation at any later yreriod, rve have no obsen'ational data to enable us to judge of its s u p p o s e dn r o t i o n s i n c e r 8 3 r . We shall therefore hrst exanrine the problem of the supposed motion of the south magnetic pole, \yhere approximate data are furnished by Sir Jancs Ross' observations of Orr Febmary r 7, r 84 r, Sir Jancs Ross discovered C a p e ( i a u s s ,n e a r 7 6 0r z ' S o u t h L a t i t u d e , r 6 4 o E a s t L o n g i t u d e . Here the vertical walls of ice stoppecl the rvestrvard cruise o f t h e l l r e b u s a n d ' l ' e r r o r ; b u t f r o m n ) e r s u r e st a k e n o n t h e ice he observed the dip to be 88o4o,, or Eo, trom rnagnetic verticity, >so that the pole was only r6o r-niles istant<. d 'I'he place of Ross' ship is indicated 'on the accon)p a n v i n g n r a p ( p l a t e3 ) ; a n d a s h e l b u n d t h e v a r i a t i o n t h e r e t o b e r o g " z 4 ' e a s t ,I h a l e a c c u r a t e l yc h a r t e d h i s c a l c u l a t e dp o s i t i o n o f t h e s o r , r t hn r a g n e t i c p o l e , a t t h i s n e a r e s t a p p r o a c h t o i t . 'l'he p l a c e s c o n r n t o n l y a s s i g n e dt o - l l a s s e s t i r u a t eo f t h e p l a c e ' o f t h e p o l e , l r e t l L r e n t l ya r e s o i n e x a c t t h a t i t i s n e c e i s a r y to exercisecaution, to avoid being mislecl.'l'hus in the a r t i c l e P o l a r l { e g i o n s ,E n c y c l . 1 3 r i t .g , } , d . , r g l i v o l . r p . , e 5, 9, 33o, i t i s s t a t e d t h a t ) t h e s o u t h r n a g n e t i c p o l e r v a sc a l c u l a t e dt o . b e i r r 7 6 o S . a n d r 4 . 5 "z o ' l i . , o r a t r b u t 5 o o n r i l e s s o u t h w e s t f r o r r r t h e s h i y r ' s p o s i t i o n< . ' I ' h e r e i s n o g o o d a u t h o r i t y f o r t l l i s s t u t e l l ) e n t ,a n d i t c a n n o t b e c o r r e c t . 1 ' h e p l a c e l a i d < l o r r ' no n t l r e a c c o n r p a n y i n g n r a p i s l r o r n 1 i a s s , ' o b s e r r . a t i o n s , a n c l h c e x p r e s s l y d e c l a r e s t h a t ) t l r e p o l e u , a so n l y r 6 o n r i l e s d istant((. liass believt,rl the pole to be in the snorv capped nrountains,sligirtly' to the nortll of \\'est liorn his position,. and as the surrrurits ere over roooo feet high, he could w beholrl fioru the sea rhe range of nrountainsin which the p o l e i s y r l a c e c la n c l y e t h e c o u l c l n o t r e a c h i t , o w i n g t o t h e , i n d e f i n i t e l y e x t e n d e c lv e r t i c a l r v a l l s o f i c e . In his account he adds: )'I'he range of mountainsin, the extrernc rvest, rvhich, if they be oI an equal elevation rvith Xlount I.lrebus, were not less than fifty leagues distant (r5o nautical miles), and therefore undoubtedly the seaiof the southern masnetic pole, *as distinguishedby the nanre of His lioyal Flighness, Prince Alltrt.<< It is s,orthy of notice that -1iassseenis to have been. arvare of tlre llatnessof the earttr'slield, near the magnetic I)ole; for rvhen the dip is only 8o, frorn r.erticity, hJ estinrates the pole to be distant r6o miles - so that twice as. many nrilcs rvoulcl have to be traversed to l)roduce the re<luired change of dip. This sanre problem arises with Sir I)ou.glas tl.fousort, r 9 r 2, as shown belol,, but it was not given ntncir attention in the dash for the nragnetic poler n a d eJ a n . r 6 , r g o g . (ii) Sir l)ouglas Mauson's search for the south magnetic pole, r 9og. r. Ln Slac/tlclorz,sHeart of the Antarctic (z vols.,. Lippincott, I'hila., r909) a detailed account is given of the search for the south magnetic pole. 'lhe Shac/tlelon party seems to have believed that the pole rvas in rapid movement., 'I'hus on p. 38j, thev say: > I n t h e i n t e r v a l b e t r v e e nr 8 4 r , w h e n t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s were made, and rgoz, when the Discovery lixpedition again located the south nragnetic pole, it had moved about lwq, hundred geographical miles to the easrward.<<

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sonth magnetic pole from the other side, the base being in Cornrnonrvealth llay. The follorving is a brief summary of a ) O n p . r 7 7 i t i s s t a t e d i n t h e r c c o r d f o r J n n . r z , the chief ntcasurements of dip, and other phenomena noted. On Nov. r o, r 9 r z, the party started for the south r g o g , t h a t o n c a r e f u l l y a n a l y s i n g t h e r e s u l t so f t h e a d v a n c e .copy o f th e I)i scovery Ii x ped ition 1,1 gn eti c lr.eport,\lr. tlfa n sott mzignetic pole, the journey being mainly to the south, and a decided that )the magnetic pole, instead of rnovinq caster- slightly to the east. On Nov. zo, the dip was 87" 27,, rely, as it had donc in the interval betrveen.Salrzr's ol;s,er- c r u i r i n g a c h a n g e o f r 5 3 ' t o r e a c h t h e p o l e ; b u t b y N o v . 2 7 , rations in r84r, and the time of the l)iscovery lixpedition the dip had changedto 88o54', yet as the changewas some) . n t g o z , r v a s l i k e l y n o n ' t o b e t r a v e l i n g s o m e r v h a tt o t h e r v h a t s u d d e n i t r v a s t h o u g h t t o b e r t o o l a r g e ( , ( p . r 8 Z ) , 'l'his northwest((. r v a s o f c o u r s e o n t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e p e r h a p s t h e r e a d i n g s h o u l d h a v e , b e e n8 8 " 2 4 , , T h e d i p c o n p o l e m o v e s q u i t e r a p i d l y . S u c h r e a s o n i n g , h o . w e v e r ,w a s n o t t i n u e d t o d e c r e a s e s l o r v l y , a n d o n D e c . 3 , i t w a s s t e a d y a t a r e s u l t s h o r v i n g t h a t t h e n b o v e v a l u e f o r N o . r , .z 7 j u s t i f i e db e c a u s e h e p o l e h a d n e v e r y e t b e e n a c c u r a t e l y o c a t e d . 8 8 " 3 o ' , t l lVaS an error. b) On -Jan. rS, ,4faxtsort got a good latitucle obserAs the party sped on they seemed to find the dip v a t i o n , 7 2 "4 z ' , a n d t r v e n t y m i n u t e s b e f o r e n o o n f o u n d b y nearly stationary for a time, 8gor r', what it had'been the dip circle that the dip was 89o45', so that they had at s i n c e l e a v i n g t h e s t a t i o n a t r 5 o m i l e s . S i x t y f i r , em i l e s m o r e length approached very near to the south magnctic pole. appcared to yield little change in the dip. On Dec. r Z they That evening the dip rvas again found to be 89"48', the passed 7o" south latitude - making about 14 miles a day, d a y ' s m a r c h h a v i n g . b e e n r 4 m i l e s . H a v i n g c a l c u l a t e ct h a t l and the dip rvas found to be 89o25,. On Dec. rg, the dip the pole was not over 13 miles away, they rested till early was 89"35', and at 256 miles the altitude of the plateau next morning. Thus they made an early start for the spot rvas 56oo feet, rvhile on Dec. z r, their sledqe-meteshowed r fixed upon for the pole, 72"25'South Latitude,r!5"r6'I.)ast 3o r nriles. L o n g i t r r d e ,a n d r e a c h e d i t b y g r e a t e f f o r t a t 3 h 3 o * l ) . n r . , On paee z96 Ra.gcdescribes the diffrculties of making guiding their course Lrv vertical marks erected evcr.v trvo a c c r l r a t e o l r s c r v a t i o n:s m i l e s o r s o , a s t h e v t r a v e l e d , t h e c o n t p a s sn o w b e i n g u s e l c s s , > > t r l a g n c t in ' o r k u n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s i s a n e x t r e m e l y c on account of the great proximity to the polc. runcomfortalrle peration. Even a light rvind rvill eddy round o 3 . O r v i n g t o t h e e x t r e n t e u ' e a r i n e s so f t h e p a r t t ' a n d t h c b r e a k - r r ' i n d ,: r n d i t i s r v i n d r v h i c h m a k e s I o w t e m o e r a their shortage of food they took no further obserratior.rs,trtrcs fornridablc. Nearll' all the rvork has to be done with m e r e l y r a i s i n g t h e i l r i t i s h F l a g , a n d t a k i n g p o s s c s s i o n I t ] r e l t a r e J i n s e r s o r t h i n i n s t r u m e n t - g l o v e sa n d o , the time taken p l a t e a u a b o u t t h e p o l e , a n d r e t r a c i n g t h e i r s t e p s u ' i t h a l l is far ercater than itr telnperate clinrates, orving to the fingers h a s t e t o t h e l i t t l e d e p o t u ' h e r e t h e d i p w a s 8 9 " 4 8 ' , r v h i c h constantly 'going' and becanse of tbe necessity of continually t h e y r e a c h e d a t r o h p . m . ( p . r 8 z ) . O n J a n . r q , , 4 , f a u t s o e s r i - freeing the instruntent from the condensed n moisture of the m a t e d ( p . r 8 o ) t h a t > i n o r d e r t o a c c u r a t e l yl o c a t e t h e r n c a n breath. Considering that the temperature was r zo F. rvhen p o s i t i o n ( o f t h e p o l e ) p o s s i b l y a n r o n t h o f c o n r i n u o u so b s c r - h e h a d f i n i s h e d h i s f o u r h o u r s ' r v o r k , i t may be imagined v a t i o n w o u l d b e n e e d e d , b u t t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n h e i n d i c a t e d that Lhhb rvas ready for his hot tea. 'l'he dip proved to was now as close as he could locate it.< b e 8 9 o 4 3 1 5 ,t h a t i s : s i x t e e n a n d h a l f m i n u t e s f r o m t h e v e r T h e d a s h t o t h e p o l e p l a c e f r x e d u p o n b y t h c a p p a r e n t t i c a l . I ' h e a l t i t u d e r v a s j u s t o v e r f i v e t h o u s a n dn i n e h u n d r e d r a p i d c h a n g e i n t h e d i p r v a s t h u s a l l t h l t r v a s a t t e n t p t c c l . f e c t , i n l a t i t u d e 7 o " z 6 ! S s o u t h a n d l o r r g i t u d er 4 8 " r o . e a s t . < 'I'he partl' was now rvithin r 7 5 miles of where Dauid, Apparently they did not even count the number of oscillat i o n s o f t h e n e e d l e i n r o m i n n t e s , r v h i c h s ' o u l c lh a v c g i v c n tTfaursotr and Mochal had stopped in rgog. They had to a l r e a s u r e o f t h e t o t a l i n t e n s i t y a t t b e p o J e ,a n d b e c n \ ' a l u a b l e turn back after getting within r 615 of the go" dip at the scientific data. The journey had, horvever, proved to bc nruch pole. -Iiagz's diary says: >\\/e have norv been exactl.y six weeks on the tramp longer than had lteen expected, rvhich again emphasizesthe and sontehorv feel rather sad at turning back, even though flatness of the magnetic field near the pole. In r84r ?as.r had taken the distance to be ts'o nriles it has not been quite a sunday school picnic all along. It to a single minute of change in the dip. Ily actualjourney is a great disappointmentnot to see a clip of goo, but the 'climate'. It u'as higher than rve the Shaclktolt p^rty found the distance there and back at time is too short I'ith this l e a s t 5 o o m i l e s . I f w e t a k e t h e s i n g l e d i s t a n c e a t z 4 o m i l e s expecteci to get, after the unsatisfactory dips obtained near 'Ihe 'circle, rate of increase since that on a great the change of 8o' in the dip from /lors' the trvo-hundred-mile depot. spot has been fairly uniform and inciicates that goo might place in r 84 r, rvould imply an average multiplication by be reached in another fifty to sixty nriles,.if the same rate three miles for each nrinute of the change in dip. 'fhe distance,'horvever, frorn -I?ass' place at the sea to the actual l,reld, and that rneans 'atr dleast another 1veek. It's no good o ers are orclers'. \Ve 'll havJ our pole probably was about 3zo miles, rvlrich rvould make the t h i n k i n g a l r o r r t i t , f o r 'l'rventy-five days tiil rve a v e r a g e n r u l t i p l i e r o f t h e c h a n g e o f d i p f o L r ri n s t e a d o f t h r e e . s'ork cut out to get back as it is. are overdue. Certainly rve have trventy-threedays'food, eight 'fhe (iii) expedition to the south masnetic pole, by days' rvith us, ten days' at trvo hundred miles, and five days' .lVausort, Bage and, I4/ebb, fron Commonwealth Bay, lgrz. at sixty-seven nriles; so with luck lve should not go hungry, In the Home of the Blizzard (Lippincott, Phila., rgr4, bnt ll/cbb wants to get five more full sets of dips if possible z vols.) rve find a detailed account of the approach to the on the rvay back, and this means two and a half days.<

z . T h i s s t a t e m e n ta s t o t h e m o t i o n o f t h e p o l e s i n c e r 8 4 r must be received rvith great reserve for the follorving rcasons:

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a a l

.,!
'It 4

(") Is there any evidence of the motion of the earrh,s magnetic poles ? 'fhis i s a q u e s t i o n w h i c h h a s .b e e n l o n g d e b a t e d , i , e t fronr the above analysis of the evidence it rvouid seenr as if rnotion is not definitely proved. Before making the abor.e careful analysis of the records I had inclined to the impression r ( i v ) T r u e p l a c e o f t h e s o u t h m a g n e t i c p o l e p r o b a b l y o f a c o u n t e r - c l o c k r v i s eo t a t i o n o f t h e s o u t h n r a g n e t i c p o l e , i s w i t h i n 3 o i n i l e s o f t h e p o s i t i o n c a l c u l a r e db y G a z z s sr,8 3 8 . abotrt the Goussian position (tl[) of the Xlaximurn I\,lagnetic Xlornent lbr the earth. But in this early survey of the data I After some study of the effect of the increasing flathad relied upon the pole being not over r6o rnilesfrom the ness of the magnetic field, as we near the pole, I have p o s i t i o n o f / l o s s ' s h i pE r e b u s ,F e b . r T , r 8 4 r . W e h a v e s e e n ventured to construct a table of distances from tl-re pole, above that r?assheld the pole to be distant only r6o nriles, with changing rate of increase for a given increment of dip yet in so doing he took the multiplier for converting changes (Za : 3') torvards the magneric pole. of dip into nautical miles to be only z, whereas the above T h i s t a b l e m a y n o t b e c o m p l e t e , b u t i t i s v e r y i n - table based upon ,4,fausoz's observational experience shou.ed structive, as affbrding a simple nteans of harmoniz-ing the that the average multiplier for lloss' distance should have conflicting estimates of the ol>sen'ersrvho have tried to locate b e e n a t l e a s t 3 , p e r h a p s 4 . the pole from opposite sides. It seentsto shorv that the true Wefindin the records of ShacLltlotisparty, r gog,abundant p o l e i s v e r y n e a r t h e p o i n t l o c a t e d b y G t t u s s i n r 8 3 8 , a n d evidence of a current view that the rlagrietic pole is near t.he almost certainly not over 3o miles away. coast, and even moving eastwardl As they travel inland they are surprised at the slowness of the change of dip, anci l)iffercnces ari : rnultiplier A0;1,): ni(Ali N,,_h., ^f of rlip frorn for r' of dip to give c o n c : l u d et h a t i t h a s s u d d e n l y m o v e d r v e s t w a r C . A s a m a t t e r radial rvitlth of ;,;";;j,, the t)ole equivalent distance _ -a , -n e- l c . i /. circles in naut. of fact they had not sufficiently allorved for the flatness of m , g ^, t Pole - iui1, 1u; in naut. miles. miles. the held very near the pole. And these errors of reckoning . r 16!5- rz' r8 4 w e r e n o t o n l y c u r r e n t a m o n g t h e e x 1 > l o r e r sb u t a r e a l s o , 2 12 g r5 5 r e y r e a t e di n t h e a r t i c l e ' I ' e r r e s t r i a l N l a g n e t i s m ,E n c y c l . B r i t . , g 6 6 r8 3 r rth ed., by such a scientific authority as l)r. Charlts Cltrte, 6 zt 4 3 7 director of the Kew Observatory. o 8 ,+ 5 3 l)r. Clrec points out that Sabiue's Chart (r84r) gave lor the south magnetic pole 73" 30, South Latitude, r47;3on \-r n 1 ( z / d 1 - , / 6 ; + , ) : miles 96 -1-J l)ast l,ongitude. He says Prof-essor/. C. Adaus in his res c r L r c i r e r e a < : h e dt h e c o o r d i n a t e s 7 3 " 4 o , S . , a n d , t 4 7 o 7 , E . s Estinrated total distance of Ma tason's party in rgrz frorn pole .: r o 6 m i l es Clrtc then gives the following table as a summary of the chiel data. Estinrated distance of Sfiac/tlelon's party of rgog liom pole (.\.) Southern Cross Expedition, . .: o niles. 7 7zo 4o, S., r5zo30, E. 'l'he (B) Voyageof the >Discovery<<, ln fact it is about 7o nriles northwest of the furtherest r9o2-1 7z 5r S., t56 z5 E. point reached by S/nc/tletois 1lnrty in r 9og, and about ( C ) S / n c / t l e t o z z ' s D x p e d i t i or 9 o 8 - 9 7 " z 5 5 . , t ! 5 , 6 f n, r o 5 m i l e s s o u t h e a s to f r v h e r e, l L f a u t s o t ip a r t y l i a l t e d i n r g r z . s 'I'he is star on the nrap shows rvhere rve locate the south nragnetic In corrclrrsion Dr. C/trec thinks >>there at least moderate pole, after a careful study of all the evidence furnished by p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l er n o v e m e n tt o w a r d s t h e n o r t h east has taken place during the last seventy years.( tlre parties of S/tuclletou and ]fawsot. 'I'his Unfortunately for Dr. Chree's argument rve see frorn very accurate confirrnation of tlre position of the the forc'going investigation that there is not the slightest soutlr rrragnetic pole indicated by Gauss in r83ti, is rvell evidence of any such motion. If any rnotion at all is shorvn, calculated to inpress us rvith the rigor of the nethod of it is to the rvestward I'or Gauss' theoretical deternrination . calculation used by that great mathematician. Observation of the position of the pole is our only trustworthy guide. has not yet bcen able to improve on the resr.rltsof the I t i s v a l i d f o r t h e e p o c h r 8 3 o , a n d t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a lw o r k m a t h e n r a t i c r ic a l c u l a t i o n s a d e b e l o r e a n y e x p l o r e h a d v i s i t e d l m r of rgog ancl rgrz'show the pole still so very,near Gauss,' the Antarctic Continentl original position that rve cannot be sure that any motion Gazss' method rests on z4 constants, anrl thus recluires at all has occurred in the intervening 8o years. 'l'he star (*) n)easures of the three independent magnetic elements oi .lip, on the nrap is the most probable place indicated by the declination and total intensity, at eight places of observation. a v a i l a b l e o b s e r v a t i o n s ,y e t b e i n g o n l y a b o u t 3, from the pole The method does not require observations in the southern o l G a u s s o r z 5 m i l e s , w e c a n n o t s a f e l y c o n c l u d e t h a t a n y hemisphere, yet the more syrnmetrically the stations are n r o t i o n a t a l l h a s o c c u r r e d . U n d e r t h e m o s t l a v o r a b l e c o n distributed about the earth the better. Above all, great accuracy d i t i o n s 6 a z s s ' c a l c u l a t e d p l a c e m a y b e u n c e r t a i n b y z , ; a n d is required in the rnagnetic measurements,and as Garzss rvas a t l e a s t r ' o f n n c e r t a i n t y a l w a y s e x i s t s i n t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s f o a great master in this line of research, very littie intprovenrenr r 9og and r 9 r z, becauseof the difficulty in setting and reading has ever been rnade on his original constants of 1838, the dip circle accurately while traveling in so severea clinrate;

This southward journey of Ma.uson's party frorn Commonwealth Bay is full of instruction, like that of the Shachleton party from Ross Sea in rgog. In both explorations the observers found the pole with go' dip was much further away than they had at first expected. 'Ihis rvas due to the extreme flatness of the magnetic field near the pole.

,r
t4 's ?

a1 ..;

,*
F

:3

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Sonclernummer

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If the southern magnetic pole gives little or no evidence >Table XLV, Axis and N{onrent of First Order Gtiussiai of motion in 8o years, it would be natiral to hold that the Coefficients. IlllRr in north magnetic pole is correspondingly fixed. Unfortunately Epoch Authority N . L a t . w.. ' L-o nh . . - "g cgs.units. t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a le v i d e n c e i s e v e n m o r e i n c o m p l e t e t h a n t h a t r65o J{. hitschc 82" 5o' 42o SS' o.326o". for the south pole. \\Ihen only 1o years of age Sir Jatnts Ross 1 8 3 6 )\ j8 27 6: S5 o.3z6o:. was, in the icefielcls rvith his uncle Sir John Ross, and as t 8 4 S . y . C . A d a t n s 64 zo o.3z8z. 78 ++ they could only move some eight miles in trvo years, yet r 8 8 o 7 8 z 4 6 8 c o . s z i | '' r 8 3 5 l\truno_l'er, Ptftrson, Baue r 7 8 3 6 7 . j o . 3z 3 o t b e y w e r e n e a r t h e n o r t h m a g n e t i c . p o l e , t h e 1 ' o u r r sr n a n i n o.3z3ol sheer desperation finally got ashore and having found the r885 t\icutttol'cr, Schnidt 78 3+ 68 3r >49. 'fhe first order Gaus;sian dip to be 89o59'located the pole June r, r81r, at constants have a simplq p h y s i c a l m c n n i n g . ' l ' h e t e r m s c o n t a i n i n g t h e m r e p r e s e n tt h e 7o" 5' t7" N,. 263" tz,' r1n !',, . ' S o f a r a s I c a n l e a r n n o o t h e r e x p l o r e r e v e r r v a sa b l e potential arising fror-n the uniform magnetization of a sphere parallel to a fixed axis, the moment M of the spberical t o r e a c h t h e n o r t h m a g n e t i c p o l e . T h e N o r r v e g i a ne x p e d i t i o n m a g n e t being given by . of rgo5-o7, under Jioald Anu,ndsen, was to search for this M - Rn [(gto)'-r(.stt)2-+(zr,t)lY' i :, s p o t , b u t a l t h o u e h h e t r a v e r s e d t h e N o r t h r v e s t P a s s a g ea n d where r? is the earth's radius. The position of the north end came to San Francisco, with his vessel, and I converseclrvith o f t h e a x i s o f t h i s u n i f o r m m a g n e t i z a t i o n a n d t h e v a l u e so f h i m a t I \ l a r e I s l a n d , I n e v e r h e a r d o f h i s b e i n g n e x r t h e Mf R3 derived from the more important determinations of the north magnetic pole. Probably the ice blocked the rvay in Gaussian constants are given in Table XLV. The data for t h e c h a n n e l s t o t h e s o u t h , a s i t d i d r v i t h t h e / ? a . r s ei s r 8 1 r , n r 6 5 o a r e o f s o n r e w h a td o u b t f u l v a l u e . I f t h e y .w e r e a s r e l i a b l e and Anundsez had to steer a more northerly course. Accor- as the others, one would feel greater confidence in the reality d i n g l y i t a p p e a r st h a t S i r J a u t s . R o s sa l o n e a t t a i n e d t h e n o r t h of the apparent movement of the north. end of the axis frorn, m a g n e t i c p o l e o r g o t r v i t h i n r o m i l e s o f i t . T h c o n l y o t h e r east to west. The table also suggestsa slight diminution irr indications of value are drarvn front Gaxss' theory; but cr,cn M since 1845, but it is open ro doubt whether the apparent h e r e a c o n t r a d i c t i o n a r i s e s , p r o b a b l y f r o n r a s y s t e m a t i cb i a s change exceeds the probable error in.the calculated values.c Accordingly, it thus appears that Dr. Chrec is gery at some unknown source. doubtful of the supposed motion of the north magnetic pol6' For Gauss himself calculated the north mlgnetic pole to the westrvard. to be at 73" 35' N, 264" z r' E. Longitude, which *,as 3?5 Yet reasoning on the basis of the observed secular from .t?ass' observed latitude. This considerable diffcrence motion of the magnetic meridians, Airy remarks in his proved purriing lo, Gauss,who says, (p.++)t T r e a t i s e o n I \ l a g n e t i s m , r 8 7o , p . 5 . i : ... ,. r. I rNach r?ass'sBeobachtung f:illt der ncirdliche magne>'I'he system of magnetic meridians has undergone t i s c h e P o l t l m 3 o 3 o ' s t i d l i c h e r a l s n a c h u n s e r e r R e c h n u n g , considerable changes in the times of modern accurate science. und letztere gibt, rvie aus unsrer Vergleichungstafel ersichtlich 'I'he sorrthern point of Africa received from the Portuguesg i s t , e i n e u m r o r z ' f e h l e r h a f t e R i c h t u n g d e r m a g n e t i s c h e n voyagers in the fifteenth century the name of L'Agulhas (the K r a f t a n j e n e m P l a t z e . B e i m s i i d l i c h e n r r a g n e t i s c h e n p o l e n e e d l e ) , b e c a u s e t h e d i r e c t i o n o i t h e c o m p a s s - n e e d l eo r . t h e ; wird man eine bederrtend grciBereVerschiebung zu erwarten l o c a l m a g n e t i c n r e r i d i a n , c o i n c i d e d t h e r e w i t h t h e g e o g r a h a b e n . D a i n H o b a r t t o r v n , a l s d e m d e m s e l b e na m n : i c h s t c n p h i c a l m e r i d i a n : i t n o w m a k e s r v i t h i t a n a n g l e o f a b o u t in l i e g e n d e nB e o b a c h t u n g s o r t ed i e b e r e c h n e t eI n k l i n a t i o n , o h n e 3o". In the sixteenth century, the compass-need'ie 6ritain' , R i i c k s i c h t a u f d a s Z e i c h e n , v o n d e r R e c h n u n g u m t o 3 8 , z r t pointed east of norrh: it now points from zo" to 3o. (in clifferent parts of the British isles) west of north. At the klein angegebenwird, insofern man sich auf die Ileobachtungcn present time, a chanse of the opposite character is going v e r l a s s e nk a n n , s o r v i r d d e r w i r k l i c h e s t i d l i c h e m a g n e t i s c h e o n : i n r S r g t h e w e s t e r l yd e c l i n a t i o n a t G r e e n w i c h w a s a b o u t P o l w a h r s c h e i n l i c hb e d e u t e n dn c i r d l i c h e rl i e g e n a l s i h n u n s e r e 2 4 " z 3 ' , w h i c h was probably its maximum; in the last thirty Rechnung angibt, und mdchte derselbe etrva in der Gegend y e a r s i t h a s d i n r i n i s h e d f r o m z 3 ? 5 t o z o " , n e a r l y . I t i s be-' von 66o Breite und 146oLiinge zu suchen sein.< lieved that the rnagnetic poles are rotating around the geoAccordingly it appears that in view of the observed graphical poles from east to west.( difference at the north magnetic pole, Gauss rvas in doubt o f t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e c a l c u l a t e dp l a c e o f t h e s o u t h r n r g n e t i c pole; yet .observations over Zo years later verified the tme place of the south pole to be very near that assigned by the great mathematician. As Dr. Chru has recently discussed the problem of the motion of the north magnetic pole from another .point of view, we shall quote bis summary in the Encycl.'Brit., article T e r r e s t r i a l t r ( a g n e t i s r n ,r, t t h e d . , l g r , r , p a g e 3 8 2 : . B d .z r 7 . Great and inrpressive as are the surface changes heie pointed out by Ait1,,'i1 can scarcely be held that any regular cyclical n.rotion of the magnetic poles are in progress. Tbis, could not be so and leave either pole fixed in its place, as. rve have shorvn is trrre of the south rnagnetic pole. Nor, on the other hand, can \\'e adopt the hypothesis of motion and. assign to the south magnetic pole a cycle of oscillatioo enabling it to present the same position in, r'gro as r83o. We are thus forced to admit the most extensive secular motions of the magnetic meridians, yet compelled at the same r5

227

Sondernummer
.. 12:

228

time to deny any sensible motion of the nragnetic poles in the solid globe of the earth.

- P , dr-r-p dy-ry dz): lQt

The only way rve could account for such a motion :,,." bf the magnetic meridians withottt rnotion of the poles rvouid : (so) dt-+-0ltf01,.dy+09l1s.dz) be to assign the mericlional shifts to suprerficialeffects,per.l(a-(r/4.'. ; haps due to Eddy-Currents in the globc, like those disturb a n c e s w h i c h m a n i f e s t t h e m s e l v e sc h i e f l y i n l l a r t h C u r r e n t s in rvlriclr -(.) tulf:.l,lsLaplarr's equation for every point of a n d A u r o r a e , a n d d e p e n d o n t h e a c t i o n o f t h e s u n a n d f r e e s-u a c e : A''J910i-+?29f01'2+P!)f022 : o m o o n a s e x p l a i n e d h e r e a f t e r . P e r h a p s t h c p c - r i o d i c i t yo f t l r e secular changes and their dillerences in local surface areas o r i n p o l a r c o o r d i n a t e s ( r , u , 7 ) : o f t h e g l o b e , c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e r ) ) u t u a li n t e r a c t i o n s r f 12. ?(vt '0 !) l?r) l0r+- t f (r'2sinu). O(sin ?Sll?u) l0u-+ zz. - t -t f ( r z s i n ? z ) . 0 2 ! ) f 0 7 2 o . of the varions segments of the eartlr under tlre incessant : (s t) 'l'herefore m a g n e t i c d i s t u r b a n c e so f t h e h e a v e n l y l i o d i e s , e s p c c i a l l yt h e the yrotential of the earth's field may be sun and moon. expandcd in convergent series of the form: U n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c eo f c o s r n i c a l l yi r r d u c e de d d y c u r r e n t s , (S,/rr-+- S.2f r'r-+-5.;f rt-r. . .)+.50/-F.Sr'/.-+32 : d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s n n a n d r n o o n , a n d t h e s u n s p o tc y c l e w i t h -F5"r'l-+S"r3-l'" '. (8') its suddenly varying magnetic field, there cortld arisc not ' ' . ,5r', Sr', .Sr',^\,,'. . i ore surface harin *,hich S,, ^Sr, ^9, only the uncompensated electric disturbances, and their u r o r r i c so l t h e d e g r c e i n d i c a t e d b y t h e s u b s c r i p t s . varying dissipation, with arrroral displays in the atn)osphere Since the surface harmonic S'" can be expanded in of the higher latitudes, but also, from the rvay these disturbances are reflected and conrpensated rvithin a globe so t h e f o r r u heterogeneous as our earth, a n)ass ol'lrogrcssive secular 'l'his oscillations in the magnetic field near the surface. is t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s e t : u l a rc h a n g e si n t h e earth's rnagnetisnr: for we nrust not regard our globe as one homogeneous mass, but a series of nrassesacting on each other mutually, and all under changing action depending on the sun, lnoon and sunspot cycles. S, :)";i we have
il-@ ,t,-il

(cosu) (Au,,,costt 7-r I],,,,,,sintn7)

(Ss)

-(i:

>]
|t:O

){
rl:O

r,li (cos,)(A,,, <:osttt }},,.,,sin ).) I-r nt ^

-+-r,, I''ri' (cos u) (A r,,,,,cosn ]u-t- .B,r,rnsi zi I n ) ) ( Sa ) l a t t e r s e r i e s ,d e p e n d i n g o n p e r i o d i c p l a n e t a r y i n The 6.'I'heory of the Earth's trlagnetic N{onrent, w i t h G a u s s ' E x p l a n a t i o no f h i s \ 1 e t h o d o f C a l c u l a t i o n . fluences orrtside of the earth, usually is separated front the (i) The constant part o[ the earth's niagnetism dcpends other, because it is very small, and in fact was not included " in Gauss' theory for the non"periodic part' of the earth's on internal causes, and its potential nray be developed in magnetisnr. f'hus we have for the principal development of l" convergent series of spherical harmonics. t h e m a g n e t i c p o t e n t i a l: It has long been recognized that the earth's ntagnetism S r l r 2 - t - S r r r t - S o f r a - + - .. . f 9 : may be separated into two parts: rra:4 It:@ I r. A constant part, depending on internal causes, l / ' ; | ( c ' o s z ). : \l t . / t -, / , | , t ; r " ' ( ' l r t , r , c o s u ) . 1 - l J ,-, , , , , s i n i l t ' f ) i ( g S ) , namely plane magnetic waves emitted from the atoms so r il: I tt:o lined up as to have their equatorial planes parallel to a If we ignore all the hormonics beyond the first, we obtain: common plane. 1 9 : rI r2, \A,," Pt(cosru)-+'Pr (cosrr)x 2. A periodic part, depending on fluctuating nragnetic x(.1,,, cosl -r ,B,,,sini) ) disturbances due to the sun, moon, and sunspot changes. - r Let E denote the horizontal component of the nragnetic + f r 2 ' { o . 3t 5 Z c o s z r -s i-n r z X force at any point of the earth's field; then the force usually x ( o . o z 4 8c o s l . - o . o 6 o 3s i n l ) ) . 'fhis is resolved into the components: last expression is a biaxial hannonic of order unity, -rlr.09l1u Towards the north, 1(.f. 7. .tf. Jcans, Mathematical 'l'heory of Electricity and f{g6s[: - t -0910), (Z S) N l a g n e t i s r n , 3 ' d d . , r g r 5 , p . 4 o 3 ) , a n d i s e a s i l ys h o w n t o b e Towards the west, Y: ZIsin d : e lV sinu) :03lf1r Vertically downward, Z: tttgd e q u a l t o o . 3 2 2 4 c o s 1 , w h e r e 1 i s t h e a n g u l a r d i s t a n c eo f t h e where d:1hg magnetic declination; d: a n g l e o f t h e d i p ; point (2, l,) lronr the pole of a unilorrnly nragnetized sphere and l2 : 116 potential due to the earth's lleld at a point rvith axis through of polar distance u and longitude i, distant r from the centre o[ the globe. , If a, f, f be the components of the nragnetic force at any point (r, y, z), we shall have L a t . 7 8 o2 o ' N . , a n d L o n g . 6 7 o 1 7 ' W . ', 11: 11o 4st 1 -1. ,g"" or, Accordingly the potential is 9 - o.32z4cosy.fr2 as direction ,^^\ (88)

(so) (az)

as discussed by Chrcc, near the end of section 5 above.

s2: -trlq.dp
Q: -ls)l *r c lri'zrrslcosucoszq-f sinasinze os(1 *ro2lth

( es )

( Z s ) which is the potential of a uniformly magnetized sphere having

of magnetization the radius through the point

229

Sondernummer p: :

a3a

defined in equation (Sa). It is sometimes defined as equivalent to the potential of a single masnetic particle of appropriate magnetic mass at the centre of the earth, yet with the axis of the magnetic particle pointing in this same direction. (ii) The calculation of the magnetic moment of a magnet explained more in detail. In all thc older theories it lvas recognized that in a magnet we have to inragine as much negative as positive nragnetism, so that, as Gauss expressed lt : o, when .fap the integral is extended throughout the .rvhole body. We shall now examine the basis of this reasoning. L e t p b e a s r n a l l q u a n t i t y o f m a g n e t i s n r, f t h e r e s n l t a n t , magnetic force at the point (*,)',t), then the magneticforce exerted on a qunntity 1t, o{ magnetism concentraterl there is o, and in orclcr to tl.f. No$, for a u'hole masnet JOln: fulfill this condition for the opposite magnetisms u,e have:

()prl>gt,-)y,'r'f 2p,').rf >Up.fu-*,)lt)lQ>p\ t: )d,(FlK: > Jtdulr{ - >AdulI{. (qo)

la dy dz, . we may

Upon integration for the volume iy : therefore write:

tt : rl! .fS.f dr d1 -,lq.,f t ! n a* a1, u d,z a, - rfr.[!!ca"aya,.

'Ihe

(sz)

condition that ,( should be a maxirnurn for a body like the carth evidently is that A : (t12-rR2-rC2)tt' should be a nraximum. Hence we rotate the axes to such n position that rl.( : o, or

dl | dr djtd,z: !V'vpzp6z)'h a s e x p l a i n c di n t h e f o l l o w i n gc a l c u l a t i o n .

d,( :

(ss)

J1o: -)p' . ( qo ) Lct N be the . centre of nrass of the positivc, S thc centre of mass of the negative rlagnctisrn clrarar:tcristic f o t h e t w o p o l e s o f t h e n r a q n c t ;t h c n o b v i o u s l yt i t c c o o r t l i n a t c s of r1l and .S arc: j': i: )trl)lt,, )gf \yt,, .J: )7,:/)la; , \ |'; p ' a ' f ) 1 , ' , j , - ) p t 1 r f) 1 t ' , Z ' : ) 1 r ' s ' f) 1 t , . 1 9 I J
Now if / bc the distance betrveen l,' ancl .5', s'hose coordinatesare givcn in (gl), rve have: -r')'-+(iZ: t,')2-+(-:')t|tt. ; ( q ,) [(I Then, there is a certain constant in the thcorl' of a magnet, known as the rnagnetic moment, rvlrich rvc shall'call -A-:

I{:
'fhe

/)F, -

--l)p,'.

(q: )

arc the lnolncrlts of the earth's magnetism in respect to the c a r t h ' s a x i s , a n d t h e t w o e a r t h - r a d i if o r t h e l o n g i t u d e o " a n d g o " . ) i y t h e e a r t h ' s a x i s w e a r e t o u n d e r s t a n dt h e d i r e c t i o n to the north pole, and the negative sisn of the corresponding nroment indicatcs that the magnetic axis makes an obtuse anqle with it, that the magnetic north pole is turned to the 'fhe south. direction of the magnetic axis resulting from this is parallel to the diameter of the earth at 77o5o, north latitude, z96" zg' longitude (east), 7i" 5o, south latitude, t t 6 o z 9 ' l o n g i t u d e ( e a s t ) ,a n d t h e m a g n e t i c m o m e n t i n r e s p e c t to thc same - g47.o8 r?:t.< )ln respcct to this last result, we &re to remember, that our elernents are based upon a unit of intensity which is a thousandth part of that commonly used. In order to make the reduction to the absolute unit established in the Intensitas Vis Magneticae, we remark that in the latter the horizontal intensity of Gdttingen, r834, July rg, was found 7E:zt 7q:.jg 7e:c \95,l : r.77 48, from which with the inclination 68" r, the total / being a vector or directed magnitude, taneential to the i n t e n s i t y : 4,7414 follows, whereas by the above unit this l i n e o f m a g n e t i z a t i o n , a n d A , B , C t h e i d e a l e q u i v a l e n t was taken to be : r3SZ. The reduction factor is therefore magnets with axes parallel to the coordinate axes. : o.ooi494r, and consequently the magnetic nroment of If ?, q, r' be the direction cosines o[ the axis of the the earth in absolute units whole magnet, we have R (roo) 3.3o92 r .<

r n a g n e t i cm o n t e n t t h e r e f o r e i s c q u a l t o ' t l r e p r o d u c t of the length betrveen the two poles l-ly the antount of m a g n e t i s m a t e i t h c r p o l e . I f t h e r n a g n c t b c p l : r c c < li n a u n i f o r n r f i e l c l , a n d t h e a x i s o f t h e l i n e . A r Sr n a k e st h c n n s l c 1 w i t h t h e s t r e n g t hr { a d i r e c t e d m a g n i t u d c d c l i n i n g t h c l i c l c i , the whole couple lrecornes: .Eplf (S+) , l - ) 1 t , ' 1 f, t ) s i n y .f /)p/siny. It lollows from the definitioni" (q:l) that the masnctic moment is a positivemagnitudc K:/21t,, and since /:-A/S, the pole is the centre o[ mass of the rlngnetic forces, just as the centre of oscillation gives the centre of eravity for the gravitative forces at work in the nrotion of a comlround p e n d r r l r r m ,o f l e n g t h / . Now let L Z, ( be the direction cosines of the nragnetic axis of any clcnrent dz - dr d),rlz ol a magnet, and / such a rluantity that /dz is the magnetic moment of the elenrent: then f is the intensity of magnetization, at the p o i n t ( r , , 1 ,z ) , w h e r e t h e e l e m e n t d u - d x d 7 d : i s t a k e n , and we have

(iii) f,-arrss'calculation the magnetic rnomentof the earth. of In the 3r't scction of his Allgemeine 'I'heorie Gauss procceds to calr:rrlrtc the magnetic morncnt of the earth'. F I c f i r s t r c n r a r k s t h a t i t w o u l d b e a m i s c o n c e p t i o nt o a t t r i l r u t c a n y s i g n i f i r : a n r : ct o t h e m e r e s u r f a c e l o c a t i o n o f t h e p o l c s , o r t h c < : h o r c lj o i n i n g t h c m , i f o n e w e r c t o c a l l t h i s l i n c t h c n r a q n c t i ca r i s o f t h e e a r t h . >'l'hc onc \\'a)'(, says Gorss, ,in which we can give thc conccption of the magnetic axis of a body a general v e l i d i t y i s t h a t s c t f o r t h i n a r t i c l e 5 o f t h c > I n t c n s i t a sV i s 1 \ l a g n e t i c a e < , ' a c < ; o r d i ntg r v h i c h w e u n d e r s t a n d a s t r a i g h t o l i n e , i n r e s p c ( : tt o r v l r i < ; h h e m o n r c n t o f t h e f r e e m a g n c t i s m t containcrl in thc bocly is a nraxirnurn. 'l'o dctcrminc the p o s i t i o n o f t h e m a g n c t i c a x i s o f t h c c a r t h i n t h i s s e n s ea n d a t t h c s a n r c t i n r c t h e n t o n r c n t o f t h e e a r t h ' s 'm a g n e t i s m i n respect to tlre sarne,as already rcm:rrked above in art. r 7, we rerluire only a knou'lcdge of the tcrms of the first order. A c c o r d i n g t o o u r e l c r n c n t si n a r t . z f i , w e h a v e : I g 2 5 . 7 3 2c o s z J - 8 g . o z 4s i n r z o s l - l 1" : c - r78.744 inzsinl s i n r v h i c h - - 9 2 5 . 7 8 2R 3 , - 8 g . o z 4 R , t , * 1 7 8 . 7 4 4 R 3

(ss)

r5'

23r
'

Sondernummer

232

: )In this absolute unit for the terrestrial magnetic force and if we develop r/g in a series: the millinretre is taken as the unit of length, and therefore rlQ: rf r'(r0-+ T'rsf r-+- ro2f 7" r2-rerc.\ ( t o + ) r? must also be expressed in millinretres, whereby - since we rrave the-ellipticity of the earth is entirely neglected - it is sufficient _ " rf R 2 p : - - ()Tt 0 ,d , ,l ., r"o to consider r? as the radius of a circle whose circumference (tos) amounts to 4oooo million millimetres, According to this, the Rr?' - -!r'rod[r, R,]" - -!T,,ro2d1t. .whose above magnetic monrent is expressed by a number >Since fo: y, it will follow by meansof the fundalogarithm: 29.g3r36 or by 8538oo quadrillions.According mental assumption, that the mass of the positive and. negative !o the same absolute unit the magnetic rnontent of one of fluid in each measurable part of its conductor, and therefore the sensitive rnagnetic bars experimented upon in r 83 z in the rvhole earth; is equally large, or that (Intensitas,Art. zr) is i rooSZTooo; and the rnagnetic o m o m e n t o f t h e e a r t h i s t h e r e f o r e8 4 6 4 t r i l l i o n t i m e s l a r g e r . < JdP: o' (ro6) >'I'herefoie 8464 trillion such magnetic bars, rvith parallel Po - s; axes, tvould be required to replace the magnetic action. of or the first term of our series for Z falls away. We see t h e e a r t h i n o u t e r s p a c e ; w h i c h i n a u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n further, that -P' has the form t h r o u g h o u tt h e w h o l e b o d i l y s p a c eo f t h e e a r t h r v o u l da m o u n t t o ,llrPt - u cosu* p sinzzcos,l,-t7 sinz sini n e a r l y e i g h t b a r s ( m o r e e x a c t l y Z . 8 Sr ) t o e a c h c u b i c m e t r e . < < -J ro cosuo dp & : (iu) The fractional part of the earth rvhich is nragnetic . (ro7) found,to b. ? = tf 14o4.67 . d B : 4 lrosinzs cos,l.s I, T h e . a b o v e a n a l y s i s d i s c l o s e sh o v G a u s s r e a c h e d h i s ,, s i n z z oi n i . ud p r , . s f : )ro celebratedresult, that 7.83 r parallel saturatedsteel bar magnets, :the >'I'hus, according to the explanation in Art. e a c h w e i g h i n g o n e G e r r n a np o u n d , a l l o f t h e n r3 . 9 r 5 5 k i l o g r a m s , 5 of -p, .Intensitas Vis Magneticae, -a, -f Me the moments would be required in each cubic metre of the earth,s nrass to give externally the magnetic field actually observed at the of the terrestrial magnetism in respect to three rectangular axes, of which the lirst is the earth's axis, the second and surface of our globe. After ariving at this striking practical result Gazzss t h i r d a r e t h e e q u a t o r i a l r a d i i f o r t h e l o n g i t u d e o " a n d 9 o o , < . ,>'fhe general formulae for all coefficients of the series continues: > W h e n s o s t a t e d , t h i s r e s u l t s t i l i r e t a i n s i t s r n e a n i u s for r/g we may assurneas known; for our purpose it is merely e v e n i f r v e d o n o t c o n s i d e r t h e e a r t h a r e a l m a g n e t , b u t r v o u l J necessary to remark that in respect to zzand i the coefficients arcribe terrestrial rnagnetism merely to purely galvanic streau)s, are rational integral functions of cosu, sinzzcos.?,, sinzsinl, in the earth. If, horvever,we consider the earth a real magnet, and T" of the second order, 7,,, of the third orderl etc. 'l'he sanre holds therefore also for the coefficientsp,,, p,,,, etc. we are compelled to ascribe to each part of the same, tvhich 'I'he i s o n e e i g h t h c u b i c m e t r e i n s i z e ,o n t h e a v e r a g e a t l e a s t1 ) , series for rfg and for Z converge, so long as r is not srnaller than r?, 'or rather, not smaller than the radius of a a mpgnetization quite as powerful as that bar contains, d rbsult indeed which will be unexpected by the physicist.< sphere which encloses the whole of the magnetic parts of In section:17 Gauss gives the following explanation of the earth. << We have already remarked that in his treatment of the analysis by which the above value of Z is calculated: ' Gauss takes the action to be in right. lines, whereas r W e c h o o s e r f o r ' t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e c e n t r e o f t h e rrragnetism, 'l'he 'z corrections earth, and for the angle which z makes with the northern in nature the lines of nragneticforce are curved. for this defect will be considered hereafter. part of the earth's axis, while L denotes the anele of the 'I'he above is the process of reasoning by which Gazss plane through r and the earth's axis and a fixed meridian, reckoned positive ro the east. Let V be a function developed d e r i v e s 7 . 8 3 r p a r a l l e l b i i m a g n e t s e a . h w J i g h i n g a G e r m a n ih a series proceeding according to powers of r, which we p o u n d , a l l o f t h e m 3 . 9 1 5 5 k g f o r e a c h c u b i c m e t r e o [ t h e g l o b e o f t l i e a v e r a g ew e i g h t : give the following form: 55oo kg, and hence the mass component with the properties of'a vector which I was led to ' : V 17z1to1r-r RsP' fr2-+ RaP" lr3-+ R5P,,,f r4-+etc. (ror) deduce becomes The coefficients P0, P', P", etc., are here functions of zz : t1r404.674. (roS) 3.g!55/55oo I: qnd tr; in order to discern how they depend on the internal Hence taking account of. Lall&ra's law of density, we get distribution of the magnetic fluid in the interior of the earth, the value finally adopted, narnely: let dg, be,an element of this magnetic fluid, g its distance q : rlr4o8,rz,. from O,. and for .d,u, let /s, us, ),s, denote the same which (v) Calculatiori of,the fractional part of the earth which r., u, 1r, are for O. We have therefore expanded o ' is magnetic, on the sinrple hypothesis that on the average - r/Irlo'du (roz) '. the.'magnetism in the differ'ent spherical shells is proportional 'Furthermore . , , ' \ through all' dp,. to the density of the matter in, tbese, shells. -,10 Profound as is the.anqlysis:underlying Gauss, theory , 8 : \r2 z rrs [cos z cos zrq-+-sin zzsi n zzscos (,1, ) ] * : *rozl'tt (rog) of the earth's magnetism) there renrains in the theoryrone
1) ,Insofar as we are n o t o b l i g e d t o a s s u r n e , i h a l l m a g n c t i c p a r t s o f t h e e a r t h , p a r a l l e l m a g n e t i c a x e s . t h r o u g h o u t . T h c m o r e s u c h parallelism fails, lhq sFongqr, must be the average magnetizatron o f t h e parts, in order to bring forth the total magnetic moment.n
! ;

Sondernummei
unnecessary element of weakness;,which can be removed; and as the correction conforms to Gauss' nrathematical criteria, yet brings the analysis of the theory down to a better physical basis, it is worthy of careful attention. In section 3z of the Allgerneine Theorie Gauss says that the manner of tbe actual distribntion of the magnetic fluid in the earth remains necessarily indeterminate; and then proceeds to point out that instead of any arbitrary distribution of the maqnetic fluid rvithin, we may always substitute a superficial distribution of magnetism which will give exactly the same effect in external space. This results from Poisson'stheorem on the volume and surface distribution of magnetism (Memoires de I'Institut tome 5, r8zz). \\/herefore Gauss concludes that a given action in external space may result from an indefinite number of different distributions of the magnetic fluid within. From a purely rnathernaticalpoint of vieu', this theorem is valid, yet from a physical point o[ r'ierv it fails entirely, because we know that in magnetism, as in gravitation, the forces acting around attracting bodies, depend on the matter witbin them, not upon their surfaces,or any nrere ntathernatical abstraction. , Thus the one fatal rveaknessof the Theory of Relativity arose from the absurd claim that rGravity is not a f o r c e ,b u t a p r o p e r t y o f s p a c e <( d c S i t t r , l \ l N 7 6 , r g t 6 , p . 7 o z ) . , Such a view is wbolly untenable, because the force of 6Jravity is proportional to the mass, and acts in right lines towards it: therefore gravity is a force depending on tnatter, and directly proportional to the amount of it gathered into the centra'l attracting body, and in no sense is a property of space. Physically such claims are absurdl In the same way, we know veiy well that magnetism depends on the atonrs ,,within the rnagnet, which havc magnetic properties. For example, leaving out o[ account a slight change due to mere form of the bar, if we double the number of such atoms, by taking a magnet of double the mass, rve practicallydouble the intensity of the.magneticforcc in the 'Ihus field about it. magnetism depends upon marter: it is a physical lorce! From these considerations we see that rvhilst the mathematical possibility exists o[ a given action in external space resulting from many different mathematical distributions of the magnetism within, there is no such physical possibility. And as magnetism' is a physieal phenomenon, 1ve are restricted in our choices of magnetic distribution to those rvhich are consistent with the possible distribution of the matter. This leads to the physical theory that the magnetisrn of the earth depends on. the density of the concentric spherical s h e l l so f w h i c h t h e g l o b e i s m a d e u p . Accordingly, in tbe preceding section we have developed a criterion for reducing Garzss' infinite nnmber of possible solutions for the distribution of the magnetism within the earth to &, unique solution, with the density of the magnetic fluid everywhere proportional to the density of the matter within the earth. As Gauss took the distribution of the magnetiim to be uniform in the evaluation above given, 7.83r one-pound bar. magnets to each cubic metre of rratter, whatever be its density, it seems advisable to consider the effect of the increase'of density towards the centre, and

234

relative deciease of density near the surface, acbording to Lallacc's law. 'I'he magnetic moment found by Gauss can be adapted to this condition by the following process of calculation. The integral for the mass in any spherical layer of the globe of radius g is (cf. AN399z, p. rz7): b b

: ) dn

4o ) Q, dg o6.sin(qx).fq *

, :

Ql,

era t1-," tot"t -i*

M : :

zr

dq:76'

' (t"s)

(qrc o6ld!*sin (4r) dr rs ( 4 nr u 6 o l q : ) ' { s i n ( a-rg r c o s ( qx ) \ ) (rro)

where * is the fraction of the earth's radius, ,: Qlr. In our present problem it sufficesto use a numerical ratio N :
r

lr I @1 r3)l)oi

1:l ,rr\]

| (ri! - rsi-,)

(rr r)

where the volumes or tnllor',erl. nlr,- (rir-rst-,) ".e (c. calculated, and the density a; is already determined ""rily' f., AN 3992). For it is not known that Laflacc's law is rigorously trne, arrd owing to the improvements which may ultimately be possible in the elements of Gauss' theory; attempts at extreme refinement are not justifiable. Accordingly we use the follorvins table:
L

oi

r,/r(o,-ro;_.)

r'i'-rti_,

rfr(ar-+oi_).(rit-rtr_r)

I O

2.SS 3 . 7S 4.99 6 . 2r 7.38 8.q6 9.4o ro.r2 ro.74 rr.o7 rr,2r1

I
d 1 o

3 . r5 4.37 5.60 6.8o 7.92 8.S: 9 . 76 ro.43 ro.9o rr.r4

2 7| 2r7 169 r 27 9r 6r 37 rg 7 r i+ ZJ:

t:o

853.66 948.29 946.40 86.j.6o 720.72 544.7 3 3 6r . tz r98.r7 76.30 rr.r4 5524'13

^
2

As the mean density of the earth is dr: ro," 5.5, r': we have o1/3 :55oo; and the numerical reductionfactor isi

N:

7 S 5 z 4 . r 3 f g 5 o o :r . o o 4 3 8 .

(ttr)

Dividing the value 7.83r by this number we find that' the average number of one-pound magnets required to produca, t h e o b s e r v e d m a g n e t i s mo f t h e e a r t h , i f t h e y w e r e e v e r y w h e r e . . so distributed as to be proportional to the density of the matter'. is ' .(rtf ), 2 . 83 r f r . o o 4 3 8 7: 7 . 7 9 6 8 .. , , The fractional part o[ the earth's ,mass:rvhich would, be magnetic, under the hypothesis that the.density of the magnets js everywhere proportional to the density of.the., matter, thus proves to be, as in equation (48): -::: (tt+) : t 1: tf r4ro'811. .-Hence for the reasons assigned in; flgdyi.* (+9) we,t use ? : rf t4o8.rz, ., ;!.,.i .: i:.i,,:.r

235

Sondernummer

236

q : Dnl?y g:0!)l0z 4 :0t2f0x As the connection between magnetism and gravitation f : lEr+-rl,-F(2]'/l was discovered from an extension of the researches of Gazzss, : 0tl l0r. dr-r?lt l7y' $'-r0 I l0z' dz uniformity, adhered closely to his we have, for the sake of dl2 (rzo) : g d r - + - rd y - + l d z : - / c o s d d s , 1 constants. Yet it may be that at some future tirne values stightly different fronr those rtow in use may. come to be Accordingly, the basiso[ the generaltheory is the equations: rlVzoooooo, r4r4.zr3: p r e f e r r e d F o r e x a m p l e i,( q : r f . x - - r ln' ?stl1u which involves only a slight change, then we should have: YIlg: rf zoooooo, at the magnetic equator, r/roooooo, at the poles' 4c: ,These round numbers are accurate enough for all 'I'hey conform practical purposes,and are easily reurenrbered. rigorously to Biot's law of r8r6, rvhich representsthe larger phenonrena of the earth's uragnetistn disclosed by I'/unboldt's law of r8o4. The harnronic law, it should be noted, gives a physical basis for the laws of l{unboldt and ,rrl, which heretofore has been wanting, and thus will prove extremely useful to investigators.

(" s)

z:
'I'hen

_a9faR .

r/(,?sinz)'APP.

(rzr)

it follorvs that the magnetic potential JJ may be expanded: R (Po' R f r-r PL' R2f rz +- Pr' Ri\ r:t -r 9 : f + - P . t .R a f r a - r ' . ' ) . ( r z z )

'fhe

functions lts, P1, Pz etc. are spherical surface harmonics, of degree indicated by the subscripts,depending on the angles u and 7, which will be more fully explained below. If therefore we extend the integration through all cle' nrents of the nragnetic fluid, we shall have:

7. Outlines of Gauss'General'I'heory of the Earth's Magneti sm, We have seen, that Gauss takes r to denote the distance of any element of magnetism dpr,from the centre of the eartlr, while z denotes the angle between z and the earth's north polar axis, and I the angle, (reckoned positive to the east), between the plane containing r and the earth's axis and a 'l'hus Iet rs, iln, 2s be coordinates of the fired meridian. element dp in the globe, r, rz, I those of a point considered a s l y i n g a n y w h e r e i n s p a c e :t h e n t h e r a d i u s v e c t o r c o n n e c t i n g . them is defined by the relation - r2 - zrrslcosucoszs-r- sinzsinzscos(l -le)] +-rs2' ( r I 6) Q2 And for the potential we have the integral : 9 : [ {r'

p:
: where

1 , - ) r l. e . d p

[lr'-

2/ ls [cos, cosre-tsinrzsin,0 cos(l -l,o)-r -+-ru2ll-'h.6n (trs) rz - zr ro cos(r, ru) -tro2 c o s / / c o s z s - 1 - s i n r z s i nc o s ( f - l o ) rz0 (t'+)

: Q2 c o s ( r , 1 6 ):
r 1l 211

and thus -(.1 p - 2 t ' r 1 1 [ c o sc o s r r r - f s i n z z i n ' 0 c o s ( 1 - l o ) - + s zz f f ('{t' (trs) i X I *ro")\-'l''orlr'rsinudu'rsinud7.

As the developnrent of this function depends on rfg,

- lr)] -r -+- 2/t's [cos z cos rz6 sin rusin rz6cos (l -+r621-tl'6U ("2) 'I'his throughout the globe' for the elements of magnetism dp expression for J2 may be expanded into a converging series r lf ' $ {, lr. ! rnap*'lr'' I rrr(rdp-+- I z;ru2dp'-r"'l z7) o f s o l i d s p h e r i c a l h a r m o n i c s ,i n v o l v i n g s i n e s a n d c o s i n e so f z t h i s i d e n t i f y ,w e h a v e : E q u a t i n gl i k e p o w e r so f r i n and 1, and the ratio between the radius of the earth (rt) r';1Ri: -[zlroiay, and that of the external point (r). PoIl2- -S,oou We shall now enter at some length into Gauss' All' -57-rnap (rzs) PaRs: -[Tnr,,tdp ?llir: 'l'heorie w gemeine d e s E r d m a g n e t i s m u s ,r 8 3 8 , b e c a t t s e i t h o u t : etc. I'2 llr this outline of Gauss' work, it will be diffcult to interpret J l; ro'dp his results or to recognize their bearing upon the present the assumption massof positive fundarnental l\y Gauss' problem of the law connecting Inagnetism with gravitation' and negative magnetic fluid in every part of the earth is In the measurement of magnetic flnid Gauss takes as of equal rnagnitude, and thus also in the whole globe; so that the quantity of boreal fluid, which, acting on a sinilar unit we have (trs) quantity of the same kind of fluid, at assumed unit distance, 'I-herefore, since the function To : r, the equation xerts a moving force equal to unity. If p, be the mass o[ -tln''lrodPl,leads to the result force exerted is taken to be: P s : distance p, the r.nagnetic fluid, at the

we may put: - I - r , I Q: , l r ' ( z ' o + - r ' r of r - r T 2 ' r , r 21 2 + - \ ' r 0 !f r r - + - ' ' ' ) ( I z 6 ) f W h e r e f o r e s i n c e - Q : - S t l g ' d p , , w e h a v ef r o m e q u a t i o n s , I z z ) , ( r z3 ) , ( r z 6 ) f P o . R t fr + - P 1. R ' r1 2 - tP 2 . R a l r ! - r . . ' :

J'ou:"'
n-o.

f :

tplQ'

(rr8)

(.so)

repulsive or attractive, in the direction of the line e, according as p is positive or negative' Putting dp for the mass of the magnetic fluid in any differential element dr, d1', dz, we, have:

And the series becomes P P 1 .I l s f r t - r f ' 2 . R r f r 3 - + " . R s fr a- r ? 0 . R t fr 5 - * . . r : - - , ' T1 rg dp-r ' lru' 12 ro2 d1.t,-+ { ll : I

t 2:

- J o'/e .d p ' ,

epb , -J-J-J''/e .

o d xdy dz

( "s)

and the components of the earth's total magnetic force 1, making the angle d with any plane become:

-+rll. ! ru rrudp+-' . ' ) ( ' r ' ) P2Ra: -[rrrszdp PrRs: -57-rnap ('sr) PuRu: -tTorssdp PnR';: -!rnrsadp

237
The first equation yields: P1 R3 : - [ ,, t6 dp, :

Sondernummer

238

In the expansion of tf q, we need only remark that as respects u and 1, the coefficients are rational integral f t r n c t i o n so f c o s u , s i n z c o s l , s i n z z s i n l ; i n t h e c a s e o f 2 2 , they are of the second order; in the case of Zg of the rvhere ( t r : ) third order, etc. The same rule holds for P2, h, etc. 'fhe series for rfq, and J2 converge so long as r is not smaller than r?, or the observed point is external to the surface o[ the earth, in which the magnetic fluid acts * N, -/ The coefficients arc explained by Gauss, in F, to develop magnetism. a $ r 5 o i h i s i n v c s t i g a t i o nI n t e n s i t a sV i s I t 4 a g n e t i c a e ,s n r o r n e n r s l'he function of the magnetic potential _Q for the of the earth's rnagnetism, in respect to the three rectangular point O satisfies Laflacc's equation: c o o r d i n a t e a x e s ; t h e f i r s t b e i n g i n r e s p e c tt o t h e e a r t h ' s a x i s , -+0, Az fAr2-+A2 101'2 I l0 22 : 6 9 and the trvo latter in respect to equatorial radii for longiI ('sq) qo, Jr : tudes 16 : goo, which may also be transformed into the spherical coordinates:

a cosu* B sinrz cos/,-r -c 7 sinzz i sin &:_Srocoszndla d1a P : - fnsinzzocostro : s d . Y [rosinzzo in2e 1a

r'02(rt!)1012-+02!)f0u2-rcryu.09f1u-+ rf sin2u.0enpyz o .
The former expressions for the components of the magnetic force now become north, ..\ X - - rlr.3g21Au: -R3f r:tl0l'rl7u-+I?lr-0pzlDu-+R2lr2.0I',,pu-r.

(t:s)
(t:6)

rvest, f : downward, 2:
For

-tf(rsinr).APlAI: -RslVrsinu).\01,rf07-+Rlr.3"rl61"aptf7z.0e,l0)"+...1 - D S l f 0 ,- 1 7 :rttf, { z P r - + 3 I ? r f r - r a R 2I , / , l r t + . . . \ . t X f :

Z-Il, and these expressions may be written

('rz) ('rs)
(r+o)

points at the surlace of the earth, r' :

,'r:l

- l?n,lDn-+0t . rf1u-+0p,f1u-+.. \ - t fsinr. .. lDt,l07-r0P,l0)"-r0n,l07-r . I

zP1-+-3/,"-r4pr-+... (r+r) After deriving these expressions Gauss remarks that if we combine with these equations the well known theorem that every fttnction of 2 and rz which has a definite finite value for all values of i from oo to 36o", and for z from oo to r8o", can be developed in a series of the form ... etc; f,o*f1+pz_rp:r_f of which the general term Pn satisfies Laflau's differential equation, that such a development is possible in only one definite way. Procecding in this way Gauss is led to four theorems of which the following is the most remarkable: 'l'he r. knorvledge of the value of -rJ in all points of the earth's surlace suffices for deriving the general expression of -(2 for the whole infinite space external to the earth's surface, and thereby the determination of the forces X, y, Z, not only on the earth's surface, but also for the rvhole infinite space outside of it. 'fo this end it sufficesto develop g/r? in a series, as shown hereafter. r i The coefficient P, satisfies the partial d.ifferential equation

n (n-r r) ?n+42?,fAil2-rctguAn,fAil+ t f sin2u.02f'nl0l,: o . If we designateby P,t,n the foltowing firnction of u only: - n)(n--v'--'W-"t-!k-U:"i!-z,J.oru-,p n', , , , : ,,,t-(" "L-J.o.n-rn-4rr-etc.l sin,,, - " ' " ' J" " ' {cos,,-n,r, z\zn- r) t z-4(zn- r)(zn-)

('+') ('+:)

it follows that lrr has the form of an aggregate of 2il-rr parts, as follows: Pn: {n,o P,,,6-F(,g,,1cosT-thn,r sinl) 1",r-r(.{r,2 coSz)u-rhn,, sinil,) p^,2-r . . , -+-(.gr,ncosr).-t-ltn,nsinn),)pn,* (r++) where .gn,o, {n,1, /tn,1,,{n,2, h,,,2,etc., are definite numerical coefficients,of rvhich the table calculated by Gauss is given below. Fronr this general formula it follows that fi has 3 indeterminate coefficients, .P, has Si Ps, 7 ; Pt, 9; the full expressions being: c . { r , o - r - ( . g r , r o s T - + h r , , s i n i " )P 1 , 1 {z,o Pr,o-ri.&,r cosl-i-/t2Jsini,) Pr,1+(.gr,, cosz),+-h2,rsinzI) p2," P s : . r s , o P r l o + ( . c r , , c o s l - r / 3 , , s i n l ) P r , r - r ( , ( ' r - 1 cro s z ) " - + h o , , 2 s i n z l ) s , 2 + ( . * r , s c o s 3 i - r l s , 8 s i n ps,s , ? (r+S) 31,) Pc: P t , o + ( , g , r c o s 7 - + - l t l , r s i n l ) ? n , 1 - + ( , ( a , 2 o Sz ) , - + h . r , r s i n i l . ) ? n , r - f ( . f a , gc o s 3 l . - r l a , s s i n 3 l ) p E , s # c {r,o + (n,n cos4)u+-ha,asin ai,) pa,a . Already, in sectionzz, p, 26, Gauss has considered the first four terms of the series, As each complete observation of probabledistributionof the magnetism the globe in respect X, Y, Z gives three constants, he adds that exact observations of to the radius,remarkingthat the series would converge rapidly at eight places would be theoreticalty sufficient to determine all if it is concentrated towards the centre, but less rapidly if the coefficients for the general theory of the earth's magnetism. more diffuse and irregular in its distribution. He then adds, But in practice a larger number of observationsare necessary; as shown above,that the coefficient has three coefficients; and he reduces his equations to the following form for points P1 P2,five; Ps, seven; Pn, nine - making 24 constants the on parallel circles of latitude: for Pz: Pr:

239 f, ' f : : : / : ' rt-+-k'cosL-rI{t sini-+-E"cos2)u-lK" sin zl,-+ 1-k't' cos31,-rI{"'sin3l,-tetc. lq J' cosJ,'rL' sinT-r l't cosz7-l L" sin zl, r-t l"' cos3l* L"' sin 31u-retc. -f 177 727' ).-+ M' sin7 -* n' coszJ.-+ M " sin z]. cos -r -t nt"' cos37-r M"'sin 31, etc.

Sondernummer
('+6)
.(r,o: S2,o: . { s , o: .{r,o: : .{'t,1 .g:,r : ,$,r.: .ft,r : ltr,r: /tz;.:hst : ltt,t : -lgz5]8z 22.059 18.868 -lo8.855 -+ 8g.oz4 - r44.gr3 -lrzz.936 -- l 2.589 5 -178.744

2+O

('+r)
('+8)

Here it is assumed that the eight points, separated by . convenient arcs, lie upon a great circle; and Gauss notes that there will be as many values of E, l, ttt, /t', etc., as there are parallel circles adapted to this treatment. On each circle, o, and from the values of / found according to theory I : by calculation we have a measure of the inadmissibility of the numbers adopted in the theory of any parallel. Tbe above expressions give for the coefficients the following equations: f f - , g 2 , x . d P r , od u - + i : { r , 0 . d P 1 , sd u -f,s,o.d,Ps,sfdu-etc.. (t+s) . ' : Pz,o+ 4&,oPs,oi-etc. Pt,o+ 3gz,o zgL,o : i tt the number being twice as great as that of the number of parallel circles. On substituting in dP1,e/d,u, dPr,sf du, etc., and in Pr,o, Pz,o, etc,, the numerical values of zz, the coefgs,p, tc., rrray be determined by the method ficients &t,0, gz,o, of least squares. In the same way we have for the determination of the coefficientt gt,r, fz,r, 8s,r, etc.: - r t ' : g , r . d \ , t l d u * t z , r . d P 2s l d u + *6's, r . dPs, 1f du -+-etc. -rgoJ; Ps,1f sin zz-+etc. . etc. 291,1Pt,t+ 3{t,r Pz,t{- 4f,n,t Ps, r -+ttt' : . ,. the number of which is three times that o[ the parallel circles. And likewise for the coefficientsltr,r, hr,z, h1,s, Etc.: -I{': f h r , L ' d P t s f d u - r h 2 , 1 ' d P 2 , 1d ' u ' + ' . . -+hs,L. dPs,rf d,u+- etc. ' ,.

-F 0.493 $2,2.: :1 -73.193 .{s,.. -41.7gr {t,2 : -39.oro h z , zT -22.766 hs,z: -+-42.57 hq,| : 3 -f 1.396 : g'g,g -f rg.7 {4,o : 74 /t't,s: -r8.75o 6.o3o /tt,s: -o.r78 -r -r 47.791 .{r,r : 4.127 -+- 64.tiz -](tS:) htA: 3.175 6raruss onsiders these coefFcients as the Elements c of the thbory of the earth's magnetisnr; and thence collects his results into the following formula, putting for brevity e in place of cosu, and / in place o[ sinzz: 9 f R : - r . g 7 7 ) - 9 3 T. r o 3 c+ - 7 t . z 4 5 c - r 8 . 8 6 8 e 3 -r o 8 . 85 5 a { 2 -r(6c.+ll r 2 9 . 5r 8 r - r r z z . g 3 6 e 2 - + 5 z . 5 8 9 e B ) , / c o s l r - ( - r 8 8 . 3 o 3 - 3 3 . 5 o Z e - f 4 7 . 7g 4 e 2- 6 4 . t t z c s ) f s i nL t -+ (1.o357 3 . r g 3 c 4 5 . 7g r e 2f)z c o sz I -r (- 4 - z 2 . 76 6 e- 4 2 . 5 7 5.ogz 3 e 2 ) 2 s i nz l -f

-*(r.396 -t- r9.7 ae)fr cos 7 !. - r -( - r 8 . 7 - o . r 7 8 c ) f3 s i n 37 5o - * 4 . t z 7 f t c o s 4 i , - + 1r.7 5 / a s i n o 7..

('s+)

For the magnetic poles of the globe Gauss frnds: r . N o r t h p o l e : N o r t h l a t i t u d e ? 3 o3 5 ' l i , a s tl o n g i t u d e 2 6 4 z r f r o m G r e e n r v i c h 'I-otal intensi\ f : r.7or, in ordinarTunits

L' :

g r , r ' P 1 , 1s i n u - + K z t ' P t , t f s i n u - r f

('so)

t)fR:
z. South pole:

+-895.86.

('ss)

South latitude 72" 35' East longitude r5z 3o Total intensity f' : 2.253 gf Il : - r03o.z4 .

('s6)

Gauss rernarks that Sir Janes z?ass found the north magnetic pole 3" 3o' further south than is given by this calculation; and that at the south pole the deviation between -l',(tSt) theory and observation may be yet more considerable, owing fu,1'P1;fsinu*hz,t'P2,1fsinu-+ -F hst. Ps,1f sinu-+-etc. to certain defects in the observations at Hobarttown. He thinks the south magnetic pole probably lies appreciably z /4, 1 Pr,, -r 3hz,t Pt, t -+ 4/4, 1 ?s, 1 -{- etc. ll,[| : further north than is given by the above calculation, and In like n'lanner we have for the determination ol !{2,2, assigns soutb latitude 66o and east longitude r46o as its 8s,2, 8t,2, and /t2,2, h.n,r,/tt,z, the following equations: probablc Iocation. - A" : f f { 2 , 2 . d P 2 , 2 d u + - g , 2 . d P 3 , 2. d u - + It will be seen from the differences shown in the +gt,z.dPa,2f du-+etc. following table that Gauss' elements are conrparatively verl' 28r,2'P2,2f sinu-+-zgs,2'Ps,2fsinzt* Lt' : exact. In order to give to the mind a connected view of t, gn,z.Pa,2 sinu -r etc. them, Gauss induced Dr. GoldschntuTlto represent his results f 'l'he graphically. excellence of the agreenrent is also shown Pz,zl- 4,!{t,z s,z+ S{t,z Pt,z+.t.. P rtt" : 3g2,2 /, .^\ by comparing these calculated charts with the recently observed charts, ' -1" : Orving to'the great importance of a correct understanding s h2,2'P2,2f inu*hs,z'P3,2f sinuto f t h e h i g h a c c u r a c y o f G a u s s ' t h d o r y ,i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i -r ha,;' Pn,2 sinzz-f etc. | gation for connecting the rnagnetismof the earth rvith terrestrial P z , z + -4 h u , , P z , z + 5 h 0 , ,P n , r - r e t c . M" : 3h,z , gravitation, we reproduce a slightly modilied form of Gauss' And so on, to higher orders of terms, as far as required. table for comparing his theory rvith observations througlrout 'l'he table as here given has been condensed as Selecting: the best data avaiiable in his time Gauss the globe. for the z4 largest coefficients of g and / the follo- much as possible, yet it is so impressive that it cannot fail fouud to interest the modern reader. wing tabular values:

\,).i _ K,,: hz,z.dp,z,zf d"#,r;,:.ii:;::fi,::"r..

24r

Sondernummer
r838. Table of Gauss' theory as compared with observations,
Total,l\{agneti c, Intensity

242

ro
I 2

r"

I ro-r"
- o.o37 - o.o3 9 -Fo.o63 -+ o.o6o

l)ecl. Eo- D,

-;

Incl. r Dip o 0o - 0 c - o.o7 - o.30 -o.45 - o.58 -o.66 -r o.6 3 _r-o.o 5 - o.92 -{- o.8o - t.45 -0.65

3 4 5 o 7 8 I
I O I I

Spitzbergen Flammerfest Jakutsk Porotorvsk Nocbinsk Tschernoljes Petersburg Christiania Ochotsk 'fobolsk Tigil River Sitka 'l'ara Catherinenburg Tomsk Nishny Norvgorod Krasnojarsk Kasan Moscorv Kcinigsberg Rarnaul Uststretensk (]orbi zkoi I'etropaulorvsk Uriupina I l er l i n Pogromnoi Irkuz.k Stretensk Stepnoi Tschitanskoi Nertschinsk City Werchneudinsk Orenburg Argunskoi (icittingen London Nertschinsk Bergw. 'ls<:hindant Charazaiska zurucnaltu 'l'roizkosawsk A bagaitujervskoi A ltanskoi N{endschinskoi Paris Chunzal Urga Astrachan Chologur Iirgi trlilan Sendsclri Batchay Scharabudurguna

+ 7 g o 5o' -l-70 4o -r 6z I 1-62 -r6r t-6r +59

-F (o

r r o 4ct

46
| 29 +)

|3+ 57 r36
56 54
2 T I I I

5o'

-f.59
! . Q + r 2

r4 r6
f n

r8 r9
20
, f

(6 5r -+ 56 +- 56 r 9 -{. 56 ' -):) + 8 ' q6 J ) +54 43

' ' ' ' )J J.) J.t -).t

-F

' ) / 3 -]_ 5 4 56

3o r9 I O 44 |43 I I 68 r6 r58 224 35 74 6B 34

r.599 r . 5o 6 r . 5 4 5 t.697 r.66 r r . 72 r r.658 r . 7 t 3 r.653 r . 7o o r . 6 4 8 1.469 r.4rg r.+56

'..). ,..) ' -).) /

. J . J "

- o.o59 - o.o3 7 - o.oo6 t.6zr -o.or8 r'5.57 r'J / ) r.57 r.58.3 - o.oo6 7 I . 7 3 I r . 6 9 7 ' ".".) a

-o.o5 - o.o8 *2.6o

'"._.)
' ".4 .t

9 43 57
92 49 7 37 .),
20 3o 83 56 t 2 l

a /

r.586 r.535 r.6r9 r.6rl r.442 |.469 , . 65 7 r . 6 r 8

,.J / J ,.J'.t ..+.t.t
t..+ I I

--o.or I -o.ot2

- r.87 +o.70 - o . 9 7 -+ o.87

1.22 '
'

-f o.oo6

20

6
o

rrg I r 58 4o
l 2 0

25 z6 z8 29 3r 32

47 3o -r 52 3 o
1- s2

r-1
I I I

Io4

r5
I O
I

r 1 7 to6

3 47 4o
2 I

-)v

I 13 r r 6 -1 r ro7

.).) 34
.t -)

5o -1-5r 4 5 32 3r r9
'f

55
I I 9

46 o 5(o

36 37 38 .39 4o ,,
+.t 44

-150 3 4 50 2 9
-1-50 -+
2 I

9 56 359 5o I 19 37 I I 5 .)_ ro4 44 I Ig 3

ro6
I I I a -')

49

.)-')
z8 z6 52
I ?

1 r 7 5o

+ AO + / n

45 46
+ t

-+ 48
1- tR -1-^j

3o ro8 55
2 2 T

r.404 r.446 r.365 r.4ro r.6o5 r'59I r.656 r.6o9 r.66o r . 6 r r | r.489 r.52 r.667 t.6rz t.3(t7 I . 3 9 I r . 64 o r . 6 r 6 r . 64 7 r . 6 r 6 r.649 t.6o6 r . 6 63 r.668 r.6og r . 6 3 5 r.6o4 ,'")/ r.6tz r . 4 3 2 r . 4 6r , '" -)) r . 5 9 5 r . 3 5 7 r.388 2 r.4ro r.37 r.593 r . 65 o r . 5 9 2 t . 6 4 3 r . 59 9 t.626 r.584 r.642 r.597 r.583 1.57 7 r.6rg r.585 r.63o r.58? , r.389 " , 9

v.v+

.)

"'.t /
,.JJ

r.6z ^ e. t,25 r.40 o.88

" . ")

-Fo.6o. + -l t.20 2.2o

-+ 2.t 2

--FO.Or

4
-l- c 2.t

' "..).)
V . J J '

- + -r . 8 z
v').J

- r.68 + t.37
-o.28 '- o.o5 - o.z8 - o.o3
" . J J

-i- o.o 55

-t z.8o

-f o.o-1r ' "."+.)

4 ^ ^ . Q

*o.82 + r.97

--Fo.o
'

5g -]- o.o3 r
v ' v { )

-+-r.22 * z,r8 -Fo.r8 - + -r . 5 o

--t- | .2 2

. ".,.)

-{-o.o6o
- , - ^ ^ . q

"') /
R ,

r.6z

-.t-o.o58 -+ t.66 -f r.88

, v.v+)

'..)"

-t-'o.38 - o.43 - o.o5 -Fo.r8 -| o.o2 - o.7 5 - o.43 -o.28 -t- o.6 5
".J J

I.?7

.*- o.oo6
, v.v.)+ . v ' v a . )

-t r.7 7 - r,o7
" . " J

48 49 ;'

-+46 -+ 46
' 4-) ' 45
- l t t --l' / A

55
20 o z8 +-) 2 T

ro6 ,1 ro6 42 4.3 o

I I O I I I

r.6rz
'' . ) U J ; 4 .

"-) / + I.57I

-F o.o38
--F O.O I 2

-to.r7 -j-r.r5
+ t a t

.)+ 25 9

r.358 ' ;a^ r . 5 4 5 - + o . o 35 I.559 r.539 +o.o20

I . 3 3 I - o . o 37 1 . 5 2 9 -r- o.oo I r . 5 2 0 - F o . o 33 r.5).J -f o.o36 r.538 r.294 r.530

9
I IO I t 2

-')"+
J J

4.)

z6 55 rr4 o

- 2.38 -c o.8 3
+ 6 1 '

-+-z.g8 - o.6z : o.6o -+ r.58

v')

- o.47 - o.48 r6

Bd. zr7.

243
ur. etu." of Observation Naples
, Latltude l

Sondernumrner
East Longitude 'l'otal.NIagnetic, Intensity Io I" I J Io-1" Decl, Do-D, Incl. or I)ip 0o - 0 - c , ..+)

244

5 7 Chalgan 5 8 Pekin
Terceira 6 o San Francisco 6 r Port Praya 6 z Madras 6 3 Galapagos Islands 6 + Ascension 6 5 Pernambuco 6 6 Bahia St. Helena od Otaheite 6 9 IVlauritius 7 o Rio de Janeiro 7 r Valparaiso 7 2 Sydney Cape of CloodHope / J 7 4 Monte Video 7 5 K. George's Sound 7 6 New Zealand 7 7 Concepcion a R Blanco Bay Valdivia 79 8 o Chiloe 8 r Hobarttown 8 z Port Lorv 8 3 Port I)esire 8 4 R. Santa Cruz 8 5 Falkland Islands
JY

-J-39 5.1 -t.i8 39 -137 49

' r +

r40 o I 14 .a t r6 z6 332 47 237 35 336 3o 8o r 7 270 345 36

r.27 r r.459 r . 45 : l r.457 r.5gr

-,-5r -u r r

r.27 r
I ' + V

o.ooo o.oo6

r . 44 8 t.469
t.592 r.r68 , '".) ' ^,c
-- o.oo r -o.or2 -o.or6 -f o.o6o - o , ol 2 -Fo.o25
+ n nR.r

' ".). -r o.8 3

. r.+ )

- o.g8

-1-r3 o

) +

- o.90 - o.47 - r.6o -]- o.2o - .

"') /

4 50
J v

- 8
-

4
) )

12 59
. J

- t7 -20 -22
J J

29 9 55

3 3 5r 34 r r
J{ J J J ) ^ v )J

I 32r 354 r 7 3o 5i 3 r 3r65r 288 r 9

J " )

I 5 I Id

I1 zO

-.e

J"

) /

..

3e 53
9 , . ) .

{" ).)
43 4ti
+ / 45 I

303 47 rr7 56 r 74 286 5o 298 I 286 3 r 286 4 147

r . o 3r " r . o 6 9 r . o 85 o.823 ^ elJ o . 9 r 4 o . 90 g ^ ae, o . 8 7r o.8j6 o . 8 r r r.o9.l r . l r . 3 r.o6o I.I 44 o.878 o.8?q r.og4 I , I 76 r.667 r . 6 85 r . oI 4 o . 9 8r r.o6o t,o22 r.658 r . 70 g r'59t r.6r6 I . 2I 6 r,r47 r.r03 r.I I:l , ",R. I.I45
I.3I 3
I.d94
^ . J ' "

- r . t2 -t-r.ro

".))

3.92
a a

-Fo.r8
+ r a a

- o.oo I - 1 -o . o 8 z -fo.or8
+^

-2.r5 -r-o.r 5
V.Y J . . ) J ..Jf,

r.+)

-3.r5
J ''"

-1- o.I 2 -+- I.-12

' ".".).)
^.R.

- r.r8 4.63 - r.52

-o.Io

- F o . o 7r -+-o.oro r-o.o86

- o.6z -r- o.40 - 2.83 - z.o8 - 2,O5 - r.z8 - t.o6

-.".) - r..+o
-l- o.I 2 -

"')/
1.20

.")
^a -

r a

t'257

294 29r 30r

5 36
)J

5t 32

r.359 r.42 5 r.367

r.263 t.276 F p

-+o.o69 -+ o.og6
-

) . .)
J . J J

'-

3 . 63
...)J r.+)

2.52
J ' / J

J- o.o9r

-0.65

8. The Mutual Potential Energy and the I\{utual Action of Two Magnetic Systems: How the Result is modified by the Magnetic Law of Stress exerted in Curved I-ines drawn to the Poles. (i) The mutual potential energy of two magnetic systems. r. lrnagine a nagnet of infinitely srnall dimensions, Iike the particles into which a magnet may be broken rvithout losing its physical properties. Suppose the length to be d/, with direction cosines a, 8, f ; then if J21 and JJ2 be the values of the potential ,Q at the negative and positive poles respectively, we shall have for the potential energy of this small nragnet:

-r y - x , : t SS, tcc0f 0 +-S. 0 101, . 0l0z)(' I n) dr dydz : n d xd S S f o - D ! t l 0 r - + . ? ! t l } y - + C . A ! t P s ) yd z l

1) : -r)r]'h

('ss)

[(6-'),*0t-.t)r-+-(f tlre distrnce -1) correspondingto the point P(8,r1,0. Fiere the integration is supposedto be extended throughout the nragnetized lnasses acted upon. Accordingly, if -I', a', F', /', r', 1y', z' or A', B', C' refer to the acting system, we get for the potential JJ :

d p d t ' d P l d t:

m'0910t

a s i n ( r 5 9 ) , a n d t h u s - D i s t h e d i s t a n c eo f t h e p o i n t P ( f , 2 7 , 6 ) . At any point P(f, q,E) an infinitely srnall magnet d*dy n.0ltlDt : I (a.D!) lDr-r p.0ttlly-+-y.09102) dz (r 5s) / dr dt' dg situated at p {r,y,z), having its axis parallel to where 1 - total intensity along the line of nragnetization. t h e a x i s o f r , h a s t h e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e p o t e n t i a l e ( ! - r ) l D 3 ; By triple integration for all the elenrentsof the systern, and as the other con)ponents are syrnmetrical, rve get for the potential of the whole magnet, by the integration of tbe B, i n a f i e l d o f p o t e n t i a l " - ( ) ,o n p u t t i n g f 7 v : A , I F : s u m o f t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s , a n e x p r e s s i o ne q u i v a l e n t t o ( r 6 o ) : C, we get: Ir:

7r,: moment Of the magnet. - dr dy dz for the magnetized element we get: On putting du

( ' s z ) rvhere

pSIf r,@,.OfTs,ap,.?l,a!,: d/ -ry' .3f02,) , ar, (r

ln)

dz,

(r 6o)
(r6r)

p :

IG- ")r-r (q- i, *(( -r)r]v'

(r6z)

245

Sondernttmmer

246

uru"*p r' * 8''D ,-I I 1111"t" utuirllfit?tf-lii lqt -r y''0lDt')t t'

u v u v

N o w f r o m ( r 5 q ) a n d ( 1 6 o ) we get for the mutual potential energy of the two magnetic systems: p p ' 2 _ + ( E _z ) 2 j ' t , dr dy dz dx' dy' dz' . (t6f)

The functions A, R, C vanish in free space, rvhere there is no magnetized matter, and therefore we may use functions in the sextuPle integral with the understanding that they are zero everywhere where space is devoid of these matter. The limits thus become infinite, and rve gct:
-FF p, p'

W:JJJJrti-''rl*t,o.;;1,*,1;-,)|,l,,'-d,rdydzdx,dy,dz,('6+)
Integratine by parts, and noticing that the surface i n t e g r a l a t i n f i n i t y v a n i s h e s ,l v e g e t s i m p l y :
+6 p,,1

f f

( ( ((.s'0ltl0r'rB'0ttf1.v-+c'Dltl0z)(A''09'f0a'-+I)''09'f01"-+Cr'09't?"'t

dx f,r. n.3stl01,-tc.aPPz) d1, ('6s) n/ ::_: :V.astf}r-++@

(L) The attraction or repulsion according as the poles are unlike or like, between trvo qtrantities ,taand p,' of magnetism, supposed concentrated in tn'o points at distance r apart is represented by the force: (tl,) *top'lr2. -f :

(II ) This force in the mutual action o[ two elements of rnagnetism is taken to be in the straight line r, joining the elenrents 7c and p", action almost pre' 1 ' h i s h y p o t h e s i so f r e c t i l i n e a r assumed that A, B, C vary continuortsly, brtt Here it is to gravitation, whereas it as these functions ttttdergo at the surface srrch rapid I'ariation sumes that magnctism is similar paper that magnetic stress is exerted a s t o a m o u n t t o d i s c o n t i n u i t y ; a n d t h u s a f i n i t e p o r t i o n o f is shorvn in the present w i l l a r i s e f r o r n a n i n 6 n i t e l y t h i n s t r a t u m n e a r t h e in the curved lines of force typical of magnetism. It is nethe integral the foundation of the classic srrrface,as in the ?oissott formula for sttrface density 116and cessary therefore to exatnine V , r I z r ) : theory of nragnetism with particular care. volume dentity 1r, (lle moires de l'Institut, torne (ftt.) 't'ire classic theory supposesthat the unit quantity po [r of magnetisrnis so chosen that trvo units of positive mag' ('62) e . v :,1t o r,, as+-JJJ 1tdt d1,dz netism at unit distance apart repel each other with unit force. magnet acted 'Ihis Let therefore l2' be the potential of the definition, rrnderlying the magnetic system of units, upon; then, taking account of the discontinuouschangc at givcs for the dimensions of a quantity of magnetism,in the the surface 4rr about the system, we get magnetic system of units: z f0 z g, g, r, 02 f0 z-+A-r2'1,,-r 02 I 0t', : an (0,< r -+Ur! I0 1r,: l,'lr 114th7-r .

: -flfc

!r,p'

p.tlas-+3nl0y'r0cl0z) i5. drd1,

(roo)

fill

f r r rl

('zs)

Cnd on multiplying by I du : we have by (166):

+re lr,p

I dr dJ' dz and integrating,

,t/_ _,1+n.S ,fIste,e,pf (,6s) fauil,,,l,p;iio,o,o,

-r-@ p,p' -+@ p,p

_ ,tq,, fpstp" ,?t];rti!il!t,;if,l],;i^: !_! (,7o)

: - + - t, 4 n . ;Nt -P; tP- ) ' o o 'c o s l ' d r d y c l z f (tz') Reprint of Papers on Electricitv and

(lV.) The strength of a magnetic field, or the resuitant magnetic force at a point in the field, is defined to be the force exerted ul)on a unit of positive magnetism supposed concentrated at the point. So that in general, if r? be the resultant magnetic force at the point, the magnetic force exerted on a quantity 7t, ol magnetism concentrated there becomes 1ar?, just as in the case of gravity, rvhere the force is zrg. (ii) Horv the action is modified by the law of magnetic strcss acting tangentially in the curved lines of force directed to the trvo poles. We have seen abundant proof that the larv:

(cf. Sir fr. fno)i,,, M a g n e t i s mp . 4 3 3 ) . , and'grauitation. representsthe connection between -r'gn"tir. forces In this last formula.1?and J?' are the resrtltant In every possible situation on the earth's surface we
at any point of space due to the acting and acted rtpon systems respectively, and 1 is the angle between the clirections of these resultant forces. Having now derived very general expressions for the mutual potential and mutttal action of t$'o magnets, or magnetic systems, ot' any form or distribution in space, we are obliged to consider carefully how far the underlying hypotheses conform to the true larvs of nature. It has been assumed by Gaass, Airy, Thonson, Il[axrue l/, Crystall and other recent investigators: found that in general rve have to consider the modification of theory due to the increase in the path of action from r to t'-ldr .

Ils -

/ s q 2( r z f s 2 - + r 2 f s ' 2 ): . l d s

s':

( . , , \ Jds' (r7a)

To nake the reasoning general, and avoid confusion, rve shall put: s (tlS) q-+-/q: Q(r *,/qld rvhere g is the rectilinear path chosen by Gauss in his All'l'heorie des l)rdmagnetismus, r 838. This path g genreine rvithin the earth may be increased by as n'ruch as 40 per' cent at the equator, so that ,y'g is finite, not infinitely small.
r6r

247

Sondernummer

248

Now expressions for magnetism involve the inverse second power, and therefore we are concerned w i t h : . s2: Qr_r"gzlQ-rQldz - rz - zr rn -+where fcosztcoszo 92 -+_ sinez sinzz6 cos(i. -)"x)-rru2l . 92 : Any expression for the force used by Gauss, as dp, )-t lq.

( 'zo )

!'
-r./ e)' :

r'2- zr rst:';:1Zl':

!;in

u sin cos - i'o1-r,, us (2 )

will therefore be much more complex. We may put the above expansion in the following form:

-r g -+92( r + tl eI dt : qt I r zz1f q (,ts)'/et]. (, I I ) (rzq)

-+,rqld), fulq') -r zslp)-, : j pl[eG

And then we have

- 4Qlel -r sQral - ..\. ( r8o) a)r d'

This seriesconvergeswith sufficient rapidity, except when lq 1s very large, as in the region of the terrestrial e(Iuator. It is evident that beyond the first term, the surn of the rernrs

- \1" \1---r ) ( n z f _ . _ . Q _ y )( ' , " -Z.r " r ' 2 .3 . 4 . ' . y \0./

Y:V

(t8r)

i s n e g a t i v e , b e c a u s e t h e f r r s t t e r n t o f ( r 7g ) i s s m a l l e r t h a n p/pe, under the integral (r 7 7 ) usett by Gttuss.

A c c o r d i n g l ya s (r ,lqf p-l[g'z -+- g):) < plQ" ; and thercfore

. , -+J',le' dp, J'r llq'(r rqld\. dp

(r8z)

we may form a table for the earth, uSing the u"l11g5 : 'I'hus in the different latitudes. qb-+-zlqld the ttrble will give the means of integration by quadrature for ttre average value in the case of our globe. ln this way wc rlay trnd out horv much s>p, as used by Gauss. Approximate'l'able for the Increase of the Amount of I\{agnetisnrin the Globe, uncler Curved Line Action compared to the Straight I-ine Action assumed by Gauss:

Ilrorn the table it appears: 'I'he r. rnean ratio of the mere increase of distance s/g i s r . r z , w h i l e t h e n r e a n r a t i o o f t h e s t l u a r e dd i s t a n c e ss z / p e required in the divisor ofthe integlal for the forcesis r.266. 'fhis r n e a n s t h a t z o n e f o r z o n e o f t h e c o n i c a l s p a c ea b o u t the pole there *,ould be an increase in the calculated amount of the rnagnetisnt, observation, ttnder Gauss' defective h y p o t h e s i so f r e c t i i i n e a r a c t i o n ,y i e l d i n g o n l y r / r . 2 g g - s . g s , 'lhus nearly. an increase of z5 percent is required, to overconre the effect of the defect in the underlying hypothesis. 2. Ilut instead of taking zone for zone, rve should integrate the zones of the sphere by the ratio of the forces s : / g ! a c t i n g o n t h e r n ,a s g i v e n i n t h e l a s t c o l u m n o f t h e a b o v e table, which yields a mean for eclual elenrents of all the s o l i d l n g l e s ,a : t . 4 o z 6 . 1 ' h a ti s , s o l i d a n g l e f o r s o l i d a n g l e , t h r o u g l r o u t t h e h e m i s p h e r e ,t h e e f f e c t o f t h e c u r v e d Iine action rises to about r.4; so that rf r.4 : o.7r is the c a l c u l a t e dp a r t o f t h e n r a g n e t i s r u x i s t i n g i l t n a t u r e ,t h e i n c r e a s e e required for defect in hypothesis being about 4o percent, | o.40. 2917 : 3. Althoueh the above table is approxirnate only, incluciins nrerely the eflect of' the changes in s, for one t h c r r r i s p h c r c , . I r e t : h a n g e si n s ' f o r t h e o t h c r h e n r i s p h e r e e i n g b lelt out of'account, - it is evident that the final resnltrvill n o t v e r l ' g r e a t l ) ' e x c e e d t h e r a t i o h e r c e s t i n r a t e d .I t r v i l l n o t , I feel surc, cxceccl 5o percent; yet this change shorvs how r 1 . ' r o f o u n c i ayl l o u r c e n c e p t i o n so f n r a g n e t i s nm u s t b e r n o d i f i e d , l to tukc accour)t of nature'sactionsin curved lines conrpared t o t l r e s t r a i g i r t I i n e s h e r e t o t o r ee n r p l o y e d b y p h y s i c a l t h e o r i s t s . 'I'he above conclusion that the ratio of increase 4. rvill not exceed 50 percent rests on a study of the nature of the inteerals: " p p

1 : /+/'

:
:

p ' ) J J u / " . d . r d - r , d : + - 4 ' ) ) ) u l ' ' d.r d ' l , d :"

' l , , l , r

P P (

' . ,

. P P P

t ss - 3 * l
= - : ' a

!df dl {;s
' t l o q

r: H

q a

2 z i - e lT . f i ; i ls l " o 5
T

'- L_< G ^-> +

ll I.OOO

s zf p r , z n ( c o s r r ; - c o s r r ; 1 r ) : Integral for thc Z-ones of the Splrerc by the ratio of tlre liorccs s?/p: acting on therrr

ll
r.ooo r.oz8 t.o42 r.o50 r.o6o r . o 75 r.o96 I.3oo 1,4r4

IO 20

r.o56 r.oE 5
t,to2 t,r23 I.I55 r'254 t.6go
2.OOO

4o

5 6
1

6o 7o 8o 9o

8 9
Mean Value -

r"", " o.307 4 o.5r o-1 o.7o56 o . 89 4 o r . o 8 or r . 24 4 9 r.7882

' R ' r

l t l t l s - _ fl t p . l s . . the trvr.rterms ,/ an<l/' being eqr.ralat the equator, but each o l -t h c r u f a l l i n g o t f r a p i d l y a n d s o o n b e c o m i n g r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l terlrs in the opposite herlisphere. 'fhe results of our calculations are given in the acconrpanying table. lt rvill be seen that the general effect of using s in place of g is to. weaken the attractive force everywhere. And as G'zzzzs.r' results follow frorn the constant use of a path of action rvhich is too short, yet the observed lbrces were the forces he actually used, rve musl conclude that the amount of rnagnetisnr in the earth very appreciably exceeds that calculated by Gauss. ;\fier sonre examination of this problem, we conclnde fronr the study of the earth's nragnetisnr, that for such a spherical magnet as tbe earth, the average increase of p ( r - + z l q l q ) , t h e s e c o n d t e r m b e i n g t h e e x c e s so f s o v e r r: rectilinear action. is about:

r:g(r-ro.rz/g) And thereforein the integral

('8:) ('8+)

Mean for equal elements of the Solid Angle r'r -

r . 2 6 6i

J -

: e),]. [' l'. ap !' ll1,G t- zlql drt,

8 . 8r z g r,4o26.

:f 2n -

t h e e v i r l u a t e ds u u r i s d e c r e a s e di , n t h e r a t i o o f r . o o t o r . 2 6 . Consequently we find that the amount of magnetism in the globe is about z6 percent greater than observations indicate

249

Sonclernummer

250

in virtue of curved line action, zone for zone; and, solid angle for solid anele, at least 4o percent, perhaps 5o l)ercent. 1'he generaltheory of curved line action here devcloyred is entirely new in science. It has not been used in any previotts rvork. Thus in Cq,s/a/l's great articlc on t\[agnetisrn, Encycl. Brit., gtl'ed.,p. z 27, it is statedthat the force lrctrycen t r v o q r r a n t i t i e so f m a g n c t i s m i s , / : 1 t 1 t ' r r , a n d r i s i n t h e f line joining the trvo poirrts(. The rvhole theory of magnetisrnheretofore in use is based on the theory of rectilinear action, as in (,irz.r.c'Allg e m e i n eT h e o r i e d e s E r d m a g n e t i s m u s\,: , p . Z , r v h c r c r v c r e a d : > L u r A b m e s s u n g d e r r n a g n e t i s c h e n l i l s s i g k c i t c nl c g e n F w i r , r v i e i n d e r S c h r i f t I n t e n s i t a sv i s m a g n e t i c a ee t c . d i e j c n i g e (lnrnde, Q u a n t i t l t n c j r d l i c h e nI i l u i d u m s a l s p o s i t i v e I i i n h c i t z r r l ' e l c h e a u f c i n e e b e n s o g r o f J eQ u a n t i t i t d e s s c l b e nl i l u i d u m s E in der zur Einheit angenommenen ntfernung eine bcrvctcncle Kraft austibt,die der zur Einheit angenornmenen lcich ist. g \\renn rvir von der lnagnetischenKraft, rvelche in irgencl einem P u n k t e d e s R a u n r e s ,a l s W i r k u n g v o n a n d e r s w ob e f i n t l l i c h c n r F magnetischem luidum, schlechthin sprechen,so ist cienrnter i m m e r d i e b e w e g e n d eK r a f t v e r s t a n d e n , s ' c l c h e r l a s c ] l r s t u I a I s w d i e E i n h e i t d e s p o s i t i v e nm a g n e t i s c h e n, - l u i d u r na u s s e i i l ; t i r c l . I n d i e s e n rS i n n e i i l r t f o l g l i t ; h d i c i n e i n e m l ) u n k t k o n z c n t r i c r t q g e d a c h t e m a q n e t i s c h c I t l i i s s i g k e i t1 r , i n c l c r I . , n t [ e r n u n .o d i c magnetische Iiraft g./g2 aus, und zs':rr absto0cncl oricr rnr z i e h e n d i n d e r I { i c h t u n g d e r g e r a c l c n L i n i c g , j c n a r : h r l c r r1 r p o s i t i v o d e r n e g a t i v i s t . I l e z e i c h n e t m r n d u r c i r o , 1 , ,c d i c s K o o r d i n a t c n v o n p , i n R c z - i e h t r na r r f d r e i u n t c r r c c h t c r .\r\ ' i n k c l n e i n a n d e r s c h n e i d e n d eA c h s e n ; r i u r c h . r " , , r ' , : c l i e i i o o r r l i n a t e n des Punktes, rvo dic Kraft ausgetibt rvircl, so<iafl g : b)2-+(z- c)tf i, [(r-a)2-r(1,i

deflection of the needle against gravity, pr'edicted by the formrtla for the ponderomotive force: .F - ng tgX : 1t,1t'f - 1t1t'fs'z,(rrorthern hemisphere) (r S S) sz rvhere zr : gravitational mass of the smaller magnet, was due visibly and undeniably to a force along the tangent to the line of force. By moving the suspended needle from one position to another, rvhere the lines of force curve rapidly, it could be seen distinctly that the deflection is alrvays in 'fhe tlre tangent to the magnetic line of force. observation 'fhe perfectly unmistakablel is not clifficult. evidence is Conclusions. r. Frorn the experiments here described it follows incontestably that the larvs of nragnetic attraction and repuls i o n a r e n o t q u i t e s o s i r n p l e a s w e h a v e s u p p o s e d .I n s t e a d of an attraction or repulsion along the straight line z, we must inragine these stresses exerted along the shortest lines of forcc / f'

s-

: Q-+,.|o JOr, s' : Jds'.

;
i

und zerlegt die Iiraft den Koordinatenachscn parallel, so sind die Komponenten p (t-b)|g", p(z- c)fg:t, 7t,(r- a)fg't, welche, u'ie man leicht sieht, den partiellen I)iffcrcntialnach c,.1'und z gleich sin<J.< quotienten,,on -pfg \\re have cited the foundations of Gatss' theory in sorne d e t a i l ,n o t o n l y t o s h o w t h a t h e t a k e s t h e f o r c e 1 : 1 t fp ! a n t l r e c k o n sg r e c t i l i n e a r , , i n d e r R i c h t u n g d e r g e r a d c n L i n i e g < , positive or negative according to the sisn ol p; but also to exhibit the Gaussian resolution of the conrponent forccs, l'hich is of exactly the sarne form as in thc case of gravitation. Before coming definitely to the decision th:rt a funclamental error of the kind here described has corne dorvn in the classical theory of magnetism, as devclopccl by ()auss r a n d o t h e r h i g h a u t h o r i t i e s , I t o o k p a i n s t o e x p c r i 1 l l q p 1' . r t carefully as folloivs: / \ (^) \\'hen iron filings rvere sprinkled on a platc of glass over the poles of a porverful srnall r.naqnet, tlrcy shorvecl unmistakably the tendcncy to move to*'ards the polcs along the curved lines of force, not straight to the poles. (b) When soft iron paper fasteners rvere attached t<> threads for exploring the field, they shorved the sarne nrotion - the puiling being in the tangent to the .line of force. (c) Yet not content rvith such indicatior.rs, rvent to the I troubie to test the field carefully, again and asain, rvhcn the small compass needle rvas tied to a silk thread for exl)loring the magnetic field. Upon actual trial it rvas found that tlre

'fhe z. a c t h e r s t r e s sa l o n g t h e l i n e o f f o r c e o [ m i n i m u m leneth is the maxirnunr tension for the attracted magnetic nectllc. .'l'he rcsultant is directed to the nearerpole, around the curve, l)ut it changes direction at the equator, and in t h e o t h e r h e n r i s p h e r ei s t h e r c l o r e d i r e c t e d t o t h e o t h e r p o l e . 'l'he lines of force, as l;arada1, noticed, tend to 3. 'l'he s h o r t e n t h c r r s e l v e s ,a n c l t b u s a r e u n d e r t e n s i o n . tension is greatest nearest the poles, rvhich act as true centres oI a t t r a c t i o n , ) ' c t t h e s t r c s s a l r v a y sa c t s i n c u r v e d l i n e s , b e c a u s e t h c r e i s a n o t h c r p o l e i n t h e d i s t a n c et o w h i c h t l r e o t h e r e n d of the line of force returns. 4. Since the lines of force are vortical filaments of aethcr in rapid rotation, owing to the wave-action constit u t i n g m a { n e t i s m , - - t h e r e s u l t a n tr o t a t i o n a t a n y p o i n t b e i n g rve perceive in thc lrlirne norma'l to the line of force, that thc tcnsion in thc line of force rvill ahvays pull the suspentlcd rnagnetic ncc<lletorvardsthe nearer polc of the 'l'he chicf forces are centred in the opposite larqer masnet. ends of the suspcnded needle, the opposite poles of the ncedlc bcing pulled to opposite poles of the large magnet. 5. r\t thc c(luator the action on the trvo cnds of the suspcndc<lnccrile are e(iual: in other positions the forces arc unerlual, rvith the increased attraction tos'ards the nearer pole predorninant. 'l'hcrc is alrvaysa slight bodily deflection of tbe a) suspendcdnee(lle tou'ards the larger magnct -- the vortical frlament of the aether along the line of force acting like a stretched rope. lr) Ilut near either pole, thc strcss alons the line of force is so rnuch more predorninant, that rve notice chiefly the attraction torvardsthe pole. 6. As observation confirms the theory of tension along the nagnetic lines of force, rve perceive that these observations, shorving strcsses as described above, also confirm and definitely establish *'ave-action as the cause of magnetisnr. 'fhis explanation is not only sufficient; it is also necessary - the only possible one! Hence in hnding the lau'of nragnetic action in cun'ed lines of force, n'e have discovered the true cause of magnetisrnI

25r

Sondernummer

252

g.The Feebleness of Gravitation Compared to Electric and Magnetic Forces: Velocity of the Propagatio,n of Universal Gravitation. (i) Estimates of the feebleness of gravitation. The force of universal gravitation is so nearly insensible, for small masses, as to lead to the belief that this chief force of nature is a residual efi-ect, in rvhich only a small cornponent of the elastic power of the aether is exerted. By virtue of tbe stupendons masses of the heavenly bodies, however, this residual component attains gigantic magnitude between the planets and the sun, or betrveen the nrenrbers of a pair of double stars, as they revolve in their orbits, the actual stress becoming a maximum and thus often enormous at periastron passage, a) Thus in the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, ed., r858, p. 426, NIrs. ,sonneruillc reurarks: 9th rGravitation is a feeble force, vastly inferior to electric action, chemical affinity and cohesion; yet, as far as huntan knowledge extends, tbe intensity of gravitation has never varied rvithin the limits of the solar systent." The latter part of this argurnent is modifred try observations and experimentsmade within the past twenty years; but the renrark on the feebleness f gravitationis enrinently o appropriate, and today nrore noteworthy than in former tinres, w h e n g r a v i t a t i o n r v a s l e s s i n v e s t i g a t e db y n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h e r s . b) In the article Cravitation, Encyci. J3rit., gtl'ed., r87 5, Ball points ont that on the average the attraction of a magnet is millions of times more powerful than gravita'I'his general remark is of such great tional' attraction. interest that we propose to test it by actual calculation, as follows. So far as I know this calculation is new, at least I have never met with it in the writings of any nrodern investigator. c) It appears by the U. S. Coast Survey observations at the l\'Iagnetic Observatory, Cheltenham, I\Iarylancl, that in r 9o6, the horizontal colnl)onent of the earth's niagnetism was ,,.: o.ooo2o c.g.s., n'hile the inclinationor dip rvas 6 : 7o"z7'. Now rve rnay take gravity as 98r cln c. g. s., and therefore the horizontal component of the earth's ntagn e t i s m i s t o t h a t o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l a c c e l e r a t i o na s : (rS6) z/gEroooo: r/49o5ooo. flg: : B u t c o s 7 o o2 7 ' 0.3347 rl S very nearly, and thus we have for the ratio of the total intensity at Cheltenham to gravity, rgo6, the equation: IIC:ysec|.fgrf1635ooo. (t8Z)

Accordingly the above value at Cheltenham is typical of the larger part of the globe. The above rernarks of \Irs. Sonuerztille and Prof . Ball are therefore very appropriate. e) In 1894, Prof. C. I/. Bo1,s determined the constant of gravitation or the attraction of a mass of a gram at a distance of a centimetre in a second, /': e . s 6 6 e o o o 6 6 6: (r8s) 1s-10.666 c. g. s. : rl(t5or'ro{) dyne, or practically one-fifteen rnillionth of a dyne. As the dyne is roughly the weight of a rnilligram, it rvas rernarked by Prof. G, M. Mhc/iz of Oxford ('I'reatise on Statics, r 886, vol. lI, p. z 5 r ), >how extremely srnall a nragnitude is the constant of gravitation<. 1'his opinion of the feeblenessof gravitation has been generally held by investigators since the days of Neutort; in fact the force rvas so ver)' sruall that it rvas a long tinre before exyrerinrental m e a s u r e n r e n t s f t h e d e f l e c t i o n sd u e t o g r a v i t a t i o n b e c a m e o p o s s bl e . i Irr r 7 7 4 tlfas*tl1,uesucceeded in detecting the deflection of the vertical by. the attraction of XIt. Shehallien in Scotland, fronr rvhich he deduced a ntear) density of the earth of 4.7 r. In r 798 Cauetdislr first irsed the nrethod of the 'l'orsion llalance, and obtained the value 5.48, rvhich is very n e a r t h e r u o c l e r nv a l u e , 5 . 5 o . I n v i e r v o f t h e e x t r e n r e f e e b l e n e s so f g r a v i t a t i o n , t h e a c c u r a t e t l e t c ' r r r i n a t i o no f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n c o n s t a n t i s o n e o f t h e r r r o s t d i f l l c u l t e x p e r i t n e n t si n t h e r v h o l e r a n g e o f p h y s i c a l scienc:e. (ii) lievision of ,4[arur/l's calculation of the stress in t l r e e c t i r t ' r i r r <d c n t t o g r a v i t a t i o n . i l n h i s r e s e a r c h e so n t h e s t r e s s e sn t h e a e t h e r r e c l u i r e d i to lrrodrrce electric, nragnetic or gravitational forces, tlfartuell derives the follorving fornrula ('I'reatise on Iilectricity and r X,Iagnetisrn, E73, sect. 643; lllincltit's'l'reatise on Statics, v o l .l I , r 8 8 6 , p . 4 5 r ) : li:R2l9nf . (,so) rvlreref is the gravitationonstant,I':666. ro-10 c.g.s., . c a s a t > o v ee x p l a i n e d ,a n d r ? : 9 8 r crr, is the acceleration f o gravity at the earth's surface. 'l'he calculation is as fol)ows: : ' Q 8r : : logll z.ggt66go log8 o.go3o9oo : : l o g( t i . ! ) logn o . 4 9 ?r 4 9 s 5.q83338o : : log tor0 ro.ooooooo lo9666 2.82347 z 1 l o g ( r o 1 0 . l ? 2:) r 5 . 9 8 3 3 3 8 o l o g ( 8 z r6 6 6 ) : 4.2237r4:^ l o g ( 8 r r6 6 6 r , : 4 . 2 2 3 7r 4 r log(ro10./l!f n 666) : 8 r r . 7 5 9 6 2 3 9 ,c . g . s . : log(g8rooo) r 5.99669o : log,zi k 5.7679549 g per sqcm : /) (tSt)' kg per s(lcm. 586o77.3 ln decinral stressas , 1 ) :t tlfitxutll's calculation of this stress an error of a place occurs, as is easily shorvn. He gives tbe 37ooo tons rveight per square inch, narnely: poundsper sq inch. 7jooo.z240 :8z88oooo l o g ( 8 z 8 8 o o o o ): : l o g ( 6 . a 56 . z . z o 4 6 z 1 3 ) r 7.9rE4497 r.r53oor4

This is tlie same result at rvhich we arrived in eouation (46) above. 'fheorie d) It is shown in Gauss' Allgenreine des lirdm a g n e t i s m u s ,r 8 3 8 , t h a t a t t h e t r v o p o l e s t b e a v e r a g ei n t e n sity of the earth's magnetism is r.977, or nearly z, while at the magnetic equator it reduces to r approxiniately. Wc therefore have the general theorenr,.that for the region between the magnetic equator and the magnetic poles the intensity of the earth's nragnetism lies between the lirnits given

( in equation r r 5): Ilg: t f z o o o o o o ,a n d I f g :

t/roooooo

(r8s)

6' -

logLit : 6.76 5a a83 k 58z7o4o g per.sqcm.

('sr)

Z J J

Sondernummer

.J+

But above rve found 3 : 586o17.3 kg per sqcm, rvhich is almost exactly one tenth of Maxuell's valtte. If rve recall that tl'faxruell used a slightly different value of f from that cited above, it seems certain that he nrisplaced the decirnal point in his reduction. In pounds per square inch this may be made even more obvious, thus: R : 8 3 3 5 9 74 , ( S c e ) (rs:) IJt 8288oooo, (11'farute/l)

which exhibits very distinctly the nrisplacement o f t h e d e c i r n a l gnr /J' -- R',zf point in Matunll's calculation. ' (iii) Table of stresses in the aether at the surfaces of where r?' is the nragnetic acceleration expressed in units of the sun and planets, and at the orbits of the e i g h t p r i n c i p a l sonre knorvn gravitational acceleration. Thus to cornpare the stress due to the magnetic field of the earth with gravity planets of the solar system. The follorving table contains data of much interest, as at the earth's surface we use the ratio above found, for such revealing to us the actual state of the aether at critical points a t y p i c a l s t a t i o n a s C h e l t e n h a m , n a m e l y : It': Ils:1f1635ooo. of the solar systern. e Table of the aether stress s for the sun and nlanets.
l _ : Strers lStress in ttnits of the tensile v,2l}nf lstrcngth of stcel, 30 tons to , r _ ' r l _ _ ^ _ - ,q c r _ \ ^.n lrn Kg per s : 4.7216 metric i rhe ;rl in. tons pcr sq cm

It will be seen that the aether stressis very great near the surfaces of the larger planets, and especially near the solar surftrce. This stress varies as the square of the force of gravity, and thus augments rapidly near a large dense nrass, rvhcre the acceleration of gravity becomes very large. Such a result is in no way remarkable, but on the contrary, to be expected by any one familiar rvith the wave-process for generating the physical 'forces pervading nattlre. It would be easy to calculate the magnetic stressesby the correspondingformula:

'ti

{i (in cm)

n ,' :

At

the Planetary Orbits

t r'

l t t ' " : i:n k g ( :

|

ni:

s'?l8r'r

per sq crn)

Sun lVIercury Venus The Earth lrlars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

o
I

,,aor'?
r88.o

4539j.14oo.o 46666o.o 586o77.r 8 6 6 2t . o 4 t8584.j.o 7g 7 z 9 8 . o 8 22 568.3 r 3o6336.o

g 6 o 85 . o 4 . 55 98.7 7 r24.o5 r833 88.5.q6 r68.7.5 1 74 ' 1 o 276.5o rvhere r 3 . 94 7 r.r3o35 o.59r4r o 25474
n n r r R r R

8l5.s z
3
A

g8r.o 377.r4 z 6 zr . 7 | | 44.2 r 3o4.o r + 6q . 6

6 7
6

o.oo64gg65o o.oor6o57 o . o o o 65 4 o 4

*qs2I o.778rr o . 2r 3 o r o . o 3 95 r 9 o.ooo29c7o o . o o o o z 7z 8 5 o.ooooor57o3 o.ooooooz6o5 r

radius o f t h e e a r t h , and s is expressed in the And as ,?'e occurs in the above equation, rve find A that the gravitational stress at the earth's sttrface, namely k i l o g r a m s p e r s q u x r e c e n t i m e t r e , n t n s t b e c l i v i c l c d snme unit, the integration for the path s : Jds being taken 586o77 o 267122.5 ooooo, b y t h e e n o r m o u sn u m b e r ( r 6 3 5 o o o ) ' i n s e n s i b l e t r e s s I o . o o o o o o 2 I g 2 4 along the line of the magnetic force, from the place of obs o yielding only the utterly 'f his stress is in the kilograms per square centimetre. ! to the other polep,. direction of the total magnetic intensity. r\nd as the clip s e r y a t i o n a t o t h e p o l e / , a n d s , : Jds, o is largely vertical in the chief places of the northern he2. It follorvs frorn this line of argument: nrisphere, it is not remarkable that the earth's northu'ard 'l'hat p u l l o n a s u s p e n d e dm a g n e t i c n e e d l e i s p r a c t i c a l l y i n s e n s i l - l l e , a) artificial magnets are produced by the conthe days of Nornon, 1576. as fotrnd by observers since certecl rvave-action oI electric currents, in coils oI wire such T h e e x p e r i m e n t a ld e t e c t i o no f a n y m o d i f i c a t i o no f w e i g h t ts Atnfit't first rvound about tbe bars being magnetized by magnetization, or even a bodily deflection of a suspended t h e a t o m s h a v i n g t h e i r e q u a t o r s l i n e d u p p a r a l l e l t o t h e rnagnetic needle from the vertical, is therefore very diflicult e q u a t o r ,o r p l a n e p e r p e n d i c u l a rt o t h e b a r ' s a x i s a t i t s c e n t r e . in the magnetic field of the earth, rvhere the stressesare so b) The magnetic force is due to stress in the aether, feeble compared to the enormous stress due to gravitation. nnder vortical rotation of the aetherons about the lines of (i") Definite proof thxt gravitation is propagated rvith force, as the magnetic waves travel outward with the velocity t h e v e l o c i t y o f l i g h t d e d u c e d f r o m t h e c o n n e c t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d of light. This nragnetic force bein,g due to a state of stress between magnetism and gravitation. in the aether is propagated across space with the same r. We have now shorvn tl-rat so far as the rnagnetism v e l o c i t y a s t h e e l e c t r o d y n a m i c r v a v e sg e n e r a t i n gt h e m a g n e t , o f o u r g l o b e i s r e g u l a r a d e l i n i t e c o n n c c t i o n e x i s t s l r e t r v e c n which lias been found by many carefui experimenters to be the mean total force of terrestrial tnagnctism in any latitttdc i c l e n t i c a l r v i t h t h e s p e e d o f l i g h t , - 3 o o o o o k r n p e r s e c o n d . and the accelerative force of gravitation at the earth's sttr3. Norv if a real connection exists between terrestrial face, through the equation: magnetism and gravitation at the surface at the earth, as tf r4o8 part of the atoms being ( r i r a o 8 . r z ) 2 ( r z fs 2 - r r 2 f s ' 2 ) ( t + ) shorvn in this paper, Ils: q 2 ( r z f s 2 - + 1 2 l t ' ' ):

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lined up in parallel planes, and giving the attraction directed to the two poles; the rest, r4o7f r4o8, of thern lying haphazrrd, with their planes tilted at ail possible angles, and giving only a mean stress towards the centre of the whole mass - then, it will follow that gravitation necessarily is transmitted rvith the velocity of light. For this velocity certainly is true of the waves generating rragnetisnr, and as magnetism is definitely connected with gravitation, this latter force must of necessity be transmitted across space rvith the same velocity, namely, I/: 3. rolo cm. 4. The investigation of the connection between the magnetism of the earth and terrestriai gravity norv shorvn to exist, is therefore of the deepest interest, because it furnishes a definite proof that the universal gravitation, which governs the motions of the planets in their orbits, is trans'fhis mitted rvith the velocity of light. is another proof that gravitation is due to wave-action in tire aetlier, because the velocity of transmission deduced from the connection with m a g n e t i s m c o r r e s p o n d st o s u c h w a v e s . I n t h e B a l t i m o r eL e c t u r e s ,r g o 4 , A p p e n d i x F , ( r e p r i n t e d from the Proc. I{oy. Soc., vol. 8, June, r856; Phil. X4ag., March, r 8 5 7 ) Lord I{e luin treats of -I"hradalt's discovery, 1845, of the rotation of a beam of polarized light rvhenit is passed through heavy glass, carbon disulphide, etc. along the path of a rnagnetic line o[ force. 1'his discovery is fundamental in niagnetisrn, ancl by all competent authorities ranked among the most rvonderful of Faradalt's discoverics. Yet although over three fourths of a ceniury have norv elapsed since liaradal's discovery, the only investigators rvho have studied it from the dynarlical point of vierv are Keluin, 1856; Martucll, r87 3; and the present writer, r g r 7. 'I'he work of Kcluin and Maxruell was incomplete, yet extrenrely suggestive. ln fa<:t, since their investigations led to the exp l a n a t i o n o f t h e c a u s e o f m a g n e t i s mo u t l i n e d b y r n e i n r g r 7 , and that cause is now definitely demonstrated, it is well to recall the reasoning of both Keluin and lllaxtuell. I{cluin inferred that >the rnagnetic influence on light discovered by -|'-aradaltdepends on the direction of motion of moving particles<, and that >Faradal's optical discovery affords a demonstration o[ the reality of Auplrc's exltlanation of the ultiurate nature of magnetism( - corresponding to the wave-theory. After discussing Ilan*ite's hypothesis of nrolecular vortices, which he had himself developed at lengrh, I{cluiu finally concludes: >I think we have good evidence for the opinion that some phenomenon of rotation is going on in the magnetic field, that this rotation is perforrned by a great number of very small portions of matter, each rotating on its own axis, this axis being parailel to the direction of the magnetic force, and that the rotations of these different vortices are made to depend on one another by nreans of some kind of mechanism connecting them.< 'l'his is .Ktluin's early description of what is norv the wave-theory. 'I'he IO. Degree of Accuracy of thel-arvof the Inverse Squares for Gravitation and for Nlagnetisnr respectively. , (i) The accuracy of rhe larv of the inverse squares for gravitation.

In AN 5048, p. t44-r54, we have examined the degree of rigor which may be assigned the Neatonian law of the inverse squares,and found that whilst the larv certainly is very accurate, yet the exponent is not accurate beyond the ten-millionth, or seventh decimal place. ( " ) I n t h e A s t r o n o m i c a lJ o u r n a l , v o l . r 4 , r 8 g 4 , p . 4 9 , Prof. t|. IIall considered the admissible change ofexponent to account for the nrotion of IUercury'sperihelion. After weighing the evidence carefully Ilall ad,opted the modified law: 2 1 p ,1 2 . o o o o o o 1 6 . f (rs+) 1: p l a c e s t h e u n c e r t e i n t y i n t h e s e v e n t hd e c i m a l p l a c e o f t h e e x p o r - r e n ta n d i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t b r r r s t o d e n y t h e ; adnrissibilityof such a change. lior the whole ntatter rvas srrbseclLrently revierved by Ncwconb, (Astronontical Constants, r 8 9 5 , l ) . r r 8 ) w h o a d o p t e d t h e s a m e f o r n r o f l a r v ,b u t c a r r i e d t h e d e v e l o p r D e n tt o h i g h e r d e c i r n a l p l a c e s : 'fhis
/ tttttt'f rz oooooot 574 .

('qs)

In r-ny orvn exanrination of this question, AN 5o48, p. r 48, I find that rvhen account is taken of LI/e bcr's. law, r v i t h t h c s u r a l l t e r n r s r e s u l t i n g f r o r n t h e p r o p a g a t i o ni n t i m e , the most probable exponent does not exceed the following: - mn/fr2.ooooooIo.lo ('s6) f Since the author prepared the second paper on tiie N e r v ' l ' h e o r yo f t h e A e t h e r , A N 5 o 4 8 , D r . G r o s s n a t i zo l - t r l u n i c h , r bas very carclirlly tested the outstanding difference ol- 41;, in tlre rrrotion of Nlercury's perihelion found by t\Teucottb,tES t, and finds, (AN 5 r r5) that the true outstanding dillerence very proirably lies between zg' and 38o,but in no casewill attain 43" per century, as so long assurued. Norv as the srraller terrns in l[1,lter's law arl]ount to -+r4!5 for the motion of l\,Iercury,it follorvs that with 6-zzssilartzt's resrrlts the diff'erence to be :rccounted for would be betrveen-+-t 4i 5 and -l z 315 per century. 'I'his leads to residuals snialler than was used to get nly exponent z.ooooooro46, -+zB!44 (AN w h i c h r v a s[ O a ] r o : 5oa8,p. r48). And hence tyitlt Grossuuzrzzi's outstanding nrotion, and LI,'elter'slarv (tbis latter is nccesslry in any case), the exponent rvould be less t h a n z . o o o o o o r o 4 6 , - t h e a x a c t a n i o u n t d e p e n d i n go n t h e adopted centennial difl'erence fda]uo taken by me at -t-zgl++. trtaliing thir allorvances for the obvious uncertainty in this outstanding difference, I think it certain that the tennrillionth place of the exponent probably is accurate, narnely: - rtn 7.t", v: o.oooooo, (rSZ) f f b r r t t h e h u n d r e d - r n i l l i o n t hp l a c e i s i n d o u b t b y a t l e a s t 3 u n i r s , so that: o . o o o o o or o - 1 - . o o o o o o o 3 . r, : o (, SA) 'l'ire uncertainty in this exponent therelore is of the o r d e r o f t h r e e o n e - h u n d r e d - r n i l l i o n t h sa n d i t i s n o t e a s y t o , see how we cln leach a conclusion authorizing a smaller value of. this uncertainty. N o i v i n h i s a d d r e s st o t h e B r i t i s h A s s o c i a t i o ni n A u s t r a l i a , r g r 4, p. q r 6, Prof. E. L[/.-Brount,of Yale University, estirrates that the exl)onent in the larv of, gravitation does not differ lrom z by a fraction greaterthan r : 4oooooooo : o.oooooooo2( rvhich is at least ten times smaller than the uncertaint! inclicated above. Brouu's premisesare open to grave objections, in that he assumed the Arewlotnan larv to be quite rigorous, and adopted an oblateness of the earth of about r : zg4,

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which is not admissible, (AN 5048, pp. r49-r5o), becairse Gouss took the florce due to an e]ement of positivei i n A N 5 r o 3 - Sr o 4 , I h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e m o s t p r o b a b l e rnagnetism cl;r,,at the distance ,1), to have the general form, ( I n t e n s i t a s V i s I \ , I a g n e t i c a ee t c . , r 8 3 3 , \ z r ) : , o b l a t e n e s so f t h e e a r t h i s r : 2 9 8 . 3 : dplD" (zo") l'he estimated higher accuracy of the larv of attraction -f adopted by flrou:n therefore is not justified by the existirrg rvhere zz rnay be any number rvhatever. state of our knos'lcdge. In fact the fluctuati-ons thc nroon of As the result of a long series of delicate experiments, c o n t i n u c t o i r e s o t r o t t b l e s o m e h a t c a l c u l a t i o n so n t h c m o t i o n on a n:lagnetized needle, by means of fixed magnets about t o [ t h e p e r i g e e d o n o t g i v e a s e x a c t a c r i t e r i o n t o r t h c c x - a foot )ong and rveighing about one pound, he found that ponent in the larv of attraction as rve formcr'ly believed. rvhi'f larious values o( n may be almost equally rvell adopted e A l l r v e c a n d o a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e i s t o s a y 't h a t t h e f o r s p e c i a l c a s e s ; y e t w h e n t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o exponcnt does not differ from z by' s1n." than alrout one-t\\'cnty- magnets is srrlficiently great, compared to the linear dimeni m i l l i o n t h o f t h e s ' h o l e , o r o . o o o o o o r , r v h i l e t h e r r n c e r t a i n t ys s i o n s o f e i t h e r , - u l t i n r a t e l y t a k e n a s m o r e t b a n f o u r t i m e s a b o u t t h r e e i n t h e h u n c l r e d m i l l i o n t h p l a c e ,o r J - o . o o o o o o o . j . as great, in the experiments finally devised by Gauss, - the 2. I t f o l l o r v s f r o n r t h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g t h a t t h e l a r v o f b e s t r e s r r l t si n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e t r u e v a l u e i s n : I f t h e d e f l e x i o n si n t h e e n d - o n e x p e r i m e n t sw e r e d e g r a v i t a t i o n i s e s t a b l i s h e d r v i t h v e r y g r e a t a c c u r a c ) ' . .I t i s b y (D', f a r t h e m o s t e x a c t o f a l l t h e l a r v s o f n a t u r e , b e c a u s ca s t r o - n o t e d b y @ , a n d i n t h e b r o a d s i d e - o n e x p e r i r n e n t sb y t b e p o s i t i o n so f t h e d e f l e c t i n g m a g n e t a r e g i v e n b y t h e g e n e r a l e n o n r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s x t e n d o v e r l o n g a g e s ,a n d t h e p r e c i s i o n expressions: of the observations is very high for about trvo centuries' In tg@ : L1 7-h*t)-+-Lz r.-('n'rz)*. . - -+-Lir-@-+i) the case of eclipses of the sun and moon the records are /-^-l \2o|) . . .*L,ir-Q*r1 fair'ly complete for 3ooo years, and thus they serve to check t [ @ , : 1 , ) rr . - t n n r ) - + L , z r - ( n - + z ) n astronomical calculations back to the time of the Ilabylonians. where 2 . ,[,1f./.'t : (ii) The accuracy of the Iaw of the inversc squares His otrservations, horvever, required but few ternrs of for magnetism. the series, and rvere satisfied by the approximate fornrulae: In the )'ear r gt4, I made a carefnl estirrate of the tg@: o . o 8 6 8 7 or - 3 - - o . o o z r 8 5 r - 5 a c c u r a c y a s s i g n a b l et o t h e l a w o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l a t t r a c t i o n i n Qoz) : tg(D' o.o43435 r-31-o.ooz44gr-5 , Ncrulon's time, and found that it s'as of the orcler of one n l n n p n f t h p C x p o n e n t ,t h u s , If r be the distance between the centres of the magUnit in the ten-thOr1s"..lth nets, measured in metres, and (Do, (I)'o, and (D", (l)'" be the n: 2.oootf o.oooI. It follorvs frorn the formulae for the calculation of the o b s e r v e d a n d c a l c u l a t e dv a l u e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,t h e e x p e r i m e n t s Cdleste, o f G a u s s , l c a d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e o f r e s u l t s : motion of the perihelion (cf. I'isstrand's i\lecani<1uc ,lto iD'o-(D'" fio -tI'" O'o , tome r, p. 5o), that the exponent z.oor rvould sive a disr. r nr ro 57' 24!8 -+ zi\ p l a c e m e n to f a p l a n e t ' sp e r i h e l i o n a m o u n t i n g t o d t z - 6 a E " i n r.2 | 29 4o.S - 6.o a single revolution. In the same way the exponent 2.ooor i* o18 r ro rg.3 -1-6.o r.3 z" 11'5riz would yield a displacementof 6418, a little over r', rvhich I t 47 28.6 -+ 4.5 o 55 58.S -ro.2 t.1 is about as high an order of accuracy as was attainable in -6.6 r.5 | 27 rg.r Nctutotis time. 9.6 o 45 r4.3 t.6 t 12 7.6 o 77 r2.2 -3.2 If norv l*'e turn to the law of nragnetic attraction, rve 3.3 -r.2 1.7 r o 9.9 find a similar history of progress. In the time of Airrulon 5.o o 30 57.9 -r r.8 o 50 52.5 , t h e l a w o f m a g n e t i c a t l r a c t i o n h a d n o t b e e n d e t e r n r i n e c ln o r 4.2 o 25 59.5 -3.4 r.9 o 43 zr.8 -{- 7.8 o 22 9.2 -+2.6 even surmised n,ith any degreeof probability. Accorclinqly, 2.o o 37 16.z -fro.6 o rg t.6 +5.9 fohn Michill of Cambridge, England, in r75o, first shorved 2,r o 32 4.6 -1- o.9 o 16 24.7 -+ 4.9 roughly that the larv oI the inverse squares probably holds 'I'his larv rvas much more rigorously 2.\ o r8 .5r.9 -ro.z o g 36.r -2.s for magnetic attraction. -o.2 o.7 r.r o o rr established by the !'rench physicist Coulonlt, in r 7 8 -5, by 3.o 5 3.3.7 -r.o o.2 o 3 28.9 meanl of delicate experimentswith the torsion balancc; and 3.5 o 6 56.9 -3.7 o 222.2 -+-r.7 it has since been generally received as a true law of nature, 4.o o 435.9 p,1t,fr2. so that we ha'e 1: Thbse who have studied this subject carefully have The general theory of magnetic attraction rvas sut)- found in the above table a double proof of the law of the sequentlyimproved by f{ans tem, of Copenbagen ( I\lagn etismus l n v e r s e S q l l a r e s : 'fhe der Erde, r8rg). Yet it is lo Gauss,above all others, that r. fact that tg@ and tg@' can be so accurately \ \ e o \ \ ' e t h e r e a l t e s t o f t h e l a $ ' o f m a g n e t i c a t t r a c t i o n ; f o r expressed by only the first trvo terms of the infinite Series this great mathematician made a srlccessful effort to fix the i n ( z o r ) . 'fhe law of nature rvith a degree of rigor con.rparableto that of 2. fact that the coefficient of the first term in universal gravitation in the tirne of Arcu/on. t g C ) , n a m e l y o . o 8 ( r 8 7 o ,i s e x a c t l y d o u b l e t h a t i n t g @ ' , w h i c h Garzsscarried out a series o[ end-on observations rvith i s o . o 4 3 4 3 5 . bar magnets in rvhich the density of the magnetisrn for either As a result of the great generality of this analytical half oi the bar \l'as assumed to have the fomr: theory, together rvith the novelty of the experimental method, for treating the laiv of force at great distances, where minor .f:).r" 17 B d .z r 7 .

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)It has been usual to ascribe the ordinary diurnal variations of the terrestrial magnetic force to solar heat, either operating directly upon the magnetism of the earth, or generating themro-electric currents in its crust. f'he credit of these hypotheses has been somervhat weakened by the discovery of a variation which is certainly independent of any such cause, namely, the lunar variation of the three rnagnetic elernents; while at the same time new laws of the solar 2ty n: 2<o.oool ( r o ; ) diurnal change have been established, which are deemed to or n: 2,ooooto.ooor , be incon.rpatible with the supposition of a thermic agency. Thbrefore, it appears probable that the exponent in 'fhere has been, accordingly, a tendency of late to recur to the law of force in magnetic attraction is knorvn to within the hypothesisthat the sun and moon are thenrselves ndued e about a thousandth part of the accuracy attainable in the w i t h n r a g n e t i s n r , v h e t h e ri n h e r e n t o r i n d u c e d ; a n d i t i s t h e r e r refined theories of the heavenly motions developed by the fore of some importance to deterntine the effects rvhich such labors of astronomers in the two centuries following the b o d i e s w o u l d p r o d u c e a t t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ,a n d t o c o m p a r e men"rorable epoch of Netaton. theni with those actually observed.( 'I'he law of magnetic attraction is therefore exceedingly >I have endeavoured, in rvhat follows, to solve this accurate, and with modern apparatus, the relinement doubtq u e s t i o n , o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e s u p p o s e dr n a g n e t i s mo f 'I'he less could be carried still further: but it would serve little these luminarics is inherent. result will show the inpurpose in the present state of science, as the true larv of s u f f i c i e n c y o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s t o e x p l a i n t h e p h e n o m e n a ;a n d nature already is plainly indicated. rvill therelbre bring us one step nearer to their exyrlanation, For it appears fronr the above analysis of the leading by the renroval of one of their supposedcauses.( facts that the exponent in the law of magnetic attraction l{e then derives the usual exltressions for the total has about the value il: 2 . o o o r , e s s e n t i a l l yi d e n t i c a l r v i t h forces ,Y, Y,Z, exerted by a needle tlelicately suspended about : the accuracy n 2.ooor attained in the test of the larv its centre of gravity upon a distant rnagnetic element r,'r of gravitation embodied in the Principia by Ntuton, r687. supposed to be in the heavens: If this degree of accuracy appeared satisfactory to Neulott,. y: ( t t n f a r ) z cosa -+-3(bf a) cosp -+ 'a(6,z) cosy) f in the case of gravitation, the accuracy attained by Gauss : (,rlf nf o3) - c o s B - * 3 ( / f a ) c o s a ) 1' (r"+) for magnetic attraction leaves very little to be desired. 2 : (,lf atf at\) -cosy-r 3Qfa) cosa) . I I. Explanation of the Periodic and Secular Here .LI is an integral, which we need not explain, Changes in the l,arth's Nlagnetism, including the C a u s e o f t h e E a r t h C u r r e n t s , ' M a g n e t i c S t o r r n s ' , a, I, c are the coordinates of the distant magnetic element u, and (v, P, f the angles made by the axis of the suspended and Aurorae. In the theory of magnetism a considerable group of terrcstrial lnagnet with the coordinate axes. L/01'd then proceeds to substitute in these expressions, errors have been handed down by tradition. Although sonre of them have been refuted several years ago, they still continue s a y i n g : > I f 1 ) d e n o t e t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e c e n t r e o f t h e to find place in even ttre latest treatises. lt is therefore niagnet fronr the centre of the earth, r the earth's radius, necessary to dwell at some length on these errors, in the ho1;e L tlrc latitude of the point (a, b, c) on its surface, and d of giving increased currency to valid viervs on this subject. the angle contained by the meridian passing through it with that containing the acting magnet, (i) Correction of the error in Ilo1,/'s analysis of r 858: Direct magnetic action of the sun and moon established by a - J ) - r ' c o s T , c o s d ' / : r c o s l s i n d (2"5) c-rsinl.o Llold's observations. lle thus makes the coordinates a, b, c to depend on In the Philosophical Magazine lor Ivlarch, r858, I)r. the hour angle d, and thus tacitly restricts all changes to Ifintfhrclt Lloyd, for many years professor of natural philothe period of tire diurnal urovement. llis analysis is so framed 'lrinity sophy, and afterrvardsprovost of College, I)ublin, has a s t o e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a s e n r i - d i u r n a l m o v e m e n t a l e a r n e d p a p e r e n t i t l e d : > O n t h e . d i r e c t r n a g n e t i ci n l l u e n c e o f t h e s u s p e n d e d n e e d l e . Y e t h e p r o c c e d s t o examine the o f a d i s t a n t l u u r i n a r y u p o n t h e d i u r n a l v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e effect of his ar.ralysis, finally adding the tbllorving conclusions: magnetic force at the earth's surface<(, rvhich rvas afterwards )r. 'I'hat the effect of a distant magnetic body on '-['reatise (Longmans, Green reprinted in Lloyd's on l\'lagnetisnr, each of the three elernents of the earth's magnetic force & Co., London, r874, p. 233-z39). consists of two parts, one of which is constant throughout lVe shail revierv Lloyd's paper briefly in order to point the day, while the other varies rvith the hour-angle of the out the error of analysis which vitiates the conclusions drarvn I u n r i n a r y< . 'fhese from it. unjustifiable conclusions have been widely >2. Each of these parts varies inversely as the cube 'I'heory circulated in other works, such as the lr{athematical of of the distance of the rnagnetic body.< Electricity and iVlagnetisnr(3'ded., rgrO) by Dr. J. If. Jtans, ) 3. The variable part will give rise to a diurnal now secretary of the Royal Society, and are detrirr-rental to inequality, having one maximum and one minirnum in the the progress of physical science. imperfections in the magnets would be minirnized, and the refinement of the observations made by Gauss, the larv of the inlerse squares has been regarded as definitely settled by his researches. Accordingly, it seems certain that the exponent in the expression for the law of magnetic attraction is u, with a probable uncertainty of not more than one unit in the ten-thousandth olace: Dr. Lloyd begins his discussion with interesting introductory remarks: the follorving

day, a'd subject ,)"r;T;:: ,"

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>The third of these laws does not hold, with respect I-unarinequality oftheverticalforce(f) at Dublin (ZUya,p. zoo). either to the solar-diurnal or to the lunar-diurnal variation. Lunar horrrs (: vertical force Lunar hours 6: vertical force -1- o.o 'f o.o 2 Thus, in the solar-diurnal variation of the declination, the t 2 o 5 - ro -F o.oo -ro.o2 changes of position of the magnet throughout the night are t 2 - 8 -o.oI + A comparatively small, and do not correspond, with change of o.oo -'6 -o.o2 -+- 6 -o.o6 sign only (as required by the foregoing law), to tbose rvhich -o.o7 -r-- 8 -o.or take place at the homonymous horrrs of the day. 'lhe phe4 -fo.ro -l- ro -+-o.o r nomena of the lunar-diurnal variation are e1'enmore olrposed 2 to the foregoing larv, the variation having two maxinra and two minima o[ nearly eqnal magnitude in the trventy-four lunar hours, and its values at homonymous hours having for t h e m o s t p a r t t h e s a m e s i g n . H e n c e t h e p h e n o m e n ao f t h e diurnal variation. are not caused by the direct nragnetic action of the sun and moon.< This is one of the most curious specimens of deceptive reasoning which I have ever met with in physical science. If Llo1,d had used the angle zd instead of 6, in the polar expressions for the coordinates a, b, c, so that (zo6) 4:p-7cosr"cos2d b-reos)"sinz0 c-rsin)" tz it is evident that the disturbing action resnlting would have had a semi-diurnal period, in accordance rvith nragnetic obl?iq. 6, |)aruin's diagram of the semi-diurnalmotion ot a servations, and with gravitational action in the theory of the pcndrrlum, rvith the hours indicated, latitude3o". tides of our seas. (ii) I)iscovery of the magnetic tide by l{reil at Prague, In the theory of our ocean tides, the angle zd is uscd to represent the semi-diurnal forces acting on the sea (cf. r 8 4 r , a n d b y f . A . B r o r n i n d , e p e n d e n t l y , r 8 4 5 : R e m a r k s 'I-he Dartoin's article Tides, Iincycl. Brit.). rearler is also of Airy.' h e 'l discovery by I{t'ril, r84r, that there is a true tide r e f e r r e d t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n A N 5 o 7g , p 1 . ' . 6 7 - 2 7 o , r v h c r e 2 i n t h e e e r t h ' s n r a g n e t i s m ,d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m o o n , h a s l o n g Daruin's figrrre of the semi-diurnal movement of a penclulunr will be found useful, in interpreting the follon'ing masnetic b e e n r e c o g n i z e d , a n d n e e d n o t b e f u l l y d i s c u s s e dh e r e . I t srrfficesto refcr to Sltuart's elaborate discussion of'ferrestrial observations by Llol'd himself: Ir{agnetisrn in the article l\'leteorology, lincycl. Brit., 9th ed. Lunar inequal i ty o f th e easterly force (7 ) at. ttl>lin(L / 01, p. r g 7 ). D r/, 'l'he e x i s t e n c eo i t h i s t r u e m a g n e t i ct i d e d e p e n d i n g o n 7): easterly force !: eastcrly force Lunar nours V-C'a r / s u m r n e rl u n a t i o n s r v i n t e r l u n a t i o n s the moon, was indepcndently discovered by /. A.Ilrottn, 1845, -12 -o.lg -o.og --o.14 and fully confirnred by the elaborate magnetic researchesof 'fhc -ro -o.2r -o.o8 -o.r5 fact of the rnagnetic tide thereforc has been So.hint. -o.o6 -1-o.o2 -o.o? 8 knorvn lcrr about eighty years; yet it has never been explained -+o.og -l-o.og 6 J-o.og except by the nerv theory of magnetisnt here set forth, and -fo.r2 -r-o.r3 -Fo.Ij d e p e n d i n e o n t h e e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e p o n c l e r o m o t i v ef o r c e s : 4 -+ o.o8 - o.o r -l- o.o3 2 Fs2-1t,1t,'f s'2, 1ir : p,1t'f s'2-l.,,p'ls2. (r"l) 1t,1t''f

o 4 6

-o.o6 -o.o4

-o.og -o.o7 -o.o2

-o.o8 -o.o5

r-f -}-

-fo.os -f o. r 7 -1-o.o6 o.oo

-1- 8 -+-ro Lunar inequality

-{- o.o8 -fo.o7 -o.o5

1-o.or -t- o.r 2 -fo.o7 -o.o3

of the northerly force (!) atDtrblin (Lto1,d, p. t g g). n o r t h . e r l yo r c c [ : n o . 1 1 , " r l yo r c c f f Lunar hours f: year s u m m e rl u n a t i o n s w i n t e r l u n a t i o n s

- 12 - ro - 8 - 6 - 4
2

- o,o6 -F o.o8

-i- o.o I

r- o.o 7
o.oo

-+-o.o r -f- o,o7

' ".-+ -o.or -1- o.o r -i--o.o I

".".)

, "." .)

-."J

\Vhen attention was directed to the effect of the changing distance of the moon from the earth, both Sobine and Brottt found the obscrved changes greater for perigee than for apogee. In fact when firoutt made an exact analysis of the mean ratio of the apogee effect to the perigee effect, he found it t o b e a s I t o t . z 4 n e a r l y . E x a m i n i n g i n t o t h e c a u s eo f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e h e n o t i c e d t h a t t h e d i s t a n c eo f t h e h a l f o r b i t n e a r apogee is to that near perigee very nearly as r.o7 to r. IJroun then adds that tidal forces vary as the cube of t h e d i s t a n c e s ,a n d t h e c u b e o f r . o l i s r . z . j n e a r l y . A s t h i s inference from analytical theory thus agrees very perfectly rvith observations, he rvas left in no doubt as to the reality of the suspected tide in the earth's magnetism depending on the rnoon. Although a true tide in the earth's magnetism has been known for over 8o years, it is a singular fact that investigators have had great difficulty in interpreting the meaning of these tides. We believe that most of the difficulty has arisen from traditional errors in the theory of magnetism itself, as we shall now proceed to explain. ,";

+ 2 -+- A

o,oo -t- o.o8 -o.oI -

-f 6 -{- 8 -{- ro

' "'") ". ".)

- 1 -o . o 8 -f o.o 3

o.o8

o.o8

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Sortdernunrrner

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z. Ilut althor.rgh this periodic niagnetic connection has . It appears that among all his eminent contemporaries Airy alone - probably as the result of his great rvork on been knorvn rlow over ?o years, and u'e might properly have Tides and Waves, - was able to interpret the magnetic tides attributed high magnetic power to the sun, yet we could not nake out the mode of operation of the rnagnetic forces, even of the earth correctly. In his Treatise on ivlagnetistn, r87o, p. zo6, Airy recognized >a true lunar tide in trregnetistrr, a f t e r t h e N l o u n t W i l s o n o b s e r v e r s ,a b o u t r 9 o 8 , h a d o b t a i n e d o c c u r r i n g t w i c e i n t h e l u n a r d a y , a n d s h o w i n g ' r n a g n e t i c a b e t t e r a n d m o r e d i r e c t p r o o f o f t h e i n t e n s e r n a g n e t i s mo f the sun's .globe. attraction backward and -forward in the line fron the l{ed q. \Ve l)ause therefore to unfold a clear vierv of the Sea to Hudson's Bay<. disturbance knorvn as an electric current 'rvhenit is developed In view of the cattse of magnetistn set lorth in the present paper it rvould be difficult to overrate this analysis i n a d y n a r n o o f t h e s i r n p l e s tt y p e . I n r \ N 5 o 7 9 , p l a t e 6 , w e i of Airy. First, he assigned to a magnet a >l)uality of Porvers<<, h a v e e x 1 > l a i n e dn s o m e d e t a i l t h e l v a v e f r e l d a b o u t a r v i r e b e a r i n g t c u r r e n t . I n t h e a c c o r n p a n y i n gh g . Z , t h e r e f o r t ' ,w e - an attraction towards the t\to centres knorvn as the polcs and second, he says distinctly that the force of the earth's magnetism directed to the north pole near Hudson's Ilay is variable along the line oI the magnetic nreridian directed through Western Europe to the Red Sea. In our new theory of the ponclerourotiveforces of the earth's field, we found the formulae: (r"l) 1;r : ppotfst2-p1t!f s). Ii: lnp'ls2- lrp'ls'2, Now if under the radiation of the nroon or srrn nny actiolt is exerted upon the earth to change the relativeintensity of either pole, the forces 1- ancl -1'-'rvill vary corresl)ondingly. Under these circunrstances the ponderolnotive forces cannot p o s s i b l y r e r n a i n c o n s t a n t ; a n d t h e r e s t t l t n e c e s s a r i l yi s a t r u e I u n a r m a g n e t i c t i d e o c c L t r r i n gt r v i c e d a i l y , a c c o r d i n g t o r v l i i c h ever pole tentporarily is ruost ytorverful,thus sirorvingnragnetic attraction backward and forrvard in the line fronr the I{ed Sea to the north magnetic pole near Hudson's Bay. I n t h e c a s e o f t h e s u n t h e c h a n g e so f t h e e a r t h ' s m a g netic field dtte to heat and the nragnetic rvavesin the earth's illurninated hemisphere are so very considerable that the phenomenaare somewhatinvolved. In the case of the moon's action the effects are sirnpler, though much fbebler. Airyt al6t that the lunar magnetic f orccs are considerably less than those which lbllorvthe larv ol'solar ltours; tlte t.nean d i u r n a l s o l a r i n e c p r a l i t yb e i n g a b o u t t f 6 o o o f t l t e l r o r i z o n t a l 'l'hus tlre solar inforce, while the lunar is only r f t rooo. :o tinres nrore porverful than that due fluence is approxinrately 'I'his r e s u l t n e e d c a t l s en o s u r p r i s ei n v i e s ' o f to the nroon. the recently measured high intensity of the sun'suragnetism. '\{agnetic 'l'he (iii) Storms', cause of E,arth Currents, and the Aurorae. The explanations of the Aurora Borealis heretofore 'fhey all put forth are artihcial, incomplete or ttnsatisfactory. involve something unusual, or out of the ordinary, and tl)erefore must be rejected as inconsistent with the simplicity of the larvs of nature. We propose to develop the magnetic rvave-theoryof the Aurora, and shall endeavor to shorv that this phenomenon rnay be easily understood as soon as we approach ttre problern from the right point of view.
l,'ig.7. (-ieneration of electric current irr a rvave-ficld. by relatlve motlon

shorv in the niiddle section of the frgure the nature of the 'fhe rvavesare to be conceived rvaves of the magnetic licld. as traveling in every direction with the velocity of light. What, then, rvill happen when a loop of.wire - which may be vierved as a section of an armature or core - revolves in such a wave field? 4. \Ve know that induction takes place, so that a current tends to be generated and rvill flow steadily in one direction if the rvave-disturbanceis properly led off in a wire forming 'l'o get a clear view of this irrduction process, a closed circuit. rve need only note that as the wire has both inductance and capacity, any rnotion of the wire in the rvave-field, or any motion oI the rvave-lield relatively to the rvire, will produce the induction required to develop the current. By the motion of the rvire, or of the rvave-field relatively to the wire, the electric ecluilibrium in the wire is disturbed, as rvhen it moves poles P and P'. betrveen the rr-ragnetic

r. About r85o it was shorvn by Lanont, Wolf, Gautitr and Sabinc that there is some extraordinary dependence ofthe 'Xtagnetic Stornrs', amplitude of the magnetic disturbances,or 5. Su1;pose,for exanrple, the copper rvire C to rnove 'I'he amplitudes of the nragnetic front a to b. At such a point as oc the equilibriurn of the of our globe upon sunspots. disturbances follorv the same law as the sunspots,in a cycle aether will be disturbed. Under the action of the vortices in the external free aether, those within the rvire will tend of about rr years,

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to be forced upward, orving to the approach of the rvire toj wards the rvhirl ez. At the point B, on the cther hancl, the rvire recedes from the rvhirl zz', and oling to the enormorts elasticity of the aether a suction effect rvill result, lry viltne of rvhich the aether in the rvire at B rvill also tend to l)e 'I-hus, forced uprvard. orving to these relative rnotions, the disturbances at a and p combine to procluce a s'avc clisturbance nprvard in the rvire as shorvn, rvhich is similar to that 'l'afel given in AN 5o79, 6, for a crrrrent. 6. Rut as a crlrrent requires a circuit, we must next consider what is the effcct of the rnotion of the rvirc on the opposite side, a' 1,'. At the point 7 the disturbance of the aether due to the vortex zzr",rvill be dorvnrvarcl,for rcasons similar to those assigned above. At d, on the other hand, the wire is rcccding from the vortex ru", and under thc high elasticity of the acther, the resulting suction cffcct u'ill be 'I'hus s u c h a s t o a l s o d i r e c t t h e d i s t u r b a n c e d o u ' n sa r d . at b o t h 2 ' a n d d t h c r e i s a c o r n b i n a t i o n o f r l o s , n r v a r dr l i s t u r bances; and therefore a tenclency to rievclop thc elcctric o s c i l l a t i o n so r c u r r e n t s h o r v n i n t h e c l i a e r a r n ,a n r l r c c o g r r i z e d 'I'afel as a current in r\N 5o7g, 6. 'I'his . combination of electric oscillations tending 7 u p w a r d o n t h e r i q h t , a n d d o r v n r v a r do n t h e l c f t o f t h c w i r e loop, is the basis of thc induced crlrrent discovercd by 'l'hc -Faraday in r83 r. rule al)out ))cutting thc lines of f o r c e < i s a v e r y g o o d r u l e o f t h u m b f o r a r t i s a n sa n c l r n c c h a nics; but it gives no intelligent view of rvhat actually soes o n . T h u s r v e h a v c o r r t l i n e d t h e p r o c e s s f r o r r . rt h e p o i n t o f vicrv of the hiqhly elasticmcdium the aetber is knos.n to lre. 8 . A n d r v e h a v e e x J r l a i n e dh o r v t h e r e l a t i v e m o t i o n of the rvire in respect to the magnetic field fillcd rvith vortices must necessarily create about the rvire the rvave-field c a l l e d a c u r r e n t . T h e m a g n e t i c v o r t i r : e s ,b e i n g e l c m c n t s o f the magnetic waves, may be conceived as nroving rvith the velocity of light in frce space; yet as they are peryrctually r e n e w e d i n s i t u , t h e y a c t a s i f t h . e yw e r e s t a t i o n a r yr e l a t i i ' e l y to the nrnsnetic poles upon which they depend. S. As rve pointed out above, any motion of the fixed w a v e - f i e l d ,o r a n y m a r k e d v a r i a t i o n o f t h e r v a v c - f i e ) c li , r e n s p e c tt o t h e r v i r e s ,r v i l l g i v e r i s e t o e l e c t r i c d i s t u r b a n c e s ' h i c h l nright be made the basis of an electric current, if properly led off and directed. We have now to drarv attcntion to the well knorvn fact that the sun's magnetic wave ficld is quite v a r i a b l e . T h e m a g n e t i c w a v e d i s t n r b a n c e sa r e m u c h . w o r s e when sunspots are prpsent than tvhen these spots are absent. As the spots are knorvn to be vortices of highly n.ragnetizecl matter, 1ve see that the magnetic rvaves coming from these l o c a l a r e a s o f t h e s o l a r s u r f a c e a r e t h e i m m e d i a t e c a u s eo f 'I'his the >I'lagnetic Storms<. connection is abundantly e s t a b l i s h e db y t h e r e s e a r c h e so f a s t r o n o m e r sd u r i n g t h e p a s t 75 y e a r s . ro. In the Phil. Trans., vol. r66, p. 387, Join z1//rn -Broan fottnd from nragnetic phenomena that there rvas a period of recurrence in the magnetic disturbances of about z6 days, - the period of the solar rotation, and expressed the belief that certain zones or areas of the solar surlace rnight exert a potent influence on the state of the e a r t h ' sm a g n e t i s md u r i n g s e v e r a lr o t a t i o n s . I n r 9 c 4 , ( i t t N 6 5 ,

pp. z and 538), E. W. tlfaunder reached sirnilar conclusions, rvithont knorvledge of Rroun's earlier rvork; tlfaunrlct' nrade t h e p e r i o d t o b e 2 7 . 2 8 d a y s , c o i n c i d i n g l ' i t h t h e s u n ' sr o t a t i o n relatively to the observerupon the earth. i\,Ir.Maunder resarded his results as demonstratingthat the larger magnetic clisturb a n c e s o f t h c c a r t h o r i g i n a t e i n t h e s u n ; a n d c o n s i d e r e dt h e a c t i o n a s p r o p a g a t e da l o n g n a r r o r vr v e l l d ef i n e d s t r e a n s ,h a v i n g t h c i r b a s e s i n a c t i v e a r e a s o f s t l n s p o t s i,' e t p o s s i b l y p r e c e d i n g and outliving the spots themselves. r t. I'outt,g's observationsof the violent magnetic tremors n e a r t h e t i m e o f t h e t o t a l s o l a r e c l i p s e i n C o l o r a c l o ,r 8 7 z , are rvell known, but as his account is instructive we quote it briefly: > O n A u g u s t 3 , r 8 7 2 , t h e c h r o m o s p h e r ei n t h e n e i g h borhood of a sun-spot, which rvas just coming into view a r o u n d t h e e d g e o f t h c s u n , r v a sg r e a t l y d i s t u r b e d o n s e v e r a l occasions during the forenoon. Jets of luminous matter of i n t c n s c b r i l l i a n c e r v e r e p r o j e c t e c l ,a n d t h e d a r k l i n e s o f t h e sl)cctrurl \\'cre reversed by hundreds for a few minutes at 'l'hcre a tir.ne. rvere tlrree esPecially notalrle paroxysms at 8 t ' 4 5 ' , I o h - t o - , a n d r r h 5 o ' na . r n . l o c a l t i m e . A t d i n n e r t h e plrotoerapher of the party, rvho *'as deterrnining the rnagnetic constantsof our station, told me, u'ithout knorvinganything a b o u t m y o b s e r v a t i o n s ,t h a t h e h a d b e e n o b l i g e d t o g i v e u p rvork, his ntagnet having swung clear off the scale. 'l'wo clal's later the spot had conrearound the edge of the limb.< Youn,g'sobservations extended over the next t\1'o days, and n'lren hc aftcrl'ards rvrote to Airy and Perry in frngland, he *'as sLrrlrrised to fincl fronr their photographs that the needles at (lrccnrvich uncl Stonyhurst bad shorvn violent t r c n r o r s ,j u s t I i k e t h a t n o t e d i n C o l o r a d o , a n d a t t h e s a r n e instant of (lreenrvicir mean time, tvithin ro minutes, - the tirne in Coloraclo not having been noted with any great precision. 'I'he r z. a c c o l n p a n y i n gP I a t e 7 o f s i m u l t a n e o u s a g n e t i c m d i s t u r b a n c e s h r o u s h o u t t h e r v o r l c l , e d u c e dt o G r e e n r v i c h i m e , t r t is frorr a paper by l)rof. Il'. G. tldans, in the Phil. 'frans., for r892, A, Plate 8. Afier examinins this record,it is useless to extend our present argument any further. 'lllagnetic Ilut rvhilst the relationsbip oi Sunspots to Storms', l,larth Currents, Aurorae, is long recognized from well d e f i n e dp h e n o r n e n ao f p e r i o d i c i t y , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e u n d o u b t e d connection continrres so very obscure that rve nrust carry the examination a little further. 'I'reatise In his on l\'Iagnetisnr,r87o, p. z.o4 Airl says: >'fhe periods of great disturbancesometirnes ccupy a o p o r t i o n o f a s i n g l e d a y , s o m e t i m e ss e v e r a ld a y s i n s u c c e s s i o n : 'magnetic they are familiarly knorvn by the name of storms'. They a r e n o t c o n n e c t e d r v i t h t h u n d e r - s t o r m so r a n y o t h e r k n o w n distnrbance of the atmosphere; but they are invariably connected rvith exhibitions of Aurora Borealis, and rvith spontaneous galvanic crlrrents in the ordinary telegraph rvires: and this connection is found to be so certain that, upon rernarking the d i s p l a y o f o n e o f t h e t h r e e c l a s s e s f p h e n o m e n a ,w e c a n a t o once assert that the other trvo are observable (the Aurora Borealis sometimes not visible here, but certainly visible in a nrore northern latitude).(

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C o n c l u s i o n sa s t o t h e C a u s e o f t h e E a r t h C u r r e n t s , ' M a g n e t i c t o r m s ' A u r o r a B o r e a l i sa n d A u r o r a S , Australis.

r. From the above argument it follows that the sun's magnetic rvave-field variable, owing to the changes associated is with the sunspot development. Variability in the sun's magnetic wave field leads to variability in the inductive actions of these waves upon the earth; and as our globe has both inductance and capacity, the result is electric disturbancesadjusting thernselves within the globe, which is a heterogeneous nrass three fourths covered by sea, and surrounded by an atmosphere well suited to Gei8ler tube displays. ' 2 . I t i s e a s i l y s h o r v nb y e x p e r i m e n t so n l a n d , e s p e c i a l l y near the sea, that very considerable differences of electric potential always exists in the ground, and is in constant dissipation and adjustment. 1'he solid heterogeneousearth, seir a n d s k y a r e u n d e r p e r p e t u a la d j u s t m e n to f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f their respective wave-fields; and as the inductions due to the sun are variable, we see that there will arise a true magnetic tide pulling backward and forward from the l{ed Sea to Fludson's Bay, whenever the solar inductions take place in such a way as to change the two poles of the globe of the earth or of t h e s u n . I f t h e s e c h a n g e sa r e r a p i d a n d v i o l e n t r v e f i e q u e n t l y have a form of lightning in the upper atmosphere: p - p , p ' fs 2 (zoE) l,.p'lt't, Aurora llorealis. .7;t st2- 1tp'f s2, Aurora Ar.rstralis. (rog) p1r,'f p 3 . T h e s e s i m p l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e r f e c t l ye x p l a i nt l r ee a r t h 'magnetic c u r r e n t s ,a n d t h e s t o r r n s ' ,a n d w e n r a y d i s m i s s t h e s e t w o c l a s s e so f p h e n o m e n a a s n o w r e f e r r e d t o t h e i r t n l e c a u s e . For the sun is variable in its irction, owing to spot development and rotation, and tt'us has variable poles, p und 1r,, w h i l e t h e e a r t h a l s o r o t a t e s s t e a d i l y ; y e t i t s p o l e s p , ' a . n dp , ' are variable, because the changing light heniispheres are successively subjected to an extrenrely variable induction by 'nragnetic t h e s u n ' sa c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g l y t h e e a r t h c u r r e n t s a n d storms' imrnediately follorv from the above forrnulae. 4. As lbr the aurora, it rvas remarked by Ilalley in the P h i l . T r a n s . , f o r r 7 r 4 - t 7 t 6 ( v o l .X X I X , n o . 3 4 r ) , t h a t t h i s b r i l l i a n t n o r t h e r n l i g h t i s a n r a g n e t i cp h e n o u r e n o n . P e r h a p s Ealley rvas inlluenced in Iris conclusions, as nlorc rnodern investigators have been, by the observed fact that the strean)ers of the aurora are parallel to the lines of force of the earth's magnetic field. The argument frorn the parallelism of the streamers to the magnetic lines of force and frour the periodi'magnetic city of the auroracoinciding with that of the storms', e a r t h c u r r e n t s a n d s u n s p o td e v e l o p m e n t i s a l l t h a t i s r e q u i r e d to shorv that the aurora depends upon electric discharges in our atmosphere. The strealnerstake on faint luminosity along the lines of magnetic force, becausethe magnetic state of the earth is varying, under the irregular inductive action of the sun, rvhich operates nrost directly upon the light hemisphere; yet as the night henisphere of the earth is magnetically a part of the earth's entire system, the dissipation of uncontpensated magnetic wave-energy is likely to become visible chiefly by night. 5 . I n L o r v e l l O b s e r v a t o r yR u l l e t i n n o . 2 9 , J u n e t o N o vember, r9r6, Dr. Slipher has shown that the aurora usually 'Ihis is present in the sky near the horizon, even by daylight.

is because the air near the horizon is of greatest depth, and thus on the photographic plate the persistence of the auroral rays may become visible in spite of its invisibility to the eye. In high latitudes, especially about the cold poles of our globe, the atmospheric electric potential of the air tends to fall, as Errur sholed, on the a\/eragefifteen tinres more rapidly than in the ery.ratorial regions of our globe. Thus in cold regions the rapid fall of the electric potential oft'ersan easy release for rvave stress in tbe air rvhen the l)articles of cirrus and 'l'hus s i m i l a r c l o u d s a r e u n d e r g o i n gr a p i d c o n d e n s a t i o n . electric d i s c h a r g e sa t g r e a t h e i g h t d o n o t t a k e t h e f o r u r o f l i g h t n i n g directed to the earth, but of faintly luminous streanrers. 6 . N o w i [ r v e c o n s i d e rt h e n e r v t h e o r y o f l i g h t n i n g a n d of surlace tension given in the filth paper, AN 5 r -lo, we p e r c e i v e t h a t l i c l u i d d r o p s , o r e v e n g l o b u l e so f i c e s u s p e n d e d in a frozen cirrus cloud, under the influence of the earth's magnetic field, rvould not have the aether stress at the surlace exerted rvith perl'ect synlmetry, but there would be a north a n d s o u t h p o l a r i t y i n t h e g l o l r u l e s ,o w i n g t o t h e u n s t e a d i n e s s i n t h e e a r t h ' s n r a g n e t i cf o r < : e s . f t h i s s t r e s s i e l d e d t o a s l i g h t I y e l e c t r i c r u l ) t u r e , r r n d e r t h e w a v e i n r p u l s e so f t h e e a r t h ' sm a g netisur, the release of energy rvould generate an agitation yielding lnminous streanersin the clircction of the rnagnetic lincs oi' lbrce, as in the aurora. Since the nragnetic stress is greatest to the north, the rays oiten rvoLrldstart there and l l a s h s o u t h w a r d ,w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h e a u r o r a l s t r e a r r ) e rp e r f e c r l y , s r v i t h o u tt l r e i n t r o d u c t i o no f a n y a r b i t r a r y h y p o t h e s i s . S o s i n r p l ea t h e o r y l r : r v e sn o t h i n g t o b e d e s i r e d ; r v i t h o u ts t r a i n i t e x p l a i r r s a l l t l r c a u r o n l p h e n o n r e n a o f t h e t w o t e r r e s t r i a lh e n r i s p h e r e s . 'l'he lirlded ribbon bands so ofien seenin the aurora 7. a r e l ) c r s l ) c c t i v e l r a c l o rc f f e c t s ,p r o d u c e d m a i n l y b y a l t e r n a t i o n s s v o f l u r n i n o u sa n t l n o n - l u n r i n o u s l o u d s , s o m e w h a ta n a l o g o u st o c the bearus, rvith tmncated columnar asl)ect, often seen in the s k y a t s u n s e to r s u n r i s e : y e t j u s t a s t h e s o u r c e so f t h e a u r o r a l light arc more hidden than in the case of the sun, so the iLurorel tnlncatcd bands or folded curtains thus are more r u y s t c r i o u st h a n r v h a t w e s e e p r o d u c e d b y t h e s u n ' s v i s i b l e illurnination. 8 . I ) u r i n g t h e b r i l l i a n t a u r o r a o b s e r v e da t i l { a r e I s l a n d , C a l i f o r n i a , l \ l a y r 4 , r g z r , T s a w t h e s t r e a m e r sf o n n i n g v e r y distinctly in several parts of the sky where the clouds were j u s t f o r n r i n g a n d d i s s o l v i n g .W h e n a f a i n t c l o u d b e c a m e v i s i b l e , yet was not lnminous, I found, by watching, that it often would soon exhibit faint strean.rersrunning parallel to the eartir's rlagnetic lines. 'l'hus I a m c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e l i g h t e n e ' r g yo f t b e a u r o r a is rvave.energy, rvhich in lorver clouds frequently takes the forrn ol'lightning directed to the earth; but in the region o[ the cir,nts, where the air is very rare, is released by slight 'l'he oscillatory changes in tlie earth's magnetic forces. aurora is a kind of sheet lightning o[ the upper atrnosphere, and therefore the luminous streamers take the direction of the 'lo lines of force in the earth's rnagnetic field. this extent Ilalley's bold conjeCtureof r7 r4 is correct. A more detailed a c c o u n t o f t h e b r i l l i a n t a u r o r a o b s e r v e d I V I a yr 4 , r g z r , w i l l be found in AN 5r4o, p.8r. (iv) The secular changes in the earth's nragnetism. It only remains to consider the secular changes of the earth's magnetisrn. Here, unfortunately, we are on uncertain

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r. Gravitational attraction

270

ground, owing to the absence of any well defined criteria'tir show the cause at rvork. r. lt was stated by Airy that the magnetic north pole probably is revolving around the geographical pole; but after a critical survey of the knorvn data for the south magnetic pole, in section g above, we are unable to find definite eviclence of any shifting rvhatever of the earth's magnetic poles. And as the poles appear to be fixed, - if we judge by that in the Antarctic, for rvhich the observed data are most complete - we have been obliged to conclude that the surface sccular changesin the earth's ma.gnetismdepend rnainly on induction effects due chiefly to the sun, as ln Arago's rotation exp e r i m e n to f r 8 2 5 . z . S i n c e t h e s u n i s a s t r o n g l y m a g n e t i z e db o d y , t h e r e would arise in our globe some eddy currents of considerable i n t e n s i t y ; a n d a s t h c e d d y c u r r e n t s f o r a s t r o n o m i c a lr e a s o n s w o u l d r e c u r r v i t h a p p r o x i l n a t er e q l r l a r i t yi n t h e s a n r cc i i r c c t i o n , f o r a l o n g t i m e , o v e r c o n s i d e r a b l ea r e a s , i t i s l i k c l y t h n t a very considerable secular change in the magnctic forces ncar 'l'his is the onli' tangible the surface would gradually result. explanation of the secular changes knorvn to me.

"f:mnlr2, z, Magnetic total intensity, or aether stress (zrzl l : p,1t, sz_+_ l s,, . f lrp, It is justly remarked that for a full century investigators have fought shy of searching for the cause of mag'l'he netism. result was so unsatisfactory to physical science that in the later years of his life Echnhoftz is said to have rernarked that our failure to discover the cause of magnetism rvas th.e disgrace of the r 9th century. Certainly the need for such research has long been felt as a most urgent desideratunr of sciencc, and yet little or no progress rvas made, orving to the confused state of the subject.

( zr r )

Now that a rvay is opened for referring all the chief forces of natrlre to wave-action in the aether, we must be careful not to allorv attention to be diverted from so fruitful a line of inquiry. There need be, for example, no discussion of the irregularities of the eartb's ma.qnetism; we have knorvn of these irregularities all along, but had not pcrceived the harmonic iatv connecting the earth's total magnetic force with terrestrial gravitation. It has the element of simplicity in its favor, and rve 'l-be ncrv nrethod has enabled us to reach the harknow that considerable differencesof electric potential do monic larv: e x i s t i n r e g i o n s v e r y n e a r e a c h o t h e r : t h e r e f o r ei t s e e m s really ( t 7 2r 2 f s 2 + - r 2 f s ' 2 ) r : (rt:) ll,s : rlt4o8.rz probable that an adjustment of the planes of the atonric e q u a t o r sr v o u l d g r a d u a l l y o c c u r s o a s t o s h i f t t h e d i r e c t i o n t h u s a c c u r a t e l y c o n n e c t i n g t h e t o t a l i n t e n s i t y o f m a g n e t i s m of the magnetic lines in the same direction; then, later, by rvith gravity throughout the globe. It has enabled us to t n r u t u a l r e a c t i o n u p o n o t h e r n r a s s e s , h e o s c i l l a t i o n r n i g h t g o c a l c u l a t e t b e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f m a g n e t i s r ni n t h e s u n , a n d to connect the total force of this magnetism at the sun's in the other direction. .of surface rvith the knorvn force of solar gravitation by a similar 3 . B u t a s t h e > m a g n e t i cd o r n a i n s < t h e e a r t h a r e v e r y in size and intensity, it is probable that the sccular e([lation unequal rolgo : rlo2(ro2fso2-+ro'lto'') q : changesrvould be slow and ill-conformed to one uniform rule. rlrsT . bt+) The fact is that they are quite confused, some clockrvise, Such a law evidently is in the highest sense a true law of others counter-clockrvise. Hence this about corresponds to n a t u r e . I n d e e d i t h a s a l l t h e g e n e r a l i t y o [ t h e l a w o f g r a the obsen'ed secular changes in the earth's magnetisnr. (ireat vitation itself. 'l'he nerv larv can be applied wherever the a s t h e s e c h a n g e s b e c o u r e r v i t h t h e l a p s e o f c c n t u r i e s , t h e y intensity of the magnetization is kno*'n in units of that oba evidently do not belong to the poles, which ayrparently re scrved in the earth or in the sun. n o t s h i f t i n g . \ \ r e c a n o r r l y e x p l a i n t h e s e c u l a rc h a n s e s b y t h e Obviously a sirnilar equation rvill hold for Jupiter, 'fo theory of comparatively shallow ,4ra,qo eddy currents. Saturn or Nlars, yet up to this time rve have no observed this hypothesis there is not the slightest objection, )'et we data lor fixing the intensity of the magne.tizationin Jupiter, must derive the secular changes rvholly from observation. Saturn or I\{ars compared to that in the earth or sun. Ho)vever, jtrst as Kc![er's law of planetary motion about the sun: I 2 . I M a g n e t i cA t t r a c t i o n d e p e n d s o n a I ) u a l i t y tz (ll[-+-nt) : t'2 (M-+nt') ,4[: r, usually, (r t 5) o f P o r v e r s , a n d i s t h e r e f o r e d i r e c . t e d a l o n g C u r v e d a'itI a'i\ : Lines towards Trvo Poles, rvhile Gravitational Atrvas generalized for the planets and double stars of mass t r a c t i o n i s d i r e c t e d s t r a i g h t t o w a r d s a S i n g l e C e n t r e - t l f 1 - + 2 1 r ,i n t h e f o r m : of Gravity: Simplicity of the General Laws of Nature. (M-+ nt) : (Mr-+- ,,r) : at f 1z : af f t] (z 16) (i) The connection and the difference betrveen magso also at the surface of any cosmical body the law connetism and gravitation. necting nragnetism rvith gravitation becomes: It is now clearly shorvn that magnetism dcpcnds on L | o l o o , , o \ : Itl{' llv' \rv'lSY'-f t''-lS"') ' b't) a duality of powers, and therefore the rnutnal attraction bcIt seems probable that the magnetization in a body tween t\i/o magncts is directed along curved lines, according like Jupiter someday may be determined by observation. to the formulae for tbe ponderomotive force: ^ , l t ' l ' o ' l ' o ' l o / \ Even now we may approximate the magnetic component f J 1 : l t l Ll s ' - l t l t l s - . t 2 r o , ?. ltll ls--ltlr'ls For since the mass of this great planet lies between that In this respect magnetism is totally unlike the sinrpler of the sun and earth, rve should expect 7 for Jupiter to lie stressof gravitatiorr resulting from the haphazard arrangement between rfr4oB and r/r52, thus planes, yet yielding a single force clirected of the atomic (zrS) tlrST>q,>rft4o8. in a right line torvards the centre of gravity:

27r

Sotrdernummer

t,7 t

profoundly illuminated by F'araday's experinrent of r845, on the rotation of a bean of polarized light, and by a whole t r a i n o f p h e n o m e n a i n m a g n e t o - o p t i c s ;b y t h e g r e a t b o d y o f phenomena in electrodynanics; and finally by the vast array of phcnomena in rvave nrotion, especially collected together rfrqoS>r1n. \2r9) A n d a s t h e n r a s s o f l U a r s i s o n l y a b o u t o . r o f t h e e a r t i r ' s in ligure 4 of this paper, and the six preceeding papers on 'I'heory of tbe Aether. nrass, it would uot be unexpected if' the magnetization of tbe Nerv 1'he conrplete accord ofall these magneto-optical phenothat small planet should prove to be approxinrately: rnena rvith the undulatory theory in general thus yields another r 1 n: rf r4o8o, or ,lM : rf | 2ooo. \22o) : i n d e y r e n d e n tp r o b a b i l i t y : : The magnetizationof Venus, by sintilarity of causes, R'' p r o b a b l y w o u l d b e c o m p a r a b l e w i t h t h e e a r t h ' s ,a n d t h u s v e r y -' . d . r " ' : ,1r " . p: lc n e a r l y t h e s a m e a s o n r r v e l l d e t e r r n i n e dv a l u e r 7 : G,) r,/r4o8. 'fhus a" the problem o[ cosrnicalmagnetism takes on nerv interest A n d t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h e c o m p o u n d p r . o b a b i l i t yo f a l l in all directions. 'l'here are too nrany questions as yet unerplored for us t h e s e c a u s e s p p' p" to dare to hope to solve all of thenr in a perf'ectly sir.nple ( ( _t1.:tr _t,.2f,.r . . , P _r,,,!-,,2 m a n n e r ; y e t w h e n a w a y i s o n c e o p e n e d f o r a s o l u t i o n ,t h e r e "^'dx)c I'l:J( "".d.,c'J(-/r ' .61.y//: w i l l e v e n t u a l l y a p p e a r t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r w h o r v i i l t r a v e r s et h i s & a d . " u n e x p l o r e dp a t h ,j u s t a s h a s h a p p e n e di n e x t e n d i n gt h e d o m i n i o n :ftfu.rf/.rf/,) - r/ooe Grs) o f t h e l a w o f g r a v i t a t i o n o v e r t h e u n e x p e c t e dc e l e s t i a lp h e n o 1:a, n':w, tt":a mena discovered since the tirne of Neutlon. ivhcn the limits of the integrals are narrowed indelinitely, ' lt is remarkable that at last we have reachecl great thcreloreis the chance a w h i c h s u p p o r t sr h e w a v e - t h e o r y .A c c o r l a w o f n a t u r e c o n n e c t , i n g t a g n e t i s n r v i t h g r a v i t n r i o r r ,n s p i t e d i n g l y , t h e n i ratio of all the poinrs in inllnite space to one of the remarkable difference in the two forr:es; and thlt rve r r l ) r c s c r l t st h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t n a g n e t i s n r a n d u n i v e r s a lg r a v i . a r e a b l e t o r e f e r b o t h o f t h e s e f o r c e s o f n a t u r e t o r v a v e - a c t i o r r t a t i o r li l r e d u e t o t h e c o l r l n o n c a u s eo f t v a v e - a c t i o nis t h e a e t h e r . n i n t h e a e t h e r . I l y t h i s h a r n o n i c l a r v g e o r n e t r i c a l l yc o n n e c t i n g ( i i ) I ) e l e c t s i n t h e t h e o r y o f m a g n e t i s mh a n d e d d o r v n i , t h e h a p b a z a r d r v a v e - a c t i o nn g r a v i t a t i o n ,w h i c h h a s t h e f o r c e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a s i n g l e c e n t r e , r v i t h t h e s y s t e r n a t i cs , u v e - by tnrclition l-ronr the days of Robcrt Nornan, r576; Gilbtrt, a c t i o n i n m a g n e t i s m , y i e l d i n g a d u a l i t y o f p o r v e r s , r f o r c e s t 6oo ; anci liukr, t 7 44. o 'l'hird lrr tlre I,aper, AN 5o7g, p. 244-247, we have directed to two centres, the argument for the cause assigned g i v e n a b r i ef n o t i c e o f t h e d e f e c t i v et h e o r y a d o p t e d b y E u l r , t o e i t h e r f o r c e s e p a r a t e l yi s v a s t l y s t r e n g t h e n e d . If lor example, the probability be very great in favor r 7 4 4 , r v h o r e g a r d e d t h e a e t h e r a s c i r c u l a t i n g t h r o u g h t h e a x i s of either hypothesis separately,so that the chance ofany othcr o f r m a g n e t l l ' o n t t l r e s o u t h t o t h e n o r t h p o l e , l i k e t h e b l o o d l l o r v i n gt h l o L r g hr h e a r t e r i e si n o n e d i r e c t i o n o n l y , t h u s r e t u r n i n g result practically vanishes, as happens rvhen the linrits a and p a r e i n d e f i n i t e l y n e a r t o g e t h e r , i n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y i n t e g r a l s : t o t h c s o u t h p o l c t h r o u g h t r e e s p a c e ,a l o n . gt i r e n r a g n e t i c l i n e s ' B p ' o f f o r c e . 1 . ' i g u r e , ' l a f e l 4 , A N 5 o 7 9 , i l l u s t r a t e sE u / e / s t h e o r y 3 ' l'-A2.2 - . d , : r . I P - h ',2,* ^2 . x a c c o r c i i n g t o b e o r i g i n a l d i a g r a n r s o f h i s O p u s c u l a ,v o l . I I I , .dr,: rltt, lc Ilil , lC J " . ) B e r l i n ,r 7 4 4 , p l a t e r . r C( O.' 'l'he \22 | ) l * principles thus adopted l>y liulcr gave an unfor,_::_h2.,2 .6s : r tunate bias to thought in nragnetisrn, nd although in later a treatises thc-y are sornervhat modified so as to confornr to n and / being very large nunrbers. And if the trvo causcs at n t o d c r n t b o u g l r t , y e t t h e w h o l e t r e n d o f t l r e r e a s o n i n gi n t h i s work, as norv hapliens, are connected by the verificd irarruonic s u b j e c t h a s c o n t i n u e d t o b e o n a n u n s o u n d b a s i s . ' I ' h e u s u a l l a w , t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e c o m p o u n d e v e n t , o r c o m u r o n Irabit of describing the Eulcrian circuit frorn the north to the cause, for both of the phenomena of magnetism and gravitation s o u t h p o l e a s ) ) t h e p a r h o f a u n i t n o r r h p o l e < , i s c r i t i c i s e d being jointly due to rvave-action, becomes the ,reciprocal of i n A N 5079, p. 247 as >unscienti6c and a very iu.rperfect the product of these probabilities, when each one has infinitely n t a k e s h i f t < <-, t h e r n i l d e s t c r i t i c i s u r , c o n s i s t e n t r v i t h t r u t h , narrow limits, namely: rvhich could be made. p p ' l3ut prior to Euler's time certain defects were current ( z z z ) rvhiclr had been handed down from the days of Robert Nor ? : I r - t " " " . d , r - n ' ' " ' ' . d r , : l r l , t .r l , / ) - , / - r . t q' 7l:@ )l:@ ' d" naa, r 576: 'l'hat 'I'hus , r. n r a g n e t i z a t i o nc l o e sn o t c h a n g e t h e w e i g h t o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y b e c o m e sa n i n f i n i t y o { ' r h e s e c o n c l order, like all the points in an infinite plane to one, that if a body; that by the action of the magnetic forces there is wave-action underlies either magnetisnl or gr-avitrrtionthe no tendency to a motion of translation. , s a r l l e c a u s e u n d e r l i e s b o t h c l a s s e so f p h e n o r n e n u . z. Hence the earth's magneticaction is directiveonly, Norv the processes involved in gravitation a.renot clirectly b e i r r g d r r e t o a c o u p l e . p e r c e p t i b l e t o o u r s e n s e s ,a n d t h u s s o n t e r v h a o b s c u r e . l t i s t None of these claiu-rs are strictly true, because one not so, horvever, rvitlt the cause of magnetism, - rvhich is rnagnet exerts upon another the follorving ponderornotive forces

A n d s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g l v o u l d a p p l y t o S a t u r n ,L I r a n u s , and Neptune. In the case o[ Mars, on the other hand, we s h o u l d e x p e c t t h e m a g n e t i z a t i o nt o b e l e s s i n t e n s e t h a n i n the case of the. earth; so that rve should have

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A n d s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g r v o u l d a p p l y t o S a t u r n ,I J r a n u s , profoundly illurninated by experinient of rg45, on and Neptune. In the case o[' X,Iars,on the other hand, we the rotation of a beerr of-Farar/a1,s polarized iight, and by a rihole should expect the magnetizationto be less intense than in train of phenomena in nragneto_optics; by the great body of the case of the.earth;,so that rve should have phenomena in electrodynanrics; and finaliy by ihe uast a.ray rf rqog>,4u. ( " r S ) of phcnontena in rvave motion, especially collected together And as the rnass of lllars is only about o.r of the earth,s in hslre 4,_of this paper, and the'six preceedingp"p!.. on nrass, it would uot be unexpectedif' the nrugnetization the Neiv 'l'heory of the Aether. of that srnall planet should prove to be approxinrately: 1'he conrplete accord.of all these magneto-optical pheno:. rlu: rf t4o8o, orulM: rf tzooo, ( z r o ) mena rvith the undulatory theory in general thus yields another T h e m a g n e t i z a t i o no f V e n u s , b y s i n t i l a r i t y o f c a u s e s , i n d e p e n d e n t p r o b a b i l i t y : p" p r o b a b l y w o u l d b e c o m p a r a b l ew i t h t h e e a r r h , s , n d a thus very ("-h"'x'2.s-,, n e a r l y t h e s a m e a s o u r t v e l l d e t e r m i n e dv a l u e h- rlt" r/r4og. / 7: ,) T h u s t h e p r o b l e m o f c o s r n i c a lm a g n e t i s mt a k e s o n n e w a.' interest in all directions. And the reciprocal f the compound robability o p . of all l'here are too ntany questions as ).et unexplorecl for us t h e s ec a u s e s to dare to hope to solve.uil of thenr in a periectly p sir.nple B, B', manner; yet when a way is once opened for a solution, ,, P - 'r . ! *r . d r r _ .( ,r'r*'" . s ^.t'f ^_ 1,,,:r,,2 there r'f: .61.1,/: "_ )t w i l l e v e n t u a l l y a p p e a r t h e i n v e s t i g a t o rw h o r v i l l t r a v e r s e this 4 A p a t h ,j u s t a s h a s h a p p e n e di n e x t e n d i n gt h e d o m i n i o n ffexplored : l r l " . t f n , . t fn , , ) : 1 / o c : r (-r a l, \ , o l t n e l a w o t g r a v i t a t i o n . o v e rt h e u n e x p e c t e dc e l e s t i a l \ pheno_ /t--@, ,r':@, ti':A mena discovered since the tirne of Ncutlon. lt is rernarkablethat at last we have reachcda great rvhcn the linits of the integrals are narrorved indelinitely, t l r c r e f o r ei s t h e c h a n c e w h i c h s u p p o r t st h e law of nature connecti.ng ragnetisnrvith gravitation, w a v e - t l r " o r y ., \ . . o r . n in -"spite dirrgly, the ratio of all the points in in6nire space ro of the remarkable difference in rhe two io.."r; rntj one that rve a r e a b l e t o r e f e r b o t h o f t h e s e f o r c e so f n a t u r e t o * o r e - o c t i o u r c l ) r c s c n t st h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t n r a g n e t i s n r n d u n i v e r s a lg r a v i . a ] tJtionarc due to the c o l l t l n o n . u . , , r " f * u u " - a c t i o n si n t h e a e t h e r . in the aether. 13y this h.arnroniclarv geornetri."lly o .;";;;;i;; ] the haphazard rvave-acrionin grauitaiion, u,hictr (ii) l)efects in the theory of magnetism . i,.;-,1* ;;;;: handed dorvn directed towards a single..nir", rvith ihe systematic r v a v e _ by traclition fioru tbe days of llohert fror,rorr, t576; Gilbtrt, action in magnetism,yielding a duality of r6oo; ancl trulcr, t7q4, l ) o w e r s ,o r f b r c e s directed to two centres, the argument ior the cause Irr tire 'I'hird l)aper,AN assigned 5o79, p.244- 247, rve have to eithe-r separately is vastly strengthened. grven a brief notice of the defective theory -force adoptejd by Eultr, r744, rvho regardedthe aetheras circulating through ttr" o*i, o f e i t h e r h y p o t h e s i ss e p a r a t i l y ,s o t h a t t h e c h a n c e of.anyother o[ a magnet fr.om the south to the north pJl", tik" the blood r e s u l t p r a c t i c a l l y v a n i s h e s , s h a p p e n sr v h e n t h e l i m i t s a l l o w i n g t h r . o u g ht h e a r t e r i e si n o n e d i r e c t i o n ' o n l y , a and p t h u sr e t u r n i n g are indefinitely near together, in the probability t i n t e g r a l s : t o _ h e s o u t h p o l e t h r o u g h f r e e s p a c e ,a l o n e t h e n t a g n e t i c l i n e s ', n 'Iafel r B ' oI force. liigure 3, a, AN !o79, illusirates Eihr,s theory " ,r _t.- i _h,",'.d, ,f" iu-t: a c c o . r d i n gt o b e o r i g i n a l d i a g r a n r s o f b i s tfn,, Jc -h"rr.A__ rlrt, )c-n. O p u s c u l a ,v o l . I I i , Berlin, r744, plate r. d . , +'l'[re i \zzr) principles thus adopted by liuler gave an unfbrc: r-r2,rz .6i.y: 1 t u n a t e b i a s t o t h o u g h t i n n r a g n e t i s r r ,a n d altiough jn I;;;, - t r e a t i s e s t h e y l r e s o r n e r r , h a t o c l i 6 e c ls o m as to confornr to n and / being 'ery large nunrbers. And if the trvo carses at m o d e r n t h o L r g l r t , 1 ' e t t h e w h o l e t r e n d o f t l r e r e a s o n i n gi n t h i s w o r k , . a s n o r v h a p p e n s ,a r e c o n n e c t e d b y t h e ' e r i r l e d i r a r ' r o r . r i c s u b j e c t h a s c o n t i n u e c lt o b e o n an unsoundbasis. .fhe usual law, then the probability of the compound evenr, or collulolt habit ol describing the Eulerian circuit frorn rhe north to the b.oth of the phenonena of magnetism and gravitation :u:r", fo: southas )tl)e path of a unit norrh pole<, is criticised being jointly due to rvave-action, becJmes the .reJiprocal -pole of i n r \ N 5 o 7 9 , p . 2 4 7 a s > u n s c i e n t i f i c a n d a very irrperfect the product. of these probabilities, when each one has infinitery r n a k e s h i f t < , the rrirdest criticisrn, consistentrvitrr narrow lirnits, namely: truth, rvhicli could be nrade. llut prior to Euler's time certain defects ' .dr.,:ftf were current 1: J dt n . t f u , ] : , f - , o t . ( z z z \ rvhich had been handed down from )c-" the clays of Robert Nor , A n:6 A' ,l:@ nttttt, t 57 6', 'fhus 'l'hat t h e p r o b a b i l i t y b e c o m e sa n i n 6 n i t y o l . t i r e s e c o n t l r. magnetizationdoes not change the weight . of order, iike all the points in an intlnite J r l a n et o o n e , t h a t i f a body; rhar by the action of the magnetilc forces th"ere is wave-actionunderlies r n a g n e t i s n r o r g r . a v i t a t i o n ,t h e n o t e n d e n c y t o a m o t i o n o f t r a n s l a t i o n . .either s a n l e c a u s e u n d e r l i e s b o t h c l a s s e so f p h e n o r u e n : r . z. Hence the earth,s magneticaction is directive only, N o w t h e p r o c e s s e sn v o l v e d i n g r a v i t a t i o na r e n o t i clirectly being due to a couple. p e r c e p t i b l e t o o u r s e n s e s ,^ n d t h u s s o m e r v h a t obscure. It is None of these claims are strictly true, because not so, hoivever, rvitl the cause of magnetisnr, _ one rvhich is rnagnerexerts upon another the following ponderornotive forces

^ f _,,,, ,l' ,.., _ -,,

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for the northern and southern hemispheres respectively: p ' : p 1 t ' fs ' 2 pllf s2-plt'ls'2; Fs 1 t , 7 / f2 . ( r r S ) And thus the earth does exert upon a magnet, suspended by a thread through its centre of gravity, a slight deflecting effect; yet it is difficult to observe it experimentally, orving to the force of gravitation exceeding the magnetic force in a ratio of about roooooo to zoooooo times. A t t h e e a r t h ' sm a g n e t i c p o l e s , a p i e c e o f s t e c l s u d d c n l y converted into a rnagnetic needle would be nnder trvo forces: (a) ordinary gravitation, (b) terrestrial magnetism, having a strength of about r/roooooo ofgravitation. As both forces work in the same vertical direction it seenrsccrtain that the magnetized steel rvould rveight a little more after nragnetization than before, though the change of rveight rvoulcl be small. We may safely reach this conclusion by observing that i f a s t e e ln e e d l e o r p i e c e o f s o l t i r o n i s s n s p e n c l e dr y a t h r e a d i over the pole of a strong steel magnet, the dorvnrvard pull on the thread is certainly greater in this position above the magnet, than rvhen the strong steel nragnct is rcrnovcd. I have often tried the experiment, and found the effcct vcry noticeable. trVhatis tnre of a magnetized needlesuspended a b o v e a n r a g n e t t h e r c l b r c i s t r u e o f a n r n q n e t i z e dl i i c c e o f steel at the earth's nragnetic poles. For the clorvnrvarcl pull due purely to gravity rvould be slightly increased lry the purely magnetic action of our slobe. The defect in Nornatis reasoning, in reqard to the earth's magnetic action being directiveonly, need not bc discussedat length, becauserve have seen that the ponderomotive force does really exist, and vary from place to place; yet the change from place to place is slorv, orving to the size of the earth, and the great length of the curved lines s and s'. It only remains to recall a diagram originally given in Gilbcrt's work De I\4agnete, r6oo, as lollorvs.

sonth pole and north pole, A and B, and thus it inay be that Euler's diagram of 1744 had its inspiration'in an earlier i diagram of Gilbtrt, t6oo. Accordingly the defects in the traditional theory of magnetism doubtless arose originally from the way the south. seeking pole points when brought to the earth's poles. It represents this pointing phenomenon faithfully, but gives us no idea of tire correct theory of magnetism, as now expressed by the forrnulae for the ponderomotive force in the observed mutual action of two magnets In AN 5o79, p. 247, we have called attentionto Mas-. uclls indistinct reasoning, in his address on Action at a Distance, respecting the push and pull forces between a magnetic ncedle and a rvire bearing a current, as in Ocrslcd's ',t'hus it only rernains to formulate an expression experiment. for the poncieromotive force by which the magnetic needle is drarvn to the rvire, as follows: F(z z6) tozifr-ry,xifr where g, and p are the strengths of the two poles of the magnetic needle, z is a constant, z the strength of the current, and r the shortest radial distance of the poles from thc axis of thc rvirc. J i i o t a n r lS a u a r t ' sl a w o [ r 8 z o ( A N 5 o 7 q , p . , 5 5 ) , c o r r e s yronds to thc abovc lorrn of expression;and as tlre needle :rcts as if the niagnetism rvere centred in its poles, this c x t r a o r < l i n a r i l vs i r n p l c f o r m n l a r e s u l t s f o r t h e p o n d e r o m o t i v e a c t i o n o f a c u r r c n t i n a s t r a i g h t r v i r e u p o n a r n a g n e t i cn e e d l e rvith poles at the rlistance r. If the distance of the trvo poles fronl the axis of the rvire be unequal, r and /, lhe forrnula becones very slightly more complex: : 1; - Ir,xifr-+-1t,2tifr' p,xi(rfr-rrfr'\. brl) Experiments made by me in r9r4, show that these ponderomotive forces are real, and very sensible to observation. 1[ the needle be out of its position of equilibrium, it tends to turn around, as in Ou'sttzl's experiment. If reversed from its natural position, there rvould of course be a change of sign in 1i and reprrlsion rvould rcsult; but from the point of vierv of the rva'r'e-theory, the case of attraction is fer rnorc interesting. (iii) Results of recent investigations in regard to the cause of magnetisn and gravitation. a) Viervs of Airl': In his Treatise on Magnetism, r87o, Airy expresses hirnself thrrs: >In ordinary observation, magnetism is scarcely known except as existing in iron and especially in steel, and as related in some obscure manner to the earth. But there is reason to believe that it is one of the most extensively diffused agents in nature. It can be traced not only in iron i but also in every substancento which iron (one of the most widely spread substances in nature) enters in composition, It is found in nickel and other substances, and even in some gases. Wherever a galvanic current exists in nature, rvhether produced by chemical action or appearing in the thernro-electric form as originating from the effects of heat at the place of union of different substances,magnetic effects can be elicited. On the larger scale it is certain that the whole earth acts as a combination of magnets, and there is reason to think that the sun and the moon also act as masnets(. r8

Fig. 8, Diagrarn fron Cilberl's De N{agncte, I6oo, shorving the directions taken by the south-seel<ing pole of u magnetic necdlc at various places on thc carth. This appcars to havc bccn thc precursor of lititr's 'I'afel defective theory of I744, (AN 5o79, +, Irig. 3.) that the aether florvs in at the sorrth polc, and out at thc north pole, circulatine likc thc blood in the arteries in one direction only.

This figure is from tlfot/clay's exce'llent English translation of Gilbert's rvork, John \\/iley ct Sons, Nerv York, rEgl, p.282. The points C and D here correspond rvith Erlrr's Bd,. zr7,

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. Yet after developing a comprehensive treatise written with his usu'al masterly ability, and making great use and high commendation of the researches of Gauss, Airlt con' cludes his work (p. zzo) with the following somewhat tnelancholy remark: >On the whole, we must express our opinion, that the general cause of the earth's magnetism still renrains one of the mysteries of cosmical physics.<

forces in this respect, that the bodies between which it acts cannot be divided into two opposite kinds, one positive and the otl.rer negative, but are in respect of gravitation all of the sanre kind, and that the force between them is in every case attractivc. To account for such a force by means of stress in an intervening medium on the plan adopted for electric and magnetic forces, we must assume a stress of an opposite kind from that already mentioned. We must suppose that there is a pressure in the direction of the lines of force, b) Views of Maruell: We shall now exarnine Morpells conrbined rvith a tension in all directions at right angles to and gravitation. In the celebrated article views on magnetistn the lines of force. Such a state of stress rvould, no doubt, on Attraction, (Scient. Pap., vol. II, p. a88) '4[arurcll reasons account for the observed effects of gravitation. We have not, as follows: irowever, been able hitherto to imagine any physical cause tFarada! showed that the transmission of electric and for such a state of stress.o magnetic forces is accompanied by phenornena occurring in It lrasbeen shown in AN 5o48, pp. t6z-t(t4, that this every part of the intervening rnedium. He traced the lines of last vierv of Marutell, assigning a pressure in the direction force through the mediuur; and he ascribed to them a tenof the gravitational force, is erroneous. \Ve treat of his caldency to shorten themselvesand to separate from their neighculations of stress in sonre detail section9 (ii) above, and bors, thus introducing the idea o[ stress in the nrediuur in correct a nuurerical error rvhich has stood about half a cena different form from that suggested by Ncwtott: for, rvhcreas tury. It thus sufhces to add tbat rvhat ,4faruell could not was a hydrostatic pressure in every direction, Neutton's stress solve rvas even ll)ore bervildering to l,ord t{cluin, f{eltr/toltz, Faraday's is a tension along the lines of fbrce, cornliined and other investigators. with a pressure in all nonnal directions By showing tlrat the i r\nd as light could not be shed on nragnetisrn,t need polarisation of a ray of.light passing through a trrnsplane of parent medium in the direction of the magneticforce is tnadc r-rot surprise us that the mystery of the cause underlying to rotate, Faradal, not only demonstrated the action o[ rnagne- g r a v i t a t i o n h a s r e n r a i n e d c o m p l e t e . I n a l e a r n e d p a p e r i n tism on light, but by using light to reveal the stateof rnag- t l r e P r o c .1 { . S o c . , v o l . 5 4 , r 8 9 3 , p . 4 5 ? , I ' r o f . L a r n t o t ' c o n 'illuninated', to use his orvn cludes l-iy saying that: )'fhe cause of the phenonrenonof netisation of the mediunr he 'the gravitation has hitherto rernained perfectly inscrutable<<. lines oI megnetic force'o. phrase, rFrom this phenomenon T/totttsott afterrvardsproved, by strict dynamical reasoning, that the transmission of rnagnetic force is associated with a rotatory nrotion of the sntall parts of the medium. He showed, at the sanre time, how the centrifugal force due to this motion would account for magnetic attraction.< >A theory of this kind is rvorked out in greater detail in Clerl I'Iarutell's Treatise on Electricity and N'lirgnetism. It is there shown that, if lve assume that the mediunr is irr a state of stress, consisting of tensioD along the lines of force, and pressurein all directions at right.angles to the lines of force, the tension and the pressure being equal in nunrerical value and proportional to tlre square of the intensity of the fieid at the given point, tbe observed electrostatic and electronragnetic forces rvill be completely accounted for.< c) \riervs of Lord l{tluit. In the introduction to the I , ) n g l i s l re d i t i o n o f / { e r / z ' s U l e c t r i c W a v e s , r 8 S S ( p p . x i i - x i i i ) , Lord -Kcluin expressed hinrself as follows regarding JiaradaJ's researches: > l l u t b e f o r e h i s d e a t h , i n r 8 6 7 , h e h a d s u c c e e d e di n inspiring the rising generation ol. tlre scientilic world with soniethirg ayrproaching to faith that electric force is transnritted l,ry a rnediurn called ether, of rvhich, as had been l , l e l i e v e r li ; y t i r e r v h o l e s c i e n t i t i c r v o r l d l b r f o r t y y e a r s , l i g h t arrd radiant heat are transverse vibrations. F'oraday hirnself 'I'he very did not rest ri'ith this theory for electricity alone. last tirrc I sarv hinr at rvork in the l{oyal Institution in an nndergroun<l cellar, rvhich he had chosen for freedom fi'onr disturbance; and he was arranging experiments to test the tinre of' propagation of magnetic force from an electromagnet >'I'he next step is to account for this state of stress in through a distance of many yards of air to a fine steel needle the mediunr. In tbe case of electromagnetic force rve avail p o l i s h e d t o r e l l e c t l i g h t ; b u t n o r e s u l t s c a r n e f r o r n t h o s e ourselves of Thortson's deduction front Farada.y's discovery experinrents. r\bout the same time or soon afterrvard, certainly stated above. We assunrethat the small parts of the medium n o t l o n g b e f o r e t h e e n d o f h i s w o r k i n g t i n r e , h e w a s e n g a g e d 'l'he (I believe at the shot tower near \Vaterloo Bridge on the are rotating about axes parallel to the lines of force. centrifugal force due to this rotation pioduces the excess of Surrey side) in efforts to discover relations between gravity 'I'he r explanation a n d r n a g n e t i s r n , v h i c h a l s o l e d t o n o r e s u l t . < pressure perpendicular to the lines of force. >r\bsolutely nothing has hitherto been done for gravity of electrostatic stress is less satisfactory, but there can be no doubt that a path is now open by rvhich we may trace to e i t h e r b y e x p e r i n r e n to r o b s e r v a t i o nt o w a r d s d e c i d i n g b e t w e e n the action of a n.rediurnall forces which, like the electric and Neulott and Bu'ttou/li, as to the question of its propagation magnetic forces, vary inversely as the square of the distance, t h r o u g h a m e d i u m , a n d u p t o t h e p r e s e n t t i m e w e h a v e n o and are attractive between bodies of different nautes, and light, even so much as to point a way for investigation in that direction. But for electricity and magnetism -Faradal's repulsive betleen bodies of the same names.(( >The force of gravitation is also inversely as the square anticipations and Cbrrt Ma*uell's splendidly developed theory of the distance, but it differs from the electric and nragnetic have been established on the sure basis of experiment by

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Hcrtz's work, of which his own interesting account is norv presented to the English reader by his translator, Prof. D. E. Joncs. It is interesting to know, as Eerlz expll-lns in his introduction, and it is very in.rportant in resltcct to the e x p e r i m e n t a l d e r n o n s t r a t i o no f m a g n e t i c w a v e s t o w h i c h h e was led, that he began his electric researches in a problem happily put before him thirteen years ago by Prof. u. I{ehnholtz,.of rvhich the object was to find by experinrentsome reiation between electromagnetic forces and dielectric polarisation of insulators,without, in the first place, any idea of discovering a progressivepropagation of this force through space.( This citation is important for shorvins the grea,t}?araday's conviction of a connection between magnctisrn and gravitation, and also for showing the significance of I{ertz's researches forces due to wavespropagated throush the aether. on Absolute Contin nity

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among the Forces of Nattire, If after trvo centuries of effort, front the time of Ahulott and Bcrnoulli, such great mystery still hung over this question (ir') General considerationson tlrc highest larvsof nature. of the connection betrveen gravitation and electrodynarnic It is one of the great rnerits of Sir fsaac Nctaton's law a c t i o n , u n d e r e l e c t r i c a n d r n a g n e t i c f o r c e s ,a s v i e r v e db y t h e comprehensive and experienced mind of Lord .Iirlutn, still o f u n i v e r s a l g r a v i t a t i o n : n171'f72 more imperative rvas it the rvritgr's duty to develop the (z zs) 1f connection between nrngnetism and gravitation. Yet this rvas t h a t i t i s e x t r e m e l y s i m p l e , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e o f t h e u t m o s t much nrore diffcult than it rnight seem at first sight. generality. Accordingly 235 yearsafter the publication of the r, In I)r. K. F. Ilot/littgu.'s Inaugural I)isscrtation at P r i n c i l r i a ( r 6 3 7 ) , r v e f i n d t h a t t h e N e z a t o n i a na i v s t i l l a c c o u n t s l the university of [{unich , tgr 2, it is stated that Jiins/tin l-tad y r e r f e c t l yf o r t h e o b s e r v e dm o t i o n s o f t h e c e l c s t i a lb o r l i e s , e x b e e n s o u n s u c c e s s f u li n h i s a t t e n t p t t o c o n n e c t g r a v i t a t i o n c c l ) t a s r n o d i f i c d b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e s m a l l t e r r n si n l l / t I u , s w i t h e l e c t r o d y n a m i c a c t i o n t h a t h e h a d r l u i t e t u r n e d a r v a y l a n ' o f r 3 4 6 , u ' h i c h t a k e a c c o u n to f t h e i n d u c t i o n a n d c h a n s e from it. Out o[ tltis liirsltitt failure grerv the much discussed o f t l r c i n d r r c t i o n ,r r n d e r r v a v e - a c t i o n r o y l a g a t e ^ t r o r . . p ^ i " p r. b u t f a l s e d o c t r i n e o f I l e l a t i v i t y . I t r v a sp r e r . n : r t u r e l l ' c x p l o i t e d s ' i t h t h c v c l o c i t l ' o f l i g h t . i n E n g l a n d , b y t h e R o y a l s o c i e t i e sa n d b y s c i c n t i f i cj o u r n a l s , A favorite ntotto froln Shahcsltart's King Lear, sceneII, w h i c h h a v e s i n c e r e e r e t t e dt h e r e c o r d o f t h i s i l l - a d y i s c dc o u r s e . r v a s a d o p t e d b y G a u s s , i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e : z . N o r v t h a t g r a v i t a t i o n i s d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t c d* ' i t h r n a g ) T h o u , n a t u r e , a r t m y g o d d e s s ; t o t h y l a t v sm y s e r v i c e s n e t i s m , a n d r n a g n c t i s r nt s e l f a n e l e c t r o d y n a r n i c h c n o r l c n o n , i p are bound:< it follorvs incontestablythat universal gravitation also is an and thc rnle for very perfect productions: electrodynamic force. Accordingly it is evirlent that the >>Patrca d matttra.< se present successful breaking dorvn of the cornplete i-solation ' l ' h u sj u d g e d b y t h e e x p e r i e n c e f t h i s g r e a tm a t h e m a t i c i a n , rvhich so long separated gravitation from the otlrer forccs of o the chief object of the explorer of nature is the discovery of t h e u n i v e r s e i s a s t e y ro f n o o r d i n a r y s i g n i f i c a n c c . 3. .Farada1,had the right idea, based on the do<:trine g e n c r a l a n d u n i v e r s a ll a w s w h i c h a r e h i g h l y p e r f e c t a n d a d m i t o f c o n t i n u i t y f o r a l l t h e f o r c e s o f n a t u r e , r 8 6 6 , a s a l ; o y c of no exceptions. Accordingly rve notice the analyt.icalsimilarity of the larvs of magnetic intensity to the Netotozrianlaw described by Lord J{rluin. Rut in Faratla1is day the Royal S o c i e t y o f L o n d o n r v o u l d g i v e n o h e e d t o h i s v i e w s , a n y of gravitationt r: s,2 f+f, : 1t*,f s2+,,,,,f Q"s) more than they rvould to the similarviervs sct forth in nry g - ntn'f r2 (z z8) Preliminary Paper of rgr4, rvhich rvere rcgarded favorebly" 1z: y,1t'fs2-l4t,ls'2, F, ( by such an authority as the late Lord I?a1'ltt,g/t.Thus, orving 1 t , p , f s , 2 - 1 r , 1 t , f s 2r.S o ) The 6rst force is directed to two poles, usually at unequal t o t h e l a c k o f v i s i o n o f t h e r e f e r e e so f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y , Faradalis correct ideas were smothered for half a century, clistances,.r and J/, along the curved lines of the magnetic a n d n e v e r c o u l d h a v e t r i u m p h e d b u t f o r m y g o o d f o r t u n e i n forcg, rvhile the second force is directed to a single centre, getting the I'ork cornpleted and published in these papers on the centre o[ gravity of the whole mass. There is therefore the New Theory of the Aether. In defcrence to the revered a great similarity in the above larvs, yet the difference inememory of Ncuton, one rvould have thought that if the referees vitably resulting from rectilinear attraction towards a single of the Royal Society could not lead in this rvork of discovery, centre, and the duality of porvers resulting from stresses they certainly would encourage such effort on the part of directed towards two centres or poles, along curved lines. others for illuminating the cause of gravitation. As magnetism is characterized by polarity, while gravi4. But in vierv of their utter failure, it appears that the tation shows an utter lack of polarity, and depends wholly s a m e w e a k n e s so f l n a n a g e m e n te x i s t sn o w , a s i n r 6 8 6 , r v h e n on a mean central action only, one cannot doubt that the they evaded the publication of Netalln's Principia, and com- above laws of nature are uitimate.

pelled, Eallcy to print it at his private expense. tet the simple record of fact - that they discoura ged Neaton, t686: Faradal; r 8 6 6 i m y s e l f , r 9 r 4 - r 6 ; a n d i n t 9 t 6 - t 9 , a c t u a l l yc h a m p i o n e d Relativity agaihst the Neutonian Philosophy - tell the story of the l{oyal Society, whether the organization ever is effective in promoting the highest discoveries, such as Netaton wolld approYe. The l,hilosophical Transactions during the last 5o years has perhaps a dozen learned mathematicalmemoirs on electricity and magnetism, especially on Maxarl/'s equations for the e l e c t r o r n r g n e t i cf i e l d , y e t n o t o n e o f t h e a u t h o r s d i s c l o s e st h e smallest knorvledge of the fundamental errors in the theory of rnagnctisnr handed down from the days of Gilfurt, 16oo, and Eulcr, r744, thotrgh one or two recent authors discuss the hypothetical Magneton, rvhich has no real existence. I{ence as they made no progress torvards the cause of magnetism, rve have recently had what l)r.Il/hcutcll calls a stationarv neriod in physical scicncc.

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The very simplicity of the law of magnetic attraction, . and its close analogy with the Ncwtonian expression for gravitation, shows that the fundamental law of magnetism nray be expected to withstand the ravages of time, just as the law of gravitation has done for over two centuries. , Perhaps the above formulae are typical of the highest laws of nature. Magnets exert magnetic attraction only through the mutual action of their poles; the forces are therefore directed to these poles, and follow extremely sinrple laws, although the action is conveyed along curved lines, . ln the case of gravitation, on the other hand, the forces result from the integrations of the actions of the several atoms at their respective distances, yet practically this mean action reduces to a single force directed to the centre of gravity of the mass, at least for spheresand spheroids differing but little from spheres. ' We perceive, therefore, as the result of experience, that the great larvs of nature are extremely simple, and of the utmost generality in their character. When these qualities are not assured by any announced law, it is to be suspected that what may be called a law of nature is not ultinrate, but at best only a first approximation, and sorpetinreswholly erroneous, without being even approximately true. The formulae of ltelativityl) obviouslylall in the class 'l'he theory is too con'rplex, vague and chimerical of rejectedlaws. to represent any permanent advance in pbysical science. t s It is justly remarked. hat it has all the weakne s of the , c P t o l e m a i cs y s t e mo f a s t r o n o n r y r v i t h o u tt h e e x t e n u a t i n g i r c u r r r stance, applicable to Plolttn1)s conrplex systenr, that it arose i n a p r i m i t i v e a g e , w h e n k n o w l e d g e o f t h e h e a v e n sw a s n o t yet subjectcd to the Experimentum Crucis of an exact test. Moreover, I{elativity was born of complexity, not of simplicity; it involves so much misapplication o[ rnathematics, rvithout physical basis, - such as the so-called four-dimensional timespace.rnanifolds, curvature o[ space, geodesic curves, etc. that an experienced natural philosopher cannot defend it. Thus the doctrine of Relativity has not enlightened, but rather c o n f u s e dt h e s c i e n t i f i cw o r l d . O u t o l a l l t h i s m a s so [ d i s c u s s i o n not one clcar truth has ernerged,except perhaps the rvarning to on beware of doctrines lvhich pride thenrselves their conrplexity, I'he larv for the ponderomotive force rvhich trvo rnagnets exert on each other, given in equation (z3o) above,is equally 'l'here can remarkable for its simplicity and its generality. doubt whatever that this iaw is ultinate. lt is easily be no

verified by experiment, and follows at once from the law of magnetic intensity given above in equation (ze9). It frequently is said that the successors of -Kcplcr and Nctulott have been so' much occrrpied with the verification of the larvs of these great masters, under the complex conditions ofthe actual universe,that the more recent investigatorsseldom have been able to add to the laws of nature. Undoubtedly it is a disadvantage to be so much bewildered by a nrultitude of secondary phenomena that we lose sight of the significant outstanding features of any problern. N o d o u b t t h e m o d e r n s t u d e n t so f m a g n e t i s r nh a v e b e e n bervildered rvith refinements,and thus rvere unable to discover t h e e r r o r si n t h e f o u n d a t i o n so f t h e t h e o r y o f m a g n c t i s mh a n d e d d o r v n b y t r a d i t i o n sd a t i n g f r o n r r 5 7 6 , 1 6 o o a n d r 7 4 4 . W h e n such fundanrental errors of principle are involved in our t h e o r i e s , t h e n r e r e r e h n e m e n t o f m e a s u r e m e n tr v i l l a c l d l i t t l e l t o o u r s t o c k o f y r h y s i c a k n o r v l e d g e . I l e l b r e r e a l p r o g r e s sc a n be expected the erroneous theory nrust be unconditionally thrown overboard, and a nervstart made, on the basisof true laws of nrture, rvhich may be recognized, chiefly by their simplicity. Often rve rnust turn our eyes away liom great masses o f o b s e r v a t i o n s ,l e s t t h e s i n r p l i c i t y o f g e n e r a l I a w s b e l o s t 'l'he sight ol in a hopelessmass of bervildering detail. investigator often is in the position of the explorer u,ho canno! see the general character of the forest on accor.lnt of the 'i'hus trecs wlrich crorvd too close cbont hirrr. in the presen! i n v e s t i g l t i o n I h a v e d e p e n d e d n r u c h l e s su p o n t h e n r a g n e t i c observutionsof the past 75 years, than uDon tlre general results already knorvn to I{uuboldt and Gauss. As it rvas the data of their arbitrary scale of intensities, for the earth's magnetisnr, rvhich enabled me to reach the general larvs here given, I have retained their scale in the maps and 'l'he multiplier given by Sabinc for diagrams of this paper. converting these nurnbers into the absolute scaleis 7.57. A n d s i n c e i t r v a s a s o n r e r v h a th i d d e n d i a n r o n d a c c i dentally dropped by Gauss arnidst his profound calculations o n t h e a m o u n t o f n r a g n e t i s u ri n t h e e a r t h , t h a t f i n a l l y e n abled nre to work out and verify the connection between the nragnctisnr of the earth and terrestrial gravitation 2), I grate{ully crown the great nrathematician rvith a laurel wreath, by selccting his portrait for the frontispiece to this con'Lheory cluding l)r[)er on the Nerv of the Aet]rer.

') Ilver since comlrleting the first paper, AN 5o44, Jan. r4, rg2o, tlre prescnt rvritcr Iras rccognizetl clearly the fallacy of the I:;ililriil Theory of lLelativity. Valid rrrathcrnatical and physical reasons lbr the rqiection of the rvholr tlreory are given in AN 5o44, and in AN 5o48, thelatterpaPerdatedFebr.I9,l9zo'Itisgratifyingtonoticethatl)rof.I'ul|\in/jujtntll,ro1..Iinti/cI'icur, communications to the Paris Academy of Sciences, Oct. 24, r9zI, have conllrrncd rny conclusions lroru sonrewhat dilierent points of view. IJoth of these enrincnt nratbematicians reject the doctrines of Einsltitt, and supl)ort tbe ./\ttrt'/r'ntan rrtechanics. As they had received copies of the 'l'heory of the Aether, tlreir announced support of rhe t\Itu'lottian doctrines in natural philosophy is not surlrrising. successive pal)ers on the Nelv Under the kinetic theory of the Aether any otlrer position is rvholly untenable, but they did well to give public notice of the danger into rvhich many unwary societies and investigators hacl fallen. ') ln an article, lvritten for Populai Astronomy, about r894, it rvas statecl by I'rof. ..1:ay'/t llall tlrat in his tinte LQlace had tlone more for astronorny than all the Universities of lJurope courbincd. In thc sarne rvay it is evitlerrt that Gazsr did nrore for terrestrial rnagnetisrn than all other authorities of every age cornbined, and henceforth his s'orli takcs on vastly incrcasetl signi6cance, frorn the connection norv established I'rincipia, and yet no real progress between magnetism and univcrsal gravitation. Since 235 years have elapsetl since the publication of Nculotis was made torvards solving tlre problcrn of the cause of gravitation, or sholving that gravitation is an electrodynanic phenomenon, \ve think it very improbable that a solution could be effected rvithout the results given by Cuuss' rnethod, as further developed itr the present paper. Andsince}itradu1,sattcIIlptSatcxperitnel1talproofo|aconttectioltbetlvectrIttagttetisttrattdgravitation method of attacking the problern succeeded, by virtue of Cuuss' theory, I look rrpon Gansr' theory as one of the nrost precious products of the human intellect. For rvhen every other resource failed, Gazss' theory adrnitted of arralytical developrnent which enablcd us to solve the greatest outstanding physical problern of the centuries!

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ryr "i':

tg

X i{

z8t

Sondernummer

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' As' the genius of Gauss incidentally brought out the results which gave the fractional part of the earth that is magnetic, and thereby made it possible to connect the masnetism of the globe with terrestrial gravitation, thus breaking down the hitherto inscrutable isolation of the chief force of nature, we may exclaim of Gauss, even more appropriately than Fouricr could of Laplace: >It is the great mathematician rvhose memory we celebrate.(( ' By a fortunate circulnstance it turns out that lttunboldt was not only the life-long friend and cooperator with Garzss in establishing the study of terrestrial magnetism upon a scientific basis, but also the idol of my youth, the perpetual inspiration to a career o[ discovery. These early impressions were of the greatest influence during my student days at the university of Rerlin, so that I very frequently visited l{unloldl's country place at Tegel. Who knorvs rvhat influence these associations have had in leading me to a rigorous proof of the connection between magnetism and terrestrial gravitation, since these researches were begun in rgr4, and .such a connection definitely indicated to thd Royal Society of London? Eanboldt regarded his discovery of the law of the increase of the earth's total magnetic intensity from the equator torvards the poles as the most important result of h i s A m e r i c a n v o y a g e o f d i s c o v e r y ,r 7 9 8 - r 8 o 4 . A c c o r d i n g l y , in veneration of the nremory of this great man l), I cite his own account of the discovery of this great law (Cosmos, B o h n T r a n s l a t i o n ,r ' o l . I , p p . t 7 9 - r 8 r ) : rThe following is the history of the discovery of the law that the intensity of the force increases (in general) with the magnetic latitude. When I was anxions to attach myself in r798 to the expedition of captain Batdin, who inrended to circumnsvigate the globe, I was requested by llorda, who took a warm interest in the success of my project, to examine the oscillations of a vertical needle in the magnetic meridian in different latitudes in each hemisphere, in order to determine whether the intensity of the force rvas the same, or whether it- varied in different places. During my travels in the tropical regions of America I paid much attention to this subject. I observed that the same needle which in the s p a c e o f t e n n t i n u t e s m a d e 2 4 5 o s c i l l a t i o n si n l , a r i s , 2 4 6 in the Havana, and z 4z in N{exico, performed only z r 6 oscillationsduring the same period at San Carlos del Rio Negro, (ro53'north lat. and 8oo4o' rvest long. from l'aris), on the magnetic equator i. e. the line in rvhichthe inclination- o, in Peru (7"r'south lat. and 8o"54'rvest long. fronr I,aris) o n l y z r r ; w h i l e a t L i m a ( r z o z ' s o u t h l a t . ) t h e n u n r b e rr o s e t o 2 r g . I f o u n d i n t h e y e a r s i n t e r v e n i n g b e t r v e e nr T g g a n d r8o3, that the whole force, if we assumeit at r.oooo on

the magnetic equator in the Peruvian Andes, between Micuipampa and Caxamatca, may be expressed at Paris by r.g48z, in Mexico by r.3r55, in San Carlos del Rio Negro by r.o48o, and in Lima by r.o7 73. lYhen I developed this law of the variable intensity of terrestrial magnetic force, and supported it by the numerical value of observations instituted in ro4 different places, in a Memoir read before the Paris Institute, on the z6th Frimaire, An XIII, (of which the mathematical portion was contributed by M. Biot), the facts were regarded as altogether new. It was only alter the reading of the paper, as Biot expressly states (Lamlthcric, Journal de Physique, t. 59, p. 446, note 2), and as I have repeated in the Relation historique, t. r, p. z6z, note r, thet NIr. dc Rosscl communicated to ^Biothis oscillation exDeriment3 made six years earlier (bettueen r 7 9 r and r 7 94) in V"n Diemen's Land, in Java, and in Amboina. These experirnents gave evidence of the same law of decreasing force in the Indian Archipelago. It must, I think, be supposed that this excellent man, when he wrote his work, was not aware o[ the regularity of the augmentation and diminution of the intensity, as before the reading of my paper he never men, tioned this (certainly not unimportant) physical law to any of our mutual friends, Laplace, Dclanbrc, hon1, s, Riol, It rvas not till r8o8, four years after my retrrrn from America, that the observations made by ltl. dc Rosscl were published i n t h e V o y a g e d e L ' E n t r e c a s t e a u x ,t . z , p p . 2 8 7 , z 9 r , 1 2 r , 48o, and 644. Up to the present day it is still usual, in all the tables of magnetic intensity which have been pub. lished in Germany (I{anslccn, Magnet. der Erde, r 8 r 9, p- 7 r ; Gauss, Reob. des lllagnet. Vereins, r838, p. 36-39; Erman, P h y s i k a l . B e o b . , r 8 4 r , p . 5 2 9 - 5 7 s ) , i n E n g l a n d ( S a b i n c ,R e . p o r t o n M a g n e t . I n t e n s i t y , r 8 3 8 , p . 4 3 - 6 2 ; C o n t r i b u t i o n st o Terrestrial Magnetism, r843), and in France (Bccqucrcl,Trait6, d'Electr. et de Magndt., t.7, p.354-367), to reduce the oscillations observed in any part of the earth to the standard of force which I found on the magnetic equator in Northern Peru; so that, according to the unit thus arbitrarily assumed, the intensity of the magnetic force at Paris is put down as 'fhe r.348. observations made by Lananon in the unfortunate expedition of I-a Pirouse, during the stay at Teneriffe (tZ8S), and on the voyage to Macao (rZ8Z), ar'e still older than those of adnriral Rosscl. They were sent to the Academy of Sciences, and it is known that they were in the possession o f C o n d o r c c tn t h e J u l y o f 1 7 8 7 ( B c q u e r c l , t . 7 , p . 3 z o ) ; i but notrvithstanding the most careful search, they are not now to be found. From a copy of a very important letter of Lananon, now in the possession of captain Dupcrrcy, which rvas adressed to the then perpetual secretary of the Acaderny of Sciences, but was omitted in the narrative of the Voyage 'that de La Pirouse, it is stated the attractive force of the magnet is less in the tropics than when we approach the

\ ) E u n b o k { t ' s e x t e n s i v e a n d v a r i e d r e s e a r c h e so n t h e m a g n e t i s m o f t h e e a r t h e x t e r r d e do v e r m o r e t h a n 6 o y e a r s , I n a d d i t i o n t o h i s o w n n o t a b l e s e r i e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s ,e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e t r a v c l s i n A r n c r i c a , t 7 9 g - t 8 o 4 , a n c l t h e e x p e d i t i o n t o C e n t r a l A s i a , r 8 z g , h e s e c u r e d t h e c o o p e r a t l o no f t h e R u s s i a n a n d B r i t i s h G o v e r n m e n t s f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n to [ c h a i n s o f r n a g n e t i c o b s e r v a t o r i e st h r o u g h o u t t h e n o r t h e r n a n d s o u t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e s , t 8 3 o - l 8 4 o , a n d b y r t a s s i n t h e A n t a r c t i c , r 3 4 r .I l e a l w a y s c o o p e r a t e d r v i t hG a u s s a n d L l / c b c r , a n d , t h u s a i d e d t h e o b s e r v a t i o n a l f o u n d a t i o no f G a u s s ' A l l g e m c i n e T h e o r i e d e s . E r d r n a g n e t i s r n u s 8 3 8 . t, After eight years of researches .in the wave-tlreory of physical forces, antl the frequent use of flunbohll's Cosmos for exactly forty years, t h e p r e s e n t a t r t h o r - 6 n a l l y w a s e n a b l c d t o e s t a b l i s h b e t q ' e c n c o s m i c a l m a g n c t i s m a n d u n i v e r s a l g r a v i t a t i o n r h e r e m a r k a b l e g e n e r a ll a w o f n a t u r e : t1'r(r!ls.-+rtls''). Ilence the addition of his portrait to this concluding paper on the New Theory of the Aether ."! Ilg: u " d e d i c a t e dt o t h e revered memory of Hunbolit

r9.

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284

poles, and that'the magnetic intensity deduced from the number of oscillations of the needle of the inclination'compass varies and increases with the latitude'. If the Academicians, while they continued to expect the return of the unfortunate La Pdrouse, had felt thenrselvesjustified, in the course of r787, in publishing a truth which had been independently discovered by no less than three different travellers, the theory of terrestrial magnetism rvould have been extended by the knowledge of a new class of observations, dating eighteen years earlier than they now do, This sirnple statement of facts may probably justify the observations contained i n t h e t h i r d v o l u m e o f r n y R e l a t i o n h i s t o r i q r r e( 1 1 . 6 r 5 ) : - "I'he observations on the variation of terrestrial magnetisrn, to which I have devoted nryself for thirty-two years, by tneans of instrunrents, rvhich adniit oI comparison with qne another, in Anrerica, Europe and Asia, etnbrace an,area extending over r8B degrees of longitucle, frour the frontier of Chinese Dzoungarie to the rvest of the South Sea bathing the coasts of Mexico and I'eru, and reaching fronr 6oo north lat. to r zo south . lat. I regard the discovery of the larv o[ the decrement of rnagnetic force fI'om the pole to the equator, as the most important result of my Anerican voyage'. Although not absolutely certain it is very probable that Cotr dorcct read Lannnon's letter of July, r 787, at a meeting of the Paris Academy of Sciences;and such a sirnple reading I regard as a sufficient act of publication. (Annuaire dLr Bureau des Longitudes, r842, p. 463). 'fhe first recognition of the Iarv belongs, therefore, beyond all tpestion, to the conrpanion of La Perouse; btlt long disregarded or forgotten, t h e k n o r v l e d g eo f t h e l a w t h a t t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e m a g n e t i c force of the earth varied with the latitude, did not, I conceive, aciluire an existence in science until the publication 'I'he object and of my observations frotn r 798 to r8o4. the length of this note rvill not be indifferent to those rvho are familiar with the recent history of magnetistn, and the doubts tbat have been started in connection with it, and who, from their orvn experience, are aware that \ve are allt to attach some value to th.t rvhich has cost us the uninterrupted labour of five years under the pressure of a tropicnl climate, and .of perilous rnountain expeditions.(

In conclusion .it may be recalled that Gauss was much bewildered by the phenomenon of the-Northern Light, adding E ( p . S o ) : ) D i e r d t s e l h a f t e n r s c h e i n u n g e nd e s N o r d l i c h t s , b e i rvelchem allem Anscheine nach Iilektrizitiit in l3ewegung eine Hauptrolle spielt< - >the puzz)ing appearance of the Northern Light, in which according to all appearances electricity, in motion plays a leading part<. He adds that it will not do to deny the possibility of such electric currents' but it will be interesting to investigate how such electric currents would arise from the nragnetic actions at the. surfnce of the earth. ln the above paper we have not overlooked this;re' o comr-nendation I the great mathenratician' On the contrary t h e n e r v t h c o r l , o f t r i o l e c u l a rf o r c e s ( A N 5 r 3 o ) y i e l d s s o d i r e c t \ a n d s i m l l l e a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s h a r n r l e s sd i s c h a r g e o f electric energy fron.rthe changing globules in the coulparatively rare air of tlie cirrus ciouds that the explanation fulhlls all k n o r v n p i r y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s b y a s s i r u i i a t i n gt h e a u r o r a t o a kind of lightning of the upper atmosphere, which fretluently is easily set off in delicate streamers by unusually ,violent distnrbances of the earth's tnagnetisnl. As it has taken eight long years to finish the work b recornnrencled y Gauss,84 yearsago, I think we may appropriately.exclaim with the Poet Oliuer ltr1ndtll Ifolnes: >\\'lren darkness lrid the starry skics In u'ar's long winter night, | ,. One ray still cheered our straining ,Ys,,.., .. 'L-he far-off Northern I-ight!u .r r1,,. (If,.,lncs'I'oerns,. America to l{ussi4, p. t99). Very grateful acknowledgements are due to twoieminent civil engineers,- Captain Lconard M. Cor, U. S. N.'' of ,Mare Island, and Nlr. Otto uott Geldern o[ San lirancisco; to my friend N{r. A. }i. Arlund, a very skillful draftsnran, whq,has aidecl irr the preparation of the. plates; to nry associatel{rl Ll/.S. T'ranftlt, lbr contributing greatly to the early cornpleiion of the 1;aper; and, above all others, to NIrs. Src, for an uni w a v e r , i n gf a i t h t h a t t h e h o u r f o r t h e t r i u r n p h o f . ' l i g h t i ; o v e r darkncss rvould hnally come.

May 8, rgzz' City, 1\{issouri, Starlight on I-outre, IMontgomery

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the whole General view of the wave-field about the earth, showing the unequal <iepths of the poles in the solid globe, due to th_e shift of the earth's magnetic system towards the Ocean-Hemisphere, by o.o5 of the rarlius, or zoo miles. This explains the increased total intensity of , s o u t h e r nh e m i s p h e r e w h i c i i s t h e g r c o t e s to u t s r e n d i n ( p h e n o m e n o n ' i nt h e m a g n c t i s r no f t h e g l o b e , a n d n o t h e r e t o f o r ei n v e s t i g a t e d ' m a i n e t i s m - i nt h e
C. Schaidt, Inhabcr Georg Ohcin, Kiel.

A s t r o n o m .N a c h r i c h t e n B d , z r 7 .

Tafel .:.

T.J.J. See. New Tireory of the Aether.

Iiig. t. -

I ' h o t o g r r P h o f l b r r r s r r r a l l r r r r g n c l i c n e c r l l c s , s t t s P c n t l c r ll r v t l t r c r t r l s , t t c a r a l a r g c r s t r o t t g t t l a g n c t , s h i c h irrrlicatcs rtnmistal<lbly thc naturc of the prrlls tlrem ovcr botlill' to tlrt: arljaccnt polcs, an,l thcrclx 'l'his pltotograplr <lisclosesthc tnrc nirtrrrc of lnagnctism, antl sl'eclts as'ay thc false p6rrderontotir.c lorce. lrrincilics rvlrich havc corrrc <iown frorn tlrc tirnc of Gi//,tt /, t 6oo, and }:hlcr, t744.

Irig. z.

lorver A t1'pic.al vierv of thc Arrrora llorcalis, shorring cxtcnsivc cttrtain, *'ith ribbon folds at the by bor,ler,'an<l stars visible throrrglr the illnrnination. An arrrora of this gcncral aspect-$'as observed thc author,attrIarlison, \Visconsin, Scl)t.29, rE95. Thc brilliant aurora observcd at l{are Island, California' but more ofthe delicatc streamers, antl they appeared IIay r4, r92r, ha(l lcss of thc rrcll-tlcfincrl.ir-rt"in, 'fhis proves- that thc aurora is on,i ,li.npp"nr"d rvhcrcver certain thin clouds bccarne visiblc in the sky.. thc rrpper atmosphere, the unstablc tethcr stress on thc surfaccs of the drops of a kincl of'lightning discharge, unrlci the rlccreascd resistance of the rare air, by the mere t'listurbances escaping u.'n. "lcictric of the lolver of the earth's magnetism, yet it,is Iiglrtrring neler reaches the srrrface of the earth like that al mosphcre.

C. Schridt' I o h a b c r G c o r g O h c i n r , K i e l .

N Astronom. achrichten Bd. zr7.

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K n r O C . S c h a i d tl, h a b eG e o r g h e i m , i e l .

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C, Schaidt, Inhabet Gcorg Oheim, Kiel.

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lrr' ('r'nlrrrl of Vcrification ol' thc Ncri'toniatr Lat' l l r l c c l r ' l r r r r t c r li r n r r l l , t i < ' a lr c s c i l r c h c s o f L ' / o i r a u / / , rvhich Ittay lrc . l r l i r r c c r v i t l r r l l r g l r c l i s n r , t t t t i l t ' l t l l t u ' o l t t ; t t r t r t 'n ' l r r , r i s r , ' r i l i c r i / ' . t t / r ' t . / ) ' . | / , n t / t c r / . / , t r . ( t d t / . q ( i t n ( l L d f | d ( c . r i r i 1 , , r ' l o : r ' . r ' r r r r ' 1 ] r 'r o o \ ' ( ' i t r s i t f t ( : r t l t c J ) u l ) l i c i l t i o l to f t h c l i n t l r r ' p l r r - s i c l l h c o r v o l t l r c l ' . r r 1 t1 r t l t r lS u t r . I l r t t l t i r r t ' l i r t l r l t . r c s r r l t l l t t t s t t t t l l i t l i ' t li . l r i g l r l r ' : r t t i : l r t . t o l . r ' ( ' 5 | ( ' (i l l l l v i r r l r r t ' ; r l ' i r l g I ' r ' i n ,i 1 r i : r .t t / , , r 1 1 , t , , ' : t r i t r r l r l t : t t r t t l i s c o v c r i c s o f t l i c c l t r s t r o f ; t1 1 ) r c g r r ' ; r l i r l r ' r 1 r r r r 1 i ov ' . J i r l , i t c ' r u r r l S : t l t t r t r , r 7 , 9 . 5a l r t l o 1 -1 h e , r l r t l ' n t l t r ' l t i s l o r i r ' j s o l r { i r i n o l g r . r r r i 1 ; t t i o t ltl,' o t t t t l t t ' r ' l l t l t r r : r ' r ' i r l l r rr r r ' r ' r ' l c l i t l i o tot t - t l t t ' J I o o t r s r r r ( ' l l l lt r r o l i o t t , r 7 3 7 - - ' r c t u 1 r l v n i r n r i t ' ; r n r l r r ' l r t 1 r ' r l - o r c c s . l t i c l t / : t t t t r l r t - t 't t l u r t t ' s l r t ' l r l t r l l r c u itlr tlrl r'('sulls i\'('n llnrl lorrn in thc \ldclnirlLrc (iclestcvols. g l r o s s il > 1' cr. i s 'l l r l t r c s t i o n ,l r o l r ' r ' t c r ,l o t t g r t l t s r t t ' g l t ' r ' 1 r ' rrl',t ' r r ' l r r r g r ' ) 1 ' I i r r r r l I I , r 7 9 r - r ,v o l . I I [ , r 3 o r , r ' o l . I \ - , r l l o - 5 , r ' o l . \ ' , r 8 z - 5 . 'l'lris r c n r i r r l < r r l r l cl r c r i o < l o f v c r i f i c i r t i o n , u ' h i c ' h c v c t r l i t t c r o l r c c r r r s c t h c r v r r v c - f i c l r l s { ' t l r c r t t ' l l t t ' rl t r t : r i ' l r o l l v i r r v i s i l r l c . \ ' t ' t tlic i n r l c a l i n g r r i t l r t h o s c s t r l r t i l t ' 1 r l t t ' t t o n r t ' t tot1 - t r t t u r t ' u ' l t i c l t l t r t ' c r - r l r . r i n l t u r l i n t h t g r ( ' i r t c s t o f : t l l t h c s c t r i r t t t . t l r h s , i thc Pcrtrrrbations of n o t r l i s t ' l o s c r ll o n r o r t i t l s i g l r t o r r r l ) r o ( ' ( ' s s ( ' o 1 - i t t v t ' s t i { i t t i o t r t l r t o r l t i c r r l r l i s c o v c r , , ' o 1 - N c P t r r n c f r o n r s \\:rrs t'hantcti'riztrl o l n ' i o r r s l r ' ( ) r . r g h tt ( ) l r t ' l r c n t l l t t i t t g r t r r r l s o c x l r t t t s t i v t ' 1 l t l r 1 [ ' n r r r r . r s , l t . r - , . l i a n t . r t ' r t r l / . t z , c r r z c r ' , l 3 4 f ) o l r r o l l r i n g i . l l l ' l r r n r l , , n r ' ( \ ( ' l ) u l r c t r i t l r t ' t o t t t t ' s t r i v i s l t l r l t ' 1 o i r v r r c o r r c t ' l t t r r t i o n o f t ' f f o r t o r r t h c l r t t l t l r - t i r ' : r lc o t t s c r l t t t ' t t , ' c s f . i r r v r r l i tt l r c c l r l c r r l r r r. , l l r r o l r , r l r i i i l r ' . I l i ' u t ' l l l i r , , u t r l l r i t l l t ' o t r rl l r l l i l g i r t l t i t t g o 1 ' ) l i . g t l r t t r rliscovlrir'. : l r ( l r ; r \ l l t l I t t r r r r r ; r l i i l i l o' 1 - l i t c t t t l t i o r i t \ ( : l l l l ( l I r r r r ' ; r n r r o l i r i n ( ) l t l r r ' 1 r ) i r n! ,s . r ; ; . 1 : l l l ( l ) r ' t r r t t t r i c r r ll t t o r r ' r 'l'irlt'.. , l i r r 't l t r ' 1 l ( , t i ( , n - r l l l r r , , r . t 7 i 7 ' , l i t t ' I t t l r t t ' i r r l r l t ol- tltr' t 1 I ' l l r n c o l - t l t t ' s o l i r r s \ ' : t ( ' l r . i n r r l t l r l l ' l t r ' . i c l r ll . r l r l l r r t ; r t i r l t o 1 - l t c ' l r r u ' s o 1 -t l r t n r o t i o t r s o 1 ' . fr r y r i t c r ' s: r r l r ' l l i t t ' s ,r ; i i - t : t h ( ' ( . ' i r t t s to l ( i r c l r t I n c r l r r r r ) i l o l ' t r p i t t ' rr r t t t l S l t l t t r n , o' l r7li.i;tl)('('ittrst v .f the ot t h c s c c r . r l l r irr t ' r ' t ' l t ' r ' r t t i o t1 ' t h r ' \ l o o t t ' s l r ( ' i l r t l l r o t i o n , I 7 3 7 s l l r r ' l r r l r ' l - r r n i v l r s l rtl{ n i v i t i l t i ( ) t r ,i t h l i t t l c o r t r o t l r o t t g l t to i - t h c ( 'j, rrl r';nrrl u hiclr nriqht ttnrlt'rlictlris grcrtt Irrtr- )i ltllttlr('. l,lrr l l n I 1 r I g , r r I r ' r r i1 s : i i l r ' r l ) t i ( )o i i r t V c . t i g r t t o r s i t i r t t r lt ' x P r c s s i o t r i n t l r , , r l r . n i n g l ) l l r ; l g r i r l ) l ro i - t h c \ l c c a n i t l u c ( ' c l l c s t r ' . I 7 r r r r . t l r r r l u 1 l r , n ; r 1 l ) r ( ' ( ) 1t h r r t s i n g t r l l r n t o ( l i f i c a t i o r l , b v t l c a n s o f

lrrcccrlirrg l)rtl)crs l t c i r r c f i r l l rt-l r c n l t t t t r t ' o l - ! r . r r i t . r l i , ' t t ; r . ; rt r : r r r ' - 1 ' 1 1 1 ' l l o t t t l lltlo rt <.l l i n t h c S c v c n t l r I ) l l p c r . ( ) r ' t. : 1 . t ( ) t l . l l l l l i l l v c o t t t t c c t r r r lj r i s

u'lriclr rr lrorll is triursl)orto(l l-ronr otrc plirce to ltrothcr, is nolr' r r r r l r r i l r r r v s u i l l l r c r l n l \ 1 1 o \ \ ' r t ; i ti s d c s i g n l t t c c l b y t h c r t i t r r r co f \\'t'r'rrn only rs('crtilitr its cffcc:ts,ar-rd the lrtll's r-rf I"orcr'. i t r l r ,ri ' ' t t , . . ('t'ttttrrl' of' liltrctrorlltlatttit: ILcscirrclrcs, lrc/,oflatt rlrvlls strrrlicrltltr'lrltcnontt'nrt of'l.tlttrtrc I'rottt lltt' ilr'1'l'lrc I Iis rr'pcrrtt'<l girrrirrr u illr llrc crpcrirn<'trtsrl' Ocr.r/trl, rSrg rvhiclr vcrv p o i r r t o f v i t n o l ' l l r c l l r c r i r - r 'o l ' l r r o l r r r l r i l i t r ' . t r i t r n t l r l r s u l r c tr ' : u r ' ) t g r t ; t t l r t i l s l ( ' r s l t s / ' , u l r r . ( / t t i t , t t r / / , s o r r n l r r r r r r r tl r p r c s s i o n i n t l t c ' l l t u s r t l ' , l t t t f i r c , r r t r r l l c c l t o t h c rt r l / ) ' . l l r n t l t t / . , r n r l / . , r , . , t ' , t t t ,l g;,r, r 1 r r i l r ' t l ,r t r t ' s L r l ' l l c i t ' r t c s t i t t t o t t t ' l r r l r g s l r i r ' ' o l - r ' r p l r i r t t c n l : r l t l i s c ' o v c ' r i c s i r r ' / ; d 1 , d d d - y , l h c . t8 , t o t l r c v r r ] r r l r , l 1 l r , n r , ' 1 l r , i r l .I l r . t l t l r t ' i o r ' ( ' l t o ts l l l l ' r i s i l r N1 ( ' n l r l l r c n r i r t i c r r l t l r r ' , r r ' ,o 1 ' t l r c I ' , : r r t l t ' sr t t l t g t r t ' t i s t t t ,l ) \ ' ( r - d l 1 . f - r , . 3 S , lnrrl llrl lrrnrllrrrrlnt;rl r'lt't'trorivnlrtniclltrv, discovcrccl b1' 1 , ; 1 r o r i n 1 i n t l t i l l t r i o t i r ' , \ r r r l v t i r l t r t 't i l s l l r c r r l r o l t ' l ) r o g r c s s ( ' r . l l l r r i l l i l t i l t gi n l / a . r - z u c / / ' s l l ' , 1 , ' t . r f . 1 ( rl'r,,1',,1,111',:-. t o , t \ \ ' r ' r r t r 'o l r u l r r i t t t l i t r , , r t i t r t J ; t l ti c i r g r ' t t r . o l l ) : t l r l l r ' , i r l l ( n r l ) l ; r l r r l r r l l r l r r l r t i c r i i n l t ' r l r r c ' t l r t i o t< t f t h c o l t s e r v l r t i o r t s f i : r t l r r n r lt h c i t ' t l r i , , l t r n r r r t l t ' rst l ' ; t r i o t r . l l r l r l i t r r l t t i r l l r , t l t t l , t 'o t t t i t l l l / : t t t t t r l r r _ t ' r l r r r i n q . t l r t ' l l r s tv c i t r s ( t S 6 o r S { r ( r )o f t h a . t r t t t t i t t c t . t t lltr,l tlrc lollouinl irt rt pltilo.r'lrlicr lo ricttr' 1ltr'pltlttonrlrrit .irrrl,lr'lrlt ltttsc lltt't- i t t r l s l i l r r l o t . . ' It is rvcll lirou n tlrlrt rlt:ring this latcr pcrio<l /;aror/t.1' s l r r c i t t c r l r l i , r r l r l c i n t h t ' l ) r ( ' \ ( ' l r 1 l i l l ( ' ( ) 1r , t t r l i t t o u l , ' r i g t ' . ( ) r t l r ' \ \ ' c n r u s t t ' x r r n t i r t tt l r c r r rr i ' i t l r r t t t l t t t t ' t r l i o t r v h i r l r i s l l t t ' t t t t l t t ' u ' l r s t l c r ' 1 r J v i n r l r l t ' s s c r l s ' i t h r t c o n l t c c t i o t t l t c t r v c c r t c l c c t r o s c r r r p r r l o r rts r c n r o r c r l i l ' l i c r r l itt l r p l r c r u - tso l r t ' 1 o l t r l r r r i l l t t ' t t t . r l v r r l r n r j r ' r . r r r i g r t t t i s t n r r n r l g r l t r . ' i t l t i o n . A t l t i s i i t l v a n c t ' t l l g c . l lroucvt'r, thc t'rpt'rirlt'lrt:ll iltt:rclis oIr llrc ltroltlcrn failcrl, trrrtl i r \ n r l l h t l l i l , ' r l L r . o 1 - p r o l l t l r i l i l i r ' . l r t ' r ' o n r t ' s n t l i s I r ' t t s l r l r l cl i l r ( . \ ( ' n . 1 . / . 1i..1, / 1 ' s l r r i l l i r r n t r i ' o r l < r i ' i t s l c i t i n c o n r P l c t c i t t h i s , l r l c t c n r i n i t t . q l r o r i l - r r rt l r c o l r s t ' r v l t t i ( ) n s n u s t l r t ' r t r r r i t i p l i t ' t l i t t ']'reatise / o r ( l ( ' r ' t o o l r t l r i n i r 1 ; r v r i r r to l - t l t t ' l t g c n t s i r t r l i c l r t t ' r l t l l l t l t t t r t l ) r ' L ' n r i r t L r r (t' i c i r t h i n r 3 7 9 . Y r : t , l / r t . r ' t t ' e 1 ' s c e l e b r a t e c l r , 9 7 3 , l r c c : : r n t ca s t a n c l a r d t ' o r l i o n t h c s u i r j c c l , l n r l i s l r o t v e t s r . r l ) l ) l a n t c (llr v a m o r c ( : o t n P r c h e t l ' \ c ' c o r r l i n g l r ' . i n v i t ' r i ' o t ' t h t ' r l i f ' f i c L r l t i c s c o r t t i t t L r r t l l v s i v c t r c a t n r c n t o 1 -t h c \ \ ' h o l c c l u c s t i o i l . '1'rrnring irsirlc 1'ronr thc promisir-rg start tltus mltdc lrr. t ' r r r - r r r r n l r ' r tlrl lv i t r v c s t i g ; r t o r ss i n c r ' 1 h t ' l r g c < t l ' : \ : t t t t ' / r t ti t1 s t ' c t t t s . 1 ) l ' o ( : s ( ' : io 1 - g r r r l i t r t t i o t t o f f t ' r r t t t c s l ) t ' c i r l l l \ - 1 ; t r n r l a . t , a n t l ' l f t . t z t ' , ' / / , i I l i r \ \ ' i t t v c s t i g a t o r s , s o l l l c t \ \ ' e 1 1 t \ ' \ ' c i l r s (' tri nrc thltt tlrt lrirlrlert s u i t r r l r l r ' l r c l r l 1 o r t i t t ' u s t ' o l 1 h t ' n r t ' t h o ( l o l ' t h c t ' l t l t ' l t l t t so { - l l g o ) l l l ) l ) r r ( ' n t l v f o | g o t t h C l c s s o t l s o f H i s t o r y , a n ( l l l c g a l l a p r o l r r r l r i l i t l l i r t t r l t h u s i t i s r l t s i r i r b l t ' t o i t t l < l a s t l l ) J ) l o l t t t ' l t t i l r \ -r r o v L , l n 0 n t l o r c x 1 . , l a i I r i I ' r g n r a l l v r c l a t c d P h e n o l . n c l l a o f n z r t t l r c r ' c t i t p r o r - e c lt o l t c s o c l e a r l r ' lrv tlrc'l'lr('orv of l{cllLtivitv: v L i g h t h I ' r t p c t ' . r l c r r l i t r gr ' o t t r l r l c h t ' t r s i v r ' lu ' i t l t t h i s s r r l r j t ' r ' t . p r o l r i r l r i l i t v s r r l r l r i , r r 1 o I i r . r c r t : o l r s o n ( ' n ] i l \ ' l r r t l c 1 ' o rr c j t ' r ' t i r t g tlttnr.tr on lilc('tricjtv rn(l fllg]rctisnt,
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rctrogratlc that it failcd, lnrl onlv led to the cliffusionof a m:rss It rvas fcared by Sir fsaac Neulon that under the mutual of crrors rr'hich ncvcr shoulcl havc ltcen given ctrrrency in thc gravitrLtion of the hcavenly bodies the existing order of thc ]itcraturc of scicr-rcc. Sr.rchlLn cxarnplc of retrograrlation as solar svstcnr c\:cntulrlly might be in danger of subversion, ancl thc rcccnt ill-adviscd attcnrl)t to rnodifv thc Nervtonian larv, rcquirc tl-rccxertion of a rcstorative power. By improving and s'ithout rclLlli' unclcrstar.rcling its gcornctrical, physical ancl cxtcn(ling thc Ncwtonian theory, Euler was able to discover h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c : r n c c l, n : r \ . s c r v c t o c n r p h a s i z ct l r c i n r p o r t i t n c c that thc rnutual gravitation of the planets itself is largely o f l l r n o r c d i l i g c n t s c a r c h f o r t h c c a u s e o f g r a v i t i L t i o n ,a l o n g lrrcscn'ativc of thc ordcr of the solar system; and when Eujrr;, thc clcctlorlyn:rrtric lincs llrcacly ltcgun lty I;orar{a1,, tvhcn l)roccsscs wcre still further extended by Lagrange, Laplace Ll[arntcl/ \\'as it voung nrrn, vct r-rcglcctecl for sixtv y(:ars, rrtrl Poi-t.ron, it bccarne known that the order of the solar t i l l t h c a l ) l ) c : r r l u t c c l ' t h t ' N c r v T h c o r y o f t h c A c t h c r , r 9 2 2 . svstcln is cssentially stablc, if not forevcr, at least for millions o Contcnrpl:tting thcrcfore thc ortirc pcriocl of 2:1oycars of agcs. Thtrs or-r-fune r.5, 1829, Fouriez could exclaim in his s i n c c t l r c p r c l x r r a t i o n o f t h c P r i n c i p i a , i t i s a p p a r c n t t l r a t t h c Iilogc Llistoriquc cic |.aplace: g r c a t c s t c l r r l r .c u l t i v a t o r o f t h c : r n a i y l i c a l t h c p r y o f g r a v i t i r t i o n lln gcncrtl rlatrrrc holcls in rescrve conscrvzrtivc anrl 'l'hcn tyas Eu/cr. c r r n c . t h c c o n t l t l t t c r c s t o r l r t i o n o f t h c cvrr prcscr-rt forccs u'hich nct as soon as the troublc bcgins anrl Nervtoniutr lau', unrlt'r 1hc ytroforrrtrl phvsic:r.l intuition of l u g l n ( ' r ) t i n p r o l > o r t i o n i L s t h e c l i s t u r b a n c ei s g r e a t e r . T h e v ( /.rtf/att,ls finrrllvsct forth in thc NIi'r'lniqLrc ldlcstc. r l r r i c l i l vr c - c s t a l ) l i s h h c a c c u s t o m e co r d e r . W e f i n d i n a l l p a r t s t l \\rhcr.r oct'ultictl u'ith anv vcrv rlifficult problon it rr,rrs o1llrc rrnivcrsc this prcscrr':rtivcpou'cr. The forms of the grcat Lallarls hrrlrit to cxcluirrr.nli,':rrl /it/crl. rt.td Eulcrt ht: is lrlirnr.trrnorlrits uncl thcir inclinations vary and oscillatc in ' o u r n - l r s t c r ! < L i l < c s ' i s c , i n c o r . r r l l r n t i r . e l vr c r : r : n tt i r n c s , I ) r . thc corrrsc of agcs: but thcse changes are limited. The C. II/. Ili// rciltcd thrrt thc gcrnrs of tlru rnrthorl cnrltloyr:clin y r r i r t c i p r r l i n r c n s i o n s r c r n a i n t a i n c da n d t h i s i m m e n s e a s s e m a h i s f t r " r l o r r s { c s c a r c h c s i n t h c L u n r r r ' l ' h c o r, v , r 5 7 7 , : r l r c a c l v l;lagt. of hr:uvorl)' bodics oscillates al)Jut a mean position l h a d f o t r n c l p t r r t i a l c \ 1 r r r ' : s i , n i r r ; r y r , , 1 , a r . , f E r t / c : r , t v l - t o s t : tos-urrl rvlrich it is alrvays carried. Evcrything is adjusted for C o l l c c t c r l W o r k s h r p p i l v r r r ( . r c i r l ) l ) o r r r i n ga n r l a g l r i n c o r - n i n g o r < l c r .p r r r p c t r r i t vt n r l h a r r n o n y . < . . . . , r v i t h i n t h c r e a c h o f t l i c r r r o r l c r nr r . : i r l l r . r\\'lrltcvt'r rnay lravc been thc physical causc of the I l r r l g r c a t i l s \ \ ' l l s l l t c r r n i r l r . t i r ' : r l r t r s t c r t , l I i u / e r , i t i s f o r r n r r t i o n f t l r c p l l . n c t s ,i t i r n p a r t e d t o a l l t h c l t o d i c sa n o o 1>rojectilc r e t ' o g t - t i z ch ln t t h c P h v s i , , r il n t ' r i i i , , r'r, r r , l , l r . n . r n r i r : a l j u r l g o n c nrtn r i t i . r ' ri n l r r - o n r r r r o n l i r c c t i o n a l t o u t i r n i n r r t r c n s cf r l o l t c : i n tr r o l / - a y ' / a t a* ' i t s i n r l i s l , n : : r l r l r .l o r l r , . l r r i ; r l t r i u t l l t h o f t l ) c t . h i su r r v t l t c s o l l r r s v s t c l n h t s l r c c n r c n c l c r c r l t a b l c . ' l ' h c s a r r r r _ , , s Ncs'tonilrn l:ru-. t . l l - c c li s p r o r l r r , ' r : rilr r t l t c s v s t c r r r so f s a t c l l i t c s i r n < l o f r i n g s . r \ r ' r ' o r r l i r r g l v n o r r r r l ; r v t l t c g r l l r ' . o r i l s t l r n c l i n g ) r o l ) l c n t ( ) r r l t ' r i s t h c r r . r n a i n t r r i r r c rllt v t h c p o u . c r o f t h c c c n t r a l t n i r s s . i l o f A s t r o r t o n r v i s t h c t ' l r t r s c f r r n i r . c r - s ;g n l v i t r r t i o l r . ' l ' l t i s i s a n Flcrrct'. tlrcrc is n()t, as t\iezt,lott hirtrsclf an<l Iiu/cr Itad srro rl i n l t c r i t l t r t c r ' 1 ' r o n tt l t c g r ( ' l l t n l t r s t c l . s 1 - f o r n t c r a g c s , l n r l . l r - t : s p c c t c r l . r r r r r r r i v o r t i t i o u s f o r t ' e r v h i c h s h o u l d o n c d a y r c p a i r o ( - i l n n o ts h i r l <i t . o r l ) r ( ' \ ' r ' n tt l r c r l i s t r r r l r L n c cu ' h i c h t i r n c h a d w r o u g h t . ' l ' h i s A l t h o u g l r t l r i s p r o l r l c n t o l ' t h c r . a r . r s c f g r r r r , i t i r t i o n i s t . l r cl r r l ' o l - g n r v i t r r t i o n i t s c l f , w h i c h r u l c s a l l , i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r o proforrrrrllv utglrgcrl thc irilnrrtion o| ,\/c;t,/nrt,tL soltrtion of it l l l , r r n t l r n l i n t l i n s o r < l c ra n d v a r i e t y . H a v i n g p r o c c c ( l c ( lo n c c l v r r s n o t p o s s i l r l c i n l r i s t i n t c i ) ' c t h c . c o r r c < : t l v l t t r i l r L r t c r l o n l v l - r ' o r r ru J ) r c n t c ' i s r l o r n ,i t h a s s s s lrresi<lcd ince thc origin of g r a v i t : L t i o nt o i r n J r u l s c s u ' r r v c s )i n t l r c a c t l r c r . i ; rrl n c , l i r r n r ,l r t : t tinrc, rrrrrl rcnclc:rs rlisonlcr irnltossiblc. Nrut/ott and liuler ( all i t r v a s c x l c t l v t \ \ ' o ( ' c n t u t ' i c s f t c r t h c i r l t l t c r r r i r n < 'o l - t h t ' l ' , 1 r l i r l n o t v c t r c c o g n i z . c : r l lt h c p c r f t : c t i o n so f t h c u n i v c r s c . l n a c c < l i t i o no f t l r r : ' l ' r c r r t i s c n O l r t i r . k s , r 7 z r , b c l i r r c i t l r c t ' i r n r t ' g t ' n c r r r l t ' h c n c v c ' r i r n v t l o u l t t h i r s a r i s c n i n r e g a r < l t o t l t c o p o s s i l r l ct o r ( ' s L u n o \ t c z r ' / , n t ' r r n f i n i s h c <rl v o r l i , l t r . r l c v c l o l r i n g ('xir('tlr('ss tltr: \cri'tonilln ltw, itnrl, for thc cxplar-rirtionof , s of 'l'hcon' thc Kinctic of thc ;\ct.ltr:r. : l j ) l ) ; l r ( ' n ti r r r : g r r l r L r i t i c s ,, c h a v c J ) r o l ) o s c (tl h c u c c e s s i o n f i l u o I n v i r : r r o 1 ' t h i s l r r l r s c l ' t i r n c t h c t h o u g h t t i r l i n r . c s t i g i r t o r lbrcigrr t'irusc, it Itls illways haltpcuc<I, lrftcr lr profotrnrl ' o s h o u l c l n o t h c s i t i l t c t o g o l r r r r : l it o t h c g r c l r t c s t o u i s t a n < l i t r g t i x i r n r i n r r l i o r r , i r t t h c o r i g i n a l l a r v h l s l r c c n v c r i f i c r l . I t th n r v s t e r v o f t l r r : r r n i v t ' r ' s r :i n c c t l t c ' i r g c c t lN c n , / o t t . I t r c l i t t c st ( ) t ' r l r i i r i n : t o - r l r r v r r l l l < n o r v n p h c n o r r r c r . r t . ' l ' h c n r o r n s Irrccisc t l r c n a t u n r o f u n i v c r s r r lp l n r v i t . ; r t i r - r nn r l c r u ' h i c h t h c l r t . a v o t l r , t h t ' o l r s t ' r v r r t i o n s , t c l t c t t c r r l o t h e y r : o n f o r n rt o t h c o 1 1 , .O f l r l l r, tl l r o d i c s c v c r l ' r r ' l t c r c t r c n r r r t r u r l i l r l r i i u . n t . o g c t h c ri r r l , r r i r s , , r r r , I t l r c g r t ' r r l r r r r r t l r c r n i r t i < t i a n s ,f / a c c i s t l i c o n c u ' h o h a s p e n c r . La o f i c n p h 1 - s i c n l l c o u p l c r l i n t o r t : r ' o l v i r r g y s t c n r s l - I l i n r r r v S t i r r s . t r i r t c . r lr r r o s tl r l o l i t r . r n r l l yh c s c g r c a t r l u c s t i o n s ; I r c h a s , s o t o l s o t 'l'he o l t l t y s i c t l i r o n < lL r n i t i n go u r p i a n c - . tts t h c S r r n , t l r r . : : r t c l i i t t . s s p c l l i . s t ' t t ) c r tl h c n r . r r 'l'lrc s t o t h c i r s c v c n r l p l a n c t s , i r r t r lt h c ( . o n r l ) o n c l t to 1 ' t h c l r l r l . s r c a l l y l)rvstcr). srrrrountling thc causc of universal c o u p l c ( l c l o u l t l cs t i t r s , o l t ( ' t o l r t o t l t c r , i s t h c n t r . : t c r i o u sp , r u ' t , r g n r v i t r r t i o n i r t N c r u / o n ' s t i r n c r v l s s o c x t r c n t c , t h a t a l t h o u g h of gravitation. t h c i l l t r s t r i o r r sr r . r t h o r f t h e P r i n c i p i a a s c r i b c d g r a v i t a t i o n t o i o 'l'hc attnrc'tivc f<trcc is so strrpcnrlous as to cxccr:rl thc i n r l r r r l s c s( r r ' l v c s ) i n t h c s r r b t i l c r r c t h c r e a l m e ( l i u m t h a t i s t e n s i l c s t r c n g t h o f n t i l l i o n s o f i n r n t c n s cc a l r l c so l ' t h c s t . r o n g c s t rliffuscrl or,cr tlrc univcrsc, \'ct as hc <:ould not ntakc out thc s t e e l , v c t t ' o n v c 1 - c <t r r i g h t l i n c s t h r o L r g h t h c u l l - p c r - r ' u r l i n g n r o r l c o f o p c r i l t i o n , .h c r v o u l c l f r a r n c n o h y p o t l r c s c s . f - l r c il 'l-liis mediuln of thc acthcr. s u b t i l c n r e r l i u n ri s r v b o l l v i n v i s i i r l c , <'ur.rtiorrs lttilu<lc of thc loun<lcr of thc thcory of unit,crs:rl y c t a d e q u l t e t o l r i n r l t o g c t h c r t h c r v h o l c s t r u c t r t r co f t h c s t t r r r r . gr:rvitrtior-r cxtcnrlccl to ]ris succcssors,irnd even to LaJ\latc, hcitvens, b1.s'avc-action cvcr1,11'hg19 rl rn ltLrr-suing i ni rrrrr lnt lrs, thc gn'lrt rcstorcr and pcrfcctor of thc Nervtonian tlrcorv. - - a n c l t l r u s c x c r t i n g n r u t u a . lt c n s i o n so l t t h c l r c r r v c n l r b o r l i c s , ' r\ftcr thc rcsc:trchcs of .Farada1, and,,4,[arzerc//, horr,cvw, in lines as rectilincar as rlclicl.tc spirlcr rr.clrs joining thcn-r a lcss ('autious ancl less despairing attitude becamc allowable: in pairs. so thiLt in thc rcscarchcs on the lilectroclynamic iVavc-Theory

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o f l ) h y s i c l l I , ' o n ' c s ,b c g u n i n r 9 r - 1 , l r r r l l i r r t h c r tlcvclopccl in S r r t ' hs c n c m l r c a s o n i n ga p p c a r s t o b e e s s e n t i a l l y o u n d , s t i r c N c n " f h c o n ' o f t h c , , \ r : t h c r , r g l t o - t g z z , I r r - a s : r b l c t r i rrs.r.rofcrl Il'/ttzuc// in his History of thc Inductivc Scicnccs, l>v rr-'<'ognizc rllr vc itction t lrc calrsc of ut.rivcrsitl r r r : r r : i l , r l i n r r in . 3 " rc r l i t i o r r .r S . 5 7r, ' o l .I I , L i b . V I I , c h . I a n r l I I , p p . r r 4 - r . 1 o . \ - c t i r n r l t o l r l c l r t c c r r l i s l i r c t o rlrt 'r o o t - t h l r t l t i s l o r c c i s t r a n s r n i t t c c l a s t h i s s r r l r j c c t r - c r y s c l c l o r ni s v i c r v c d j n i t s t r u c h i s t o r i c a l s t ; r ( ' r o s s l ) a ( ' (u ' i t l t l h r . r ' c l o c i t v o f l i g i r t . s . clcvclolrrrcnt, rvc shall quotc I.l/hczucl/'s cliscussionin sufficicnt 'l'his l r r o o l ' i s l r l r s c r l( ) n r g r c l t r r r r s s o f < . l o s c l rr-c l a t c r l r l c t r r i l t o s l r o r r 'l r o l l ' t h c l a r v o f t h c i n r . c r s cs q l l a r e s f i r s t a r o s c : rr'lltc rrroposition that the attractir.c force of the sun l r l r i c s i l r \ ' ( ' r s t ' ) 1r s t h c s q u a r c o f t h c d i s t a n r : cf r o m t h e c c n t r e , r' h a r l a l r r . r r r l vr c r . nd i v i n c r l , i f n o t f u l l y c s t a b l i s h c c l .I f t h e o r b i t s l o f t . h c 1 r 1 ; r n c l\s ' r ' r { ' t ' i r c l c s t h i s p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e f o r c c s n r i g l t t \ , l r c r l t ' r l r rr,. r l i n t h c s l r n c l l r i l l l r c r a s t h c p r o l ) o s i t i o n s o r t r : c r n i n g c c i n ' r r l : r r r r r o t i o n , s ' h i < . h 1 1 z z - r ' g l e z zu s l i s h c c l i n r ( r 7 . j ; r , c t i t p .b f ' r r r t h c r , l r v t h t . r c s c r r r c l t c s n t r r < j cr l r r r i n q t h c l l r s t t l t r c c v c a r s . rlocs rrrrt.irl)J).'ilr thll //tt-t',qhtrz.c ntarlc this application of his , . \ n r o n g l l t c . g r r i u r t r l s 1 o r s t r c l r l r r o r . r ' t l L r r t ' u ' r ': i l c t l t c f o l l < t u . i n g t , , l r r i r r r - i 1 r l l si.\ - t z t , / n n h o r r . e v c rh a t l a l r c a r l y m a d c t h i s s t c l )s o n r r l i ) : r l ) ( ' r sl r r - t u ' o c r ' l c l r l r t r . t l ( i t ' r n l n t n l t t l t c n l r t i r i . r n s : v t ' l r s l r t . l o r < : . h i s t i n r c . . , \ c ' r . o r r l i n g l rI't,c s a y s i n a l e t t c r t o t r. ('. /;. (;dil.t.t,'\llgt'nrcint' Lchrsritzc in Ilczicltr.rngauf //o/le.t', on //oo/i,:'s cltrint to this <liscovcry (lliog. 13rit., art. < l i c i r n v c r l i r ' l r r t c n Y c r l t i i l t n i s s t . r l c s ( . ) t r r r r l l r t sr l t . r I . ) n t f c r n u n g '\\Ilror //ooiL';. ,//zz,r,,qcnius ltnt orrt his Horologium Oss'irkt'nr'lr'n '\nzit.lturrgs- rnt<l ;\lrstofjrrtrgsltriiftr', I{csultirtc trrrs c i l i : r t o r i r r n r ,r ( ' o l ) y b c i n g p r c s c n t c ( lt o n r c r ) , i n r n y l c t t c r o f i rlcn l:icolrrrchtungcn <ics llagnctisr.ht'n \-crcitrs inr flhrc rS3r.;, t h r r n l t s I g a v c t h o s c t - u l r : si n t h c c n c l t h c r c o f a p a r t i c u l a r L c i l r z i g , r S . 1 o , r c p r i n t c c l i n ( , ' r z r z . r - . r ' \ \ r c r ) iIc r l . . 5 , r 9 7 z 4 z . l, t - o n r r n c r r r liro t f o r t h c i r u s c f u l n c s si n c o n r p t r t i n gt h c f o r c e s o f rn z. /). (i. /.c-fcunt /)irit/t/t/, \'orlr.srrngcn iilrcr tlic int thc nroon l-r-onrthc cartlt, ancl tlrc ca.rth from thc sun'. I,Ic (.)rnrrlrirtstlcr Itntfcrntrng rvirrrnrgcliclrrtcn \:crh:illnis rlcs s l v s ! 1 l ( ) r c ( ) \ ' c . 'rl, l r r r a l t n o s t c o n f i d c n t b y c i r c u m s t a n c c s t h i r t , kcnrlcn [iriiftc, l,cilrzig, rti76. 'l'hcsc Sir ('/n i.r/of ltr Il'rctr kncrv thc duplicate proportion rvhc:n r n r r t l r c r r r r t i r - : r l r { : ( ' r l r r . l r ( ' sl r r . ( , ' r z r z s;.r n t l / ) i r i r h / c / I g r r v o l r i n r r r v i s i t . ;u r r r l t h o . r M r . , I { o o / t c , b 1 , h i s b o o i <C o n r c t r r . i t r t : o 1 -g r c l t c l r . g l r r t c c n t ' l , \ t r , n r r . { ( l t ; t ; t l i t r . , l r r t r l l c l r v c r . c 1 1 , l r v i J Jl r r r r v ct h c l r r s t o f u s t h r c c t h a t k n c r v i L ' . / l o o A c ' s( ' o n r c t i r l i t t l c t o l r r . r l t ' s i r c r l i r s r ( , s ] ) ( ' { ' t sl r l g c o r r r c t r i r . i r r o n s t . r l u t ' n c ' c s t l 'l'hcsc l ' ; r s l r r r l ; l i s h r . rilr r r f r 7 1 3 . i n f c r c n ( - c s\ \ . c r c a l l c o n n c c t t , c l o 1 - { o r c c s l r r r v i n g i r r v c r s r ' l r .l r s t h c s ( l L l l r ( ' o 1 - t h c r l i s t r r n c c s . s ' i t l t A ' r 7 l r ' r ' s I r r l r - ,t h a t t l t c t i n t c s r r r t : i t r t h c s c s q L r i t > l i c i r t c (rzrz.r.r uryl /)it i, /t/t,/ irrl rrs silt'rrt trs ,\'c.;t,/ntt ltirtrsr.lf in Yt't ' n r t i r ro 1 - t l r tn r ; jrr i r r r r c so 1 ' t h co r b i t s . l \ u L 1 1 a 1 1 l , h r r i r l s ol x , r , r . r rl y t ' s p c c tt o t l t t c r r r s r ' : u ' l r i c h r l i g l t t L t r t r i c r l t ' f o r c t sv l r r v i n g i n t h c l c r l t o t l r I r l L r l r ) i I r r t lc r ( ) l ) o r t i o t l r f a n o t h c r t r a i r , o f r c t r s o n i n g , l ) rlrtio of tlrt' invcr:t' :(llnrrcs. tuunclr'.lrl con.irlcring thc forcc of thc sun as an entfinatioll, ,l/d( /,(ut)'/t/, u'ho u'us rL fricnrl irn<l rlisciplc of ,\'tzt,lott, l u ' h i c l i r r r r r s t r c r ' o l l r c r o r c f c c l r l ci n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h c i n c r e a s c c l n sin's ol'his grlrt lrllstcr: uI]c lirrnirl hc t.ls not irlrlr',1-ronr s l r h c r i ti r l s l r r fi l ( ' ( 'o v c r r r ' h i r : h t i s c l i l f u s c d , r n d t h e r e f o r ei n t h e i i c x p c r i r n i . n t l r n < l o l r s c r r . ' a t i o l t ,t o g i r - c a s l t i s l l c t o r v i t t ' r ' o r r n t o f invcrsc lrrolrrrrlion o1thc srluitrc of thc distan ccs. (Bu/lia/dus, t h i s ( s L r l r t i J c r r . t h c r i r r l )r n c < l i u n r , l r r r l t h c l n l n l t c t - o f i t s o l t c r - r t t i o n , r i n r 6 - 1 < l.r r r r lr r s . r ' : ' t t ' t h l t t h c f o r r : cb y r v h i c h t l t c s u n , p r e h c n c l i t rl in prorltr<'ing thu chicf phcrronrcnrrof nirtrrrcrr. (r\<'c.orrnt f thc o c t l r ; r r ' l r i r g r r tt';.r k c s l r o l < lo l ' a r - r r g r a l ) p l c s t h c p l a n c t s , m u s t b e l I'lrilosolrlricrrl I)iscovcrics ol- Sir /sttrtt,\'rzt,/ott, Lonrlor.r, r r s t h c i r r v l r 5 ( ' s ( l L u l r Lrr) f t l t c r l i s t l " n c g . ) I n t h i s v i e r v o f t h e r 7 . 1 S ,p . r r l . ) lnu l l ('r, Jroucvt'r, thc clifficrrlty \\ us to dctcrrninc tvh:rt u,ould - , \ r ' r ' o r r l i n g ) r ' ., , r s/ \ - ( z t t / o n r . o u l r l n o t n t i rl i c o r r t . t l t c n l n l t c r l r c t l r t ' r r r o t i r i no f i L b o c l y a c t c d o n b v s r . r < : h :flo r c c , r v h c n t h c o1-tlrc opcrirtiorr of tht' irnprrlscs ()r \\'ll\'('s in tlrt' rrt:llrt'r, to 'l'hc orlrit is rrot cirt:ullr, but olrlong. irtr.cstigation f this o r r ' l r i tl r l r l i r s t ' r i l r l r l g n r v i t r r t i o r r , r r n r l ( , r z z z . r i. ti n t l J ) t r i t / t / r ' l h l r v c ( ' l s c \ \ ' l r . s : r t r o l r l c : r n ' h i c h , w c c a . nc l t s i l r '< ' o n c c i v cn r u s t h a v c u , l t r c : r t t ' r l a l n r o s t u ' h o l l l o f l l r t g c o r r r . t r i r . r r l r . o n s c r l L r ( ' l t ( . c s1 -l i r s s o r r p p e l r c r lo f r . c r y l b r n r i r l a l t l r c o l l l ) l c x i t \ : u . h i l c i t r v a s u n s o l r , c c l , : ol- tlrr' \r'u tolti:llt tvl)(', / nuu'1t2, r.r'l lrrrvclt()t lllt(.lll)l(.{il() rrrrrltlrt' lirst ol'it.s kinrl. r\rcor<linglr-,//tt//c.t,,as his biographer i t s s i t { t t l r c P l t v s i c l r lc l r t r s co i ' s r r r . l t o r r . t . s l t l l l t u r ( . , t l l r t r r r r s o l r . r ' r l l i 'linrling sirvs, l t i r n s c l fu n u l r l c t o r n a k c i t o u t i n a n y g e o r n e t r i c a l p r o l r l c n r o l r v i o r r s l v r l t ' s t ' r v c ' s i n r . r t ' r r s c ' r li r t t c n t i o n . I.o:. il' rr rvirr', first. rrpplit'rl to -\,1 //ooAc anrl Str Clri.rlofher Wrett, r. c a r c f u l a . n i r l v s i s s l t o u l r l < l r ' f i n i t r ' l r .r l i s r . l o s c t h c r . i r u s c o l ' g n . r r l l n r l n r c c t i n g u , i t h n o a s s i s t l l r < : fcr o r n c i t h c r o f t h c m , h e r v c n t t o l l t r v s o f n i l t r r r c , h c r c t o f o r c h i r l , l , . n l r , , l l r n r ( r r t l r l r . \ ' ( .t j ) r < ' t , n t r r r i c s , ( ' r r r n l r r i c l g c n r \ r r g u s t ( r ( > , 3 4 )t,o ] , I r . N e z u t o t z , h o s u p p l i c d i w t h c r c s u l t r v o r r l c lI r c o n i n c n t l r . l ' o r t h r - o f t l r c n r c r l i t r r t i o r r r i 1 - t h c h i r r f i r l l v r r ' i t h r v l r r r th c h a r l s o a r c l c n t l v s o u g h t ' . ( gcomctcr! r\o triunrprh could lrc rnorc *.clcornc to ir pltilosoltlrcr 'l'his rt'corrl of tlic carll' history of the law of thc inversc o c i ' u p i e r l $ ' i t h t h c o l r s c r v c r l o r ( l c r o 1 -t h c h c t r r . i . n s r s(luilrcs shrtn's llltt thc dcvclopment of it cxtended from It lrirs lrccr-rcustonrrr\', frorn thc tin'rc of tYcz,,/rut, lt.t a s c r i l ) ct h c g r a v i t a t i o n o l t h c p l a n c t s t o s o l n c l t o we r c n t . r : r t i n g Ilullialdu.t'l'orl< of rf)4.5to thc confirm:rtion and general proof n f r o n r t h c S u r . r , u r r l t C ri n t a g i n c t h a t a s t h c a r c i r o f t h c s p h c r c of thc lrrrv ir.rthc Principia, r687, where Nezaton first shorvecl i surfaces in sltircc inr:rcascs oLrtri.lrclly clircctll' us thc srlultrc t h a t i t c x p l r r i n s t h c n r o t i o n s o f t h e p l a n e t s i n c l l i p t i c a l o r b i t s , of the distant'c, thc intcr-rsitr. thc in1'lLrcrrcc of controllirrg thc as s'cll as thc ntotions of tl-rccomets in thc thrce conic sections. rnotior.r thc yrlanctought to dcc.rclsc rr'ith incrcasit-rg of clistancc II//tcit,Lll'scitation of lIa//e.y's eariy vicw that gravitation r a t i o o f t h c s ( l u r r r co 1 - h c r l i s t i r n r . c s . t is :trr t.r'ranrr.lion, anrl tltclcforc clccreascs rvith thc gconrctric:rl ll !\irlt:l:: r r r r r i . - t r . l c g * r p h r . ,. , g n . t o - o l r t i r . s , l n r l o t l r c r l r r a r r . h c s o f t l r h l s i c s : s < ;t h r r t p c r l r a p sl i t t l c r l o L r l rs . i l l c x i s t i n t h c n r i n r l o f ; u r r - c x p c r " i c n t ' r . < li r t r r r i r l p h i ) o s o p l r c r t l l r t t l r c r c l r l c l r r r s co f n g r i r v i t l t i o r r i s c o r r c , r ' t l vr s s i g n c r l . l Y c t . i t r r r l l r t : l ' t ' l l t o t , l t r r - i r l i r t ch c r l i s r . t r s s i o n t i l l t s
r) Tlris original rvith Ifuy,g/tttts'autogrrrl>)r (l)our lIonsicLrc Neu,/on) still plrinli' copr', l)rcscnirtior) rr.riter.slillrarr',-.itconiirnlatorr'l.ircttnlstancervhiclrincrcascstlrchisloricalirltt-.rest t o t h c c a r l i c s t f o r m t t l l t i o t t r ' f t l r , l L r s ' ' r f t h c i n v c r s t : s q u a r c s . ( N o t e r t l r i c c l J u 1 1 ,z , r9:-5.) 27, Iceilrlc, is no5. in tlrc

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exl)ansion of . the sphcricrtl surfaccs ovcr rvlticl.r it is diffusccl, I r s u ' c r c c c r l c l - r o r nt l r t ' S r r r r , i s i r ) r p o r t ; n r l , s i n , ' c i t r h i s p c r p l c x i t r ' , as to thc lrrs' rif niltrrr(', hc lisitcrl -\'rzu/o,t rrt ('lrrrrlrri<lgc, Augrrst, r 63.1, rurrl thcn inrlrrcccl that grcat philosoplrcr to prcpirrc thc I'rincipil, r6S6, as finirllr'publishercl at /1a//t-v's I p c r s o r r a { ' \ ] ' , ' l t s . . I ( ) X -. I t i s c l o r r l r l r -g n r t i f f i n g t o f i n < l t l r l t t h c v i c r v s c t r t c r t r t i n c r l l*' 11a//t,v rrntl .\'tzt'/ott,'as Il/Iczuc// cxpliLins, arc jrrstificrl -: r l r o v c r r l l , l r c c a u s c r . r t t r l c rr : o l t t r a c t i o n t l r c c r o s s s c c t i o n s o f i L l l s ' n v c s r c c ' c t l i r r gf r o r n a ( ' c l r t r c l r r e n o \ \ ' s h o r v t . t , l r v n c r r - i l l t r s t r i L t i o n s . t o f o l l o s ' r i g o r o t r s l r - t l t c l i r u . o f t h c i n v c r s c s ( l u r t r ( ' s .( l n r v i tation thcrclorc int'otrtcstrrlrlf is rr *':ti'r'-lrlrcr.totnctron! C ) r r r c o n r ' l u s i o n i n c o n l i r n r i r t i o r r o 1 -t i r c u ' r t v c - t l t c o n ' i s t h t ' ' r r r o r c s r r t i s f r r r ' l o r t s,i t r c t ' i t i s s h o s ' t t r t t h r c l o s c o f t l r i s l r i r p c r , l h l r t t l r t ' t l r c r r n - o { ' r r l t r a - n r r r r r r l r u rcco r l r t r s c l t ' so, r i g i n i L l l t ' P r r t lirrtlr lrr' la/io lt J)ui//itr. rrttrl .'\lrirc I'art,qnott, rrl-tcr conrl rrLrniclrtion s ilh r\ r,;i,1ari,rrrt rc-itrvcntctl hulf a ccntr.rry liLtcr lrr'-/-r,ta,g,'o1-(lt'ncvrr. rrrrrl prrlrlishctl lty /)rci'o.r/ lLt I)uris in

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s'lrrrrsr: l)ut I:,, * ' n , " n i s t h c s i r n p l c s tc a s c . 'l'hc r. casc rvherc n:r, t rcctangular hvpcrboll. If , r 3 r 3, is I)('nrln('ntlv ovcrtlrrou-t.rlrv dcfinitc critcria o1'rurrlottlr.fl.- r \\'c finrl _r,: r/r, arrcl thus the curve obviously is a rcctt c r l v a l i r l i t r ' . I I c n c c t l t c w r l v c - t l r t ' o r y a l o t . t t : u r ' , ' i v t ' s ,i s s r r f f i r ' i t ' r t t ' r r r g r r ) r r r s h 1 . 1 r c r l > orlc f c r r c d t o i t s a s y n ' r p t o t c sI.t p a s s c s h r o u g h a t to cxplain rtll phctronrcnu, an<l thcrelilrc, irttilins ir conrplcte ' t h t ' l r o i n ty ' ( . ^ ' , 1 ' ) - y ( t , t ) , a n d i s s h o r v n i n t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g I triunrph I f i g L r r r : ' l r r t cI I , l r v t h c l i n c t h r o u g h t h c o o i n t r z r v h i c h i s s y r n LjnfortLrrrrtclv iLt tlrc l)rcscnt tirnc it irl)pctrs tlrrt vcrt' n r c t r i r ' ; r lu ' i t h n ' s p c r : t t o t h c t r v o l x c s .
fcrv astrononr('rs or gcoln(it('rs havc lrccn trait-tt:tl to lrxrl< r.rpotr t h c c t r r s t ' o f r r n i v c r s l r l g r r r v i t i r t i o n l s t l i s < ' o v e r ; r l r l c ,u ' ) r c r c i r s i t

s c l n r s t l r r t l l r i s r l i s c o v t ' r ' r ' i si r t t l r i n i r l r l ci r l o r r g t h c v c r v l i n c s o 1 irttrl rl;rllr'rn;rlicrr.lirrrlrrirv consirlcrr',1 1)l()s1 t'rptrinrcllirl srritrrlrlc ltv //,r//,.t';rnrl Sir /.tttr .\'tit,/rtrz, r(rS.1. . \ r r r l i 1 -l l r i ' r ' l c l r r r , ' r ' , r g t t i l i o no 1 -t l t c r ' : t r r s c l ' g r ; r v i t : r t i o n o s l r o t r l r l t t t r r l i , ' i 1 p r , t s i l r l c l i r r t r s t o r t s t ' r ' r t r t i tttl t t ' t ' t ' l t s o n l i r r t l r t ' < ' t ' l e l r r r r t c t l l t t ' o r t ' r ' n sr l i r c o v l r c r i b . t ' / . a y ' / o c t : , r 7 7 . J , t l ) l t t ( ) t h ( ' f r r s t l l o r v t ' r o 1 -t l r t ' t n l t s s t s t h c t n : t j o r l t x c s r t t r t l n t c r t n r r r o l i o t r s o 1 t h c p l l n c t s r n t ' i n l r r r i i r l r l c , r r t t r l t h r : s i n r i l : r r l r c l r r r t i l i r lt l r t ' o r o r r < l i s c o v c r t : t [ 1 > , t 'l l t i . r . r o n , t S o S , t l r r t t t h c c o r r s l . r r t . t c r - o l - t ] r t ' s t : C l I t t t r ' t t l sl t o l r l s : r l s o l o l l t r ' : r ' r ' r r t t rJ l r ) \ \ ' r ' r0 f t l t , t r t ; r : . r ' . l i l\\',,

: . I l i r v i r r g f ' o r r n r lt h c . g c o n - r c t r i r : a lc p r c s c n t a t i o no f t h c r l i r n , t i r i r r . r ' - r . r . r ' ,\ \ ' c l l l t L r r l r l l v c x t c n d t h c i n r l u i r l t o o t h c r 'l-hc i n t c g r , r lv l l r r r ' . o 1 - l r c ( ' \ l ) o n c n t , , i ,r I n ( l t h r t s t a k e z : z . t ( ' i l s (/ / o g i l l s r ) r )( r t r \ ' ( ' .l ) l r t o n l v a h o r i z o n t l r ll i n c t l t r o r r r l ht l t c p c , i n t , , r l . r ; r r r r l r r t v l r c t l i s r n i s s c t lf r o n r c o n s i < l c r r r t i o n . l l r c l i r r r c t i o r t _ r ' - r , / . r . '.:[ - A t l r ' i s s l r o r v r tb v t h c n c x t c crrrvl tltrouglrtlrr'Poinl /, rvhi<:h uts th;rt of t': rl.t in sucltir s t r v l l r r r tl o r l i r l t r c so f , r ' g r c a t c rt h a n r , t h c c u r v c i s : t b o v c t h c r c c t : r r r g r r l r hrr ' l r c r b o l r r c f c r r c c lt o i t s a s y m p t o t c s , n r l f o r v a h r c s r a I t ' s st l r r u r r . i t i s l r r ' l o u ' t h c r c c t a n g u l a r h v p c r b o l a . t . q . I n ; r s i r n i l : r r r l r i L n l r c r h c f r . r r - r c t i o n: A 2 l F : l / r 3 i s ),

t h c o r c r r r s r v h i c h u ' c t r o n ' g c n e r i r l i z c t o i r l l J ) o \ \ ' c r so f t l r t ' r r r i r s s c s , s h o u n l r v t l r t n t ' s l . l i n c i n c l i c a t c di n t h c c l i a g r a n r . T h u s t h i s l, f s o t h r r t \ \ ' ( ' l n i r y r l c c l l r r c t l - r c a l r s o l r r t t ' i n v r r r i i r l t i l i t lo l - t l r r ' l t l l r r r c l : r r t ' c t r r l t ' i . t i n r i l l r r t o t l r r t t o f - t , - r , / . r t 2r u t r v i t h t h c c l c p l r r t t r r cr o m l t l l l r c r t c l i r n g r r l i r r r r ' p t ' r l r o ) in r o r c a c c c n t l r a t c t l . A c u r v c - r , : r / . x 4 r t x c s : r n r l r r r t ' l r nr r r o t i o t t s ,s o l o r t g l L st h c r r r r s s e ' s r r c i r r v i r r i l l r l t ' t l r c o r r t c o r n c r v o u l < l l r c t l o u l r l v i n t c - r c s t i n g t o r r l l i r r l t ' s t i g r r t o r s r r ' r i r r l t l r r ' \ ' ( ' t l l r o r ( ' s r ' P l t r r r t cfrrl o t t r t h e r c c t a n g u l a r h y p e r b o l a , of thc georrctn' ril-lltc ht'rrvctts. lnrtl so olr, .r/: .5, (), . . . . . /i. It is sclrrccll' rvorth rvhilc to \o y r r o l r i c r l c o r . r l r ll r c n r o r c r v o r t l t \ ' o f t h ( ' ( ' o l r l ( ' l r p ) r t l i o t t

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n o l - l r s t r o n o r r r c r ls n t l n l r t r r n r lp h i l o s o p h c r s t h a t r t h c < l t ' r r r o r r s t n r l c r l r c s r r l t i n g l - r ' < r ri r rt ' r c a s i n g z , f r o n r ) t : r , t o t r : 4 . r ( - l r u s t . o l ' t l r r ' 1 ' o r c c o r r r i - l r i r ' l tr h c o r r l t ' r r t n r l s i l r l r i l i t vo l ' 1 h c s I l ' r v t . t , x t . t : n r tl h i s r c a s o n i n g t o h i g h e r v a l r r c s o f r i , 1. t r t r i t ' t ' r s t 'r l t p c n r l s . r v t .l l r r r lt l r r r t ,l l r t ' r r r i i s v c r v l i r r g c , t l l c ' f i r n c t i o n _ t : 1 2 l r " : r l { ,

Part I. An Investigation of the Physical Cause r i r p i r l l r ' ,l r s i l r ( ) \ \ : l ri n t h c r l i ; L g n L I r r .l t n r r . t s t c c o n c c i v c c la s b underlying the Forces of Nature which follow the v c r v l r ( ' : r r l \ 'P r r r l r l l c lt o t h c l l x i s o f . t ' , i t n r i r : l o s ct o t h c . r ; - r r x i s , Law of the Inverse Squares. ('\{'('l)t lr('irr thr' point y' (.r,r). Iior z: co thc t'ttrvc s'oul<l r c u t . ' l ' h r ' ( i c r r r n l t r i c r SIi e n i f i c l i l r c o f t l r c I , r r n < ' t i o t rc o i r r c i r l ti.n r l i r c r : t i o n ' i t h t h c i l x c s ,c \ ( ' c l ) t n c i r r t h e p o i n t 2 ( r , r ) . - I,t" t." .l' -- 12, . r,t' -t, /t2 . Iirorrr this rutsoning it rvill bc sccn ttrat a scric5 of
' \ p p l r r t ' n t l r ' i t i s r r o t g c n ( ' r ' l l l l \r:c l l i z c r l t l r r r tt l i c \ r ' u ' t o n i lrrr l l a * ' t ' r u . t r e c x l r r c s s c ' rrli g o r o r r s l vo t r l v l r v l n e i u r so f l L s c x t . u l r l c i n t e g r i r l , l l ' h i c ' l i t l r i i c s l ( ( ' ( ) u n to 1 ' r ' r ' t ' r vI ) i l l t i ( ' l c i n (' r r tl r o l ' t l r t ' : t\\'o irttrttctlnf{ n)asscs
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s. in linr.s nr;n' lrc rlrir11'n the planc (.r,-r,),for the function of thc firrt't' r',r n'ing rvith tlic inr.crsc po\rcrs of the distances,,f : l i o r -t l r c i n t c g c l s n . : r , 2 , 3 , . . . . / / , w c g c t t h c i s o l a t c c l /tlfr 'l'hc1' rlrc scl)urittc(l l>.vfinitc inten'tls rtt all r'rrrvt's shou'n. points of' thc lllrLnc (rr,,r,),cxccpt at the point of intcrscctiorr y' (1 .i;, rrntl rrrc casilv unrlcrstooclfrorn thc itccompant'ing figurc 'l'hc l i n c s t h u s i n t er s c c t i l t o l l c p o i n t o n l t ' , ! ( t , r ) , I r l r r t cI I . lrrrt lrrt: othcru'isc sl)rcir(l ovcr tltc plrrnc (r:,1,),rvithin a certitin

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r c g i o n S , l v i n g a l r o v q t h c r c . t r l l g t r l r r l r v l ' c r b o l af o r . r ' - r , to -r':co; and ltclos' the saicl hr.pcrbola .S' is the region for lalucs of .r,lcss thln r. 6. Nos'lct gcncral fonr o u r f u n c t i o t - t1 , : / t 2 f : r " l r c g i v c n t l r c n r o r c .rt+t ),_ Alf (.5,

rr. It apltcars that the expression for tl.regravitational forccs s'l.rir:hgo\.cm thc rnotions of the planets in their orbits, tratrrcll': f -- n nt',t'2t l-rasthe forrn hcrc trcatccl of, .f::,:/t2fr,':rfr2 (,o)

i f t l r c g r r r v i t ; r t i o n a lc o n s t a n t o f G a t t . r . rh : o . o r 7 z o z o g 8 r 4 , l ; e , t:r.l<cnlls trnitr-. s'hich wc can do in studying the function of thc attraction in il singlc s)'stcln. 'l'hc lirnr:tion of thc planctir-ry forces, ,f :.y: r z. : r/.r:2 thLrs corrcsponcls to a single line in a bounded /t2 r2 f trises:r.vhv is or,),:o.gg()g ,':o.oooo l , : o , , , : r . I ) l . n ) i r l i i n g rcgion of l lrlirnr'. ;\ncl tl-rc question natr.rriLlly to an r , , \ ' r l r l ' < ' o t t l i n r r o r r s lfVo i r r l , - o . t ( ) l ' . - r , \ \ - o s h l t l l o l t v i c l L r s l v Nl.turc's lau' rr.stri<-tccl this onc choicc? Arc: r.rot infir'rit1. . r f i l l i n t h c f i n i t c s l r r c c s l r c . t . u ' t . t1rh c c r r r v c s c o r r c s l t o r t r l i n g o o 1 - o t h c rl u s ' s p o s s i l r l cl r v a r n c r c c l r a n g c o f t h c c x p o n c n t f r o l n t z lo tt -f t'? i n t c g n r l v l ] r r c s o 1 'r z . 'l'hLrs r : . ( a ) l t i s c c r t i r i n l t . c s t a b l i s h c c il t y o b s c r v a t i o t rt l i l t t h c f i r n c t i o n o f t l r ( ' f o r c c s - 1 , : A ' 1 , ' 'i ' r v i l l l r c 7. c o t l t i n u o u ss i n c ct h c c x p r c s s i o l l ,.i = t l x " ' r ' . : c ' ,7 1 . r , 2 , 1 , , . . ? t . l t o i n t c q r i r l c x l ) o n L . l t t c t r r r c x p l a i n t h c p l a n c t a r ) ' l l o t i o n \ , , , , ' - o , , ' : I , \ \ - i i l l r o l r l r r i a r r r ' l r o i t r to f t h c r c g i o n u r r < l c r l i s - t'\('cl)t // - ?. < 'fhc cussiot't. s ' h o l c s c r - i c so f c t r r v t : s o l r v i o u s l l . i 1 1 1 ' 6 1 1 , 6 . , , (lr) It is curtain that no fractionirl cxponcnt, ,,:o, <lorrl>lc rrtrnrittion s : to r': r, rvill lrolrl for thc solirr s)'stcm. unless it is r,: r o . o o o o o oo 4 ( r , o r s n r a l l c r , c o r r c s p o n r l i n g t o t h c m o t i o n o f l l c r c u r l , . I , ' o rt l r i s v a l r r eu ' i l l c x p l a i n t h t : o r r t s t a n d i n g n o m a l y a S \ r , t . . , . , t ^ . ,* tD .z . t \ , r (6r _ L t l . \ ' t l . t itr thc nrotion of \'lcrctrrJ,'s crihclios, if 1ny slch anornaly p il o't o r c r r l l v c . x i s l s . ( r ' 1 ' , , \ . N . . 5 o 4 8 ,J r . r 4 3 . ) . 'l')trrs o v e r t h c s p i l c c r c J ) r c s c n t i n g t h c 1 - r r n c t i o r) ,r: I l . \ ' " . r / . r ' ' , r v l t i c I r4. tltc rcstriction f Naturc's Ilts.to thc integral o is outlincrl in thc :rlrovcillrrstr:rtion.I:or irnr'onc vuluc ofr', thc r . r u r n l r c z i s l n c r t r u r t r < l i n u r yl t h e n o m c n o n : t h e r c i s t o o s n r i r i l r l l r l r r c s o f t l r c f i r n t ' t i o n o f t l t c 1 - o t c c ss r c s t r i c t c ( l t o l l r o r i z o n t r r l i l p r o l r a l r i l i t r ' o n c o u t o 1 - r r l o r r b l ei n f i n i t y , t o a l l o u ' u s t o a s c r i l r c , y l i n c , r ' c t , / ' , , , , ,n r l r l l r c l r t ; n r r ' 1 ; o i n to n t h r ' l i n t ' . r ' o r r t ' s l t o r r r l i r r g I this rcsLrlt o t'hrn.rt't'.t is thcrcforervorthy of thc mcclitation " . trr riil-fcrcnt lrtt s ol lorcr' ./- /:! r" of-philosoplrtrs rvlrv lrrlrrrc lrrcfcrs su<'hrcstriction rvhcn a S . r \ c ' r ' o r < l i t r g l v l r t ' l i r r r c t i o t \ . [ : / t 2 , i" , o r - t ' ' = 1 , , 1 . r " . r , ' . r 'r' l o t r l r l ci n f i n i t v o l ' o t l r c r l i r r v sa r c m a t h c n t a t i c : r l l yp o s s i b l c , t r .vct is t'ontinuous ovrrr tlrc slt:rcc inclurlcrl lrctu'cen thc cxtn'rnt' u ' c k n o * ' l r l o h s c r v i r t i o nt h u t o n l v / z : 2 . r c a l l ) ' c \ i s t s . l ' l r c r c l i s l . c l c c i r r : Lf i ' r c t i o n , r ' - - - o , t n r ' - r . f ' h i s u ' i l l g i r - c l continuitv to thc frrnction bctrvccn thc intcgral valucs zz I , 2 . 3 , . 1 ,. . . , / - : . t ) . (--onsirlcl thcn tbc rlc<'irnll frlctional cxl)olror1. t',
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surfirccsol raclii r. irntl -P, drawn about a colnmon centre. stand in tlrc r',rtio: . r : ^ t : 4 7 r 1 2 ' . 4 nr t z S:s (Rlr)z $ ' l ) i l l { ' \ 'r l r c r ? : r r t t l z . ( Jt is truc, thcrcforc, as llalley conceived in August, r684, lrcfolc his visit to Neutton at Cambridge, which resulted in thc prt'pirration of tlrc Principia, that a geometrical emanation frorn tht' SLrnrvoulclbccomc cliffused,so as to decreaseinvcrsely a s t h c s ( l u l r c o f t h e d i s t a n c e s :y e t t h e q u c s t i o n r e m a i n s a s t ; thc phvsir-:r) n:rturc of this cntanation, and rvhy it follou,s a law t h c i n l t , r . q ' o f t h c g c o n r c t r i c r Liln c r e a s co f t h ; s p h e r e s u r f a c e . .1. Irr r\N 5o.+.+, 54, ljy rigorous reasoning, in rcspcct p. to rvrrlt's lrrocccrling frorri a centrc, wc find that the larv of r n r l r l i t r r r l t 'l i r r t h c s ' a v c s i s , 1 : A l r ; a n c l t h c l a w o f f o r c e , g i r - c r - r l 1 1 ' t l r t ' ; r r 'i1 r n o l - t h c r v u v c s ,u n d c r s t c a d v f l o w , i s r f:A2f i.2, tts c o l r f i n r ( ' ( i l x ' o l r s c r ' , ' a t i o nn t h c g r a v i t a t i o n o f t h e h c a v c n l v i lro<lics. It tlrus appcars that thc fornrula points to l:tlr2 * ' l ' c - r r r : t i . r r i l s t h c l a w o f n a t r r r c . T h c a n r p l i t u d c so f t l e \ . a v c s at rliffcrurt <iistunccs rc illustratedin Figure z, which shos.s a Itorv thc acthcr is churnccl up by thc increase of antplitudc tos.rrrrls llrc' t'r'ntrc, :urrl thcreby rendcrecl of heterogeneous ccnsrr\' 6_t, 1.. (rs)

r f
ll

,l

il
Fig. r. Illrrslrating rhc incrtasc of lhc lrasc in a Jrvratnirlal clcntcnt of r sphcrc surfar:c, at rlistlnccs r- an(l -4,. At a rlistanr:c l'-:r, 1hc clcmcnt oi 1he srrrfacc .!. 4.r, rrhiclr cx|rnsc of tlrc sp)tcrc srtrtrcc trrs inraqinc<l ltv 1/a1/r.1,,r(rS.1, lo rvealicn 'I'lrc 1lr( lrnirnirti()n of tlrc Srrn. rt,al lrhr.sir.rr) t;rson lirr tlris r rrcrrkt'ning ol tlrc crn;rnrtiorr rt incrc:rscrl <)islln<.c,lrorvcvcr, i s l l r c r l r ' < c r s c r i c r o s s s c c t i o n , L r n < l c rt l r c s q r : a r t : o f t h c a n r l r ) i t r r r l c r o1-tlrclrlt,s. slroln in I'la1cI alrovt:, nraking tlrc l.avc cncrgy lollo* lhc 1t*,.f-,/;tjyt, r ) o 1 " t l r f p L r r t ' l v g e o r r r c t r i r . ; r lg r o r r n , l c,risinall)' assignccl.

3. r\ccorrlingly, it appclrs l)y 1hc sl)hcrical I)ynuri(1 s h o w I l i n l - i g . r t h a t t h c s l ) h c r c s u r l a c ( ' i s r l u l t r l r L r l r l c r lt t l r c u o r i g i n a l c l o r r b l c r l i s t a n c c ; i r n ( l t h c r c fo r c t h c r v l r o l c s p h c r c

F i g . z . I l J u s t l r t r n g t h e a s v m p t o t i ci n c r c a s c o f t h c n m p l i t u r l c o f t h c s ' r r l e s t o r v a r d st h c c c n t r c , r v h i c h r c n d e r s t h c acthcr hctcrogcncous. Thc arrorv shou's the lrropcr motion of thc star crrrrving thc s'avc-ficld u'ith it.

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7. \\rc c:onrc thercfore to the obvious conclusion, tha.t if grat,it:rtional l-:tr.cs in tl-re aether be reccding.from the Sun, Lrnclcrstca(l\' florv - as they certainly do in the form of light an(l hcrlt thcn thc acthcr will rcact towards that cenlrc rvitl-r tlic forcc f -/t2f 12, trs shorvn for gravitation by Neutlott i r - rt . h c I ' r i n t : i 1 t i r Lr,( r l i 7 . (a) In ltaragnrph 4 above, tve show that the amplitude of tlrc u'rvcs incrcascs lorvards that centrc, invcrseiy as the nrrlitrs, .I - If r , lrrrcl tlrus tl-rc acthcr is heterogencous, rvith rrr'r' ol- llrc lrrop.rtics of un acolotropic infinite elastic solicl (.A-t'lt,iti1, vct rr:llll a rvorlrl gas in kinetic equilibrium. 'l'hc (lr) cncrgv of rl'irr.c action is as thc square of the i L r r r l r l i t u r l c/,' : / t 2 l r 2 i t s o l r s c l v c t l i n t h e l : r q ' o f g r a v i t a t i o n , . , a n r l r l i s c r r s s c tl l r o v c i r - r1 > a r a g r a l t h . 6 rur (r") ls sLr<'h r:rnanatior-r confornrablc to the rcasoning o l / / a / / t . t ' , , , \ r i s u s 1 .r 6 l l 4 , r v h c n h c r l i s c u s s c d l r c p r o b l c n r u , i t h t 2' 1 i,nt ?)2 1;t r'2.r f um zt'2 4,'r t , \ i c i t , / r u t l,i n r l l r r o L r g l r a.l r o u t t h c p r c p a n L t i o no f t h c p r i n c i y r i a , l 'l'lris or -,:. is ;rn irrrport:tnt qucstion, owiltg to 1\reit.tloisvicu, " , , :_ , . . j . , . : ( r.+.) r(rS6? t h r r t g r ; r v i t v j s r i r r ct o i r r i p u l s c s r v a v c s ) n t h e a c t h c r c a lm c c l i u m . ( i Thc kinctic cncrgy of thr: r'ilrrirting nrok:r:rrlcs rrrics v (rl, \\-r' 1t ns\\'(,rthlt thc rv:rvcsin tl.re a.cthcrhcre dcscribecl i n v c r s c l y a s t h c s c l r u t r c f t h c c l i s t . r r n c cl .l u t t h c v c l o c i t y v r r r i c s o l a l s o a s t h c t r n t p l i t r r r l c i n s i n r p l c l r a r - n r o r . rr r r o t i o n : t h c r r : f o r c t ' r r r r o s l r . n r I r i r C t l ! $ ' i l h $ ' h a t N c u t o t t c a l l c c l i r n p u l s c si n t h c , ic t o f o r t h c a t n l t l i t u r l c s ' l ' ; r r t d , . 1 " , r ' o r r c s l - r o n c l i n g t h c r . r r r i i i . , r r e h r , r ,; r n r l l l r l i r l l t l r c l r L r v f t h c i n v c r s es q u l r r c s , n t c r t a i n c d b y c to r j<nown sor.r-rc //,t/it.t'.;\rrgrrst, r6S.1,lrLrta.lrc:rcly a n ( l / ' " , s ' c h l v r ' , b t ' t r r l i i n g t h c s r l u l r r t r o o t i l t , r l r r l r t i oin . 1 ' : tirnc bcforc to ' r ('/11.1;/,tllttrll'rtn artr.ltYeru/on. , . t s l l7y ;'t ,,1 -) '.)' 'l'ltr' S. \ \ ' r l v r ' \ ,; t s ; t s l t ' l r r l r 'l l o r i ' o f c r l i r l l r t i o r r r l i r c . r ' t . r l ,l' .l','r" /!',". r/) i - r ' o n t l t r . S r r r r . i r r r t r ( ' r t ( . t i l r go u ' l r r c l s h i r t c c n t r c , f u l t i l l t h t t t r \ < ' t ' o r c l i n g t v c n r r p l i t r r r l c r s i r l r , r l i s p l i r c c r r r tl'rrc r . o n r < , . , lh o rt l r r u o l - t l r l i r r l r ' n r i 1 rr' r . r l r r i r c c lc o r n c t r i c a l l rl.x . ] ) l a t c I a n r l g ,.t i l l t r : t n t t r l n r , ) r { '{ " 1 r ( r ; l l l l l r v l i i g . z : r b o r . c . ' l ' l i c .s o l i r l a n g l t : .l -/r r 7, s t r l r t c r r < l c lrrl v i r i r o r l r -i r t i l n v d i s t a n c e i s 6 : 4 r r f n , w h c r c r z i s i r . r ' r vr r r r n l r c r c l r r c s c n t i n gt h c f n r c t i o n a l p a r t o f t h c s p h c r c r r ( t lj.) s r r r l i r . c ,r r . r r r r c r r . r ' l . h c r r . u l ' ll f S:s(Rf r)2, givcsfor a grcatcr rvhich is thc LLrvof tlrt' pr>tt'ntiirlfir-stuscrl l;y Iaf /orc in r Tllzs r l i s t : r n c t ' A ' , u ' : , 1 ; t f t z ' , t h c c r l u a t i o n : o ' I ? 2 : r , r z 2 , w h c n c c ( O c r r v r c s( - o r n p l i t c s < l c 1 . o f/ t t t c , ' l ' o r r r cX , 1 r p . j 4 S , , 3 . 5 : ) .' l ' l r r r r , t '= 1 4( 7 f 1 7 1 2 (r,) i t a l t p c . r s t h . t i f t l r . r t ' l r c u . t l r t ' r * r r ' c s 1 ; r o P a . g . t c r r i t * , : r r t l l v r v l r i . l ri s t l r . l , r r r r r r l r r o r t h r : s o l i r ll n g l c , i n 'l f l r l a _ co f t h c s u t . f . c . r : s , c f r o r . a n y ' o l c r - r r l . o f . , i l ( ' r , t h c r r r . P i i t u r l c .. r r ' l r x i r r t r r r . s i r l t ' l i q . r . r c l i s l r l u r : c t r r c ro r t t l t t . o s c i l l r r t i n g l r r r r t i r . l c s 1 -t h r . : r r . t l t c r . r i . i l i .f o I n t l r i s r i ' r r r ' .l ; r ' t h c < l t ' c r c r r s i t rs o ) i r l a n g l c , o n c c o u l t l g v l t r v i t t v t ' r s t ' l lvr s t i r r :r r r r l i L r sl -t l r c s p l r c r i c ' l * . r L r .s ,r r r l , r c r , . o rl t t : r l r i i r i n t l r c c n r L : t r r t i o nc n t t : r t l i n c < l l * , 1 1 o / 1 t : , ,A L r g u s t , r f i g 4 , 'l'lrc, t fi. ky t h c o l v o 1 't l t c i r r t r p l ir r r l c o f s t el r r l v u ' r r r , . n.r o ti o n t r n r l r : r l t . ] r r * ' . 1 - 1 l r . i r t ' r ' r . c , s ' l u , l r c ) . r l l - ( i L r ln o r v n t o l . l r r e t z l r f r o n r t l t c S r r n ' s c c n t r t ' l r c i n g t h r r s c s t a l r l i s h c t lo n r ' ; r l i , ig , . , , - i t t l ( l - \ ' t ' i t , / / ) ) t 5 ( ) n r ( ' I i r n c i l r . f r . r r c . , r n c t r i c u l : L n c t h t ' s i c r rg r o L r r t r l st, o n l v r c l n a i l l st o i n t l r r i r r , i n t o i 9. Ilrrt it is vcn- irnltortant to shorv that therc is a ll i t h t : I u r v o f c n c r g r ' f o r t l r i s u ; r v r ,, r r . t i o nr, r t a n l . r l i s t i r n i . t , . \ s i r p h l s i t ' : r l r r s u t ' l l l s i r g c o l l t c t r i c a l r v : r y o f l o o l < i n g z r t t l t c c x , p r r r t i c l c i n s i n r p i c h i r r r r o n i < .r r r o t i o n l r r r s t h c r . c l o c i t r , plcssion lirr thc s{luirrc of tltc amplitudc of thc wavcs as lbllos's. Lct rrs rlrrt'ntl;cr tlrat thc amplitudc ,,1:lf r is tltc t' '=z;r i ) / t fr l r t . t) "ll/:('znf siclcnrotion rlt'lrictcri in tl'rc ltlane of tl-rewave-field shorvnitbovc irnrl thc cncrg' is in prrnLgnrplt .1: rrrrrl hcncc that the squ:rrc of thc antplitudc li = | i 7!2 2n ;,'t,t ' /'zf7'z 7z , . 1 2 : . [ - 1 2 f 1 2 i s t ] r t ' r c l r r t . i r , c o l i d i t n g l e o r c o n i c { r lc l c m c n t o f "ttt s t l t c c n c r g v l r t , i n g l r r o l r o r t i o n i r l t o 1 l o n t t , 2 ,r v t , l r r L v cf b r t h c c n r : r g r . t h c s l r h c r c s r r r l i r < ' t l o r ' o c r : u p i e d c by thc contnleting \\.lvesat of thc action in lnr.Lrnit of tintc, thc sirnplc cxprcssion i u r J :g r c l t ( ' r < l i s t l r r c t . 1 , s o t h a t : /

5. This rcsLrltis so irnportrrnt in shotving that the aethcr about theSun, unrlcr a stcacly fl6\\'1) of rv:rvcs from that centrc, cannot bc of Itorrtogct-tcoLts dcnsit1.,ltut r.r-rust clccreasc cicnsitl' in to*'ards thirl ccntrc of clisttrrbancc, orving to thc incrcasing anrplitudc of tlrc s'rrvcs.thiLt ri'c rcl)cat J):rrtof thc cliscussion, A\ .5o4.1, 5-1. p. Thc rlisplr<'r'rnott f lrny particlc of lr ntcrlium due to o rvrrvc ntotion, of ir givcn rv:rvc Icngth, is intlcpo-rrlcnt of tlic pcriodic: tirtrc, lurrl sir-rcc thc oscillatorv orltits of tltc particlcs arc rlescrilrccl crlual tinres,unclcl continuous ilorv of thc wavcs) in t h c s c o r b i t s u ' i l l b c p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h c c l i s p l u c c n t c l t to r o t h c r s h o r n o l o g o r r sl i n c s p e r t a i r r i n g t o t h c p c r i o r l i r : l r l t h s o f t h < : p a r t i c l c s . L c t t h c v c l o c i t i c so f t h c t n o t ' i n g 1 : r r r t i c l c l r c z , a r t r l s nt thcir rnass; thcn thcir kinctic cncrgics ri.ill bc rcprcscntccl b y 1 f t n z , 2 . I n t i r c s l r h c r i c r l c x p r r n s i o no f t l r e a c t h c r w i r v c s thcrc u'ill lrc no loss of t'ncrgl in frcc spacc; ltt:ncc ot1 two s u c < ' c s s i v c p h r . r c s r r r l l r . r ' so 1 ' t h i c l i n c s s d i . , t h c c n t . r g i c s l r r , . s c r l r r ; r ls, o l l t ; r l r l l l r ; r v l

rvhich is thc licll ]<nown formula for the central force of gravitation unclcr thc Newtonian law.

atrrr/-ttlr:

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rrt:r Sotrrlcr.t'tttnr

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(l) l'lr,cr since r85e it has been rccognized that thc ril Irisnt,tic Storrns<r observecl upon the Iiarth are associatc(l rvitlr thc rlcvclopnrent of thc sr.rnspots, and by sirnilaritl of crrr-r'r'sftrllorv tlrc sitnrc nrathcn-raticailaw. Thc iclentical c-rirvcs fbr thc tu'o phcnomena nratun:ci by Rudo/f ll.'o( o( /.iiriclr, rS75, lrrc fully 'r,crificdancl lrcl'ond question, no'w.for :1,/., rt ('clttur)'. o1't'hc auroril upon thc Earth is nlso pcriodic ancl t.b) lssociirtccl rvith thcsc cornrnotions in the Sr.rn, bccause it r o . I n v i s i l r l c c o n f i r n r a t i o no f t b i s r c s r r l t\ \ ' r 'r r i r l i r r x r r { i n t , l o l l o r v s t l r t ' s r r n r c l t r r v a s t h c s u n s p o t s a n c l m a g n c t i c s t o r n l s . a r , a a p o i n t o n t . l r c s v n r l r t o t i (t:i l l r g c l r t ,o 1 l l n y o n c o f t l r c \ \ ' a v c - r : t ) ' s , . . \ l l t i r r s r ' p l r c n o r r r r : n a r c a s s o c i a t c c l v a v c - p h e n o r r r c n ua n r l on frorn z r l ; o v cr l c p i c t r r r l t, o r - c v o i v c b o u t t h c c c r r t r i r li r x i s o l - t h c s ' r r v c - rlt.lrc'rrrl rrrovitrg u'avcs in thc acthcr, procccriir-rg ' l ' hthcc a cs r r a \ ' , s o l l s t ( ) g c n c r l t l c i n s p l t c c t h c b a s c o f i t t ; t 1 ' r ' r i t t g - r ' t t , ' : S L r n; r r r r ll ) r s s i n g t h c l , l a r t h r v i t h t h e v c l o c i t y o f l i g h t . r t h c n t h c c r o s s s c c t i o n o f t h c c o n c u t a n v r i i s t i r n < ' c r v i l l l - , c u ' l r v r ' . i n , i r l r r r t t o t h c c o t n t n o t i o n s i n t h e S u n c a r . r s ct l r c 'l'his t ' S i s t h c s r r r f r c co r r u l r i c l r t l r t : r t ' c c t l i n g r r r r p g r r c t itcc c i l l c t o t r c n r i r l c : t h c l t r ' l z r g n c t i c t o r m s r a r c r l L r t t o l r r o l r o r t i o n r r1 o l ' 2 f1 2 . ) n r \ \ ' : l \ ' ( ' \ l ( ' 1 ,l r r r r l<o n l i r r n r st o t l t t : l l L * ' ( r f r l t i v c r s l r lg n t v i t r t l i o n . g r r s l so 1 - \ \ ' l \ ' c s , o t l l n ] i k c o r r r g u s t s o f w i n r l , c x c c l ) t -tl hh it; l ' l t l l - t l r c \ \ ' l l c s l l r c r u . l i r r c x i s t , l s p o s t u l a t c ( 1 , h t ' r ' c< ' r r r rr c n o t l r c v r r c t c l r i c f l v l r l v l r r i i t l r l cu ' r t v c a c t i o n o r i n r l u c t i o n . c 7 < l o L r b t l r i r t t l r c \ e r v t o t - r i r n l l r r v s h o u i r l h r v c t h c l r r n . f : f t 2 f 2 . ( ' l l u : ( ' st l r c I r c c r i l ct o t r c n r l r l c , i t t r r l h c n c c t ] r c c v c l c o f t r c r n o r s corrcspottrlspcrfcctl]' to the c1'<'lcs spot clcvclopnrcnt in thc of \ \ ' c s c ' ca l s o b 1 ' t h i s i n u ' a r r l i n c r c r r s co f t h c r u r p l i t r r t l c : I l r , t h i t t t r n r l c r t h c s t c a < l y f l r x r ' o 1 ' \ \ ' ; r \ ' ( ' s t l r c r r t ' t h c r i s Srrr, rrs grrrlrlricallf illustratc<l by 1?udolf II/o/f , and otltcr , ,'t invcslirrttors. (' r r n c q r r a l l lr ' l r r r r n c ru l ) , s o t h a t l n c < l i r . r r ni l l r l r ( )ltr c i r o r n o g c n t ' o t t s , ' l (r') It hrs bccn l<nou'n.sinccthe midrilc of thc r9'r' l l r t r r r r r s tl r c o 1 ' l t ' s s < l c n s i t vt o r l ' r r r < lts r c c c n t r r ' , s l t c r c t h c l ('('ntrrrv thrrt thc lilrrth ctrrrcnts of our globe, which affcct thc l r r r p l i t r r r l c s: l l ' ( ' g r c i r t c r ; t h c r l c n s i t v o f t h i s l i i n t ' t i c n r c c l i u n r clcr'1 rit' statc o1' tclcgraph ancl cablc lincs, arc also rlirectlv t h c r c l b r r - i n c r c ' l s c so r r t u ' r t r r l l r< l i r c c t l va s t h e n r r l i l r s ,: t n < l t h r t s ' l s s o c i u t c r l r v i t h t h c s u n s l ) o t s , a u r o r a c a n t l r r r L H n c t i (s l o n l r \ . t t i t p r c s s c ss t t r r l i l i ' i n r r ' l r r r l o u ' l r r r l s h c c c n t r c f r o n r r v h i c h t h c 'l Irr rcgrrrrl to thcsc clcctrir: rlisturbanccs, Sir ()cor,qa/i11', itt \ \ ' l v c s r r r ( ' r t ' r ' c ' r l i n g . l r i s r c l r r - t i o no f t h c o u t l l o \ \ ' i n g \ \ ' l v L ' s , l i i s ' l ' r c i r t j - so n \ ' l a g n c t i s r n ,r 3 7 o , J ) . 2 o - +s, a v s c : t ' o r r c s p o n < l i n q1 o 1 1 r cl r r r i . / . . . 1 ' 2 , ' 1 2r,i ' h i c l r l r t t h t ' s l r r r r r t i t l c u ' l ' l r r - ' r ' r r r c ) o t c ( ) n n c c t c r l* ' i t h t h u n r l c r - s t o r n l so r u n \ r l i c c l t s t l r c r r c l l r c r l r r t c r ( ) g { ' l r { ' o ursr.n r i t r n < l c r: l c l r r l v i n r i l r r r l linos'n rlistrrrlrance f thc atrnosphcrc; ltut thcf arr: o o 1 - r r t t i v c r s ig lr i t v i t r t t i o nt.l r t ' l l r r v o f o t l r c l t I ) r c s s r r r (i's l l t c c i r r r s c . i n v l r r i r r l r l . t, o n n c ' r ' t c rrl i ' i t h c x h i b i t i o n s o f A u r o r a I l o r c a l i s , a n t l r r n r l r l i t t r < l c, ,I . - / t l r , f i c l r l i n r l t h u c c t r t r u r lf o r < ' .,tf: . / ' 2 l r 2 . u'ith :pontrurcous galvtrnic currcnts ir-rtl-rcorclinary tclcgraphl i r o n r t h c c o n s i r l c r i r t i o n:s r l r l r r c c icn r l c i r l i n gr v i t l r I ' l r r t c I I r l n ' i l c s : r i r r r lt l r i s c ' o n n c c t i o n s f o t r n d t o b c s o c e r t a i n , t h a t u p o n i l l r o v c i t r v o L r l r ll l r l r c a r t h i r t n i r t u r c m i g h t t : h o o s c f o r t l t c r c r n r r r ' l i i r rtg r c r l i s p l l v o f o n e o f t h e t h r c c c l l r s s e o f p h c n o m c n l , l s intcrscr:tingpath of hcr lan'thrrt ol anv cllrlc of tirc tr'pc \ \ ' c ( i i l r ; 1 1o n c c a s s c r t , t h a t t h c o t h c r t w o a r c o l r s c r v : r b l c t h c ( ' ' , r ' r r t t i r - r gh e l i n c a r i t r a t r y o n c o f t h c i n f i r t i t c t ),:/:2f v"'" n .r\rrror,r llort'irlis sornctin'rcs ot visilrlc hcrc. but ccrtainl\d n u r n l r c r o f p o i n t s i n < ' l r r < l cb c t s , c c n 1 r a n ( l r i v c t s h c r e s t r i c t s visil,li' in rr lnorc trorthcrn.latituclc).< h c r c h o i c e r i g o r o r r s l r -l ( ) t h c o n c p o i n t / , r ' o r r t ' s p o n r l i n gt o 'l'hc :. abovc disctrssion of thc sunspots, aurorac ern<l ll.- 2, l'- O. 'l'ltr' rnir!rrclit' stonns nncl ll:irth cllrrcllts givcs goocl cvidcncc tl-rat s ltctt lttt l r u c t ' r p l ; t n l t t i o t ro 1 't l r i s s c i ' c r c n ' s l r i c l i o n . rr u irvc-llt'lrls'ith v:rriablc inrluctivc action is passing thc i n f i n i t t ' o 1 -p o i n t s o n l l r t ' l i n r ' , 2 , :r r r c a v i r i l a l r l r ' ,l h u s l i r l l o r is gr-tcl ism of rvhich at tin-rcs l::rrt lr, t hr.'rrra shouki bc conspicuouslr' It l i r r c o r r t c s t r r l r l r - . p o i r r t sl o l l r c u ' r r v c - t h c o r o f l r l r l s i c r rfl i r r c c s 'I'his is rlcfinitcly and visibly dcnron( ) n l \ ' ( o l r ( ' o J ) t i o n i r l f r l l i n g t l t c t . r c c ' c s s r rrrrrr-t r ls r r l ' l l c i c n t r l i s t L r r l r c rilr s i r s - h o l c . I irs ll)c s t r r r t c r ll r l t . l r r f o l l o r v i n g p h c n o n r c n ar v h i c i r s h o r v s i n r u l t l n c i t r - ' : c o n r l i t i o n si r r , p c , . , ' illr v g c o r r t ' l r v l r r r i I r r ' l l r r l r ' l r s t r r t , l i . t u ' s o l - r r l t i o n i n : r l l p r t r t so f t h c g l o b c : c l l -n r r l r r r c l r ' r ) [ n t h c I ' h i l . ' I ' r a n s .o f t h c R . S o c .f o r r 3 9 u , t \ , I ) l a t c 8 , ( ) l r s c l v r r t i o n r rIl ' r o o l ' o f t h c l l x i s t c n c c o l ' I ' . c t ' t r o - I)roli.sscrrl{'. Gr,t,1/.s l ,'ldans hls givcn a grlphical rccoril of 3. < l v n l n r i r : \ \ ' l v e s l ' r o n r t l r c S u n , l 1 o o n u n < l I t l r r n c t s . s i r r r r r l t l r r c o r rrs i s t r r r l r i r n t ' c s t l - r em a g n e t i c n c c r l l c t h r o u g h o u t l of 'l'hc r . t t r t l c r t l r c * ' o r l r l . i n t h c g r c a t u \ I a g n e t i c S t o r m < ,o f J u n e z q , r 8 3 5 . r l i r t i t1 ' u r n i s l r c ltr v o l r s c n r t t i o nn r l . t 'l r t ' g r o u p c < l l 'l'lrr.plritc is hcrc short'n, rvith all thc scparate recorclsreducctl t i r n r . r r r l t c ro 1 - r l i s t i r r ch c i r r l i n g s ,l r u t t h c y s c v c r i t l l \ ' ( ' o l t f i n n t l ) c to (irccnu'iclr Ilcan l-inrc, and spcaks for itsclf (s. I'late IV). c x i s t c n c t 'o f n ' l v c s p r o c c c r l i n gf l o n r t l t c S t r n , l ' l o o n r t t i t l o t h c r It u'as corrcctly interpretccl for tl.re first time in m1' r h e i r . r ' c r t l iv o r l i c s . ]llcr:trorlr,nrnrir:\\rlvc-'l'heory of Ithvsical Forces, vol. I, r9r 7, l . I t i s f o u n d l r v o b s c r v a t i o t - ta s r c p o r t c t l i n ' \ N 5 r - 1 o , , pl).3.j-.i5,:rncl still furthcr vcrificd and extendedin the Ncrv u l ) . r 3 o , | o o t n o t e , t h a t l o n g \ \ ' i t v e s , l ) t o 2 o o o l t t ( ' t r c si n l c ' n g t h , ' l ' l r c ' o r v 1 t i r t '. , \ c t l t c r ,S c v c n t h P a p c r , A N z r 7 , O c t . z z , t 2 , l o o ' 92 rrctulllt' do conrc to l}tc carth front ccrtain srtnspot arcas: i r v l r i c h l a t t t ' r l r i r p c rt h c r c a < i e r s r c f c r r e d f o r p r o o f o f t h c c a u s c thirt is, irnrgtrllLriticsin thc I'lartl'r'sclcctronrtgnctit: u'ltvc-ficlcl o f t h c s c r r r i - t l i L r r n l tl i d c i n t h e m a g n c t i s r n o f t h c l l a r t h . in arc dcfinitclv associirtcrls'ith r:ornu.rotiorrs thc Sutt, ir-rciclort 'l'lrrr v i r r i r r b l ei n d u c t i v c a c t i o n o f t h c S u n ' s r o t a t i n g t o t h c r l c v i ' l o p n r c n o f s u l r s l ) o t s .O n t h i s p o i n t t h c c - r p c r i t t r c n t i t l t 3. ( . l i s o l c r * l t t ' l r n i r t g , r t t r r l i t l r s o l t r t t ' l vr r ' 1 ' o t t r lo 1 1 1 r o \ 1 ' r s \ 'n r r g r r t ' t i r : p o l r : s r r l r o t r t b c l l l r r t h ' s r o t a t i n g r n a g n c t i c p o l c s llror>f c x p l r r i n st h c s c n r i - c l i u r n atl i d e i n t h e m a g n c t i s n r o f t h e E a r t h . ^ \ l o r c o v c r ,t l r c l o l l o s ' i n g i s h i s t o r i c l l l v t r r r c : T l r c c n e r g v o f t h c s ' a l c s i s a s t h c s q u i r l co f t h c a n r p l i t u r l e ; b u t t h c c o n t r l r c t c ( lr r r c a o f t h e s p h c r c s u r l j r c c o n r v h i c h t h i s ttt snmc \\'alc cnclgv acts is also proportional to (.rf/?'12 thc r l i s t a n c c sr a n < l / 1 . F I c n c c a s t l i c c r t c r g y i n s ' a v c i t c t i o n i s i t s c t h e s < 1 u u r o f ' t h c a n r p l i t u r l c ,a r - r rtlh c c l e n r c n to f t h c s o l i r l u n g l c of thc sphcrc slrrfacc clr'r',on s-hich thc crontrlctcrl \\'{lvc lcts, n l i r l l o r v s t h r : s u r r r cl i r l y o f c l i s t u n < : ic v c r s e l ) ' ,t h c r c i s i l < l o u b l c p r o o f t h i r t t l r c l a u ' o f t h c i l r v c r s c s ( l u i l r c ss h o u l r l h o l t l t n r c i n l r i l t L r r L . .I t . r c s u l t s g c o r r c t r i c a . l l l a n d a l s o p h 1 ' s i c i r l l v l

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u ' h c r c 1 ai s t h c n r t g t r c t i c p o l c s t r c t t g t ho f t h c D a r t h , a n d / r ' t h a t l c o f t h c u n i t b r r l n r t g n c to r s r . t s p c r t r l ctc l i l ( l l c ,a n c ls a t t d s ' a r c t h c t < l i s t a n c c s o t h c n t a g n c t i c p o l c s i n o r . r rg l o b c , r t l c a s u r c t la l o n g the curvcclIincs of tlaguctic forcc. If thc magnctic action of thc Strn varics, os.ing to thc rclative Irtotion of thc polcs of thc Earth or Sutr, thcn the tcrrcstrial polc strcrlgth 1 rvill bc vuriablc, by in<luction, anrl s'c shall ha.vc lL tnrc tirlc itr tllc of rnasr-rctisnr the Iia.rth. (b) Thc nltgnctic ticlc thrrs introclttcccl rvill tirI'c thc form thcrcforc of rt t'vclical changc in 1r'rvlrich lrccorncs','irrialrlc r l r v a n r t t t o u n t I l i r r h r r l f l t l r t ' . A t : c - - o r c l i n gtl v r : l l i t v t ': 'a.+\ ( r 1 : r ' ) , r r ' 1 . r 3 - tr. p 'r, : i 1 r ' , t s ' 2 . ( I 1 = .1 r 'l'hc i r n a g r r c t i rt:i r l t : r v i l l p u l l l r r t t : l a n r l l b r t h , i n t h c l i n c f r o n r t l r c l { c d S c a t o l l r r c l s o t r ' sI } l r ' , r ' h n n g i n g i t s c l i r c c t i o ni l l p c r i o c l i c c l ' c l c s rl i k e t h c c l r l >a t r r l f l o r v o f t l t c s c a , t s ' i c c c l a i l l ' : f o r a t s t r c l t intcrvals arc thc Tiitrth's olrpositc Polcs lrrottgltt ncarcst thc S u n h y t h c I l i r r t l t ' sr o l : r t i n l t . of for In thc rvcll knorvn c<lulttiot-ts thc tirlal anal,r'sis our s c a w c n r a ) , p u t f o r t h c s c n r i - r l i r r r n atl i c l c : ' (tS) dI=..,4cosznl+Rsittzttt. 111'sinrilaritl', in thc rnagnctic ticlc, wc lrray ptrt (."6) 2,t r' .. r) ,,r- (( c.os / + f| sin zn t rtlrovc cqttzrtion in thc pcrioclic rr'c anrl hcr.rc:c corrlcl *'ritc tlrc lbrttr: r / : 1 t i s 2 . t r r - , ( . , c: o s z t /t + d s i n z n t ) \ 1 r ,+ ' 't \ (tl) r 1 - 1 t i . s ' 2 ' \, - ( r t c o s z nt + B s i r .z t t 1 ' 11 t '. t I t i s r t n t t e c c s s a r yo c o l n t t t e n t o n t h i s r c s t l l l . ,c x c c p t t o a it is onc of thc nrost irrrpr,'ssivc rgtllllcnts lor tltc s'alcsay theory of plrysical forccs. Just as tl-rcapproach of thc rvltcrs of thc tr'Ioon. lncl thc anti-lrtnrr our sea to thc yroint llcl-reatl:L point, is follorvcrl Lr1'1.uu ticlcs of thc sca t'l:rilr'. so also tllc lnovcmcnt of thc trvo Inagt-tcticpolcs of thc Iiarth. rttrdcr tlic rotation of our- glolrc. givcs risc to scrlli-rlir,rrnalincluctivc action in thc Itrirgtrctist.nof ortr glotrc, ul'rdcr thc 1;orvcrful itr-rcl thercforc to a truc scrtri-clitrrnal nra.gncticficld o1'thc Srtr-r, t i r l o i n f h c r r r e r . r r c t i s orfr t l r c I ' . ; r r t h . r 4. 1'hc \\rlvc-'l'hcot-v of Physical Ii'ortrcsr:otrthe Wavc-'l'hcor)r of firrnecl by thc l)iscovcrl'of r t t r l t l t c C lo r - r t - r c c t i o no f 1 1i r g n t : t i s t r r llagnetisrn, rvith Gravitrrtiott. r . I n r 9 z : I c s t a b l i s h c t lt l r e N c r v L a x ' ('8) r Ig :,i' (.r2sz -r r2f s'2) f

connccting nlrgnetism u'ith gravitation; and having sho$'n thiLt rnrLgnctisnris a rvave-phenotnenon,s'as able to declare clcfinitcll' that gravitation also is a rvave-phcnomenon. 'l'his infcrence is theoretical, or mathematical, t'et (a) confirrrrcrl l>y l7aradatls experimcnt of r84s, on the rotation of a bcarn of plar.rcpolarized light by rnagnctism. Thus it is rlcrlr,rccd nra.thcnrrrtically,but verified by most conclusive ltnrl trtttncrically confirmed in the magnetic and t'xpcrinrcr-rts, gr-lvitltional lbrccs of tltc Ilarth. (b\ If thc obsenations, prior to r9:2, confirnred the l)lsslgc lr1' thc lilrth of acthcr waves, some of them as tnttch i r s 2 o o o n r ( . t r c s r r l c r r g t h ,r r n c lt l c f i n i t c l y k n o w n t o p r o c c c d f r o r n <:crtlin rlisturbc<larcas in thc Sun, - this is all the observ.rtional proo{' ri-c coulti dcsirc for thc rvave-theory of gravitatiorl, * hich conlbrnrs to thc rvlrvc-thcorvof nragtretism, thc aurora, n r i t g l t ( ' t l cs t o r l r s , c t c . 'l'hc ll.*',f :pz1rz points tolvavcs of the typc obscrlcd: (r:) thcy arc shorvn to procecci front the Sun, and are thcrcfore thc solc clrrsc of trnivcrsitl griLvitation. Out of all the rvavcs prssing thc Iiarth only a fcrv rvill be obscrvablc, chicflv the irrcgular nragnct.icwavcs connccted with changing sunsPots; 1.cttlrc proof of thc fcrv cstablishcs the existcnce of the rvholc, irn<l thus of thc rvavcs of gnrvitation, through the magnetic rit: r'otntrotions associated rvith disturbanccs in anrl clr:t't t l r cS r r r r . 'l l r l r u ' g r r r r c t r tl r c t ' c o u t l i n c d g i r - c s c o n t i n u i t v t o t h e tt , t h c o r i l s r , l r r r r g r r c t i s n r r ' l c c t r o t l t ' t . t l t t l i t ' ls , r l l t t i l g l l c t o - n l ) t i\,, l r l c o r r n l rl i n q ; r l 1r , l - t l r t s c P h t ' t r o t n c t t tu ' i t h t r t r i v c r s a lg r a " r ' i t a t r 1 t i o n , i n 1 1 1 , ' ' ; 1 - , o i ' t l t t : l ' , r t r t l r ,S t r t r a n r l ) I o o t l , f r o l l r l v h i c h t s ' o l r r t t c r ' l r o r l i r ' . s c n r i - r l i u r n a l r r l i l g n c t i ( rt i r l c s r r r c f o u n d t o proccc'rl. l'lris is thc onll' possible rvay of cxplaining the nr:rlSctic ti<lcs of otrr globe, rvhich so grciltly puzzled anrl rriscrl Str (ito r,qc,'1ir,t,Sir Jo h n Hcrsc hc/, tt.ndDr. Fluntf lrey sr,rrl Llr5'd. rS7o. 'l lrc u'rLvchcory of tlagnctistn is so clcarll' provccl t :. in tht: \'ll. l'rrlrcr otr thc Ncg"I'llcorv of thc Acthcr, -r\N z t 7 , ( . ) c l . ) ) ) r t ) . 2 , t h r t t u ' t : r c c r t l ll t l t r t o f t l t : r t r l i s c r . t s s i o t r : / r r ' ) I n r r r g i r r c i < i j r r c c ni t t l t l i t i o n a l c c l l t r ( ' so f c l i s t u r b a n c e , r r , t ' , , 1 " , . 1 " ' . . . , r t t t < .l l r , , 1 2 , , 1 , r . . . , a l l i n v e r t i c a l l i n e r v i t l r t h c c c r r t l r ' . . / . , \ t r c l t l a k c a t l c l i t i o n a io r i f i c c s a b o v e a n r l l r c l o r '/ l ( ' , t s n ' ( " , l l " ( " ' , / ) " ' C " ' . . . . , R r C r , R " C r , l J J : t ( : t. . . . , t l r r r ' r r g l t s ' h i r ' l t t l r c r v l v c c l i s t r t r b a n c e ls l a y P i l s s . 'l'lrcn u ' i L v t ' sn t h c s n t n c p h n s c r v i l l c v c r y w h c r e i llrr (lr'i ' r r r r . r t l u r l ls u l ) J ) ( ) rt1r t c l to t h c r : t h c c l i s t u r b i n g c c n t r e s l l c i n g i n v t h c s l n r t ' p r r r r l l c l l i t t c , t h c u ' l v c f r o n t s r v i l l l l c c o m es t r t l i g h t c l ' r c c l in c s o l r ) 't l r c r r r r l . r r r l r r p p o r t f t h e s c P i L r l r t c r l c p c n d e n t l i s t u r b a n c e s . (r') \ou' inr;rgir.tc the oriflces brougl.rt closer and closer as rrrrrintu.inccl clistinct ccntres of disturbances: toecthcr, 1'tl wc scc tlrrrt lrclottd tlre linc ,BC, prolongcd in both directions, the wavc fronts rvill bccottrc quite straight in the centre' but rvill cr.rrvc arouncl rapidly oniy near the end of thp extreme orificc ,//' (l ' , Ji, C,., a.bovc and bclow rcspectively. This is cxactlr- rvltlt occurs in magnetism: the lines of force cun'e as conspicuoLrsly we approach the enclsof the magnet. aror.rn(l 'I'hc (cl) poles, in fact, are the centres of the reacting in thc nrcditrm '"vhenagitated by all the atoms vibrating strcss in concert, ancl crnitting rvavesof the kind here described. Thc

--<r*--.*-

+r9

Sonderttunrrrrcr

420

lines of force being axes of rotations for ti.reaetherons, as thc \\'zrvcs nrovc along, tltclc is it tcnclctl;y in thcsc lincs to shortcr.r t h c n r s c l v c s ,u s i n D o l l t t a u - ' s x P c r i n r c n t : t h c r c s u l t i s t c r t s i o n c a i o n g t h c l i n c s ; a n c ll s t h c y a r c o l - m j n i n r u r n l c n g t h , t h c 1 , tcnd to kccp stmight ncar thc cottrc of thc nragnct, lncl to crrn'c scnsilrll'onl1.t.rclr thc cnds of thc llrr, just. trs ilt tlic \\'irtcr-\\-lvc cxltclin.rct.rt lrt;ctvc rlcscribc<l frorn t\:czt,/ott's r l i a g r a n to f r 6 5 7 . :.'l'ltc rliitgnlnrs for ilhrstratiltg thc tnrc nltr:rc of r r r z r g n c t i s t ln r c s o s t r i t a b l c f o r t h i s p u r p o s c t h a t s . c r c p r o r l u c c r thcnr u'ithout furthcr conllcnt. Clf. I)lrrte I\r. 'l-hc cxpcrinrcnts hcrc rlcscriLrccl accunrtc rrnrl r.tn arc 4. b e v e r i f i c r l l r r - a < ' t u a l t r i i r l f o r \ \ . a t c r \ \ . a v c s ,u . h i r : h a r c s i r n p l c 'l'hcv :urd casill,rrnrlcrstoocl. c l i s r : l o st o u s t l r c t n r c r l t t u r c o f c l l t r g n e l i s n r .l i r r 1 1 , a o l l o r r r r g r c t s o l t s : f i 'l'lrc (rr) rcsults <.onforrr.r /)o/bcar's cxpcrirncnt, lr.hcrc tr> t l r c d v n a n r i c a l i n l l t r c n c c s : r t * . o r k a r c c r r s i l v r r n r l c r s t o o c la n r l , arlmit of l)llt ',nc irrtcrlrrot:rtion. 'I'hev (b) arc r.crific<lin thc ar:tuiLllnovcnrcr-lto1-s.:rtcr, thc s'avcs of s,lrir:h niso hln.c tcnsion :rlong thcir a.xcrs anrl tcnrl t o s t r a i g h t e n t h o n s c l v c s t o : r r l r r x i r r t u n ti n t h c r o t a t i o n l r l nrotion of thc filtnlcr-rts :rlrout thcir lrxcs. .f : .J crr
t29)

.5. Thc u'a.vc-theory of gravitation is also strikinslv r:onfirrnccl. thc closc a.grccmcnt of the calculatccl s.ith ihe lry olrscrvcrl yrcriods in tl-re li'luctuatior-rsof thc I{oon's mc:tn rrrotirrn. cstablished lty Arezucortt0,r909, aftcr rcsearcltcs cxtol(lir1s ovcr 40 ycars (cf. AN 5o4.Spp. r55-r6r), and irv , thc sirnplc cxplnr.rationgivcn in thc Ncrv Tl.rcory of thc Acthei, II. I'rr1tcr,AN .5o.48, r43, of thc srlall or,rtstandinganonralv p. of zli" pcr ccrltury in the progrcssion of \{ercury's perihelion. '['hcrc is no othcr cxp]anation than that hcre citecl of thc Iiluc'trrations of the Moon's rncan llotion. \{orcovcr, thc thcorv of thc burdir-rg of the waves in passing through thc. Ilarth so {rs to partlv release thc N{oon, is vcrificd lrv thc t h c o n ' o f i i g h t , a n d b y a l a r g e b o d y o f p h e n o r r r c n ai n r . r t l i o tclcgrllthr', shori'ing that thc waves travcl more slos.lr. in tirc glclx: than in tlrc air an(l frcc space above thc Ilrrith,:rrr,l thcrclrv thc ri-avc-front in radio tclcgraphy is bcnt riroun(l thi, gJolrr', cr-cn to tltc antiltoclcs, as in thc French obscn.ations of tho sigrralsfrorn llorrlcaux at Chatham Islancl, East of Nov Zcalantl,(cf. AN 53r7, Scpt., r9z4). 'l'he'I'hcory of Rclativitv has becn completclyoverthrown, an(l tltLls, orving to its ftrilure to account for the motion of Mcrctrry's pcrihclion - lrv postulating 4r" per ccntury, whcn only ?3" or less is availablc the wavc-theory alone holds its pllcc to-day. And as it corresponds to a sntall deviation fronr tlrc larv of gravitationf :mn'lr2, yielding
f:mm'lr"."oooooro46 (Jo/

on thc principle of Lcrrstr\r.tion. suclr irs Nezulon forcsar.v, thc Principia, r686, there can bc in l ] \ ' : r ( ' t u i r l c x p c r i n r r : n l , t S q \ , / ; a r a d a l , f o u n r l t h a t t h e no rlrrrrlrt of thc validity of thc wave-thcory, under ll/eber's p l a n c o f u b c ; u n o f p o l i r r i z c r l l i g l t t r r ' : r sr o t r r t c r l r v h c n p i r . s s e c l I')lcctrorlyniLn-ric I-arv, now cstablishcd as the morc gcncrirl a l o n g t h e l i n c o f f o r t c , t l r r o r r g h h e ; r r . 1 . g l i r s c r r r b o nr l i s r r l p h i r l c f o r t t t , , 1 ', \ ' r ' , r , / a a ' s- u w s, I : r n r l s i n t i l a r s u l r s t : r n c c sr,r r t r lt h c r n o r c r o t a t c r l t h c l o n g c r t h c (lcornetrical and Physical Interprc'l'his .5.'l'lic 1 : r c ts l t o u ' sr - i r . r r r l tt'l t : t t l t c t h c r * ' a r . c s o l ' t h e t r . p c 1>lrths. l:rtion of thc lilcctrodynarnic Law of Rio/ anrl h c r c d e s r : r i b c r lu n r l r : r l i c n r r g n c t i s r r r ' l ' h c r . r r r c to lrrovcrl ,\d1)a)/. r320. cxist lty thc prrrcticiLl cxpcrirncnts rvith n,atcr rr.lrvcs, l;r. r . /lio/ anrl ,9ararl's law of rSzo for the intcnsity of the J)nlbcar's expcrirncnt, on litngilrlc llo(lels, anrl by /;aradalis f i , l , l , r ' , , , r r;tr s t r ; r i g h t. r v i r c . c r l t : b r a t c cc x p c r i r n c n t o n t l r c r o t r r t i o r o f t h c p l i r n r ' o 1 ' I o J r r r i z r r t i o n l r ln tht' III. I)apcr on thc \cw.'l'l.rcorvof thc Acthcr, lrr-nrlgnctisrn. 'l'lrcrc js u o n c o t h c r c x l r c r i r n c n t r v h i c h c r l r r i r l l \ . s u l ) l ) o r t s . ' \ \ 5 o ; , ; , l ) l ) . 2 5 - 5 - 2 . 5 8 , ' c h r v e r l i s c u s s e dr v i t h c a r c a n t l t h r , : L b o ' r :r ' . n . l u s i o r , . r r . r c l v t h c n : r . , l r r t i o n o f - l f l c x i l r l c h o . 1 r i r ( ' ( ' r r r i\r'( t h c g c o n r c t r i c a la n c l p h y s i c a l s i g n i F c a n c eo f t h e l a r . s c t l o o s c l v o n t r n i r x i s , i n l h c l r p p r t n r t r r ( . o l n t ) t o n l r . r r s etto of /]i,tt trn<l,\az,ar/, r8:o, for a straight wire. It is shorvn b1,l l s o s h o u ' t h c c f f c < ' t s f < ' c n t r i l i r g i r f o r c ' c . \ \ r l r u n t h c l r o , , 1 , s 5 1 , u 1 1 1 ) r c c i s ri,r r r r r l v s i s f t h e k n o r v n f a c t s t h a t t h e o n l v a r l r n i s s i t r l c o l i is r t r p i d l t ' r ' l r o u t i t s a x i s , i t l r c c o r r r t , o l - o v i r l s h r r l t c ,l r t r l g t : r lo u t < ' o n t ' l t r s i o r r r r c t h e l o l l o r v i n gi s 'l'hc straight rvirc is surrounclc(l by a rvlvc-ficltl, ls (rr) a t t h c c r l u : r t r t u r t r l r l n r u ' n i n i r l t l t e p o l c s o f r o t u t i o n ,l i l t t , t h c r shrrrvnrtlso l>\ Oer.r/ed'scxperin-rcntof 18r9, for the a<:tionof rL f i g r r r c so f t l r r ' p i ; r n t t s . u l r i r . h i t i s r r s c r lt o i l l r r s t r r r r r , . 'l'hc c w i t v c s a r e g c n c r : t t c db 1 , \ o r l i r n r r g i r r c r r t ' r i t ' r o l ' s r r r . l rl r r r o p s r o r r n l r . rsl i c l c l r v ( ' r r r r ( ' n lu l ) ( ) nr r n r i r g r - r c t in c c ( l l c . r n frorn siclc to side, on nil s i r l c . l r n r l t i c c l t o g r : t l r t ' rr' r r u t r r a l l r;-r l o n g t h t : l r x i s . ' l ' l r , , r r ,r r , h , , i r thc srrrgc ol- thc clcr:lric clisturbiLnr:c t h c r o t u t i o r r r l c v r , l o l r st,h t : u - h o l t .l i n c o l ' c o n n c c t c r l h r x r p s u . i l l s i r l c s , r l ' t h t ' r v i r c , l i k c t h c o s c i l l a t o r ys u r g c o b s c r v c t li n t h c c s h r r r t t ' t -tts c l f . r r n < l c r h c c t : n t r i f r r g i r li b r r . c ,j t r s t i L si n / ; a r a t l a t ) s d i s c h r r r r l co 1 -r r l - c y c l c n j a r : l > u t a s t h e r v a r , e s a n n o t c x p a n < l i t f l l i n c s o J ' l i r r c r ' . I t i s i r r r p o s s i l r lt to i r r r i t g i n ( , r r r ) r r ,, . , , r . r r , ' i r r , . i nr.c c l r - i n t r i t l i r n c n s i o n r r s p a c e , b c c : r u s co f t h e i r s i n r r r l t a n c o r r s ' il origir-r irt t:r'crv point of thc wirc's cylindrical surfacc, thc p r o o f t h r r r rt l r L t l r c r c s r r g r c s t c r l . 'l'ltc crn onlv lle cylindrical in character; and hen(.c i r r g r i r n o t t h c r c c i t c r l c s t a l r l i s h c s h c w i t - \ ' c - t h c o r y f c-xpansior-r t o thcrc rcsrrlts tl-rc fornrula derivcd from observations lx, lJiot n r a g n e t l s l n l l l x ) n i t " J ) ( ' n r ' l l l t c n tl ) 1 r s i : j . r \ n r l r r s n r . r g n c t i s r r r i s c o n n c c t c r l u - i t I - r r i r v i t r r t i o n t h r o u g h t h c n r i r t l r t : r n i t t i r . l la u , irn(\ ,\'di)dr/, r8zo, n:rrncl\': g r: k Hlr of rgz:. '.3I/ ,i.tr) r : , , r l r ' i s 2+ 1 t1 t ' f. r ' 2 rvhcrc -/ is thc intcnsitT,,h tr constant, 11 the currcnt strcngth, r v h i c l r I < l i s < ' o v c r c b v c x t c n c l i n g G a u . r . r ' ( l c n c r i r l ' l ' h c o r y o f rncl z-thc rlistiLrrcc(c.t. /)iol i\nd S(tua/t, Ann. C h i m . I ' h y s . r 5 , d 'l'crrestrial llrLgnetisnr, r 833, it tbllorvs fronr this vcrificrl P . 2 : r . r I z o l . 'l'his nrathelnltio:ll tlrcorl' tl-ratgrrrvitrrtiouis ir tr.lrvo-pherromcnor].larv is vcrifiecl lty observation at nll distances r, i'lr) a s h e l d l t y , \ - c z t ' / o nL s l i r r l n c k a s r ( r 7 S . i rnrl iirr rLnv fl.rcd currcnt strength 11. It gives ,r curve of thc

+21

Sortclcrnur.r.rrrrer

422

following t1'pc, u'hir:h is a rectangular hypcrbola rcfcrrccl to I lfhis, rcnrlrl<able electrodynamic law of r8zo establishes its asynrptotcs. thc depcr-rrlcrrcc currcnt action on waves expanding abotrt of the cylindcr', in thc onc possible dimension r, and therefore thc irrtcnsitr. folJorving Biot and Sauart's simple lar.v of the invcrsc clistanccs. 'l (d) his lrrrv is cliffercnt from n.rost of the other lau,s of naturc, s lrich follorv the inverse square of the distances; but thc rcasor.r lirl it is rnaclc plain in a way rvhich admits of no ()nc intcrprctation of IJiol and Saaart's law is disputc. possilrlc, rrrrrlonJ1. or-rc:thc variation in thc intensity therefore is r clin:ct rcsrrlt of thc only possible expansion of the rvar-cs a b o u t t h c l i r c i r s t h c d i s t a n c ez i n c r e a s e s .
l

r\ singlc crluation clefincs perfectly a single unknorvn: f o r : r n l l i r ) u c s ,/ 1 , J z , I J , . . . . . . f , , t h e r e a r e t h e c o r r e s p o n r l i n gi n v c r s c i s t a n c c7 ' t ,1 2 ,r J . . . . . . . / a . d s 'l (c) irc ll.,v of l)iol an<\ Sauarl holds rigorously at an i n f i n i t r -o i -l r o i n t s . 1 ' : r ) . t ' : c n) a n d a s t h e p a t h o f t h e l:ru' tlrcrcl'orc is l true rcctansular h1'pcrbola referred to its asyntl)tot('s,thc yrrobabilityof this cvent, rvithout a geometrical r r n d p h v s i < l c i t u s c ,i s o n l v / : r ' c o . a 'l'ht. <hrrnccs are thus rigorouslr. infinity to one that JJiol lnr.l ,\'d?tdr'/'slarv vtould not bc verified by observation rtnlcss thc urrvt' tltcorl' $'erc truc. See section z4 for final < ' l l c u l a t i o n si r r t l r c t h c o r l ' o f p r o b a b i l i t y . 'l :. lrt' *'llc-tltcory confirmed by the form of arrangcnrent s.hiclr iron filings takc in the ficld about a straight rvirc. 'l'hc rrrgunrcnt for thc wave-theory deduced frorn the an<l .9auar/, Illzo, for thc I.'ig.3. Il)rrstrution of tltc larv of Riol rvonclcrfr.rllv sinrplc lau'of lJtot ancl Sauarl, r8zo, is in the intcnsitv of rr crrrrcnt in a straight rvire. The curve is a highcst rlcgrcc sirtisfactorr';'et if an independerrt rgurnent, a \ rcctangulrr hvpcrlrola refcrrc<l to its as-!-mptotes, I: I tf r, -t': t i . r ; a n r l t h c y r l r r s i c a l l r a s i s f o r s r r c h a I a w i s e x p l a i n c d l r y <:on6rnring the lrru' of Riot a,ncl,Sauarl ancl the u'avc-theory, l h c t c t i o n r > 1 s a v c s r c s t r i c t c d i n t h c i r c x p a n s i o n , a s i l l u s t r a t c r l j corrkl bc rlcrlrrr:crlfront othcr observed phenomena, it u'ould in frgurc 4 lrclorv. rl:rterially irrcrcasc thc proltability of thc rvave-theory as (c) In thc cxpancling cylinclrical surface about thc 'rvirc, rcprescr-rtingthc trr.rc orclcr of naturc. What do rve fincl pointing 1o sr.rchir-rclcpcr-rrlcnt confirmation? o l l t c c l c r n c t t t f s u r l : r lt i s (:') tl.r:<l/.rdot ( r L ) I n A N . 5 0 7 9 ,I ) J ) .2 5 9 - 2 6 o , F i g . z , P l a t e 5 , o f t h e ' s ' h c r c r l l i s t h c c l c n r c r - ro f l c n g t h p n r a l l c l t o t h c a x i s o f t h c l l I . I ) l p u r o r r t h c N e r r v ' l ' h c o r v f t h c A c t h c r , r v c g i v e a s i m p l e o t r cylin<lcr, lnrl r-rlro is thc prorlLrct of thc rlistance into thc i r n r l o b v i o r r s t : x 1 r J : r n i r t i oo f. r t h c c i r c l c s t a k c n b y i r o n f i l i n g s r c l c r r c r . r to f t l i c a n g l c c l n r ,s h i t ' h g i r - c s t h c c l e n r c n t o f t h c i r r c : i n t l r c f i c l t l : r l r o r r t r * ' i r c l r c a r i n g i l c u r r c n t . W h c n t h e c u r r e n t W h e n t h c i n t c n s i t l ' o f t h c w a v c - : r c t i o n flou's t'r<'lr )ittlr' frling bccor.r-rcs magnet; and the filings a arounrl thc rxis. rl1 thcrcforc lornr into conccntric circles about the axis of the thc other cler-ncr-rts dctrrcascsit nrust bc invcrsel,,' as r''l'lrct-rrct rvirc. lil<cthc rr-ragnetic ncedlc in Oersted'sexperir-uent and clr'r bcit'rg constant. ,rf rSr9, lry sctting thcir axes:it right angles to tht: rlircction of thc <:urrcnt in tl-rc*'ire. (b) fhis situation assumcd by thc filings, rrnclcr thc inductive action of the u'aves, rnakes thc north polc of onc filing adhcrc to the south filing, nncl vice versa. Tl.rus of thc ncxt acljaccr.rt thn filings fr'nn irrto rvinrorvs, or concentric r:irclcs, about thc axis of the wire bearing the .Lrrrcnt; ancl thc more the plate on which the lilings rcst is gently tapped, the more perfect beconrcs the circular rvinrows of filings. (c) Thc ordcred phenomena exhibited bv sLrchfilings on a plate of glass involves thousands, vca nrillions of small piecesof iron; they all obey tlrc t:ircula.rlalv, rvith the north pole of one joined to thc south pole of the other, and vice versa. z8'

:,J

d s =r a . . l l
Irig.4. anrl .S'az,ar/, in rvhich thc ua.vcs r::rltnot Illustrrtion of thc larv of Iliol cxpancl cnclsisc, a)ong thc r:vlinclrical axis of the wire, Lccause o1'otlrcr rvaves originating at cvery point, and thcrcforc are rcstricted to cxJransiorr Waves, undcr such rcstrictcrl in thc circlc r dtl, as shorvn jn thc figurc. cxpansion, arc thc onll-possiblc explanatiotr of this simplc 1av, I=hilr, rrhich thcrcforc bccomcs a. r'ery porverful argunrent for thc t'ave theorv.

423

Sonclernurrrnr cr

+24
2. It thus appcars that O/zz's iaw is a spccial casc of lliol itrtcl, ,Sauarl's larv of r 8zo. Tt is u'hat follos.s rindcr r.lrrialrlc 1 o t ' / ? . I n A N 5 o 7 , . 1J ) . 2 5 8 , t h c f o i l o r i . i n { - r , sulrllal'v of conclusions occurs: >(a) In Jliol anclSaztarl's larv rvc vary lhc clistancc, rvith fixccl clcctrornotive forcc, ancl obscrve thc chrrngc in the intensity: thc olrscrr.cclrcsult confirrns thc rvavc-thcorv.rr ; , l r ) I n O I n ' s l i r \ \ ' \ \ ' c a l s o , 1 , ' , ru i i t l r i r l ( rlrr('nt in lt rvire, or *'ircs, ancl s.lrcrr tltc t ' l e c t l o r n o t i ' , ' f o r r : c i s f i x c r l , r v c s t r r t l r . t h cl : r s c o 1 'n ' s i s t u n c c( , z l ) ,o r i n t c n s i t y o f a c t i o n ( / ) . r r t rr firr.rl rlistlncc,rvhcrcthc nccdlc of thc gllv i ln o l n c t c r r r r i r rl-r c l o c l t t c c l . < 'l'lrus irir') /lt,tl ;vtrl ,9ouorl's 1.:rrr, ll.itlt a f i x c r l s t c r t r l vc t r r r c n t , s c r v c s f o r c i t ) r . L r ) l r t i n g thc varying intcnsitl. lrt :uty rlistrurcc,in ruccordancc s'ith tlrc rcquirentcnts of thc rvrrvc-thcory. In tltc salrc way, Oim's lav, l'hcn ,// is constunl., lrut .rvith v:rrying resistlurcc, /1, scn'cs for calculating thc intcnsitv rrt li fixcrl <listiLncr:.r< 3.'I-hc trvo iiru's are brorrght into n r l r t r r i r lr c l a t i o n s h i y r s f o l l o u ' s: a ,>\\'c nur' *'riLc Bio/ and ^Saz,ar-l's liru' irr tlre forn I:/t'Hfr tnd Ohm's iau'in tlrc lbrrn'l:/1f1?.< rrAccorclinglyon corr-rbining thc two cxrvhich s'e ntay rlo by equating thc J)rcssionsJ irlcnticll intcnsity at any point, rvc obtain

'i'

I;ig. i.

I l l r r s l r r t l i o r o f : r r l , r q r t . t i l r r l r i r l r r l , , l r tj , \ \ i r ( ' . \ \ i l l r u r r v r ' l l r t o t r , , 1 t l r i - u l r i r l . : o n t ) r c r i 1 1 l r l . l ' , r r r ' l lri t t l r ' | i e . r ' r , l ' i r o n nrirglrr. rn,l liiilrg l,cconl(c a.nrlll 'l lr,' t h e l l u , r l r r r s n l o g c l l r c r l r v t l r t ' i l l l r ; l (l i ( ) n s o l t l r t ' i r r ' p p o s i l c I ' o l i . . l l l i n ( r r r l s o l r . r r r l l o 1 , , r n t s i n r , r l s , r r l r c r t t h c v r r r t ' r l i s t r t r l r c t ll r v L r l ' l ' i r t H . l , r ' , r r r s c c r c l r I o l e s l i q l r t l v r c l l e l s i t s r r t . i q l r l , o ro l l l r t s r r n r c | o l l r i l l irr tlrl ll('\l r()\\-.

lrrrr, hcn'fort'is rigorolrs rur(l alwavs fulfillcrl - rr tnlc t I : r r r ' o 1l-r a t u r c I \\Ic rnav cxl)luin rrll this or(lcrly lr]'rangclnontrv lssigl n i r ) f l 1 o l l r c l r c t l r t ' rl ' l r v t . s l o l r r t i o n si r r t h c p i r r n c t h r o r r g l rt h c ' 'l'lris. l x i s o 1 - h c l i l ' l r t ' r L r i n lg r c t r r r l tn t . l l a n r l t l t i s l r l o n , ' ,u ' i l l ( o u l r t 1 - o rl l r t ' o l l s t ' r v c r ip l r 0 n o n r 0 nIl r ' l ' l r c c x I l t r t l i l t i ( ) l r s :l( i u n i ( l u c ,l r l r l c o n l l r n r c r li l ' n r . r ' r ' s s l i irlvl ( l s l l l - f i ( ' i ( , ( t tl t ( l i t i r ) l t : : l lo i t i s t . h co n l v c \ l ) l i l n i r t i o n r o s s i l r l ri'u r ( l l l r ( ' r ' l r i r r r c crsr ( ' i n l l n i t v i l , l o o l r c t l r a t i t r c p n t s c n t s l ) ( ' t r u c l i r u ' so 1 ' n i l t L l r t . t

'I'ltc

It/{lr:lllll
:rnv vrrlrrt' // trnrl r,

or

K:rlR.

(.r+)
r33,]

l'l'lrcrcforclvc finrl on sulrstitutingfor rf its value, for /: r //i lt r: lll /i

s ' h i c l r r r g r r i rv i c l r l s ( ) / r r ' s ) a s ' , i n t h c f o r r r rr v h i c h h o l d s f o r a n y r l l x c r l r l i s l r u rrc . r r ' 'r'l'lrr.sr. tn'o lrru's thcrcforc t:onfirr.nthc wavc-thcory of thc cntirc Iiclrl tbout t rvirc bezrring a stcady currcnt. Ohm's thc rcsistan(:c and ( . ' l ' h c I ) r o l t e r I n t ( ' r l ) r c t n t i o n o f O I n ' s I - r r u . , lirrv inrplics t <:vlinclrical wave-ficl(l intcnsitv lrcing thc axcs of lr rcctangular hyperbola refcrred l 8 : ( r , a n ( l o l ' O r r - r l e d ' sl i x l t r r r i l r c l l t , r S r ( ) . to its irsvnrlrtotcs Riol anrl ,Saztarl'slau' i.rlsorcpresents a r . ( ) I n t ' s L u u ' o 1 - l { c . s i s t : r n c ci.L n ( l i t s r c l i r t i o n s l r i l r t o rcctzrngulur hr.pcrlrola of thc samc tvpe, but with /" r'arying r Jli',/ nntl .t./2,(1,'/ Lir\\' instcirtl of ./l.t I n t h c I I I . I ) : r p c ro r ] t h ( ' N c u ' ' l ' h e o r i o f t h c r \ c t h c r , -1.'l'his thcon' of nrirgr"rctisnr collfirlncd lty Oer-r/er/'s A N . 5 o 7 9 tl.) l ) . r i S - 2 . s ( ) , \ \ ' c h i l \ ' ( ' t o n s i r l c r c t l t h c g c o n t c t r i c ' r r l o i r n ( l I ) l r l s i c i l l s i g n i f i r ' r r n c c f O l n ' s L r L r v o f r 3 2 6 , t r u n r c l l ' , c x p c r i n r c n l ,I 3 r 9 . ()tr.r/rd's cclcbrlrted cxpcrirncnt of r8rg throws a. much \.).).'
theintcnsitv-1.rlrclct.trotrlrltir'cfort'c'iscr1rrirltoirrlotlstitllt-/1ClCilrCrliglrttlnthctlittrtrcofn1a8nctisllltIranIostperSonS

rlividcd lx. thc rcsistrurt'r'/1. Tl.ris larv is shorvn to bc iclcnticll rvith JJiol trncl ,\d7td/t's l a s . a t a f i x e r l d i s t a n c c : l r c c l r r r sic t s u ( ' h f i x c r l d i s t t r n t : c l t r , ' o n l t ' r t changc that rvill be felt rvill lrc thiLt clcl;cnclingon 1 or /1. \Vhcir the resistancc 1i is fixcrl, thc onlv charlgc rvill bc inciclcnt to changc of the electronrotivc forcc, -1. If 1is constant, a crhlllge mav occur lx' r'arving /1, thc rcsistancc, i1ncl\'ice VCI'sit".No othcr changcs are lrossil)lc at tr lixed distancc.

sul)l)os('. (rr') \\rircr-r thc crrrrcnt in the rvire flows, the needle sets itsclf at right anglcs to tl're axis of the rvire. If thcreforc rvc coulcl provc thc nuturc of the magnctic. field by some other J)roccss,as l)\' thc rvinrowing of tbc iron filings fornted on n platc picrcctl bv iL vcrtical wirc - the filings beconring minute nragncts rvith oppositc ends joined, in the concentric circles of thc rvir-rror\'\- then we should have good proof as to rvhy

+zJ thc nccrllc scts itsclf at riglrt lrclring tltc currctrt. thcorl (lr)'l'hc

Sondcmummer
to tirc axis of thc rvirc "ngl.*

426

T'ai<ir.rg tlrc cxpressions for two indepcnclent curves, the amplituclc :rncl 1lrc poter-rtial,we have: .-1:y:Alrc Yt:y:Mfr. (:Z)

of solcnoicls ancl of clcctrotnagncts nz|)rc 6rst rtracic a.rtificill vcrifie s tlris t'hcorv of Ilagnctisttt. "1 rrilgncts lrv tlrc rtsc of solcnoicls, in rvhich stcady r:tlrrt'ttts 'l'lris . , r ' r ' r cn r i r < l c l o f l o r v . t : o t t f i r r r r c t lt l t t . ' n r t t l t r t : o f s o l t ' t t l r i r l l r l n r i l f { n c 1 . sl,n r l l r r o r t g } r t s t t c l t t n t g t . t c t i s n r i r l t o t l i r c c t r c l a t i o r l s l l i l r t o t l r c s ' i r r r o l ' s o 1 -i r o t r f i l i n g s , u , h c n s t t c l l f i l i n g s r l r c s p r i r l l i l t ' r l uJ)on a plirtc norttrrl to a vcrtitral ri'irc br:aring a cLlrrclrt. (c) \\Iithout such rvavcs ol nragnctisnl s.'ith rotatior-rs of about tlic lirtcs of forcc. lt'arodo,t"s tlrc actlrcr filirncnts c x p c r i n r r : t r t o f r 8 . 1 - 5f o r r o t a t i n g t h c l r c a n r o f p o l : r r i z t r d l i g l r t o u'oulrl not lrc possilrlc. As thc rol.rLtion f thc 1;lancof polrtrizcrl l i g h t i s l l t r o b s c r v c t l f t r e t , t t t ; t g t t ,t s l l . l t t s t c ' t t l i t l v a v c s o f t l l t l t r ' p c i r l r o v c r : x 1 l l l i r t c d : i r t t r l t t o t l t i t r g l ; L t t .s L t c h r o t i l t i o l l s ( ) f . t l l ( l c l c n r c n t s o f t l t e a c t h t ' r i t l r o t t t l l t t ' l i t l t ' s o f f o r c c u ' i l l i t t - t - o t t t l lf o r thr: tcnsion of tlrt'sc littcs. 'l'hrrs o r t c i t r g r l t r l c t t l < ' o t t l l r t t r si t t l r t t h c r , l L n < lt l t t : r v l l o l c (rl; of thorr lrc so intcrlor'l<ctl nrtttultllv tlrat lttly lrrcrtliing tlot'rr 'l'ltt' p r o o f i s l t l t s t : t lo t t l l c ( ' ( ' s s ;rll ol'thc t:otrtcction is ittrpossilrlt'. anrl su{'ficit:nt t'ontlitiorrs: ()rrc ('ilrlsc lttt<l ttnlv ottu, ttlttttt'lt, tltc rotltiott of thc itcthcr itlrout tltc lincs of fort'c, rvill lrlr)rtitl r r r i r g n c t i s r t ri t n r l c l c < ' t r o t l l r t l t r r r t ( ' s .

It rvill lrc notilt'rl that they belong to the same geometrical spccics - lroth lrcins rcctaugular hyperbolas referred to their 1r-synrl)tot('s - rrrrrl can bc r-nadc identical throughout, frorn ,r:o, to :1:.ar, lrv introclucing a sumlnation ), such that ) /t: '1/ : f' clnt.

,,1,.a." ts: [ [ ! n1,.a,rt1, . 111, <tz .f.f.\'

(;s)

Ac't'orrlinglv it appcars that, by thc rncre variation o f r p l t l r r c t c r . t h c c L l r v c sa r e m a d e t o c o i n c i d e r i g o r o u s l y Therefore the chanccs P o i n t .l x ' P o i n t , f l o r n , 1 : - o , t o J : c o . rgainst srrr-i'rii rigororrs coincidcnce accidentally occurring b e c o m e si n f i n i t v t l r r o r r { l r o r r itn f l n i t c s l ) i r c c , . 1 ' : o , t o r : o o , .
to olt(', ol-. N

.:.[,1..: -

(l,r)

Part II. The Geometrical and Physical Significance of Laplace's Potential Function Vz Lagrangu's l"orce !'unction U, for Neu,ton's Law of the Mutual Attrac' tions of the Ileavenly Bodies in Pairs, Explained by 'Wave,Action, giving Tension on the Aether pulling in Straight Lines between the Bodies: Illustrations in o[ the Known Processes of the \7ave,fhg61y Acoustic Attraction, and in Newcomb's lrluctuations of the Moon's Mean Motion.

y r p : r r r r l t l r r r s i t s l r r ' 1u r l o c c r u r r c n c r o i n t s t t n t . n i s t a k a b l t o a t r u c llrrr'oflrillrlrc. Il. sccnrs lhcrcforc ccrtain ancl incontcstable that thc g potcntirrl r('l)r('s('lrts comctricallv and phvsically thc total l r c c r r n r r . r l : r t srtll ' s s c l u c t o t h c r v h o l e m a s s u n r l c r t h c a v c r a g e t s'irlc rnrplitrrrll of thc ficlcl about tlrc attracting lrorlv in rlucstirttt l n , r r i l t ' r . l r l v c v c r . t o r c n r o v ef o r c v c r t h e p o s s i b i l i t l ' o f C i r n t c s t i r l g l r 0l o r c g o i r g i n l c r p r c t : r t i o no f t h c g c o m e t r i c a l a l t d 1 l r y r h r , . i c l s i g l r i l j (i r n ( ' ( 'o f ' t h < : p o t c n t i a . l ,r v c s l - r a l n o w t r a v e r s c , o l s r n l l ( l ( l ( ' n ( l r r ntr t l r i s s c c t i o t t 7 , t h c h i s t o r y o f t h e s u b j e c t f r o r r r i t s { l r s t i r r t r o < l u < ' t i o lr--rr1 ' I a f l a c c , r 7 8 2 .

t . /,oy'/o,ls tnlll'sis. In thc Mdm. dc l'Acad. Itoy. dcs t' ( i r i t i c r r I l ' l x i r n r i r rtri ro t r i t t t o t h c S i g t r i f i t ' a t l t ' t : i S r : i c r . r r t: lc sI ' r r r i s , r 7 8 z ; t 7 8 5 , ( r c p r i n t e d i n O e u v r e sC o m p l d t c s 7. pp. 34r-4r9), "/-a!lqcehas a cclclrratcd o f t h t ' I ) o t c t . r t i r r lr.t s f o t t n t l i n t h c I l r r r l i t ' s t U s a g c s o f <lc ,/,rtf1ar,:,'l'onrc X, n ' r c n r o i rc n t i t l c r l : u ' l ' h i o r i e d c s A t t r a c t i o n s d e s S p h d r o i d c s c t ('cotilt'tcrs. <lc l;r Iiigrrrc rlts PInnitcs.r, Aftcr putting for the elcnrcntof '['lrc o c x l r n ' s . i o n i i r r l l r c 1 r o 1 r ' t r t i i r l1 ' l t p l i t t t t ' t l t r v l r o t l r ' n r i r s so 1 ' r rp J r r r t ' I , t l , l [ - 1 2d r d p d q s i n l , s o t h a t i n t h c p o l a r .l rtr;ts' .l/ r ., l . r , l c r x r r r l i n ; r l lrl' r. c t n l t s s .15 , \ '. \ '. \ ' , , , I
Laf/acL, rvirs llrst ttscrl lrr' Lt71/atc in r 7li: 'I'onrc \, pl). J-+3 J.53) f( )t'ttvrcs (iortrplitt's rlc
/,iJr/d.. sit,\'s

rtr -r,: ,\'.\'.1," <edq sinT

(+o)

t'

I tt,"

'l'lris irttlit rrtes thrtt *'t' trtlic it (cl'. r\N .5o-1.1, pp. (rfi- 7o,). s t r n r n r a t i o r t o 1 ' c r r . ' r ' r ivr t o n r o f l ) r i l t t ( ' r - i t t i t s r c s p c t ' t i v c t l i s t t t n c c ,

,l

, / t ti (l.1.fl1,fl5 .U l S i I ' o r r l l { ) n l n c / ' l a s o r n t n cc l c t o u t c s l c s m o l d c t r l e sc l u ('1lr = i , , , 1 . , ' I *t,- z ) 2 1r' , ,l ,l .l ,l ,, , l I sphiroirlc rlivisrlt's r:rrt'urs tlistlrnces un point cxtdricur,or1 1

iluril

t I . ': r r ' < 1 n , s ' l t i < ' l rc o r r t ' s p o n < l s o t t t r i t . t t c g r a t i o t to f t h i : I f r t s i L v r ' - t : l l i r cltl so r r r l r t ' s t ' r ' t ' n tllr r r r t i t ' l t 'ts t r t l t ' r l r t ' l i t u ' o l - r v i t v c ' l 'l'ltc t 1 r r r r r l ; l i t r r r l,c .: / t , ' t , l i l r ( , \ \ ' n o t ' x i s t i l t I r ; t t t t r t . lttttcrrtill l t o t h r r s < l c p c n t l s n l h c t t r t s s , i t t t t l i t r v c r s c t l i s t i t t t c , l t t : c a r . t stcl i s i s t h c l a u ' o f a r n l r l i t u r l c ; t h t ' r ' i t l r . t cI t : i l l f r f o r a s p h c l i c i r l bodv bcing of thc *'cll linou'r.tlirrnr givct-rlrv thc alrovc trilllc intcgrnl :tl,flr. 'l'hc potcntial is thus ir statc of stress itt thc acthcr, incirlcr-rtto thc nuss of rr lroclr', anrl its iuvcrsc (listirn(:c,ancl thcrcforc rlcpcnrls on \\'ilvcs proccc(1ing front the scvcral A thc law' of itl-r)l)'litu(lc : hf r. particles of nr;rttcr, r.rnclcr In A\ .5o:1.1, 7o, t lrricf srrnrntarvof tlre nrathct-triltit'itl I). r r ( ' i l s o l t sf o r t h i s c o r r c l t t s i r , t tl . . l l r s .

.\',

.,t,v:

: -I. t l- fl'', . r2)d1tdq sinl , .t

: ,fS:, dr dpds sinl>

!+r)

'l l r i s l i r t l c l r r ' . r i l l .l r c t l r c n w r i t c s i n a s l i g h t l y d i f f c r c n t n o t a t i o n . 'l'bis c i r r l i r ' . t r l c l i n i t i o n s h o l v s t h e s e n s ci l t * ' h i c l - r I ' ' o r i g i n a l l , v u ' r r sr r s t ' t l . colnes to On pagt' :,s: 3 of. the saurc rrrctrtoir .Lay'/ace t . l r t 't o l l o s i n g n ' s u l t s : rrSi I'on <irisignc par /,'h sonlnrc de toutcs les moldculcs rlu sphdrolrlc, rlivisccs par leurs clistancesrespcctivcs itu 1-roillt d i r t t i r i , q L r cI ' o n n o t l n r c x , l , z l e s c o o r d o n n d e s ' u n e t t r o l c c r . t l c r1,4f rlu splrcroirlc, ct a, b, , cellcs du. point attird, on rtura

t' - .\'l --.r)' -r (t, _t,','+ lc - z)2]-'i' d 'r't,( "

(+r)

+z /

.Sottdcrrrtrrnrlcr'

428

rJin clCsignant ensuitc p^r .4, f), C les attractions clu sphdroicle,pamllilcntcnt rux ilxcs <lcsr., rlcs1, et des z, on illlra

enablcd to gir-c thc conrplcte theory of the ntotion of rvavesin ar.rindcfinitclv cxtcnclcd fluid.<r

In rlenling rvith thc action of elcctricity (p. rg), Green r.rscs/ to clenotc thc surn of all the clectric parti.ies o.iing or., on arlra parciilctlcnt a ltoint rlividc<l lty thcir respectivc clistancesfrom this point. R : - A I'lA/, c: ,0|:f Ac \ . 4 4 ) I f . r ' ' , , r " , z ' b c t h c c o o r d i n a t c so f t h c c l e c t r i f i e dp a r t i c l l and d ' o i r i l s u i t g t i n i r a l c l n c l ) t ( l u c , s i I ' o n < : o n n a i t / . , , i l s c n L f a c i l c .r',,r,, : llrc coordinatcs of an exterior point, so that ih. dirtn.,." c l ' c n c o n r ' l r r r c , l ) a r l a s c L r l c< l i f f 6 r i : n t i a t i o n , , l t t r u t ' t i o n t l r r r " i s , l , l l n c , l b y t l r c c q u a t i o n l s p h c r o i c l c , l r l n r l l i ' l c r l t : n t i ' r r r n t _ .< l r o i t c q u c l c o l t ( l u c 1 / , c n ,' :VLG' - r)2+ (t' - y)' + (z'- z)zl \4e) <'or.rsitldnrnt ccttc clroitc collllro unc <lcs<'oorclontrdcs rt,r.tunglcs thcn (,)'r,r'zz puts: < l r r1 ; o i n t a t t i r c . ( . d.r, dy, dz, r/: r -, : l/, g, lLil valcur prccirlortc dc / r-irluitc cn siric, rlcvicnt thc inlc!r:rl cotnprehendingevery particle in the electrificd rt.t/ f , , , ro .t'+ zhy + zr z -.r2 .-v2 .r2 r. l' .rrss rrrrrlcrconsicleration,g' bcing thc dcnsity of thc electricitr. ') , l I , t r 2. 1 2 r ' 2 L ' - ' az+hzrl in tiris lrirrticlc, rh.' ,\,' dt' being thc clemer.rt volurne, ani of - r')' (r,1.. t; + ciz' 11t1, zc z 12 lt -..'1, . -, thcrcftrrc o' cl.t'<11,' thc quantity of clcctricity in t5e clement ' "-.] * ;, ' t15l (o" r lf r rzlz of r.olrrrnt'. 'l'hc fur.rction Z thus clcfincrl, ancl shorvn to fulfill the ccttt-' srritc' cst ls<tcnclantc rciativgncnt trux clin-rcnsionsdu sphcroirlc ct rlcsccncllrntc rclativcrncnt irux coorclonnics du clilfcrcrrtiirl ccluations of La4lace, for an cxterior point point attiri, ct si 1'on n'a cgarcl qtr'i. son prcrnicr tcrr)te, cc 02ltf0rz+A2I/lAtz+A2IlfAz2:o rltri suffit lorsqrrc lc point attird cst ir unc tr,is grancle rlistancc, ar-rrl /)oi.r-sott an intcrior point of for o n i r u r a I ' : , 1 / 1 a z + 1 2 + . 2 ) - ' l r , , 4 1 i t a n t l l n r a s s cc n t i t r c c l r r Uz7;f0x2t I/f022+02 02 lzf7z2: -4frQ (sr) sphdroiclc. ('cttc cxprcssion scrlr 1>luscxactc cncorc si l,on (irtt:tt t' rlls thc Potcntial Iiunction, (p. This is thc errliest p l l c c l ' o r i g i n c r l c sc o o r r l o n n r l cls c c n t r cr l c g r a v i t i < l us l r h r i r o i r l c r , u "i. rrst' o1' l lrc tcrrn, ancl prcccdecl Hc/m hnltz's thcory, of thc crlr oll a, l)ll l;r propriite rlc cc ccntrc, C ' o n s c r r ' : r l i o n f l i n c r g l , r 8 . t r 7 ,b y s o m c t w e n t y o ).cars. -o l4(,) . f ' . r ' < 1 . 1 1 : " . f . ' .< t , t f I"r'rrr llris outlinc it u'ill bc secn that Green follos,s ll-re ,fzd,tt:o ( ' n s o r t c r 1 t r c , i l ' o n c o n s i r l i r c l c r a p J r o r tr l c s r i i n r c n s i o n s l r r r l c f l r r i t i , , n . o l ' / , a , ; / t t r a ,t h o r r g h h c c x t c n < l st h c r e s c a r c h e s n s r o s l l l - r d r o i r la s i t ( l i s t a n c ca u p o i n t l t t i r e c o t n n t c r , n r ct r i . s c r , l r c , t i t r . c l c c t r i < ' i t v r r t r lr n : r g n c t i - \ l nn o t o n l v t o v o l u m e s o f r n a t t e r l t u t < ; u a n t i t cr l u p r c ' n r i c ro r r l r c , l ' c r l t r a t i o n a l s o t o : r r r f i r ic u r . t i o n , a n r l t h e r c f o r e c l e v c l o p st h e c e l c b r a t e d ,i2 (,a2+ b2 + cz') (,+t t n r n s f o r r n a t i o nk n o * ' n t s G r t c n ' s T h c o r c r n ( p . , : ) . I/:,tl[

/a '4 : Sl(." r)' + (.t, r12 (.c z',21-', -.r.) dM: *a l,-laa (aj) + -

(s")

(s')

.3.,\rrirll'sis of Cattss, 1839. The results of Gous.ri rcsclrclrt's olr forces varying inverscly as the squarc of tbc Thcsc passagcs givc a clcar and sinryrlccxplar-riLtion of clistancc, :Lrc givcn in Resultate aus clen IJcobachtunccn des. thc <lcfinitions cnrplol'ccl by Laplace in thc carlicst papcr 'l'hc N l a g n c t i s c h c nV c r c i n s i n - r a h r c r 8 3 9 , L e i p z i g , r 8 4 o , ( r e p r i n t c c l J rlcaling I'ith thc strbjcct. rlcfinition hcrc citecl givcs r.ro it't (iou.r-s'\\rcrl<c, I)anri V, pyt. r97-z4z). On page r99 of, p h v s i c ' r l s i g n i f i t - r r n t ' co t l r c l i r n c t i o n / , , c x ( : c l ) t t o r . l c f i n ci t t \\'crlic, Jlrrnrl \,-, rr'c find that this cclcbrateclgeometer : r st h c s r r n ro f a l l t h c r n o l c c : t r l co f t h c s p h c r o i c l r l i v i r l t : < l Oau.s.s'' s also frillous /,ay'Iatc vcn' stric:tl1',ptrtting for thc potential: l r 1 ' t h r : i l r c s l t c c t i r - c r ii s t i t n c c s f r o n r t l " r c i r t t r : r c t c t l 1..:tf l r o in t : ', (S:) 1 tr f + t r , , l / + e t c . : ''

scrzr cxactc ar.rx quirntitds yrrds du troisidmc or<lrc.<r

.f rlr

.<t^tt : .f ' t,. rz<tr <tql n l ce s ,f,f

l,'[(a-."-)z+ (.., 92 + (c - z'Pf

(+rl)

l/o+ r :l f(a-.'.-)2 (.t-i' +

?ji
t ' h

2 fl, + Q - z)'z1

(s+)

w h c n c c t h t ' c x p n : s s i o nf o r I ' t a l i e s t h e f o r m :
r
F

v so that by diffcrcntiating /u-\\.c gct thc forcc ir.ring in lny dircction. Ir-rthis rcsl)cct Ij rcsctnblcs thc Forcc liunction, (z-. /'-.1 irrtrorlucccllty ,[.agrangefor rlcaling x'ith thc ]rutLr.rllv irttr:rcting plancts of thc Solar Systun. /t <I/: rrrl..r' cl: ',.t; rll

.l ,ltlr.Ar2sinuduil,dr

(sst

z.'l'lrc Artall'5is t>f Gct,rgc G-rec2, tSz3. 'I-hc rvcil knorvn prLpcr cntitlccl: rAn IissrLy on thc Application of l{athonatical Analysis to thc'l'hcorics of I:llcctricity and ltlagnetisnr(, was first published at Nottingharn, r828, ancl rcprintccl in Grcctt's Ilathcmtrtical l)a.pcrs, cclitcd bv ,Ferrers, r37o. In thc prcfacc to this essay. pagcs 37-38, of this rcprin t, Gtcen rcmarl<s on thc usc of analysis in ph1,sical scicnt-c t\'1 . J;ouriez, b1' his invcstigations rcllrtivc to Hcat, : has not onlv discovered thc gcncral cquations on .lvhich its motion clcpcncls,but has lil<or-isc bccn Icrl to nov analyticiLl forrntrlae, bv t,hosc aid XII'1. Catrt/n' nn<l Poissott have bcen

;" mass in an elcment of volur'e cll : 12 sinu du dI dr (SO), i n p o l i L rr : o o r r l i n a t c s .

r\cr:ordinglv it altpcars tlta"t Gauss does not depart from thc dcfinitions or nrathcmatical anal1'sis of Laplace, polssott a.n<I Grtctt, thotrgh his results are more general and comprchcnsivc than thosc of thc earlier intcstigators, who founclecl thc thcorl' of the potcntial funr:tion, and first introcluced the. usc of it into lthysical science. As bcforc remarked, La/lace,s. potcntial function I/ for the particlcs of an attracting nrass is, cxactlv irrriLlogous Lagran..Te's to force function U, as applieci to thc nrrrtually attracting planets, in that a simplc differcn-

+29

Soncleruumnter

430

tiation of the exlrression in rcspcct to the coordinatcs gives thc force rcsolvccl irt ltnv dircction. 4. Ana.lvsis of Dirirhlc/, r85(r-57, ando[ Rie n.attti,t86r ' Thc lcctrrrcs ol l)irfuIlct nt Gottingcn for thc rviutcr senrcstcr of r8.s6 \7, \\'crc fir-rallypublishccl b1' Grultc, vnrlcr thc titlc: Vorlcsr-rngcn iiber dic im urlgckchrtcn \/crhiiltlris rlcs Quirclrats rlcr llntfcrnung rvirkctrdcn l{riiftc vo:n P. G. Diric/tlat tal<es thc I-e Jcnne-.DirirIlet, Lcipzig, r876. activc mass-particlcs,cat:lt dividcd I'otcntial as thc sum of :r,11 ln' its rlistancc fronr thc :rttractcd point, thtrs (p.4):

inquirccl into until the problem rvas taken up by the present 'fheory of the Acther, r92o, AN 5o44. rvritcr jn the Nerv It is norv obvious that thc intcgral of the dcnsity into thc clcnrcnt of volutlc, divided by thc clistance:

dx ,t - .f,f,f rf..-,u)2 + (1, ),)' + (c - z')z)*'t, dy dz (66)

rrcans plrlsicallv that cach atom scnds out a wave of arnplitucle of A : /tir , rrnrl thr,rstlic potcntiai is the ir.rtegral thcse supcrposcd u'lrr,c lrnrpliturlcs, for every clcmcnt of mass, at its appro'l'hc accumulatcd stress of the aether is priatc <listrLrrr:c. thcrr:forc proportional to thc supcrposed effects of all the atons, :rncl thus proportional to the rvholc mass, and invcrscly (-sz) I : \ l t fr ' r n : n f r + m ' fr ' + n " f r " . . . . as the clistancc, Accordingly, as in thc u'orlis of Gau.rs ancl Laf /arr. this ' js rrlso wlittcn lty Dirt'th/c/ (p1r.69-7o): , a - x S+ ( . b y ) ' + ( c - z f f z ,l J

,' , 1run': l' l' 1",, ,'o,:ot!""-J ll

I::.frlr'A,l':.[.[.[','''Irl.rcl-1'da
+ . I : clqrsir)', ,' :yl(.o -.t)t + (.h-1;12 (t - z'l2l It' l'c introdr.r<rc ltolar coorrlittatcs, -- /? cos i)' .r:: g cos ,'/ a rp t1i J, : o sin ,',lc:os lt - li sit'r!|' <-os z -,) silt ,'/ sin g sin g,' r :11 sin ",1' cxprcssion for r bccotncs

( s s ) anrl thc forces rcsolvcd parallcl to thc coordinateaxes:

,r(a-.r)d.rd;'dz _ Al: ,' ,'f ''' - +rb _ s)z 421{, uo ,l ,l J (o - ^.), ",1r - o(b_y)dxdydz _ a t '_ f f ( )._ ?1, ,t ,/ ,) [("-1.;' f1t,-r,r+(r-;ff,
At' ,' z : * - .( ., : | |" ,, ,, ,r(c-x)dxrJ.ytlz ( _ ,) [("-r)'+(1,-J)'+(r-z)z]l'' 'l'irc resr.rltanttotal forcc thcrcfore is

(.sq)

(o7l

tlre

/:lt\R2

y,')J] * 9 2- z R o [ c o s , ' /c o s , ' / ' + s i n , ' / s i n 1a.^) "/ - s( (-os(, .: cos ,'/ cos ,'/' + sin .'y' #' cos (y' c o7')r t , sin

R :lllx, + \'2 + Z2l

(68)

s'hcre rr is thc lrnqlc lrt:tu'cctrthc radii vc(:torcs R, o, rcfcrrcrl t o t h c o r i g i n i r t t i r ( ' ( ' c l r t r co f t h c l t t r i t c t i n g n r t s s .

I:irrirl conclusiotr rcgarclirrg thc gconretricll irnd plrvsical significancc of thc potential. 'l'rcatisc ; \ n r l t h c ] ' o t c n t i r r l I i r u . t c t i o t . tl r c < ' o r r r c s : Llfa.tzt,c//'s cclcbratcrl on Electricity anrl ; 27 \'ltgnctisnr, r873, contains cxact ilcfinitions and suggestive r r , : { ' , t , ,' . f A ' t n t - 2 R Q ( ' o s r , ) - t , s i n , ' / ' < 1 , ' / '( f i r ) I rliscussiorrof the geomctrical and physical significancc of thc 1r,-'' potentilrl : in fact Maxzuell is the bcst guicle I knorv of, in o l'ith this hithcrto obscure subject. Ilut as he says in s i n c o t r v t ' r g i r t g c r i c so f s p h c r i c r r l <lcalir.rg s h i c h i L r l r l i t so f c l c v c l o p n r c n t 'harnronics, sectiorr863 that he cotrld not solve the nrvstery fron C. Neul-lLving thc fortl ntann's lirtcst trcatrncnt.I finallv rvas lcd to the tl-reor1'dcvcrc ' ' 6 2 ' l o l ' q ' r il r r l l r i s p a 1 ' o r . t' o\1 ,.,1t"l'(" t " ' - ' " . ' . 1 . l A ' 1 ' ' , <o s r a \t i 1 1 ;\1tt:r stLrrlyiltg ,lfatrue/1's criticirl <liscussion,which is .L "7'rl"/'rlr1 c o n c l c n s c riln ( i h l L p t e r 2 3 , S c c t i o t i s 3 4 6 - 8 ( ; 6 , I c o n c l u d c t h a t :, Jirr irn jnttlr poinl, o....r1', c thc u'hr.rlc asc nlrv lrc surnmcrl trp its follows: r. l'hc vrLlidity <tf ll'eber's funrlamental electrodynamic i ' l'l"' ^ is ,L '' 1 ,r, , . ' ' ' ' . 1 P , , l c o s , ' rs)i n i l ' d ! l ' t 1 , 1 ' ( r r . t ) larv of rii-1(r lclmittcrl, and that inrplies rvave action propa,lh' 4 gatc(l in tinrc, and thcrcfore gcnerating inductions, lly tl-rc action o1' thc rvilvcs, - not only elcctric and magnetic, but l b r l n o u t e r , , o , , t , ,U , ' r , . iLlso gnrvilrLtional. (lravitational rvaves are similar to thc 'l'lre V o r l c s t r n g c n c l c l i v e r c db y 1 ? i a n , r z z a t ( i i ) t t i n g c n , ' nragnctir: \\'Avcs,cxccpt that thcy arc not polarizcd, and thus r S(rr, irncl closcll' relatcrl to thosc <tf /)tlrirhlcl, s'cre Irublishcrl ('iurnot. rrscrlin a <1ynanro, lrr. nor can thcir effccts bc perccivccl, lry 1/a//cndor.f[, unclcr t]rc titlc: Schrr'crc, lllcktrizitiit uncl c x c e p t l r v t l r r : . l s f l c ' i ' 1 i 1 r nc t,c . , i n t r i t n s m i s s i o nt h r o u g h t h c s \ l a g n c t i s n r u s , I l u n n o v c r , r 8 7 . 5 J ? i c n o n t t ' s c l c f i n i t i o r ro f t h e l i a r t h , r r t t h c t i r n c o f l u n a r c c l i p s c s such as occur in l ' o t u r t i a l l i r l l o r is t b c s t a n r i a r < lf o r n r : Alcutrotnh's liluctultions of the Nl[oon's Mcan N{otion. F F P 'l'hc / - . l, l , \ , l , . u t t ar t h< t r (PoggcndorJf's Annalcn, criticisnr of Clau.rt)u-r :. ((r.1.) Ilirn<l r.i.S, lr. (rr:'r r:orrectly shows tl"rat Riemann's clectro-..)' + (.1 :')' + (r - z')zl , -l l(,.u in dyniinri, lirnnrrlir is inridnrissible, that it implies a propagation tl-rrrt thc furtction of tht' ' p o t c n t i r I o f t l r c Accorrlingll it irpl.rcars l r o tc n t i r r l ,l i l < cl i g h t , u n d c r t h c r n o d i f i c df o r m o f P o i . r . r o n ' s tlctincrl by f.Qlarr' in t 7Sz :rs cquiltl()ll: (t s,i r' r; r I.r'rl.vr l: , tl2 /'/rl.r.2+ d2 I: f cl_1,2 7zclzz* 4 ;r o : r f a2.d2 Izf dtz (Oq) .- 6z f .i.[.]', 'l'hc a : Vclocit)' u,ithout chtngt:. occasion s'as irrloyrtcrll>t' his succ'cssors .' fc t h c f t r n t ' t i o t ti,n c n t t t t , ' r ' t i , ) t t anrl othlrri'isr: rlocs ttot confortn to Weher's lau', and other t b r t h c r . ( ' o n l " l r i ( ; l's' ir t", n i f i ", "' l t t t , l r i ' i t h t h c ' p h v s i c l l l r a s i s r r p o n r v h i c h i t r c s t s , \ \ ' i l s n o t c l L r c f u l l v l<non'n r'lcctrodvna.nric llru's, such as tltose of Antpire. Manae//
N l ' t ' . . t* t \ t

+.1r

.Sott clcrnrrnr rrrcr

+J-

. t a a

i r l l r r r t .s . r s . t h c p o l c n t i a l a l s o r v o u l d b c c h a n g c r l c o r r e s p o ' c l i t t g l r - . ; r r t r lt l r c c l r . r n g cl - o u i c l r : o r n ca b o u t r i . i t h t h e r . c l o c i t vo f J i g l r t . I : l L r r v l r i l s t t l t c f o r c c s u c t l r l ) o r 1 o r l i c sr r . i t l t t h e r . . i o , : i t r . t b s i r v s h c < ' o r r l c r r o t 1 i . l n r rf r o n r . \ ' c t o t r a t l t ' s t h c o n , t h c r ( l o n s t n r i r . - o t - l i g i t t . l l t c p o t c n t i l l i s r l c r e l v l a s u l ) c r l ) o s c (u . l r . t - - s t i r t e , l r l r t r r c \ ' ' o r s t c l l u l r g ( ) 1 ' t 1 r 1', r , , r ' . \ o i t r ; l n s n r i s s i . nl ' l r i c l t i r l r I r , ; r r . r . r l . r r r J i i . q , f l r c i s s i l r lt h c s t r c s s c s o r g c n e r a t i n g t h c f o r c c so l r s c r r . e r l c l l ( l ( ' C S s a l ' 1o O n t r . s . , .j n t h i l ( ' t t c r l o I l t c / t c r , f l a r c . l t r 9 , r S . 1 i . l' i n 1 r 1 1 1 . i 1 i 1c t1o n s . ' f h c s c l a t t c r a c t u l ) o l t l r o r l i c sa n c l t h u s c l o 'r 1 i * r i r ' l i . * l r i l s t .t l r c : P o l c . t i r r l i s . f i x c c l s t a t c o f s t r c s s r r i r l i i . g .3. r\Jl :rtllt llrlotils. iptplvirrg llrlt tltq lrrillptirrl i: t l r r t t t s r r i t l r ' rjln l i r n c n t ; r r r i l r ' . l l r ' : r r t r:r r l t ' t t l r l r l r '' l. ' l r r , p o t c r r t i r r l l r o s s i l r l cl t t : l t c l i o r t o l ' l l t r . f o r . r ' c s c
i s r r .s t i t t c . 1 ' u ; r l r . - : t r r ' : s i n t h c l c t h c r , r l c y t c r t r l i n g l ' o r g r r r t . i t t r t i o t t r r ll r o r l i l r 1 1 , , , , , t l t t l r i p l c i r - r t c g r a l ,7o) r ] r . c l - rr l : , " a t t r l t i t r r . l t i ' r r n r ' t i o ro f t l r c l t a s s i r n < l i r r r - c r s 1 l i . t r r 1 r . c 'l.r l r . a r r s l t t c r t r ' l t l i t o n r l n r i t s t ' h i r n t c t c r i s t i c \ \ - i t \ . ( . sr,r n r l l l t l i r l t r r l r l i t r r r l t s 'fhis vilrv rr\ t,r.,'lv lrs thc distrrnccs. s t a t t o i \ \ . . r \ . r: ,r l . r : . v r r r i c s u i t l r t h c n r a s s a n r l < l i s t a n c cs i n r l r l r . , I ' - - , f ' r ' r . r i l r . l l r r I' . \ '. \ '. \ ' -, , , [ ' a - 1 ' r r + ( . . 1) , ) 2 + ( t , r';z)

notcs thc cquall\. r.alicl r:r'iticisrn ol- (-lntr-ritr.r:rgirir-rst C'. ,\icu, ) t d / t ) ts t ' h c o r t ' o f t h e t r a n s : t r i s s i o n o i -t l r c p o t c n t i r r l f t o n t p a r t i c l e t o l r r r t i c ' l r : ,b u t i r r a l l i l l l t ( . r r l i l l t ' r c n t i ' r ' o : l t l l r t o f l i g l t l . , l [ a . t z l t , / /

. y . I t i s r o l r r l i l b l c t h a t t h c s i r n p l ct h c o r y o f t h c p o t c n t i a l s c t l o r t l r i n l h c N c u " l ' l r c o r t - o f l l r c A c t i r c rs o l o n g c s c a p c < l r c t rroticcol-gcollctcrs artrl ntrttrral lthi)osophcrs. It is <lir-cctlr.

r i c r l r r c i l r l lf r o n / , a l l a r t i s r l c f i r r i t i o no f I - : , f r i r . c l n t , r i t i 2 , l r , 1 1 l r . n r r t r t n r lc l i : v c l o p n r c nftr o n t t h c a n t p l i t u c l co f t l t c s , i L v c s r \\'i1: r ),, 'irt.licrl for :rborrt r40 )'cars. :\s thc lit*,s of II't/,tr, .lntli t i. /jttl anrl Saztar/, O/im, Otrs/ctl, clc., arc hlrnronizcrl l r v t l r i ' ' i r r r l t l r ' t h c o r v , r v c h a v c n o I t c s i t a t i o ni n a f f i r n r i n g t h e t <locs not rlcpr.r-ril r1 tlrc tinrc, cxccltt in nroling lrorlir:s ls l o t l r c i r ' , r r ' ,trl r c o r v r c p r c s c n t s t h c t r u c o r c l c r o f l t i r t u r c . . . \ r t r c h r rr - r g c s . a t t ( . n r i ) t o r l r ' l . r r ' l l r i s b v i o u s c o n c l u s i o ni s c q r r i v a l c n tt o t h . 1 o I;or elcctrical ancl nrrgr.rctit: lrorlics <.orrcsportrling contrlrlicliort of thc ltlaincst truths of geometry, an(l the l r o t c n t i a l s c x i s t , r s c l c f i r i c r l l r y - , . 1 / a . r z t ' c 1 / :b r r t t h c s c p o t c r r t . i i r l s r t . j c c t i o n o 1 -t h c b r . s t c x p c r i n r c n t a i c v i c l c n c eo f o u r s c n s c si n 'l'lrt: too arc stirtcs of strcss in thc irr.tltcr rlrrc to \\'ilvcs. s'lvcs t h c v l r s t .s c i c n c c o 1 ' I r l c < . t r o r l l n l n r i c s . prorhrt:r.
Ibrr'r's, u'lrir:h thorrsclvcs :rrc tnrnsnrit.tcrl in tirrrc lilit: l i g h t , r i ' l r i i c t l r r ' p o t c t i t i ' r l s i l l - c s u l ) c r l ) o s c ( l s t . l l t c so f s t r c s s , r r o t :rgcr.rcit's f'actiorr. o r\ll hr'pothcscs of tlrc transrrrission of tlrr: potcntial irr tinrc. rs if rc;rrcscnting lrction, irrc rnislclrrling l [ ' r ' r ] r r 1 r sr r ' u o r r g l t t t o a r l r l t h t r t t h c l i r n . t ' s , l . l t i c l t : r r c t r a n s r r r i l t , ' r i n t i n r r ' . r . o r r l r l r c r . h r r n g c co n l r - l x , r . l r i r n g ro f n u r s s : l l .

Inttrlrrct;rtion o l ' / , a . g r t t t , q t , fs r c c f u n c t i o n 'o {,/. \\'c lrrv rrorv point oLrt tlr:rt in tltc forr.c function, introrlrrcc<ll>v ,/-a,grange for thc rrtrrtLltl ;rotcntial of a s\.stcln o l ' l r , r , l i , . . 1 ; r l , c r irr r p t r i r s , z l ; r ) t . . ,a l n r r r l r l r l t l i . t , r t t . " . . 7 , . r . t h c v t . r ' r 'l i r r n r o f t h c c x l t r c s s i o n f o r t h i s f u n c t i o n , n l l r e l \ . :

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t h c l r r r r l i r ' s r c t r c i r t c r l i r s p a r t i r : i c so f r t l r s s , l t i n t j l t c t i n g f r o n l a \'... ... r , _ \r l l r t ' i r ' : i ' r ' r , n r l ( ' L n t r c s o f g r a r . i t r . . ' l l - t u s f - a g r a n . g c , sf o r c e (i.) +(t,;-1)12 +(t/-sr)t . "'!t"trt'',t, .l'i ^Li ,i:(.tt-.t,)t i ' r . r r ric , n h l s a f i n i t c l l g c l r r a i c f o n n , u n d c l o e n o t i n v o l v e ,t ? : O T s J l n t ( . g r . i r l ' u ' l r i r . l tg r c a t h - s i t n l t l i f i c sr r n r t r . c a l c u l a t i o n si n t l . r e shou s thrt tlrc grrrlitationrrl lirrt'cs lct jt.rriglrt lincs bct*ccn 'l l t , ' , r . , , l u t t i r 't,: : r l g r ; r . . i l ; r 1 i , , . . lhc lrorlics. s('\'('rirlll corrnccling lltcnt in plirs, irnrl thrrs j n t t ' n s i r i n s ( ) r \ t r ( ' t (l t i n g o J - t l r c l r c ' t h c r c i r l consist rnc<lirnt.r In lorrring rr llorc critical juclgenrcnt, horvever, of l i l l i n g t h r . r ' < , l c s t i is l ) r i ( ' ( . s . r .f,agrttt,qt s Iiunt'tion, it sltould bc bornc in mind that thc A c c o r r l j r r g l l l l l t h r ' 1 - o r r : g o i n g l i s c r r s s i o n: r p p l i r : s t < r t ( ' r l r s ( ) l - t h c p 1 : r n c t i r r )p o t c n t i a l r l o r c a l l , v i n v o l v e s c x t u p l c t ' I o g r a n . g c ' s i b r c c l i t n c l i r i n 1 ' , t - o r i r s ) . s t c l no { - s r . p l r i r t c l r o r l i c s i n t c g r r r l . , t h t ' r l i f l c r e n t i a t i o n o f r v h i c h g i r , c s t h c N e r v t o n i a n i n s p i r c c ,l r t r n u t r r i r lr l i . t l r n c t : . / , , r , l r s u . c l l i r s I o / . a f / a t t i s f o n ' c s l , r r l l i n - i r r r i g h t l i n c s b c t r v c c nt h c b o d i c si n p a i r s . Owing f u n c t i o n / ' , l i r r t l r c l l r r l i c l c s r , 1 - r . i n g l t ' n r r r s s i i i c 1 h c I , ) r r t h r t r t o l i n rj t ; r t i o n so f s l r r r . cs . c s l t a l l h c r c I ' r i t c o n l y s i x t c n n s o f t h e r l Srrn. \\rt-.noticc nrcrr'll tlrrrt in ./.a.qrtncc's lirrcc 1-Lrtrr.tion Z/ s o r i - r 1 r r r r t l r i l r r t t .o f t iI n t c g t . a I:s rl

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\ 7 5 , l i n c l t r r l c sr r l l p o i . t s . f s p a c c ; a n d s i n c c t h e intcgral (76) also i r t . l t r r l c s : r r r r i t l r t ' ri . r l r . p c n r l c n t s . m m a t i o n o f a l l p o i n t s o f spacc, il lirll,*.s thitt thc scxtuplc i.tcgral (77) incluiles a l N + N I N sunr':rti.rr of lil i t s cci - I . I P P , " rlr,' d:' ^11', l rl.-t'' 1 Ga) o f s p ; r c c r r t t h i ' i r ps. c.v s n olf. d ip aa n cn srrc lsi lp(c c t t o a l l o t h c r* p,o i, n t s c r st c : 1, _ r), +(1, ) ) + 'l I (:' -:)'?i. l r i s c o n < ' c l t t i o ns r . c r r .i n r y r o r t a n t o t o n l y i n ' t h e i n - \ l r t t t ' r o l - t h c t r . p c o 1 -l l l c l r o g c n i L n c l I I c l i u n r u , o r r l r l t l t c o n ' o f l l r t : polcntiul trnrl attraction of gravitating matter, f r c [ ' l ' i , t c r l ) ( ' . r ] t r i l t c ,r x i i n g t o t l i c n t , i ' . t , c , - r t o f t l r r :r r o l c r . r r l c s ; b r r t : r i s oi r r l l r c t h c o r v o f t l t c v c l o r : i t y - p o t c n t i arl D , r v h i c h c o m e i 'l'lrcorr. a n r l t h u s t o c o ' ] ) u t c t h c n r L r t r u rp o t c n t i a l c n c r g v o f t r v o s r r c l . r rrp in l thc of thc Acthcr, in lvhich the forccs are ex_ i . l l r i t c . i l s s c s , * ' c s l r o r r l r h r r ' c t o t : v . l u i r t c a s c x t u p r ci n t c g r . . l , piainccl l lrr- u'lvc-rr.t.tion. rvhich r-rot .nJ' iltr:l'clcs c'cry p, rticlc of' clLr:h rn,rss, lti,i Ilcforc' lcaving thc problern of potential encrgy, we may g i v c s t h c p o t o t t i ; r i o f c a c h c l c r n c n t , < l t n- o r l . r . d _t1:, i n r c s p c r : t . -lutti-o.. l citc n prirctical cxanrplc givcn by Lord, t{eloin, t o c v c r \ .c l c n r c n t o f t l t c o t h c r l t o t l l . r l z i ' - r l ' d . r . 'c l - t <,l z , a t t h c i n _ , l-ccrtlrrcs, ()o+,l). 27o, as follows. r f i n i t e l y v a n - i n g r l i s f a n t - t ' s, z _ - - 1 ' f t .-r,'r' , r 2+ , , r , ' , 1 , ) p + ( 2 , - z ) 2 ] , r If ,/l rlcnolc thc rcsultant forcc acting on any particle u'hich m.t.,llv co..cct thcsetrvo clc'rr:rts i. p.irs thro.ghoLit rlnt.:rr tl.r'<ll cl.? lt ir-nv point 1 (r,),, r), tltc cxhaustion of all spacc. g r t r , i t a t i o n l l c n e r g v p r o r l r r , . c cb v l t r i n g i n g a v a s t n u m b e r i / 'I'hc l ntutull potcntial cncrg)' of ts,o infinitc intcrpcnc. of cqLta.l nrilsscsfrorl rcst at an infinite distancc to an couallvtrating rrasscs can thcrcforc lrc cxltrcsscd onl1, lr1,nrcans of a -easiiy s p r r c c c lc l i s t r i l r u t i o n t h r o u g h a s p h e r c o f r a d i u s z i s scxtuplc intcgral of thc lollorving fonn: sltorvn to ltr, t h c n t h c i n t c g r a l f o r : r l l s r r c hl n l l t t c r i n t h c u r r i v c r s c s i
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on lrcvontl thc lrnlloot-rs, tllc prcssr.ll'c , S ^ S ' , r r r r r lr t t r i t r c t ' c l s e r l t i r u s g i Y c s t c t t s i o t t l ) c t N - c c : l l l t c 1 r o < l i c s ,t c t r r l s t o t l a t - r o l r - t l l c s l . t r f l t l t ' s , l ; , , , , r , , , t * i s) r o l o l t l { ( r ( 1 . r l . 9 S l r r f r t C C s f r . o n s t l r r r tr ' r ' l t t t i v l c l t c l g \ ' , r l r c ' t 1 t l i 1 > 6 t t ' l l t i l r 'l l r c i t t c r c r t s t t o f 1 l t - c s s u r cl l c t ' o n < i , r v i t h s i t r l t t l t a t l c o t t s .i. an<l givcs tlrcttr llltr lirrllrs llcrc s]lrlstt.< -l'hc t l c v c i o p n r r r i t o 1 - t t ' r t s i o l li r - rt l i c l i l l c ' 5 ' , t ' t : o t l n c c t i n g t h c b o d i t ' i , s r r l r i t ' r ' t l r t ' r c t r t ' l t c r l o f i t l r 9 r 7 i s t l i s t : t r s s t ' r lr v i t l ' r ' i s prcciscJv tlrr::rct'hrttrit'a.l cffcct rccltrircrl fot'cxplirinirlg tlrc o r u o r e c l t ' t i r i li n t l r t ' \ : 1 . l ) r r l ) ( ' r r l t l l t : \ c l ' ' l ' h c o r v o f t h c : \ t t l l t : r , All thc kttori'tr olrscrvt'il i-rrr'ls o1- rlllivcrsill gravitatioll. ; \ \ 5 r - 1 o , T ) l ) .I o . l - r I o r t ( ) u ' l r i c ' l l t l l c r c i t < l t ' t -i s c s l r c c i r r l l v \Youl(l l)c 1)orfcctly' rrc(lolllltc(l for 'l gmVitrrlionlrl Iltctrottrctlit l t r . l r g L r r r : st r n t l r , t ' r ' l r t r i t t ll t t t l r l \ ' s i s $ ' i t l t g c O t r r C t r i c l l l rcli,rrt,rl. rc provcrl to o(rcur in ttrttttte. And such proof lrclori'),rrllorcl i1-tlris r',rrrlrl giY|rt in ,\\ ;r1o (c'f.l'lirtt'\ilI conrPositiott i s f i r r t l r C O n r i r r gt t o t o t l l v i t r t l - r c i l i r , 1 l ' o r l l t h c e x p e r i l l l o l l t s o l l l'or tlre \-iiVe-tlrt'orr-Of tttli\.r'rsltl c r 1tcrl'cc.tlv .onr'ltrsir.c vicicrrcc llnd Sir :rc()trsti( :tttrrlt'tirrtr. lx Gtr.yo/, Schc//ltttr/t, Gulltie r g r ; r v i t i r t i o r r . I ' , r ' c l ' \ ' l r o . . i l r l c c o t l r l r i t r l r t i r . r lo f t l l t ' s t ' 1 r i t r : t t t ' I I ' . 7 ' / r r t n r t o t t ,r c p o r t c r i l i l l t h c I ' h i l . ) l a g a z . f o r . J u l l c , r 3 7 r , r . c c t r l r s , r l i r t : t . t c c l t r t t l t c t N o ( ' c l t t r ( t s o i ' l t l t r i t ct i o t l , i s 1 r t ' i r t t r t l lrirt llso in tlrc irct'hcr l'rotll thc prcscnt ltnon'n fa<'ts of rarlio lrt'lou', rtlltl rtll tht' to6. I'lrrtc\ill I of in .l\N -5.+o, l)l). loi \ \ ' a v c - t r i u l s r l r i s s i o t ti r l l o r r l t h c D a r t h ( r f . A N 5 3 r 7 , S c p t . , I 9 2 + ) , ri'ltvc tllcort'. l r l r c n o t r t c t l r - t ' r t t t f i tt t t l l l t : i n r v l t i I l t N u r - r : l r c r t r i i n g i s c x t r c t l v s i n t i l a r t o t l l i l t l ' r c r cd c s c r i l r c r l . I n f i r r ' l i 1 t t r t t v l t c s l r i r l t h l r t i f i t t : t t l r - ( ' 1 t s ' ' \ \ - i I v c si l r ( l -1. 1'hc lrotdirrg ol thc raclio-rvavc lrirottt thc Iiarth is lr o l < 1 o g , r .l r c x i s t , l r s I ' t , t . . r r l r . < l v o l t s c r v t r t i l n i n s . , l l t r < l i s t l t r ' l r i l n l c s , s l r o r i ' r r 1 o c x t c : t r < lt o t h c v c r v a l l t i J ) o ( l c s , i n t h c c a r e f i r l c x l l c r i s o s y s t c t l a t i l r r l l l s t L r r l i c t l i t r t l r l t g t l t r t i < :s t ( ) r l l l s , : t r t r o r : t c , l ' ) l t r t I nrcrrts t'otttlLtr:tcrl lrt' thc Iircrlch frollr thc to\\:crs at Ilorcicltttx, (.rlrrents,--- tIr,p tltc ltcrc chiltcc tlltt srtr'llortlcrcrl ('oll('cl)triC s'lrtn l lrc \\'ltvcs wcrc tlott:rl itt ChlLtham lsland, sc)lllc .l,oo surfaCcs Cotrlrl cxist :rlrotrl. trvO ltttt'ltt'tittg lllltssCs, u'ithorrt It has bccn rccognizc(l by rlle nrilcs Lrrst of Nc\\, Zcllantl. d e p c n c l i n g o l t w l t \ ' ( t s f r o t l t t l r t ' s t ' ( t l l t r ( ' s r r v o r r l r l t r x c ' t ' r r t ii r l l , ; r - 1 ( t ' f . r \ N . 5 o . 1 - 1 ,P l ) . 7 o - 7 r ) , t h a t t h c r a r l i o - s - a r - e r sini t thr: points in irlflrlittr sl):l('('l() ()rl(.'()r l r ( . p r l sl r , i r r r r r l t h c I t ) a r t h , f o r t i t c s . l l l t c r c l l s o l l t h a t l i g h t b c n c l s l ( . . l N r l N r tlrrough a llristll: tlallrt'1t', llccartsc thc velocity (r1z'1 in l,irsrirtg Sr'l: t - ,-, r l , -, l l , tI , l I ' l \ ( l l ( l - : l li'sr in tht: rlt'ttsc tllrss, olving to thc wavc motion l)cing is \ t u , N t l r r , r c r ' ,s i s 1 r ' r ll r y t h c I ) o n ( l c r i t l ) l c l l ' l i l t t c r i r l t h c p a t h , r v l t c r c l r v illr ilrlittitl ol- llrr' lllirrl orrllrl t t l t t , r r 0 t n r r r lt 0 l l r c r v i r Y cl ' r o t ' r i s t i l t c r l t o $ i t r t l s t l t C t l c n s t ' r l r o c l l ' . 'l'lri. r , r | . t , r . t l l t c o r y o f r g z o I I i s l r C c l t r l c t t t o t t s t r i t t c < lt l l o r o l t r l < l f o r i l l r r s t r r r t i r l gt h c \ l o t i o n rI. \('u'l)irrgrrtttl n r ( ) l( . , r \ l r Y t o l r c ' t - ' r t sh c a r t l i n t l c c l l r l l . i n c s . : r n t l i t t r t ' l l l o t t l l irl tllt' I'll('ll()lllcl)()lrlf 'l'htrs of tlrt' \lolt'r'ttlr's of',\ir "\it {bllorr's that tlrc :Icthcr w2rvcs itr r;rclirr corrtin, nt.. i \ c-o lr v 'l'his coustic-'\ttrltr'lirttl:('ottt-irrlrlttioltr,i'tllr'\\-irvt' ' is also rcrluirctl t c l t g r r r l , l r l r l o 1 t ; t s st l l r o u g h t h c g l r l l r c . o i t l l r i v c r s r t I ( , r r r l i t r r t t o r l l r v I ) t ' l - i t r i t t 'L l t l r o r l t l o r v l x ' 1 l r r n ( ) ln r ( ) l r 5 r ' l l r s l i c i t l ' o f t h c a c t h c r ' ( : 6 8 9 1 2 I 6 o o o o o l : , r p c r i t l r ( ' l ls t r t i r r l i tl i l l g o f l ) t l t r ) l l t ' l t l t ' ' l l r r I t ' l l i { ) l l 1 tirrrls gr',,irlr lhrttt tltttt of a.ir irl proportion to its dcrlsity' 'l'lrc l l r l i l r g r r r r r r ' l ; r l r ' \ - [ i ] l r r s t r : r l t 'is l < ' o t r s i t l c r i t l r l c ' < l t t r l i l i 1 , ^ - l 1 il1 r l o l s n ( ) l l ) ( ' r t t t i l t t l l r c i L l < n t h c c o n t i r t u i t y o f t h a t t n c c l i r ' t t r l l t h c s r t v e - t h c r l r t ' r t l - ; t c r l r t s l i t ' l l l t r l l ( t i ( ) l s ' o r l < t ' t lr t t t t i r V t l l t ' .\ r'rt:t trtitss rlf tlllscrl'ctl lllrctlotrlt:tilt conncctc(l \vith \ ( i n r r ; r 7 . l t t t l t r r t t p r r l r l i s l l c r l t r l l l . i l l l l t i l l ) l ) ( ' : t r ; l t l ( ' o '1 - t l l r ' \ ' ' S S l l l t 5 l ) ( ) 1 5 . 1 t i r g 1 t , l i r . : t O r l 1[ I, l r O I t ( ' i t t r t l I ' ) l t r t I C ] . l r r C l l tl ) O i l l t Sr tt,t:r; 'l'hc \ - 1 . I ' r t p t ' r s o t r t l t t ' . \ r ' l l l c r . . ' \ \ ; r . ; o , . 5 r - 1 o ,\ o r anrl s'lt'"'tls re itltll<lst a to t'llr'1r,,,lvr;ttri, \\'iI\'{':fr()lll tlte'Srrrl. J r r n . ,t 9 : : . r i t r r . r , s s r rl n 'i I i r , . i n g t l t 0 L l r r t l t . i l t t ( l t l t t t s t t r e s i t r t r . t l t a t l c o t t s l l ' lironr lht slrttlt' ol- tllit lrgtrrr' \\'(rlllil\ tttltlit' ortl lllt' u'avcs itlso ltrc o l i . t ' r ' r ' it i ; t 1 r t l l p r t i r l t : < l l o t t r g l o l r t " l - h c s c r s l l r l r r r i , o l l l t I r l i s t r r r l r ; r r r , . 0.1 - l l t 0 l r i r l r t r r - t i c l c isn r t t ' 0 t t s 1 i r ' i l r c l l r r l r o r r lt l r c l , , t r r t l lt t s i n c l i t ' i t l c riil l t l l c ' t ' t ' l t : i l r i r t Cl r l r t < : t r t a l t o t r s 1 i r 1 p r r . l i 6 r r .q l t i , . l t l l l ( ' { ' \ : l (l l y t t t t : t l 6 g 3 t t : 6 i l l t ' r l i s l t l t ' l l ; t l l t t ' s \loott s \lt'rtll IIotioll, llrst lirrrlrrllatctl l11' A:cztt(oilbt rrf tlrr' o f t h t r r c l l r lr ( ) 1 1 \i l t l l t r ' r l l t v r ' l l r t r l r v c l l ' g r l t v i l l t t i . r t root7, l;ttt lirst t'xlrllrinc(l i))'tllc l)r(:scIlt rvritcr, I)cc'lo, 'l'hlon' \\'llvcs1r()lll('itll('r ' I . I 1 \ \ ' i l l l r t ' s t ' r ' t ll l t r t l r t s l l l c s o t t t r t l of Itllvsical Iiorccs, l ' l l c r ' 1rt t t l v n i rr t t i r ' \ \ r a v r : r r .r ( r . l l ( c r ) 1 r ( ' ^ \ ' o r . \ ' ' .l r ( 1 \ ' r t l l ( { ' l l t l o t r gllllr l l l l l l l o o l t s l l l c r lu i l h ( ' i l r l ) o l l . rr)t-. vol.I. ()tlt.rLllls r l i ( ) r i r l c ,i r g ; r s 1 r , ' l t v i t 'lrl t i r n r r i r . 1 l t 1 * ' : t v c ' i l l t l l t ' l l i r (,. \oiv lltc ltlrrlvc ct'lcstill lrllt'ttolttcnirinvrllving x'ltvcs lillirlq t l l r i r t 1 t r 6 r ' r ' r ' r l i 1 gi r r o r r g l r l l t l l t t ' ; t y i t ' r g l l s C o t l sr l l t ' t l i L r r r irr tirt rtt'lht'r t'rlrrt:sponcl cxltctlr- rvith tltc rvitvc thctlry of 'l'hrr: in tntr' pllt.r: o1 1lrt'u'ltvctllt' rlistLtrlltrtt'r' tIc llrllrion:. rrcouslir'it1tr;ti'tiltl, lts ilirrstrlrtctl itlrove. ,'\tld sinc'c il('otlstic orrtsirlc titlrcr g)olrc i. ltltcitrl ol' tllrrt plts.ilrg llrl.orrgll tltltt ,ttr;rr.liorr is ir ttrlgilrlC Ilhllot)tcl)olr Of our litlrorltorics, i n t , r l n t , r s s : t l t r ' r e s t r l t i s l t s t ' r i c s o 1 ' t t l l t r l l l r l l c t l s l t l t ' r ii r l r p t t l s c s l . l t i l l t r l i r y i r c . t l c r r l t r v i t h r l c l l n i t c l v , i t l p r c c : i s e l l l c i l s t l r e l l l e l l t s , c x t . r t r . r li r t r l l t i r l s u l r ' c s s i o t t( ) t 1t l l ( ' r t ' l t r o f l l l t ' . l r l t l l 6 o t t : .r v l t i r ' l t r r r l r r r i l l i n g o l ' t r o t t i r c s l i g h t c s t t l o u b t , i t i s j u s t l - v c i t c c l a s a n ()ll 1ll(' Irrc cl:l5ti(.prr.t1lr1rn1s vit,lrlirtg lrlllsi.lrl r('il('1lolr5 o r 6 l r j 1 r . 1 i y c l t . r r t 6 1 - s t r r t i o l t 1 ' t h c t r u e l r c l - r a y i o ro f t h e i t e t l l c r 1 ' a v c s u holt' trltssc'.. prrssittg tltrotrqh iul(l rcfrirctctl about the hc:rvenlv bodies' 'l'ltesc lrltllootts roil('t to tllc tttlt'ollrPctrslrtctlrgitlrtiorls 'l'1,,' r,i,'.,' tht'orv of trnivcrsal gralitation thercfore is arnply :. o r i n t l ) u l s c s i n t h c i r r t ' i r r s : r t t t t l l l r t ' r C l r o t t l l t lo f c i t l l ( ' r l r r t l l o o t l C o n f l r . r r l r , <rl r . r ' x P c r i n r c n t s o f t t n c l o t r l l t c d v a l i d i t v , r v h i c h a c l n l i t l 'l'hrrs thc' I)rcssrlrc is i'<rcirsctl lrc'otttl i s t o s l r r r < l st h e o t h c r ! ol- ottc itttt'rprctatiotl ltntl otllv onc. either balloon, b1'thc s'rtvt's 1'rottlthc otltt'r u'orl<itlg tlrc rtir lillrtttuatiotis of the l'Ioon's llcan tz.'l'he tht. l)itlloons, llll(i gritrltrrrllrl)irrtiClCS out ll-<tnt lrct$'CCtt t ' s t r r l r l i s h c < lb v l : ( ' i t t . o / n l ' l 9 o 9 ' p o i n t t o t h c \lo1ir,tr iransferring thcnr :rrounrl to thc re:rr'. ri'hCrt' sliglrt irrltLtlst's \ \ I r rv r ' I - l r < ' o r t ' . ( l c \ - c l o l ) c ( lu ' i t h t h e l r a s s i r l g o f c l t c h \ \ ' l l v c o f s o L t t l t l A t ' c o r arc 'l'his s t r l r j c c t h a s b c c t l c i i s c r - r s s e da t l e n g t h i n l o l r ' r t r t e I clingll-, lrri this i)rocessof u'irr.c rrgitrltio', u l)rrrtiirl rirr('f.ctiolr o 1 ' r r r v I ' , l t ' r ' t r r r t l l u l l t n i c\ V i l v c - ' f h e o r . v -o f l ) h v s i c a l I i o r c c s , r 9 r 7 ; tclrsion irr tht' lintl t l e v c l o p s - l , e t , t ' c c t - rt h c l ) l r l l o o n s , r . i c l r l i n g i r

44r
but

Sonclcrnunrmer

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at tha.t tinrc the pror-rfs of thc u'avc-thcon' s'crc tnnch lcss conrplctc tlnn thcv rrc no\\r) ltnrl thcrcforc rvc shall bling thc rrrgrrnrcnt ul) t() tlrrtc, lrv it fcu' t ttttsiclcrlttions, *'hicl-t s h o r r l r l l r c ' b o r n c i r r r n i t t c l i t t t h c 1 r t ' c s c r r tt.l r n ' . r . I t i s r r o r v f u l l v r c c o g n i z c ( l t h t t r : r r l i o u ' i t . r ' c so f t l t c o lcngth of thor.rsirtrris f Inctt'cs, s'hic:h itrc c'nrplovctl irt lottg i clistancr:lmnsnri.siott, go thrortgit thc I')rrrt.lrlsclf. llt:siclrl con('{rrts t'on,,t'r'r'rl lr1' sLrt'h u'lvcs ilrc ltcrLrrl irt clcclr tnitrt:s, u. l)itlsl)rlrg concc:t ltclrrrl I r r r r l c l l ' n i n t l i s t l t r t c o n t i n c t . r t sin (lLk'rrtt:r, u (i)ricrigo collccrt in XIcillournc) c1('. Antl s f i n a l l i ' s i g n a l s f r o n r t l ' r c L i l f i t l ' t : t t c ' J ' o r r , c : r -a t l l o r r l c r t t t x , t r s i t t g u'u','c lcngtlts of :2..5 i<nr, rvcrc lrt:ltrrl rtl thr: ittttipotit's, lt('llr (lhathalrr Isllttrrl, s.rnrc f,oo trrilcs crtst of \cs. Zcltlrrttrl. z . ' l ' h c o n l l ' s ' a 1 ' \ \ ' c ( i t l r t ' x l r l i t i n t h c s c 1 t ' l t c t r o r r r c ' li's t u lrr, r,,,,,,*t-ttrtng thlt 1 h c u ' i t v t ' s 1 r r r v tl l l t r o u g ) t t h r : l i i r r . . t h itsell, but at ir slo*'t:t ltrtcc tltrtrr tlrrottglr tlrc air, os'itrg to thc i n c r c a s t : < ll c s i . l r r r r r ' c o 1 'l l r r ' : o l i r l g l o l r c . l t t t r l t h c l c l r v t h c r v : r v r : l i - o r r t i s l ; c n t r r r o u n r l l l r c I ' , r rlrl r . r ' r ' r ' n t o t . l r r ri r n t i p o c l c s , a 1 . 'l'hc (,'hathanr Islantl. tlrcorv of tltis lnovclrlcl)t is cxrrctlv s i n r i l u r 1 o t h i r t o i ' J i g l r t f i r r o t r g h i t p r i , , t t t ,r t r t r lr v i r s f i r s t p r r l r l i s h r : r l l r v r r r c i r r A N . 5 o . 1 , 1p . . 5 r , i \ l r n ' , r r , t : o . . A t ' r ' o l r l i r r g l ivl - g n t v i l i r l i o t t , l r c c l u c t ( ) \ \ ' 1 . \ ' r ' s ,l l r c s c n ' r t v t ' s s ' i l l r r l s o l r r : l r c t r t i n 1 l : r s s i t t t : t h r o u g l r t h c l ' l r r r l l r ,r r n r l t l t r r s t l r c S u n ' s r t r : t i o t to t t t l r r ' \ l o o n rvill lrc lcss u'ht'rr orrr srrtcllitt' is irr or rrclrr llrt slr;rrlrru,ol' thc Illrrth, irs :rt tlrc litrrt ol- lttnrrr t'r'lipscs. t l 3 . ' l l r i s s t t l , i r ' , 'r v r t sl l r s l l o r r r ' 1 t r : t t l r o t t l r l I ) r . / t - ./ : . / i , t / 1 / t n . q c r , t n r ( r ' ( ) \ \ ' n ( ' ( ll l r i z c l r t r r t : g t t n r l I ) i s : r ' r ' l l r 1 i o n l. r l l l l ' I t n i v c r s i t v o 1 - \ l r r n i , l r . r ( ) r : . r ) r i n l ( ' ( l i r r I ' r r ' i l r r r r g .r ( ) rl . trcrttr'il tlrr' ;rrolrllnt . c i r r l l i r l l r ' . l r t : r l i r l r r o l l l n r l l l r l r t : r r l t h t t x P c r ' 1 r ' r 1r r o l i r c i n g l r r l r l c t o r l i s c o r t ' r 1 - r ' o r rt r r r ' \ l o i r n ' s r r r o t i o n t l r c t l t c l r l t i c i r l c c l i l r s c c r ' < ' i c st o r r t s p o n c l i n g t o t l r t - ' o l r s c r v t ' c l l l t t t ' t t u t t i n n * . I r r I l L r t : t l l l r o r r g l r / l r ' / / 1 t 1 1 , t , , ,t i r ,

fror.n olrsen'ations rccorcled in tlie chronology of the era of /\ialtotta.r.rttr. \lodcln invcstigators thcrcforc arc unable to foundation, basccl on rlcrrv tirc vrr'liriilr.o1'thcir obscnration:r1 'I'hc onlv rvlry they can cv:rdc the tirc lccorrls of rioo vcars. rurgurlclrt llrilt rrp in rgr6-r7 is to holcl that tlie I'loon's urotiorr lrrs rro rcqrrlar pcriorlir:ity. t\Iczt.,cottlt, lJrozun ttxl otllcrs ilr(' on rccortl, ltos'cvcr, as vcrif\ ing tl-re periodicity, t b r - l l r c i r l c s c : r i ' r ' l r cisr t l r e l u n u r t h c o r r ' , r v i t h t h c c y c l c s a b o v c 'l')rcl s p , r i i cr : o n f l r l c t r t l y f t h c s e o b s c r v c d f l u c t r r : r t i o n s o citr:rl. a lir\\'\.('ilr'\ lri'lirrc Irliscovcrcd thc tlrcorctical cyclcs of ri r : < ' l i p s r : st t r i l r i , h t l r t ' i ' r l c l t c n c l . hcsitatcs to Lrpholcl tircory a s. If rrorv l'rol-r:ssorBrozatt. v ) r r v h i c l rl r , ' i r r r l i r ' ; r l c r i l,t r l i d n o t c l c d u c c , rw c n r a ) r v c l l d i s n r i s s t l r r : r l i s c r r . s i o l r s i l ( ' l l s co [ R r o z a n , r 9 I 4 , v e r s l r sI ] r o z u t t , t t l z o . 'I'lrr' \ l o o r r c o r r t i n r . r c s c l c l r a r tr Ll i t t l c f r o n r i t s l ) r c c l i ( ' t c ( l to . ; r s r r t . l r c r c c ( ' l r lc ( ' l i l ) s ct r N c r v Y o t - ) <J, a n . 2 4 , r 9 2 < . i l lrJrrcr'. o n l r c n i 1 l r r o i ' r ' r lt o l r r r a i r o u t - l " l r c h i r r r l f i t s c i r l , : u l a t c rp l a c c . l 'l'his 'l-hc l c s r r l l s l r r i r i .t h i r l l l r c o l c l t h c o r v i s r l r : f c c t i v c . s onlv l r c r r 'l r o 1 , rl' l r c r l f i r r c l i c s i r r t h c l u n r t r c r ' l i p s rr: ' y ,l 1 * , u ' i t l r r h i ' f l l i r c r r r c l i r ' : r l r r rr r r l i o n s i r r r , 1 . o i , ( ) t . i a a 6 , l t n r l : 7 7 . 5 ( )\ ' c l r r s , r v o r l i c ro r r l l r v n r t i n t 9 r i . l ( r . l ' l r c I l r t l r c t i r ' : r l l l t r c t u l t l . i o n s h t t s < l c < l u c c rllc : n ' c n o t l lc o u l s l : r r r r l i n t { ; r r , , r n r rr v t r v c c n h c y c a r s r S z g : t n c lr 9 o 9 - , 3 o t ( \ ' ( ' r u ' s ) 1 1 h r ' l r r ' : l r n o r l c r r tr c ( ' o r c l s r v l r i r : hi s l n u c h i n c x c c s s ltc o f r " o r i r l n r ( ) : l : " . I c r t t ' t t ' t o r . l i c v t :t h i r t t h c l a t r : r r c : c o l r l s it u u ' i l l 1 , r ' r n ; r 1 ri 'rrr l l l r l i f l ' r ' r - r ' n f , t l r c L t r n l r r l r l c ' u l r r t i o t t s ' c r r : , r i t l ) l - ( ) l ) r , r 'rlr\ l r i , l o n 1 . I 1 i s n r ( ) s t r n l r r o l r r r l rtlh 'r L tt l r c \ l o o t t
r r' ' i1 u r r L r l r i. r r r l r l t r l . r l r ' 1 r , 1 1 - 1 1 1 1 1r1 r ' ] t : : l t o s t t l r t - o c c u l t r t l i o t t s :itt,, tt,,s^. 'I'altlcs, r9z.u, i. I'ro1', .',r' /:. ll'. /it,,;,'tts \t'rt i,ttttitr 'I'al;lcs gii r' ,rnlr vclr .liglrt rlilli'rcnt'cs lront //ott.rctz's of th<: \t itlrcr r,f tlrcsr: tirlrlls rcrtlll, rcPrcscnt thc \loon, 's5i. : r t t r r r l r r r r l i r r r ro l - t l r c ] I o o n . , , \ s f i t r l r a c l t a s r 8 7 3 N t t t t r o t n l l : l r l

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u S o t t c l c r t r r t 't r t c r

446

cncr[l)' dLreto absorption. He calls this factor /, and dcduccs for tlrc l'lrrrtlr, (roo) l 5 - _r f r 6 o o o o . 'l'he 'I'his cxltlair-rs thc nrcthod of proccrlurc. r r. absorption cocfficiclrt is z, ancl frorn rvha.t rvc lirlor'r'of u'a'r'c rlotion itr gcncritl, tltrougltout naturc, this cocfficicllt is not zcro. tltolrgir it rnav be I'cry small' .[,ct us cxltttrittc thc problcll'r in anothcr ri'itv. Is tirc l S u n ' s g r i r v i t r t t i o r r i ra c t i o n o t r t h c \ I o o n c o l . t s t a r l ti,n s p i l c o f s'avcs itr llassing throtrgh thc tl-rcbcnriins of thc gravitirtiorrrLl mass? I )ocs t.tot thc intcrllositioll of thc I'lltrth's tlrrss I:lartl-r's clcflct:tiotl, in the lrath of thc Sun's \\'ilvcs,rr'ith thcir rcfrirctiol-t, clccrcirscthcir action otl thc \{oon at absorption, t"rcccssarill' thc tirnc of eclipscs,- as 6rst cotlsitlcrccll;y ))'t/l/ttt,gt:r' t912, l t ' c t f i r s t p l o v c c l b 1 ' t t t c , r g r 7 , f r o r l l t h t : t : r L r c f i ts t u c l l ' o f c < ' l i l l s c l o c 1 ' c l c s l ' t h c r c r l L r i r c tp c r i o t l s ? I t s c c t n sr l i l f i c u l t i f n o t i r n p o ' . s i b l ct o d o l y t h e v a r i r r l r i l i t t ' o f t h t ' i r r t c r l r r l f o r t h c r t l t n t c t i o t t :l r n r l t l l t l s \ \ ' c l l r a t vp t t t , r r s t r r n [ i r n r t ' t]l r v l l r c t ' t : l i p s tr' ' t t l t s :
Ii oi

reachcclx, )', i, \1'ehave for the exccss ofits velocity over the f i r s t y ; r r r t i c l ct l t c c o n t p o n c n t s : (1oz) dzufdt'dt duldt'dt duftlt'dt rl'hilc thc cornponcnts of tire change of velocity of the original particlc rrre

duft\t'rlt dufdt'dt

dzafdt'dt.

particle, in spacc, T'lrt: chrrtgc in thc position of the ng11i is cxprt'ssccllry d/dr, atrcl rcmains inviiriable, while the changc of vclocitv of tlrc origirrrLlparticlc d/dr is in rcspect to a particle of' thc'lluirl rclirtivclv to anothcr particlc. Hence u'e have Scicntific Papcrs, vol. II, -4.468), for irr lrricf (,c[. '1,/arzuc//, : r n \ ' ( ' o n r l ) o n c n to f t l ' r c v c l o c i t y r z : (to+) f t \ u l r \ t : < l u f < l t+ u < l u d " t + u d u f d y + u , d u f d z ; rrrrrl if tlrc rnotion is vcrl' strta.ll,the tcrms z dufdx, a duf cl1', ';t, Lltr,'t1-., ctc., tlirninish in rcl:rtive inrPortance, and ultirnatcly

d u l r \ t 4 v f6 7.

(I o5,)

d .t R1 d ( z ) l 6 r : | / : 2 t , t ' . .r1 . . l , r \ ( 1, ' ,, t . o o -x[r,rel

9 x o < l Pc l g< l y s i n P c o s 7c :
'l'hc

rl

:;

:/- c( ) ct

) ::l zcli. (ror)

\\'avc Proccss ltt rvork ill acott:tic rlttril('tiolr r z. ( { l ' )j l l I ' ' l ) lcrrrls srrpport 1o thc :rbolc crluittiotr. d(z'ilit trcccssrtrilv is t) 2 (to;) c l ( ) ! d t - a 2 ( t ) 2 { D f A .-x 20 2 t | ) 1 0+,a 2 O f a t 2 ) . c c l i l l s c c r - < ' l c si t r t l l c o r t ' t i t ' r r l lirriab)c, rtnrl <'otrllrttrcrll;r'thc llu l h i . , , , r r r l i t i r ) 1 1 r y l r c o t h c n v i s c c x p r c s s e di n t h c f o r l r r p e r i o r l s o 1 ' r S . o . i l c l t r s , 6 I . 7 o o ( r v c l r s , l t t r < 1 : 7 7 . . 5 r 1 r ' c r t r sI ()thcrrvisc lrrtu'rtrt'l'c ' o t o e x p l l t i t l s t t r ' l l t ' l o s t ' l l t ' r ' o r t l l t t t t ' r o l - 1l r . i r r r ' ,lr , ,l , j lj 1 1 - 1 't l r c J i t t c - i n t c g r a lf o r t h e c i r c u l a t i o n: i lrttu'ccrt olr:r.r'r'irlionlrntl tltt'orr'? rrnroLrnt of crrtttiott *'ill jrlstil,rt ltt irrvcstigattlr itr t r v i n g t o c l t ' n l t l t c ' , ' r t r t r t ' , t f t l t c l t l t l l t t ' f l t t c l . t r l t t i o t r st ,l t t t s l t r ' < ( ' o r . n r t c ( l i r r o t r v r r l i t l c t l i p : t ' r ' r ' r ' l t ' :t l r t t i t l g l r r t < ' l t < l t l t t : l t g t : o f t l t t r \o

\ott' /.o.qrattq'rctrrttrt'iittcdthc irnportant theorem tllat i l ' i r r r r r r r ' p r r r t o f r L l l t r i c l t t t l L s sf,o r l l l l y I n o l n c n t , a p c r f c c t t l i f f c r c n t i r r lc x i s t s , s r t c h t h a t (ro6) ud:i:+td)'+?u13':l{D . tliffcrcntial rvill hold for all subsequent time. thcn llri' pcrllct 'l lris conrliti<)ncnslrrcs a stca(ly state of tl-rcfluicl llrass, stritlrlrlc to tlrc' rtnilorr)r l)ropagatiot'tof rvitl'cs,ttnclcr -Pars-razl's

,)[,[' u,l. t z.,tl1'+rurl)]f dt:"

(ro8)

o r t l r , l i r r , ' i n i l g r ' , r l o 1 ' l l r t ' t r r l t g c t l t i l L lc o l n p o n c n t v c l o c i t . l ' r l t r o r r r r r l r n v r ' l o s t r l , t t r v t ' o 1 ' l t t t t r l v i l l g I l r t i r l r c l l l l r i t r sc o n s t i l l l t 'l-)ris lirlc-inttglll is knorvn as thc t l r r o L r g l r r l rr r l l t i n r r ' . t G r e c l i s , i u r c l t ' < l r r f i r t n c r ll r v l r t l r o n t t o t v t ' x l l c r i t r l c t . t t s i t r s o r t t l r l , lirlr: lrovillg rvith thc ( ' i l r t I ' c r i f i ' ; t r t t l i l l L r . t r l r t c 1 1 11 l i ' 1 o 1 " 1 1 1 1 sr l < i t - t g c i r c n l r r l i o n . r u t r l h t t r c t t i t t r i t t v c l o s c d nli ' r.hiclt itnv olrc ( . j l l t l l t : r - l t s t ' o 1 - { l r r i r l t i r c c i r c L t l r t l i o trrc t t t l t i t r s - o } l 5 t i r l l to r r ) . [ r l r / r : o tirc lrcntling of tltc l'avcs visilrlc to tllc t'r-c. lts o . \ r c o r r l i n g l r ' , s ' l t c t r t h c c x r L c tt l i f f e r c n t i a l c x i s l s , t l r c r ; r r l i o u ' r L v c ' s b s c r v t : t i t o l r e l r t ' t ' t t r t r o t t t t r ' lt l l t l g l o l r t l l o l l l c 'l'o r to6) r i t ' r t , vs u c l t t ' r ' i r l c l r c c i s t o r c j c <l t l l t ' l r c s t r : x p c r t lntiporlt:s. 1 . z z 1 . r -z , c r ,. 1z r , 1 5- a l ( ) < f' l

r r t t ' t t t r t l < l r t t r t i t t l i g h t , r l r < 1 i ot c l c g r l l l i l r r - . l t t t t l t l l , t 1 t " ' 1 1 ' r r l : l l r c l c i o c i l r ' i n r u r v r l i r c c t i o t - t . its x p r c s s c t l r r - t h e c n l r c s p o n d i n g s o r . r n t l :l t t t r l l l t t t s t c t d c n r - t l l c l l l a i n c s l c i ' i < l c t l c e o l r r r l l \ { l r \ r ' : , r r r t c 'o l ' , l r r n t t ' 1 v f r / ) , u ' h i c l l i s l r l l r : r l t l l c v c : l o c i t l - ' p o t c n t i a l . l ' s'hcn the intlicltions:lrc srll)J)or1cdx'sr:r'r'rirl inrlr-'1rt'lltlt'tltI s c i c n c c sI

t h c r t l ' o r i ' l i r r s r r c l t c o l l s t ' v i t L i v u l l l {) \ t ' l } l r ' l l [ ) u n c l c r s t c i l c l r ' : c o n r l i l i o r r s , r s i r t n ' r t \ , cJ ) r o l ) a g l t t l o :l l a + r l r r r r l . ri . r l , ' , . 1 t 1 . r '1 i t , i i 1- ( ' 2 q ) ! ? t 2 ? 2 ( l ) , i ? ) ,t2 2 ( D l a 2 2 . ( r " , 1 ) I (] Part IIL The Velocity-Potential r/t, with Solution of tlne Fourier-Poisson Partial Differential Equation in h \ \ ' l r t r r l h t ' l l t r i r i i s i t r c o r n p r c s s i l r lt c i s i n t c g r a l r : o r . r t r r l the Case of \faves from more than one Centre: the l r r ' l o s c r it i r c r r i t .i s ( ' \ ' l l t t ( ' s ( ' ( ' l )l1 ,t r t l t h c l l l o l - I l c n t t l l l ) 1 i l i c t h e , L State of the Aether trnder the unlimited series of c i r c r r l ; r l i o n , s z t ' r o ; l r L r tf r l r l t t ' o n t l l t ' c s s i l . r li r r i < 1l,l t c c x i s l c t l r : c l c i \Zaves from the Stars of the Sidereal Universe leads o 1 -r r v r ' l o c i l r ' - p o t t ' t r t i l dl) t l o c s r t o t i r r l l l l v c v a n c s c t ' n c c f t l l r : o r to an Infinite Integral, which may be integ;rated by i n t c g r i r l l i r r t l r t ' n r ( ) r l r c l t t t t t t lt ' o t l n c la c l o s c d c i r c u i t ( c f . L o r d the Process of Sttccessive Approximations' / l , t - t , / t ' t ' . r : / t , ' l ' l t t ' o n ' o l ' S o t t u " l l e ( I . . 1 3 9 ( r ,v o l . : , P 1 l .8 9 ) ' nt', 'l-hc c l s c o 1 - t l t cl r c t h c r , l i o r v c v c r ,t h e f l u i c l i s s o n e a r l y In thc c I ) l r 1 ' s i c lS i g t r i f i c r r n c o f t h c \ r c l o c i t r ' l 1.1. ' l ' h c o r c l t t ' alrsolrrtclv itrr:onrprcssiblcthat the :rbor-e thcorenls rvill holcl, 1 ) o t c n t i a l ( / ) ,i n - ' \ c r c o r trrl t t c cs ' i t h f ' o , g r a t t g c ' s r r n c ls ' r ' t n r t v t i r l i c r l ( D t o b c e s s c n t i i l l l vr l n c x a c t d i f f c r c n t i a l ; z c l . r ' - l - a c l t ' + z r , d z : cf lo r) t h c l t o t i o n o f I : l u i r l s . 0 so tlri I thc vclocitt' in anr- clirct:lion is cxpresscrl bv thc thcorcrll irllplicllblc to thc tlloliotts ' rl.{ rctrrrrrl<a.lt1e corrcsponcling ratr: of changc of d), alld thcreforc flrricls n'rs first cntrnciatcd b.v I'o.grattge. Sr.rllposcthrrt for Az2 ' (r Io) + r\n,f rlzlrl.r' t 6f7,/111, dz:A2Qf 6rz 132rDf0y2+02{Df cr a n v p a r t o f a 1 ' l L r i n l a s s ,\ \ ' c e x P r c s st h c v c l o c i t v ( o l r r p o n c n t s pp.39r-392, the Lct tts no\\'consi(ler,as in AN 5o85, , e., of thc particlc in tcntts of the t:oorrlit.tittcs -.1', irll(l thc 'l-hcn if aftcr tt strtall intcrval dl, a tleu' particltr has rnotion of a s'at,c across & closed surface' such as a spherc of tinre /.

++7

S o n t l c r t r r t t t t nr t tr

. r r R ++v

'I-hcn t h c r a t c o f t h c l l o s ' o f t h c f l L r i c l thus llrc cncrgv carl not bc lost, but only transfornrecl b1' radius /, ,g:4tr2. / l t o u t u ' a r c l , a c r o s s t h c c l e t r r c t - tc l. S , 1 r t ' c o t t r c s1 1 . ! ' 1r1 ) / r 1 , r u, .' \ r l d u ' l r v t ', h r r n g c s . .\ rlcflnitc ploof that.clrcrgf is not lost in thc aclhcr is u ' h o r t h c c l c n s i t vi s c o n s t a n t .t h c t o t r l l o s s o f f l u i < l i r r l i r r r c < l l f firrnishcd lx'tlrc llrr'of thc irncrsc squa.rcs:or olrscn'rrtiot-t i , s g i v c n l r t t h c r l o t r l r l ci n t c g r r r l: s l r o u ' s t l l r t t h i s l r L l . h o l r l s r i g o r o r r s l \ 't n r c b e t n ' c c n t h c S L r n z (r r t) r\(,,!, ,i 13,l r\r: .[,[a rlr,'rt ' ct.! d I ;r l a i r n r l r r l r o c l r ' : r t l l d i s t a n c c s . I t \ \ . o u l cn o t d o s o , h o l v c v c r ,i f a n ) ' l d i r c c x t c t r r l c t lo v c r t l t ( r c t t t i r t ' s t t r f a c t r c n c r g v r , r ' r . r co s t i n t r l n s n r i s s i o n t o i n c r c a s e c i i s t a n c c . r r ' h c r c t h c i t t t r ' g t ' a t i o tits t o I'roof of this nray bc drarvn frorn thc motion of ccrt:rin ,9 - q.;r 12. 'I'his bocll'has mrdc nearll' 3o c o l n ( . t s ,s u c l r r r s f l a / / e y ' s . N o s ' u , h c t r t h c s p h c l c s t t r f a c c S i s f i r l l l r o t l ' La t t l ' r c r c v o l r r t i o n s s i n c e i t u ' a s f i r s t o b s e n ' e < lb e f o r e t h c b e g i n n i n g l r c g i n n i n g a n c l a t t h c c n r l o f < l l , t h c l o s s o 1 - f l r r i c lv l r r l i s h c s , 'l'lre r e c o r c l so f t h c c a r l l ' r c v o l u t i o l t s , of tlrc ('lrristian lira. so tl'rat t o l r r : s r r r c ,l u ' c t o o v a g l l c t o g i v e r c l i a b l c d a t a o n t h c o r t r i t a l ( r r z ) nrrrtiorr.r'et sinc'cthc tinrc of Nezalon, rvhcn cxact data becarne t \ ( ! , n r 3 ) l 6 t : fI a r n 1 r t , , ' d< l z : o c , ^S '[-lrc for rtr itrt'otnprcssiblelluirl a v i r i l l l r ) c , t h r t ' c r c r - o l u t i o n sh a v e b c c n c a r c f u l l y f o l l o r v e d , a s crlrurtiotr of contir-ruit1', - s'ithout l r l c r l u c c clll - o n rt h c s p a c i r r c l c t r c n t < l . r< l t 'r l z , L r t t t l ctrh i s c o t ' r r l i t i o r t t h c c o n r r . tr c c c r l c r la r v r t ' t o g r e a t c l e p t h si n s p a c c , force fronr rlisclosing tlrc snrallest <leviation of the zr"ttractir,e o f n o l o s s o l l l L r i r ll ( ' r ( ) s s t h c b o t t n t l l r r v , i s t h c l r r r vo f t h c i n v c r s c s q u a r c s . T h e s a m e l a r v i s t e s t c c li n t h e (l) ;2.t2+ [)2 () A2I)l? z2- o (tt:) ?2 lA),2+ o nrolior-r f tlrc grcat conrctsof r68o, r84r and r832, rr'hicir o r l r r i c f l r ' ! r r / t: o . h a r l r r r r L r s u a l ls'r r a l l p c r i h c l i o n c l i s t a n c c s . l r\nrl ls J'oisson's cquation of rr'avc nrotiotr is ,\n<l rs rvas pointcrl oLrt by Alczalon and Lalla'e, tb.c (, r.t) f l r i t v o l ' t h t : J r c r i h c l i o no f a p l a n c t o f a p p r c c i a b l c c c c c n t r i c i t l A2()le/2 ' ,22f e d) ( / ) : 6 c l c l u r l c s t h c t ' x i s t c t t c co f t v r t v c s , l ' t . h i s i s t l r c n r o s l < l c l i c l t c t c s t o f t h c r i g o r o f t l - r eN c u ' t o n i a n l a s ' . i \\'c scc thrLtf2 t . . \ s l l r r ' o u t s t i r t t c l i n gp r o g r c s s i o t 'n i t l t c I ' c r i h e l i o n o f I { c r c u r v c o r - r r l i t i o rh c l r l r - i g o r o u s l yf o r t h c t i r r r c t l l . r xl i s 1 , r ' r ' l - r ' r 'it' l v r l a i n c d b y t h c r r ' a v c - t h c o r r('A N - 5 0 4 3 )w c h a v c , \ \ ' h c r c f o r c r v c c o n c l u r l cl h r L t i n t r i n c r s i n g t h c s u r f a r : c' t , i n t l r ' t h r t : c c c n t u r i c s o f o b s c n ' a t i o n so f t h i s r a p i t l l v r c v o l v i n g r ir t h c c ' o r r < l i l i o r n ( r r z ) s ' i l l l r o l < lf o r t h c r l ' r t v c1 - r o n t h c c c t t t r c l r o r l r ' , s ' h i t ' h a l s o t r a v c l s i n t h c n r o s t c c c c n t r i c o r l r i t o f a n 1 ' r l l . t h c l r c g i n n i n g l r t t r la l s o r t t t l t t ' t ' r r r l o f t h c t i r r r r : l l , c o r r c - p l a r r c t , t l r c n r o s t c l c l i c a t ct c s t o f t h c r i g o r o f t h c l a r v o f t h c ' s l r o n c l i n gt o l l r r - p l o p r t g i t t i o t to f i l \ \ ' i I v c t h r o u g h a l l i t s p h l r s c s , invt'r.r: s(llrlr('s. In vicrv of thc lr.rnarfluctuatiotts, s-hcn thc o v c r t h u l ' r r v c - l c n g t l t 7 . , u ' h i i ' h r t ' p r e s c l t t s i t < ' o t l l t l c t c c t s - S r r n ' s g r r r v i t ; r t i o n r ru - a . v c s . r c t r a . n s m i t t c dt h r o u g h t h e l i n r t h , a l cillationof thr: llrritl. a s i r l t h t ' t i r n r - o 1 - i r r n u rc c l i p s c s ,t l t c l a r v o f N e z a t o n p c r f c c t l y l l r . r t f o r s h o r t c r i n t c r r , a i s , t h c c q u a t i o t t ( r r : ) s ' i l l t r o t a ( ' ( ' ( ) u n l sf o r t l r c n r o t i o t r o f M e r c u r y ' s p e r i h e l i o n ( c f . A N h o l d r i g o r o L r s l y l s o t h a t t c n r P o r a r i l v , o v c r a n i n t c n ' r t l I c s s .5o.1fi, L1.i . p. tlrrrr tlrt: rvavc frcqucn q, r : 2n I ,, : )"f [./, thcrc is lroth slight of thc Diffcrcntial Iiquation r4. Intcgrltion conrprcssibility and :r llorv of tl'rc lluid across thc lrotrttclary 'l'hcorv of thc \relocity- l)otcntial for Ior (l) in tlrc -= "t .+tr r-:, atl<I, for rll' .. t rvt: ltitvc : \\lrrvcs in thr' ,\cthcr.

clS t\(.\;r,ir'\)lr\r:,1 ,1'rtotlat cl/: :l,tlzr

(".s)

u'hcrc rllr is tlrr: totitl fluicl tcnrporarilv lost, ltt inlirtitcsitttll nrrss positivc or ltcgrltl\-c. ' \ c c o r r l i n g l r ' , i r . tt h c u ' l r v c n r o t i o n o f t h c a c t l t c r , t h c r c i s s l i g h t c o n r p r c s s i l r i l i t l ' , ta n r l a n r i n u t e t c m p o r a r y r i r t l i r t lr r r o t i o t r ) of thc fltrid rlocs trrkc pllcc. Ilcnt:c u.c cannot hlrvc llurcly in translcrsc lnotiolr, its itssrttrrr:r'l thc traclitiotlitl forrrt of thc rvavc-thcorv of light rlLrc to J;rcsnt/ an'cl ()au,:/t)'. 'I-his c t discrrssion ornprchcntls hc points of cliicf intcrcst i n r c s p c c t t o t h c u c t h c r ' ,s ' i t i c h h a s a n e l a s t i c i t y 6 8 9 - l z r ( r o o o o o tin'rcs grcatcr thau that of air in proportion to its clcnsitv. I t i s i n t h i s u l t i n r l r t c n r c r l i u n r t h a t t l ' r cr v a v c s o f g r a v i t a t i o n , rnagnctisln, clcctrociynarnics, light anci radiant hcat :rrc t r a n s r n i t t c r l . N o o t h c r n t c c l i u m u n c l c r l i c st h e a c t h c r , l t l , l

Irr tirc \cs"l'hcorv of the Acthcr, AN 5r3o, pp. 233 z8(r, u'c shos' tlrirt thc' trcatnrcnt of the velocity-potcntial O) takcs 'I'hcory of Souncl and other thc |onn uscrl lrr' ,l'oissottin the r clastir: rrcclia:

()2 f At2 : a2 \a2@f A* + A2 I Ayz+ 02@ 0z2l A 0 | q) - !) (..\', r, / ) (t: !) (t, y, z) t:o . )',

(r r6)

form used by f;ourter, in the Thiorie Anaiyor tlrc cqr,rir,irlr:nt t i q r r t :d c l r L C I t a l c u r , r 8 z r :

("2) A'1Of A/2:a2 \A2OfA*+A2OfA),2 +02Ol0z2l , O : f ( . x) ' , t , t ' ) Q : f ( r , y , z ) / : o . rvc In thc tl'rcoryof rvaves, havc for plane *'avesalong thc .r'-axis: -r) + c] (rr8) ),: .l sinlztrl)"'(l:t

r 1 I l c r . a r r s ct h c c l a s t i c i t v o f t h c a c t h c r . e - 6 S 9 q z r ( r o o o o o t i n r c s g r c r t c r l l r l n t h a t o f a i r i n p r o p o r t i o n t o i t s d e n s i t y , e n o r m o u s a s ']'hrrs thc acthcr can srrstain thc action of nnv forccs. hou'ever great, vet it undergocs some conlit is. js n6t rcally inGnitc. lrrtssionan<lrarclactionalroutgrcatlrinary'sttrs,anclaborrtanvstarfrrllrllsthclarvofclensity6:vr,orvingtothcccntralinkm ,.,",,." ,ri tlrc sirr.c anrplittr<lrs. And thc 1\'av('s arc cvcrvl'hcrc proprtgrrtcrl rvith the cnorlnous, r'ct finite velocity, I/:36oooo ptr sccond, tlrc vclocitl of thc aetlteron l;cing 47r z-io krn. I n A N , 5l3 r ro . t r { a 1 , 2 3 , r 9 : . 5 , I ' r o f c s s o r ^ \ ' . . r l f o h o r o z ' i l i i h a s r s r r g e c s l i v e l ) a p c r r v h i c h r v a s p r c s c n t e d t o t h e S t . S t e p h a n A c a d -l r7 laltcst' F c b r . z j , r 9 u - 5 . I I c q u o t c s m \ ' . , ' . 1 , , s2 . , - r / r n r o - 1 . 5 7 I ' - 4 7 r 2 3 9 k t n s e c - r , a s c o n f o r m i n g t o t h c r c r e a r c h c s rrf Scicnccs, of L'.,.!.tllchius (t-,'i,cr dic I)ichtc dcs Acthcrs unrl ilrrc Bczichung ztr l'lanrtrscben Konstantc, S.8 Gijt. kungl. Vet. och Vitt.2=424263 km sec-'. Samh. Hancll. Ii. Jr, \X\/III: 5 G r i t c l r o r g l g : 4 ) , 1 . c t L y s o m c \ ' h a t d i f f c r c n t y r r c m i s c sh i m s c l f d e d u c e s z : t r o l 'I-lrcsc tirc Aether, l92o-22. nervcr restarches shorv notr'ble progrcss sincc tlrc pulrlication of thc Nerv Thcorl'of

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( i o r n . 1 r o u n d i n go f t h c v c l o c i t y - p o t e n t i a l s f o r T h i s i s i r < l o r r b l cr l u i n t u p l c i n t c g r a l , i r n r l l x ' r c f c r r i n g t o t h c c q u i r t i o n s( r : : ' t o r ' ( r z 5 ) t r l r o v c \ \ ' c s c c t h r r t .( r : 7 ) c o r r r : s l t o n c l s t w o \ \ ' u l c , c c 1 t1 c s , l i k e a S u n a n d p l a n e t , p l a n e t r t o l s i n g l c n o r r - n r r p l ci r - r l c g r l l i n t h c o r i g i n n l f o r r n o f t h c s c ; n ) ( l s : l t l l l i t e , o r r r l r i n a r y s t a r . 'I'hc c ( l t r a t i o l r s ,l r c c ' r L r r sttl 't c r l i s t r r r l r a l t c c s t ) u s t b c c . o n c c i v c r lt o l vclocity-potcntial for a singlc centrc of disturbancc p r o c c c d 1 ' r o r r r l r r ' 1a t o t ) t o f t l t c n I r s s , C r Ira.sthc fornt :
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t N o r r i n , , , , , r r , l , ' r , , ' , ' ,r r n i l r . r s c , s r r t ' h i n r i c p e n r l c n l g n r - t t ; . . t i . i n t t h a t f o r t w o s u c h c c n t r c s , h c w a v e so f w h i c h rnLrtuall)r interpcnctratc,thc 'clocity-potentials would be of litatior-ral\\'itvcs ntust lrc irtragint'rlto procccrl fnrrl tltc scvcrll thc typcs atoms of all boclics \\'hatsocvcr'.just irs ligltt u'avcs clo flotl c : r c l tl r t o r no f t l t t : s c l f ' - l r r n r i r r o tg r r s c s t ft h < rs t l L r s .r \ r . r : o r - r l i r r g l y , rs < (l) =. !) (.'.\:,,v,.,1) ()' : !)' (t',1i,2',t) (r:o) s u c h i n t c g r a t i o n h i r s t o l r t ' e- x t c n c l c t t o t l t c r i i r v c s l l - o n r : r l l l or q) - !) (r + a / (:.os6, at sin9 sinot, z * al sin6 cosar,/) J,* l l a s s c s s ( ' \ ' c r i l l l ) : i u t t l a s t h c r c i s a r r i n f i n i t L r c l c f l r o r l i c s ,t h c ; o 0 ) ' : ! ) ' l : t ' - t a l c o s 0 tf + a t s i o d s i n r , r ,e ' + a t s i n d c o s r , r , / ) . r c s u l t i s r r n i n t c g l i t l i n f l n i t c l v r c 1 - r c l t c r o r. u n i n f i n i l c i n t c q r a . i , '1
t h o L r g ht l r c v a l r r t . o f t i t c r l i s t r t r l r : m c t ' r ' r : r n i t ifnn i t c r t r v c r \ . is point of sl)rcr'. I,'or it is clclr lthvsic:rlly and gcomctrically that / is colrnroll 1o lroth c\l)rcssions, rvhile thc coordir-rates(r, !, t') 3o

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',r''.,r".:') q ) . . . 9 ( x , . 1 ,z , / ) + - Q '( r ' , nnrl alc rliflcrcnt in the tu'o wavc-ficlcls, rving to o , ! ' , z ' , t ) f : r D ( r + r D ' ). ( t : r ) [r t l r r ' 1 l ; 1 1 ' , ' r ' ,o" ,i g i n s o f t h c < l i s t u r l ) t r n r , ' tl' t , p o i n t s y ' t t t t r - l ' ' . .r s y I-ilit'nisc, for thc sccondar)\\'11\'c centre, 'I'ht-rcfon., (D'-- !)' (..r' r r s / i s s i n r u i t u n c o r r s , h c t s ' o c q L r a t i o n sf o r t h c r t , J/, z' , t) lr * -Q(.r:, z, t)]: rD'( + A\ ' ( ' : ' ) _r, 'l'hr,' : c i ) i l r i r t c v c l o c ' i t r ' p o t c r r t i t t l sl r c ( ' ( ) n n ( ' ( t c r ll ^ ' l L r c l l r t j o n l i r r l intcgral form for thc vclocitl'-potential a doublc. in rlcnoting thc rloulrlc rvtrvc-lrclris hir'h intr_.r'pcltctrirtc: u r v i i v c - l l r ' l r h u s l r c c o n t c:s tl
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t h c i n t c g m t i o n t o b c c ' r t t ' n r l r ' r loler titc trr'o ficlcl o n e : r l t c r t h c o t l t c r , s ' h i c h c l o u l r l e s c x t u p l e i n t c g r a t i o n r v i l l i n c l u d c a l l s t h c c o o r r l i n l r t c sr u n r l t h t ' i r . i r n r r l t a n c o t : sc h l n g c s i r r c i c l c n tt o t h c c l o u l r l cintcr-ltorctration of the tvavcs. I l t l r c c c n t r e o f r l i s tr r r i r i r n c c l r r : o f I i n i tc r l i n r c n s i o r r sn c l t r r ' l l r lr i . i t h i n r s r : r f c c o f s c n s i b l ed i r n c n s i o n s ,/ 2 , d . r , r ' \ . ' e i l s lttLlst ntofc()\'('r c x t t t r r l t l r c i n t r' s r r t i o n f o r t h c r ' o lrrnrcrol' tlrc r,ilr-lting l l r r t t c r :
r t r _ A t I ' t I' t I' E P E P P . r'' tlz sind cl| r|,,il e\.'r I /j // 1\ | -r . r/r,(:.-, (; rli. t l 1 r i i r l l . r l , , r l r ' : : I . 1 ' t . t . I .l . t 1, .l .l .l Irr
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o o o N s o t h l r t s ' c s h o L r l r l ] l r v c i r r l o r r l r l r : r t o t r n u 1 ' l i c i r r t t ' g r a l o f t l t c i rb o v t ' of thc nlrsscs nt it'nd nt':
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t ' , t . t / . , f , f ' . il' ( " - r ) 2 r ( / ) , ) 2 r ( r - r ) , 1 - ' , , ; r t , rr-t r r l :

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l l l '

In lhc t'lsc ol tu,o stlr.rs, tltt'r-<.srrltiutt fort.c "/i is not < l i l c r : t r . r lt o r v r r r r l s c i t h c r l > o r l r , ,c x c c l ) 1 .a , t l l r c c n c l s o f t h c i o n g e r ( r l()) rr:is ril-1hc ligrrrc, rvhcrc tlic clirections ol- thc lbrccs coincirlc 'l'lris u ' i t h t l r r ' l i n t ' r ' o r r n c r . t i n gt ' h c l r o c l i c s . I n : r l l o t l t c r l r o i n t . / i t'xllnrssion holrls lrrrc rigororrslr.onlt' lirr rrrrirlrrt. p o i t t l s l r c l l ' l t ' r r l l t c l l ) 1 l s s c si,r s s l t o r i l l r r . t h c \ . ( ' ( ' l o r s . 1 l : g ( ' ( ) lrl l t o i n t l - i r v c c o n r r l o t i o n s , r r " l t i c l r r r r r s lt r r . r ' - r t c r r r l t : ) \ ' i n 1 ( ' g r i t l i o n r n r ' r ' j r ' ; r l l v o r r r l r o u n c l c irn l l r c r l i a g r l n r i . I ' l l r t c \ . J J . 1 c l t o r r i l t h r ' n ) i l t 1 ( ' r t r c i r c i t o l ' t l t c t u ' o s t i t r s .i f t l t c q h o l r . o l ' t l r t : i

@ - ! ) ( t , , r , z , / ) l r r - r l ' ( . t ', t ' , z ' , l ' t t t ( ) - , = ' ( a : ' ,) , ' , 5 ' , t ) | r + - ( J ( . r , . r:';,,/ ) l . 9

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l r . 5 .S o r r r r ' ( i c o , , , , , r i , , , i l t o l r l i r t r t l r ; r t l l t r \ \ - . ir , I r r r r ' ( ) r , l t, , ' 1 \ , 1 1 r 1 1 . , . .

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l , i l s l : \ ( , l r o i n 1 o r r t t l t r L tt l t t . l l r * ' o l t l r r : i r t v l r s c s r l l t , u . r . s l r o l r l s l ' o r l l t c g l r n i l r r l i o n i i l u ' u r ' ( ' so f c l r r : l t l t o d y a l l t l l ltoints s i t i o n s l t o r r n i n l l r r . o r i l t ' rl ) i l t t . l l l t ( l l r r . l l t r . r ' i s i l r lsl t r l t r . l t i n gl r r r r i ( ) l \ l ) r ( ( ' . r r r r r l 1 l r I r r ' l i r I r 'i n g t o n r c t r i c a l r : o r n l l o s i t j o nr i ' i r r . r I r ' t , r c l i s t o r t i o n o f t h c s r r r l l r t ' r ' sr r . l s t ' r ' r r l t c s l ; r r : . ; r r r r il l r r . r . r o u t l i n g l 1 llrcsr,u lrvcs tlulrrtllv intcrllct-tt:tr:rtc. 'l t o g c t h c r o f l l r c s r r r f i t t ' c s i n t l t c r c g i o n s o 1 - i r t r . r r ' ; r s r , rll) r ( , s s u 1 . ( . l r t i l l r r s t r r r t i r r nb r t h c < : r o s s c c t i o t r o l - 1 h c * : r r . t . r r r o t i o r . r l s b c l o n d t h c n r . o r r t h c r : x t r t ' n r i t i c so f l l t t ' l r o r i z o n t r r l r r r i s . r r t t l r c s r n - l : r < ' r . s ' l n t r l s , r r l r c t t r l vr l i s c u s s c c a l t o r . c , r r l r r . r . i c l r l ^\ l 'l'hc u s i r n r ( ) r ( ' g - r . r r r ' r i ri ln f c r c n c c r i ' h i c h i s o f s r r c h h i g h i n r l r o r t l u r . c c q r r i y r o t c r r t i l r ls u r l l c c s I t c n : s l t o r i ' r t u l r t ' l r r s l g i l c n rrs to lrc ri'or'lltv of'thc ciLrefitl attcntior-r of gconttlcrs. in 7-/ton.iott unrl 7'ti1's'l'rciLtisc on \rrtrrriri ['lrilosolrhr-. r-t 'l'ltcl crlitiorr. rli7.3. r r r c r l r r r u . n f r o r n , \ ' t . , z t , / o t r ' ls u . o f g n r r . i u r. \\'c sct' thrrt thc cross scctiolt of thc lrrrrplitrrclcof t a t i o u , t r c l t t t ' r l s i n t l r l v r r s r r l l c t , u ' i t h o r r l r c g i r r ( 1 t o t l t c r ' t r u : c iul,v \ril\'o n)trrtcvcr, lLt clistanr:cs /l ur-rrl r, /l bcing the solar u n ( l c r l y i n g t h i i t f o r c r ' . \ ' r ' l t l t c l u < ' t t h i t t t h c v c r ' 1 . o r i l l s t t . ( , s s ( ' s r - u < l i r r : .( ) r l u t v t ' o r r v c n i c n t m u l t i l ; l c t l t c r c o f , a n d / . : l n v I i t r g L - r i n t l r c a c l l r t ' l ' i l r ( ' g ( ' { ) l ) r c t l i c ' i r l l rt .. o n r p o u n c l l l r l c . s o ; L s t o g i l c , J r l r r n t : t r r r r( l i s t r l l r ( ' c , I b l l o u ' s t l t c l a * ' . r : . \ ( / l f r ) 2 , r v h a t e v c r l r r : t h e s e r l i s t o r t c t i - . L r r f l r c c s l.r o i n t s i t . r c o n t t ' s t t r l r l r . t o L l r t ' r r . l r v c - t l t t ' t l i s t r r n c c s s c p a r i r t i n g t l r c s ' u v c s u r f i r c c s i n f r c c s p i r c r : . thcorl of gr;tvitation. In rcct'<1it'rgront t'rrclr o1'tltc strrrs, Aci'orrlingll'tlic f u'irvcs frorn cvcrv ccntrc conlornr to this thr s'irves ncccsslrilr- s'otrlri rcrtt.t lrtrvitrrls lltosc r.cntrcs. r v i t h f o r c c s l ) r o l ) o r t i o r i r l l t o t h c r n t r s s c s ,i n t o t l r c s r l r u r r . co f t h c I r r r v o 1 ' t l r r : i r r v r ' r - s cs ( l u a r c s , u ' h i c h h o l r l , s r i g o r o u s l l ' t r r . r et h r o L r g h orrt tlrc ulrivcrsc of frcc at:tht r.

453

.Sort clc:rttnrurner

454

2. Now lct us inraginc \\.a\.cs tutuallv intcrpcr-rctrlt.ing To n 1 t ' l l t l r t , J l o . n d a . i l r . a l t o u to u r E a r t h r e q u i r e s t h e e x c r t i o n fror.', slrr', oppositc rlirct:tir,s: tht'rr it. is r:r.itlcrt, ll.orr tltis o 1 - t l r c l i r l l c 1r,*c'.f 5oooooooooooo ables of stecla foot i' r i g o r o u s g c o r n c t r i c i r l l l t r v o f \ \ . i t v c - c x l ) i l l r s i o nt,l r a t a s c a < . l r cliar'ctcr, ri lrc:rr clrr.h s(l'arc inch of it woulcl lift 3o tolts. '*'rr'c *'ill sci)il'iltcl\'lirllori'tltc lit*., thc rcstrltant of thi: r\rcl to lrolrl .'r.L,rrrtlr i. its orbit, therc r.voulcl have io lrc:r' c o n r ' l r i n a t i o n s f l ' r r ' c n r o t i o n s t ' h n l r g h o u t s p a c c , l i l i r : r r ' i s c r r -irtr:h c:rlrlc of' such o stccl on crch sqr.la.rc foot of a cross u'ill cotrfornr to tlrr: l;rs's of rr.rlvccxPan-sion frcnr tlrc scl)ilnlt.c s c c t i o n o f o r r r g J o l r c ,- - t h u s p r l c t i c a l l y c o v c r i n g our Earth ccnt r('s. o v c r s o l i t l n i t l r s u c h t t i g h t l v c r o r v c l c d o r e s t o f s t c c l c a b l c s_ f '1-lrc \ \ ' l l v c s n r c c v c r l ' n - h c r cn r u t r u r l l v i n e o r n l r i n : r t i o n , l l l s t r c t c h e r i t o t h < : l i n r i t o f t h c i r t c r . r s i l c t r c n g t h ! 3. s a c c o r r l i n gt o t h c l l r * ' o f t l r c i ' r ' c r s c s q l l i l r c s . ' l ' h c g c o ' c t r i r . r l (lr) \ori'onc of tltc ntost rcntarliablc facts l<no.w,n to c o n l p o n c n t s ,r ' i c l r l i n g t l r c t . * ' o ' c ( ' l ( ) r l r i l g n i t r r r l c s .r t . p r c s c n t i n g r r s i s t h r l r r l l l t . r r g l r\ \ . r ' s ( ' ( ' t l r c p h y s i c , l r i . o r l c b y m e a n s o f l t l t t ' f r r r . t ' s l i r t ' r ' t . r ll ' t l t t ' t * . l r , r l i t ' sr r r: t n r l , t , ; r r . r , l 'l l r r :t 1 - p . : l l r c r l r r . l l t r . r ' u r r v r . s r l l r i l t q l t r c 1 , c s , 1 . ct tl t r . t r c t h c ri t s c l f i s r o p t ' r l i ' r ' t l ' i r r ' i s i l r l r ' . ' l l r . r r r < ' r l i . ' r p u l l i n g l r c t * . c c nt h c p l a . r - r c t s I J / / is lcss.'isilrlc t.o rrr.rtrrl sight than slriclcr x,cbs stictchccl / - t'l-it;r.'I'hat ri.r.ss th. pi:rr.rctirr',' slrrccs! coulcl hold true only if :,f.f.[ tt' .,)" (1' -,t''r2 (, - r)'] ' o rl.r' tlz + tll thc lrctltc'r \\'crc cltonnouslv clastic, ca.paltleof renewin5, its ( ' : l i ) strcsscsi:rstrrrrtJy, r-ct so supcrfinc .nrl that its w,vcs penetrate t f'- _ i)I''f ')/'-t h c h c a r - c n l r .l r o < l i c s , v i t h o r r t r c s i s t i n g t h c i r o r b i t a l m o t i o n s . r ' ri'rt.r.' ctz' -,f r(/t'-1,'',2 *1,' ''),1 <\,' ,1.'if(a'-,1": ..\rrrl tltc acthcr is shos-tr to havc thcsc properties! This r \ r t r l t h c g c o n r c t r i c a l r . o n r p o s i l . i o nf o l l o r v s t h c l : r r v r u r r l c r s i t w h o l l y i n v i s i b i c a n r l a l s o n o n - c l i s r u p t i b l e y a n y b / c f . , \ \ . 5 r . 1 op . r o . 5 ) : l.rccs to ri'hir'h it r.r.y bc subjcr:tcclu.clcr the atiraction of thc , g i r r n t n l r s s c so l - t h c s t a r s . /i2 -- ( /t2nt f 12)2-t (./'2 f r' 2)2+- z (/r2 rz': (.I! ut' ! r' 2) (:os il?' tn f /, 'l (I39) ( r :r l r c c l r r s t i c i t yo f t l . r c a c t l i c r i s 6 g 9 3 z r f i o o o o ot i r . n e s c o s T : ( r r ' + ) ' ) ' ' 1 -2 2 , " 1 1 r r ' grc.tcr thrr' th;rt ol irir in proportion to its clc'sitr.. \\rc notice l v h i c h i s i l l u s t n r t c r l r l r o r , ' c ,i n t h c l i r l r c e i p g f i g L t r c , I , l a t c V I I , t h a t c v c n t h c s l r r s s i s h ; r i r i s n o t c a s i l y c l i s r u p t c c ls i n c e t o s t l r t , 7 l r c i r r g t h t : . r r g l . i r . t . r v t ' r 't.i r . r - l r r l i'ic ' r ' t . r . s r l r r r * ' r 1 - r - . r r . / , v i o l t ' n t u r r v l s i r r i t u . c r c r l u i r c t h e : t c t i o n o f a h i g h c x p i o s i l c . to thc tn-o stirrs. I. r'ic*' ol' lhis (''r)r'l.olrs clasticity it is thcrclbrc al'rr>st 'l'lrt: -1. r l c ( ) l r ( ' 1 r i r . lc J n r p o s i t i o rjrr r s t r l r . s r . r i b c cs k n o u , r r i n f i t c l y r r . r . t l i f l l . r r l t t o s t . l r t v i o l c n t r v i L v e s n t h e a c t h c r ro il i t o t a ] i c p J r r c c r v i l l t r i { . r o r r ' i r ' ( . 1 1 l - i L ( .'\l ' l.t c c r l L t i p o t c n t i l r lt h : r n i t i o t r l l i r . I r l r r l ,o n t h c o t h c r h a n r l , r v h c n w a v e s o n c c s r t r f l t c c s c o r n p t r t r t r i J - i - , , l n l t ( . l , r t . n f g r i r r . i t i r t i o n l t v ] , o r r l r ' . r i s t i n t h r : : r l t l r r . r t l r t ' r ' r . a n r . r o ltt c c l c s t r o y c d ,s i n c e t no fincr A - c / i , i r t , r 3 7 . 3 . r r n r l n r i r . r r r t c l rr-. c r - i f i c r l r r l t h c ! r t s . o f v c c t o r - rrt'rlirrnr rr.rlt'rli.s tht'rrcthcr. 'I'hc rva'cs rnay bc transforn-rccl c o n r y r o s i t i o n s h o * ' s t h r : r : o i n c i r l t . n c ro f t h c . s c t $ . O r c s r r l t s a t r r r r l r . r u * ' c r l . i r t l r i s r v r r ' c , r c c l i ' n r , y c t t h c y t r a v c l i ' c c s s a r t l y , , : all points rf sprrcc. 'l'his coircirl.ncc is lln o'.^r'holrri.g tts J;ouriLr srrr.s.1'r.rl.iaut hctLt, and tl-rcrclty:rrc alrv.ys argulncnt for thc u'ln.c-thcor)' of grln'itution gcrrr-'nrtingurrrl sustlrininq tltc for<'csohscrvcd to ltc at s,oilr 'l'hc l ' a v c t l r c o n - , i r n t l l t o o t h c r t l t c o r v r v h i r t c v c r ,n . i l l l n l L l t u f c . c x p l , i . t h c p c r - f c c tc o i r r c i t l . n c c , f t l r c s L r r f r r c cas o v c r l c r l r r c c r l .b (tlJ 'l lrc I't'lcir.itv l- 1hc s,lr.c-ntotion in frcc o spacc is f r o r ' t h c l a * . o f g r r r ' i t , t i o r , ( r l . i t . h o L rrtr : g r L r c lo t h c c . r r s r : i o o o o o I i r n t y r c r s c r . o n c l .r u r r l t h l r t o f t h c a c t h c r o n s r . 5 7 t / i r r - o l ' c r l ) , r v i t h t l r r : s r : r 1 . c t ' s ' h i < ' h r v o L r l rr c s u l t 1 l . o r ' t l r c l : r r v : 4 7 r 2 3 t ) l < r n , * l or :91ooo nrilcs. \\'ith this cnorntous spccci o f ' r ' t ' t . r c o r ' p o s i t i o . . L - r r < l c r h . * . r , c - t b c ' r y h c r c s c t f o r t h , o 1 - h r : r r c t l r t ' r - ( ) . . ( ': t ' c t t \\ t l r r r t t h c . c t h c r a l * . a r . sn r a i n t a i n si l s c l f . a s t l r c : r h t ' s i c r r 'l l r L r s c . l ' r r a i r t . r . . , r l g r . i r ' i t i r t ti h,i .s, r : o i n . i r l . , t . c i n a s t a t c c ; f l i i n c t i r . r ' , l u i l i l r r i r r n r . ' I ' h c t r I nicdiurn cannot be i s y r c r f c c tt h r o r r g h o l t r r l l s p r r c g ,t l t c c x t c l t o f r . v h i c I i s : rlisrtrPtccl,orvi.g to thc crornrous vclocity of the aetherons. r - \ 1 N T f t h r : r n r , t l i . . r \ \ , c r - c r , a l ) r . c l i s p l a c c dr ' t * . o u l c l r c s t o r e i t s c l f l N r , . t ' P P irr a.'rillio.th of rr scc'orcl,anrl yct such an acljustmcnt u,oulcl .\ I I l,lr.,lr',1:-Scol (A)...(rao) lrc u'holly invisilrlr:. In the casc of lightning clischargc, -N -.tu _\ rvhi.h rcprcs'rts thc rclcasc of accumul'tecl wa'c stresics r \ r r l t l r c r c t . r c t l r i s ' c r i f i c r l t r i P l ' c x t c . c l c c lc o ' c o . l . . c c on Llir-r drops, u.hcn tltcir sizc is grori,ing, thc ja.rring of thc At cvL.rv point of sl)rcc, rln infinit1. of thc third orclcr to ot.rc, J : ) r r l h i ' r l i c r r t t ' sh o r v t r - . l y t h c . c t h c r i s i n c o n r r n . t i o n t h r o u g h is thc .h.rrc. that llrc ri'ir'c-thcoryrf l)r.sc.ts thc tr.c ordcr or)t our ph1'sit:alrvorlcl. of nrturc, r'or.npurc<l an\. othcr thcorv ri.hich rright bc to (e) tr1orcor.'cr, thc high vclocitl, of thc actl.rcronsabor.e s u g g c sc ( 1 . l n r c n t i o n c r lm n r l c r - s h c r r c t h c rn o n - r c s i s t i n gt o t h c p l a n c t s a n d t S c c o r t r l : I r r v i c u ' , r l -t h c g c o r r r c t r i c i rl I L r n r l l r t i o na l r e a c l v b s sirnilrrr urrifortnlv nror.ir.rgboclics. Ilut as thc planets havc expllinccl P o i n t i n g r r n n r i s t l r l i a l r l vt o t h c r r . r L v c - t l t c o r )i.t, r v a v e - l l c l c l s : r l t o r r tt h c m , r i . h i c h .irs are carrierl alone in their o n l v l c m l t i n s t o l s s i g t r s r ) n r rl' r l r \ . \ i { ; r iq r . L r n , l s u , l t r . t . h r t . h c o r v : .rllitrrl nroti<'r.,lht:r. lrriscs a. rcl.clj.stnrcnt of thc rvave_ficlcl o l ' * - r r ' t ' si . t . l r t ' : r c r h . r ' i s . s p c t ' i r r l l ' s L r irtic t lc x i r r r r i . i r rtg r t : rr r ri'lrcn thc vclocitt'ch;rngcs, ar-rdthis rcacljustrlcnt of thc trc'rc'rlous fort'cs.pt'r.tirg t. lrirrl togcthcr thc hcir'crlr. .otior-r thLrsgi'cs 'isc to incrtia, and r-nomcntutn. The incrti. b o c l i c s ,l r v i r . L r ' s . c . . r c r ' h . . i s . r . * - h i c h I t o i , l s t l r , , r . o r ' t . t s , ot. a body is rlrrc to thc adaptation of tlic rvave-ficld about s a t c l l i t c s , ) l n t t s a n r l s t r r r si n t i r c i r o r l t i t s . p it to the ]1c\\'statc o[ rnotion: and the nrontcntum of a boclr. 'I-hcscr (ir) stupcrnclous forccs urc cquir.iLlcntto thc tcnsilc is rluc to thc adalttation of the lvave-fielcl ol a nrovine bocli. s t r c n g t h o f n t i l l i o n s o f i n t r n c n s c r . a l r l c s f t l - r cs t r o n g c s t s t c c l . to a statc of rcst. o
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thc tirrrc of tYtzt'lott. it has bcen c1ifficr.rlt for lirotr p)rilosophcrs to cxplair-r tlrc irlcrtiir anrl trtotlcntunr of bo<lics' in his clav i\tczr,lr,n tooli thcsc larvs as fttcts, rvithout assigning llecar-tse proballlv of such llhct'rolllcnll, an1' cxplunation o n o t r r r l t l < c u t c l c ' l L r l vt l t c t n o r l c o f o p c r a t i o r l t r r l r l c r l r . i n g hc coulcl incrtin anrl nrotnct-tttttn; jrrst ls hc tttitdc 116 1l1'pothcscs r l g r t r r l i t r g l l t t ' t ' r t r . t s c r l f g r l l ' i t l r l i . t l , l r . r ' l l t t s t :l t t ' t ' . t t l r l t l r l t r l i s r . g r , c r t h c . 1 - ; . o c c s s c sr r l r l c . r l v i r r g t l r i s c h i c f l i r r c t : . l - r l i L t t r r ( r . (f) Iironr tht: rlcfirritiort bv no*'. crrllcd thc potcnt.ial: 1.ty'/atc, t 73:, of u lrrtl. is

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rcmains to add a final rvorcl in s L l l ) T r o r - to f t h c u ' r r v c - t h c o r v a n d o f S i r F s a a c N e z a l o t t ' s g c o ' rlctrit'rrl rnctlrocls. rvhich lic at thc basis of thc Principia. 1\:t'zr,/tlr lr'lr.v:rvs rtscrl gcort-rctrical mctl'rods' bccausc the g r r r l i l r r l i o n r r l l - o r r ' t ' sr r r c t l i r c c t c r l t t r a g n i t r t c l c s , c o r r c s l ; o n t l i r - r g l to tht rvlr.r't:.lrcory; atrrl srtch forccs halc to llc conlpoutldccl lrv t'ottrl;lcting thc llar-allclogranl of forcc"^, Il(.()lnolrir'allr', lnrl llrcrr'lrr- lirrrlirrg t.hc ttlagnitrt<lc :ttltl rlirc<:tiorl of thc Tn <'onclrrsion it onlv < l i s t r r r l rn g 1 - o r c t ' . i 'l'lrrr' thc ri'lrolc of Nozu/ott's gcotrlctrical nlcthocl in r. grlrt thr: I'rirr,'ipirr is ittr it'rcornllirrablc argllmcnt b1'that r, l'or llrc u-ltvc-thcorv of gravitation. l{colr('1/

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rvc har-c an intcgrrtl for thc rr'llolc trlrlss of lL boclv, tlivitlcrl lrv tlrc rlistrttrct ol' crtch prrrtit'lc frotn rt fixcrl lloirrt i,a,h, ,:). :. 1'o,rvcrtitro*' tltc tvavc-tlrcory, thus unconsciouslv Accorrlinglv tlrc trip)c intcgrrrl of thtr llott'rltirrlis rcrtllv:r t o l - t l t c s t r C s s c t s l r . t ct o t l t c : i l ) l l t l i t r r r l c s o f t l l c r r , l t v C s s r . r p p o r ' 1 r ' r l r v . \ r ' ; i ' l , , , r r . t l t r o r r g h o r t t t h c I ' r i n c i p i a ' b 1 ' t l ' r c n r o s t srrrtrrtration tttcthor'ls, it l'oultl ir-rfact llc nccessarv Iior tltc lrt*' ol- lrrrplittrrlc. rrtstcrlr-grrontctrilril frorrr all thc pirrticlcs. "l:/tir, I'rirtcipirt, thc hig)rcst rlcvcloprllcnt itr thc to ovlrllrron'tirc applit'rl to crr'.lr atolll lrt its irpllrrlpriltte tlistrttlt'c, givcs tllc jrrstly <leclrrrcd rvill alu'ays l a b o v c t r i p l c i n t . t r g t ' : L t i o t r : t st ' x 1 . c ' t r t l c t1 r l t h c * ' l r o l t : t t t r t s s l r l r v s i , , r 1 s c i c t t ,c s , * ' l i l r - h / ' a y ' 1 a r c lr:rr,r' rrrr intt'rcst sttt-ltassitrgthat of ltn,v othcr :rc'hicvctlletrt ( g ) , ' \ n t l i r t p r o l l o r l i o t l l t s l l l c t o ' { r t l t t l l t s s 1 l l ( ' r ( ' l l s ( r st,h t l , ' l t l t , l t r t t n ; r t it r t l r ' l l r c l . : a c c u n r u l i t t c ( l \ \ : l l v c s t r t ' s s l t l s r r i t l t r t ' l t s ' ' s . s ' l l c t - t t . l l c t l i s t l t " t l r : tz ' r-lllsuspcLlIIt'ltcc tltc potort.ial .;. Srrclr is tlrc int'ott-tplrrablc, though hithcrto frorn tltc attrlrct.crl poirrt is ('.)llslrlllt o1- lhc rv:rvc-thcory of trnivcrsrr"l gravilatiolt, tcrl, slrcngth $ o r i t r . r - r r n l l . r l u l c < l. l t r ' C s t r r ' : s O f f r x u r l l r n t l r ) i t t r t l i : i s P r o p o r t i o r l l r l shori n in this Jrrtpcrto hlrvc t prolr:Lllilitl' itl its fttvor of llrot't' s to thc lrrass <lircctlr-. ,'\ttrl rlt tiifl'crt:lrtclistitrlr:cs 'c st'c frotrr ('ollpill-crl tq ltnv olhcr 1]tr.on' uitic']t corrlrl l t h l t t l t c l r o t c t t t i l r ) o r i l ( ' ( ' l l l l l r l l l l t t ' r* ' l l v t : t h r r r . t z t t 0 0 t o r , thc slptt.forltllir c lrrlt.r l t h r . r C l o r r :i t i s i n C o n t c s t l t l r l Y s t l t l r l i . l l C r ll t s lrc <.Ortr.t'ivC strcss virrics ls tltt: riistltrlcc itlvcrsclv, t-ltic:h is ir prrlof that I r r r i ; r l r l r '{ l t t ' t o r . t l r r ' l l r r v o f t t r t l t t r c . t h c a r n p l i t u c l t :o 1 - t h c $ ' l t v c i s t h c o t l l t l r c l r i t ' f lrrrrlvsis l)rovcs dcfinitclv that thc lrotcntirrl is nothing lltt ittr t'xprt'ssiot"t ftlr tllc \\'itvc strcss ill)l)rol)rlltt(' , t q t i r c p l r s s l t l r r l i t r v t ' r s c< l i s t l t l l c c o r : l t l l l l l i t u t l c . ' l ' l r t ' p r l t c r l t i l t l is thcrcforc rrrtirlLrclf irltrltificrl its :ttl inlcgnltiolr lor lllt' 'l'hc trtrc llittllr(' of lll(' s t . r c s s c sr l u c t r t s t t l r c r l l o s t ' t l \ \ : l l \ ' ( ' s . g 1 - r r r l t c r r l t i t ' s t r c ' s sl i t ' 1 r t ' t r r l i r ro l r t lrott'nlilrl as lttt itltcgr:ttiotr t l r c t l t r s s f c l r l l t t : t l L t t l r l r t ' ro i - 1 1 t c r i l t l t ' : s t t I r ' r I o s I t 1 . l t t t t l O t t , f l h r : i t n t l ; l i t r r r k t s o r i r r v t ' r s ct i i . t ; t t t c t s . i . l l l t r : l l l r t t l , 'r ' 1i l l ' i l l l r l r l r c y o t r c ] ( ' o r r 1o \ ' ( ' l ' s \ ' . 'fhis r r 6 . I r ' , ' c s l i g r r t i o l l o f l t t r l n f r n i t c I n t c g r r t li r r i s r t r g i n t l r t " l ' l r t ' o r v o f t l l r ' . ' \ c ' t h t ' r i i s r . p p l i c r lt o t h c S l i r r s of tlrt'Sitlt'rcrtl [- tlivcr:t. 'l lrr' lltcorv r,1-tilc llltlttlll llttritct.iolls of tllc hcavt:nlv lroriir'.. rnrrl.r lltr' \t'u tot.tllttl lirrr' of tttlivcrsal grlrvitlltion, I r ; r s l ' ' r l 1 r ) l r i l l l v t r r r t i t l r l t r t r l v a n c c s ,I i o t o t l l v i n t l l t : s t r l r l i r l l c s , i , ' n , ' ' o 1 -, , 1 r ' . t i r i l r r r ( ' l(t i l l i i ( ' s , l r r . t .itr l s o i l r t h t l t l r c o r v o f r l i f is 1 ' r ' r l n t i , r l, r 1 L t , r 1 i o t r t t t r l o t h c r i t - n l l o l - t a t r t l o r l l a i r l s o f h i g ) r c r 'l'1rrrs t l r c t t t t t t l t c l t l a t i c i r l l c r l r t i r c t t l t l l . t t so f l t s t r o t l o t r t v lrrr;rlr'.i.. lrrvr' ,'rrriclrcrl gcottrtrtry; ancl in lttrtl tllc itrlllrovctrlctlts itr

I i l t , I I c t u ' c r . t : rg r ( ' 1 1 i t l r r t t l Y t t t : L r ' l r c t t i l l t t l l l ( l l ( ' 1 l ( r l L l r o l r ti t r . i r n l t r l . r , o n i l f i . r i ' t n o r c v i l r n t t i o l l s , r l s t l i t l t l l r t s s l s tlrr' ploc't:sscs of prtrc irnirlvsis llltvt' ttlltrltl llossilrlc tllosc i' C o r r t _ . s P o r t r l i n g l rn C r 0 a s c t l : i l n r l t h u s n ' i t l t t l t c i r l c r r ' ; t s t ' o f l l l t ' pcnt'llrrting lrlrvsit'll rcscart:ltcs,oll tllc ttltttttal ll('tions of tllc gr:tl'itltti'tr 'rass, thc lrotctrtiirlituglll('llts. lln<1tllt: forcc.f h c r r v c n l r - l r o r l i c s , r v h i c h j t r - s t l 1 'r i t l l l i t h c r c c o n c l i t c t l l c o r i c s o f l l g n t C l r t s r . . r 1 ' s p o n r l i n g l r ' ,l r l t ' o r r l i p g t r t t l l c l i t s ' , r f 1 l l 1 s ( l t l i l r ( ' ct'lcstilrl nrt'tllrttit:s :tttlollg thc tllost irlrprcssivc tllotrtllll(lllts 'l t o f t h C : r l t p l i t r r < 1 c . l ' l t i s s r r p c r l t l s i t i < t p. f n l t t ' r ' s i t t c ' t t r r t s t l st t ' o f I l r c h L r r r r r r i n l c l l ( ' ( ' 1 . ' l ' h c r i g o r o L r s l c v c l o p l n c n t o f t l t c t h c o r v proportiottlrllv trl tllc tllltss: altrl ils tllc il('tll('r is il strtss, < r t -r r r i v c r s i r l g l r r v i l r r t i o t l ) s x ' , \ t L z t ' l o t t i t n c l I i u / c r , F a g r , t t t , g t : t r n < I I i g l t l r . c l u s t i c l < i n c t i r :t l ) t ' r l j r r r l r j.t l i t t t t . t o t l.r t l < l i s r r r p t t ' r l r v t l r l / . a y ' l t , c , ( r ' r 2 l r . i .ttl l l ( l / / d ) t . t ( ) t , / ' t z ' t t ' t ' l c r a n r L A r e n ' t o t n h , / d a t n s a t l l l l c t i o l r s O t ' 1 h r ' l t r ' ; t r ' t ' t l l Vl r o t l i | s , l l o $ ' c v t ' r g r t ' l t l t l l l t V l r c ' r r r r r l / . ) t t ' i t , u r , / / i / / .rt-rd /'oittr ar/, nl:rl<c thc crt'lttiotls of tlit'ir ntitsscs. f i ' t r \ c c o r t l i r r g l v i t . i s g r r r l i l - f i r l g 1 o I i l t r t r r 't l t ; r l r v i l l t o t t l thc slightcst <lirttgcrof <lisrtrptioll,thtl:tcthcr ('itll stll)l)ort 'l'itis i s o n c o f t h c < ' l t i r : fp r o l r l c n r . i any 1or.t.crr.ising itr nlrtrrrc. : i t o l t C o r . c r c ' O n r c l l s o l r , i t . t gt h r ' l t r r t i t l c r t l 0 1 - t l t c t ' : t r . l s to l ' t r t l i V t ' r s i t l gra r.itrrtion. 'l'lrcrt'lorl' sitltc tllc lrhvsiciLl grotttlrls irssigtlt'rl li>r tht: of thc Acthcr, ltrt' jtl s'lrvc-thcoLy, frottt thc \cri'['hcorv c v L ' r v u ' a v i r s l t r o l t a l t l r : l t s t h c g c o l r t t ' t r i r ' a l g r o t r t t r ' l s ; i,t t l t l s r t t l l \\'a\'('s ill'c cVCrvn'hctc ollscrvc<l in trlttttrc, $'t: t'otlt'lttrlc tllltt t h c r v a r . c - t h c o r r . u s s i g n s t . h c t n r e c i t u s u r , 1 L r n i r - r ' r s l lg r l r V i t a t i o n . N o o t h t ' r t l r c o r t ' i s a t l n l i s s i l r l c , u ' h t ' n t ' l t r lu ' r t l c - t l r t ' o r f i s l l r o l c l l cr'lcslirrl tnct lltttics tlttt s'ottclcr of strct'cccliug lrgcs!

t I r r l l r c c o t t r s t ' o f t l r i s l r i s t < l r i < ' t l t ' r ' t ' l t l p t l l t li n ti s r c t t r i t r k c t l l h i r t l l r c r r n r t l v t i c : L lI ) r o c c s s c s l t r o u g l r t t o I i g h t , i L n t l a t l c r l g t h pcrfcr'1ctl art'r>1'cxtrcttlc gcuer:rlitr', lrllrl rvcll tdalltcc'l to thc i o l L r t i o n o f 1 h t : p r o b l c l r l s J ) tc s c r r t c ( l b v t h c s o l a r s v s t c m . I t i s t r r r c 1 1 1 t tl | c g c n c l L l l t r o l r l c r t r o f t h r c t t l r r l r l i c sr c m a i n s i n s o l r r l r l c , oq.irrg to tlto lxistcr)cc of infinitr: scrics of solptions for cliffcrgrt r l v n r r n r i c ' r i lc o t t t l i t i o t r s : v c t t h c n l c t h o t l s c l c v c l o p e < ll x ' A ; t r u / o t t , /,a,gr,ttt,qe itn(l thcir succcssors' apply to tl-rc doublc, Iiu/tr, t r i 1 t l r . .r r n r l n t L r l t i p l e s t i l r s , i t n ( l c V e t r g i V c i n < l i c a t i o n s o f s o l u t i o t r s lbri sirlcrciLl s):stclns of higher ortlcr, srtch as tirc globularclristcrs olrscri'ccl in thc l\{ilkr'\\'rrv alrd othcr Portions of

+57

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of thc satcllitcs of Jupitcr and Saturn, that the attractive folcc of thc Sun or of any planet pcnetratcs right through \ o t l ' i t h s t a n c l i r r g t h i s b r i l l i a n t c l c v c l o p n t c n a n d i t s r r , i r l c thc sphcrc of attraction of any otirer bocly: and that thJir t r ry r p l i c a i l i t v t o t h c s v s t o . r . os t h c s i d c r c a lu n i v c r s c ,u r rc x t c n s i . n scvcrrLlattrar:tions nrust bc calculated indcpcndcntl), and then b rf of nrcthocl has ltcconrc ncccssilr)., in clcaling s'ith t.hc c.arrsc c o n r p o r r r r r l r ' <o g c t t h e f o r c c sa t u ' o r k o n t h c s a t c l l i t e s . o m e t s . t 1, c of Lrnivcrsal grrvitut.iolr, unrlcr thc s.itve-thcorv of pl.rr.sic:r.l o r u l l r ^ r I ' o t i i c s . 'l'lris f o r t : c s .* ' h c r c * ' c h l r r - c t o . r . a i l o r r r s c l ' . s o f t h c p : r r t i r t l r l i f is lrs if thc forccs dcpended on wavcs or impulscs l c r . n t i a l c r l r * r t i o r s ,a n r l t l r c l ) r o ( - c s s co f i r - r t c g r i L t i . c l i s c o ' c r c < l irr thc rrcthc'r', n s rvltich \\'as the opinion held by Neza/ott for the lty Foarit:t ttnd 1)ot.r.rott. l i L s tq o y r . r r r s f h i s l i f c , ( r ( t 7 7 - r 7 2 7 ) , $ . i c a r l y a p p c a r s b v o 'l l r t ' n t ' t ' i l l r ; r s t l r r r s r r r . i s c r r i r r t r r r i r t r . t , : s l i g l r l i oo f t l r c . l / t t r ' / , t t l rttt t ' s s t . t ( ' r ) ( ' . t t l r r r t h c c r L r l ' h c k l t h i s v i e w , i n h i . s I n I ' x i s t c n r ' < o l - r r n i n f i n i t c i n t c g l r ) t ' n < . o t r n t c r c riln t h c ' l ' h c o r v ' <'rrrrcslrorrr lcncc rr.ith /)o,t,ltt, r(t78. (,4.[ac Laurin's Accourrt o1'thc '\c1ht'r . l - t l r c I ' l r i l . s . P h i r . , l I ) i s c o v c r i c s f S i r / s a a c N c z u / o n ,L o n c l o n . rvhich hcrt.tolirrc hrLs rcccir.t., lrrrt sliglit I o
luttt,ntion front gcor.rrctcrs. I t t r r r n s o r : t , l r o r i . c v c r ,l l r r r t t l r r . o J)roccsscs f trltltroxirnltion nrt't I'itlr rrnivcrslrllv in tlrt' inlr.gr.irtionsof t.hc Nc.rv '['lrtorv o1-thc Acthcr irrc srinrc*'hlrt l<no*'tt, in lL mttr:h nrrrrc rcstri, tcrl forrr, irr thc rlc'c)oprrr..t rf tlrt' pl:r.ct:rry a.ncllurur. tbcor)., :rntl ntany,thcr lr'r.r.hr.s .f rlirthcnraticltl lnrl plrysicirl s c i c n c : c . \ \ , ' c s h r r l l l l r r . r c f o r r . s t r r r l l , s 1 ' 1 ' 1 . 1 . o,f1 t h c s c c r r i i r : r , n r . J ) r o c . c s s ci s s r r f f i r ' i c n t 1 , 1 , , 1t1 , n ; r l ; 1 . r r s t o L l n f o l ( l l t 1 ,a n t r ) o t t 1 , thr:nc*'cr .xtcrsi.rr.1-:r.ril'sis i. th. hiihcr orrrcr of rl.vclolrnrcrrt rcrlrrircrl itr tlrr. Iiirtr.tir. I'ircrirv o1-thr: .,\ctltcr. I t i s o n l l l r r . s i r r . l r : r r r r n r r l r . s i sr i 1 -l l r c ( r c l r t h i s t o r i r : < J ) r o c c s s c s l f t l t ' n l t n t i c s t l r , r t r r ' , , ' , , , r . 1 , , , 1 , ,l'n 1 1 , 1 1{,-i o l ) l i l l l i l v t o t h c s u c t ' c . s s li 't s t t ' 1 t s t . tl r s t r ' t ' t o n t r i-i n r l : t t l r t l t r . r r r , r t i , ; r r l . r l r . s i r . i ..n A n c l c v c r . rt h c n r l i : s ' c x l r n l t l r . s l r l l s t s c r v r , f i r r t h c r . i r r i o r r . rrt'lhorls of irPproxinr;rtion, t'hicir nrrrl lr. lrttuincrl lrl nr,rnrl l r ( ) c c s s c su r r r l t h t r s i L r c a s l i n t i t l c s s l r s t l t c l i t c r r r t u r r , . I r r r . , t l r , i , r r r r r t i , . r,lr n , l I r l r r ' . i ,r l s t ' i c n , . , ' . r . , . \ s s l r o u ' n a l t o v c , l l r c s c x t u l r J e i r - r t c g r i r l so f J i o u r i t r - / ' o i . r . r a i ur l i l l i . r c n t i a J c r l u i r I i o r r , i 2 0 ) , t , / 2 _ ( r 2i t : 2 q ) t i ' . \ . 2 . i 2 ( D f t t . t , 2 a 2 0 f t ) ] ) t r r D . - J . lr ' , r . . . r:' . / . ! ) 1 ' . r .r., , : ) / .- o tlrc
I ; l \ . l ' r I I , .

the irnmcnsitr, of spacc (cf. I)r-nanrical l'hcory of tlrc Globular ( i i L r s t c r sc t r ' . , I ) r o r ' . \ r r r . l , h i l . S o c . , r g r : ) . , ;

l I n t l r r ' ( l t ' n r . r i LS c l r o l i u r nt o t h c p r i n c i l t i a , r r j , N c z u / o n ' s 7 n r i l t u r ( .o l r i n i o n i s c x l t r c s s c ca s f o l l o * , s : l uFIitlrt'rtori.c hirvc cxplainccl thc phenomcna of thc hcu','cnsirrrtl of orrr s.u by thc Porvcr of gravity, ltut havc not ' c t a s s i g n . ( l t l t . r . i r u : r :. f t h i s p o w c r . ' f h i s i s c c r t . i n , t h a t i t ltrust J)ro('cc(l fronr a caus| tlrlrt J)cnctnrtcsto thc very ccntres o l - l h c s r r t rl r t r l I J a n c t s , r v i t l r o r r ts u f f c r i n q t h c l c l r s t d i m i r - r u t i o n of its for<'c; thlt opcrirtcsrtot ltcr.orrlirrgo thc quantit), of t t l r c s . r f t r r : c s f t h c P a r t i c l c su l ) o l r * . h i r . h i t . i . t s ( : r s m c c h a n i c a l o ( ' ; r L r s cu s . t o r l o ) , l r L r ta r ; c o r r l i n g o t h c r l u a n t i t r -o f t h e s o l i r l s t n r l t l c r t r l r i c h t h c l ' c o n t l t i n , a n r l p r o p t L g u t c si t s r . i r t u c o n ; r l l s i r l c st r i . r r . o . r s c c l i s t . r ' r c c s ,l c c r c a s i n g l u ' a y s i r - rt h c c l ' p l i c . t . c a l r r o p o r li . r r o 1 ' t l r c r l i s t a n c - c s .G r a v i t a t i o n t o l v a r c l st h c s L r n i s r r r r r l t ' r i l r . r r t o l - t h c g r r r v i t i r t i o n t o $ ' a K I st h c s c v c r a lp a r t i c l c s s o f s ' h i c l r l i r c l r o r i l o f t l r r : s r r n i s c o n - r p o s c r la n d i n i c c c c l i n g ; i l ' . r r t i r r ' : r l . ( l c ( ' r 1 ' r s . sr . r ' r r * t c l ' i n t i r c r l . f l i c a t e p r o p o r t i o ' ; .f tltc tli.trr.r..s ;rs i'irr rrs thc orlt of Strt..rn, as e'identlv l l l ) [ ) o r l r si - r o n r t h t ' r l r r i r , s r - r ' n c c t h c : r p h c l i a o f t l r c p l : r n c t s ; of t . t : t t ' r t t t r l ( ' \ ' ( ' nl ( ) t l t t r c l l o t c s t : r P h c l i a o f t h c c o n l e t s , i f t l t o s c , r r J r ) r c l ir r ' ( . l l s r ) r l r r i c s c c n t . l l u t h i t h c r t o I h a v c n o t b c c n rr : t l r l . t . r l i s . o ' t : r t l r c r . ' . u s co f t h c s c p r o p c r t i c s o f g r a ' i t r . f r o ' r pircrrorrcn;r.rnrl I frirrnt:no lrvpothcscs.rr l

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i .1..\r'r'orrlinglr'.t. lrppc;rrs thitl .\'rtt,/ott crprcssiv c n t p h : t s i z lts r c l t c r t c t r ; rl i n g l r { , r r . r ' ,r, i q r r r v i t l r t i o n l:; l ' h i is s l , . < ' t ' r t t r i n ,l l t r r t i t l ] ] r r s t l ) r ( x ' ( ' c d 1 ' r o r r rr ( . l L l r s c h a t p c l t c t r a t c s i t t t o t l r c v c rr ' ( ' ( ' n r { ' s o f t l r c s r r n r rn t l l t l a n c t s , r v i t h o u t s u f f c r i n g q ) : ( ) r ^ ". , t l r c l c l r s l t l i r n i r t r r t i o no f i t s l o r r . c . r r ' [ ' h r r s I t c r c c o g n i z c c ln o t r N o r r l y t l ' r a t 1 h c l r c t i o r ro f ' o n c l r o r l r . * - o L t l r p c t r c t r a t ct h c s p h e r c l l , l l l i l t ( ' l l l i h / t l t . , / , , ( . . , r , , ( ) , 1 - . r rr t - c l . r . rr , r , ( r 4 : ) o l - a c t i o n l ll r . f l r . n o t l r c rl,r r r t l h l t g r r r ' i t a t i o n i s c r - o - rt r a n s r n i t t c r l t h r . t r g h s . l i < l r . r L s s c si l < c t l r . S r r n , I i . r t h , J L r p i t c ra n c i S r r t ' r n , l a.rl thus ir'.irl tlr. l..g.r 1.rrr.f t h . r l o r r l r l cc l L r i r t . p l c u i t h o t r l s n t s i l r l c r l i r r i n r r t i o n o f i t s f o r c c , otIclvisc c.9r-ri r l t c g r a l r t t t r l c r / ) r u . r r / / ls r ( , ( l u c t i o n , o r t h c r r r t r c r l L r r . cr< lo n - s i r l . r r l r l c i r r . g r r L L r i t i c s* ' o r r l r l l r c i . t r o c l t r c c r li n t . t h c r . r o t i o . s z r n u l ) l c i l r t c g n r I u h i r . l r r c s r r l l s r v h c n u ' r ' c x t c n d t h c i n t c g r a t i o n r f t h c s i r t r ' l l i t c s - h . n i . . r o r s c c l i n t h c s h a c l o w 'o f t b c i r p r i r r i r r ' * s f o r t h c r ' < i l u n r c r n r l r l l n s i t r ' f r \ \ . 5 r 3 o , p . : S - 5 , c q . r 4 ) , s , r l r s p J ln c t s . r r t o i r r i ' l t r t l ct h c t l l r v t ' s f - r o n t c l c . l t t r t o n t o f l n i l t t ( , r . ' l ' h r r s l . c I I o u r \ i ' z r , / o z t . o n t . r ' i v r : t l r c r L c t h c r ,i r t * ' h i r . h l t c h c l c l z t r c i r t t h c s t i l l ' st r s l t O i n l s , g r ( . l l t ( ' c n t r c s o l ' r l i s t u r l t i r n r . t , , t l r . t t h e g r r r ' i t l t i . n . ) i r t r l t u l s r : sr r c t r a n s r t r i t t c ' r li.s s l t o * - n l r v t r v i t l l r r . r r v c s l r r o r . r ' r ' r l i r r g t l r c r t ' l l . o n r r r r i r r r n t(l/r)r-,= ! ) ( . t . , t , , 2 , / .t)l r t ' l c t l l r 1 o / l o . t , / t 'I.i t l > . 2 3 , r 6 7 l l r ( r 7 r 1 : lrrlcr < l t ' l i n c rllr v t l r t , r r l r o v t s r . x t r r l r l icn t t , g r i r i . ' u r . , ' \ r r r l , i r s l , I s L r p l r o stc r t t h c r c i s r l i f f L r s ctd r o L r g h I h h s o r \ n l o t h c r s l l rr r v i l l s c n t l o r r t * . i r v c s i n r l c p c n r l c n to l ' t i r t : l r l l l r l i r tt ' s i r n l r c t l r r . r c u l u i t s t a n c c ,< ' r r l t a b l c f t . o n t r r r c t i o no r s c; . 1 l r s t , i l l l ( l t h u s t l r t ' s r . r i c s o l ' r . c l o c i t r . - p o t r . n t i r rrlrs i l l l r c i n - t l i l r r t r r t i o n .t . r o n g . l \ - c l r t s l ia n r l , i n r r u . o r r 1 r n r r c hl i k c : r i r i n . i r l l r c s l t c c t s l.r u l f i r r r n o r c s r r l t t i l c . r r < l c { r n i t c l vi n < ' r c r r s t :' r l r r : . I s r r l r p o s rt.h i s a c t h c r p c r v a c l c s r l l g r o s s b o r l i c s ,l l r t . i (l), (l)' , (l)" . (l)"' (lt' /'-or.... t'-.r_.. . ' + . i l lct so :ls lo stunri rirrcr in thcir t ltor-cs han in frcc spaccs; : . I n t h r : I ' r i n c i l r i i r .r 6 8 f r ,( l , i l r I l l , p r o p . \ ' I ) , \ : r z r , / o t t r r t t r l s o r n L r c ht h c n l r c r , : r s t l t c i r p o r c s u r c l c s s . ( (t\tezt,/on's s h . * ' s c l c a r l r ' .* ' h . . t r c i r t i n g. l ' t l r c . r o t i o r o f t l r c l l o o r , r r r 1 ( . ) p c r r r . ' r l i t i o n / / n r s a l t l , , \ , o 1 .I \ , ' , r 7 8 2 , r l)p.38.5-3S6).
l i o r l t r t . r ' i t t ' . t o u ' c r . c r ,s . t ' i r r l l t r . r ll o l l t t , s t l r n r l r r r < ic x l t r p l t : l s forrn (A\ p . r 6 6 . t ' r 1 .- 1 ( r r .5o-1fi,

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r) Sincc finishing thc alrovc cliscussionof tlrc infinitc inlr.grrrl rrrising in lhc Nc*.'l'lrcorv of thc Acthcr, it occurs to nrc that l'c

s L t p c r p o s c r lr v r v c s r r l r v l r y s m a v c o t : x i s t , t h e s i n r r r l t a n e o l r s\ \ ' l v c s l r o r r r t l r c s c l ) a r i l t ( ' s l a r s : <lt:!!.(r,1',t,/1 ,1,':!!'(:u',)i,z',1) (1,"..!!"(r".)i',r",t\ < 1 , " ' = . ! ) "( . 1 : " , . 1 " ' , 2 " ' , 1 \ . . . ( [ ) r ' - ( ) r ( . t t , y 1 ' , z t , t ) gir.e risc to tl)c ((rrrrsl)ontling prrrtial diffcrcntial crlrrations: y2(I)', I,2(I)", Ix,l,"'... ol,viorrs lhrl rrt f2(I)r. thcsc diffcrcntial equations into an cxpression

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r r ! ) 1 . . , r , . r , / . \ . + - r r ! ! ' ( . t ' , - r i , z ' .1 'a1. ! ) " ( . 1 ' , . 1 i ' , r " . / ) . t t , ! ! ' " ( . 1 " ' . . ) , " , 2 ' " , / )- t " r ircing so ionnctl llonr rll rrs to rrnitc each particuJar intcgral uith tirc s'holi'serjcs. rq:;.

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actual statc of the Acthcr, as rlisturltcd ltv thc unliuritcrl tnass tclnrs of thc infinitc intcgra.l thus arc r.crv r n i n u t c , of stars cornposing thc illilliy \\'ar. .fhc u.,Lvc-ficld so that is cr.cn._ t l r c s c r i e sr r r J , j r l l(l .-n n \ n r q . s : whcrc infinit-clv cortrplcx, 1-cf tltc lllLre ol dt is firrr-tc, lr;,r;s. ,l:.gli.r of tcrrns, lrishcr tlrrn flr.st orrlcr, rlcpenrling . . o r . r , -r , r . P J n . I /.: h / \ , - ' (D', q)" c1.., irl / . ( * . , , , r l r {r l r ,r l i . l. l . l . l . l . l . , c ] Ld i r d ' x V,, r i) x l t , + { t t , l t . r r D ' ,( r + ( t , , , ( . . . . ( , + rr"...))]} (r+r)) r a p i c l l y .c o n | c r g . s , o * ' i n g t o t h c i r - n n r c r r s r . r r t u a l c r i i s t a n < . r , sl r c t - l r r s c . l r t l l l p o i n t s u . h c n : _ - 0 s s c n s i b i c ,o r r p p r c c i a b l e , , / i , / , \ \ ' i t h t h r :* - l r ' c ' - u c ' t i . r r . t h c r . c f os cr i r l l , l i l t . i) rr r / ) ,i s llrc <listrrrlri,g i . g r u v i t i r t i o n r r ll i r n . c s t o l . h i c l r t h c r v a v c _ f i c j r l , l r n r c t i t ' i r l ) vn s r . r r s i l r l rt,n d 0 ) , , i s s t i l l s m a l l c r ,l o f t | c s c < r o r t r l g i r . r :r i s c . o r r i c r o f s n r r r l ri l r u r n l i t i c s ! 6 . A r r : r l r - t i c r rc x p r c s s i o r .fto r t h c l J)rnctical cvatrcsccn(.( r 7 . N u r n c r i c r rl J , l x r ri r r l r l co f : r n A n a l o g o u s o f t l r c l r i g h t ' r ' t ( . n n s . \ \ i c r n r r 1:,r l s o s l r o u . r r n r r l l t i r - r r l l v J,Ict.horl u . l r r .l l r r o l ' I t t 1t 'g r l r l i o r r , l r 1 . St r r - r . r : i y t : A p l t r o x i s t t t ; t i l , ' r l { . l l l t : r l r . 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of llrt Lrrriiur-scir1 thc l)lanc of thc Gala.xv, to a rlcptl'r of ovcr l n ' o r r r i l l i o nl i g h t - v c a r s , t h c t t u m l l c r o f s t a r s b c v o n c lt h c r c a c h o l ' 1 r ' l l s c o p co r p h o l o g r i t l t h v t t l a n v t i t l l c s c x c c c r l st l l o s c l r ' ' . l r i r : h r 1 < ' r r nl r r ' p c r t c i r - c c l r v < t t t rt r r o s t p o s ' c r f u l t e l c s c o p c s ' T ' h t r s t i l c g stt,'tt'ssilt'ltpl,rrlxirrllltiotrs ivr'' tltc trltr'lltri'1-ot' Stttlr u a o l r s t l v r i l i o n r r li r t r l i c i t t i o n s r c t h a t t h c s i c l e r c a l n i v e r s c r c a l l r ' tlrc rlorsilr' l ithin thc Srrtl's glolrc, t'lrcrclts thc t't'strlt of tr' js o i n l l n i t . r ' ; a n r l l l r u s t h c I ' c l o c i t l - - p o t c r l t i : r lf t h e r v a v c s t h i r t singlc intcgr-rttiotr, tttlclcr tltt: 1-ortll: l l r c r v r r r l l i t . r ' o L r l t l . l c c x ; r r c s s c co n l v l x ' l l l c a n s o f a n i n f i l l j t c i r r l - t . g r1 , s l r o u t t 1 o l r c c o u v c r g c t r t a t l t l c v c r y r v h c r e o f f i n i t c i. ' , - ( , u i , h ' l ' : , f ' r / r ' ? ' 1 nc l . t ( r . 5 o / ) rt -- I (t (t^'.\'' (l.t t v r r l r r , ' .l i l t c l l r r : g r a v i t r t i o n r t l f o r c c s o P c r a t i t ' t g h l o u g l - r o u tt h c o o 1 -s p : r r : c . irrlclsitl 'l ir''r lr,' splcndicl tt'titthctnatical cliscovcrics ol Jiourtcr s'olrlrl lrt' too rolrgh to givc lrnv lliglr clcgrcc of rigor lirr tllc ' c u n ' t ' f r i , / r t , ,t)l t r o t t g l l o r r t t l t c S r t n ' s I l l i t s s . I l l t 9 o . 5 [ < l t r t c r t r l i t t i ' < , 1 rt<I /'oi.rs,nt. in thc t.lrcorl' of thc intcgration of partial tlif, f r . r r . n l i ; i lr r r r r u r t i o n sh : n ' t : g i v c t l t t s r l t l c t h o d o f a n a l r - s i si l s i , i l , r , , ) '' t o t ( ' l ' l 1 l s i r l r ' o f l l l t ' : o ' l ' t h c , - r , r - . 1 ,l,i , . , , , , , t t , l I o t t l t r . l r v l t c l t t ; t l c r l l , t t l r t t i r l t l i t l v o l l i t t g i l l l o t t t l t l ' t r - s L l ic c s s i v t ' ! r , r r l r ' : r l . r ' l r ' ! r r n 1r t t r r l r i g o l o r . t sl l s t h c l l h v s i c l l p r o l r l c r r r so f j n t t ' g r r r t j o n s . r t t r r l t o 1 t ' r t t l si t l l r i f t l t t l . 5 o t l ' o r r l t ' r , l r l l l l l r r l - l r r t u r . ( ' l r r c r o n r p l t ' x . \ \ r i t h o u t t h i s r r l c t l l o r l o f t r r : l L t t l r c t lr i c l 'l'ltrrs I r v i t s c t t t t l r l c c l 1 o c o l l l l ) l l t ( ' t l l 0 l ; l $ - t ' o r r l r ln o t ( ' \ l ) r ' ( ' s s h c c f f c c t s o f t h c i n f i n i t c l y c o n r l l l c x r v r t v c t sulting rlilli.rIrrr.r's. ( ) l -t l l c t flt'lrls o:r u lrir'lr tlrr: rr'otrrlcrsof utlivcrslll grilvitatiorl <lcIc'tlri. . f r l r . t r s i 1 r " s . ) t lIti g l t i r i ' ( . 1 ] 1 t ( ' \ - r ' l r t r ti or t . l t g r - c 1 ' ( c 1 t l C lcss Srnt's rrltss, rlltictlt coLiLl llrit lrltvc lrt't'tl trrtct'clin'lt , i r l ) . ' \ r ' r ' r , r r l i n s l \ ' t h c t h c o r l ' o f t h e i r r f i t r i t c i r r t c q rr l I l r r l r o r i r t t t . 1 ) r o ( ' ( ' s s ,o u ' i l l g t o t l t c s l < x r ' ( ' o l l l o r g c l l c c o f t h c o f i i ' r s s c v t ' t ' r i ll r o i n t s o f s p c c i a l i r l t c r c s t t o g c o t . l . t c t c r s . n i r i s i scrics. <r ' l t ' i t r r t r : r lI i c s c r r r c l r c sr t t h c l , r r l l a r l ' l - r c o r y , r 8 7 7 , I ) r . G . I l ' . i r \ c c o r r l i l t g l r ' , i t a p p c l r s t l l l t t l l c s u ( ' ( ' ( ' 5 s i v or r t c g r i r t i o n s , J/i// rliscorcrctl rttt Irrfinitc I)ctcrnrinant, rvhicl-r ]rc carcfullv 'l'hcorY o [ - i n v t ' s t i g : r l c r l ,p r o v c r l t o l r e c o n v c r g c n t , l n d a h v a y s o f f i n i t c thc infinitc intcgnrl lrlrpr-oprillc tO tlrC in|oh.c<l ir-r 'l h r t s s i l t c cf o u n d a l l p l i c a t i o n s thc r\cthcr, ltrrvc tllcir:ttrillogv in thc tltcor\. of t'ttrvcs' srllttc: vrrltrr'. lrt' Infinitc I)cttrrtnillrttrt o l in tltc 1ir,',,rVOl- lltt: i n t l r t ' t h c o r r . o f s o u n c la r t < lo t l l c r l r r l t t l c h c s f p h 1 ' s i r : as c i c t l c t : ; of $,ltich rcl)fcscltt plrYsir.ul llr$'s trscrl s o l l r r t i t l r t s p r o l c t l t o l t c o f r l c r : p c s ti r l t c r c s t t o g c o l l l c t c r s trnivt'rst'.
l ( ' t l r \ ' o t t l l t l l r t ' r t l r . l g l l l v l t l r . 1 l r o r i t l l l t t t ' r l .l r v l r 1 - L ' n o i ' t l r r ' : r ' r i c s . \ ' ( ' t l l \ ' ( ' r \ . t i r { o r r l t l s C l t l t ' t l l ; t t i o no i t l l I t : t t r \ . c lcrrns 1 1 t r . i r r r . 6 l r . r . p l r r t r . r r ' 1 r r . t i t i 6 6 ls t l t r ' 1 t r 1 r ' t ' : : r r t ' i p t . S r l t t i 6 t l , 1 ' 'l-ltt'rtlilrt'thc lirr lrxirrg t)tc llight r tt'rtlrs. f ) r o ( ' ( ' : 5o f s t t " ' r ' s s i Y c i n t c g r i i l i o n - . f o r 1 i l t < l i n gl l l c c x l t ( ' t l l r N s O l - n l r t r r r c i s o 1 - r ' r ' r \ ' g r " , i t , . , . " i r r 1 r ' l t v s i c : r ls c ' i c t l c r r ; l l n ( 1 t ' h i s g c t l t ' r i t l l n t ' t l l o ( l o f i l l ) l ) l . o \ i n t i r l i o n t l c s c n ' c s i n t ' r - c t t s c t ll l t t c n t i o l l f r o t l l g t ' O t l r c t c r s iln(l nlltrlrill llhilosoPhcrs. 'l'hc itrvcstig:rtion tlt'scrilrod al)ovc in section rfi is tlrc t l l r s t < ' r r s t ' o 1 ' r t s t r i t ' t l v i l r f i r l i t t r i r l t t ' g r l l s ' h i t ' l l h : r s < ' o t t . t ct t l r l c r 't' rt.tir.t,. It lrlrltt'lrs to Irg vr.rr. rtttltrklllrlrl 1br tllt: lrlllou'irlg
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r r r r r ln i r t r r r a l l r h i l o s o p h c r s . \lrrl rvc not lropt that thc infinitc intcgral hcrc otrtlinecl r i r r r l i r | | l i 1 ' r l 1 o t l t t ' s ' a v c s o f t l r e l c t h c r i n c c s s a n t l yt r a v c l i l l g t r 1 1 1 1 , , , r gl1 ,r' s i r i c r c e lu t r i l c r s c r v i l l a l s o f i n d n e r v a p p l i c a t i o n s r i r r r , t l r , ' rl' ) r i r 1 rl ( l s l i ' t r r t t h c t t t r t t i c r l l l n c l p h y s i c a l s c i c n c c ? S t r c h t r l t ' r ' r ' l n l . r r r c t tilts r t t r r l v s i st t l l r i c h t l l c f c r t i l i t y o f o u r r t l s o t l r c c s f i n c r r l c u l r t t j o n i.l l l ( l l r l o t l c s e c t l l i t c l c r l t t l t t co r d c a l i r l g r i ' i t h t h c i n f i n i t c l r ' -c o l r r l ) l ( ' xp h c n o t l l c r l a l l c r v a t l i n g a l l t l l t t t r c . 18.,,\nothcrIixample of thc Processof Succcsl s i v c I n t . r : g r l L t i o t - t sl s u s e d i n t h c P I a n c t : r r y a n d 'l'hcory. L r rn l l r 'l'lrc rliffcrcnt.ial cquatiorls of un<listurbcd planctzrry l n r o t i o l t , i t r r - c c t l t t t g r t l l r< - - o o r r l i r l l t t cIsl,l v c t h c f o r r l ' r :

r ' r r , ' l t r t r o s r ' 1 l - o r t rl l r t ' c o n s i r l c ' r l t t i o t r o 1 ' l l l r l I ' l t c o r v o f t h c , \ c l i t c r , r r : t t l t , r r . . ' t l i t i o t r s c r i s t i . g i ' r r r r l r r r r . i, r r r r l . r , t r t ' s r l : . r ' / r l z : 1 2 ( t + t t i ) - t lr t - - o tp o n r l i r r g c l o s C l r .t r t l l l t ' : t r ' l t t r t ls t r i t t ' o 1 ' t h c f l i l l i i ' \ \ ' r r v ' I t r v r r s (t S;) r 1 r . r ' / r l lr2/ i ' 2 ( r + r i ; . t ' l r 3: o lr-r'Sir II'i//ltttt //tr.rrIL/, *itlr t lrrtrr' t( ri\lir l't rrr'irorit'ctl 1 1 2 - : , , '+ l 1 : ( r + r i l z f 1 3 : o r,4 1 1 * t t i < - r r . r ,[ 1 t t l r c ( ' ] u l l r x l i s t i . l t t s t c r i r t g s t r O l l l r l . l l l l t t l c u p 1 f i s t l r r . l o u r l s i u t r l c l r . r s t r . r ' s n C V c n ' < i tg r c c o l ' t ' t l t l t l t ' t t s i t t i o t r . coltsttrnt of attraction. /.'2l,cing tltc Clrrussirt-t <'cttt/Jtt'ttartl's rrrirgtlificcnt llhotogrlrplrs t'otlllrtlr //tt.sthtl's I f r v c n r u l t i p l l ' t h e f i r s t o f t h c s e e q u a t i o n sb y 1 a n c l t h c l i s g n r < l t : r t l l Y r r c i t l i i t l g t t 1 t ,r t t l r i t ' r < ' l u s i o t tt l r : t l t l t t t l l i l l i \ ' \ \ : l l v sccon<llrr'.r', rtncl srtbtritct thc sccond product frollr tltc first, tltl c6ltinrrlcl 1r'tilrt 9f tIC cltrstcring 1lrll'cr 91- t:tlivct slll g r : r v i t u t i o n ; ' , ' c t .s c n s i l r l c c h l r n g c s i t . t s o s t t t p c t l t l o t t s l t s t r t t r r t l t r c r t . o u l r l l r r : r , r 1 r 0 t . t c r lt ( ) l r r : c o l l r c l I P r c t . i t r l r l c o n l r - r v i l i r t h c ) r r l l s c of rrilliort,. ot' ttgt's. (lr) Sorrrt: :3oo vt'ltrs ltgo it n'as suspcctccl lx' J)ctttntrilus, t . - 1 t , r . t , , , q , , r o . r , : t n c lo t h c r ( l r - c c l < l r h i l o s o p h c r s t h a t t h c l l i l l l ' \\'aY is nlll(lc rll) of scllltnitc stllrs too snlall antl too llrirrt to 'l lrc jrcrc.il,r,tl indir.iclrrirllr-. hcs. ir.prcssions of t5c arcictts rvcrc t on{-jrttrctl bt' tllc' itlvt'trtiorl of thc tclcscopc, lttitl tlorr'

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('ss)
('sq)

ri'hich sliou's lhat the undisturbcd motion of tire planct lics in a.pllnc lrtssing thror.lgh thc ccntre of the Sun, thc cotlstatlts ol- thc lrrc:Ls.uttrlcr thc cctrtral force, :rccorcling to A-r//.'r's lrLrv illr-rstriLtt thc sLrlrjcct orl lr J J d r / t d / ' ( 1 : ss y r l c t l t l i c l l l l r o t o u r i t l l l t s 'l'ht. l l r t C s t c ' o l r c l u s i o t l s l t r t ' s o t t l c r r ' l l l i t . c r f r r r c i t s ,l r c i t t g r , c ' , c " , i t - t c q u a t i o n ( r 5 8 ) . stlrltcrtrlorrs st.lLlr'. 'l-hc com;rlt:tc ir.rtcgration of cqttation (r.57) r'iclcls six irnllogous to thosc of thc ( ilcclis in forctciiirlg tllirlgs rrot constrrnts,\'hiclt rrrc thc clctltctlts of the planct's undisturbccl to tht'r'tst c\tcllsl{rll , \ ( . 1 . s e ( ' t t l r \ ' t r r o t ' t i t l c l ' c : t - t l t l . t l t l l t 'o l \ . i t t g

465
l l r n t i o l r . l r s u ; r l l \ '\ \ ' r ' i 1 t ( ':l )

Sondernunrnrcr

466

; r - , l o n g i t L r r l co f 1 1 r cP c l i h c l i o n , I l = .l u n g i t u r l c o f t h c a s c u n r l i n g n o c l c , z: inr'lirltion of thc orlrit, (/,: ur( si]l r', thc futlction of thc ccccntricity, r l l - D r ( ' i r 1 1l o r g i t r - r c l c 1 't h c c p o c l i , o
7/ == lll('ll ll lllotloll.

Accorclinglv in lay'/ace's trcatrrent of this qucstion, \{icaniquc Cilcste, l,iv. II, Chap. V. $ 4r, hc usually $'ritcs thc dificrcntial cquation in the fortn c l 2 1dft z + a 2y + r t Q : 6 ' (t6Z)

rvhcre rr i5 i1 snrall constant coefficicnt, ancl Q a function of thc coorclinltcs, ancl of thcir dilfcrcntials.

To intcgnrtc thc cquation of thc perturbcd motion, o r \ c c o n l i n g l r - , j f d l r c i r u y c o o r c l i n a t c f t h c p l a . c co f t h c tltcrcforc,naltl('l)', lrodr', d -f 1;, , 57, t', rp, '4[, zz) rvc hrtr,c: d2-t'f + azy + u Q:s d/2 t" . . / 6 : 116 t . . / ;r t- cll f r1n'. / trl + d6f c\ . I i + cl6 <k1,'I I + f f r1 ( r 6 o ) s'c first intcgr-irtc th;rt ftrr the undisturbcd n-rotior-r, t ' c l q f c l l f n . . t t l [ n + d l fd n . . l n . -I-hc ,1",llcltz*a2y:o (163) placc of thc pcrtr.rrbcrlplirnct tltus clcpcnclsotr tltc gir,cs J, in futrctiotrs o[ the timc, v l r i l t i o n o f t h c ' s c s i s c l c n r c t r t s l l r L r l a s t h c p c r t . t r r l r l r t i o r r sri'hich u s u a l l y ' a r c s n r i t l l ,t . l r cs o l t r l i o no f t h c d i f f c r c n t i a lc q t r a t i o n s (rfi9) . 1 , - ( , d . s i n a / * c ' fa . c o s a l n f o r t h c c l i - . t u r l r c < lr o t . i o ni - sl c g r r r r l c t ll t s s i n r i l a r t o t h l t o f t h c p L r r c l yp c r i o d i c m o t i o n . t h t r s c o r r c s p o n r l i n gt o thc pcrn u n c l i s l r . r r l r c r lr o t i o n l l r t r i i t . l r v a r r - i n g c l c n r c n t s , I:'or ,lt lu'Ito\!r/ -c'sinat ('1") t o f t h i r c l c n r c n t st o l r c l t r l < l c t l o t l r c i r i n i t i a l l a l u c s , turl>atiorrs p l u t r t : t ,r i ' c r r n r l . \ c c o r c l i n g l y , f o r t h c t l i s t r r r i r c r ln t o t i o n o f : r < 1 3 r ' , ' r l l : : ta s i t t a / * c ' a c o s a t \17r ) havc crlua.tionsof a. closcll' rcllttccl frrrnt, 1'ct rvith thc scconrl r v l r i c l r v i c l c ' l s ,l r v ( r 6 S ' . r ' o t n l r i n l t l s i t h ( r ( r r ; ) : n t c r n t r c t sl t o t z c r o , l t u t v c r v s n l r l l , l t t r t l r r n t l c r s r r c l t c o n s t i l n t rl2r' ril: I ,,':q .- 6 c h a . n g ct h a t t h c n r c t h o c lo f i n t . c g r i t t i o ni s l < n o u ' t il x - t l t c n r t t n c o o o f v : r r i i r . t i o n f 1 ; l n t n r c t c t ' s , r o l - t l r c c l c ' t r c I r l s ,r c g i l r r l c r l l t s : L s i n ( r f i i i ) . 'l n r b i t r a r y c o n s t i l l rs . t l r c r r ' l o l c t i r c o l i g i n a l c . l u a l i o l r r r r \ i s i r t t c q r a tr,l , v J f r ' r l c n r l r ' t h e r n r r l i r r s c c t o r o 1 - t h c r l i s l r r r l r i n ltr l r r r r l t . i n , , ' s c l r r r r l r l i l u c t . l y : F f r f r o n r t l i c S r r n ,l u r r lr r i l s r l i s l r t n c cr o n r l l t r ' p l i r n r ' 1v l t o : c ' t r r o l i o n ' , 1 2' :r l z tll | a t ot,t/ rll , \ ', , , i l t l n / ,lr' ,\',lr,r' i s c l i sL r r l ; c r l , t
.1.' 1.,2--.t,2 i.t,'2 I ,': (j: \' .r.: 1 \', ,.l -t.: i .:' ^: r.t6l, -)r'l',-."-:.:

: c C o s a l - c ' s i n r z l : r l r ' , , ' r l .l

.t; 2

,l''.-..a"

, l l , . -r , 1 , r r 1 i n t tgl r c i r t l 'tg n r t i o n * ' c l t a . r ' c : r - . ! ' , l r,' l z , l r 'l'o , , , . , t , \ rs i r t a < I // . \ ', ,fr - r f a ' s i t t a t + c 'f o ' c . o s a /.

so tbrLt

r1t.t-

.,t'

,.iq, ig'i?t.r: -(..;"-.r:',ro' hrrvt:: (62) (r{r.3) ir61)

-(.1, u'c antl thc pcr tr:rlrLtivc fuuctiotr lrc tlcr-rotcrll11. !) : nt' f(1 + tn.)'lr I o-l.r'.r''i-,r'-1,'+ z z')lr' :tf -t+ - n i ' fQ t - , , i 1 ' L r l t ' ( : t " + 1 , y " + z z " ) 1 r " 3 ) ' r " ' (.. ?9 li.t : tn' f(1 + ni'1' - r/12'rlrr/d.r' x' f r' 3)'r - t . n t " , t ( .+ . r i ' t . ( , - r / r ' 2 ' t l o ' / r l . ' t t i ' f r " 3 ; l . " , : tt' iir + ni I 'l(..,-' .r)/q' r:'/r' :t)I + - t ' t t t " 1 ' +t t t t ' / : ' " - . r ' ) / g " t - r " f r " 3 l r ' ' ' , t i r r : r l i l l - c r c n t i r r le r l u ; r t i o t t s f , : r r t h c nroticn bccorrc: d2.r'/rll:-t A2 (.r + ttil .t ,lr:\ : /.'r( r + n) ? !) i?.t 't-l.':(r -t ni) 1'f .=,42(r+ ni; i:!)1?'.r t':t d2-t'fd12 r12zlcl12 (r + tn't zf r:t: 12 (J + nt) ?!)f ?': . + /2 'I'hcn

(tZ;)

clctcrnrinc thc constants of thc intcgration, c zncl c', u'c pror:ccrl as follorvs liirst, to fincl r rvc n'rultiply (169) by t r s l r l d / ) r r . i r c(lr 7 o ) l r v c o s a / ; a n c l a c l r l : .1 1 11 , s i n . z- c s i t t z t t l/ . r ' s i t t r z / r ' o s r r l r i , r1 t r l l r ' r , sd l - ( t ' ( ) s 2 l - r ' s i l t r z l c o s r z l d ulrcrcl'rrrr' 1 . - r r . t s i n . 7 1, - r l _ r ' , ' r l l ' c o s a 1 .

, ,' , _ , \
|+l (tlS)

rlisttrrlrcrl

(r 7o)

S ( ( ' o i r ( 1 .t o l r n r l , ' ' , \ r - c n r r r l t i p i r ' ( 1 6 9 ) b y a c o s a t , a n c l l r i ' - s i r rr z l , u t r r l a t l c l : d l'cosd/-c -- rl-r'/rlf ' -sinrz : / sinal cosd/l- c'cos2at - c cos al sin a I + c' sir3 at

(rfi.5)

(r76)

c' : a j, cosat - <11, (ri7) f dt'sin at Norv rvc har.c founcl that in thc ccprationof unrlisturbccl nrotior.r,thc purclir pcriodic functiotr -r, tlepcncls on a cloulrlc Non' sincc thc sccontl nrgrbcrs of thr: crllrrtiotts for i n t c g r l l i o r i o f t l r c c r l u : r t i o n( r 6 S ) , a t r c l t h u s r v c n r a v r v r i t c t h c thc pclttrrbccl nrotion rtre srrall, orving to thc snrlll n'rilsscs in thc l'ornr; a l r d g r c a t r n u t u a l r l i s t l n c c o f t h c p l a n c t s , : r s \ \ - c s c c l ) v t h c I)roccss '. rt ^ P P c r r r : i r ' ; r l c ttrl ln i l e c r t r r c * s i o t:t -,) :,f r = A s b c f o r c n o t c c l . t h c r i g h t n r c n r b c r so f t h c s c c q L r r t i o n sr l i l f c r slightll' fronr zr.'ro.
rr,hclcforc .lrlzvjtl/:.rllrl1 ))l,dldl:

: \ r + "n"t i\ ' i- ' -! l) t "? t ' ) \' '

r,' [,',',,' 1J': s-.l )

_ t' lt''tf
t t t , [ , ' , . - . ' , ', 1 3 , , - . t ' ; f r , a ] / r o t r )

at)} dr dt al f .\',f * {(.ca. sin + c'f a.cos

(t z8)

l ' h i c l r r ' s r ' : r s i l vr - c r i f i c r l .

In thc thcorv of pcrturl;ations, involving equations of the forn.r(r67) abovc, it is shorvn, (Nldcanique Cilcstc, Lir'. II. intcgratcthc abovcccluations Ch. \r. $ .1r), that an adclitional intcgration is rcquircd for \\'emav in thc fir'st "nOrnr,,.",l,nr.r zcl'o. thc tcrnrs involving ap. \\'crc as if the pertlrrbali..'c fr-rnction 3r

467
T l r u s r v c g c t f o r t h e p c r tr : r b c r l l n o l i o n

Sonclernumnrer

468

Olrjcction is sonretimcs made to this method, even as rcfirrcrl lty lf ottsctt, to cnsure incrcased rigor in Lal/ace's t , : c l a ' s i n r z l * c 'f a ' c o s a t r r / a ' s i n a t ! Q a t c o s a / + processcs. Tt is hclcl that thc mcthod of expansion in series is (.^. , lrcca.usc thc nurnbcr of tcrms is indcfinite, and all of + rtIa' t os a/,\ () d{'slt o/ . ( t ; s ) ir-rcxlct, thcnr clnnot ltc fully taltcn ir-rto account, withorrt enormous Thc cloublc intcgration for ,r,, in thc thcory of thc Ialror; lncl cvcn thcn an unccrtainty rvill rcmain as to thc of u n r l i s t u l l r c c ln r o t i o r - r ,r v i t h t h c r r r l r l i t i o n l l i n t c g r a t i o n f o r t h c inr:lLrsior-r all thc tcrrns, rvhich could cffect the result. Irr r 89.5 Profcssor Neutcornb exprcssed to mc this in all thcrcforc the tcrrrs involving thc pcrturlntions, h t h r c c i t t t c g n r l . i o n s c r c c r p l l i n c d - g i v c a f l . i r v i c r v o f t l r c funtlarncntnl objct:tion to thc tl-rcoryof gcneral pcrturbations, proccsscs cnrPlovcrl in tlrc piirnctaly thcory: 1'ct it rra.y ltc rncl sairl that ii hc had his planctary rcscarchcs to do again, 'Irr: rr'orrlcl ar'loptthc nrcl.hocl nunrerical intcgrations crnploycd of l t o t i c c r l t h i r t i n f r x i r r g t h c p c r t r r r ) r r t i o n si r r l o n g i t r r c l c , h c r c i s t a r l o l r l r l ci n t c g n r l i n v o l v c c l , i r r l L c l r l i l i o no t h c r l o r r b l ci n t c g r a l s i n t h c t h c o r y o f ' s p c c i l l l ) c r t u r b a t i o n s ,a s a p p l i c d t o t h c i t s t c t roiris. for thc pcrturbation of thc larlitrs \'c('tor: Alczt,cont.lt rcnrrr'licd that it took Dr. (1.ll/. ilt/1 tr yca.rs 'l'hcory , \ , : u r , o r r ,,,tfc l l . r s i n r1,t . f a n + r ( / i | i : r ) \ r . to cornplct.c is Ncs' h o f J u p i t c r a n r l S t r t u r r r ;s ' l r i l c t l r c n r c t l r o < lo f s p c c i r r l p c r t t : r b a . t i o n s ,t o a c l c g r c c o f a c c u r l c r . - zz ,,1,, ,lt . , cosz sin {zfrlft + r (ttttlaili ( r rlo) lurlcrluatcfor scr.crrtlccnlurics, coulrl bc :rpplicd in vcn' nrrrch 'l'hr'pr,'l'l' r r r i s o t l c u ' h i c | D r . I I i / / t t s c c it o t l c s < r r i l r c I i ' s st i r r r r ' . t h c i n t c g r r r l l o r 1 h c l o n g i t r r < l c h a v i n g t l t c fornr : g r r s r l c l r r : n r ' l i n o n r r p u s l r i n gt l r c t l p p r o x i n t i r t i o n st o s r r f f i c i c n t l r . l r i g h o r r l r : r r s r c s l ) ( ' ( ' t st h c r n l r s s c s ,c c r : c n t r i c i t i c s ,n r u t r r a l l,'(t r21.t\zt- (z r rk\r + clr i r'1(a2 n <lt) + f lror il A' t ju I 1,.,1 dt d/i t-.,,f 1,.,f,, d/ . r (.i) |( t ) . i r s l ) i n r ' l i n'l'lrrrr s <r,: l r ' . .1,, r:rit.icisnt ,\iczt,tottrlis of rveight, not so n-ruchin of 'I'hcsc ' -' c q u l t i o n s o f L a y ' / a c cg i v c t h e p c r t r r r l r r t i o n s i n t h t ' o 1 1 u s i t r P n r t ' l i r : r : r v h c r r - I t h c r c r r l r l i f f i c r r l t y o f p i c k i n g -hc troulrll in prrr,'lr'.r'isso o r r t u l l s u n s i l r l ct c r n r s a . r i s c s . thc radius vcctor a.ncl Jongitrrrlc,,/i lrcing thc rlistrrrlring l - +n t t l r c c ' o n r l r i n c rn r r s s c so 1 't l r c S r n r a r r r l s c r i o r r s t h r r t l t r r r c l y n u t n c r i c a l J ) r ( ) ( ' ( ' s s clsr c i n c r c l r s i n g l v f i r t r c t i o n ,a n r l 1 , . . , r l f l 51y11glrt, thc rrrcthorlsol Lay'lacc,J/on-rttt nwl Jlil/ continrrc \.c1. disturbctl plittrct, rtrrl zz t.hc nrcirn nrotiort. to lrc uscrl in tlrc pla.nctlry and h:nar thcorr'. gn ortf
I;of I , r r ' \ , 1 ) l J , r l l l r { r \ r ' \ i t i s t t r ' t l ) n r ' c : : ; l t " \ 't o ittln

g r c t t c r < l c t : r i l ,r r s t o t h c r r r r t l r c n r r t i c l r ll ) r o c c s s c s n v o l v r ' r l . i r r Part IV. Theorems of Laplace. and Poisson on the i of the Major Axes and Mean l{otions t h c s c < ' r t l c r t l a t i o n sl . t r t r r c n r : r v c l c s c r i l r ch e p l t v s i c r r .l i g r r i - Invariability l t s f i c a n c e o f s u c h l p J r r o x i r r r i r t i o n s , ' h i r ' h a r c r r c c : r r n r t r o' t h c of the Planets generalized for all the Higher Powers t6 r s t p o r v c r s o f t h c r r t t r i L c t i n gr n a s s c s ,o r r l i s t t r r l r i n g f o r c c s . of the Masses: Criticism of Traditional Theories I t i s t h a . t u ' h e n t s ' o l r l r t t . t c t s n r r t u l l l v < l i s t r r r b c a c ' h o t h t ' r , from the Age of Ncwton, Criteria which overthrow r thc cffcct upon onc borly is calcr.rlltcrljust as if tl'rc rrotion of the Theory of Ultra,Mundane Corpuscles: The Cal, 'Wave,Theory 'l'hrrs thc othcr ltody u'crc undistrrrbcrl, an(l vicc vcrsa. establishes the for culus of Probability as c i t l r c r l r o r l v t l t t ' L r r t r l i s t r r r b cc o o r r l i n n t c s f ' t h c o t h c r L r r : r r s c r l , rl the Order of Nature. o as if its rirotiotrlrrri nol lrct:n pcrtrrrlrr:rl. \\'ltcn tlrcst.filst r g . / . , t V / , t , t : ' s ' l ' h t ' o r c n ro f r 7 7 3 , r ) r r z , : o , r \ r n , = . 6 , 'l'hcorcrrr r o r r l c r p c l t . r r r l n l i o n s : r r t ' o l r t l r i r r rf.o lt,- r ' o r n ' t ' t i r r tg l r c ' r ' l t . n t r . n 1 s , . l n r l t l r t ' \ l c a n I ' l r r n t : t l r 1 'l ) o t r : n t i l l of r7911. t h c r c s u l t i t t g n c l ' o - s c u l ; r t i nc l c r n c t r t s n r r . ri'r t ' r ' n r l r l o v c rtlo g r r . I r r l r r i r l i t i o nt o t l r c t h r : o r c . r ot1 -r 7 7 . i , r c a l c u l a t c t l r c p c t - 1 t : r l l t t i o n sj r r v o l v i n g t l r t ' s l c o n r l l r r r sc r s o l r)',2,-6 t\rtt;-s (r8z) t h c n r a s s c so r r l i s t u r l ; i n g l b r r ' c s . . , \ r r r li 1 - l l r t ' : c s c c o n r l o r < l c r c o r r c c t i o n s a r c i r p p l i c r l , t o g i v c u s c c o n r l s t t o f o s , ' r r l i r t i n g r v c l l n r l i n t h r ' \ l r i c r r n i r l r r r ' i ' l c s t c ,L i r ' . I I , C h a p . V I I , $ ( r r , O e l c n r c n t st,h c l l t t r : r ' n r a . v l r c n l r c r r s c r lt o c u l c r r l r r ttc r r ' p t ' r t r r r - r 799. th;rl /,ttf /trt rt'rcltcs for thc 1)LInctarysystcrn a fonnrrLr t l l x t t i o n s t o t h c t l - r i r co r t l c r o f t h c r n u s s c s r l ) ( ' r t r r r l ) i l r g ( ) r ( ' ( ' s . r : o n n t ' r ' t i n g h t ' n l r s s c s r r n c lm a j o r a x c s v c r y s i m i l a r t o t l - r : r t f l l o t o T ' l r r : p r o c c s s i s t l i c r c f o r c o n c o f s u c c c s s ' i v c rp p r o r i - t h c p o t c ' r r t i l l , r 7 S : , c x p r c s s c d a s f o l l o r v s : r n r a t i o n s . I t l r r c s c n t s n o r l i f { r c r r l t yi n n r r n r c r i t ' a ic r r l c r r l r r t i o r - r , o b l t h c r n c t l ' r o c l f s p c c i a J t : r t r r r l n l i o t - r s ,r ' h i c hi s s o n r r r tl r u s c r l constiurt - in ld + ni f a' + tn" f a" + ctc. : p r tt;:11 . (tS:) z-) nt.;f f o r t h c r n i n o r p ) l r t ' r c t sr t n r l n l r v l r c t : n r p l o v c r li r r t h c l r l r o v c ; f o r n r u l r r eo l L a y ' l a r c , i f i n t h c r c p c t i t i o n o f t h t : i r r t t ' g r - r 1 1 i c l n rAll tlrcsc c(lr.lrlions talic p'lrrccin rclrLtion to thc incqtralitics s, u'c succcssivclv corrcct thc t:lr:nrcr-rts, talic lt'r'ourrl ol- t]rc o f v c r v l o n g to 1 r i : r i o t lr v h i c l r n r i g l r t r L f f c c tt h c c l c r n c n t s o f t h c p c r t u r b a t i o n s o f l l r c f i r s t , s c c o n { I ,o r h i g h c r o r t l r . r s . orlrits of xt, tt' , cLc.<t. 'flrc I'lris rcirllv rcl)r'cscntsthc sunr of the mutual potential fornrrrlr\c of J,dfld(e, hon'cvcr, arc intcndcrl prim a r i l l ' f o r g c n c l a l p c r t u r b r t i o r - r s :t h r t i s f o r p c r t u r l r a t i o r " r s cncrgir:s of thc lrodics of the solar systcm. The theorcrn i n c i < l c n t t o t h c c - \ p . l l r s i o no f t l r c p c r l u r b a t i v c f u n t : t i o n i n l rcachcrl in r7t;9 thus trorrcsponclsto a rnodcrn extcnsion of s c r i c s . l l t r r s i n v o l v i r r g l l r c l i r r r c ' , s , r r r i n , i . n c n r l c u t t i r r i , r l ' 1 , , t h c c r r r l y c o n c : l l r s i o to { L a . f / a c c , i n r 7 7 3 , r \ r a ; : o , r \ . , t t ; : o , r 'I'he rvhich n-rav scrvc for inrkrfir-ritctinrc. usull rnodc of l l r r r t t n l l r e f i r s t J ) o \ \ ' o ro l l l r c d i s t u r b i r r gm a s s c s .l l r c n r a . i o r s cxl.rlnsion involr-cs thc lrorvr:rsof thc nursscs,arr<lthc variorrs i r x c s r i f t l r c p l a n c t u r y o r b i t s a r c i n v a l i l r b l c . T h i s b c a r s r . r p o n po\\'ers of thc ec'r'cntricitics ancl tl-rcr-nrrtlrrlinclinations of thc t h c c c l c l r r a t c r l p r o b l e r n o f t h e g r a v i t r r t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y o f t h c orbits. D l i L n c t l r r rs v s t c n r . .

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z. llxtension of Iaflare,s thcorcnr by poi.rson, tgog. a;1- r\a;: 17-1d { i * d z a ; + 6 : t a ; * 6 a a ; + . . . ; (t8Z) \\-c arc rcrnin<lcrl thltt ,/,of lort,s carly.rcsult of r773, ancl thc . ; I - l l i c \ \ ' t s c t l t c n t c a n motions may bc expanded in a similar above theorcrn of r7g9, \\.ls first gir.cn a notablc cxtcltsion sclics i n r E o S ,r v l t c r t h c l r r i l l i a n t ' o r n g g c o m e t c r p o i s t o t z c x t c n c l c d t t; ) t \t t; : l t i + d f l i + 6 y z ;+ d . n ' ;+ d . , z z , , + , . . (r88) s u c h r c a s o n i n g l r l s o t o t i r c s c c o r t r lp o r . v c r s f t h c c l i s t u r b i n g o Jn rceor-rlrncc rvith expcriencc it is assumccl that thc maSSeS, ancl rigolouslr- rlglopstrltccl that cyen unclcr thii s c c o n r in p p r . x i r . : r t i o r t h c r ' l r j o r a x c s o f t h e p l a n c t . r ' o r b i t s nrlrjor ir-rcslnrl 'rcln rnotions a;and niarc consta.nts conncctcd bv thc Iicplcriirrt rrltrtion. for unciranging masscs: rernain coltstant and thc nrcan nrotions invari:rblc. t t ; z a ; 3 : / e ( t t 1 o 1 - 1 2 2 \. In his Ilicanirluc Cilcste, Tome I, Chap. XXV, (t8S) 'l'hc pp. 39r--loJ, tSS9, Tts.reronrl hts a carcful cliscussior-r this assrrncrl changes, thcreforc, rvoulcl givc, by the of c c i c l r r : r t c r lP r o l r l c r r . r . I ) c s i g ' a t i n g b y r l , a ; t l t c p c r t t r r l r i r t i o ' s t t s c o f t l r c r r l r o i c s c r i c s : . 2 ,r, Fd,a;-r)ra;-t-.,.)t o f t h c s c r r r i - a x c s l c p c n r l i n go n t h c f i r s t p o r v c r so 1 t h e r r , a s s c s , ( t t ; l . r \ r , t , t \ . , t t r anrl lrv r),rzi thc corresponcling :/e(tno*nz):2,2 ltcrturbltions rlcpcn<ling or-r o.s (r9o) (.,\) t h c s c . . . t l l ) o \ \ ' c r so f t h c l r r t s s c s ,h c c . r r c s t o t l r ; f o l l o i v i l r g r v h c n c c *'c fi.rl tlre tcrrrs dcpcncling on thc first anrl sccorrrr . . r r r . r r r s i r r . r sP . 4 o o ) : / ))It is thcrcf.rr. ri.rrorstrrrtt,rr trr;rt J)owcrs of tlrc rrrrsscs to lrc: < l r \ . o , ' < l /c o ' t u i n s o n l y p c r i o r l i . t L , r l l t s ) . r t r i t . o . s c r 1 r r . . t l r . t \ , t r ; - - J,,, Q , ' t \ , a ; t h r r t d , a , c l o e sn o t i n c l u r l c l n y s c c r r l r r r t c r r 1 . . . \ r . c o r r i i p g l r l , (rer)(tl) 'J , t; . t \ . a + t , i ( d l " , . ; t r\"tt; =. ',, a i h a s l l o s c c r r l airn c q u n l i t y . * 1 , " n . * , . t ; r k c r . o u n to f t l t c l l r : t i . l a t r r Is c c c r n c lo \ \ , c r s f t h c r n l r s s c s . r r c n c c I ) n t . r s o n ' c . o n r . ] r r s i o n : p o II Ilr:t lhcsc I (.rnrs il rc shos-n lx, thc rcsca.rchc of Laf lar:c, s s ' l ' l ' h cr n a j o r l x c s . f t l r c o r l r i l s r i c s . r i i r . r ll ^ ' t l r r , I r r r ' t ' l s r r i r r r r r t r 7 7 . 3 ,r r r r r l / ' r u . ; . r r u tr,, 9 o S , , , , . , , n i s l ii r 1 e r r 1 i , . , 1 1c rrm, [ y i c r r , r ; 1 t1 , t h c S u n h a v c n o s c c u l : r r . i n t , , I r , r l i t i ,r.ts. ,j 1 l 1 s t o t l t c j l r s t l o r ; r n t l t l t r ' r t : f i r r to r r r c r l r r . r t i { } ' r , ) r . \ r. : t r , t t . r r n so f t h c t l r i r i t o t h c s c c o n ca p p r o x i n r a t i o n . r i l o r r l c r i r t r c s l ) c ( ' tt o t l t c n r l r s s c s , r c r . o r r t c n t c r c l y : l s I n a c a r c f r r l l l i s t o r i r . r L lC r i t i q r r c ( o . . i o z t ' ) , , / . t . r . r t r a t t d ( t t ; 1 r \ . r n ; ). . . ) " ( o , , 1 - d . r r z ., .*. ' , 3 - t l 2 d ' t (r9r) (q r c v i c u ' s t h c c f l o r t s o f l a t c r g c o r l r c t c r st i r c x t c n < l t l t c s c r t . - l r r - r i h i r ' . l r i t l p P c a r s t l - r a tt h c c x p a n s i o n v i c l r l s : s c a . r c h ctso h i g h c r ] ) o \ \ ' c r so f t l t c r r r a s s c sr , c t i ' p o i n t i r r t . r r t , + :tt; r)ar;t (d"tt)2j{af -v t h c u n c c r t e i ' t i c si ' t h c i r < ' . r r . l u s i . r s , i n r l s n o t h i i r g c l c f i . i t c l v t 1 t , 2 f + 3 a i 2 d l a i 1 -j a ; ( i r a ) 2 + ( d r a ) 3 ) . ( r 9 3 ) ( O ) cstalriishctl. \rru. /,t,qran,qc'sforcc firnction U is made up of tcrms J . ' l ' l r c a r r t h o r ' s g c n c r i r ) i z a t i o n f t h c t h c o r r : r n so f o f t l r c I \ I ) t ' 1 ) / , ) ) t . / / _ / , , ,a n < l t h c r c f o r c a n y o . tcrrn tlcpcnding l,ay'/atc antl l,r.ti.r.rottfor thc lrigltcr powcrs of thc rltrsscs. o n I t i g i r c r t J ) r ) \ \ . r ' ro 1 -t l t c r n i r s s c s h a n t h c s c c o n d d o n o t r c _ .s I ) u r i n g r 9 : . 1 I * - r r s a b l c t o c l c ' r s ca ' r a t h c m . t i c . l c r c r . o . - I ) r c s ( ' n t1 - . r . c si n n l r t u r c . l r r r t o n l Y l r n l r l V t i r : r t c r r n s i n a s c r i c s , rl strilti{).. lr.scrl on thc rcr:ognizr:o ropcrticsof infinitc s.rics, '*']rt:re p i * r e x p r c s s i r , r i' s c r l > l r ' r l c i l , i r . 1 r P r . x i r , . t i o . s , c l c p c n l r that if thc terr,s i.r d,a; anrl r)"zz; clis:rppcar, as pr:rcly Pcr.iociic, r l i ' g o ' t l t r ' P.* r'rs of thc ll'rsscs, rviticlt is usuul i' thc n o t s c c u l i l r , t h e n a l l h i g h c r o r c l c r s a s r ) . , a ; ,r l , r z ; ,c t c . t r i l l p l : r r r o t u r t ' t l t u o n - . a l s o r l i s l l t l l c l t r , b c c l r u s ct h r : h i g l r c r o r t l r r r t c r r . n s r c v r t r \ .r r r r c l r a 4 . ( ' r i t i r . i ' r r r o n t h i s n r c t h o r l o f s c r i c s ,a s n o t a c c o r c l i n g s t r a l l r r t h t r n r ) , a ;l n r l r ) r a ; , r r n r l r r e c c l . ; s l r r sl iy r i l : r ri , r , 1 r , , r , , , : _ i n n'itlr tlrc lrrri's .l- 'ittrlrc. ,\-czt,cotttb and tnany othcr mathc] t c ' r , s i t . t r - Lca v r a n g L ' s f . r , . , . f L r r t , . t i , , l' r , , s t t . , o t l t c r t c r r . s t h l ' t ' r..ticiuns lrr'r' r'.r.1>).ircrl of tlic unsatisfirctory charactcr of r o t t ' l r i t t : r l i o t t -o l l l r , . l l t : r r s , . i i 1 , , , r i r - . tlrcsr:.rctlrr<1s lrir'h tlclrcrcl on infinitc scrics. wiihoLrt rcjccting * /'/ .i -1 I - I thc rcsult on ruri- grouncl cxccpt thc hopclcss .h..nit., s.t oi ['nt^ ) rr,. l . ' Y \',,, ,,,,,r ( r i i t l rlcfinitcl' c',lrrrrting thc scrics,on,ing to thc unlimitccl numbcr / " -4-J of tcrnrs, \\'c llav rcnltrk : 7- r .t.-t t-r a)'l'hirt variations of the type r).er,. r\ra;, r\on;, doa; i n l ' h i r : h c . r i r r c s s i o n/ , ' / , r c l ) r c s c l r t st h c n r a s s o f t h c S r r n . , ,.,. I r - r r c s p c c t t o t h c n t t r t r r l l J ) c r t L r r l ) a t i v c c t i o n o l t l . r c clcpcn<lingon lro\vcrs of the clistrrrbingmasscshigher th;n ihc a o r b i t a l r c ' . l r r t i o t . r s a l r o t r t t h c S . n , t h i s c x _ scconcl, sccrn to bc cxcluclecl frbnt considcration undcr the Plir'cts, i'thcir (i, rcrluccrl to thr: sinrplcst fornr, rrrav lrc still actual lirrv of naturc, by thc conclitions dcfir-rcd l-agrange,s in lrrcssicrn for forcc function U. lirrtltcr sitrrltlificrl, ancl put in the usuul forrr : lr) And tlris infcrcnce is confirmed by thc idcntical . varrislring of drn.;, t)Jt;, 6rt.r;, {\,a,., undcr the carcful u: \- \i,,, ,,,/ , ('its) rinrrll'sis of. laf latc ancl Potsson. The chance of terms clcpcn_ A .a//titltJt.tiJ. tling on r)rzz, r\rd; , 64tt;, 6{; , .... bcing different from , \:ics'ins thc nltjor axcs ancl rrciin nrotions o f t h c zcro is crrsily sccr.rto bc infinitely small. Iior if the terrns plancts as functions confornrir-rg anal,vtically to Tay /o r's dcpcnding on thc first trvo tcrrns of the scries drn;, 6p;, t\rtz;, r\ra;, r'auish, thcn thc probability of the higher teims thcorcrn: bct:onring scnsilrlc is ltractically zero. u r : u * c l u l c L . . l ft + d 2 u f c l . t z . t r f . z ) + 'l'hc e c) conclLrsionthat dra; vanishes like dta; + c l 3 t t f d r 3l., I ( . t . z . 3 ) + c l r r u i c l . r 4 . I ( r . , . ... (rS(r) , 6zai hn 3. 4) + r.nustlrc hcld to bc infinitcly probablc, in vie,"vof the characrcr \\'c rnay cxpancl thcse :rssunrccl varia.blcs, rr.ith ?i-rscrond, of thc forccs opcrating in ltaturc. It is inconceivable that ) l d c a n i q u c ( ' i l c s t c , l ' o m e I , p . J 9 4 , i n a s c r i c s p r o c c c c l i n g r\ra;^, t\,a; shoLrlcl introduce no secular tcrms, and yet dra; lrccorrling to tltc pou.crs of thc rlisturbing masses: o r d o a ;d o s o l

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Iior unrlcr thc lari's of naturc, \\'c lnay clcnv thc cristcrrcc of tcrrrs of thc tl'pc consirlcrccl lry 7't,r.sertttrl, \Tic. Ctil. I, ,)/;). ))t./lL tt.'t,1 /; u P ' . 3 ( ) .:3 (',1 t) lr'hcrc ,,1 is il frrnction of thc coorrlinttcs onlv: sin<:c,lrf irnirlogv with /,a,grttt,gr's forcc function {.r, rvc arc rcslrictr.rl in llrc p l a t r c t a r r - l l r c o r v t o t c r n r s o f t h c o r d c r m ; i l r . /. l i . t u - h i r ' l t r t ' s u l t s f f r o r r l l r c g l o r r p i r r t o f t h c l > r > r l i c sn p r r i r s u u r l c r t l r c N r : r r t o r r i r r r r i I t rr i ' . 'l'lris c r - i t i < ' i s n r s c q t r i l a l c n t t o t h c c l r r i r n t . l r u t .i n n r r t r r r c i i t l l t h c : r r ' l i o r r so 1 - t l r c l r o t l i c s o f t l r c s o l a r s v s t ( ' n l r r r r : o l - t h c t r ' p c itrcluilcrl )n ,/.t,gratt,q,:'s forc'c fut.tcl.ion [,t. .,\t'r'orrlingir', itrriging fronr lltr: l:rn.of Iut.rrrL', 7'i.rsrrottrl ltrrri rrri riglrl 1o c o n s i r l r - r a . i c n r r o f t l r c f o r r n y ' ' , r , r l u r r t i o nf r , ; 1 ) l r l r o v r ' . . \ l r r r o s t . s t t c h t t ' r n r s u ' o u l r l l r r i s c l ' r - o n lrl r c i r r t x ' r f - r ' r : t i o no f o L r i - r n r ' l h o l l t s o f l t p p t ' o r i n t ; r t i o t t ,l n ' ( ' \ l r ; n r \ i r r n i n : r ' r ' i t : , l t o t i ' l ' o n rt l r r . 1 - o r r ' r ' s l t c t t t : t I l i o 1 r c l i r I i t t g t r n r r t u l r '! ' i t \ r ' r ' o r r l i n g l r ' .1 l r t ' g l n l n r J l l r c o r t r n i s t l r r r t i n l l r c r r r r r l r r r r l i t c t i o t r so [ 1l r ' 1 ; l i t n c t s \ \ ' ( 'r ] l r \ ' ; i l l ' i r v s l i t l i c r ) a ;- o , i l l c rl r r , r ; r , t l l , (rS7) ltlrovt:.sincc l'r: ltirvt:: a;-tI\t;-rt;1r\ra; F r ) " r 2 I, r ! . r z ;I r ) . , r 2 ; " ' | t',\,rz;-rt.;. (tqS)

Arrrl. in )ilic rnrrnncr, sint:c lrv (rfiliy n ; I r \ t t 1 . . ) t i - l - d . t ) tt it \ , u i I t \ . r t t t t \ r t t ; 1 " . , I r\,1r...tti (r9{i1

Iiitg. r'; I ) i r r q l \\'c trrity l)ut : it,t1.t\tt,-6, o iroT) frrpilcr q t ' n c r ; r ) i z l r l i , r r r , . r r l t i n g l ' r . o r r rl r l rvlrit'lr is rr cotrprcltcttsivc l ()./r'\', l l t t t t t r t ' t fs c : l / . r t k / t t t t I ; ; . 1 , r ; r 1 i 1 , r r r r l o l - / ) , z . i . r r r r z . S r S r r orrrlrlr,lr' '/ I t t u o r l i . o t t ( ' r ' l r ' . 1 i r r\l l r ' , l t r r r t is . 5 L l r ' l ; r 5 t . ; ; t r , t , t . ,i , t l l i c l r t t i r l r t c ( r i l t ' . i r ' ,[ . 1 i . . i , 1 i ,i.t i s . l t , , r i ' n l l r r r t . t o t ] t r ' : r , r ' r r l r r l alrllrorinlrtii)n. iurv t'lcrrrrrt llrv lrr' prrt irr t)rc lrrlrrt: l l o t t I ' i . : t t , - i t i t l l , o : i 1 l 1 c1 1 - l t t t g l t ' t l r , l r , . , r t r l i tOg t r l i l l i . r l r t r . c .i s . t r 1

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r / \ l . / , ' ' " , ' , ,' , / t , J , .

1 l r ( , i r I i l r r r , r I i O ] 1 . t. r n r l t l r r r : t L r c c l t i c l - ] r ' l r r t r i o c l i c r s i n t h C t . r r . t i t, 'l'ltc l:ltt( r' 1('nlls ol- t'rlrrrtion (rr);rlro','c. sccular tcrrns for thc chl nrlcs of tltc orlrit.s thcrnsclvcs a.rc givcn by thc tcrnr-s ,P' r r t . / r , t 7 , t .rnrl /"' , rvhilc thc long,pcriocl inccprrr.litics nrc givclr by (d).

'l'lrcorcnr \'('t ()\\'irtlI to 1ltc tltr'or-r'rrrs l' Lt,b/rrr't, r 773, irrrtl /'oissott, o e.lrovc zo. (lorrfi rnra.tion of thc lry r S o S , t l r r r t t ) , , 2 ,- o , r ) , ; u . , - - o , r ) , , 7 , , . q, t \ . u ; , . . . 6 , 1 ' c i l t y t ' t l r r ' l l t ' t l r o r l l l s c ( l i n / . r t y ' l o t l sS r r p p l r : n r ( i l l t t o V o l . I I I J ' ' - = o . / ) " . o . l o r l l r c n r l rj o r r r r c s r r r t r lr r r c r r r r t o t i o n s . [ . l r r r ] , ' r r r 1 - \ l r i c l t n i r l r r r ' ( ' r l l c s t c , r r3oS, lrnrl in /)ttis.son'sl.cI c l o r r i > l icn t c g r i r t i o r rl l r r ' l l r n r s i n t l t c r r t c a r rl o r r g i l r t r l c l r l i t ' t l t c s r ' ; r I . r ' ] t c s r S r ( r . t , l b r r r r ( c f - . | . t / , / , 1 r , . \ l L i , ; r t t i r l r ; r ' ( r i l , ' : t r ' . l . i r . I I , r ' l r r t 1 r\ .' l l , . , \ l - t c r t l t c r l t ' r - tl o p r r r n t t o f t l r t ' r . c l c l r r r r t c c lp a p c r s h o r v i n g n S 5 4 ,c h r r l r .\ ' l l l , " s6 . 1, : . tlt:rl t!",r. o. r)"2.,..,5, n'ltir'lt /'ntssrttt l)rcsolttc(l tg tl'u: I r r s l i l r r l c l - l ' r ; r r r , , ,..J r r t r ' : o , r S o S .r r n t l 1 l : l t l i s h c riln ' l ' o r n r : \ ' I I I o r tlr \l/ tl/ t tt , - / ; . 1 .lt1/\ ( r o l l i r t ' . fo r r n r r l r l , ' I ' l i . r ' r i l t I' ' o l v t c c l r n i r l r r c , ' i r l r i c r \ \ / , p 1 t . r - . 5 6 . = /ti /'sinl(.i tr i'it' i' tt' ) (,r'l ir,t7l,) ,tl t tt tr' i {.)l i n / . r t 1 , / , 7 , ,r'c s r r r r r l r l l l t l s t r l i j r . r ' t ,l t n < l o r r t \ L r g . r 7 , r , S o S , l t r c s c r r t c r l r n r l l i t l r t l r c s n l r l i r l i v i s o r s i r t c i r l c r r l1 ( ) n i ' l l r : r p l l o r c l r 1 o 1 o l l t t ' l l o r t r r l r t l l , o t t g i l r r r l c o l - l i n t t r c c i t \ ' c r y s i n t p l c r l r ' r l o n . t ' o t l t n r t ' n s t t r r t l r i l ii tn t l t t ' n r t ' l r t t r r r o t i o n s ,l l r i s l i r l s r r - r ' l o ; r v s l r ; r l i o r r , u l r i , l r l r c r i { l i ' r c t l r s i l n a l ) J ) c n r l i xt o t h c } l i c r i n i r l r r c g t - t ' r t ti i t t : r 1 u r ] i t v o f . fL t l r i t r r l r r t r i l i l r t r t r n , i r t r , 1 l f v l r r r - s .l r r t r l o 1 - ( ' t l l c s l r ' , r ' o i . I I I , l ) l ) . . 1 r . 5 . j . 5 o , i r l i t i o n o f t l r c I ) l r i s . , \ r ' r r r l r . r n r - , i Urirnus lrnrl \r'1rtrrnc, in irltorrt .looo \'ciir:. rfi7S. 'l'ltc r . / , o / / t r t t : t i r l i c s t h c l ) c r t u r l ) u t i v c f i r n c : t . i o r -1 i r L sa f i t n c t i o n r lrlrovr: rlilrgrlrnr l'cl)rcsclrts lltc tlrr:orv of tltc tlrclrt . f i n t : t l r r a l i t - r ' o f . f r r l t i t rrtrrr r r l ; i t r r l n , u n r l r : r s L r c c c s s i r r . r , , 1 1 j 1 1 r ,1 1 5 o f t l r t ' r r r c r r r r r n o t i o r . r , S 1i1 11 s o f t l r c c l c t n c n to , e , i 1 , t , 1 , ( , .\ndt,ar1(1 i r t t l t c l i r i c s O . / r , S r , O . / " . \ ' " , ( ) . / . . , \ . , , , O , / r , S r , t , t t ' . , s c l r r n r t c ' . I r ' l r c n c c u n r i c l c o n c l i t i o n so f i n v a r i r ' l r i l i t r - ,

and thcn v:rriability,

c i l c l ) t i n r c l 1 1 ' l r l r o r r t: 4 o thc pltrnctirn' i - o r c c s:

l i r o r r i t h c 1 ) i l t r l r co l ' t i r r ' l r o t r , n t i r r lo f

1 h c r l i i f u r c n t i r l lc - \ p r c s s i o nr c s u l t s: o - ( . t / i t ? ' a )d a + ( i ) 1 ?tf) c ) r l e + ( a Ra 6 ) t l a + ( A 1 ? l 0 r ) r l t+ f

' t - t ' \ - ) ) t t t t. '/f; . , . l . l . l . l. l . l | . r ' \ ' j + r ' ' - . r ' 2 , : ' - : ' l x r r r l , rr' l l r 1 :r . "t l . r 'r l r , 'r l . : ' ( ; . ; ( r , t 7 c ) '

+(?Rlry)d|+GRlaq)dq. (A) (re8)

And tor tl.re linite vrrriation, rctaining oniy thc first

o r r ' i t h t h c r e s L l l i i n go r c c st l r c n t s c l l c si.L c t i n g r r u t u i i l l lo n t h c l r o \ \ ' ( ' r s f t l r c i n c r c n t c n t s d . f z d . / , t \ , t , t \ e , d a i , d r , r ) 7 , r \ g , f r l: l 1'ol i ) i i u r c t :i.n l i g l r t i i n c s ,s . cs c ct h u t t h o s c b n ' c s r c g i l c n i n r l i r t ' r ' - thc crlrrat.ion d,/l bccorrcs:

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Sonclertturnnre r

+7+

t\R : dR f tt 11. ld .f tt clt r dt I + (.? I Aa'1rla + (?R I ?e) de + / R t (a/tlitrt';da +QttiU) r\1 t-(1Itl?qyt\q . (B) (ree) z. It is olrscrvcdfi'onr tlrc forrn of thc function f,
s-lrcrc A' - ttt' (r r' +r,_r,' z z")fr':t - nt'f o + t" '-l'(.t'z+ t'2 t ''')

Ilut sincc dr)-R ancl clR].dR both vanisl.r,thcse clir.isors can ol)criltcr orrlv trlron tcrms of thc thir-rl or highcr orrlcrs, .I{ m'3f gz - ), nt' (zo6) yiclding I tcrrnr of thc first order onl)r, I'hich is of thc sanrc o r t l c r o f i r n l r o r t r r r t r :a s t h c p c r i o c l i c a li n c q u a l i t i c s . \ V e s i r a l l c first csirnrirrc:r littlc nrorc closcly tl'rc na.turc of tl-rcsc intcgrtls, l n r l t h c t r r c s L l n r ch c c o n s i r l c r l t i o no f t h c t c r r n s d e p c n d i n g o n t t . l r c t h i l r l u n r l ) r i g h c r l ) o \ v c r so f t h c n r a . s s c s .

-:;)' + (z' - z'St1 ! - I f 0'' rr')rr- (J' t h l t R i s o f t l r c o r c l c r o f t l r c r l i s t u l l r i r r g n r l s s z z z ' ;r r o r c o v c . r , n t c s s . ' l ' l r i s 1 r r i l r ' irr r l t : g r i r t i o in g r r : r r 1 . <:lr t a . i s a s f o l L r r v s . l t l r c v r r r i r r l i o n o l - t l r c t ' l t ' r n t ' n t is r v o l r . '< 1 / r ' o t ' P l r r t i l r r l i l l i ' r c r r r r: , l r t i i r l s o l - l i i r r t - t ' s 1 r r :tro t o t l o o f t h c c l c r n c r . ' r tts r r r lt l t u s t l t r . I ' l , , n l I l r , l i , ' 1 ' l ,i : r 1(l ' ( [ l r ; t l i o r ) : r, -'i! v r r r i l r t i o n sr L . , r ) r , c t c . , l ' h i c h t i r ' p c n r l o r r - / r , r r r t ' r r l s o o f t h t r f ,t] tt2 : I \\rC gct a it : (t (""i) o r r l c r n t ' : t l t c r c l i r r c i n c r l u r r t i o n( l ] ) t h c t c r n r s o f t h r : s c . r ' o r r r l n'lrcrt'l-rrri' tt n dR :11-'1, ,171 (:oS) tlr:tnbcr zlrc of tlrc oLtlcr rrz'2 .
- \ r r , l. i r r ' 2 , 1 n "( l K (.oc) A c c o r r l i n g i r ' ,i f t c r r r s o f t h c t r ' y r c1 ? r \ 1 2R r \ c 2 , ( ( ; ' , i r . r \ r . 2 . , /t r ) c : , r . 1 r ' .r, i t ' r t ' r ' o n s i r l c r c t h c y r v o u k l l r c o f t l r r . o r r l c r r r ' c 1 l r t r 1 , r r r r l c l l r r r i ; r t i r i n , a s i n c l i f f c r c n t i a t i o n , rl r GRlac) tn'3 , bul 1ht'r' rrsrr:rllvin-r nr.gJcctccl /,afla,:c u:.lr.I l* /',tt.r.r,,tt, l l , a t t < l A ' '-: r ) ( , 2 ' , r \ A ' .- , 2 ' . r l r ) , / - ! , a . ' l ' c l R l <\a: \ \ ' c s h r r l l c o r r s i r ] r ' r l t c c l f c c t s o l s u c h t . c r r n si n o r r r l l n r l t . )'ct . t ) t ' l ( l / \ ' t . a "r t t t ,l / ^ ,l l'd /, l . ( c s t i n l rt c . \ l r r l t i l r ) v i r r r :i r v . 1 r l /. l r r r r li n t c g l r r t i n g t r v i c e, l v c o L r t a . i n : j . L t f / o t c t l r c r i c o n s i r l c r s l r c v r r r i a l i o n si r r r ) , / tr' l t . l r c r r r l i n g t o n t h c p l l n c t z u z ,r r n < lf i n t l s r c s u l t s s i r t r i l t r r1 . ot . h o s cj r r s t t . i t c r l . . ; r \ . \ ' . \ n,,tl r , l A ' ' . i o , , . 1 . \ ' , l r , t zr , r . [ , [ r , l t , l / i . f d R ( : r r ) ,' n l t n r c l r ' ,t h l r t t o t c r n t s o f t h c o r r l t . r z i r 2 , o n l r ' l r c r i o r l i c c l l u t g r . s t l r c l r r r r r s d l t ' r , l r t . i n g i ) I l r r r . c r l* . i t l r . r r t t l r c r l o r r l r l c n t c g r a . t i . n r v i l l t r r l i c p l l < ' t :i r r t h c t o o r r l i n l r t t ' s f t l r t . t u ' o l l l r r r r l r st ) t i n l l t / t r s i g n s , r v l r i tl r n t r r r 'l r c o t l o t r r :i r v n c g l c c t i n g t c r n t s o f t l t c o t - r l r .rri r i t. 'l r t t t t l l . l t t t s( ) o r z , - - 6 t \ , ; t 1 ; - - o . r r s l r t ' l 6 r t : r : i t . r [ . , l r c r t : l i r n ' , l r l i n l t , g r i r t i n g r - c l l L t i v co r ) , r i - c g c t t I l c t h r . r tc n n : i r 1 r ' r t s c r r r . t i o n [ n t . " r n r r u , h c . t ' r t l r r l r l i r . r g 'h o . . | "'s'l'\'" '1r to /l thc 1r:rrt. " 'tr? / : t : l F
/l'-ttt" ;\ncl in lltt' i.t.t" lrction t-1-t" r ::",!/":r rtl' tit' int lr. 1.1 r'' r a:'. - J/t"lo' lts lrcli;rr'. ltt i:or) l;rlils tc: int'

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- . P -

(t. ln:rlrlrroritrr:rtior.rs to rz':,

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t"\ - );t"o tlrc tr.rrrrs llrir.lr

lrr,llr rlr)/r' , o rirtrl cl,/r'.[rl,?-o,

).ct tcrn.rs of tlrc forrtr (, ,.1)

t l r c r l r . r ' c l r ) l ) n l ( ' n to l - / i

i n t l c l c n t i c n t o f z z ' l r r . n r lt t " / , h c l l r r r l s t l t t ' t c r n r s t ( ) l r r . o 1 ' t l r c frrrtrr nt' nt" ,,,' ,,," ,y (ro:) ,\',1,\ .\'rl/r' s l r c r c , \ ' i s r r f r u r c t i o r r o 1 - 1 l r t ' r . o o r r l i r l r . t r : s, r f l r onll'.

/ 1 t t t ' : \ , g 2- ) . 1 1 7 '

ill)l)c,rr,o',i'ing to thc rlorrblc irrtcgrltions of such trigrtnornctric r.rlrrcssi:ltsfor llrr. clr rncttts tts: . t / s i n ( , q , /+ , d ) , -\-cos(gl+f) .

It. rcrnrrirrs t.o :Lilrl, Itou.cvcr, thlrt thc :rltor.c rcsult, ..f',1/,' r r , n 1 r r . r - i . r l ri lr r , n r l i t i ( ' \o f l l r c t l r i r . i l i . t n ' , i s o l ' l l r r : ( r l s l o r r l c r o n l v : a r r r lt r s t h r : r l i f f c r t : n t i l l r : r y t r u l i o n s .t',t2" r c r r r c l < ' c r l - l t t r r r r t s s i u , l t ' . , l r ' . . r i l t i r ' l t r r s u r t l l vl r r c t t t , g l c r . l c r l . l r r r t l r t c l c r r c r r t s( ' o l l t . a i llr l , o r ( , 0 1 1 t ) c )l b r c x a . r r r l t l , t h c r c l o n : r l s ,1 , n t ' ; t t " , \ ' l r r r i r i r r r ' , i' . n () - 1 . l l L t t r i ' t ' n ) l v i ( ) l \ i ( i ( t ' t l t c t ' 1 l r ' , . 1 l - s t r ( . lr l; r r : r n l i l i , 'l-r s ). n' '(i'li lLc , - /, ,i'! (? I4) follori-s : 'l'ltc u l r i i l r i . : t i l l o n l v o f t l r c s c c o r r rlir r i r i ' c r i ' t ) r c r . n r r s s cfs ,r r v h i c h o o tr) c l o r c n l s o l ' i l t t ' o r i r i t o l - ; r p l r r r t r ' 1 r ; r r .l ; c 1 . r ' l ) t - ( ' : ( ' n n /'rt/.;.;ru/ultl /.ttf/rttt: lrrovcrl tlrtir tltcolctns of in','arialtilitv. 1t'tllrv ii\':tcltrs 1'tclils ol'tirc lor:trs o ' ' \ , r , , r ' r l i i r ! 1 , , s,i n c ' r : , \ ' s i n ( . g t F d , r , - \ ' t . o s ( . , ql /7 r ) l':o+l r ) , r 2 . , o r ) u r z:,6 r \1 t . ; : s t\"tti- 6 i r t u ' l t i c r h . (j,s r i f t l r s ' l l n , . r , l ( l t l . r 5 t h i l t o f t l t l r l i s t L r r l r i n g l r s s c s n t'r'cn u'lt,.n rit' irrclrrrlc tcrrns of thc thir:rl ordcr us rcsllccls tlrc n t ' , t t t " , t ' t t . . i r r r r l l r r . n c c t l r c r ' l c n r c n l . su i l l v r r r r - s l r r u ' l r .s . i t l r lrir:s('s, orlirr[ 1o l]rr. lrlrovc rlorrlrlc intcgr.ittions for thr: rrcirn t l r c t i n r t ' . l r r r t u i l l l > r ' l r r o r r g l r t i n t o t l r r : < l i r . i s o rl r r . t l r r : i n t t ' I o n q i l i r t l t ' , n ' t ' n r ' r l r , , ' r i 1: c g r i r t i o n s l i r r ' l l t t ' r l r r ' ; r : tn t o t i r i r r s o 1 ' t l t c 1 t l ; t n c t s 'l'ht.rjorrlrll t),,r2;:9 d,il;:o. (2fi) lr) i n L t ' g r r r l i o r r f r r r l u r r n t i t r ' ,r l t ' p r . r r r l i n g n o o l l v s i n r i l r r r r r , r r s o n i n gi l r r l L y b c s h o s . r r t h t r t r l r a ; : 6 , r t t t r t t r g l c o l - l l r i s i . i r r r l ,r ' i r . l r l :i;r r t l t c r r r r : l r n t o t i r r r r , r r n r l i t s n s t\rtt;-6, rilr{l so on, lbr rLll highcr l)o\\.crs of the rnlrsscs. l l t r i l t t i r r n r ) . . t l r r . l o l l o r i i r r q i r r l r . ! r r r lr ' \ l ) r r ' { s i ( ) n s : .,\r't'ortiirrglr', i1 rrplrt'rrrst.hlt urtricr t.hc cloublc intcgrations . - . . \ 'n , l t . . . l . l ' . | ' , t t d / t \ / l t r c c l u i r c r l l o r 1 r ' r r r r si n t h , t n t c u n l o n g i t r r r h , t h c o r d t : r o f t l t c :.^ _\ .,1't', ,,,r),f ' t , l' / , l, tr\ A,' - ' , l o r n l s i l s r ( . s l ) ( .l{s t . l t c l t o l ' c r s o f n t i L s s c si s r e c l u c c r l l t v t r r . o : a n c l {). .t.///.}.1 ) l , z - , 1 ,/ 1 t l / , l A ' . 1 ( 1 / ? tlrcrcfirrc l lrc llr'r;rr.nrs of /,ay'/tttt irncl Pots.rott arc again r.alicl a n r l t h e n : l - o r c u l ) o l r l l c t u l l l i n t ( ' g l ' r r 1 i o n .t l i v i s o r . s t r r t ' i n t r o c l u c c ' r l frrr tcrnrs in i rtnrl r). of thc orrlcr nz's. r\nd, oli'ing to thc c r f t h c f o r r n , ( 2 . r . .l r i c h i s o f t i r c o r t l c r r r r ' : , n r " 2 , a t r ' . I i c p l r r i i r n t c l l r l i o n o : 1u 2 : I , a l s o f o r t h c r n a j o r i r x r . s .

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o f t l r t .l r r r - r r r ' t t ' , I h c :< ' o r n l r i n c irlc s r r l lr.- i c l t l s r t t : r r no l t l t c t r . p c : ). r

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Iiinal lr', tl-ris funclanrcr-rtal thcolon,
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476

This lattcr cxpression is an inteqral for the superposed amplit r r r l t ' so f t l r c r i ' l v c s c o n r i n g f r o n r c a c h a . t o m o f t h c n r a s s . t\ att;:6 (. t l) 'nft'rctrc(\ Ar-r<l sincc thc forccs arc as thc squarcs of thc integrated ctc., is confirrnccl Irr'.r.r u'ho of J)ot:s.rotz, rcsuntcrl thc '['ornc subjcctin \ , - I I I o f t h c - fo u m a l d c l ' i i c o l c l ' o l 1 ' t c c l r n i q u c , a t r p l i t L r t l c s o f t h c * . a v c s , o r l C a h i c r X \ r , p p . r q 6 , r 8 o 8 , a r . r tp u b l i s h c d i n t h c l l t t n r o i l c s c l c X : - ? t l ' ' l A a j : : - A I / l d l ) Z : - 6 7 - f A c R : V ( X , + l / 2 + 2 2 ) l ' $ c a d i n r i c c l c s S c i c n c c s , r S r 6 , p l ) . S - 5 - 6 7 ,a f u r t h c r i r - r v c s t i ^t," : g a t i o n i n r l ' h i c h h c s o L r g h tt o s h o r v t h a t t h c n r a i o r a x c s h a v c -?)t',?o ! I [ff"-.i')?+(t-:,)"+(c*z)zf ezo) no sccular incqualitics of thc thircl ordcr in rcsl)cct to the x (a * x) 6 dx d1,flg ctc. mAsscs, s'hcn u'c havc rcgarcl x'holly to thc variation of tl-rc wc scc u'hy this forcc of gravitation obeys the larv of inverse p'lanct. IIc inclurlcrl tcrms of thc clcnrcnts of thc rlistur'l>r:cl s(luurcs, ol>scrvcclin naturc. third ordcr of thc disturbing nrasscs(zrz'3) arising frorn thosc 'l'hc curvc of thc varying amplitude for the u'aves, and of thc scconclorclcr of thc distr.rrbcdplanct (.rt2';;and thcn. by i n c l r r c t i o n , i n t ' e r s t h a t t h i s r v i l l h o l < l f o r a l l y r o u - c r so f t h c t h c s r l r r a r co f t h c i r r n p l i t u d c a t d o u b l c d i s t a n c e ,y i e l d i n g s u r nrasscs,so flrr as thcl' clcpcnclon thc clcnrcnts of thc clisturl;ccl firccs .t anrl .r, of :rrca 4 ancl r, arc shorvn to scalc in lrlatc I. A str:rlv of this illustration shorvs exactly why thc larv of planct (lrL plrrni'tc trorrlrli'c). -l'hc f i r n r l i r n r o r t a l t h c o r c r n sf o r t l r c i n v a r i a l r i l i t y o f t l r c grrrvitrrtion follorvs thc larv o{ Arczulotz.t686: n r r r j r t ri r x c s a r r r l m c l n n r o t i o l r s o f t h c l t l a n c t s , -F :"f + .[ - rttttt'l12 j"{'"fj.ftf'' - r;)2 (:,' _1,1, (z' - z)zl-' x rJ.ia o r\rtt ' : s (s. Iootnotc) (zr8) ;: x rr cl.rcly <12. clx' dy' dz' . (zzr) o' r v h c r c T : r r 2 , 3 , 4 , " ' i l r c P o \ \ ' c r so f t h c m a s s c s ,t h r r s a p l ) e a r s 'l'hc gconrctrical larv of thc invcrsc squares follolvs from to bc ccrnfirnrctlby thc carr:ful usc of thc rncthods of Laf/occ thc lrlrtsicul ll.l' of thc conservation of energy in thc aether, an<I ?oissott. No satisfir.ctoryproof hus cvcr bccn brotrght fonvarrl Irs tlrc rr'avcs cxpanrl spherically ir-r free space. This alone 1 . o i n r , a l i d l t c t l r i s g c n c r r r ) i z c r lt h c o r c n t . I n h i s N , l d c a n i q r r c provt's thlt cncrgy cli.nnot itc lost in the aethcr. Tl'rus thc s ( i i l c s t c , ' l ' o r r r cI , p l ) . 4 o r i , 7 ' i s . r c r a n'd c l i s c u s s i o n h o s ' s t h a t conscrvirtiotr of cncrgy rcsts on thc kinctic charactcr of the s h c i s s l i c p t i c u la s t o t h t ' < ' l r r i n r s l 1 / t r e l u t l l r t t h c n l r j o r t r x c s : r l t h c r : r s t h c r r l t i n r a t c m c d i r r m u n d c r l f i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f o s h a . r ' cs c c r r l a ri r r c r l u r r l i t i c o f t h c t l r i r r l o r d c r r v i t h r c s l ) c c tt o t l r c n l l t l r c . .-\nrl thc accrlrilcv of thc Ncs'tor.rirn larv lrccorlcs ir-r nrasscs. IIc points orrt thrrt Lci,crricr's snralltlrird orrlcr tcrnt , t r 1 l i 1 t l r r : r 1 r ' 1 p f l c t : r s u l r c r l rt c s t o f t h c v a l i d i t r -o f t ' h c p r i n c i p l c o f t h c c o n s c r t i r r / r , i n t h c r l t ' r ' c l o p t n c l r . f l l t , ' 1 , :rrt i l ,f v l t i o n o l - ( ' t ) ( ' r g \ ' . I f t h c r c i s n o < l i s s i p : r t i oo f c n c r g r - ,b y n r r l o n g i t t r c l co f S r r t r . r r n l i s t L r r l r c <l 1v . fr : p i t c r , ( ' \ n n . r l c l ' ( ) b s . , r u t l i r . r , rl lti t t ' ; n r s f ( ) n n l l t i o n f t h e \ \ ' l l l c s ) a s ! n f r c c p l a . r ' r c t a r y o 1 - o n r cX I , ( - ' h r r p\.\ 1 , 1 r .r : 6 ; r v a s g o t l r v l l p r r r c l vn t r n r t - . r i c r r l r s p l r r . . u l t l r c ' r r r t r c s j s l l n c c i s c n c o u t r t c r c c lt,h c c o n s c r v a t i o t r s i c a l c u l a t i o t - t ,l x - i n t c r p o l r r t i o n , * ' h i c h t h c r c f o r c i s t r r r t s l t t i s r i g o r , , 1 1 5 .r \ r r < lt h i s i n t u r n a s s u r e su s t h a t n o o t h c r r n c r l i r . r n ' r f l c t o r y f r o n r t l t c p o i n t o f v i c r v o l l t l i r n c t a r vt h c o n ' . r r n r l l r l i r ' st h c l c t h c r . I t . i s t h c u l t i m a t c r r c d i r - r n r o r t h c u ' a v c f In conclLrsion, hcrcforc, thc constlrrcv of thc nrajor t stn,ssls prorlrrcing plrvsir:al forccs. Hcncc undcr thc mutu:rl axcs an(l mcun rnotions of thc piancts for all pos-crsof thr: r r r ' l i o n so I l h c 1 t l : r n c t s ; a n r l / r r a r c i n v a r i a . l t l c ,o r 6 . , a- o , a ; l r i l s s c s .l,r c i n g r l c r l u c c d f r o r n a c r i t i c a l r c v i r : r vo f t h e 1 r ) l n c t a r y o {\,tt, t h c o n ' , l n < l c o n l i r n ' r c c ll l . t l r c N c l " l ' h c o n ' o f t l t c A e t l t c r , Brief Criticism of Certain Traditional Theories. n r . r s l l r c l r t ' l r i t o I r r : p c r r n l t t c n t l l ' c s t l L l r l i s h c r i . ; \ n v t l t : n i i r lo I
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r ' h i t ' ft ' o n t ' l r t s i o t rl s. * l r i c h t l c l t t v r : i t r r i r , c c li,t r o n a i n s t o t l s o l ( ) n g u s t h c n r : t s s t ' s t r - cu n c h a n g c ( 1 ,i s i n v i o l l t i o n o f t h c o f t l t c l c l i l r v l r r i c f l v t h c t l r c o r i c so f u f c u ' o f t l t t : c i L r l i c ri n v c s t i g ; r t o r s , o c o l r s ( ' r l a t ' i . ) n f c n c r g r ' . r i l r i c h : r c r l r r i r c s l r c \ \ -p l n - s i c l l j u s t i , a ' l ' h c o r v 1 ' c t u i l h o r r t i r t t c r r r p l i r r g . x l l r u s t i v cl r i s t o r i c a lc r i t i q u c s . I n c l c c c l r f i c a t i o n f r o n r t l r c l i u r t i o n s { ' r r n r l / ' - u r r r l c rt h e I i i n c t i c l r r r l c t r r i i c r c x l n r i n r r l i o n o f t h c r r ' o r l < 1 - t h c c a . r l i c rp h i l o s o p l r c r s o of thr' ,,\ct hcr. 'l'lrc , s r ' : r r c c l vs ( ' ( ' n l sl l ( ' ( ' ( ' s s r r r ri'n v i c s ' o f t h c b c r v i l c l c r i n gt l i i l r r'rlrlnt'l\' lthvsicll cllusc of grl.r'itltion, ( ) 1 ' t h r . a t r t r c a r t r l c a u s co f g r a v i t a t i o r . t , n t h c s t c l ( l y s t r c s s < 1 c t o t h c a i r t l t c l \ \ ' a v c s f r o r n a . l l r : u l t j c so f t h r ' p l o l r l l r r r u c - s h o \ \ ' - s h r L t s o l o n g a s t l r c r n t s s i s u ' h i c l r r r r c r r r l r r i l l c r l l r r ' : r l l r v r i l c r s s i r . r r :t l i c i n i t . i l l c p o c h o f t thc particlcs //rt,t/tL, II-rctr, /1o/1c1,anrl 1\iczrl/ot1, vcars ago. ,/ltrt',q/tttts, 2.5o c o l r s t a r l t , n o c h a n g c i s p o s s i l r l c i n d t o l ' n t , r r r r c lr c A c c o r r l i n g l r - \ \ ' c l t r c r : a l l c c lr r p o r " t o n o t i c c c h i c f l v t h c r t h c n r r r t u a l r r r : t i o t ro f t h c l t l a n c t s . T n o r c l t r 't o c o n f i n r t h c f o r c g o i n g g c l t c r a l i z a t i o ] 1o t l u n - I)rogr('ss ol' trvo tlrc'orics, lroth of r,r,hit:hhavc conrc clol'n to , r : p c l c n i l L b l c h l s i c ' r l g r o u n c l s , \ \ ' c I r c c ( l o n l v l ) o i n t o L r t t h a t t h c u s i n r r r o l r s c r r r c r n r l u n s a l i s l h c t o r y ^ s i a t cn a n r c l v , t l t c t h c o r y ' o f r r l t r i r n r r r n r l r r ntc o r p u s c l c s ,a n c l t h c a s s o c i a t c cp r o l t l c n r o f l plilnctrrr)'fcrrccrs lt'c (luc to thc clcrir,iitilcs of J-a!/dt/!c's forcc fiurt:tion a/ , c(luatiorr (7 zl), or for unit rrrlss, o1-tht: t l t c v r ' l o c i t v o f t h c l t r o l t a g a t i o n o f g n r r - i t a t i o n a l c t i o n a c r o s s t . l r c c c l c s t i rIr s l ) a c c s . potentiirl firncticrn as clcfincrl by /,aflacc, riSz:

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'l'hc forcc cxists, hc clcsigna.tes by the terrn attraction; it incorporatcd in thc report b,v /rago, of a committee of the cffcct. r I i r o r c h ( l h r r r r r l r c o f i ) c l ) r t t i c s ,r ' c l l t i v c t o t l r c p u b l i c a t i o n o f a br.rt, at thc sanrc tirlc, ltc u'arns the rcaclcr that the tcrln as sotrtclvltat thus rrsc<l lx' hinr clocs not imply any clc6nitc idca of thc ncrv crlition of thc ri'orlrs of Lay'latc, rtnrl clcvclopccl rr-rorcfirllv in thc trvo voltnncs of ,l ra,go's lllogcs or Iliogrlr- p h y s i c : r l l ) r o c c s s l r y r v h i c h g r a v i t v i s b r o u g h t i n t o e x i s t c n c c n p h i c s o f I ) i s t i n g u i s h c r lS c i c n t i l t c l l c n , l i n g l i s l . rt r - a n s J a t i o b y ancl opcrlrtcs.<r 'l'icl<nor ar-rci I'iclds, ,Snty77,, Jtozt,t'// trrl Gron.l, z r-ols., r>l'lrc fbrcc of :rttraction being once adrrittccl as I fact. Iloston, r8.59. X'czttlottstrrrlics it in all tcrrcstrial phcnorncna, in thc rcvolu'I-hc onlr. otht'r suital:rlecliscu-.sionof this qucstion of tior-rs thc nroon, tlrc plancts, satcllitcs, and con'rcts;tnd, as of thc calrsc of gravit.ll.ion I<tro*.tt to n'rc is that by Profcssor u'c havc alrcarlv statcrl, l-rc rlcrlucccl fr:orn this incotnltlrraltic /. C/er/tc,4[t.tit.,c1/, articlcs Atonr ancl Attr:rction. Iinclc:. strrrll' thc sintplc, univcrsll, nra.thctnatic:tlcharactcristir:s of tn Ilrit., 9tr'ccl., rcprir-rtccl i'farzrr//'s Scicntific Papurs, r.ol. II, titc forccs rvhich prcsitlc ovcr thc lrlovcnrclttsof all thc lroclics -,+go. ,4[orzt,L/1's rliscussion is as <:]citt' rtnrl of ri'lrir'lr orrr solll svst.cnris r:on'rposccl.< 47 1t1t. j-47(>, ,+87 p | . r < ' i r la s i s r r s u l l r r , i t l r t . h i s r l i s t i t r s r r i s h c c l l r v s i c i s t ; r ' r ' t i t i s ri'l ltc rrpplrrrrscof tlrc: sciurtific rvorld clicl not prc\.cnt r b h i s t o r i c a l l yn o t r l r r i t cs o c o n r i r l c t c i s t h : r t g i , ' , c n y t l t c I ) c r p c t t n r l t h c i n r n r o r l i r l a i . r t h o r o f t h c l ' r i n c i p i a f r o n r l ' r c a r i n g s o n t c rctrrrv of thc I':rris ,'\r'ltclt'tnv. Iior ,'l ro,qo spcalis of thc St,'t J)crsonsr-c{crthc principlc of gr-lvitation to thc class of occr.rlt irlcas of tlrc -r\lrlrc I-tri,qttotr(r(t<,.1-r1-zz),ancl of Fa/io dc r l r r r r l i t i c s . ' I h i s c i r c r r n r s t a t t c cn c l u c c t l t \ i e z u / o t r .n c i h i s n r o s t i a Duil/icr (t66q- r ii.3', lroth itttirr:rtc fricnrls of Ncztt/ott, untl c l c v o t c r l f o . l l o r v u r s o r r l r r n r i o t t l . h c r c s e r l c g , h i c h t h c y h a r l t 'l'hosc n l r s a 1 ' s h c s c i c l c i r s ' c n ' s r r l r s c r l r . r c t rrtcti't r r , c n t . ca lt r r l p c r f c c t c < l r l t l r i t h c r t o c o n s i c l c r c < t t . l r t ' i rr l u t v t o r n u i n t l i n . il pcrsons (r7:"1 Ilio.3,r' Lt .Sage *'crr: tlrcn chrrrgctl u,it.h ignoranr-c, ri-ho r0gar(lc(l attracrtion 'I'hc s'ork cntitlcrl: Tnritd Ph1'siq'13 lfcl.niquc prrr N r r s: r t t c s s c n t i r rllr r o p c r t . l ' o fn r ; t t t c r ,a s t h c n r v s t c r i o u si n r l i c a t i o n rvas ylrblishcrl at I)aris irr r813, lrr' o f r r s o r t o l - c h l r r n r ; x . h o s r r p p o s c r l h a t t s , o l t o r l i c s Gtorgc J,out.rJ-c ^5iz,4r:, t ln:lv act Picrre Prczto-s/,rvhn rv:rs cncotrntgc<l in thc lrrrblicrrtiorr irr' rrlron t'rrch othcr s'ithout thc intcrvcntion of a third ltocly. -l'his of Lotrrlon, anrl lry /.af/are, Biol, /ro,qrt, Dr.ll/o/la.rloz forcc r'"'asthcn cithcr thc rcsr:lt of thc tcnclcncy of an of Fourie r anrl othcr nrr:nrlrcrs 1hc ltaris AcrLrlcrnyof Scict.tcurs. rrcthcrcrrl flui<l to nro'n'c fronr thc frcc rcgions of sp:rcc, lvhcrc r I n l i c n . o f t l r r - t . s ' o ( ' c n t . l l r i c s v h i c h h a v c c l a p s c r l s i r t < ' t : its rlr,n.itl is rr- nraxinrr.rn.r, towurds thc plancta.ry bodics t h c c s t l l r l i s h n r o r t o 1 ' t h c l i r n ' o f g r a v i t l t i o n , Z c . l r z g c ' su ' o r - l i l r o u n r l s l r i c h t h c r c c x i s t s t g r c i t t c r < l c g r c co f r a . r c f u r : t i o no r , l l r c r c f o r c h r r s l r r r r l r r c c r l ; r i t t ( ' l l r r ( ' n ( ' \ ' l,t t r l t ' : r s c r r r c f r r ) ) 1 , l r c c o t t s l r l r r c n c t ' o l r c i r r r p t r l s i vfc r r c c f s o t n cf l r r i r i r t ' r l i u r n . < , o t r n t r r{ c o r r s i r l c r c 'l r lv t h t r r o : t c r n i r r c n ty r l r i l o s o p l r c os ' t l r c l r g c o l ' t , \ - t i , ' / o tn c v c r c x J ) r c s s c rl i t l c f i n i t i v c o P i n i , ' r rr c s | t c t i r r q t r trnd nrort: rr'<'ctt1.ly I.af lacc, roo \'('ilrs ;r1-1tthc rrgt of .\'r'zi,/ott, t h c o r i g i n o l - t h r : i n r y r r r l s c s ' l r i c h o c c a s i o n c c lt h c a t t r a c l i v c br (.'lcrAe,lf atit,c// ;nrrl Lortl /t-tIi,itt, trrs'irrtls thc cnrl of tht: f o n ' c ' o l - l l l r t t ( ' r . r r t l c l i s t i r t o r r r s o l i r r s v s t c r r r . l l u t r v c h l L v c 'l'he rlr'1-r'rits lr'.lru,gr's lrcorv of rrltnrnrunrllnc 'n r r l t hc c n t u n ' . t f s t r o n g r ( ' i l s ( ) n sr r r s r r p l , o s i n g i,n t h c p r c s c n t r l r L l ' t l t : L ti n u s i n g , l c o r p u s c l c sh n l c l r l u ' l r v sl r c t ' n r r : < ' o g n i z c r l ',c t t h c t h c o r v h u s t h r r w o r r l i r n p u l s t ' s .t h c g r u r t g c o n l c t c r r v a s t h i n k i n g o f t h c h r r r l a c c r t u i n f r r v o r i n r l c f r r r r l to l - l r l r c t t c r o r r c . sr-stt'nlrtic irlcrrs of I'd/t(non ancLFa/io de .I)ui//icr, subIn his carcfirllv rvrittcr.r biogrirphy of -1,a|/atc, ,4 ra,go scrlr.rcnt)rrcinlcntccl ancl pcrfcctcd I>y Lc .Sagc: thcse iclcas, : o t t h c l r r c i c l s t 1 - l t < ' l r t r a t : t c r i s t i r : f t h e t t : n r i t r t : t r r r s t r o - i n c f f r , r ' t .h r r r l l r c c ' n c o m n r r n i c n t c d t o h i r n l r c f o r c t h c ) ' r v c r c Lll]:,ll p r r l r l i s h t ' r tl o t l r t : u ' o r ' k l . t r r , \ i r l r r r t ' r ' n g i ' n r l c r s h r - : n r ' " ' i t 1 ' o fl r o c l i c s r y l r p r o < ' c s s o g t l r . \ r ' r ' r r r < l i n go L c , S a g e , t h c r c l r r c , i n t l r c r c g i o n s o f l l l r c c o n < l i t c 's o t ' o r n p l r ' t c l vl r c r ' o n < t h c r c n c h o f o r r r - . r ' n s c sr r r l , i s p : r c c , l r o t l i c s r n o v i t . t r { t . t c v c r v l r o s s i l r l et l i r c r : t i o n , ; r n c l w i t h 'l'hc r t l r c o r r l i r r ; r l v ( ' s ( ) l r(r'(i o l - h u r n l r n i n t c l l i g ( ' n c r . , r ; r t t l r c p h i i c r tl a . u t h o rr r y r p ) i c c o t h r : s r : h e I r a n r co f tl t c x c c s s i v cl r r p i c l i t r ' . 'l'lrr:ir s o l r l r c r s f l n t i r l L r i l r - u h o s t r l r p o s r : trh r r t t l r t ' v c o L r l r t ' x p l r r i r r o , l l t o t : r l i t r . c o n s t i t u t c c lt h c L.iltrrr-rnrrrrrlirnt'(lorpust:lcs. l c v c n ' t h i n g n t t ' r ' l r r r t t i c r t r lt lc c o r r l i n g o t . h r :s i r r r l r l c v o l r r t i o t t s t c g n L v i t i r t i v r . { l r r i r li,f , i n d c c r l , t h c t l c s i q r t l t i o no f a l h r i t l b c o 1 ' l r t o r n s , t ' r t : r ' 1 r t t ' rl lr r r v i t r - l l ' o r r r t l r t ' i r s p c c r r l r r t i o n s . r , i r y r p l i c l l r l r : o i r n l l s s c n r b l l g c o f p a r t i c l c ' sh r r " ' i n g n o r n t t t u : r l t )rJ)..t.1/) 1..r lrtllrnptt'rl u htt /turilVrrs, /)Ltnorriltt.r, L : O l ) l l ( ' xI ( ) l r . ( I:,rsiturus, rtnri tlrt'ir' 1-ollos'crshorrght to lrc inrpossilrlr'.<r t r>;\singlr: lroclr'lrlaci:rl in tlrc nrirlst of such an ocean of l F I c n r ; r < l c h c l r r l l o f t c r r c s t . r i r rl lr o c l i c s l c p c n r l r r p o n t h c n r o v r r l r l t r t i l r r t i r : ) c s , r v o u l c l r c n l r i n a t r c s t a l t h o r . r g hi t r v c r c a c t i o n o f u l o r t c x o f v c r y ' s u l r t i c n r r t t t ' r ' c i r < ' r r l l t i n g r o u n r l t h c i n r p c l l c r ic r i r r a l l t ' i n c v c 1 1 r l i r c c t i o n . O n t h c o t ' h c r h : r t r c l , r v o u t . '['lrc r c a . li r r r p r o v c r n c n t s ' h i c h t h c j i l r r s t r i o t r s 1 u , r , q I c t t s l r o r l i e s o r r g h t t o a c l v a n c c t o * ' r r r r . i sc a c h o t h c r , s i u , c t l t c y * crrrtlr. I a 1 r l r ) i c rtlo t h c i n g u r i o u s c o l r ( ' c l ) t i o n f o r r r c o u n t r y n r r n \ \ ' c r c u'oulrl scr'','c o thc ptrrposc of nrLttultl scrccns, siuce thc srtrfaccs far, hol'cvcr, froin irlplrrtinq to it clt'lrrncss ancl prcr:ision, frrcing cach other u'or.rl<l longcr be hit in the dircction of no n r t l r o s c c ' h u r t - t c r i s t i c rt t r i b L r t c s f t r u t h . < r o thcir Iinc of junction lry thc trltramunrlanc particles, since rr'l-hoscpcrsons fonn a vcn' inrltcrfcct cstirnatc of thc thcrc s'or.rlrl thcn cxist ('urrcnts) tl-rccffcct of rvhich rvould no r n c r l n i n g o f o n c o f t h c g r c r t c s t q r . r c s t i o n s . h i c h h a s o c c L r p i c c l longcr lrc ncutralizcrl lrv oppositc currcrlts. It rvill bc easilv l l 1 t h r : a t t c t r t i o n o f n r o c l r : r t r n q u i r c r s , r v h o r c g a r c l N t ' z u / o t t ' , t s : 1 . c r r , r r . s i r i t ' s ,) t ; r 1r r , o l r o , l i c sl l l u n g c r l i r r t o t h r - g r n v i t l r t i v c i having issrrccllic'tor-ious fronr a -strLrgglcin rvhiclt his trvo llrri<1,*'otrltl torrl to approiLch cach othcr rvith an intcnsitr' inrrnortal prcclccc'ssors hacl f:rilcd. t\;czt,lottrlid not rlisr:ovcr u'lrich lr otrlrl r,rrrvir-rthc invcrse proportion of tl-rcsquarc of thc 'fu'o tlrc carrsc of grar.itv ilnv nrorc than Ot/ilco clicl. bodics c l i s l a n c c . < A rago's sta|cnrcnt above, that lthis force \\'as then plrrccd ir-r juxtapositior-rapploach cach othcr. Arczulon clocs r-rot inquirc into thc lnturc of thc force s'hir:h prorlr.rccs this cithcr thc result of thc tcnclencyof an acthcrcal fluid to nrot'e

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fror-n thc flcc r-cgions of spacc l'lrcrc its dcn-sity is it InrtxittrLtt.tr, ' t o \ \ ' i l l ' ( l s t l r c l r l i r l t c i a r " r - l r o t l i c s a t ' o r . r t t < l1 h i c h t h c r c c x i s t s a . grcntcr clcgt'cc of ntrcfirction, or tlrc consc(ltlctrcc of thrt i i n t p r r l s i v c l o r c c o f s o n r c l l t r i r l n r c c l i r t t t r < , s c s p t t c : i a . ) )ly o r t h l ' o f ,\:cir"/rutharl cntcrtairtc(1 thc i<lclr tltat thc rlcttsitv attcntioll. of thc acthcr urts lcss tourtt'tls thc lrcavctrlt'lrotlics, 1-ct lrtr coulcl not rrllic out rvlrl- il is lcss. It ri'itsonlt'rr-hctr s-c rlr'r'clol t c c l t h c \ \ ' r t v r " l h t ' o r 1 ' , . ' \ , \ . 5 o J .,l J ) . . 5 7 , t h l t r t . c l c r t r t l c t l o t i l stratiorr lrct'rrrrrcrvlilltlrlc, shos'ing tlrlt jrrst lLs lltc arnplit t r r l c s o f t h c s ' l t v t ' s i t r c r c a s c t o s ' a t ' c l st l t c c c t t t t - c ,r t l r < l c r l h c ' l l t s ' s o l t l s o t h t : c l c n s i t v o f t l t c t r c t h c r i t t c t ' t r t s c s; t s t t u /:/tir, pro<'ccrl otrtwitttl iu slritcc, ittr<l hctrct: thc u'rtvc slt t ss i: 1o r v i r r c l s t h c c c n t t - < : r r ' i t l t a f o r c c - / - , ' l ' : / t 2 f1 2 , a s o l r s < ' r v c r l i t t - \ ' t i i ' / , , ) t ' >l , t u n f g r l r v i t t r t i ' , t l .

'encrgy, u'hile thc kinetic theory of tl-rcaether conscllatior-r of nrt'cts rll thcsc rcclr.rir-cnlclrts, ancl is csttlrlishecl by ncccssar\r lrrcl srit-fit'icnt r:onriitions<lrarvnfrorr-r thc knos.n larvs of naturc. 'l'hcrc .i. , i s , l r o r v c t c r 'u s l i g h t s i r n i l r l i t y b c t s ' c e n t l r c f r c e n r o li o n o f l l r c r c t h r : r o t r a n c l t h a t o f t l r c u l t r a n r u n c l a n ec o r 'l'lrcory p r r s c l r ' :r ' r ' 1i.n t h r : N c r v o f t l r c r \ c l h c r -i t i s s l r o u ' n t h a t l ' r r v r ' - r r c t i o n r n r l c r l i t : s h c f o r c c s o l n i t t r r r c ,l t n d t l t a t t h c y c a n r t lrc'lccourlcrl lor in no othcr s'av, ls \\'c scc lrv thc clcar ln<l rurnristrrlilrlrlcrl:'unrcnt clrau.n frorn thc phcnorncnon of r i r c l r L r s l i ca t t n c t i r . r n , s ' l r c r c u l t . n r r r r r n c l l n c c o r p u s c l c s a r c : n ot itrvolvccl .

. 5 .A c c o r r l i n g l r ' .l r v c o n s i d c r i n gp h c n o n r c n ao f a t t n r c t i o r . r , c x p c r i r r c t r t l t i l v v c r i l i c r ' li r r t h c t h c o l y o f s o u n d , r i - h i r : hr l o n o t i r r v o l v r :t h c u l t r l - r r r r r n r l l r n c : o r p r r s c l c s ,' c n l a y g c t r i r l o f t h c r s t h c l t t l n r i n r l r i t : s t t t r t t r t r t r v I r y r / r - r z , q ai s s t r t r r r r l i t i o t r r l t h c o r l . 6 1 - f . c , \ ' o g c . I n i t s p r i r n i t i r , c f o r n r t h i s '\ltogcthcr l r . r n r i n o u st h r r t I l r r v c t l r o u s l t t i t b c s t t o q u o t . c i t i t r f i r l l , r r s t l r i : t h c o r v o f u l t . r a - r r r r r r r r l i r c o r p u s c l c s\ \ r a s c a r l y c o n s i r l c r c r ll r r nc ' i b c s t a n i r l l s i s o 1 - t l r r : t l o r s t r ; t t r s t t t i t t c ctlo r t s l 1 1 t l t c p l t i l o s o l r l r c r s I'tri,qtrott, J;tlio dc DuilliLr, Ilo//ct', nn<I Nczu/rnt; )ct t\\o s'ho s'itrrcsscrl tlrt'proerrss sincc thc forrn<latiott o1-tltc titcorv c t ' n t r r r i c sl g o t h c s t : n i r t r r t a l l r h i ) o s o p h r : r s c r e u n a . c q u a i n t c d w o1'r:nivcrsltl glrvitrttiott, t6S6. * ' i t l r r r < ' o r r s l i cr' t t r i r t ' t i o n . l t t t l t l r r r s l l c l i c r l a . c r i t c r i o n f o r i 'l o co o l r i s r t r ' , L r n t t l r t ' r t ' l i r r t :o f ' l l t c t ' r t r l y s p t ' r ' r r l r t l i o t r s l - r c j c c l i n g l l r t ' l l r c o l v o l - r r l t n r - r r r r r r r r l l n c r l r u s c : l c s . 'l'hc I:arigttott iurtl ol- ../ialio t/L .1-tui//it'r, ittrtl ol' tltt'ir <'otrrtrrt:tti6. *'ln,c thcorv alonc, thcrcforc, accoLllrtsfor thc t : r t i o r r r v i t l r A t . z t ' / o l t , l ) r i o r t o P u l r J i s h i n g t h c i r v i r r r r , s o t r l . l r c I ) r ( ' s s r r r o f t h c a c t h c r t o r v a r t l st h c l r c r r v c n l l ' b o d i c s l r y t h c l a r v , c causc of gravitittion, is of tlccitlc<l lristorit'al itrtcrcst. It is of rlcnsit.y, shir:h ncccssa.rilyfollorvs in thc proltagltion of r c c a l l c r l t l r r r t t l r t ' 1 ' r - i c n < l s l r i l rl r t ' t t c c r t t Y c z t , / o t t i t n c l I - t t i , q t t o t t . s'irvt's fronr thc atonrs of nra.ttcr: ancl such \lravcslrc actr.rllly r v i r s s r . r c l rt h r r t i : r i Y r i t ' / t t r ' > s t u t l r ' , t o l l r t ' c r r t l o f l r i s l i l i : , t h c r c olrso-r'crlt.o cornc fron-rtlic Sun in an infinitc varicty of phcnohrrng l lrortritil ctl' l'art,qtt,'it,rtlrttrgu'it)r thlt of Lorrl //a/t.fnt, n r c n a l s s o c i l l . r ' c lr v i t h s r : n s p o t s , n r a g n c t i e s t o r n r s , a l r r o r a c , ll t h e l i f e rl o n g l ' r ' i r ' t r r t n c l y r r l r r i n r , i ' l h l g r t ' r t I l r i l o s o l r l t t ' r . , \ t r r l I : ) r r t l r t ' r r r r c n l s ,t h c n r r g n c t i c t i r l c s o l - o r r r g l o l r c , c t c .
1 s'tts itr .\',;i'1r,2'. itttitrrrrtc f-rit'rtrls)ri1r 'cr /;alttt r/t /)ttil/itr f r r r t v t ' t ' r t r s , t ( r S 7 - r j 2 7 ( . c 1 'l.i r t i t ' . r l L r ' s L i f t ' o i , \ t ; , ' 1 , r , , r . l S < . ; . r - < r l I I , 1 r p . 3 6 - - 1 o ; i t t t < ll t s r t ' g r t t t l s I ' a r t g t r n t t , p l t . T o 7 4 . l t t r i . 2 - o - : 9 . 5) . 9 li N o t n i t l r s t r n c l i n g t l r c p l a u s i b l c i o n s i r ' l c r a t i o n s l . c l t l r - r t : c cr t '

I n r r r l r l i l i o nl o t l r c l l r o v c r l i l - f i r ' u l t i ro s t h c t h c o r v o f :f ' ,. r ; l t r r rr r L r n i l r i n { r ' . ) r l ) u s ( ' l ( ' s J I t t z t ' t 1 1 l r r r l L o r c l t { c / i t i t t h t t y c l r o t h l r . r i n t c r l( ) L r t\ ' f r v s c r i o u s o l r j c c t i o n sl r t s c d o t r t h c t b c o r l ' olcrconrc in tl-rchalf ccntrlry o1-rrrlrgr'. rvlricli hrtlc Irot l>t'ct.t sincr:thcv ri'crc pr,rblishcrl. 'l'lrc ,'l /d,qo alrcrvc, atrcl lhc sinrilirr irrgulrcl)ts put forth by 111n.vv'p11, thcory of ultla-munrlanc corpuscles thercforc irr rcgrrrrl t.o lr',\rr,qir's lltr'or1', it is ccrt.irin tltttt thc'st: Lrltr:rfl.ils, r.vhilcthc rva.."'c-tl'rcory physicu.lforccs clcvclopt:cl of r:nt.irt'ly 'l'hcory Inurrrlrrrrt' corprrs<'lcs, its tiiscrtsscrl lr1. I:arigtt.ott, lit/io t/t: i n o f t h c . A c t h c r i n c o n t c s t a l r l yt r i u n r p h s l tlrt: liint:tic
/ ) r r i 1 1 i , r , - \ ' t ; , ' / t t i , / / r t / / t . r ' r r r r r l / - c , t r z . g r , i l r c l l o t t h c t ' r t u s c ro f gnrvitirlion. l-r'r thc lollorvittg r'('l)s()trs:

Prolrlcnr of thc \rclocitr22.'l'hc IIistolilrl oJ' tlrc l'roprrgation of Univcrsal (]ravitation - / ' 1 . r . . ' ! . ,u l r i c l r i s n L r n r c r i t ' i t l lvvc r i l l c r l l c r ' ( ) s s t l r c ( l c l c s t i a l S y r a c c s . , t h c l r r r v l l g : t , r ( r 2 , t. r 2 in thc llrilglrctic anrl gntlitlrtionlrl lirrccs o1-ottr glolrt:, as Onr: otlrcr qucstior-r lcscrving of historical rcvict'is r shos'n itr thc \'rlL l)rtpt'rotr thr' \t'u"l'ltc'orv o1-thc Acthcr, th:rt n'lrrting to thc vclocitt of propagation of gravitation. r : i r 9 2 2 . I i < t l s i r c c t h c u l t n t n r r t t r < l l t n'to r p t t s r ' 1lc lsl n o t c x p ) a i t t I n t h c I ' , r y r o s i t i o rc lrr rS 1 ' s t i n r ed t r t r l o n r l c , l ' ) n g l i s h t r a n s l : r t i o n r l t r . n i r 1 1 r . r c t . i 11 r1 1 1 :1 1 ' 1 ' 1 ' s s ' 1 r i l r ' 1 lo ir t r ' c ' o t t t .fto r g n t v i t r t t i o l t , lty ?otttl, rSot;, r'ol. 2, P. 210, Lay'/acacnumcrates fir'c :tsstttnp: 1 r, v u ' h i c h l o r r g s l o o r l i n i s o l u l i o n , r - r ' t i s n o r v c o t t t r c c l t ' r ls ' i t h tion,s r.rnrlcrlving thc thcorl' of univcrszrl gravitation, all duly a . n o t l r c rg c n c n r l f o r c c i t t l t i l t u r c t ' h u r t c t c r i z t ' r ll 1 1 ' l t l r r a l i t v o f vcrifir'rl by cxpcricncc lntl obsctvltion during thc first ccntur)'l-hc r i ' a v c - t h c o n ' .r r n t l t l t c o f t l r , . \ c s l o n i : r r r l r r r v : t p o \ \ : o r s ,o r a l t n r c t i o r . 1 o t \ r o l l o l c s . 'I'}rrt s l ' u v c - t h c o L l r l o t r c , s ' i l l c x l r l a i n t l t c s c t r i ' o g r c a t c ' l r t s s t ro 1 ' rrr. gr:r.vitationtrrkcsplacc l:rctu'ccn the nrost rrrinute yrhctrotncttl. p r r r t i c l c so f l r o r l i c s . < r z . ' l ' h c I i l t r c t l r a t i o r - ro f t h c N 4 o o n ' s m c a n l n o t i o n ( l i s s rrz.'l'hat it is proportional to thcir nrasses.<r rfi69- r9o9, carl be accortntcrl for only covcrctl |x, 1\ttzt,comb, r r r . ' l h a t i t i s i n v c r s c l ) ' a s t h c s q u a r c so f t h e c l i s t a n c c s . < l-rv thc l'llc-thcorl-, nnt lrv tlrc thcory of u'lt.nrtnr,rtrdatrc 'l'hat 14. it is transrrittcd instantaneousll' f166 one body corprrsclcs. Iior ultriurunclanc corpusclcs u'ould not ilccortnt of for thc clercrclsc thc lloor-r's grrrvitv to thc crrrtlt ilt thc tilnc to irnothcl.t<
r . ( i r l r v i l l r l i , r t ti s c ' o t t n', t r , l n i t l r l l r : r j { n L l i s l l rt ,h r o r r g l t

of lunar cclipscs, u'lrilc tl-rc s'arrc-thcory clocs so pcrfcctly. c t h c o r v o f r t l t n L n r t r n ( l i r n c o r p r . l s c l c sf l i l s i n :.'l'hc elcctrodr-n:rnrics,acoustic attraction, thc nrotion of l{crcLrr r"s pcrihclion, ctc., ancl ir.r gcncral x'ill not satisfl'thc grc,rt gcr-rcralizltion knorvtt as thc corrclation of forccs, ancl thc

15. Ancl it cqualll'acts on bodies in a state of repose, tlrosc s,hich, moving in its clirection, sccllr in part anti rrpor-r to ri'ithdrlru' thcnrsclvcs frorn its activity.< In thc cliscussionof the 4th proposition loploce reasons lrs fr'llorls:

43r

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u\\Ic havc no nrethocl of rncasuring thc lcngth nf tinrc in cclrtulv ago, otl-rerr,vise Lallace $rould not have given it such rihich glrr-r'itv is ltro.1rrtlrlcrl, lrccrrusc tl-rc action of thc SLrn 1;ronrincrtccin his lcacling worksl). h:r"r'ingoncc attainccl tht: p)irncls, it cclntinucs to zrct. on thcnr r\ltogctlrcr this is an inrpressive prcsentation of the as ii thc lt.tnictivc fon'c uits crontntunicatccl instant:r.ncouslv lristoricrrl rlifficultl' of thc proltlem of thc velocity of the force t o t h c c x t l c n t i t i c s o f t l t c s 1 ' s t c n t \ \ ' c c a n n o t t l t c l c f o r c a s c c r t a i n of grirr,itlrtion. lior a long ; tinrc no progrcss could be m:rde, as i n h o s ' l o n g l t i n r c i t i s t n t n s n t i t t c c l o t h c l l a r t l r , n o n r o r c l h a n rr'c sr.'.: this crrcful t l11' surxmary of the leacling viev,'stransrnittcd u ' c < r o r r l rnll ( . r s r r r ct h c v c l o < ' i t vo f l i g h t , s ' c r c i t u o t f o r t h t : to rrs ll'onr ' thr: agc of Ncrulott. : t l r c r n t l j o n r r n r l c c : l i p s c s f . J r r p i t c r ' ss a t c l l i t c s . [ ] r r t i t i s n o t o Trr lhc bioglapl.ry of La.!/acc, 1842, Arago has a very t i r c s l r r r t ' s ' i t l r t h c s n r : r l lr l i f f c r r : r r r : c a t n r a v c x i s t i n t h c a r . t i o n th carcful rliscussionof this qucstion, rvhich should also be cited: o f g r r t v i t v u P o r t l r o r l i c s , l ( - , ' o r ' ' l i l rtg t l r c t l i i c , ' t i o n i r n r l r l r r t r n t i t v l o rrlf a.ltnrction is thc rcsult of thc impulsc of a fluid, o f t l r c ' i l v c l o c i t r ' . A n a J r - s i s a s s h o l ' n n r c , t . l r a tt l r c r c s h o u l t l h t ' c - ' s r r atn a c c c l c r a t i o t r i n t l r c r n c : r n n r o t i o r . r s f t h c l t l l . n c t s it.s actiorr orrght to cnrploy a finitc tirnc in travcrsing the i o l o u n r l t h c S u r r , i l n r l i n t l t c :n r c : r nr u o t i o n so f t h c s a t c l l i t c su l r o u t i r r n r c n s c s p r r c c sl l r i c h s c p a r a t e t h c c c l c s t i a l b o d i c s . I f t h c srrn, tltcn, r..'r,rc urlrlcnly cxtinguishcd, thc earth aftcr tltc s thr:ir plrrncts.< c r r I h r r r l i r r r r g i n c clll r i s n r c t h o r lo 1 - ' x p l r r i n i n g . h c s c ' r . r r l r r r l r t ; r s t r o p l r ct ' o r r l r i , n r a t h o l l r . t i c a l l y s p c a k i u g , s t i l l c o n t i r - r t r c r t '['ltc i ( ' ( l L l r t i o no f t l r r : t r l o o r r , l h c : r ' r I l r c l i c v c r lr v i t l r o t l r c r s c ( ) l n o t r i - f i l ' s o n t c t i r r t r t o r . r p c r i o t r . ci t s a t t r a c t . i v c n f j u c n c c . c:onb c i a n s t h l t i t s - r r s i n c x p l i c r L l r i ro l t t l ) c p r i r r r . i p l r - . f ' r r n i v c r s i r l t l l r ' 1 - u o u k l l r r r p p c no n t h c o c c a s i o no f t h c s u c l c l c n i r t h o f a : o p l ; r n r ' 1 l c c l t . r r i n i n r c u ' o u l t l c l a p s c l r c f o r ct l t e a t t r a c t i v c l o r r . c t ; , i l r a v i t i r t . i o l r . I f o u n r l t h l r t i f i t l r r o s c 1 - r ' o rtrl r i s ( . r r r ] s cw c n r u s t o f t . l r t :n c s ' l r o r l r ' l ' o u i c l n r l l r c i t s c l f f c l t o n t l t c I f a r t h . r , s u l ) l ) o s ( ' i nt l r c I , l o o n , i n o r r l c l t o r r . l r . r r s c .ctt r t i r c r i yl . o r n i t s i l e r > S c v t . r ' grc o n r t . t r s o f t i r c ] l s t c c t l t r l r y u ' c r c o f o l t i n i o n r l g r a v i t l ' t o r r r r r r l s t h c l l n r t l r , u v c l o c ' i t r -i n t h c c r - ' r r t r c f t h i s o t h r t t l r c f o r t ' c o f l r t t n r c t i o n i s r . r o t1 f ; n r s l r i t t ; d i n s t a n t a n c o L r s l y p l : r n c t l t t l c l s t s i x r l i l l i o n t i n r t ' sg r c r r l r . r l r l n t h t r t o { - ) i t h t ; t t h c t r u c c l r r s < :o f t h i s c c l r r r r t i o nr c i n g n o s ' i r n o * . r ' r ,\ \ ' ( ' ; l r - . j f r o r n o n c l r o r l i ' t o l r n o t h c r l t h c y c ' , . c n s s i g n c ctlo i t a c o n r p i r r l r l a v c c r t r i r l t h r t t h c a t : t i v i t , v 1 ' g r a v i t vi s r r r u r . h r f l t o r t l r r n t h i s . t i l r ' l r - i r r c o r r s i < l c r l l r l c c l o c i t y o f p r o l ; l g a t i o n . J ) a n i c / l l e r o g 'l'his ftrr cxitnrlrlc, in attolltting to cxplain horv tlre spring f o r c c t l t c r c l b r ca ( ' t s\ 1i t l ) l v r ' l o r . i t r . s ' h i c h v c n r r r r - c o r . r s i c l r .tir,'tr/1i, r r : r s i r r f i r r i l ,;'n l { l \ \ o t ) l t \ ' ( ' ' r r r r r r l rt.l t r r ll l r r .r r l i o r rr , l 'i l r , .S , , n i . t i r l r ' ; r rl i v l s r i l ) o l ro r l r c o a s t s: 1d l r y l t n d a i r a . l fa f t c r t h c s y z y g i c s , . , l t r a n s r n i t t c riln l t r i n r l i v i s i l r l cn s t a n t t o t h c c x t r c r r r i t i c s l ' t h r . t l r r r t j . 1 o s r r r ' ,r r r l a v a n r l a . h l t l f t r f t c r t h c c l l o c h sr v h c t r t h c s u n i o l u r ri n r , r . i r r rr ( ' n r ( ) : t f i r v o t r n r l r l v i t r l r t c c l { i l ' t l r c J r r o r l u r : t i o o f s l ) l a l r c t a r \ .s Y s t c n r . ( n Lty'/ott's riiscrrssiorrof tl-rc r.clor:it1' of gravitlrtion is t l r i s : . r 1 1 . i 1 r i,, . L 1 r i t , , , r t . ' t c l ) ( ) ln , s l , l t . r l t l l r 1 . t l t r : t l i s t . r b i n g )s l l - u r t h c r c l L r c i r l l t c t l i n t l r c i n t . r o r l u c t i o nt o v o l u n r c I V o f t h c l i r r t ' r ' r c r l r r i r ir, r l lt l r i st i n r r ' ' l rr l r r rl r r r r a J r r r l ff)o r i t . i r r , r l , , r g r r t i o t - r l , l r o n r t l r c l l t / ) ( ) l1 ( )t l r r ' 1 1 1 ' 1 . . , r o, .l - i ' c l i l cr r . r ' l o . i t r - r r . rirrs c o r r t l l d c a n i r l u c ( . r l J c s t crS o . : S' 5 l r ))r\s lto vrrriltiotr in lhc nrcrrn nrotion of thc carth is sistcnt s it.h tlti, ntccllLnir.al cxplrrnlrtiot.r f attrar:tion of o 'I'hr: l i n c l i c a t c t ll r v o l r s c r v l r t i r ) n\,\ ' ( .l l r i r v i n f u r : I : i r s t , l h i r t t h c S r r n , s l r i c l r t v c r r l r v t :j u s l s p o ) i c n . c x l t l l r n ; r t i o n i n c f f c r : t ,n u r : c s , < l u r i n g t h c l i r s t t \ \ - ot ] t { ) u s i l l t (v c l r r s ,} t : r sr t o l l o s t l r t r v o n r i l l i r t n t l r srrrilr,suppo.ls tlr:rt thc propcr n.rotior.rs thc cclcstitrl lrorlics l of S o of I ) a r t o f i t s s u l r s t u r . r c c ;t ' r ' o n c lt,l r a t t l r c r l l i . c . t i ' t ) r r .i r r r l r r r l s i r > n rrrc irrsotsiblc ('onrl)a.rcd."vith lhc nrotion of thc grar.ita.tivc l i g h t u p o n t h c N ' l o o r r ' ss e c u l u r c r l r n r t i o n i s i n s c n s r l r l c . ' l ' h t : l l r r i r l . r , r r n a l l ' s i so f t h i s c f f c t : t r n l y b c a p p l i c c l t o g r l r r . i t r - .( ' . ) n : i ( l r , r ( ' ( l ,r,,\ftcl lrrrving rliscovcrcd that thc dirninrrtion of thc l s l r c i n g t h c r c s L r i to f t h c i r n p u l s i o r ro f a f l r r i r l I r r o r i r r r . i n el t c c c c l r r t r i c i t r - o f t l r c L c r n r s t r i a o r l r i t i s t h c r c a l c a u s c o f t h c t l c f f t ' r ' t o l ' g n r l i l r ' , l r v r r r o v i n g r r ' i t h c x t r c l r . r cr r r p i r l i t v 1 ( ) \ \ . r r r ( l so l r r l l v r ' r l r r c c l l c r r r t i o n f t h c . n r o t i o n o f t l r c n t o o n , / - r t p l a c c ,o r t o 1 h c t L t t n r c t i r r g r o r l r ' . I , r o n r t l t i s i t f i r l l o r v s , h l l t , t o s l t i s i ' r -t l t t : l r i s i r l r r t , r ' n r i , ' ; r , , ' o r r r tt' ol a s c i . r t a i n u ' h c t h c r t h i s n r y s t c r i o u s l t t c l r h c ' n o n r c r r l\r\,' ( .l r u s t s u l ) J ) o s t h i s l l u i < l t o l t l v c l l t r c x c . c s s i v c l r . r c r . r . l l r r t i o n t l i c i n o t < l t . l t c n r l n t l r c g r i r r ' l u a lp r o p a . g a t i o no f o g r c a t v c l < t c i t r 'r.r t l c r r s to n r : h u t r t l r c r ln r i l l i o n t i n r r - sg r t . r r t t , r l r ; r n a t t n l ( ' tl o l t . ( ( t 'l that of light. I r i s v c l o i ' i t l l ' o r r l r l l u r i t r l r n i t ci n t h c I t r . p o t l r c s c s ,r'l'ltc l'csLrltof calt-ulation \\'lls at first favor,rrablcto thc a ( l l n i t t c ( l b v n l r t l t n n r r t i c i t r n sr c l a t i v c t o t h c l c t i o t r o f g r t r i t l r ; plausibilitl' of tirc hvpothcsis. lt shorvcd that the gradual thcsc hvltotir,-'scs url\' llri'n'forc lrc rr-scrrl rvithout fcar of any plopagiLtior"r thc attractir.c forcc woulcl of introducc into thc l ) ( ' r ( ' c l ) t i l r lrI' tr { , 1 . ( l)rovcrlrclrt of or:r satcllitc a pcrturbation proportional to thc It l ill lrc r-roticccl tlrrrt hc syrcal<s if the rgravific flrrirl<, squrlr(' of thc tirrc rvltich clapsccl from the conrrncnccment as \\'as concci\icrl as tnoving tou-lrtls tltc ccntr:rl l]tasscs rvith :r of rLnvcpoch; that in orclcr to rcprcscnt nun'rcrically thc rcsults v c l o c i t v r o o n r i l l i o t - rt i n r c s g r c a t c r t h l n t h a t o f l i g h t . N o of astronornical obscrvations it rvoulcl not bc ncccssary to rc:rsorris givcn s-hv thc rrlluicl<r so lrovir.tg, nor is it exltlair-rcrl a s s i g n a f c c l r l c v c l o c i t ) ' t o a t t r a c t i o r . r ; t h a ta p r o p a g a t i o n c i g h t is l r o r v t h c r . n o t i o ni s l i c p t r r p : o b v i o u s l v t h c h 1 ' p o t h c s i ss i n l r l i millions of tirncs nlorc rapi(l thirn tl.ratof light rvould satisfv all rnrslitrlc to-1lr)', nrust havc bccn r.cry nrur:h ir.r voguc 1L t h c p h c n o m c n a . < r l'.', 1!
r) In Pirrrc I'rn.'os/'s ctlition of /,c ^9age's'I'hco11' o f f l l t r a m u n c l a n c C o r p u s c l e s ,P a r i s , r S r 8 , p p . 2 r - 2 3 , t h e v i c r v i s t a k e n t h a t t h e s p c c r l o f 1 h c c o r l r u s c l c sn r r r r . hs r r r p a s s c s h a t o f i i g h t , y e t t h c l a r r c s t r n r r l t i p l i c r n a r n c c l ( p . . z z j i s r o 6 o o o ( c e n t m i l l e f o i s p l u s v i t e t q t r c l r I r r r n i t l r c ) .* ' l r i . h i s n r r r c h l c s s t h a n t h e m r r l t i t r l i c r u s c c l b v J , a h / a r c .
I'c '\'a,qc llolcs lltat liglrl r:onrcs from tlrr: Sr:n in 8 nrinutcs, rvhic[ is lz rni]lion leagues (t leaguc=3 milcs) distant, and thcn conrputcs tllrt it rroulrl 1ra\'('rsc 2oooooooeoooooooo lcagrrcs in loooo ycars: Ircnct, Irc concluclcs that thc distancc rvhencc tlre ultraI t t l t t t t l r t t t t r ' o r l r t r s l< ' s r Y t ' r r :I r o j c . t c t l f r r r l l t < ' l r . n l l r o r r s ; r n , l ' t ) r . i r r s r , l r r , l . r t i o r r\ \ ' . r s 1 w ( ) t h o r r s a n c l t r i l l i o n s o f l c a g r r c s , a t r i l l i o n b c i n g lo()oooo lrilliorrs.ttc. 'I'hc p r i n r : : p l c o f u s i n q t h c s u p p o s c d v c l o c i t v o f t h c g r a v i l i c r : o r p t r s c l c so r c o m p u t i n g t h c e x t c n t o f t h e u n i v e r s e . f r o m f thc assurncrl rlrrration of tlrc rvorld, cviclcntlv was too hazarlous to alrpcal to Lal/ace.

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rlAlthough thc tlrrc causc of tirc accclcriltion of thc nroon rvhiclr t'ls crxl)crimcntally confirrnccl aftcr thc dcvclopmcnt is nos' l'cll I<norvn.thc ingcuious calculation of rvhich I lravc ol .lIa.tzuc//'s clcctrolnagnetic thcory of light, solne a)oycars j r r s i .s p o l i t ' nr l o t ' sn o t l l r c l c s so n t h l t l l ( ' ( ' o r n rn r r i n t a i n i t s p l a c ' c ago. :. AJllrougl-rGarz.s.r hacl consiclcrcdclcctrodynanric action t j t r s c i c n c r : . I n l r n r i r t l r c r r i r t i c r rp o i n t o f v i c u ' , t l r c l l r c r t r r r b r r t i o t r l s p t ' r h r p s p r o p : r . g t t c ciln t i n t c , l i l i c l i g l r t , a s c a r i y a s r 3 3 5 , , v c t clcpcndinn on thc grurllral propugiLtiot't thc attraclivc forr:c lrc rliLl not lrrittg his rvork to a conclusior.runtil ll/eber's lati of 'l'hc u'hich this cllcrrlution inclicltcs has a ccrtain cxistr:ncc ir.rrl lrcr:r-rfrrrnrrrlatccl in r8.i6; lncl thcrcfore in Iaf ltce's lrcts-ccn thc vclocitt' of pcrtr.rrlntion a.nrl thc dlvs thc irlcrr.of instantancous actinlL, rurrcnt since thc da1's cor.rncctior-r rcsulting incrlurlitv is such thlrt onc of thc tu'o qruLntilicslcacls o{ ,ltLzt,lott,lncl irnplied in tl-re forrn ol Nezaton's Lau,, still to a linorv'lc<lgc thc nunrcrical valuc of thc othcr. Nolv, upor-r lrclrl in thc rninrls of most philosophcrs. 3. Laf lace failecl of assigning to tl'rc incqullitl' thc grclrtcst r v h i c h i s c o n - to notc tl-rrrttlic rctarclcd clistance,cluc to tl-rcfinitc vclocity of "'alr:c , sistcrrt s'ith thc obscn'ations aftcr thcv liavc bcor corrcctctl g r r r v i t r L t i o n r ( r - t , ) i s , t o t h e f i r s t o r c l c r , c q u a l t o t h c u n rlistlrnt:c r', rvith the rcsult that thc force is dircctcd for thc cffcct cluc to thc vlriltion of thc ccccntricil.v of lhc rctrrrrLccl tcrrcstrial orbit, rvc finrl thc vclocit.1' thc attractivc forcc to r i r p r o x i r n : r t r : l vt o t h c c o n t c m p c r a r y p o s i t i o n o f t h e a t t r : r c t i n g of i rorlr' . b c f i f t y n r i l l i o r r s o f t i n r c s t l r c l c ' l o c i t v o 1 -l i g l i t ! < r 'l'lris uTfit bc bornc itr nrin(I, thrt this nunrlrcrrs rrn infcrior l:rst consirlcr:rtion u'as bcforc Ti-rserond, in lis i l i r n i t , a n r l t h l t t h e v c l o c i t r , o f t h c n r v s o f l i e h t l n r o u n t s t o crrrlr.rcscrrrclrcs II/(l(/'s clcctrodvnamic law, C. l{., Scpt.3o, ot1 7 7 o o o l c r g u c s ( r t 1 : o o o i i n g l i s h r n i l c s ) p c r s c c o n c l ,1 h c p h i l o - r S ; : . r r r t r lr r r v s c l f .i r r A . n c r r l i z i n g a n r l e x t e n d i n g t h e r : s c o f s o p l t c r s r i ' h o l r n r f c s st o c x l ; l l i t i t h c f o r c c o f : r t t r a c t i o t tl r l t h c Il-tltt r's Lls', r 9r.5, (Ulcctroclvnarlir: \\Iavc-Theorv of Phr.sical i n r p L r J s i vc n ( ' r ' g vo f a . l l u i r l , r v i l l s c c u ' h r L tp r o r l i s i o r r si ' c l o c i t . i c s T i o r r ' r ' sr,' o l . r , r 9 r 7 , p p . r . 1 z - r 5 r ) . A f t c r t h c a c l v a . n c cm a c l c c s 'l-hcory irr tlrc Ncrv o f t h c A e t h c r , r 9 2 2 ) l r ' l lt h c s c r c s u l t s s c e r n t l r c v r n r r s ts a t i s l - v . < 'l'hc rc-sclrrchcs 7'i.r.straru on t.ltc clcctroclt'nlnric llnv v c r v o l x ' i o r r s i f c t t h c l ' u ' c r c f a r f r o n - rp l a i n i n r 9 r 4 , a n c l i n t h e of rl o l I I - a l t c r ,( - ' o n r p t c sl t c n r l L r s .S c p t . 3 o , r 3 7 2 , 1 ' t 7 6 o 7 ( r 3 , a n d tirrrrr of /,of/acc coulrl not cven havc bccn anticipated. l l d r : r r n i q L r c c l c s t c , ' I ' o n r cI V , C h a l t t c r X X V I I , p 1 t .- 1 9 9 - . 5 o 3 , O t' i 2 3 . t \ ' , : z t , t o n t l I )ss c u s s i o n o f t h e C a u s e o f G r a v i provcrl ir rrscftrlguidc in rly carll' cnlculltions f lilcr:t.r<xlvnl.rnic tlrtion, rliS3: His Objcctions ovcrcornc, under thc \ \ t a r . c - ' l ' h c o r yo f I ' h v s i c a l I i o r c c s , r ' o l . I , r g r 7 , l r p r . l : - r . sr ) . ( l o r r r li t i o r - r s f u l f i l l c d \rllitl by tl.rc W:rvc-Thcorl'. o I l u t r i ' c rn o i r - r t u t t h i L t t h i s < l r r c s t i o n l i r l n o t r r l n r i t o l ' s o l L r t . j o r r r I t i s r c c o g n i z c t lt h a t t h c l a t c P r o f c s s o r S i n o n A r c z u r o n b p r i o r t o t l r u r l c r - c l o p n r c n to f 1 . h c\ \ r r r v c - ' l ' l t t ' o r vo l - l ' l r l s i t r r l I i o r c l s , r r J r .-l l ( ) : . i . l r o l o n l r ' \ \ - i r so n c o f ' t h c g r c r r t c s tn l t t h c r . n i t t i c - a ls t r o n o r r r c r s f a o t l r v l n r r l ' t t ' r t l r r ' 1 r r o o 1 'rs l v r ' l o p c ' r li t r t h c \ \ ' r r v r ' - ' l - l r c o r r ' . I r i sr r g , . l r L r l r l s oc n r l o * - c t x ' i 1 hl r t r c ' r 1 L r a ) 1 1 - a r l < a l >yl r h v s i c a l l l renr c . c s o r t r t ' r t r r t l r o r i l i c 's n t i n L r ctro r r r l l r c r c o t l t c v i c * ' s o l ' / . t t , h / a ; r . i r r t r r i t i , r n s o t i r i r t l r t ' u ' r r sc r L p i r l r l o f g o i n g d i r c c t l v t o t h c r o o t o l t 'l'hrrs 'l'lris o l r l r l r i t ,l r o r l c v t ' r 's l r : 1 n r t ' o n l v o f t h o s c r ' , r o 1 o . r '. i 1 1 1 r tl - o 1 - r r r r r -r o l r l c n r i n s c i c n c c . , l p it is s'orth rvliilc to cxrrmirrc o1- hc carrsc <>fgrlx'itzrtion, rvl-richi-orttrnatcly c o n t ( ' r ) r ] ) o r l r rlv r ( ) g r c s sl,r n t L s t i l l t h i n l i i n t c r n r s o 1 ' t r i r r l i t i o n s his rlirr:ussir>n ) c o n r i n g f r o r n t h r : r s t l ' c c r r i u n . ,i l n c l t h c r c f o r c i t i s n o t t o l r c t : r l i c r - r rvc hlvc forrnrl clculr. oLrtlincclin the fourth cclition, rcvisccl, Arncrican s c r i o r r s l t ' . I t i . s r : c r t a i n t h l t u n i v c r s a l g n r v i l . l t i o n i s r l r r c t o of thc Astronorr-r1', by lYr:zuconzl and I{oldtn, u-lLvc-rL<ttion thcrcl'orc tirc chicf lbrcc of n.rtrrrc is Ir'rrP:r.- Scicnr:c Scrics, Ilcr-rry IIolt ancl Conrpany Ncrv York, r383. lr-rci ( l h r r l r l c r \ / , p 1 r .r . l r - r 5 r i s o n U n i v c r s a l C r a v i t r L t i o n ,l n d o f grrtcrl rr-itlrtht: vcloc:itr. l Iiglrt! o r \ l r o r r t t l r c o n l - r ' r ' r ' l c s t i a lc f h : r : t o f t h c p r o p r l l r r l i o n o f r r r o r c l l r i r n r . r s u i riln t c r c , s ta , sr c l l c c t i n g t h c n r a t u r c p h i l o s o p h i c g r : r l i 1 l Li 1 n , * ' i 1 h t h i r v t ' l o c i t . 1 ' o fl i 1 1 h t ,r r n r l o f c l c : t ' l r o t l v n ; r r n i c , , l, i r r i , , r r, ., .f t l r i s g r r ; r l i n v c : i i g r r l o r . o : n l 1\/1'71rtottl) rls'r'lls orr thc valiriitv anrl llcrnrancncv of thc u ' r l r - r .is g c n r . ' n r li.s r s n r r r l . r ' r - i r l i rlr r - o g r c ' s : ; io fnt l r c p c l i l r c l i o n . r o . I r r l l r c c r r : c o 1 - , l l r c r r n . r \ ' : i- 1 r 4 ' 1 .r5 . fr r l r i t c r ' s1 , ' ' rS : r l c l l i t t : , \ r ' u t o n i r r n t l r c o r r - ,l r L r t r r . r n n r l i st h r r t g r a ' " ' i t : r t i o n r l l y 1 , c t b c l ' u ; r ,r'1, . r1l, ttt t / ti./i,> s l t o t it r t o l r c l l r t ' r t ' s t t l t o f s r ) r r r c r r o r c g c n c r a l l l n t < - i t . l ) l ) a l o.l).'; lllr. (lolllrlr. sl;lt-: i._'.1: ' \ t * (t(t) 1t5.7. r/ .\'lll{'r'. p l'f'r:r'lr (t'r r( { { lllirllll. r t ' n l l v i n r r l l r r . i o n t o I I ' t l c r ' s c l c r : t r o c l v n t n i i cl a r v , n l r c : L d v .;j(JL'). r ) . 2- o ' 1 o o , r ,J ) c r( ' o l r l u r \ '. r ' 1 -l., l t i t r r r l v n l n r i c 1 l ' 1 1 1 ' g - ' [ ' ] 1 co f] l ' 1(-' o n s i ( l c r f ( l i r v l r i n r i n t h c r \ n r c r i c u n I l p h c r r c r i s 1 ' a . p c ro n t h ( l 1 s I ' h l s i c i r l l i o r c r ' : ; , r ' o l . I , i ( . ) r , l ) i ) . r + r - r . 5 r , a n t l r \ N . 5 o - 1 S , l r r o t i o no l ' \ T t ' r i ' r r r r ' 'p c r i h c l i o n ,r 3 3 r . I I c a d r l s ,h o u c v c r , t l r e t 7 r r t l r L r s' ; r r n o l l r r , o r l o f t i r c s u l r j c c t h l r . r ' i n gt h c s l i g h t c s t p r o l I). r.l7-r:15). 'l'his t I f l - c < r o r . r t c l n p ] a hc )r t ' s r It s o { 't h c I ) r ( ) g r o sh c r c o r r l l i n c r I , l r r r l r i l i t vi n i t s f r r . r ' o lrn s l r c c t - p r o p o r r n c l c c l . < tt ( s h o r v st h l t s , r t h n ' h i c h r v r r s b c g u n b v 7 ' l . r . r c r a t t d(,i r r r n p l c s l { c n r l L r s S c p t . 3 o , u l ) 1 . ( ) S S . 3l r c c ) c c : t r o r l y n a r n it c c o r y r v a s n o t s a t i s f t r c t o r i l v c d t r E 7 : , l r r r r l c o n c l l l ( l c ( 1l r v r l c , i r t h c l r u l r l i < ' r r t i o njsr s t c i t u r l , v c l o l r c r l . ( r 9 r . 1 -r r l : : ) . u ' c s h r r l ln o t f i r i l t o l r r :i r n p r c : s c r l1 l t h c l r l o g r c s s r i\'..tt.ot/tl thcn cxIrllrins Lc Sage's thcon' of rrltrrrnc cfl'cct cllinrcci nll(ic silr('c tlrc lrgc ol- i\tt:zrl/ott. ttnrl /n,n/a, t. ,\:ral/()/t lrrrrl his nrrnrrlir corpusclcs, iin(i thc rnutuai st:rcct.ring u c a t tr c o n t c n l j ) o r i l r i e s s s u r n c t l h c l t t ' t i o t to f g r i l . r ' i t i r t i o r o i r c i n s t r r n - l i r r 1 r i ' ol ; o r l i c s ,u n r l c r t h c s l i g l - r t x c c s so f c o r p u s c l e s c t i n g o n s t a n c i l L r s i t r i l l r l i s t a n c c s ,a n r l I . a f / t t : t : t r i c r l t o f i n r l u n o l ; s c r - l l r r i r o L r t s i t l t : . I l c r l o c s n o t s c c l n t o I n v o r J - c . S ' r u g et' h c o r v r hecl clonc v a t i o n l l c r i t t l i o n , f r o r r r t h c o r . r t s l . i l n ( l i np u r l o l - t l r c N I o o t r ' s rur\- nrorc tlrarr Sir II.r.7'/tont.rotr. q ([,ort| It-c/2.'uz) /1, s c c u l i r r u . c c c l c n r i i o n ,l r v i v h i c h t . h c rl c l o c i t v o f g n L v i t r t t i o n f I'rrrr'r'crlinss,I{or'. Soc. Iidinbureir, r87z), or )y'arzue in thc r r r t i r : l c' \ t o r n , I i t r c l ' 1 -I.l r i t . , 9 t l ' c c l . , r 3 7 - 5 . coulcl bc conc'lirclcil. r , \ - t i t t c o n t l t ' :f i n l r 1 p a m g r - a p h i s t h c n r o s t s i g t r i f i , r n t : ; A n r o n g t h c r - c r r s o r rs ' l r r . t h c i l l r r s t l i o u s i r u t h o r o f t l r c s , r ( n c o f t h c c o r r r n r o n c s t' o l l c c p t i n n s t o a c c o r r n t f o r ) l l i c i r n i r l r . r c C i l c s t c f l i l c < l i n h i s u t t c n r p t , n l r v b c n r c r n t i o t r c:c l r. FIc livccl ircforc thc rliscolcry that tl'rc r-clocitv of elcctr-ic: g r i i v i t l t i o u i s t h a t o f a { 1 u i r l ,o r c t h e r , c x t c n d i n g t h r o r r g h a i l c u r r c n t s o n u . i r c s i s c s s c n i i r r l l vi d c n t i c u l r v i t h t h a t o I J i g h t : sprrcl',rvhit'h is su;rposcclto bc ar-rinratcd ccrtain vil.'nLtions, br.

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i , /) r ' l l \ - p ; rr t I < . o n f t ' s so i t s c x t r c l ) r c l r s u r i t r i s c a . t l l r c t r r r n . ir - r , l rili r f l r i t c s t r c n g t h O f t l r c p r c s c n t i r r { j u l n c n t , r L sa . t thc t . t ' z s / , a t t r / i I i l r o t r / r / / s r : . r / 7 1 1 7 1 ' , 1 7a l / / t c t , r t r z / / t , ; , , r t t r l y l 1/t i 1 t 1 . 1 1 , , / 1 , , . , , l r l u i l , l , , r i r g u . r ' r r J i n < . sfs t h c a r q u r n c n t s o f t h c c a r l i c r i n v c s t i o /lc eff'cc/ ol ,grai,ila/iott, //t,.t' :t,t)tt/// l!. , ttti//trl l,) ).t.;t.i\/it)//.(l gilt')r5. i. rr.r s.r:irg thc inr:oncci'.rrrc a'cl ovcrrvrrcl'ring I t i s s c l r . c . l ' l r ( ' ( ' c s s r rtr.' 1 r . i r t a r r 11 l r . t t i r c . r 'r . , r r l r l i t i . a s s lr l l q l l r . o f t . l t r ru - i t v c - t h c o r y r . h u l ' c n o r r ' l > c o rf r i l l y t . o r r l r l i l r ir v i t l r i n t l r r , \ r . r r , l l r r . r , r . o.j - 1 l r c r A c t h c r , l n r l t l t r r si t i s r . n t i l l i ' r1 r i l l r v o r . r r l rl l.c .rr. l r l j l n l , r t l r r . 2 4 . ' l ' l r t , O r r l r r r o f N a t u r c i n r li c a t c d l r y t h c 1 r ( ' r rl . r r l r rs . 1 - I ' r . l r l r l r i l i t y : S . r r r , sciortifir' rvorlrl r ' a . r c rc ' o n c l r : . s i o r s . 'I'ltc s i r r . s . . t i ' - ' . 1 ' r l ' 1 , , ' L l t L r 'c i t , r . t r . r l ' . t r r . i t : l i r r v i s r . I ' r ' r I l r r r i . . t . i . r r o f r h t :r r s ro f t r r cc ' . l c u r ' s o f p r o b a b i l i r . v , : r t l r s o l u t c l v o r . c r s . h c l n t i t - r g t h c u , i l r . ct l t r : o 1 1 . , , f r t l r f j r r , , t i s n t , 1br irft'r-rirg tlrc rrr:tLr*lllroc{-rss.s arrt.rc, ri,c rcrra.rli at tl-re of i t t c l c p c n c l o t t Jc - t a . l r l i s h cirrl) , t h c l , r . r r .o f t l r c l i n c s o f I o r c c , i t . r r r l rs s o r r l . s ottl r i r t r Ll r r u - o fn i l l l l r c r ( . ] ) r ( ' s ( ' n itr \ . a s tn l l r s so f s Phcnorncr-riL 1t\' .Jiararla-t'' rot.utior-r thc bc,arr.L polarizcrl iight, r ii4.5, s of ol' l r s c ' r ' c r l t o o ( ' ( . r r r. : r r . c . r t , i ' . * l c r , l r o t h i n t i r n c a n c l s p a c c : i * ' h i l c t l r u . . . r . c l i o r r r v i t l r g r r i ' i t r r t . i . ns , , r r c r i . i r J l 1 . v . r i f i t : ril' i t l r c r c r i . s . 1 -l , l r . r r . . r . . r r r l r r : sr c p r c s c ' t c r l c l c ; r c n co n a p h y s i c a l s l t h c o l r s c r l c r lt l r c o r ' 1 -l - t l r t ' I , . r r r t lu n r l S u n , \ - I l o r 1 , r r 1 , , .rrr, 1 1 1 . ( ' i l l r s ( ' ( ' ( ) n s 1 : u t trlrlr . t i n gi n l L l j x c r l u ' a . y :t h c n u n t b c r o f 'l ltitcno_ h a r r . * - t l r . , r ' . r ' l r . . r r s t i r : : r t t * r . t i . . r ' r l i c s ' i s i r > r c1 < r trtcrrt c'onlirrrning to thc LLrvlray bc, 1r-rcl usually is, iniinitcly ( ) l r r c \ : c s s O n r r ' . o l ' t l t t - t l C r , p C ss ( , ( . f ( , t s t o f r . t . l r V r : i l ( ) t i o r ) .i n g r c ; r . 1 t tr;r'crsi.g tlr. rlc.sc glrlrr.s.l'thc hca'r,nlv lrorlics. .l.his I,'.r c'rrrrr111t., thc phcnorncn:rof ligl.rt, for all pr.ctic'l in r l c l l c c t i o r ro f t h r ' r i l r ' c s i r l s , , f i r r , l s . o r i l r a r : r t i o n i t t Y t z t , t . o , t l i s l ) u r l ) o s ( ' si.r r r i r r f r r r i t l ' o f r l ' a v c sp a s s i n a s c c o n c l , n c l i c r t a i n l y a l : l u c ' t r r i r t i o . so f t i r c I I o o ' ' s I I c i r . l l o t i o ' , r 9 o 9 , a ' r l i , t i t c i' rr 'r'ir. .1- tirrc. l\nd if nragnctism irc a u.a.r.c_pl.,ar.ro,-,.,a.orr. l r c n d i n g o f r : r r l i o r i ' r r . c s u l r o u t . t l t c t c r r c - * t r i a ls p h c r o i r l , ( A N :rs sltou'n irr thc VII lritltcr, thcn thc u,avcs of nragltetisnl 5 o 4 4 a n d r \ N . s :r 7 1 . rr.ting orr I;arttltt1,'s rotatcd beatr.rof polarizcd light, in the Jtinallr', irt rcgurrl lo tYezttcotnlt's rcntark tha.ttbc thcorl, of cclcb'ut.cl cxp.rinrcnt of rE,15,.lso rcpicsents a seiics of two . u a c t h c r a n i n r r t c r l i r r . c c r t r r i nl i L r r a t i o n s i s t o o c o ' p l i c n t c c l a infinitics, orlc of thc rr,:Lvcs poLLrizcd light, the planc of svstcltt for cxltllrining thc 1rost.sintplc iLnrl clctncntarl, thcts, of t'lriclr is to bc rotatccl, thtrs yickling an observed orclci that u.c nccd onlr. Poir-rt out tlrrrt tlrc u,lt.c_thcor\. is not ntor.c i s b o l h ( ' o n s t a n ta n c l c l e p c u , l r r l t l c ; h c o t l r c r o f t h c r n a g n c t i c t < r o n r p l c t h i r i t t l t c l o r c c so f g n r l i t l t i o n t h c n r s c l v r , s r c . F o r t l t c x a s'ilvcs irc't.itrson thc ligl-rt, in lr fixcci orclcr, to prorlucl thc potcntill tluc to an intcgration of thc x,aLvcsfrorn all thc const..nc' of thc rotation of thc planc of thc polirizcd beanr Prtrticlcs,acrco.lirg to thcir scr,cralanrplitudes, at clist.nccs z, o b s e l v c r i .

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Sinrilar rcasouing apltlics to all thc grcat glorrps nf (b) Ohn's lau' for variable resistance. orvariable elcctrorclutccl or lssocilrtcrl yrhcnontcna. Accorclitiglv, l'hr:n u'c r.r'rotivcforcc, :rt constant distance, in like manncr, would c r l c t r l a t c t h c p r o b r r l r i l i t l ' o f t h c o b s c r v c c l o l r l c r i n l r a t r l r u ) viclrl, frorn sirnilar considcrations of geometry and stcady f r o r n r , r . r cr o r r l r o f l t l i c n o n r c n t r u ' c < l o n o t < l r r p l i c a t c l r c l r r o - lrhysicll tr('tiolr)colrstant in timc, a total chance not less than l t , lxrl;ilitr. frorn thc rrssocirrtccl rcllted phcnomcna, lrut llcrclv or ct: tz8 cD1 tukc :rccount of thc inrkrpcn<lcnt grollps rvhich rtrrr' ltlopcrlv(.<")Ocr.rlcd's cxpcrimcnt of r3r9, r.vhichyiclcls ordered r c l ) r c s c n t l r o t l r c l l s s c s o f p l r c n o n r c r - r i:n c o r n l r i n a t i o t r . r phc.r'rontcna, nrit'nt.rrt.iorr for nragncts of all lcngths, at all 'l-ltr: t o t i r l p r o l r a l r i i i t y< ' i t l c t r l i r t cld v t l t i s n r c t h o r lt h r . r r . f o r - r :rlislrrnt'cs,-- in likc tnanltcr) rvould givc from gcornetrical r i s u . r n i n i r n r r rIr r < ' o n s i r l t n r t i o n sl,r r r l p h y s i r : a lr r c t i o r r ,c o n s t a l t t i r r t i r l c , a t o t a l l i o r t ' x r t r r l r l c 'i t r u r l u l t i o t - t( A ) ( l 1 o ) s ( ' ( ' t i , ) l t S , \ \ ' ( ' r r ) l r r s i r l c n ' t l n r t ' r r ' l r -l l r c c o i n c i r l t : n r ' < f t h c o l r s c r v c r ls r r r f r < ' t . s ' i L l r o' u l t h r : t l r c o r c r t i c l ls u r f a r : c st l i r o t r g h o r r ts p l c ' c , t - c s u l t i n gl - r o r r r l t c l s'rrlc-thcorr'. \\:c clicl not intr.'gnttc for thc infinitir:s of s uvt.s l f r o n r t h c t \ \ ' o ( ' c n t r c s ) , i n t i r c t l r r - c <r'' o o r r l i n t l c s , l t ( ) r f o r t l r c i r f i n i t l ' o f l i n t c i n . r . o l v c rn l l r c c o n s l r l ' l t l ( . t i o n f g r i r v i l i r l i o n . il 1 o r r n r l y c t a l l o f t h c s c l u 1 - t c rc o n s i r l c r i l t i o n ss ' o r r l r l h t r v t . l r t t ' n allorvablc. 'l'hrrs i n : , i r . : ro lf ; r I r o l r r b i l i t l o f 3 @ 3 , s . c n o n ' ilrt ror'lucc' r t h c l r l r l i t i o ; r r r lr r r r l t i l r l i r , rs ' t t \ y .E e t ) 3 2 c a : t z 1 c r . : ? , r ' i r ' l r l i n g r x : s in ell . \ ' , - r o 2 - l. 4 1 0 i : : ( t, , l ) . r n,,' t r o ll r . s lsl t ; r t t r, - t:S c'? . 'l'hc olrscrvcrl circularity of thc lincs of force shorvn (rl) in irorr filines frcc to arrangc thcmsclvcs in rvinrou.s, os.ing 1 o t l r c o p p o s i t cp o l : r r i t vo f t h c a d j a c c n t p a r t i c l c si n a n v t ' i n r n u , o l ) r ( ' s ( ' l r t s n c o f l l r c n r o s t i r n p r c s s i v cg r o u p s o f o r r l c r c d l t h c n o r r o r r r i r r p h y s i c r l s c i c n c t : . I t o c c r r r sa . t a l l p o i n t s o f s l ) u c e .a t r r t r v r l i s t a . n c c , r . . , r ' )f r o r l t h c r v i r c , a n c l c v c r y r v h c r ca l o n g t h c ( a r i s . - . A t ' r : o r r l i n q l l f o r r c l . s o n ss i n t i l a r t o t h c a b o i . c ,t h c t o t a l c i l r t r < ' r 'o f t . l r i so r r l c r i s n o t l c s s . t h a n
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lrc argunrcrlts tltr.rs iLclcluccd in favor of the rvavci n s t c r r r lo f 8 c r : 3, a s g i v c n i n r r r l L r : r t i o(n a o ) ( A ) . l l o r r ' o v c r . : r t l r l o r r ' 1 - r o r nl l r t f o r r r c h i c f g r o u p s o f t h c o r d c r c c i p h c n o n t c n a , r volr:tnr: intcgrrrtion is tcrlrrircrl lirr crrr:h nrllss, ils lir]lorvs. in r,lcrlro<lvlurntics, tlrr.rclorc, acctrrltrliltcs to tlrc cnorrnous \ \ ' c t t t u s t t r i p l v i n t r : g r l t c l o t ' r r l l t h c l i l r n L t i t r g : r l . o r no f t ' r r < ' l t <i l n r I r o t r n r l n r r n r l l c r: s

t r o d v ,i r r r , u 4 , , p , i t s i n t ' r l r r i r t i o( r ; : f i ) ,a n t l t l r r r sr i , t ' l l n t l l l r r r t . n , \ r : - = . r ( r c , , ( ^ - ( r : 3 ) , t ( c t ' , t - z ( r S4 3 5 4 5 6 u - ; 2 3 . (z:3) t h r c c n r o r c i n f i r r i t i c s r i s c 1 l - o n trh c n c q ' l i n r i t s i n c i t l t ' n tl o t l r r : a \\tc rcciLll, )ry t.lrc crlculrrs of prolral;ility, that thc v o l u n r t 'r t n < r l c n s i t yo f l l r r ' : r r r s s c s .O r : r l l n l r lv i r l r r c l ' , \ ' t l r c , r c l o t l t i t n cc s 1 : r v o r : r - l r l tc. o t h c s ' : r v r ' - t h c o r v i r r c l l s r \ r o t o r , r n r ' l l r c n c c f o r c l r c c o n r c so r l r l l t l r t r r l o n r i r\ \ ' i l \ ' ( ' 5 : l '
I r o:.1 /, lr!

w e r n c c r l n o t t ' x t c r r r l t h c r l i s c r r s : i o n t o t l r c c o r r s i < l r : r l r t i o r tI o l i t c r o r c ' l i r c t l , l r t r t l c s s u n i r l u c l v c l i ' l l n c c ll , h c n o r r c n l . O u r r r u r n i r t ' r f o r t 1 . l r c t ' l r i r t r c c s 7 1 , / r1 . h c r c f ' o r c i s a n r i r r i n r r r r r r It is srrl-fir:icnt, l r o u ' c l r ' r " ,t o c n t r l r l c r i s t o c o n c l u t l c t h l r t t h c l t c s t r l c f i n c r l p h c n c l r r c l l r i n c ' l r : c t r o r l \ - r - l r n r i t :c r n n o t l r c c x l t l l r . i n c r l c x c c l ) t b r . t h c s

:. r\r'r'orrlitrgll lltr,rr \\'(' ('onl])u1('tltc totll pr-olrlrlrilil.r. o f t l t c s ' a r , c - l h c o r r ' , l ' r : l l r v t ' t o l ; r l i c i l a c o u l t t t ' r r i to n l l o 1 ' g c o n r c t l - i ( ' l l l c o n c o r c l l l r . r c c sb u t l l s o o 1 ' t l r t ' p i r v s i c r r l l l r r i ' s r t . r i l l t ' r l l r v , unlinritc(l nrrrnlrcrs of oltscrvr:rl ltltt'rronrcrrlr, oftr.n in otlrtr scicnccs, slr('h ts

u:rvc llrr:on'. Antl rvc c:rsily contc to tl-rrt concllrsion l'ithorrt r l c r r l i r q l l ' i t l r u r r r . o f t h c r r r o r - ci n v o l v r : 1 1 p h c n o m c n l r , i n r v l t i c h c l c t : t r o r l t ' t r r r D r i r :l s .i t f { l t ( t i : n t , , r , , ) r ) . l i r n 'l-ltr: o lrcstlrnrl a t t r i l ( ' t i o l t . s t n t s l r o t s ,n l r g l t r l i , s l o r r n s . i t u t o t ' i l {) l ' , l t r t l rc r r r l r ' r r 1 . . l l r l i n l ' r l r r r ' 1 ; r l i o rrrr i g h t l r t : o b s r : u r r : l r l o u l t t f i r l . l,lr( lu\ivl tlirltrrcc llorrc, is sorrglrt, an<l t}ltl r.ortrcs rr{,\l l t h c ' s t ' t n i r l i r r r : r r r n r r g n c t i c t i c l r . ,r . l . r : . \ 1 - 1 r 'c o n s i r l c l r l r l c i r r v t ' . t i r r g r r t i o r r o f - 1 l r c r c l l r t i l c l r r l r r t ' so l - 1 1 r t . s s c v c r ; r l l i n t ' s o l ' r ' r ' i r l t ' r r c r ' . l r o r r l l r r ' . i r r l r l t ' s t l , r l r s : t r l n t i t t i n g o f : r . r r r r i r l u c i n l r ' r P r c t r r t i o n . c c l n t r r ' n f r o r r t l r r ' o l r s r . r v r , r lo r r l c r o J ' l t ; r 1 l r r c , I l r i r v c rl r l r < t r c r l t o l . l l r r ' p l r c r r o r r r r , r ' rr r f r r r r g n c t i s n r o f f u r a l l c l r ' l f o r t h c r c c l r r c c t h c n r i o c r r l c L r l l r i i o nl l ' 1 l r t ' l i r l l o r v i n q c o n s i r l c l l r t i o n s s t u c l l ' o l ' r t r t l c n ' r l p ) r c r r o n r t ' n a s c ' r r r c l . l l I c s s r i c h a n r l v l t r i c r l t h a n ( ) f t l ) c i r l ) ] ) r o P r i l r t cq r O L r D i i l g t r n r l Y r r r r c s . ] t l l ' t o l - c l c c t t r o r l r - n l t r n i c st r o p c r . 1 o s ' l r i c ' l t n r a g n c t i s r - r rs r c l a t c r l . i l . l " o r c x r t t t t l t l c 1 . l t c s r ' i t ' : r c t r i l ' L l t c t r o r l t ' n : r r l i , s t ' i , l ) r c s c n t s I l w i r s l 1 1 . 1 . 1 , , ; r c t i o n o f n t o v i n g ( u r r c n t s ( r v r L ' , c - l r c l r l s )t h n t , lu a.nrl cxitct u l t l i l n i l ( ' ( l n l t s s o f o r r l c ' l ' r . r lp l r t . r r r i n t t ' n l r . { i r J l o u ' i r r g r ' l t ' f i n i t c lrtu's, r'crilicrl lrr- t'trrcl'ul olrst.rvrlion. sr:r'lr ls: , l t i tl i r , ' r l c v c l o p c r l t r p r a c t i c a l l ) r o ( ' c s s f o r r n a ) i i n g a r t i f i c i : r l rlrr!n(,1s, in lltc 1'culs irnn-rcdiatcly follou'ing Oers/ctl's cxltcrinrcnl ol- rSrr).

( a " 1 l i i u l l r n r l ^ \ ' a i , r u i ' l ' sl ; r u ' { i t r t l t c i n t r . r r s i t v o l ' r r c r r r r r . n l . i n r r s t n t i g l r t r v i r r : , r ' i c l t l i n g c ' o i n c i r l u r c ' c sr v i t h t h c r , , r r r ' - t l r c o l v r l I r r c i r t t c n r l ) t 1 o ( ' o r r p r i t c t h c t ' l r l u r r . : c st h a t t n a g n c t i s n r a t l r l l l r o i n t s o l ' ' 1 1 r cp J r t t r co f , r ' - r r r o r r l l r l 1 o . : , t l r r ' r r r i ; r , l - t l r , . l r o i n l s t o l ' l r r . t ' l t : t i o n , r r ' c s h o r r l c l < ' o n s i r l c r - s r r c hJ t h c n o n t c l t : La s ' , n ' i t ' e ,a t r c l c x l r ' n t l i n g i n r i c f i r r i t c l r . r l o n g t h a t a x i s . I n r r r l r l i t i o r r 1 ) r c l o l l o r v i n g: i 'l']rc to this itLgurrlr)l tlnru n l'rorrr g('ontctrv, tntrlt:r tlrt. ('o1t('ot's h a l r c o f t h c l i n c s o f n r r g t r c t i c : f o r - c c ,r L tt h c v l L r i o L r s fl ) r l i r t . t c ' ci s t r r l l l r o i r r t s o I s p r r c ' r ,( . r : , , r , , : ) , r crlrrivricnt t.) fia.r:], r l r o i r r t s o l ' s p r r c c , r r r t r l t l t c i r r . r n i l o r - r rc o i n c i r l t ' n c r : u ' i t h t h c t h c o r i c l t l r v c ' t l r t . : r r q - r u n r ' : rttl r ' ; r s r r 1 - r ' o r r lr r r : l r l r l s i c l r l g r o r r r r r l s , r t ' t i , r r l l o r n r s l h t ' . y s l r o u l r l I r i r r ' c r r r r r l r : r l l r c r l ' a v c - t h c o r y . l ' h i t ' l r l . t - r l r r i v r r l c r r tt r r 3 c o : r > . 2 . t ! , . . t 6 . t - t ' . s o t l r l r L t . l r t ' t c l t l r l t ' l t i r n t ' r ' s i s i t c c o r t l t ' r l r L ' lrltvsicitl lrirsisb_rthc cxPcrintr nt of I)o/bt:ar whct 1 t , .r,, l n r ' | 1 1 l ' r . l ] t l r t t ., ,{ r ? r o t l r l r ' r l l l s ( ' l - i ( ' s l ' t l i s < ' s o l r a f l c x i l ) l c u r i s , a r t r . lc o r - r l i n r c c l b y o
cf th. lr'pc:

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490

'llcanl of of thc J;arar!q,,s cxltcrintcnt of 184.5,ot-rthe rotation nrlgtrctisrrt' Thc chance that this vast rrass liglri lx' pola.rizerl cotlfirmcd throush alI spacc lrb,vsicrrlly of orclercd pLcttc,t,,',14, jn tir|c. 1cl)l'cscnts the rvavc-thcorv is t-totlcss tllatr ancl stciiclv

cr:t28cD1 gravitation' viclrl r.rs l'rortr sirllilar collsidcrations: 1'hc cotrucctiou of ma'gnctisn.rn'ith (b) ci: tz8 at thc nrttn'll.crs cliscovi:rcri lrr- rrlr' ln tr)zz, itncl cotrfirtrlcd.by cxpiai(rl) ,'\ llnll arsrtlncnt may bc clrau'n from such pheno(itttr'tstthcor.v ihl'oughout our globc' t1-rus ,a1rr...t,titt* .r-r;irg clc,pthsoI thc lrlagnctic. polcs in t]rc ts'o l t l c l l i t i I S : ,t,r. r.,t,,,,1,,,,1 'fhc antl phlsicrLl corrcllLtion of forccs, /rr") i . r I . r t . i , , l l r c r , r i r p h c r c s ,u - i t h t h c g c o n r c l r i c l r l 'l'1r" t o c s i s t i l n t l t o l l c c o t ] s t a n ti n t i r n c ' r ' i c l r l sl r <:otrscrvationof cnclgy, l l r s i s t . l t t t ss l r o l ' t r 179"; 'l'1.r,, tlrlt lcss th:ltl thc constancl' of ar-rcl lrrItLtrcof tllc potct-rtia1 clrirlrcc itt l;t,,-ot' ol tltt' s'ltltl tllt'orv 11"'-)
a2 - 123 cL1 stol lll\' hc cot.ttlct'tiotls lrctu'cct'l sllllsl)ots, l)r'lgllctic (t') tlris littos'tt sincc t35o' Iiitrth ctrrrctlts, hltvc lrcctt ,,,,rnr,,", 'l

kind: (c'l Associaticl phcnomcna of thc following 'fhc outstancling motion of Nlercury's perihclion' (rz') 'l'1-t,, flrrctuations of the mooll's ncan motion' i,i'i 'r-r.r. loss of energy in raclio transmission' i;'j in tirne' ...hi,,1,ir,,.'. rt-gc'tlttrctrical ancl a phvsicrl ba'sis, steacly

our globc, irr t r 'tl s c , r r t n c , , : t i oi t r i l l L r s t r r r t c l r n r l r ' c r - i f i c 1 i1 r o L r g h o t t t . r' (t:rzBq)7 (, t ' o o l - r l i t l r t t c s. , - t ' , z ) s - i t h t l t r c cfth cp c s o f p l t c l l o t r l c - n r thc thrcc ' chllncc that t1'ris that t'oorrlitllttt', ,il st,',,tl.in lillrc' in lirorn all tltcsc collsidcrations, it follows thcreforc "r,'1, rcl)rcscllts thc rvavc-thcorra,,rrt r,,,,r,, o1' rrt'rlcrctllrhtltloltlc'tllttnl<tt,'\'o a.s not lcss th:rn \\'(r nlr\i c c r t r i r r l f i s I l o t l c s st l l l t t r c t : 1 2 3 c D 1 ('So) Ai,t: cr (2 (3 ' ,::(rS 43'5 456 cot8 ' qrc:rtcr yct' anrl nriglrt. lrc llr:ltl to bc tnltch the from drarvn ltnd Conclusions 5rllttlnilry 'l'hcn (r1) :tsaitr rvc nright considcr tl.rcfollorving adclitiortal ntasscs of orclcrccl llhctlotlcna':
/rr) 'l'hc 't'tt,, (l3j / ir,t, ltrt<I Sir -/ohtr /1tt.rt/tt/. 'l'hr' ol,scrvt'rl ttlitglle-tistllof thc Srrn an<1 thc form (;') (.r)ronl) tll., lints of ri'hich t oirlt'itlc with thc lincs of thc'solirr of forcc in tc'rrcstrial lllilgllctlsln' 'l'hcsc rcstrlting l:nr-s follos' both gcorlrctrical arlcl lllrvsii r - rt i r l l c ' r l t r c l t l t c r c c a l l a s ' s a . 1 r l t l i c l l r l ct o l l l s p a c c ' l t r < l s t c l t d Y thc $,irr,c-thcorv crltainlv flvoring inr" r.o.,l,1' f.iclcl cl-ranccs polcs' itrr:rcrtsc oI thc totlrl intcnsity tou'arc]s tllc tlagt-tctic tirles, u''liicl-r so lnrzzlctl st'rrri-tliLrrtrill Cllt'Lrlr.rs of

tltt: plltttt:1ltr\' lllllJa)rlIxcs. 'l'ltr: c'lastic I'rlccliurn l r r , t l t r t r i r | r l t l r c s t r : : t c l r .f l o r v o f w a v c s i n t h i s phcnonlcna, gcornctricalll" phvsirtll lllrlsc ordcrccl "*1,1,,i,,, irt tintc. l\ct:ordingly, in lil<c manncr) c,,llr. ,,t,,1

I'rolral>ilit1" thc totai It ttppcilrs fron-r thc atrovc t:otlsiclcrirtions that u'ith any other in cotlrplrison chirnct' of titc rva','c-thcory

I
d

irs ju<lgcclby the infinitu<lcs of 'concorclanccs' th,'orr-. c , l , s t ' r , , ' r lt l t r o r r g h o u t n i l t u r c t o s u P p o r t t h e r v a v c - t h t l o r ] - ' -A'-1r\/1' ) of tlrt' 1,,,a,,,,,,'. l,rqtltr<lt thc scplrate numbers It, '\tr'
ILS rtl;ovt' ('stilllilto(l :

not lcss than

\\Iithout.

'l:

I:8 @7 '

il

or associlrtctl llhcnotlicllil' l r c t r v c c n t h c s c , r v c t ' t ' l i t Yc o t l c l r t < l c furthcr ttrrttttltl rclltiorlslrips in n-r,gthrrt t5c totul chrrr.t's f,rri.ralrlc to thc .o'l*'c-thcory t, tt'herc nttisnr ct'rtititllv is tlot lt'ss tllitn r\/, to consitlcrillg othcr "','t::(r'S1,i-5 thc rcllrtctl pllcttotlrcnlr of 4. \\rc shitll llorv cotrsi<lcr ils: i o r w i l v c < l r ' ' l l c t ' t i o r l ,r l s t r c h t ' c l l l t c t l g r o l l ] ) s rr'avcrlrcnrlin[i ( r l , A t o t t s t i r 'a t t l l t ( l i o n . 'i'hc u'iit'cs ltlrottt ottr ;llolrc' (r}j l)rol)irgiltiorl of nrtlio 'f-fl. lroth tr'pcs of l'rrvcs to light' irssilrril,rtion of i1'; rcsult u'ith ( t r ) I J t ' r ' c t l l c c o i l l t i c l c t - t t - c so f t h c o l r s c r v c c l wirVc-thcory ot't:ur throttglror.tt sirrtcc tlrc inriicutior-rs Of thc '., lts u'cll-lls lr gcotu'.'trical lllrsis' , . ' l ', : ) ; t h t : 1 ' h t t v c : l l r l l v s i t ' l l gl'or'ttrtls , l i " i , , , ' t . n i , l , r t ' " . i s s t e: r t l r i l - r t i l n c ' I ' I c t l t ' c o n t i r c s c ",,il rlttr tlrit'litllrittl vallrc is at ]cast: it sccnrs t'crtitin tltltt , r',,.,t:S @7 (lr) Jlut strch rvirvt,-rrCtion lt'corcls rvith thc gravitatiorllrl l l r t ' l l v c r r 1 1 'r o r ' l i c s ' 1 . " , 1 , , i . , 1 , , , , ' r 'p { - i r r 1 ' r t ' l r s c L)lr ( ' s s l r l ( ' l r t ' l ' o t l t lt l r c rt, l it t c t l s i o n l r c t r v t ' t ' t rt l t t : l t r : s t l c h r c s t t l t s l t i t Y c l r o t l r ^rr,l irt,'.,,,,r,-.<.1 irl tilrlc. Iit'otrt g c o n t c t r i r . a l u n < 1l l h v s i c a l l r i t s i s a r r r l t r r c s t c a c l v 1 ' l r c r c , r , , , ' ' . i d c , r t t t i o t ' t sl h c r t ' l o t ' c r ' i s n o t l c s s t h i r t r : r,:tzi':'cf? - A, , : ( - r 4-56co23' ("tl)

cos?' II : tozl(263..135456)3 havc carcfully investigated the In I'rtrt I ttlrrn'c rvtr and foun(l significatrt'c of tilc lirs' of thc invcrsc squarcs) occur' thar in thcorv I tlottblc itrfinity of' othcr lalvs could h l r t t c l i n v : r r - v i n gt h e c x p o n c n t s i n t h e if rrlturc hl,l l frt'c lilu' of forcr: : t' '' )' /r'l.r'' .l - 42t"
Jt -a''' i1aJ) /':o'''r': I.OOOOOOOOO

frccclonl,ancl the obscrvcd Iltrt itl firt't \rttrtrc hits tto sr'tclt " r l t o 2 . o o o o o o o o o" " ' t h u s a d c l s c h a n c c s r c s t r i ( ' t i o l rr f t t o t o l t l i t l l j t r i t r - o f t h c s c t ' o l - l c ir r l c r t o t h c i n d i c l r t i o n s crluiv,ilcnt abovc t:ocffifrrlolitltlc 1o tllr: s'avc-thcon" llorcovcr thc Infirrity' a c l,i i s 1 ' ' r r r c t i t ' a l l1 ' f h i r d y , : i . , - r r ,r o r a 1 r 6 s . 1 3 - 5 - 1 - 5 6 ) 3 l n t l t h c r c f o r co u r f i n a l c a l c u l a t i o n o ft h e :ror.1irCSa35a56lli 'ii to 1t .1,,,r'r,1". ft,i'ortrl',lc to thc rvavc-tltcory, becot.t.tcs
\\'ltcrc (, lli

ai : roz4(268435,+56)3 . "oee An Infinitv of the hundrcdth ordcr!

?iI : g3roo

.233)

.l.his<.lrlclullttiorroftlrctotalChanccsfiLr.orillllctotl.tc no I'iolcllt l-rvpothcsis, nor cxtrenlc involvcs l x t t i s b a s c c l o n c o n c o r c l a l l c e s e v er y w h c r c o b s c r v e d ' lssrrnrptiotr, sirnplc anrl *'ell ,,r,,1 ,rjl,t'.,' tht: llhct'lollltltllr of nlltr'trc arc so is tttri<1uc' A rcsr'rlt suclr as <lclinc'tl llrlrt tllc intcrprctiLtiorl bcyonrl concciving tlrc irlrovc for .n is l-roPclcssly anrl forcvcr lior thc vrluc of 6t is cquivalcnt to an cvcn lrv ll gcolnctor. infinitc limits: irrtcgnil of i.hc hrrntlrcdth orclcr, bctx'cen u rrr.t:-thcorv

it lt

ti

,l

491 fr:ilttil
-GJ -ai

Sonclcrnunrnrer
-f ^l PrP +oJ Ptztt

492
lle thc mass of thc Sun, acting at a distance g,

+oo ooP

+GJ (PF

If l[

and i/r tlrc anglc of clongation of thc Nloon from the Sun, dy, clz"x i l 1 . . .u i , tl ) l r1r, clr,, cle ,'cl.r:, ) -OJ -Gz tlrc lloon's clistancc, and nt its mass, (tl-re Earth's mass . .d,r';ci1' x cl.r:" de.. d;,, ;dz; (235) Ircing rrnitr')1 tlrcn thc conrponcnts of thc Sun's disturbing forcc, rvhich act on ti-re rnotion of thc l{oon, to changc its path in siracc, in rcspcct to thc centre of thc Earth, arc: 'l'hc '1-rrrrgcrrtial Conrponcnt: T:iltl.t rn rf g3'stnzr! ("56) 'l'lrc I l r r r l i a lC o n r p o n c n t : R : , 4 { n z r f 9 3 . ( r- 3 c o s 2 l t ) Q l i ) , 'l'hc 1)crpcnrlicular Conrponcnt : -P: : t,/1.1 z/g3'cos rlr sin fi sinl m (r:8) thc totll rlisturlrins forcc bcing thc r,cctor nragnittrrlc,

rvlrcrcz: roo.

\ orv it is u cll ltnos'n that a triplc intcgral bctrvccninfiritc j i r l i t s i s c r l L r i v a l c n t o a n i n f i n i t t ' o f t h c t l r i r d o r c l c r a I r < lr c o l ) r c s c n t sa s u n r n r a t i o r t f a l l t h c l t o i n t s i n s p a c c , t a l i c t ' ts i n g l r ' . r\r-r infinitv of tlrc sjxth orclcr rcptcscnts it. sunrnration of all t h c p o i n t s i r . r s p u c c l a l i c n s i n g l r ' , a . n c lt h c t r c a c h p o i n t a g l i n corllrincrl lr'ith cvcn. otltcr point, tlrr-rsgrouping all points 'l'hr.rs i r L r i p l c i n t c g r i r t i o r -irn t o a . t r i p l c i n t c g l e t i o t r in pairs. l c a d s t o t l r c s c x t L r p l ci n t c g r . r l . t ' i t h i n f i n i t c l i n r i t s . l;:l'(7'2+I?2+?2). (rSq) 'l'lris i t v p c o 1 'r . r o n - n r : p l cn t c g r r t i o n i s a n i n l i n i t , v o l t h t : r \ s t h c t o t a l c l i s t r r r b i n g o r c c 1 ; a . c t si n v a r i o u s d i r c c t i o n s f a t t r i n t h o r r l c r , c c l r . r i v l r l c tt-.ro t - c l r c l r t i n g g l i n 1 h c a l r o v c s c x t r t l t l c r l r ' l r c n r l i n ro n t h c r - a r i r r l r i l i t v f 2 ' ,o , t l ) , f i , n n d , / , t h c N l o o n ' s l o intcgnrtion fol clch point ol- slrrrcc. p r l l r i s c o n t i n u n l l l ' c ' h l n g i n g . \ V c s h l l l a n u l v s eb r i c f l y a f c u ' A r i r r o - t l c c i r n t n r r piln t r ' l l r r rito n i s c q u i v a l c u tt o c o n r lr i t t i t r g c of tlrcsc cltitttgcrs: o rgain tl-rcnon-nuplc' inlcgnrl s-itlt cr.cry point jl1 sl)a(L-, r (:r)'l'hr: tungcntill cornponcnt 7' acts constanlly s r c p c r r t i r r g l g r r i n . i n c o r r r l r i n r r l i o rr i ' i t l i 1 . h c s c c ' o t r r l c x t r r p l c : l i n l l g n r t i o r r , r ' r ' r ' r \ s 1 r ' pi r r l l r c f l r s t s c x t r r l r l ti 't i l r ' g r r r t i o t t . l ' o r l o u ' r r r r l sl r r ' l i r r c r , I s 1 ' z v g i t ' sI.n t l r c I i i r s t Q t r a r t c r i t t c n r l s t o i r l r r o r l t ' r ' i n r n r r r l r li t ' l c g r a t i o n l l r r : r t : c s r , r l t l i l r r s r r c c c s s i v c r c l l l r l l l r c o r l r i t l r l r r o t i o t r , l r r r t r c i r l l l ' : r c : c c l c n r t c ts, I r y c l c . n r s in tlrc crclsins tlrc ct'ntriftrgll lbrc'c ancl lctting the Nloon clroy; i r r t r . g r r t i o n sf o r c v c r l ' p o i n t i n t h c i n r m c n s i t y o f s p r r : c ! rrr':rrt.r lr,tLrrrth; in thc Scconrl (]urrtcr tbc cornponcnt 7' 1 J , t ' t u s n o r v c x i r l r r i n r : l r t ' s c ' i n r l r ' c s s i v c c s L r l t sp h i l o r l c i, i, l s o p h i c a l l r - n l h c l i g h t o f t ' x p c r i c r r c c r r r r t h c h i r l r i t sj,r r r l g c n r t ' r r t l. r . n r j s 1 o r r c c r . l t . r ' r rtth r : o r l r i t a l r n o t i o r . r l,r u t b y i n c r c a s i n g t h c r, r r n < lu s i r g t : o f t h c g r c a t c s l .n r i t l r t ' n r r t i c ' i l n s f l i r r n r t ' r r e { ' s . c l n l r r l - u g ; r l l o r t r : l c n g t h t ' l r s t h c r a d i u s v c lc' t o r r l a n t l t h c r c b y o ' hi rr';rllvrr lrrrrlsthr' \,loott's nrotion: in thc Quartcr thc I r r t l r c t i r r r c o f t Y t z r ' / o t rt,l r c ' r l o r ' l r i r r co f r ' l r r n c c s \ r l s n ( ) l \ ' ( ' 1 . i n r i l r r r1 o t h i r t i n t h c I ' ' i r s tQ u : r r t c r :a n r l i n t h c I i o u r t h o : l c d u c c ( l t o l . s c r i t ' t r l i f l r r s i s .u r r r ll l r r r sl l r c r r r r t h o r f t h c I ' r ' i n - t 1 1 r ' ri '.t ( . ) r r r r t l r . t l r cr ' f f c c ti s s i n r i l r r rt o t h r t . i t r t h r : S c c o n r l ( ) r u r r t c r . i c i p i : rr l i r l n o 1 l r v r r i l r i n r s c l l - o l ' s r r rl 'r1rrl si o t l t t ' l t r r n l r nr r i n r ' 1 . 'I i ' l r ' , n r o : t c r ' l c l r r ; r t cIrrlr n ; r r n c r l r l r l i l r r l L r tt:r ) t h c t a n g ( . n l J t r t f r o n r l r g i n r i n g s a l 1 h c t ' I o r ' 1 r o l - - \ ' r ' ; , ' 1 , , tltl t , t ' r ' r r l r r l t t s 1u ] r o f p r o l r r r l ; i 1 i t 1'o o l i r l c f i n i t c s c i t ' n l i l l ci l ) n ) r r i c c r t t r r r r - r r 1 r ' r . t i r l r l i ' t L ; r ' 1 ; i n g r , r l il s l l r r ' \ ' r r t i r r l i r i n . l r i c l r s ' a " s l i s c o v c r c t l r '/ , t c s l t c c i i r l l l i n L a f / : r t ' s ' l h r i o r i c, \ n r t 1 r ' t i r l t t<'l c s l ' r r i l r : r l r i l i l t i s .i ' l . r r n, ) l r - ,t v r r t i o nl x ' t , / t , t / l t t t / t L l r l r o t r lr.\ . I ) . 1 5 9 o ,l l r t l t ; r r l l r c c r rl i r r r r r v n o t l r r : ' \ r i r l r i l r ) i r s t r ( ) n o l n c r , l l o u / I I ' ' d a a s r : t r l v t , r 3 r z , r r , l r i c hl l r c c l t h c p r i n c i p i c s o f t h c S c i c r - r c c . A n i n f i n i t v o f t h c f i r s t o r < l c r ' . , i c l c l i n ga p r o l x r l r i i i t v o f , 1 s 1 \ . f ) . 9 S o . , \ t i t s n l L x i r l r r r t r , i n t h c o t ' l t r n t s , t l ' : 4 5 " , r 'l'hcot-v, , infinit,v to onc jn flvor of rrny w a s j u s t l y h c l t l l r y r J . 5 " , 2 . 3 . 5 ' '3 : . 5 " , t h c Y l r r i r r t i o n l n r o u n t s t o r l r o u t j z ' o r t t /,a?ltttc, thc lilrnrlcr of tlrc tlrcorv of plolrlbility, to lrt-'con- l i r l l t l i l r r r c t c r o f t h c X l o o t r . c o r r c s p o n d i n gt o a n o r b i t a i n r o t i o n c l u s i v c a n r l r ' l c f i n i t cg r o u t r r l f o r t l r c c o n v i ( ' t i o n t h a t t l i c t h c o r y of olcr rrrrhour. It rvts llrst cxpla.incdthcorctically lty /\:tittlott i r r l l r , l ' r i t r ,i l ' i : r . r r r ! 6 . i u n c l c r i n v c s t i g r r i i o rrrc l ) r c s ( ' l r 1 ts t n r c l r t s ' o f r i t t r t r c . 'l'hc T c o n <r r r i n t l r i s c o r r r ' l r r s i o t t f t l r t : i l l r r s t r i o u su t t t . h o ro f o r : r < l i i rc o n r p o n c n t1 l a c t s o r r t s ' a r r l l v ,c l c c r c r r s i t . t g l (lr'1 , t h c l l d c r r n i r l u r ' ( r i l t ' s t cs i t t c ct t o g r o u n < li s l c 1 -fto r s r r p p o r t i r r g t l r r : \ i r r o n ' s g r - l v i t y t o t l r c l i u t h , l i ' o n r r / / : o , t o r / r : 5 r " , lny othct' tlrc'orr'. : r r r r l i r r u r r r r l l v l - r - o r r r / , - . 5 5 " t o r / r - r : . 5 " ; r r n r l. t h c n n g a i n Y c t a s t b c i r l r o l c c l l c r . r l r r t c ri ln f i n i t l o f t h c r o o t r ' o r t l c ' r r r r r t r i r r l r i l r ' ,l / r - r , . 5 o t o ' t l t : z t , \ " ; i n r v ' r r r l ) r . ,t / r : e 1 - 5 o 1 , , s r c s u l t s l l r t r . r r a l l vf r o n r t h c i r r r c r r s i n g c ' o n r i r i r l t t i o t t o f s c p l t n r t c U ,. . 3 0 . 5 : a r r r l t l r t ' n u g r i t r o r r t t ' l r r r l l r ' , r / , - : 0 5 ' t o r / r: 3 6 o " . , o a n d i r - r c l c p c n c l c n tr r l c r c c l p l r u r o n r c n l s L r p p o r t i n gt h c u , a v c - ' l l r c i r , s r L r t l f o r c c l t t t ) r c ( . ) u l t r l n t t r r r t ' s ( ' o sl / , - o , i s 1 i : t h c o r v , a n t l t h c r c i s n o g r o r r n r l f o r r l r r c s t i o n i n qt l r c l c g i t i n r l c y ) / t n r l o t \ , r v h i l r ' r t t l r c S v z l g i c s i c o s l / ,- : t r , i t i s i ' : o f t h c i n c r c l s c o f t h c l o t a l p r o l n l r i l i t l u ' j t h t h c n r L r l t i l r l i c r r t i o n- z ,l/ nt r',/o:].,\s tlrc rtrc t/r ort rvlticlt tlrr: outl.arrl forcc acts 'highcr of infiniticsof o r t l c r , u c c o n c l u r l cl h l r t t h c t o t a l c h r t n c c i s : r l r o t : t z z o " , i n r L r c v o l r r t i o n ,* l r i l c t h c i n l ' a . r r l f o r c c c x t c n r l s to in favor of thc u'l.r-c-thcoryis ol tlrc ordirr of @100 I rl1 ulr o v c r l n u r c o f r l r o r i t r - 1 o ' , a n r l n r o r c o v c r t h c o u t * ' a r r l f o r c c Infinitv of thc hurrdn'rlth orrlr'r! is trr'iccrrs pou'r'rful ls tlrr: ins'arc1 forcc, thc avcritgc cffcct t I t s c o n s l l r t : r c f o r c c t ' r t l i t t a n t l i r - r c o n t c s t l l r l c h l t t l r c 1 - o rt h c c r t i r c r c v o l l r t i o n i s t o d c c r c l s c t h c N ' l o o n ' s g n n ' i t r ' \ \ ' a v c - t h c o l v c o r r c s | o r i r l s t o t . h c t r u c l a $ ' s O f n i l t u r c , l r t l r l a l l lx. r/3.5Str' l)iu't of tltc rvholc, artci thus lcngthcn thc IIoon's other thcorics arc forc:r'cr lr:rrrccl fron'r tltc consi('lcrltioll of pcriocl lrv ln alrount corrcsponclit-tg a clccrca.sccl to angular gcolnctcrs an(l lriltul'lrl lrlriiosophcrs. nrotion of ri r 79'hl)irlt, or alrout 4 hours. 'I'his Note on the Lunar Theory. Concluding <locs not altcr- the scctot' <lcscribcd by thc raditrs Hithcrto l'c hlvc t'onsiclc'rcd arcftrlly r-crtain as|ccts c o f t h c p l u n c l e n ' t l r c o l ' ) ' , : r t r c ln u u . r vo t l r c r l u r g c g r o u p s o f ph1-sicalphcnonrct-tit, 1'ct lralt: givcr.rsonrcu'hat slight rtttctrtiot-t , t o t h e l u n i r r t h c o r - 1 's ' h i c h i s c s p c c i a l l l s u i t a b l c f o r c x l r i l r i t i n g tl're gr:avitrtiornl thcon. of forccs as riircctccl trtagniturlcs n r l c p c t r r l i n g n r r; r t ' n - i t , o t t . i vcctor) sincc thc con)l)oncnt acts in the dircction of the radius; r c. v c t t h c \ I o o r - r ' s c a I v c l o c i t l ' a r - r a 1n g u l a r r - c l o c i t l ' z r r e c l i r n i n i s h c c l , c. ori'ing to thc cffcct of placing thc lloon at a grcntcr clistrrnr 'l'hc cortr-ilirgrLlforcc is cqr,ral to its gravitl. clirninishcd by t h c a c l i o n o f t h c S l r n , a n r l t l r c m d i u s v c c i o r d c s c r i b c st h c s a n . t c sector tlrrrt it rvoulil clcscribcn,ithout this action, - thc raclius

49 3)

Sonclernuurmer

494

It i., horvcver, unnecessary to accumulate furtl-re r argumellts for thc u'avc-thcory I ancl thcrefore lve mcrely (c) The Annual Iiquation rcsults frorn the annual rcrnarl< thlt this thcorv rcprescnts the true ordcr of na.ture, changc in o3, r'iclrlitig ra<lilil disturlting forccs grcatcr lty a as ccrtai.ly as Ncrvto.ian gravitation governs the illimitable z o t hp a r t a t p c r i h c l i o n , t h u s r c t a r r l i n g t i t c l { o o n l r y e h o u t i . j , opcrat.ions o1-thc starry ltcavcr-rs! a n d l e s sl r y a s i n r i l a ra n t o u l t t a t a p h e l i o n ,u . l t i c hc o r r c s p o n r l i n g l y Ir-r his rc{lcr:tions on thc law of universal gravitation, a c c c l c r : r t c sl r r : l l o o r r ' s n r o t i o n . t Iixposition rlu Sr.stimc rlu Nilonclc, Liv. IV, chap. X\r, Ioflarc 'l'lrc (.1) I,lvcction, clisco','crctll>y pto/an4t r,1o A. D., not.crs horv thc rlrr:.rv of gravitation has confirmcr-ithe rnotio' is a clistortion of thc forrn ol thc lunar orltit, ur-rclcr thc act.ion of thc lirrrth, rtirc,Lclycviclent frorn its sirnplicity; anrl thcn of thc clistLrrbingforccs, bv u'hich thc ccccntricitl. is incrcascrl s l g l c i . r r s l v r c ' r u J t s : ) ) w c l n a y i n c r c a s c t h c p r o b a b i l i t y o f : r o r t l i n r i n i s h c c I r f i r . b o u tr / 5 ' r ' o f t h c I ' h o l c , i t c l c p c n c l s n t l r c t h c o r r ' . r ' i ll r c r b r . r l i r n i n i s h i n g t l t c n u n r l r c r o f l - r y p o t l r c i c s n l o o r c t u r n o f t h c S u n t o t h c s l n r r , ' l r o s i t i o r r c l u _ t i r -tc t h c y r c r i g c c . ri'hich it r('sts, or Ir1' :r.gmcr-rti.g thc rrr.rlrcr oi -r o lthcr.ron,en,r 'fhe I I o o n ' s l o n g i l u r l c n r i r . l r c i n r : r c a s c r lo r < l c c r e i i s c cllr r . s ' h i c h i t c r l r l l i r r s . t r n l ) r ) u II r q ' . ; l l t ( ll l r r r : l ] r , ., r . r ' e l i , tits I ' r . f ; r r t l t c l t r r g c s o f l r i l I I c t h t , n s h o u ' s t h a t a l l t l - r cc c l c s t i a l t lrhoromcna follorv t h c L u n l r r I n c 1 1 L r a 1 i t . itc t r - t ' , r , ' n t r i c i t l : l r t i n r r g r c a t c s t r v h c n f r o , r t h r : l r r i ' r ' i P I c . 1 - g r i L ' i t . t i o ' , b y w h i c h t h c 1 ,a r c c o . n c c t c c l l r, t h c l i n c o f u l r s c s p u s s c s t h r o u g h t l - r c , S u t - ra n r l l c a s t r v h c n i r r t r . t ^ r . s c i c . r . r . ' 1 ' t h c h c a r r c n sw i t h c o n c o r d a n c c o f t h c , , s t h c l i l r c o f r r p s c s i s l t r i g h t a r r g l c s t o t h c l i n c j o i n i n g t h t : l r i g h c s t . ( ' ( . L l r ; r ( . \ 'l:r . r l r . . ' r r J < s , t h : r t i f u , c c o n s i c l c r t h a t Jllrrlh an<lSLrn. t l t t ' r c < l o c s r t o l t , x i s t .l r s i n ( l r : l t h " n o n t c n o n u , h i c h c a n n o t l t c ( " ) I t r c r r r r i n s t r > t r o t i r : ct h c p r o g r g s s i o no f t l r c p c r i g t : c , r c l t ' r r t ' r l t o t l t c l , r r v o f ' g r r r v i t u l . i c t nr,v c s h a l l h i i v e n o r c i r s o l t .. r v l r i c h: r l s or l c p c . r l s . r : r i n l l ' o n t h c r i r ( l i 1 rc o ' r l ) o ' c n t . ' I ' l r i si s t h c t . l i l r r t l r ; r t i r r t r . . r r . * ' i l l r l r r e s t i o . i t s t . r t l r i n c o n s e q u c n c c f l o r r - r o s tl i f f r c u l t f a . l l t h c i u n l r r t ' l l c u l r r l i o n s , r n r li s v c n ' c c l c t r n r t c r l l r l t c t . r o r n t ' ntrito t l r l l t ' t o l i r t ' r 'o l r s r . r r . r ' r l . c o r a s c o n 6 r r n i t r gf i n i L l J v h c r . i g o ro f t l r c N c r v t o n i a n l a r v . I n h i s S o i t .i s s ' i l l r l h c \ c s - ' l ' h t ' o r v o f t h c A c t h c r ! I t c x p l a i n s t . a t l < l r c s s o t h c I l r i t i : r h A s s o r . i l r l i o nn . , \ r r s t r u l i r r ,r 9 r . 1 I , r o _ n o t o n l y t h c t ' : r r r . r ' . 1 -g r . L ' i t , r t i r , . . , r . , l r . . . t . l c c t s h i s f o r c c t i t , f . s s r r r / 1 . l [ ' ' . / i r o i i ' t t . s r i r ' r r t ' r i 1 l r . r ' x p , r r t ' r r t n t ] r t : r l r * , r r , r . r v i t h r ' l t ' r ' l r . t l v n r u r i r : l i r r . r ' s n . l t r r l i r r gn r o l r : r . r r l :a n r l a t o r l i < r i, i rr 1o <lilfcr fronr: l r . , - r r o r c t l l r n r I ) i r r t i t r - l o o o o o o o o .o r fo'r'cs: l).t rlso slrori's thc *'rLy in *'hich thcsc r.^riorrs forccs 2 . O O O O O O O O O : 1 :O . O o o o O O c O i . r r r i s . f ' . . r * ' r r ' t : - r r r . t i . n , o t h a t t h c r n l , r i i r r l - f o l <o r c l c r o f ' a s t s l ( f ) ' l ' h e p c r l r r . n r l i r ' r r 1(;.r(r) 1 l r J ) ( ) 1 r/t), n l r . ( . o r r n tIs o r 1 h c i ' r l t ' p . r r r i r r . t g r o . l ) s o f l r h c r o r n c a u . ,c o r n c c r t c d b y t i r c N c r v a - 'l'lrcorv o f t h c , \ t ' 1 l r t ' r ,u r c ( . o n r l ) l c t c l y _ r p l a i n c r l . r c g r c s s i o to f t l r c \ i , ' , l r ' s r t o r i t , sr r l S . ( r1 r , i r r : :t l ) i s r . 1 r 1 1 l r i 1 r . r r t r c i I t t ' t s l r l * ' l t r r l s1 l t t . l r l ; r n , , r l - t l r r ' , ' , l i J , f i , . . i i l t ( l i i 5 t l t i , \ 1 1 1 p , \ l - t t ' r t l r i s r , r 1 r ' n s i , , ' r ' i n v c s t i s a t i oo f t h c i n r l i c a t i o n s o f n r c l o l l c s l i r r u ' r r r c ll l l : r t o r l co r i n t t , r s t , c . t i o n , t l n o r r . i l r ; L , . l i _ t l r . t ' r r l . . l r s . l - l r r , , i r r r l r i i i l i t 'is ,o ' l v r c ' a . i n s t o c ' , p h a s i z c t h c itoitrt s - u r r l , t h c i n c ' l i n a t i , n i r l s o ' l r n ' i n g l r c t r v c t ' nc c r t l r i n I i r r r i t s , r l i s t i n c t i v r .l - r ' r r l r t r l i n l l t t : l r r o g r c s so f t h c t h c o r y o f u n i r . c r s a l act'onling lo l.lrr:pou.r'r-of llrc fon.c ,/-). g r ; r r - i 1 ; r t i .r i , r ' i ' ' I t l t r ' ' Ilrsl. l.5o'cltrs.'l'his grcat arlvance t ( g ) \ V i t l i o u t r i x - c l i i n s o n t h c n t h c r t . h i c f i n c r l r r L l i t i t , sn c . n s i s t c r lr ' : - r ' n t i ; r l l i - i n l r . r ' c r i f l r - l t i o n f t h c N c r v t o n i l u r a u . , o l i lt thc lrrrrrr r'oti.'s, s r r . h l l s 1 h ( ' s c . . l a r i r c a c r c ; i l t i o l r l r c r l r r r i ' g t l r . l l r : t ( ' (l r l L l r - \ . L . r i t h c r l c ' c l , P . t r : ' t o f ' c l c r : t r o r l y ' a r ' i c t, '['his i t . r 1 r ' r l i t i . s i r r l r r l i r r r r l . r r r r r l ) . . g i t r r r l c r l c p r : ' r r i n g o r r t . h c ) i t * ' st l r r r i . g t h . s . r ' r . r l ( ' c . t u r \ ' . l i r t . t u r ) r ( ) g r ( , s )lirtt ^ r . c r . t . r - , l 1 f i g L r r co 1 - l r c I , . r r r l l rt.l r r '1 r ; 1 1 . ; 1 1 1i1 1 1 l.u ljrrl.i t r . , c i n l r l u r r ) i t i c s s t o l r P c r ls l r . r t . l - r t ' r L l l ' r r i t i o r .i ' r l c f r r r r l t o f t h c I i i r c t i c ' l - h c o r y t net 1 th u r l r r t 't o t l t . r r r ' t i . r t. 1 - t 1 r i '1 ; r i r r r . i 1 ; l r l * . t : r . r , r , c , l 1 o f l l r o . , \ r ' t l r r : rr,v l r i r . l r . r r sl r c g u n i n r l c c c ll x S i r / t a n r , \ , t . ; t , / n t ) , . i r l r r r c t sr,t r . . , r ( ) 7 : ; - r 7 2 r , \ ' e l r r r i tg i v c n < l c l i n i t cl b r n r L r l a t i o n i l l t h c a p _ r c t t t t t r lti l l t l t l r r : r ' i t J l. r i 1 l l 1 y . 1 r i1 . t l r ' 1g n r i . i t r r t i o n l t i r 1;1 r o t ltrirrciPlt:s, of Itirltcrs, re2o rg2.5. i t t t r l t l t t t s t l t t ' c i i s t r n J r i n q, , r '|, \ I r l ) r . r , . , , l y t, , , . t ( ) lrt i r o l t i t r ; ( l c s , l ) c i r r i l n ( ' co l - t l r i s I t "crit:s r ' ( ' r c s l , r ' n ( ] i l ] { } \ \ , r r " . r ,I i , , l t . t Ir SLrch rL lrricf orrtlinc of thc lclLrling facts obviouslv I t i s o l x ' i o u s L i t r r l t l t r . s c r . i r r i t , r il r r n r r r i n c r l L r a l i t i c s ,j u s t i f i t : sr Lt l i s . c r r i . g i ' r ' c s t i g a t o ' i ' d c p ' r - t i n g f r o r . t r r e s t c r c o < l c p c n r l i n go ' t h c r . s p u r . t i ' c :r l i s t r r r l r i . g f . r t . i : s , r r l l t . , . , r f . r - r r t r ' p c r l r r s u g . r l ' t l r . p c r i o r l s i n c c t h c c l o s c o f t h c r c s c ^ r c h c s t, thc Ncri'toriirr lrr*',..t.rl'irt a J l p ' i . t s o f s p r r c ci . t h c of /.aflaiL, rS:7. rrhir:lr bccan-rclargely stal.ionary, in thlLt it t h r c c . o o * l i . : t t c s ( . r . . . r ,:,) l ^ r t i r l s o f o r a . l l l t , ' g t h s o f t h c l h r . r : .cglcctcrl thc Lrrli.ishccl rcscarchcs ol Nczalott rclativc to the s r t ' s o l v c r l( ' o n r ] ) ( ) r ) ( ' l r(r7 ' . R , P ' ) , l n r l n r o r c o r ' ( ' rt'l r r o u g h o r r tr r l l c r t u s c o f l r t t r a r : t i v t :f o r c c s . 'l'o-rlrr.v it n,r longcr srrfficcsrncrcly to vcrify tl.re tlteory tir.c l o r ' : ( r . 1 .\5r ' l l r 5i r t 1 t . l t s is , ' c c rt h r : l L r ' l r r . c c l i l t : ; .r c c < t r t l e i l ' .i s o 1 -g n r v i t l t i o n , r r s l r c f o r c t l i c p u b l i c a t i o n o f t l r c I , I i c a n i q u c : r t I : i r r l x ' l o nn t h c l , i g n o f \ l r r r ( l o < : c n r p a r l , J l. C . i izo ( .il.stc. r 7 r ; r ; -r 3 : ; : \ \ . o l ' u s t c a r ' c s t l t . r c s L l l ' c t h c u n f i s l i c r l I t i s c r r s r - o s l c l r o r i . n r i u t v j ) o \ \ , c 1 . f i lrrl r . g r r n t c n t fso r t l t c t rcst'irrclrcsol- Sir /.tzzauA-L.itt/o)/. rlcfiriitclr. assign and provc *-lr'c thcolv c.uitl lrc lnscrl .n rhcst-..ortt'orcllnccs. Iironr t t h c c r i r r s co l - r l t i v c r s l r l g r a r - i t a t i o t r ! sonrc Jrrt'linrinrrn-r'onsicluriitiors lrciicr.r: hrLtif rvc inclurlc I t r\l-tc'r ltcing t.onccalcd fronr rnortal sight for ccnturics, j l i k c r r i s c l h r : c o r r c s l t o n r l i r r gi n c r l r r r irt i c s o f t l r c c i g h t l l a j o r . I)lrtncts,llrout hllf oI ri'hich rnrrr.ltc iargc cnough to bc this suirlinrc phr.sicirl af{cnc\r bccomcs to-day the grcatcst f o u n t l i l ' o l r s c i ' r ' l r t i . n , i t n r i g l r t c r i i l ' l r c s h o n - nt h i r t r i ' c c o r r l r l olrtstanclirrgnrvst('rv of thc unir.crscl Ancl thereforc it clrlls ior-r of thc *-ork of cliscovcrv, as in othcr c r t l c u l i r t cf o l t h c r i - l r v r ' - t h c o nt.l r c r r r l r l i t i o n t rc l t a t r r : r , .(s , C D r o , fnr tht: r'csrrrrrpt r: l ( 2 : c r ) l o , " " ' c r o: ( r ) 1 o ,a n c i t h u s crciltlvc cpoc:hso1' Scicnce. ltut ltt tltc ntinitn,-rnt: As thc strpp)crncr-tt hcre brought out \\,as the occasion t\t, :4, ' cz't}" ' ''r-,0 : 66100 ( r + o ) i of dcvclolting thc tlicory of thc Infinite h.rtegral, by lr,hich nral<ing tt) : cjc."r alonc thc cxtrclnc conrltlcxitv of thc interpcnetrating rvave-

\/ector, horvcver, bcing aurrncntccl ltr. t/3.58,1'part of thc rvholc, ancl thc angLrlar nrotion rlinrir-rishcdLry a r79tl' p:rrt.

496
Sotrclernttltrtncr 495 lrtst ' L"'^^"ri'rrr I lcc:olrling ., trcirlr'tl, \ *":'':::" rrc ,,lit;';l:';'il;l-i;1lri.-^"a of gravitatio.courcr .dcqtratcrv rrclcls 'i':';.",1,i1,1;:^;;';i,:;;, {ro'tis'iccc {r'or.rtispiccc I 'l'his N:y-!::1:?i:;::':l ho*'cl'ccply rctrtarkshows forccs'

,,crr,r-,,i, i-l;;;:1:11:.i:::1,1"" torhc' ' ' t ^ urFo,,)))i;,l ,.athcnriiticilrrl'l i''l*".*lli1::il,:"" t l r r t urlrit]alcci l l l ; t l l l c l l l i l t l c l i l l ttittir':tlrt
[c) LtlL: IIrLIrrU

o l this prtllct' to tlrat r " rf l l l l S l r . r l "' r(r t ' r ' r ! '

11otl"ttr.,i r'rst forr.r'vc.rs)

'.i.,;;ti.**l;illlnuil"nmi:,i$i!!"J r,oplo,,),"i',':;,;:.t;it;"..:i,:1r"n'; nr ii,"'1,.,:.i,.i, ll:llll.,-,1

"^"

rlrrritrs'l'" jur'"ti' o*'r:r thc or.,v '"""''l'"''' r. ric*.or co.r,,cscc'-r I'crv ttatttr.l t. arlrl als' \ ::::l';ijili';.Ti:itl"ill.,t|i.tJ'ff,;,]ill*:X I tltttt i." ttt't'"1 will ii

ihc causes ii::";'5i;:i'l"i1l' various invorv.d an(l I \ Hi,:::" i," .".,,i'"a l"'-:ii :::l*;::':} ;]r:I:,1rJ:::: I

*."

or rnolccular

l.li::\'l'...''l.iT:,J;\,l:";:;lllillii.li.,^.i'."\,.i,'i'ii,,l..,i]:l:]'ii;.l.,.t'',i."..
l{- ilr tht' Nof liS ()l rr ezt't'

I::ilili:ii,r*iinffiiniltr*ffi ilr,iii:::i.**:li#iiii*ttl,-l+n*';l,rl::ri',:i
|.lri:rr.rit-cr,srrrctIitlrtior-rf;,'..';;.i' of thcsc tc'scatt'hcs' I l::ttll In rcr-icrving t.lrt' Progrcss rvtr rloctrincs of I{clrrtivttv'

l::l:";i;i,;:';[m:5'i:;:::f:1"1"_].1 (,: ,,'.,1,'ii,lXnli,l**;t'i;l':]'ir:i ,,,r,', ..1,,.i,,ri"'i,,*. i'i"',* ,ill.illil": :::,,i;:':;'inlt.lll'.'ll ,',, ]l.ll'iillil iL:'lJi:'"':,'l;,,llllll':;ll .".-:lf.'.;,:ll,ll; ;.i:i;::i iilll,|t;l;:x:ll';;:r:',':ili ;'lllllll r.r:r)if H::';,'i':,,lll ,,r ,hs:,",. ::lllil;l..;;l,:i iil;'i;l;lll.i,, :'f:,,$ ;,;u'::1, lll,;:i:,;l
tlrroucll thc grcirt sl)l lirr tlc ccli1lsct.rirlthcs]-ra<lo,;.i;i...;giant1l.lal-rct.-]lr'uli.,,.-.,-'....-.,r"1,i'fl.'^r,,.i,n"o'"yr1trringt1rcr3.l. until ir *'lts trot, thcrcl-orc'

' ii'';';.''.. ;:,::": r':|ii:lrl:*rlirl'11.lli;li::iiil'iia ,l ,i,li,i,Hi,;'1,tr]iiilli:;

rltti' tt st'rccttitlg cl-fet't

rrrirss lt th.s lrt i ; , ; ; - ; 'i 'i , l , , ' - h 1 1 r rI:' ' r r ' t h ' s

,.tio,,..,i.l-,.'..'.,..,',,.,.'....',-,,.'nt.n.',,'..:iiii];lll]:''.:),ii:"ili ';"'"":',iJ')i*f:illi.,". '\,:ll;t.1 *''"' ". '.'ti,i:"1:.,"^'1-:*',:1.,..or ',".," ,i, p,,..". ,::"l,illl:::.iJl:l;,lr'li "l'i"i'"' 1'J'l'i,,'.,"';"';i i,l;'ll r.uvu".ll.rlii.i'".j': r, gr.vir,rtio
r,rorc t,rtion,o r c f i l l I y { t C ' \ t | o l ) c ] ( I l r ti:ii:":':lJ,:,'1,i1:;,i::ll;'?^ , , " . . . i t l - ' c f o . . , - ' , c l " . o f t h crhco r 1 'lttion,rlt l l l L ' . t i r t t . n r r t c s t t L l , l . ' i , , .i^ , . . . r t l r ctrrcorl,or
this lriglrth l)irPcr' l.,,,rlt it't c 1 i t i s r c r t r a r l r l r l r rL I r i r L" " " " ' ; ' ' i ; , , "
\\r':r'{ t.l $ i t l r 1 , ' r '' , - . ' r '

',;,", ,:.. ;kl l*'l:l';,,lil'ill,i.::':".,-1 ,,\lllll,,;11*,i;;:,:,,lll;ft;;tii;t, l:i ",." ::.. \

,lIirlrlt1lr1lt'tli1.fit.rlltvtl|(natrrrlrl)Pl]]r:l::.]]|i,.:l,::i]:,ll]\."'..,..,l).i,.'.i:i;;,;;;i;

;;:J:','":"'-;ii.*;;i:;ilff ",,,,,i;l,llt;:iitiii:plii;li'':'dii*,ll;;llll;li:lj: '

Lv rilli',i]' Iror t :Hl,]].,JlirT

b 1 , , , . r -l,o t r < ' ' c r l - - r ' a s i n : l

...,''.,,i','.].',]l']]:'l'il:.iii:l:il].:ii.i1|$,lii]l:l.:]l*l'\'':;.;; ;;,;);";\:: ri,ii: ;,, ;;q;;'iii;'',"'l'::]::.:::6::lli;;.jj:.:l"l;*i:llil-iil\,::::;,..::,..,, ti : c' 1r ro'osiotr

tclltitot1rcSlttr..'-'.'.|.'.iil.-ii.r.'.....j."trrltthr'tll:tti.-ltl,sci
tl' lcthrcc thc tnotions ot

:i;,..;;'.;;^;;.1inthc;;..i;":i.:,'::;ll::jH.,*j;:,;"l]l.^',,.,,,! prrcno'.rcra,,,1l:^t:::.t":.:t t'c1cs|ilrlt]1rc1orr.c".,,.1T.':::...].:',\il;l:i?'..i:i;.;,fronltll..s.. ,l"i",.,i,,t 1';r'ot'c'proposr':iJtll,lli:1.,';;i;;,;i.,,rrc \ tlt'ttt'r' orccs too.,.'rl '""' ,,r,r horv t:"J i::iii'l;,rl*,1";l,:lliiJ.i1,Illi1,,t'"'ili,.;,1]li,liin',1;i:f \ ",, ract,n,a1r;,r.:::,r: *:':T::::,.1 il,:.:J:::::"liiltl,l u, ,l::filJi'll'",11":ll::ll:ill:ti,..i, i,nr1ae1ic1bl1 .'.";; : :.;t.; ; a,nrs, lllll_,,t].:;:'T lili: :'; lil\l"l:'::lii rllu:'; i;ill":,
Tj;,,rl

i,,r",ipr". i,i,i'",,n rL:-"J\l]:;illft r,r,'^r':r:ll.:.Jl.it.'il.;;1;;l:fiij:..,,,'i,.,::il,, \*l^liiitr**"lfi1ijil.:'.1:: or",'."r.:**fl':;;il;,.T1: c"n',,"t,v il"'iT::'iLf:;' ,,,,rinox''., il;:::;;i :]iTi:,"I
thc a*c'rptc,l "' \ :l.ll:,L"l,y;:l.Umfi].li:i'i: :ii[iT.l;illil,ii:: 'tr"hirrrcrto v:iin'<
Natr.tre in

:j :,::'it..",11" \ :::;1,.u :ll::ll:ll;l,lll

\ uocoiilTnli"i:i;,:i--^'". tirat rvcll it u'as ,,i'ill',,u.]'.ato*.arcrs.::ir::\l:'.i:l;X:;Lli;;;..il;i I]*i1"," cn scarch #i:::il n'"

497

Souclernurnirer

498

death, I clo not fincl that any onc of the problemshas been stirrcd by a singlcpcrson.( (Sir i". L llcaifi,s English cdition of the \\rorks of ,l rcfilrnclc.s, 15r). p.
thc tcndorcy to follorv the bca.tcn path of _ lpp..cntly Least Rcsistancc aplrlics not only to the physical s1,stcilsof thc uni.n'ersc, Lrut also to the progress of scicncc, hotir in thc age of Conott anrl Arclintedcs,-anrl througliout all tintc _ trrclcr tlrc crcati\:c cfforts of.thc lnost ;traorclinary discovcrcr.s "*""pt r l u r i n g t h c p a s t z z o o y c : r r s! Accorrlingly, thc philosophcr who darcs to leave thc snro.othbut barrcr-rpath, for thc untrodclen, yct frtritfui roacl to ciiscovcrl'; arrrl ir-r the difficurt q.est foi illu.ninatins thc great sccrcts of naturc, final11.persists until ltc a.ttains ihosc s u n r n r i t sn c a r t h c s t a r s , a l r e a d y i s b c l , c n r l a l l p r a i s c! D v c n thc noblcst vcrscs for etcrnzrlu'orr< scarcclr. honor sufficicntry tlrc exaltccl mcrits of thc cliseovcrcr f tlr. higltcst la.lvs: o , E x e g i m o t r t r m r . n l u ml . r c l . c r c r r r r i u s . r c g a l i r l u cs i t u I r y r l r n r i d u n I l t i r r s .( I T o r r r c c[,i a r r n c n X X X ) . r as rcsarcls the sublimitv of sucl.rrcscarch, ancl thc dignity of tlic cliscovcrl.of thc laits of thc univcrsc, Dr. DtI_ mund Ifa//e,t, justlv rlcclarcs in thc llcxarrctcr Vcrscs prcfixccl t o A - c z t ' l o t t ' s ' r i r e i l r i e: I Vallejo, California, Jurre 25, rez5.

Nec fa.s est proprius mortali attingere divos. Nor is it larvful for ntortals to approach nearer the Deity. \rcry gratcful a.cl<nowledgements are due to several synrpathctic associatcs, rvithout whose kind encouragernent it.u'ould hn.r'cbc..L difficLrlt to complete this Supplemen"t, u,ith thc dctailccl proofs ancl carcful co'firrnation ofiire authorities qrrotcrl during thc past 25o ycars: Rear Admiral /o/tn H. I)ay7p71,U. S. N., Conrmanclant at Marc Island; Tjr. C. B. Ca,ntctcr, U. S. N., r,hosc rvords of encouragcment proved as hcllrfrrl :rs his enrincnt rncclical skill; ld:r. A. E. Arlunrl, (iivil l.)nginccr. u.ho has reacl cxpcr:icncc.cl the wholc papci with an :r.ltpropria to our frcqucnt confercnccs tc .intcrcst ounng utc Dast r7 \,cars; Profcssor,/. ,5. Ricard, S. J., _ I)i'cct.r' of thc Olrs.-v.tor\., -santa Clari, who for yar,., t n, fo,llou'cd closcly alr thc rcscarchcs nracrc at Mare Island; NIr. //1. ,\'. 1/'ranft/r:,Assisrant, u.hose timcll, a.icl in the p.ei t I ) a r a l l o r l o f t l r c l \ , I a n r r s c r i ph r s I . c c r ra l r n o s t i n v a l r r a b l c ; a n d rbovc-all t. l,l rs. .S'rr.u,ho has contributccl lnost to lengthc' thosc ho.r's of q.ict strrdy *itrrout rvhicrr it rvoulcl havc bec' ir-npossilrlc rccorrl thc traccs of light as it to camc traveling rlolqnrvarrl flonr thc stars.

?.J.J. See.

Ausgegcben 19z6 Febr.zT

33

Tafel t Astronom. Nachrichtcn RtI' zz6'

T.J.J. See. New Theory

of the Aether'

pirrtcI.

cross sections of tntl of thc -dir.inishing ,4:hlr, Illrst.Ltion of thc l-:rrv of Amplitu<lt' \';Lnd 'c' $'hich give the rclative of thc concs i'n'"' l'y tltt' tht'\'aYcs, "lt;;; e n c r g i c s , J = / l 2 i 'rt2t , 1 ' if.t" I 'rr c"\. \ ., i i v c s a t a l l < l i s t a n c c s . . l . I t c s c c o n t r i r c t i t l g c o n c s i n dsih oa v n t b v t h c c rtc he ' .o t r i Ncrvtonian Las' tttucll tnore clcarlv tlan- is .i'ir," Gcomrtric;rl unntistakabl-v to thc--Wave' "n,L ^"a L'czr'Lott' I(rS4; rrncl I'oitrt r r y " ') i . t : i y consi<lcrltions "-i,r.i..i" rvhich is norv provtt1. to havc tl'"ttt"t iir its favor ccluivalcnt to N100 to I' Thcory .f ()rtritation, cotr.ltarc,l to any otltcr conceivablc cause'

C. Schaidt, Inhaber Georg Ohcim,

Kicl

A s t r o n o n r .N a c h r i c h t c n R c l .z z 6

'[afel

z.

T.J.J. See. New Theory

t -- r l a. - k- , - r^

of the Aether.

k
Fa

I'lrte II. I l l r r s t r a t i o n b y c u r v e s r - ' f t h c D o u b l v I n f i n i t c V a r i c t y o f t h c ! \ r n c t i o n s . [ : L ' ? l r r 1 ' s ' l r i c h m i g h t I r e i r n a s i n c d t o reprcscnt Forces varving rrs t l r e i n v e r s e p o r v c r s o f t h e r l i s t l n e c s . I n N a t u r c s ' c 6 n < l 2 r + ' / : 2 . o o o o o o o o o . . . . r n r l t l r c r c f o r er v c h e r e c x a r l i n c l h c o c c a s i o n[ o r t l r c r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e F o r c c s t o t h i s o n e i n t c g r a l i n v c r s c J r o r v c r ,a : 2 .

C. Schridt, Iohab:r Ce"1; t)lr"rm, Ki .l

A s t r o n o m .N r r e l t r i c l r t c n\ t I . z z 6 . I

Tafel 3.

'l'oronto

H. !'.

Zi-l<a-\Vci Il. Ir.

Ilattvia

lJ. [i.

(iolaba il. I,'.

'1

otonto

\/, [i.

A l c l l ; o r r r n cI L I . .

San I.crrrrnrlo Il, l.' ! i r r r n n I l . t ..

ri1.\' I t. I,'.

\\'ilhclrrrslrar.cn I L l

St. I'ctcrslrrrrlIl. 1,.

stlrrr'lrrrr.tll l . i s ] r , , nl l . I . '

I'

Sr. I'ctcrslrrrrg I )ccl .

l ,,',i)r,j I )c,.1 \\'illrclnr.hrrcn I tcr Iicw l)cr:1.

lltrci:ht I)cr:1.

l trct:ht \'. Ir. (inrcrtcrl)

Ilrtlria V I.. (i,,L0tcll) \ i c n r r e \ ' . 1 .. K c s \ ' . 1 .. : . 1 .I ' ( t c r s b r r r q \ ' . 1 . . S t o r r )l r r r r s t \ ' . I i .

Ii.rlrvrr \'. I

Grrrphicrl rccord of thc simultancous clistrrrlranccs o f t h c - I i a r t h ' s m a q n I t i s n r , : r t , l i f f , , r c n t o l r s e r v a t o r i c s , in the great rllrrgnctir: Storrn< of .func 25, tS3.5, rcrlrrcccl to Grcens,ich 1\Ican'Iime, l;l i,r;i;i.". II..Grt,lls,ltlants. Irhil.
C. S,:haidt, Inhal,er (]eorg ()hcim, Kicl

Trans., t8gz, A, PlateS,

I I
I

.Astronom Nachrichtcn l)d. zz6.

T.J.J. Sec. New Theory of the Aether. I7g't16.'"Vit. 8gz.

Tafel 5.

f'!.,zz.-?t7l4,ffi:r-'
,.,, ff:., : ;..
,. 1l

:J I
,{

il

\.

] i J t . l

ft!.rZg. -4rt,.ooa.

.f\q.tfz. -1rt.goo. -Ftg.il2.-1rt.goo.

-Fl/, t,4./. -4,*.g u i',

Ptate V. Illustrations of the Lemnisc|.te of Rrnoul/2, as usecl by in thc stuclv of ccrtain crystals under Polarizecl Light, for co1. -Sir ./ohn lJrrst/tt/ fiming the tlie Wave-'l'hcorr'. As the optical pntt"m. of thc Intcrfercncc liringcs conform exactlv to the Cur'e of t;e Lemniscate. -n-ccuracvof Eerschel held tirat the obsen-rtions iulllllc.l all re,ltiirements of the Ihcory of UnclulLrtion-i, rvlrich confirrned the rcscarches of Fresnel. C . S c h a i d r ,I n h a b e r G e o r g O h e i n r ,K i e l .

Astrononr.Nachrichtcn Bd. z:(r.

Tafel 4.

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

-.({

'j,'..

'r'/

4.1
/ l / l

\
\ v * - / / l
\--

--/
v -/

',/t
/,

\' ^\
^tt

tt\

/l
(-

\/ .n.*

J ../

/1 /

^\

/,,---)--'-..

../, t:. , .-

.'--r..

\+fl; V.'
tr..i.. o rr.J i-r

\1,

. l ' "'! '; .' ', ; a . , i > > r-- F l i ) l i:ill.-,. I | " ,--._ .
l |
I

{.1..-'"'-._ "'. '

.. :..

l ':

'

" a l ' : i' .: ' I r ' ' l

t '

(r i

I -+v
I

A
I

Iri

" I ,... ..1 I:r'

'

'; 't"

'''.:.,>

-:

ofMAailETl

.EauAr0R I

i t , I I t,x ' ' - " ' .'.

.. ff-_f '' '

H

\-,i-l

r_--fl\_f) \/'+\-\-y'l

--

l "
l

llb t

*h; {\1"
*t
l !

1 \, 1 : - .' ' "; , ' : I l I' " I ' 'i t. . . ' : r i ; , l l *

I

l .''."',

I Pqle | --'l L. T,, l',ltil;,, itt t\\":",. ; . , ,i . \ \ '." '- l - - - - ' ' ' ; o t t t t " ' ; -l '1 '': ': ": j " l : " ' :, '.v . ' 1] i . ''

i -.1 ' ' 1 , " , . :i ' ;- : ' i l ' - t ' ' - i: -i ''.':.;

:' . : :.:''-,. :.'

an orifice B C; with ,4227's illustration of

Phtc IV.

(a) Natton's rlirqram of thc sprcad of rva /cs to a ncrv redius, aftcr passing thc natrrrc of thc s'avc-tlotion bclorv ( f. ficlc-s an<l \\iavcs, tS.15). (b) Illrrstratic,n of tltc sinrrrltlr)('ous compor t\s thc rotatiotts alrotrt tltc axcs arc pr filamnrt, and nrakc thc rveve front:r of tlrc Irtagnct, rrith rapitl crrrvttLrrc < : o r r r p l c t c l vc x p l r r i n s l h c o l t s c r v c r l l r l t c n rrragrrctism. I)rarrn lrv J- F. Grea/head.

through

theory. nrlirrg of rla.r'c rnolions fronr closcly atljaccnt orificcs, by cxtcnsion o{ Neuton's :allcl. thc tcnsion in c:rch u;rvc'<lislrlrl)rlncc tcnds to shortcn the arc of thc rvhole s'ave 1inim1nr. Wc thus gct magnctir: Iincs of forcc nczrrly straight in the equatorial rcgions 'I'his lout'r <lirt{rittrr (L), in conncction rvith the diagram (a) above, ouarcls tlrc polcs. rrncllr in rnagnclisrrr, lrnrl rrssrrrcs rrs llur1. tlte s,avc-theory assigns thc true cause of

C. Schaidt,

I n h a b e rG e o r cO h c i m , X i c l .

Astronom. Nachrichtcrr Bd. zz(t

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

o : 9 ' - d i i 9 0 F : *

Tafel 6.

o , Fz " b g g P i K E S
9 -

! : ? . j . . d o i 6 6 ! a a = - : I -

iu

o ' ! Ja p s o= ?
o a O t - ' j d .= . C

P + , i= - =
; - " a 4 6 o - u + ^ O O * r ! 1 : q ;

.n s ' " . ; t P i
= o 2 a d E O ^ = " ' 3 ' : c . r ! e C E ! H : ; - , a d . : d i t

L,)

l
:

a\

l7E.=*l
a - s : i - F .
C

d \ * F ,- * a - c
> : n

l ' 2 = u t - = .a o': u c'L * a 6 c n') e o o ,^^

9i

R :Y

, T T - .Et:- ; 3 ! Yi?.
. >^ I. - i > "; :z . : ' r
Ti.!{
J . =
C d , r d d

51.a 9 c :-:

t n o

s1
() N \
\ l

\ \

-\

\) .\

^\ \) .\

1 1 \ !lJ s-

c o =- <.= 'i:e i o = . ? . = "' 2 E ? i l i d

- t d c

o'l

,\ N
lt.\

i j
\
\ d

F-::l = \-'.

--'! '

?!i:i,r;
' t . : a A E

,S

tl

\ r :F

* -

f , 3 E : j 3 q
z. ;.i 4 -<

O c\
\)

.- ".- +4 . E o I * 'i ; -7= -= d a = ? .

R |
:-*--''
\
I-\ \v 5

i ' ?J T . > . J ' = 3 - 7 t = = _

i>.;i.f,;.
t !

- - .car ac a ^ ' - \ ; / : , L f i La o o o td .=/ E

l t r =3 + t
>' a

tJ A

fr i " rxf =t ,- !.4 . c : a i - : =

- cy ,
' ;

, . . = i - ; 3
: .
u ' )

! 8 9 ! 2 - '
o = o - ^ : r n ! o - : * o L c L t O

F'

a)

E : : : E ; . , _ _e , = 2 j 2 ! a ; :

9 - c - . = - : . - o '+ u Y

o c t)

a ) /
) I / /

n \./

o O c F o " . E a,?.l.'i. ;

. I ' - ( r- , - i ! J

S'id r : 6a
\ c
9 0 ;

a . *
c a o

u - e l , ^ a c
! : o -

-? o= I - so = t : !i . : a 2 ? )
t* * . ^ il * ,^ / J a

: u 'vr: )! =- : = z
c
^

=
J

;
t

-.d

,*

!rj_l
-

'

c ; =

..

9 c
U i . 1

_ :

C. Schaidt, Inhaber GeorgOhcirr,

Kiel

Astronom. Nachrichten Bd. zz6.

Tafel 7

T.J.J. See. New Theory of the Aether.

-l

-1"-F --. I

' - .

__, n

Plate VII.

Diagram of the equipotential surfaces about trvo cqrrnl masscs, ll anrl ll, originally given in Thomson and Naturaj lhilosophr'. r't cd., t873. Without regard to thc cause involvcrl this uppcr rliagram represents n'hich c:tist ttnclcr the potcntial of gravitation to trvo cqual starsl but in thc light of thc Nerv Theory of norv intcrprct tltc mcaning of thc distortions of thc surfrccs shorvn, rvhiclr n'crc first prrblishcrl about half

?ait's Treatise on the actual surfaces thc Acther we may a century ago.

In thc lorrcr figurc rve scc ltorv the vcctors dircctcd to thc txo cqual slars arc compounded geomctrically, in every part of thc dingrrrnr. according to thc law cxpresscd in equation (t39). This illustratcs thc s'holc theory of thc equipotential surfaccs, about ts'o cqua-l masscs. and constitutes as triumphant a vcrification of 1hc s'ave-tbcory as the incomparable Geometry of Ncn,lott's Princilia docs for the larv of univcrsel gravitntion, norv rcfcrrccl at last to its true cause.

C. Schaidt, lnhaber Cieors Ohcirn, Kicl

Astronom. Nachrichtcn Bd. zz6,

Tafel 8.

T.J.J. See. New Theory

of the Aether.

Plate VIII.

Gconrclrical borlv. \'hich thc surfaccs right anglcs

illrrstralion of thc rvavc-field ts'o cqrrr'l stars. Thc s,avc,nrnplitudes increasc asymptotically towards either _about ren<lcrs tltc tcthcr of variable dcnsitv c:'iz, rvhilc thc wltc-mrti.n in conccntric aph"."r, s,hen reflected from of tltc confocal cllipsoicls, 1-iclds strcsscs rlong rhc tangcnts to thc hvpcriroloicls, u.hich intersect the ellipsoids at and rrith thcm constitute tltc systcrn of confocal conics.

In nature thc aether rvavcs from thc trvo ccntrcs arc not rcllccterl by the cllipsoidal surfaccs, but procee{ onward. into infinitc spacc; r'ct tlic rcaction of the mcrlium givcs thc strcsscs irlonrJ thc tangcnts to the hl,perboloids exactlv the same as if the rravcs rvcrc pcrfcctll' rcflcctcrl lrv the confocal cllipsoirls, and thus thc state of rtave-moiion is rendered ocroetual.

C. Schaidt, Inhabcr GcorcO)rcinr,

liicl